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ANNUAL   REPORT 
OF  THE   BOARD   OF   REGENTS  OF 

THE  SMITHSONIAN 
INSTITUTION 

SHOWING  THE  OPERATIONS,  EXPENDITURES 

AND  CONDITION  OF  THE  INSTITUTION 

FOR  THE  YEAR  ENDING  lUNE  30 

1907 


WASHINGTON 
GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 


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LETTER 

FROU  THE 

SECRETARY  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION, 


The  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  Inatittition  for  the 
year  ending  Jwne  SO,  1907. 


Smithsonian  iNSTmrnoH, 
Washington,  April  Si,  1908. 
To  the  CongrCKS  of  the  United  States: 

In  accordance  with  section  5593  of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the 
United  States,  I  have  the  honor,  in  behalf  of  the  Board  of  Regents, 
to  submit  to  Congress  the  Annual  Report  of  the  operations,  expendi- 
tures, and  condition  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  the  year 
ending  June  30, 1907. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 
Chas.  D.  Walcott, 

Secretary. 


190370  .,„.,Google 


ANNUAL  EEPORT  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION 
FOR  THE  TEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30, 1907. 


BUBJECTB. 


1.  Proceedings  of  th«  Board  of  Begents  for  the  sessions  of  Decem- 
ber 4, 1906,  and  January  23  and  March  6, 1907. 

2.  Report  of  the  executive  committee,  exhibiting  the  financial 
affairs  of  the  Institution,  including  a  statement  of  the  Smithson 
fund,  and  receipts  and  expenditures  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1907. 

3.  Annual  report  of  the  Secretary,  giving  an  account  of  the  opera- 
tions and  condition  of  the  Institution  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1907,  with  statistics  of  exchanges,  etc. 

4.  General  appendix,  comprising  a  selection  of  miscellaneous  mem- 
oirs of  interest  to  collaborators  and  correspondents  of  the  Institution, 
teachers,  and  others  engaged  in  the  promotion  of  knowledge.  These 
memoirs  relate  chiefly  to  the  calendar  year  1907. 


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CONTENTS. 

Letter  from  the  Secretory  sabmittii^  the  Aanuol  Report  of  the  Regents  to 


Genenl  eabjecte  of  the  Anniinl  Report iv 

Contents  of  the  Report v 

Liatof  Platee vii 

Members  ez  ojKcio  of  the  Establishment ix- 

R^enlaof  the  Smithaonion  Institution iz 

.Fbockkdikos  or  ths  Boabd  of  BEOEirra: 

Ueetings  of  December  4,  1906,  January  23,  and  March  6, 1907 Jti 

rRiPOBT  or  TBI  EzBcunvB  Coumittkb  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 1907: 

Condidon  of  the  fond  July  1, 1907 xxix 

Receipts  and  expenditures  for  the  year xxx 

Appropriation  for  International  Exchangee xxsit 

Details  of  expenditures  of  same xxxii 

Appropriation  for  American  Ettmology xxxiii 

Detuls  of  expenditnree  of  same isxiii 

Appropriation  for  Aatrophyncal  Obeervatory xxxv 

Details  of  expenditures  of  same ^ xxxr 

Appropriation  for  International  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Literature xixvi 

Details  ot  expenditures  of  same xisvi 

Appropriation  tor  excavation  of  Caea  Grande xiivii 

Details  of  expenditures  of  eaine xxxvii 

Appropriations  for  the  National  Mnsenm xxxvii 

Details  of  expenditnree  of  same zzxvii 

Appropriation  for  the  National  Zoological  Pork xltii 

Details  of  expenditures  of  same xlvii 

Recapitulation i. 

General  aummary...'. u 

Acts  AND  RBOLunoNBOFCoNaRBBrelatiTeteSniithsoDian  InHtitudon,  etc...  uii 

BEPOET  OF  THE  8ECEETABY. 

^The  Smithsonian  Institution 1 

The  Eeteblishment 1 

The  Board  of  R^%nte 2 

General  considerations 3 

Administration 6 

Finances 8 

ExplorstioDs  and  researches 10 

Investigations  under  the  Hodgkinsfund 13 

Smithaonian  teble  at  Naples  Zoological  Station 16 

Publications 17 

The  Library 22 

Preeerv-ation  of  archteological  sites 23 

Casa  Grande  ruin  in  Arizona , ^ 

Correspondence , 27 

ExpoeitiODS,  congresses,  and  celebrations 27 

Hiscellaneoas 29 

National  Museum 30 

New  building  for  Notional  Museum 

National  GaUery  of  Art 


■■^^ 


Boreaaof  Americsii  Ethnology... 33 

International  Exchangee 34 

National  Zoological  Park 38 

Afltrophysical  Obeerralory -,..., 37 

International  Catalogue  of  Sdenlific  Literature ,. 38 

Necrology 39 

Laogley  memorial  meeting , 40 

Appendix: 

I.  Kepoit  on  the  United  States  National  Museum 41 

II.  Report  on  the  Bnrean  of  American  Ethnolc^y 48 

III.  Report  on  the  International  Exchangee 66 

IV.  Report  on  the  National  Zoological  Park 70 

V.  Report  on  the  Aatrophyeical  Observatory 76 

VI.  Report  on  the  Library 81 

VII.  Report  oo  the  Intematioiial  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Lilenitare: 

Regional  Bureau  for  the  United  States 84 

VIII.  Report  on  the  PublicationB 87 

GENERAL  APPENDIX. 

The  Steam  Turbine  on  Land  and  at  Sea,  by  Charles  A.  Pareone 99 

.The  Development  of  Mechanical  CompoBition  in  Printing,  by  A.  Turpain 113 

Some  Facta  and  Problems  Bearing  on  Electric  Trunk  Line-Operation,  by 

Frank  J.  Sprague 131 

Recent  Contributions  to  Electric  Wave  Telegraphy,  by  J.  A.  Ffcmii^ 163 

On  the  Properties  and  Natures  of  Various  Electric  Radiations,  by  W.  H. 

Bragg 195 

Progress  in  Electro-Metallurgy,  by  J.  B.  C.  Kershaw 216 

Recent  Progreee  in  Color  Photc^raphy,  by  T.  W.  Smillie 231 

The  Stnicture  of  Lippmann  Heliochromes,  by  S.  R.  Cajal.^<M(iU0,'K)non.uC«-239 

^BronieinSouthAmericabefore  the  Arrival  of  Europeans,  by  A.  deMortillet.''"  '261 
Some  Opportunities  for  Astronomical  Work  with  Inexpensive  Apparatus,  by 

George  E,  Hale 267 

The  Progrew  of  Science  as  Illastratad  by  the  Development  of  Meteorol(^;y, 

by  Cleveland  Abbe 287 

Geology  of  the  Inner  Earth;  Igneous  Ores,  by  J.  W.  Gre(tory 311 

The  Salton  Sea,  by  F.  H.  Newell 331 

Inland  Waterways,  by  George  G.  Chisholm 347 

The  Present  Position  of  Paleozoic  Botany,  by  D.  H.  Scott 371 

The  Zoological  Gardens  and  Establishments  of  Great  Britain,  Belgium,  and 

The  Netherlands,  by  Gustavo  Loisel 407 

Systematic  Zoology;  its  Progress  and  Purpose,  by  Theodore  Gill 449 

The  Genealogical  History  of  the  Marine  Mammals,  by  O.  Abel 473 

7  The  Mediterranean  Peoples,  by  Theobald  Rscber , 497 

ifPrehistoric  Japan,  by  E.  Baelz 523  ■• 

^he  Origin  of  Egyptian  Civilization,  by  Edouard  Naville : ,  549 

^The  Fire  Piston,  by  Henry  Balfour 66S 

TThe  Origin  of  the  Canaanite  Alphabet,  by  Franz  Pnetorius 59S 

TTThree  Aramaic  Papyri  from  Elephantine,  by  Eduard  Sachaa 605 

'  The  Problem  of  Color  Vision,  by  J.  M.  Dane 613 

Immunity  in  Tuberculosis,  by  Simon  Flexner 627 

The  Air  of  the  New  York  Subway,  by  George  A.  Soper 647 

MarceUn  Bertbelot,  by  Camille  Matignon 669 

Linuffiui  Hemoriol  Addreea,  by  Edward  L.  Gr«ene 685 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 

Thb  Sikam  TDBBim  (Panone):  Paca. 

PlateL  8ecti<Hi  thioogh compound eteam  tarbine 9B 

IL  Steel  file,  ahowing  deetnictive  kctt<Hi  of  steam 104 

III.  Three-pbaae  tnrbo^altemator 106 

rV.  Bhftft  of  large  marine  turbine 107 

V.  Diogntm:  Increase  in  size  of  marine  turbines 108 

VL  Biagrain:  EarDing  powerof  a  torbineandtbreeotherateamera..  lOS 

VIL  Diagram:  Steps  in  marine  turbine  development 110 

Vm.  Tnrbo-blowing  engine.    Section HI 

MacHANicAL  CoHPosinoN  IN  PaisTiNo  (Tnrpain): 

Plate  I.  Hachinea  for  compodng  a  cast  line................... IIS 

II.  Tbe  rototype  and  tbe  monotype.................. 119 

III.  The  electrotypograph,  1907  model 128 

Elbcthc  Tbhkk-linc  Opbration  (Sprague): 

Plate  L  Early  Bpnigne,  Doncao,  and  Hntchinson  locomotiva     New  York 

Central  direct-«an«nt  locomotive 132 

IL  Gans  polyphase  locomoUve.     New  Haven  alternating-current 

locomotive 134 

TTT   New  Haven  donble  overhead  catenary  trolley 144 

rV.  Oerlikon  trolley.    New  York  Central  third-rail  eystem 146 

V.  Protected  third  rail  in  Bleet    Same  ia  snow 148 

VL  Armature  of  bipolar  direct^^:arreDt  motor.     Motor  and  axle  unit 

of  alternating-current  locomotive 152 

VIL  New  York  Central  multiple-unit  train 160 

Fbogbxbb  in  £i.H?rao-METAi.LnB(3y  (Kerabaw): 

Plate  I.  Power  plant,  Ia  Praz  Works,  Sod6t^  MetaUurgique  FianQaiee. . .  218 
IL  Vat  room,  American  Metals  Refining  Company.     A  carborun- 
dum furnace 219 

in.  Famace  room,  the  Cferbornndum  Company 222 

IV.  Fumaceroom,  International  AchesoQ  Gmphite Company 224 

V.  Ejellin  electric  furnace 225 

VI.  Near  view  of  Ejellin  furnace.    Staasano  electric  furnace 226 

Vn.  Fonring  a  Staesano  revolving  furnace 227 

vm.  Tank  house  and  melting  room.  Consolidated  Mining  and  Smelts 

ing  Company.    Electrolytic  lead  refinery,  same  company 228 

TX.  Double  electric  furnace,  Keller,  Leleuxet  Cie 229 

X.  H^roult  electric  tipping  furnace 230 

Pboobbb  tM  Coix>B  Pbotookapst  (Smillie): 

Plate!.  Specimen  of  a  peacock,  from  a  photochrome 231 

Imkzpsnbivb  Astborohical  AFPABATCB(Hale): 

PlateL  BtarcltiBterHeHierllandpartof  Milky  Way 270 

in.  Ooelootat  and  mirror  of  Snow  telescope 274 

IV.  Concave  minor  of  Snow  telescope 276 

V.  Simple  wooden  spectrc^raph  and  port  of  modem  spectrograph  on 

Mount  Wilson 276 

VL  Pbototpspha  of  caldtun  flocculi  made  with  wooden  spectrohelio- 

graph 280 

Thi  Saxton  Bu  (Newell): 

PlateL  Map  of  Imperial  Valley 331 

IL  Beadworks  of  irrigating  sytem  of  Imperial  Valley 334 

IIL  Agricnltnral  land  destroyed  by  flood  water 336 

In,  CikKlglC 


Vrn  LIST  OF   PLATES. 

Tbe  Bauton  Sra — CSontiikued.  i 

Plate  IV.  ColoTsdo  River  watera  cnttmg  chaimel  and  falls.    Lookmg  over 

dikeein  Calextco  and  Mexjcala 

V.  Channel  cat  through  Mexicala .-, 

VI.  Channel  cut  by  the  New  River 

VII.  Break  in  we«t  bank  of  Colorado  River,  August  26, 1906 

Vm.  Break  in  weet  bank  of  Colorado  River,  November  13, 1906 

IX.  Tbe  Salton  Sea,  from  Saltan  Railroad  Station 

Fbuknt  PoBrnoH  Ot  Paleozoic  Botahv  (Hcott): 

Plate  I.  Trangvene  section  of  fitem  of  Lyginodendrtm  Oldhamium.    Longi- 
tudinal section  of  seed  of  same 

II.  Vegetative  frond  of  Nearoptent  heterophyUa.    Stem  of  Jfitdufiosa 

anglica 

Zoological  Gabdbhb  of  Great  Britaim,  Bblsium,  and  Thk  NnrHBaLAHDB 
(Loisel): 
Plate  I.  liondon  Zoological  Garden.     Monkey  House.     Interior,  house 

for  anthropoid  Bpee.    Open-air  lion  cage 

n.  Exterior  cages,  lion  boose,  Bristol  Zoological  Gardeu.    Aquatic 

pond  at  Wobum  Abbey 

TTT.  Reptile  cages,  Manchester  Zoological  Garden 

IV.  Bmoa  and  kangaroos  in  Trisg  Castle  pork.    Interior,  lion  bonse, 

Dublin 

V.  Exterior  of  liod  bouse,  Dublin ,. 

VI.  Exterior  of  monkey  boose,  Rotterdam... 

VII.  Interior  of  new  monkey  house,  Rotterdam 1 

VIII.  Central  hall  in  Reptile  house,  Rotterdam 

Stbtkkatic  Zoology  (Gill) : 

Plate  I.  John  Ray 

II.  Carolus  Linueeus 

m.  Georges  Cuvier 

IV.  Henri  de  Blwnville 

V.  Rerre  Latreille 

VI.  Richard  Owen 

VII.  Johannes  MQlIer 

VIII.  Louie  Agasaiz 

EX.  Ernst  Haeckel 

X.  Karl  von  Baer 

XI.  Jean  Lamarck 

XIL  Cfaarlee  Darwin 

XIIL  Theodor  Schwann 

XIV.  Thomas  Henry  Huxley 

Prxbibtoric  Japan  (Baelz): 

Plate  I.  Neolithic  Japanese  clay  figures 

II.  Early  Japanese  swords.    Iron  age  objects.... 

Ths  FiHK  Piston  (Balfour); 

Plate  I.  Distribution  of  oriental  fire  piston 

II.  Fire  pistons  from  Europe  and  India 

III.  Fire  pistons  from  hrther  India 

IV.  Fire  pistons  from  India,  Sumatra,  and  Sarawak 

V.  Fire  pistons  from  Borneo,  Java,  Flores,  and  the  Philippines 

Abamaic  Papvbi  fbom  ELSPHANnuB  (Sacbau): 

Plat«6  I  and  II.  Aramaic  papyri.  Document  I 

Mabcxlin  Berthblot  (Matignon); 

Plate  I.  Marcelin  Berthelot 

LiNHAAH  Mkmorul  Addrbsb  (Greene) : 

Platel.  Carolus Linnteos ..jC.t^.Xi-wJa;. 


THJB  SHITHSONIAIT  IHBTITUTION'. 


MEMBERS  EX   OFFICIO   OF  THE  "ESTABLISHMENT." 

Jane  30,  1907. 


Thkodobe  Roosbvelt,  President  of  the  United  States. 

Ghablis  W.  Faibbarbs,  Vice-Prestdeat  of  the  United  States. 

Mblville  W.  Fulleb,  Chief  Justice  of  tbe  United  States. 

BuHU  Root,  Secretary  of  State. 

Obobob  B.  CoBTELTon,  Secretary  of  tbe  Treanury. 

WiLLiAU  H.  Tapt,  Secretary  of  War. 

Ghables  J.  BoiTAPABTE.  Attomey-Oeneral. 

Oeoboe  Ton  L.  Meter,  PoBtmaster-Oeneral. 

Vf CTOB.  H.  MBTCAi.r,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

jAUBa  R.  Oabfield,  Secretary  of  tbe  Interior. 

jAHEa  Wiuson,  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

Obcab  £(,  Straus,  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 


REGENTS  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION. 


B;  the  organizing  act  approved  August  10,  1346  (Revised  Stat- 
utes, Title  LXXni,  section  5680),  "  The  business  of  the  Institution 
shall  be  conducted  at  the  city  of  Washington  by  a  Board  of  Regents, 
named  the  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  to  he  composed  of 
the  Vice-President,  the  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States,  three  mem- 
bers of  the  Senate,  and  three  members  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, together  with  six  other  persons  other  than  Members  of  Congress, 
two  of  whom  shall  be  resident  in  the  city  of  Washington,  and  the  other 
four  shall  be  inhabitants  of  some  State,  but  no  two  of  the  same  State.'* 


BBOESTB  FOB  THE  YEAR  BtlDIVa  JUNE  SO,  1907. 

Term  expires. 
The  Cblef  Justice  of  the  United  States : 

MBLVILLE  W.  FULLER,  elected  Chancellor  and  President 
of  tbe  Board  Jnnaary  9.  1S89. 
Tbe  Vlce-Preetdeat  of  tbe  United  States: 

CHARLES  W.  FAIRBANKS,  ex  officio  Marcb  4, 1906 Mar.   3.1909 


Ga.iglc 


I  HEGENTS  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION. 

United  Statefl  Senators : 

SHELBY  M.  CULLOM  (appointed  Uarcb  24, 1885;  Uarcb  28. 

1889;    December  18.  18»S;    Harcb,  7,  1901,  and  Uarcb  4. 

1907) ! Mar.   3,1913 

HEXRY  GABOT  LODGB  (appointed  Deramber  7,  190S) Mar.  3, 191X 

ADGUSTDS  O.  BACON  (appointed  December  7,  190S,  and 

Marcb  4,  1907) Mar.  3,1913 

MemberB  of  the  Hoase  ot  Representatives: 

JOHN  DALZELL  (appointed  June  12,  1906) Dec.25, 1907 

JAMES  It.  SIAKN  (appointed  December  3,  1906) Doc25,1907 

WILLUM  M.  HOWARD  (appointed  December  IS,  190B) Dec.  25, 1907 

dtlEens  of  a  State : 

JAMES  B.  ANGEUa  of  UicbigaQ   (appointed  Januar?  19, 

1887;    January  9,  1883;    January  24,  1S99,  and  January 

23,   1905) Jan.  23,1911 

ANDREW  D.  WHITE,  of  New  York  (appointed  February  15. 

1888;   Marcb  19.  IS&l ;  June  2.  1900,  and  Xpril  23,  1906) Apr.23.1012 

RICHARD  OLNEY.  of  Massachusetta  (appointed  January  24. 

1900,  and  February  23,1006) Feb.  23.1912 

GEORGE  GRAY,  of  Delaware  (appointed  January  14,  1001, 

and  January  21,  1907) Jan.  21,1913 

Cltisens  of  Washington  City : 

JOHN  B.  HENDERSON  (appointed  January  26,  18d2;   Jan- 
nary  24.  1898.  and  January  27.  1904) Jan.  27,1910 

ALEXANDER  GRAHAM  BELL  (appointed  January  24,  ISOS. 

and  January  27,  1004) Jan.  27, 1910 

Exevutive  Committee  of  the  Board  ot  Reoenls, 


JOBK  Dalebli. 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  INSTITUTION. 

Chabl^  D.  Walcott,  Secretary. 
RiCBABD  Ratrbon,  Agaistant  Secretary,  in  Charge  of  V,  S.  T/attonat  Utueutn, 
Ctbus  AnLBB,  A»ai»tant  Secretary,  In  Charge  of  Library  and  Bxchanget. 


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PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS  FOR  THE  YEAR 
ENDING  JUNE  30,  1907. 

At  a  meeting  held  March  12,  1903,  the  Board  of  Events  adopted 
the  following  resolution : 

Reaolved,  That,  la  addition  to  the  preacrlbed  meetuig  held  on  the  fourth 
Wednesday  la  Janoary,  regular  meetlngB  of  the  Board  shall  be  held  on  the 
Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  In  December  and  on  the  6th  day  of  March,  un- 
less that  date  &Us  on  Sunday,  when  the  following  Monday  shall  be  substi- 
tuted. 

In  accordance  with  this  resolution,  the  Board  met  at  10  o'clock  a.  m. 
on  December  4,  1906,  and  on  January  23  and  March  6,  1907. 

EEOCLAS  HESTINO  OF  DECEUBEB  4,  1906. 

Present:  Mr.  Chief  Justice  Fuller  (Chancellor)  in  the  chair;  the 
Vice-President,  the  Hon.  Charles  W.  Fairbanks,  Senator  S.  M.  Cul- 
lorn.  Senator  Henry  Cabot  Lodge,  Senator  A.  O.  Bacon,  Representa- 
tive John  Dalzell,  Bepresentative  James  R.  Mann,  Representative 
W.  M.  Howard,  Dr.  Andrew  D.  White,  the  Hon.  John  B.  Henderson, 
Dr.  A.  Graham  Bell,  the  Hon.  Richard  Olney,  the  Hon.  George  Gray, 
and  the  Acting  Secretary,  Mr.  Richard  Rathbun. 

DEATH   OF  BEPBEBENTATIVE   ROBERT  ADAU8,   JR. 

The  Chancellor  announced  the  death  on  June  1,  1906,  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  of  Representative  Robert  Adams,  jr.,  a  Regent  of  the 
Institution,  and  the  following  resolution,  offered  by  Doctor  Bell,  was 
adopted  by  a  rising  vote: 

The  Board  of  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  InstitntloQ  have  learno]  with  pro- 
found regret  of  the  death  on  Jnne  1,  1906,  of  the  Hon.  Robert  Adams.  Jr„  for 
ten  years  a  member  of  the  Board,  and  here  place  upon  record  an  expression  of 
their  deep  sorrow  at  his  loss,  and  of  appreciation  of  his  earnest  Interest  In  the 
welfare  of  the  Institution  and  of  his  labors  on  Its  behalf  both  at  the  meetiuga 
of  the  Board  and  In  the  House  of  Representatives. 

Re»oliscA,  That  a  copy  of  this  minute  be  spend  upon  the  records  of  the  Board 
and  commualcated  to  the  &mlly  of  Mr.  Adams. 


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Xn  PBOCEBDIITQS  OF  THB  BOABD  OF  BBOENTS. 

DEATH  OF  REFKBBENTATITB  B.  R.  HTTT. 

The  Chancellor  announced  the  death  at  Narragansett  Pier,  R.  I., 
on  September  20, 1906,  of  Rtepresentative  Robert  R.  Hitt,  a  Regent  of 
the  Institution,  and  the  following  resolution,  submitted  by  Senator 
CuUom,  was  adopted  by  a  rising  vote : 

Tbe  Board  ot  RegeatB  of  tbe  Smithsonian  laeUtDtloii  have  learned  wltb  pro- 
found sorrow  of  the  passing  awa.v  on  September  20,  1908,  of  the  Hon.  Robert 
Roberts  Hitt,  for  thirteen  years  a  Regent  of  this  Institution,  and  since  1901  a 
member  of  the  executive  committee;  and  they  here  place  upon  record  an  expres- 
sion of  their  sense  of  loss  In  the  demise  of  their  distinguished  colleague. 

Mr.  Hitt  for  a  period  of  more  than  forty  years  served  his  country  In  various 
diplomatic  offices,  in  the  Department  of  State  and  In  the  halls  of  tbe  National 
Legislature,  where,  besides  furthering  all  good  measures,  he  was  partlcutarty 
distinguished  because  of  bis  wise  action  as  chairman  of  the  Committee  on 
Foreign  Affairs,  using;  all  his  efforts  to  promote  the  welfare  of  his  country  and 
tbe  peace  of  the  world.  His  broadly  cultivated  mind  was  especially  adapted  to 
labors  on  t>ebalf  of  this  Institution,  and  at  all  times  as  a  Representativet  a  m^n- 
t>er  of  the  Board,  and  a  memtter  of  tbe  executive  committee,  be  served  its  In- 
terests with  ability,  fidelity,  and  conscientiousness. 

To  the  members  of  the  Board  he  was  a  dear  friend  and  a  wise  counsellor, 
and  his  absence  from  our  midst  Is  a  source  of  grief  and  a  serious  loss. 

The  Board  tender  to  Mrs.  Hitt  and  to  the  family  an  expression  of  their  sin- 
cere condolence,  wltb  the  assurance  that  the  memory  of  her  distinguished 
husband  will  ever  be  cberlsbed  by  bis  colleagues. 

Resolved,  That  a  copy  of  this  minute  be  spread  upon  the  records  of  tbe  Board 
and  commoulcated  to  Mrs.  Hitt. 

APPOINTMENT  OF   REGENTS. 

The  Chancellor  announced  the  reappointment  of  Dr.  Andrew  D. 
White  as  a  Regent  by  joint  resolution  of  Congress  approved  April  23, 
1906,  and  of  the  following  appointments  by  the  Speaker  on  the  part 
of  the  House  of  Representatives:  On  June  12,  1906,  the  Hon.  John 
Dalzell  in  place  of  Representative  Robert  Adams,  jr.,  deceased ;  and 
on  December  3, 1906,  the  Hon.  James  R.  Mann  in  place  of  Represen- 
tative Robert  R.  Hitt,  deceased. 

ELECTION    or   SECRETABY. 

The  Board  went  into  executive  session,  at  which  Prof.  Henry 
Fairfield  Osborn,  of  New  York,  was  elected  Secretary  of  the  Institu- 
tion. The  Chancellor  was  requested  to  notify  Professor  Osbom  of 
this  action. 

ANNUAI.  HEETING  OF  JAlfUABT  23,   1907. 

Present:  Mr.  Chief  Justice  Fuller  (Chancellor),  in  the  chair;  the 
Vice-President,  the  Hon.  Charles  W.  Fairbanks,  Senator  S.  M.  Cul- 
lom,  Senator  Henry  Cabot  Lodge,  Senator  A.  O.  Bacon,  Representa- 
tive John  Dalzell,  Representative  James  R.  Mann,  Representative 


FBOCEEDINGS  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  REOENTS.  51II 

William  M.  Howard,  Dr.  James  B.  Angell,  the  Hon.  John  B.  Hen- 
derson, Dr.  Alexander  Graham  Bell,  the  Hon.  George  Gray,  and  the 
Acting  Secretary,  Mr  Richard  Kathbun. 

The  Chancellor  stated  that  he  had  informed  Prof.  Hmuj  F. 
Osbom  of  his  unanimous  election  at  the  December  meeting  as  Sec- 
retary of  the  Institution,  and  had  received  a  reply  to  the  effect  that 
though  fully  appreciating  the  honor  tendered,  he  had  found  himself 
unable  to  accept  for  reasons  set  forth  at  large. 

BEAPPOINTHENT  OF  REGENT. 

The  Chancellor  announced  the  reappointment  of  Judge  George 
Gray  as  a  Regent  for  six  years,  by  joint  resolution  of  Congress  ap- 
proved by  the  President  on  January  21, 1907. 

BESOLUnON  RELATIVE  TO  INCOHB  AND  EXPENDrTURE. 

Mr.  Henderson,  chairman  of  the  executive  committee,  submitted 
the  following  resolution,  which  was  adopted: 

Resolved,  That  the  locome  of  the  InBtitutlOD  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1908,  be  appropriated  for  the  service  of  the  loetltutlon,  to  be  expended  by 
the  Secretary  wltL  the  advice  of  the  executive  committee,  with  full  discretion 
OB  the  part  of  the  Secretary  aa  to  Items. 

ANMTTAL  REFOBT  OF  THE  ACTING  SECRETARY. 

The  Acting  Secretary  submitted  his  report  upon  the  operations 
of  the  Institution  tor  the  year  ending  June  80,  1906,  which  was 
accepted. 

ANNUAL  BEPOBT  OF   THE   EXECUTIVE   COMMnTEE. 

Mr.  Henderson,  chairman,  presented  the  report  of  the  executive 
committee  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1906,  and  explained  briefly 
the  method  of  auditing  the  accounts  of  the  Institution  and  of  the 
Government  branches  mider  its  charge.  On  motion  the  report  was 
adopted. 

ANNTTAL  REPORT  OF  THE  PERMANENT  COHHITTEE. 

Mr.  Henderson,  chairman,  presei\t«d  the  following  report  of  the 
permanent  committee: 

Hodgkiiis  estate. — In  addition  to  the  fund  of  $200,000  donated  to 
the  Institution  by  the  late  Thomas  George  Hodgkins  in  1891,  the 
residual  estate,  embracing  $8,000  in  cash,  certain  West  Shore  Rail- 
road bonds  of  the  value  of  approximately  $42,000,  and  the  sum  of 
$8,772.38  invested  in  United  States  4  per  cent  bonds  of  1907,  together 
with  two  small  properties  in  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  later  sold  by  authority 

ii.;,Gooylc 


HT  PBOCEEDINOS   OF    THE   BOAKD    OF   BEQENTS. 

of  the  Board  of  Regents  for  $600  and  $1,000  respectively,  was  be- 
queathed to  the  Institution  under  the  will  of  Mr.  Hodgkins.  The 
West  Shore  Railroad  bonds  and  the  $8,000  in  cash  were  transmitted 
into  the  custody  of  the  Institution  upon  the  death  of  the  testator,  but 
the  United  States  4  per  cent  bonds  were  left  by  consent  of  counsel  to 
be  held  by  the  New  York  Life  and  Trust  Company  until  a  decision 
could  be  obtained  in  the  case  of  Smith  v.  O'Donoghue,  in  which  the 
liability  of  the  estate  of  Mr.  Hodgkins  on  a  warranty  of  title  by  him  in 
the  transfer  of  certain  real  property  in  New  York  City  in  1872  was  in 
question.  The  case  was  decided  by  the  supreme  court  of  New  York 
in  the  Institution's  favor,  which  decision  was  recently  confirmed  by 
the  court  of  appeals  of  that  State.  The  bonds,  of  a  nominal  value 
of  $7,850,  were  received  and  duly  registered  in  the  name  of  the  Insti- 
tution on  May  28,  1906.  The  committee  is  prepared  to  recommend 
that  the  bonds  be  sold  and  the  proceeds  deposited  in  the  Treasury. 

Andre-wa  estate. — An  appeal  has  been  taken  from  the  decision  sus- 
taining the  bequest  of  Mr.  Andrews  for  the  establishment  of  the 
Andrews  Institute  for  Girls,  now  organized  at  Willoughby,  Ohio. 
In  case  of  the  invalidity  of  this  provision,  the  sum  involved  would 
accrue  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  The  case  was  argued  on 
behalf  of  the  Andrews  Institute,  the  heirs,  and  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitutioQ  before  the  appellate  division  of  the  supreme  court  of  New 
York  City,  in  May,  1906,  and  a  decision  is  now  being  awaited. 
Whatever  conclusion  may  be  reached  by  the  court  it  is  quite  probable 
(since  the  disposition  of  more  than  a  million  and  a  half  dollars  is 
involved)  that  the  case  will  lie  taken  to  the  court  of  appeals  at  Albany. 

Avery  estate. — ^With  the  exception  of  the  premises  conveyed  by  the 
Institution  to  the  niece  of  the  late  Robert  Stanton  Avery,  in  recog- 
nition of  her  services  during  his  illness,  the  Institution  is  still  in 
possession  of  the  real  estate  bequeathed  by  Mr.  Avery,  consisting  of 
four  properties  on  Capitol  Hill,  having  a  present  estimated  value  of 
about  $35,500.  Owing  to  the  erection  of  office  buildings  for  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  and  the  location  of  the  new 
Union  Station  in  the  neighborhood  of  these  properties,  it  is  under- 
stood that  their  market  value  has  considerably  increased.  Three  of 
the  four  lots  contain  small  buildings  from  which  a  net  annual  revenue 
of  about  $300  is  derived.  In  addition  to  the  real  estate,  certain 
stocks,  bonds,  and  cash,  estimated  at  the  time  of  the  death  of  Mr. 
Avery  at  $2,915.87,  are  being  held  by  the  National  Safe  Deposit, 
Savings  and  Trust  Company  of  this  city,  the  income  to  be  paid  to  the 
niece  of  the  testator  during  her  lifetime,  and  the  principal  to  become 
the  property  of  the  Institution  upon  her  demise. 

Spragite  and  Beid  heqaests. — Under  the  terms  of  the  Sprague  and 
Reid  bequests,  the  residual  legacies  will  not  accrue  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  untU  the  death  of  certain  enumerated  legatees,  and  it  is 


FBOOEEDINOS  OF  THE  BOABD  OF  BE0BNT6.  ZV 

probable  fliat  the  Institution  will  not  derive  an;  actual  income  from 
these  estates  for  some  years  to  come. 

The  chairman  then  submitted  the  following  resolution,  which  was 
adopted : 

Resolved,  That  tlie  Secretary  be,  and  be  is  hereby,  aotborlzed.  In  tats  discre- 
tion, to  sell  before  maturity,  or  to  present  (or  redemption  and  collect  when 
dne,  the  United  States  4  per  cent  bonda,  of  the  nominal  value  of  |T,8CiO,  derived 
from  the  estate  of  the  late  Thomas  0.  Hodgklns;  and  he  1b  empowered  and 
directed  to  deposit  the  proceeds  therefrom  In  the  Treasury  of  the  United 
States,  to  be  held  under  the  terms  of  section  5991  of  the  Rerlaed  Statntes,  aa 
an  addition  to  and  a  part  of  the  permanent  fund  of  the  Institution. 

THE  FREES    ART   COLLECnON. 

With  reference  to  the  action  of  the  Board,  at  their  annual  meet- 
ing of  January  24,  1906,  in  accepting  the  tender  of  Mr.  Charles  L. 
Freer  to  make  present  conveyance  to  the  Institution  of  the  title  to 
his  art  collectioii,  and  to  bequeath  to  the  Institution  the  sum  of 
$500,000,  for  the  construction  of  a  building  in  which  to  house  it, 
under  the  terms  of  his  offer  dated  December  15,  1905,  the  Acting 
Secretary  stated  that  on  May  5,  1906,  a  document  embracing  these 
provisions  was  formally  executed  by  Mr.  Freer  and  delivered  into 
the  custody  of  the  Institution. 

ELECTION   TO  THE  EXECUTIVB   COMMITTEE. 

The  vacancy  on  the  executive  committee  caused  by  the  death  of 
Bepresentative  Robert  R.  Hitt  was  filled  by  the  election  of  Repre- 
sentative John  Dalzell. 

MEDAI^  AND  TOKENS  OF  THE  LATE  SBCRBTARV  LANOLBr. 

The  following  resolutions  having  reference  to  the  donation  by 
the  heirs  of  Mr.  Langley,  announced  at  the  meeting  of  May  16, 1906, 
were  adopted: 

Resolved,  That  the  thanks  of  the  Board  of  Begents  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
Btltntlon  be  tendered  to  Prof.  John  W.  Langley,  Mrs.  Annie  W.  Clocca,  Mrs. 
Jttlla  H.  Goodrich,  and  Mr.  Flerpont  Langley  Stackpole  for  the  gift  of  the 
medals,  ecientlQc  tobena,  and  early  sclenttflc  apparatus  of  Samuel  Pierpont 
langley,    Secretary  of  the  Institution   from   1887  to  1906. 

Reeolved,  That  the  Board  expresses  Its,  deep  appreciation  at  securing  for 
the  InHtltntlon  possession  of  this  memorial  of  Its  late  distinguished  Secretary. 

DONATION  or  LEPIDOPTERA  BT  MR.  WILLIAM  SCHAUS. 

The  Acting  Secretary  announced  the  presentation  to  the  National 
Museum,  during  the  previous  year,  by  Mr.  William  Schaus,  of  Xew 
York,  of  his  exceptionally  valuable  collection  of  Lepidoptera  from 
tropical  North  and  South  America,  numbering  over  75,000  specimeiu 


XVI  PBOCEEDINOS  OF   THE  BOABD  OF  BEOENTS. 

and  coDtaining  many  types  and  rare  species;  whereupon  the  follow- 
ing resolution  was  adopted: 

Resolved,  Tbat  tlie  thanks  of  tlie  Board  of  Regents  be  tendered  to  Mr. 
wmiHui  Scbans  for  bla  generons  gift  to  tbe  National  Mnseum  of  hiB  extensive 
and  valuable  collection  of  Lepldoptera,  whlcb  is  gratefullf  accepted. 

PORTRAIT  OF  DR.  ELLIOTT  COUBS. 

The  following  letter  from  Ellen  S.  Mussey,  addressed  to  the 
Chancellor,  was  read : 

Jauuary  8,  1907, 

Mr.  Chahccllob:  I  have  tbe  bonor  to  Inform  you  tbat  Mrs.  Mary  Emily 
Bates  Cones,  widow  of  Dr.  Elliott  Coues,  died  In  February  last,  and  by  will 
left  to  tbe  Smithsonian  Institution  a  portrait  of  tbe  late  Dr.  Elliott  Coaes, 
and  "  also  a  paper  received  by  blm,  InTltlng  him  to  vlatt  Ixmdon  as  the  guest 
of  sclentlBc  men,  signed  by  Darwin,  Husiey,  etc.,  tbe  letter  to  be  framed  and 
hung  under  Doctor  Cones's  portrait." 

This  will  has  been  duly  admitted  to  probate,  and  the  American  Security 
and  Trust  Company  and  myaelf,  named  as  executors  therein,  have  quallBed  la 
such  capacity. 

We  understand  tbat  the  portrait  Is  now  in  tbe  possession  of  tbe  Smithsonian 
Institution;  tbe  other  paper  referred  to  is  In  our  possession,  and  we  should 
be  pleased  to  Iiave  It  properly  framed  so  that  each  aide  of  the  paper  can  be 
seen,  to  be  bung  as  stipulated  In  the  will,  provided  the  Regents  will  accept  the 
gift  as  named. 

Awaiting  the  favor  of  your  reply,  I  am. 
Very  respectfully, 

{Signed)  Ellen  S.  Mubbet, 

Co.  Ex.  WUl  M.  B.  B.  Coueg. 

After  an  examination  of  the  portrait,  which  had  been  deposited  at 
the  Institution  for  some  years,  the  following  resolution  was  adopted: 

Retolved,  That  the  portrait  of  Elliott  Cones,  bequeathed  by  Mary  Bmlly 
Bates  Coues,  be  accepted  In  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  will  as 
expressed  in  the  letter  of  Ellen  8.  Mussey  to  the  Chancellor,  under  date  ot 
January  8,  1907. 

STATEMENT   BY   THE   ACTING   SECRBTART. 

The  Acting  Secretary  reported  that  the  actual  erection  of  the  new 
building  for  the  National  Museum,  except  interior  finish,  had  reached 
practically  one-half  the  full  height,  although  the  south  pavilion, 
which  included  the  entrance  rotunda,  was  still  at  the  basement  stage 
of  construction.  In  addition,  there  was  on  the  ground  around  the 
building  all  of  the  dressed  granite  for  the  third  or  attic  story  and  all 
the  materials,  including  special  white  face  bricks  and  cut  granite  for 
the  entire  completion  of  the  walls  of  the  two  courts.  There  were 
also  on  hand  large  quantities  of  the  plainer  materials.    All  of  the 


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FBOGEEDINQS  OF  IHS  BOABD  OF  BBQENTB.  ZVII 

dressed  granite  required  for  the  exterior  walls  of  the  building,  con- 
sisting only  of  the  second  story  and  the  exterior  walls  of  the  main 
pavilion,  was  under  contract  and  its  manufacture  under  way  at  the 
quarries.  All  of  the  remaining  steelwork  required  for  the  building 
was  also  under  contract,  and  all  except  that  for  the  roof  was  ready 
for  erection.  Should  the  balance  of  the  granite  be  furnished  in 
accordance  with  the  contracts,  it  was  fair  to  expect  that  the  entire 
building  would  be  completed  and  ready  for  occupancy  by  January  1, 
1909. 

The  Acting  Secretary  announced  the  final  liquidation,  since  the  last 
meeting  of  the  Board,  of  the  indebtedness  of  the  Institution  to  the 
central  London  bureau  of  the  International  Catalogue  of  Scientific 
Literature,  resulting  from  the  defalcation  of  W.  W.  Kair. 

He  also  stated  that  the  initial  steps  taken  toward  the  building  up  of 
a  National  Gallery  of  Art  had  continued  to  attract  widespread  atten- 
tion and  to  receive  favorable  comment.  The  lecture  hall  in  the 
Museum  building  had  been  temporarily  adapted  to  this  purpose,  and 
its  walls  were  already  fairly  well  covered  with  pictures,  including, 
besides  those  owned  by  the  Government,  a  number  of  choice  paintings 
obtained  by  loan.  Art  objects  other  than  paintings,  selected  from  the 
collections  of  the  Museum,  occupied  the  floor  space,  and  it  was  ex- 
pected, as  soon  as  the  installation  was  perfected,  that  the  ball  would 
present  a  very  creditable  appearance. 

^Reference  was  made  to  the  increasing  demand  for  the  Annual  Re- 
port of  the  Institution  and  the  effort  to  prevent  the  duplication  result- 
ing from  sending  the  Smithsonian  edition  to  public  depositories  which 
were  also  supplied  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents.  Of  the 
replies  received  to  the  present  time,  some  90  per  cent  were  of  the 
nature  of  earnest  appeals  that  the  Institution  continue  to  send  its 
edition,  accompanied  by  many  gratifying  remarks  as  to  the  esteem  in 
which  the  report  is  held,  and  the  great  demand  for  it  among  readers. 

EUX?n01f    OF  A   SeCRETABY. 

The  Board  then  went  into  executive  session,  and  Dr.  Charles  Doo- 
little  Walcott,  of  Washington,  was  unanimously  elected  Secretary  of 
the  Institution,  to  fill  the  vacancy  caused  by  the  death  of  Dr.  S.  P. 
Langley. 

BEQITLAS  HZETHra  OF  KABCH  6,  1007. 

Present:  Mr.  Chief  Justice  Fuller  (Chancellor)  in  the  chair;  Sen- 
ator S.  M.  CuUom,  Senator  Henry  Cabot  Lodge,  Senator  A.  O.  Bacon, 
the  Hon.  John  B.  Henderson,  Dr.  A.  Graham  Bell,  and  the  Secretary, 
Mr.  Charles  D.  Walcott. 

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XVni  PBOCEEDINGS  OF  THE  BOARD   OF  BBGBNTS. 

BEAPFOINTMENT  OF   BEOENrTS. 

The  Chancellor  announced  that  the  Vice-President  had  reappointed 
Senators  CuUom  and  Bacon  as  Regents,  dating  from  March  4. 

ANDHEWS  WILL  DECISIOH. 

Mr.  Henderstm,  chairman  of  the  permanent  committee,  read  a  letter 
from  Mr.  F.  W.  Hackett,  counsel  for  the  Institution,  giving  a  state- 
ment of  the  adverse  decision  in  regard  to  the  Institution's  suit  in  the 
Andrews  will  case  by  the  appellate  division  of  the  supreme  court  of 
New  York. 

CLAIM   OF   BELL   ft   CO. 

Senator  Bacon,  acting  with  the  executive  committee  on  this  claim, 
submitted  a  letter  and  report  on  this  subject,  and  after  discussion  the 
following  resolution  was  adopted : 

Resolved,  That  the  Secretar;  be  authorized  to  Include  In  tbe  esttmates  for  tbe 
fiscal  year  1008-9  for  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnologjr  an  Item  to  cover  the 
claim  of  Bell  &  Co.,  setting  forth  tbe  facts. 

ACKNOWLEDOHBNTS. 

The  Secretary  read  a  letter  from  Mrs.  E.  R.  Hitt,  acknowledging 
the  resolutions  adopted  by  the  Board  on  the  death  of  her  husband ; 
also  a  letter  from  Prof.  John  W.  Langley,  acknowledging  the  action 
of  the  Board  in  connection  with  the  gift  of  the  medals  and  scientific 
tokens  and  apparatus  of  his  brother,  the  late  Secretary  S.  P.  Langley. 

SALE -OF  BONDS. 

The  Secretary  said  that,  in  accordance  with  the  resolution  of  the 
Board  at  the  meeting  of  January  23, 1907,  the  Government  bonds  to 
the  par  value  of  $7,850,  being  the  residuary  Hodgkins  legacy,  were 
sold  on  February  5,  1907,  to  Lewis  Johnson  &  Co.,  bankers,  for 
$7,918.69,  and  this  amount  deposited  to  the  credit  of  the  permanent 
Smithsonian  fund  in  the  United  States  Treasury.  The  bonds  ma- 
tured July  1,  1907;  selling  price,  IOO5. 

GIFT  OF  PAINTING  BT  HR.  JOHN  B.  HENDEBSON. 

The  Secretary  announced  the  gift  to  the  Institution  by  Mr.  Hen- 
derson of  a  large  painting  of  the  Yellowstone  Canyon. 

Senator  CuUom,  after  remarks  by  Regents,  submitted  the  follow- 
ing resolution,  which  was  adopted : 

Reaolvei,  That  the  Board  of  Regenta  of  Qie  Smithsonian  iDStltntlon  hereby 
tender  their  appreciative  tlianks  to  the  Hon.  John  B.  Henderson,  one  of  their 
number,  for  bis  public-spirited  generosity  In  presenting  a  valuable  painting  ot 
tbe  Yellowstoae  Canyon  to  tbe  Institution  for  its  National  Qallery  of  Art 


PBOCEEDINQS  OF  THE  BOAOD  OF  BB0ENT8,  XIX 

AUTHOKITr   FOR  THE  8ECBETABT   TO  INDOBfiB  ^HBCKS,  BTG. 

The  Secretary  said  that  the  Comptroller  of  the  Treasury  had  infor- 
mally called  the  attention  of  the  accountant  of  the  Institution  to  the 
fact  that  there  was  no  specific  authority  of  the  Board  of  Regents  on 
file  in  the  Treasury  Department  empowering  the  Secretary  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  to  receipt  for  moneys  and  to  indorse  war- 
rants and  checks  in  the  name  of  the  Institution  for  moneys  due.  He 
would  suggest,  therefore,  the  following  form  of  resolution,  which  if 
adopted,  would  be  acceptable  to  the  Comptroller : 

Retolved,  That  the  Secretary  of  the  SmlthsoDian  Instltntloa  be,  and  he  la 
hereby,  suthorlzed  to  receive  and  give  receipt  for  all  moDeys  due  and  payable 
to  this  Institution  from  any  source  whatsoever,  and  to  Indorse  warrants  and 
checks  In  its  name  and  on  Its  behalf. 

The  Secretary  stated  that  for  the  past  sixty  years  this  had  been 
done,  but  the  present  Comptroller  in  looking  over  the  business  meth- 
ods of  his  office  noticed  the  lack  of  such  specific  authority,  and  asked 
that  it  be  furnished. 

On  motion,  the  resolution  was  adopted. 

ACCODNTS  TO   BE  AUDITED   8EHIANNUALLT. 

The  Secretary  said  that  at  the  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Regenta 
held  February  22,  1867,  the  following  resolution  was  adopted : 

Retotveit,  Ibtkt  the  Executive  Committee  make  a  quarterly  examination  of  the 
bocrics  and  accounts  of  the  Institution,  and,  as  usual,  an  annual  report  to  the 
Board  of  R^euts. 

This  had  been  followed  somewhat  irregularly;  at  times  there 
would  be  an  audit  four  times  a  year,  and  again  twice  a  year.  At 
present  there  was  a  trained  auditor  employed  to  examine  the  ac- 
counts, and  his  report  for  the  last  six  months  of  the  year  1906  had 
been  received.  It  was  the  practice  in  the  Carnegie  Institution  to  have 
hut  one  audit  a  year,  and  in  most  of  the  large  financial  organizations 
two  had  been  found  sufficient. 

Mr.  Henderson  said  that  two  audits  a  year  would  certainly  be 
enough,  and  submitted  the  following  resolution,  which  was  adopted: 

Resolved.  That  hereafter  the  accounts  of  the  InstltutloD  shall  be  audited 
semiannually  under  the  direction  of  the  Executive  Commltte& 

FEE    FOR    ARCHITECTS. 

The  Chancellor  read  the  following  letter  and  inclosure  from 
Mr,  Bernard  R.  Green : 

BciuiiNo  roB  THE  National  Museum, 
Bernabd  it.  Gbeen.  SrpEBinr&NDENT  of  Constbucttok, 

Ijbhakt  uf  ConoBESS, 
WanhlHgton,  D.  C.  March  5.  1907. 
8m :  By  the  terms  of  the  contract  entered  loto  May  IS.  1903,  with  Hornblower 
t  Marshall  us  architects  for  the  new  National  Museum  building,  tbelr  com- 
pensation was  fixed  at  3}  per  crat  on  the  "cost  of  the  constructlou  of  the 


XX  PBOCEBBmOS  OP  THE  BOABD  OF  BEGBNTS. 

8Kld  building  after  exclndlng  the  arcbltecta'  fee  and  the  contUigeat  cost  of  tbe 
services  and  ofDce  expenses  of  the  party  of  tbe  flret  part,"  and  tbat,  farther, 
tbey  Hbould  receive  for  sacb  personal  superrlslon  of  the  construction  as 
might  be  called  for  from  time  to  time  additional  compensation  within  a  total 
limit  of  1|  per  cent  on  the  cost  of  the  construction  as  above  described. 

An  arrangement  with  the  architects  for  compensation  for  their  personal 
supervlsloQ  under  tbe  second  proTlaton  of  the  contract  should  no  longer  be 
delayed.  Tbey  have  already  rendered  more  or  less  of  aoch  service  In  the 
progreee  of  tbe  work  np  to  the  present  tlma  Hitherto  payments  have  t>een 
made  from  time  to  time  on  account  of  the  31  per  cent  portion  of  their  com- 
pensation amounting  to  |95,000,  bat  they  have  received  no  compensatiOD  for 
persoaal  supervlBlon. 

Tbe  work  that  the  architects  have  already  done  has  been  anusually  espen^ve 
to  tbem,  because  of  tbe  numerons  restudles  of  design  and  arrangement  of  the 
building  to  meet  the  conditions  of  location,  the  limitation  of  Its  cost,  and  the  re- 
quirements of  Its  Internal  arrangement,  the  result  of  which  Is  to  be  a  building 
of  far  superior  {leslgn  and  adaptation  for  Its  purposes,  all  within  the  limit  of 
cost  Qxed  by  law,  than  was  provided  for  in  the  original  design  upon  which  the 
law  was  based.  Tbe  architects  have  spared  no  expense  of  time,  labor,  travel, 
and  scale  modeling  of  Important  parts  of  tbe  building  in  order  to  arrive  at  tbe 
result  mentioned.  There  yet  remains  much  work  for  them  to  do  In  the  details 
for  the  completion,  especially  tbe  interior  of  the  building,  not  only  In  study  and 
design,  but  In  personal  supervision  of  the  construction. 

Under  the  present  conditions,  therefore,  I  have  the  honor  to  recommend  that 
authority  be  given  me  to  employ  tbe  personal  supervision  of  the  architects,  under 
the  provision  of  the  contract  therefor,  until  the  entire  completion  of  the  build- 
ing, at  a  rate  of  compensation  equal  to  11  per  cent  on  the  cost  of  the  constrnc- 
tlon  of  the  bnllding  as  deflned  In  the  contract. 

I  Inclose  herewith  for  your  convenience  a  .copy  of  the  contract  and  page  xlx 
of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Board  of  Regents  at  Its  meeting  on  January  28,  1903, 
containing  the  original  law  for  the  construction  of  the  building  and  the  resolu- 
tion of  the  Regents  providing  for  tbe  direction  of  the  work  by  the  Regents 
through  me. 

Tours  very  respectfully,  (Signed)  Bkbnabd  It.  Gbeen. 

Buperintendent  of  Construction. 

Dr.  Chas.  D.  Walcott, 

Secretary.  Smithsonian  Imtitation,  Wasliington,  D.  G. 

Articles  of  agreement  entered  into  this  eighteenth  day  of  May,  nineteen  hun- 
dred and  three  (1W3),  between  Bernard  B,  Qreen,  superintendent  of  the 
building  and  grounds,  Library  of  Congress,  of  the  flrst  part,  acting  under  tbe 
direction  of  the  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  institution,  for  and  In  behalf  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  and  Joseph  C  Hornblower  and  James  R. 
Marshall,  partners  doing  business  as  architects  under  the  Arm  name  of  Horn- 
blower  &  Marshall,  of  Washington,  la  the  District  of  Columbia,  of  the  second 

This  agreement  wltnesseth,  that  whereas  by  act  of  Congress  approved  March 
3,  IflOS,  the  snid  Regents  were  authorized  to  commence  the  erection  of  a  suitable 
bntlding  for  tbe  use  of  the  National  Museum  on  tbe  north  Hide  of  tbe  Mall  be- 
tween Ninth  aud'Twelfth  streets  northwest,  said  building  to  cost  not  exceeding 
three  million  Ave  hundred  thousand  dollars,  the  construction  of  said  building  to 
be  In  charge  of  tbe  said  Bernard  R.  Oreeu,  who  shall  make  all  contracts  for  the 
work;  and 

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PBOOBBDINOS  OF  THE  BOABD  OF  BEOENTS.  XXI 

WbereflB  It  Is  IndlBpensable  to  tbe  proper  design  and  t.-aust ruction  of  bo  tin- 
partant  n  permanent  public  building  that  an  architect  or  Arm  of  architects  of 
tbe  requisite  talent,  shlll,  and  experience  should  i>e  employed  for  tbat  purpose; 

The  said  Bernard  R.  Green  (with  the  concurrence  and  consent,  and  under 
tbe  direction  of  the  said  Regents)  and  tbe  said  Homblower  &  Mnrsball  all 
have  mutually  agreed,  and  by  these  presents  do  mutually  covenant  and  agree, 
to  and  with  each  other,  as  follows,  to  wit: 

That,  for  the  consideration  hereinafter  mentioned,  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part  shall,  under  tbe  direction  and  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  the 
said  party  of  the  first  part  acting  as  aforesaid,  make  tbe  design  and  prepare 
and  furnish  oil  the  necessary  plana,  the  working  and  other  needful  drawings, 
details,  apeclflcations,  and  eatiniates  required  for  the  construction  complete  of 
tbe  said  building  for  the  National  Museam,  Including  all  necessary  modlQca- 
tloDS  tbat  may  be  made  therein  during  the  progress  of  the  work. 

And  the  said  party  of  tlie  second  part  further  covenants  and  agrees  to  fur- 
nish to  the  party  of  the  Brst  part,  without  cost  to  the  United  States,  one  set 
of  tracings  of  all  working  drawings.  Including  details,  and  two  copies  of  speci- 
flcatlous,  all  of  which  shall  remain  In  the  custody  of  the  party  of  the  flrst  part 
and  be  and  remain  the  property  of  the  United  Statee, 

And  the  party  of  the  second  part  further  covenants  and  agrees  to  make, 
when  required  so  to  do  by  the  party  of  tbe  flrst  part,  without  expense  to  tbe 
United  States,  such  revisions  and  alterations  In  tbe  working  drawings  and 
specifications  of  said  building  as  may  be  necessary  to  insure  Its  proper  con- 
struction Bud  completion  within  the  limit  of  cost  fixed  by  tbe  party  of  tbe 
flrst  part,  and  to  fnmlsh  all  drawings,  details,  spedQcations,  estimates,  etc.. 
In  such  seqnence  and  at  such  times  as.  In  the  Judgment  of  tbe  party  of  tbe 
first  part,  may  be  necessary  to  Insare  tbe  continnons  and  prompt  prosecution 
ot  the  work  of  constrnction. 

And  tbe  party  of  the  flrst  part  covenaats  and  agrees  to  pay  to  the  party 
of  the  second  part,  or  to  their  heirs,  executors,  or  administrators  a  fee  com- 
puted at  the  rate  of  three  and  ooe-hatf  (3}  %)  per  c^itnm  upon  the  cost  of  tbe 
constrnction  of  the  said  building,  after  excluding  the  architects'  fee  and  the 
contingent  cost  of  the  services  and  oBlce  expenses  of  the  party  of  the  Brst  part, 
all  to  be  determined  by  the  party  of  the  flrst  part,  in  the  following  manner,  to 
wit :  The  sum  of  thlr^  thousand  dollars  when  the  preliminary  drawings  of  tbe 
said  building  are  completed  and  approved  by  the  party  of  the  first  part  less  tbe 
sum  of  four  thousand  nine  hundred  dollars  heretofore  received  from  the  United 
States  for  tbe  tentative  sketch  plans  made  and  submitted  according  to  tbe 
act  of  Congress  approved  June  28,  1002,  and  tbe  remainder  of  said  fee  shall 
be  paid  by  tlie  party  of  tbe  flrst  part  In  such  amounts  and  at  such  times  as  the 
progreas  of  tbe  general  drawings,  details,  and  specifications  shall  warrant  In  the 
Judgment  of  tbe  said  par^  of  the  first  part 

And  it  is  further  covenanted  and  agreed  by  and  twtween  the  parties  hereto  that 
tbe  party  of  the  second  part  shall  furnish  such  personal  supervision  of  tbe  con- 
struction as  may  hereafter  be  called  for  by  the  party  of  the  first  part  from  time 
to  time  and  at  such  rate  of  compensation  as  may  be  agreed  upon  between  tbe 
parties  hereto.  But  the  entire  compensation  to  be  allowed  and  paid  to  tbe  party 
of  tbe  second  part  under  this  contract  shall  not  exceed  In  the  aggregate  an 
amount  equal  to  five  per  centum  on  the  cost  of  the  construction  of  the  building 
to  be  estimated  as  hereinbefore  provided,  nor  shall  It  exceed  In  the  aggregate  such 
amount  as  may  be  fixed  by  the  Fifty-eighth  Congress  for  the  full  services  of 
architects  In  tbe  construction  of  Oovemment  buildings  of  similar  character  and 
cost :  Provided,  Tbat  no  action  ot  .the  fUty-elgbth  Congress  or  any  subsequent 


,8lc 


XZII  PBOCEEDINOS  OF  THE  BOAHD   OF  BEQENTS. 

Congress,  llmltlDK  the  fe«B  of  arcbltccts  ecnerally,  shall  of  Itself  be  construed  to 
reduce  the  total  cooipenBHtion  of  the  party  of  the  second  part  to  a  eum  less  tbao 
five  per  ceutum  on  such  cost  of  construction,  it  belnt;  herein  understood  that  tbe 
fees  of  the  architect  as  herein  provided  for  shall  be  limited  to  three  and  one-half 
per  cent  on  such  cost  of  construction,  together  with  such  additional  compensation 
as  may  be  flsed  and  agreed  to  be  paid  from  time  to  time  by  the  party  of  the  first 
part  acting  as  aforesaid,  which  additional  compensation  shall  not,  in  any  event, 
exceed  a  sum  equal  to  one  and  one-half  per  cent  on  such  total  coat  of  construction. 

And  It  Is  herein  further  provided  that  no  payment  shall  become  due  before 
July  flrat,  nineteen  hundred  and  three  (1903). 

And  It  Is  further  covenanted  and  agreed  by  end  between  the  parties  hereto 
that  the  payments  herein  stipulated  to  be  made  by  the  party  of  the  first  part  shall 
be  In  full  compensation  and  payment  of  all  charges  for  the  full  services  of  the 
party  of  the  second  part  and  for  all  detigna.  plans,  details,  and  specifications 
made,  ordered,  or  iirepared  for  the  National  Museum  by  or  under  the  dtrectlOD 
of  the  said  party  of  (he  second  part. 

And  it  la  further  covenanted  and  agreed  by  and  between  the  parties  hereto 
that  should  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  through  any  unavoidable  cause 
became  unable  to  complete  the  foregoing  contract,  or  if  the  conduct  of  the  satd 
party  of  the  second  part  is  such  that  the  interests  of  the  United  States  are 
thereby  likely  to  be  placed  in  Jeopardy,  or  If  the  said  party  of  the  second  part 
violates  any  of  the  conditions  or  stipniations  of  this  contract,  the  said  party  of 
the  first  jwrt  shall  have  the  right  to  revoke  this  contract  or  any  part  thereof, 
and  to  cause  the  same  to  l>e  otherwise  completed ;  Provided,  In  such  case,  how- 
ever, that  the  iiarty  of  the  second  part  shall  receive  equitable  compensation  for 
all  services  already  properly  performed  under  this  contract  up  to  the  date  of  its 
revocation,  such  compecaation  to  be  fixed  by  the  said  party  of  the  first  part. 

No  Member  or  Delegate  to  Congress,  or  other  person  whose  name  Is  not  at 
this  time  disclosed,  shall  be  admitted  to  any  share  in  this  contract  or  to  any 
benefit  to  arise  therefrom:  and  It  Is  further  covenanted  and  agreed  that  this 
contract  shall  not  he  assigned. 

In  witness  whereof  the  parties  hereto  have  hereunto  placed  their  hands  and 
seals  the  day  and  date  hereinbefore  written. 

Bebnabd  R.  Gbeen, 
Superintendent  of  the  Bttilding  and  Ground*.  Library  of  Congrett. 

HoBHBLOWEB  &  MabSHAU- 

Witnesses ; 

John  Q.  Sbeehy. 

Geo.  N.  Fbench, 
(Executed  In  triplicate.) 

The  Chancellor  also  read  the  following  clause  from  the  sundry 
civil  act  approved  March  3, 1903,  providing  for  the  new  building  for 
the  National  Museum: 

Bpilmno  fob  Nationai.  Museum  :  To  enable  the  Begenta  of  the  SmItbsoalaD 
InstltutiOD  to  commence  the  erection  of  a  suitable  fireproof  building  with  gran- 
ite fronts,  for  the  use  of  the  National  Museum,  to  be  erected  on  the  north  side 
of  the  Mall,  between  Ninth  and  Twelfth  streets  northwest,  substantially  In  ac- 
cordance with  the  Plan  A,  prepared  and  submitted  to  Congress  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  under  the  provisions  of  the  act  approved 
June  twenty -eighth,  nineteen  hundred  and  two,  two  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand dollars.  Said  building,  complete.  Including  beating  and  ventllatlog  ap- 
paratus and  elevators,  aball  coat  not  to  exceed  three  million  Qve  buodred  tliou- 


m  Qve  buodred  t 


PBOCEEDTNOS  OF  THE  BOABD  OF  BE0ENT8.  XZin 

Band  dollars,  and  a  contract  or  contracts  for  Its  completion  la  bereby  authorized 
to  be  entered  Into,  subject  to  appropriations  to  be  made  by  Congress.  The  con- 
Btrnctlon  shall  be  In  chaise  of  Bernard  B.  Green,  superintendent  of  buildings 
and  grounds.  Library  of  Congress,  who  shall  make  the  contracts  herein  au- 
thorized and  disburse  all  appropriations  made  for  the  work,  and  shall  receive 
as  full  compensation  for  bis  services  hereunder  tbe  sum  of  two  thousand  dol- 
lars annnalty  In  addition  to  bis  present  salary,  to  be  paid  out  of  said  approprl- 

He  also  read  the  foUowing  resolution  adopted  by  tbe  Board  on 
January  23, 1903,  providing  that  the  Secretary  be  authorized  to  rep- 
resrait  it  in  carrying  out  the  provbions  of  this  act : 

Retolved,  That  tbe  Secretary,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  ttie  Chancellor 
and  the  cbalrman  of  tbe  executive  committee,  be  authorised  to  represent  the 
Board  of  Regents  so  £ar  as  may  be  necessary  in  consultation  with  Bernard  B. 
Green,  to  whom  tbe  construction  and  contracts  for  tbe  new  Museum  building 
are  committed  by  Congress  In  the  act  making  an  appropriation  for  that  pur- 
pose. 

After  considerable  discussion  on  the  question  of  the  architect's  fee 
and  the  contract,  in  which  all  present  took  part,  Senator  Lodge  sub- 
mitted tbe  foUowing  resolution,  which  was  adopted : 

Resolved,  That  Mr.  Bernard  R.  Qreen  be  authorized  to  pay  Homblower  ft 
Marshall  the  fee  of  one  and  one-half  per  cent  recommended  by  him.  In  addition 
to  the  fee  of  three  and  one-half  per  cent,  whenever  In  his  Judgment  It  has,  from 
time  to  time,  been  earned  under  the  terms  of  tbe  contract 

PROVISION  FOR  EMERGENCY  SUPERINTENDENT  OP  CONgrRUCTtON. 

The  Secretary  said  that  the  original  act  authorizing  the  new  build- 
ing for  the  National  Museum  provided  that  tbe  construction  should 
be  in  charge  of  Bernard  R.  Green,  who  should  make  the  contracts 
authorized  and  disburse  all  appropriations  made  for  tbe  work. 
Realizing  tbe  inconvenience  that  would  arise  in  case  of  Mr.  Green 
becoming  incapacitated,  he  had  requested  that  provision  be  made  em- 
powering tbe  Board  of  Regents,  in  case  of  this  emergency,  to  take 
cbai^ge  of  tbe  work  of  construction  and  to  disburse  appropriations 
made  for  the  same ;  and  he  had  to  report  that  this  provision  had  been 
included  in  the  sundry  civil  act  approved  March  4,  1907,  as  follows: 

BciLOina  fob  Nattorai.  Museuu  :  For  completing  tbe  construction  of  the 
building  for  the  National  Museum,  and  for  each  and  every  purpose  connected 
with  tbe  same,  one  million  two  hundred  and  flfty  thouaand  dollars :  Provided, 
That  If  the  super inteudent  of  buildings  and  grounds,  Library  of  Congress,  now 
In  charge  of  the  construction  of  the  new  Museum  building  and  the  disbursing 
of  all  appropriations  made  for  the  work,  be  at  any  time  incapacitated  to  con- 
tinue In  such  charge,  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  Is 
bereby  empowered  to  take  charge  of  tbe  coostmctloD  and  to  disburse  appropria- 
tions made  for  tbe  same. 

Mr.  Henderson  suggested  that  if  Mr.  Green  should  become  in- 
capacitated between  now  and  the  next  meeting  in  December,  it  would 
be  difficult  to  get  suitable  acti<m  by  the  Board,  and  be  suggested 


XXrV  PBOCBBDIHQS  OP  THE  BOABD  OF  BBGENT8. 

that  an  arrangement  should  be  made  now  to  provide  for  such  a 
contingency. 

The  following  resolution  was  then  adopted : 

Resolved,  Tbat  U  the  supertnteodent  of  cotistrucUon  of  the  new  building  for 
tbe  National  Museum,  whoae  aervlces  are  provided  for  In  the  sundry  civil  act 
approved  Marcb  3,  1903,  sball  become  Incapacitated  for  the  performance  of  his 
duties  between  this  date  and  December  3,  1007,  the  date  of  the  next  meeting  of 
tbe  Board  of  R^enta,  tbe  Secretar?  of  the  Institution  Is  hereby  authorized  and 
directed  to  personally  take  charge  of  tbe  work  of  construction  on  behalf  of  the 
Board  and  to  disburse  appropriations  made  for  the  same,  or  appoint  some  suit- 
able person  or  persons  to  take  charge  of  said  constmctlon  and  disburse  such 
approprlattons. 

SECHITTAHy's   ffTATEHIIMT. 

The  Secretary  said :  "  I  wish  first  to  thank  yon  for  the  honor  you 
have  done  me  in  electing  me  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu* 
tioD,  and  desire  to  say  that  I  shall  do  all  in  my  power  to  uphold  the 
interests  of  the  Institution  and  its  branches." 

(a)  OOVEBKUEIfTAL  APPBOPBIATIOna  BOB  lOOT-S. 

The  Secretary  then  submitted  the  following  statement  with  regard 
s  in  the  appropriations  for  the  fiscal  year  1907-8 : 


International  Exchanges,  128,800  to  {32,000 18,200 

Aatrophfsical  Observatory,  $14,000  to  $16,000  ($2,000  of  this  approprla- 

Uon  iB  limited  to  printing  one  volume  of  the  Annals) 1,000 

National    Museum ;    Presenatloa   of  Collections,  |180,0OO  to  $100,000 

(for  Increasing  pay  of  laborers,  and  increasing  size  of  watch  force)  __  10;  000 

National  Zoological  Park;  new  (for  reconstructing  reads) lfi,000 

American  Historical  Association,  $S.0OO  to  $7,000  (priDtlng  reports) 2,000 

Total 31,200 


Natkmal  Mnsenm :  Printing,  $34,000  to  $33,000 l,  ooo 

Total  Increase 80, 200 

NaW  MUSEUU  BmLDINfl. 

EVir  conttnaing  tbe  construction  of  the  new  building  for  tbe  Museum,  there 
was  appropriated  $1,200,000,   being  tlie  balance  on   the  total   Umitatiott    of 

$3,soo,ooa 

(b)   BnaiRBts  of  tbe  Inshtotioh. 

The  Secretary  stated  that  he  had  found  the  business  of  the  Insti- 
tution in  admirable  condition,  tbat  the  organization  of  the  various 
branches  was  satisfactory,  and  tbat  no  immediate  changes  would  be 
made.  ,—  I 

"     DiailizedbyLTOOgle 


FBOOEBDINOS  OF  THE  BOASD  OF  BBaEHlS.  XXV 

In  view  of  the  recent  examination  by  a  commission  appointed  by 
the  President  into  the  business  methods  of  all  the  Government  De- 
partments, exclusive  of  those  under  the  charge  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  the  Secretary  thought  it  would  be  wise  to  appoint  a  com- 
mittee on  business  methods  for  the  purpose  of  examining  into  all  the 
business  methods  of  the  Institution  and  its  several  branches  with  a 
view  of  suggesting,  if  found  desirable,  improvements  in  the  business' 
methods  of  the  Institution  and  its  various  branches,  and  in  the  trans- 
action of  business  between  them  and  the  Institution, 
(c)  Rbsbabcb  Work  of  the  manrcnoN. 

The  Secretary  stated  that  of  the  parent  fund  there  would  be  avail- 
able up  to  July  1,  1907,  somewhat  over  $15,000  for  the  uses  of  the 
Institution  over  and  above  fixed  charges.  For  the  coming  fiscal  year 
1907-8,  after  providing  for  the  regular  charges,  there  was  a  prospect 
of  about  $22,000,  which  would  be  all  that  was  available  for  printing 
and  research.  This  was  a  very  small  fund,  and  It  would  be  desirable 
to  have  more  money  for  research  and  publication  in  the  future, 
(d)  Research  Work  or  tur  Secrttabt. 

Attention  was  colled  to  the  desirability  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Institution  keeping  in  touch  with  the  spirit  of  research  work  by 
carrying  on  some  original  investigations.  Professor  Henry  before 
coming  to  the  Institution  had  developed  many  matters  of  great  im- 
portance in  connection  with  electricity,  and  while  Secretary  took  up 
the  subject  of  meteorology  and  also  greatly  aided  the  Government  in 
the  establishment  of  the  system  of  light-houses  under  the  Light- 
House  Board.  Secretary  Baird  was  a  student  of  natural  history  in 
general,  and  later  devoted  himself  to  fishes.  The  development  of  the 
food  fishes,  not  only  of  the  United  States  but  of  the  world,  received 
a  great  impetus  by  the  organization  of  the  National  Fish  Commission 
as  the  result  of  his  studies.  Secretary  Langley  invented  the  bolom-, 
eter,  and  used  it  with  great  success  in  connection  with  his  inves- 
tigations in  the  Astrophysical  Observatory  and  his  study  of  solar 
physics. 

The  Secretary  added  that  his  own  research  work  had  been  in  the 
line  of  geology  and  paleozoology,  and  that  he  desired  to  continue  it 
as  opportunity  and  time  permitted. 

The  Secretary  continued  that  he  was  desirous  of  obtaining  special 
endovrmente  for  the  purpose  of  exploring  and  studying  Central  and 
South  America.  This  would  embrace  all  natural  history,  including 
zoology  and  botany,  the  securing  of  a  knowledge  of  the  natural  re- 
sources, and  also  anthropological,  including  archeological  investi- 
gation. 

He  particularly  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  researches  bearing 
upon  the  people  of  the  Americas  and  their  activities  should  be  carried 


XXVI  PBOCEBDINOS  OF  THE  BOABD  OF  BBQEITTS. 

on  from  a  scientific  point  of  view;  also  that  it  was  desirable  to  state 
that  the  Smithsonian  Institution  was  prepared  to  take  charge  of  such 
researches,  in  accordance  with  its  fundamental  purposes — the  increas- 
ing and  diffusing  of  knowledge  among  men. 

(e)  Pbbbebvation  of  National  ANTKjumEa. 

The  Secretary  stated  that  under  a  recent  action  of  the  Secretaries 
of  Agriculture,  of  War,  and  of  the  Interior,  to  whom  had  been  dele- 
gated, by  law  the  authority  to  issue  permits  to  secure  antiquities  from 
the  lands  under  the  control  of  the  Government,  an  agreement  had 
been  reached  to  the  effect  that  all  applications  for  such  permits  should 
be  referred  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  recommendation. 

(/)  UiNDTES  AND  Notice  of  Bdbiness  fob  Mbetihob. 

The  Secretary  stated  that  it  was  his  intention  to  send  to  each 
Regent,  in  advance  of  a  meeting,  a  program  of  the  business  to  come 
before  such  meeting,  in  order  that  the  Regent  might  be  familiar  with 
the  subject  before  his  arrival  at  the  meeting. 

He  also  intended  to  send  to  those  Regents  absent  from  the  meetings 
a  copy  of  the  Proceedings  of  such  meetings,  in  order  that  all  mght  be 
kept  constantly  in  touch  with  the  business  transacted,  and  also  to  send 
on  the  1st  of  July,  and  perhaps  quarterly,  a  statement  of  the  financial 
condition  of  the  Institution. 

la)  Resigkation  fbou  the  Reclamation  Service  and  the  Qbolooicai.  Sitbvxt. 

The  Secretary  stated  that  his  resignation  as  Director  of  the  Recla- 
mation Service  had  been  transmitted  in  December  to  Secretary  of  the 
Interior  Hitchcock,  but  that  the  latter  had  requested  him  to  continue 
in  charge  until  after  March  4.  Secretary  Garfield  had  accepted  the 
resignation  to  take  effect  March  8. 

The  Secretary  further  stated  that  his  resignation  as  Director  of  the 
Geological  Survey  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  President  on  Janu- 
ary 25,  but  had  not  been  acted  upon,  as  the  President  wished  him  to 
remain  in  charge  until  after  Mr.  Garfield  had  made  himself  ac- 
quainted with  the  details  of  the  administration  of  the  Survey.  The 
Secretary  added  that  he  hoped  a  new  Director  would  be  appointed 
by  the  Ist  of  April. 

The  Secretary,  in  answer  to  a  question  as  to  the  purposes  of  the  pro- 
posed South  American  expedition,  stated  that  they  were : 

A  general  survey  of  the  dominant  geological,  biological,  and  an- 
thropological phenomena; 

A  study  of  material  by  specialists  and  the  preparation  of  reports 
thereon;  and 

The  publication  and  distribution  of  reports  embodying  the  re- 
suits  of  these  investigations.  GooljIc 


PBOCEEDINOS  OP  THE  BOARD  OP   BBOBNTS.  XXVU 

The  Secretary  added  that  the  permanent  committee  had  authority 
to  accept  gifts  for  auch  purposes,  and  he  read  the  following  para- 
graph, which  he  suggested  would  be  advisable  to  be  adopted  in  con- 
nection with  all  gifts  to  the  Institution  for  specific  purposes: 

The  Bpeclflc  objects  named  are  considered  moat  Important,  bnt  the  Board 
of  Re^eDtB  sball  bare  full  power,  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  their  number,  to 
modify  the  conditions  and  regulations  under  whlcli  ttie  income  from  the  fund 
may  be  dispensed,  so  as  to  Insure  that  It  slull  always  t>e  applied  In  the  manner 
l>est  adapted  to  the  cliangcd, conditions  of  the  time;  provided  always  that  any 
modifications  shall  be  In  general  accord  with  the  purposes  of  the  donor  as  here- 
iobefore  expreaeed. 


.y  Google 


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REPORT  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  BOARD  OF 

REGENTS  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION 

For  the  Yeab  Endino  June  30,  1907. 


To  the  Board  of  Regent$  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution: 

Tour  executive  committee  respectfully  submits  the  following  re- 
port in  relation  to  the  funds,  receipts,  and  disbursements  of  the  Insti- 
tution, and  the  disbursement  of  the  appropriations  by  Congress  for 
the  National  Museum,  the  International  Exchanges,  the  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology,  the  National  Zoological  Park,  the  Astrophys- 
ical  Observatory,  the  International  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Litera- 
ture, and  the  ruin  of  Casa  Grande  for  the  year  ending  Jime  30,  1907, 
and  balances  of  previous  appropriations. 

SHITHBONI&N    INSTmiTlON. 

Condition  of  the  fund  July  1,  J907, 

The  permanent  fund  of  the  Institution  and  the  sources  from  which 
it  has  been  derived  are  as  follows : 

DEPOSITED  IN  TRE  TBEABDBT  OF  THE  DNITED  fiTATEB. 

Bequest  of  Smltlison,  184R $51S,169.00 

Reelduar;  legacy  of  Bmlthson,  1867 26,210.03 

Deposit  from  savings  of  Income,  1867 108,  620.  S7 

Bequest  of  James  Hamilton,  1875 $1,000.00 

Accumulated  Interest  on  Hamilton  fund,  1S»R 1, 000. 00 

2,000.00 

Bequest  of  Simeon  Habel,  1880 __  500.00 

Deposits  from,  proceeds  of  sale  of  bonds,  1881 51,500.00 

Gift  of  Thomas  G.  Hodgklns,  1881 200.000.00 

Part  of  residuary  l^acy  of  Tbomas  G.  Hodgklns.  ISM 8.000.00 

Deposit  from  savings  of  Income.  1903 28,00a00 

Beeldnary  legacy  of  Thomas  Q.  Hodgklns 7,918.69 

Total  amount  of  fnnd  in  the  United  States  Treasury 944, 918. 69 

HELD   AT   THE    SUITHSONIAN    INSTITtTTION. 

Begistered  and  guaranteed  bonds  of  the  West   Shore  Ballroad 
Company,  part  of  legacy  of  Thomas  G.  Hodgklns  (par  value)...      42.000.00 

Total   permanent   fnnd 986,918.69 


XXX  BBPOBT   OF   THE   BXECDTIVB   COMUITTEE, 

That  part  of  the  fund  deposited  in  the  Treasury  of  the  United 
States  bears  iDt«rest  at  6  per  cent  per  annum,  under  the  provisions  of 
the  act  of  August  10,  1846,  organizing  the  Institution,  and  an  act  of 
Congress  approved  March  12,  1894.  The  rate  of  interest  on  the 
West  Shore  Railroad  bonds  is  4  per  cent  per  annum. 

United  States  4  per  cent  registered  bonds  of  the  par  value  of 
$7,850,  maturing  July  1,  1907,  were  sold  by  your  authority  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1907,  and  the  proceeds,  aggregating  $7,918.69,  were  deposited 
in  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States  to  the  credit  of  the  permanent 
fund  of  the  Institution. 
Statement  of  receiptt  and  ilsburaements  from  July  I,  1908,  to  June  SO,  1S07. 


CaBh  on  deposit  In  the  TJnlted  Statea  Treasury  Jnly  1,  1906— t 

Interest  on  fun4  deposited  In  tbe  United  States  Treas- 
ury, due  July  1.  lOOC,  and  January  I.  1907 $56,220.00 

Interest  on  West  Shore  Railroad  bonds  to  January  1, 

1907 J.. 1, 680. 00 

Repayments,  rentals,  publications,  etc S,0ie.3S 

Proceeds  from  claims  In  litigation 1,292.56 

Interest  on  Hodgkina  residuary  fund 2^.50 

Proceeds  from  sale  of  |7,8S0  United  States  4  per  cent  registered 
bonds,   1907,   at    lOOJ 


OISBUBaEMENTB. 


Bnlldlnga,  care  and  repelra 

Furniture  and  flitures 

General  expenses: 

Salaries  

Meetings 

Stationery  

Postage  and  telegrams 

Frei^t 

Incidentals   

Library : 

Purchase  of  boohs,  binding,  etc— 
Salaries  

Publications  and  their  distribution: 

Contributions  to  Knowledge 

Reports   

Miscellaneous  Collections 

Publication  supplies 

Special  publications 

Salaries  

Explorations  and  researches 

Hodgklns  specific  fund : 


—  113, 290. 19 

380. 87 
720.41 
305.71 
104.40 

—  3,221.74 


278.40 
961.30 

2,165.36 
214.64 
156.  B2 

6.127.00 


8,903.31 
2. 482. 65 


Researches  and  publications 3, 21 


■■iGoot^lc 


BEPOBI  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE.  XXXI 

latemational  EJjchangeo *3,433.26 

InternaUonal  Catalogue  of  Scientlflc  Literature 4,»02.30 

Legal  expenses 1, 786. 30 

Apparatus 35. 21 

Gallery  oi  Art 1T4. 56 

$40, 936. 53 

AdTBDces  100.00 

United  States  Treasar; : 

Z>eposited  to  credit  of  permanent  fund 7,818.69 

Balance  June  30,  19V7,  deposited  with  the  Treasurer  of  tbe  United 

States 24,592.01 

82.517.23 

By  authority,  your  executive  committee  employed  Mr.  J.  E.  Bates, 
a  certified  public  accountant,  to  audit  the  receipts  and  disbursements 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  during  the  period  covered  by  this 
report  His  certificate  of  examination  supports  the  foregoing  state- 
ment, and  reads  as  follows ; 

Wabuirgton,  D.  C,  October  8,  1967. 
The  ExecKtive  Committee,  Board  of  Regents,  Smithsonian  Institution,  Wash' 

ington,  D.  C. 

Gehtleubh  :  1  certL^  that  I  have  examined  the  accounts  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1907,  and  And  the  following  cash 
statement  to  be  correct : 
July  1.  1906,  balance  on  hand -$10,184.13 


Total  recelpts-for  year  ending  Jnne  30,  1907.- 
Total 


DISBUBeKMBIITS. 

Total  disbursements  for  year 57,0 


June  30,  1907,  balance  on  hand 24, 692. 01 

Jnne  30,  1907,  balance  as  per  United  States  Treasurer's  statement, 

after  deducting  all  outstanding  checks  unpaid 24,592.01 

Reqiectfully,  yours, 

(Signed)  J.  E.  Bates. 

All  moneys  received  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  from  interest, 
sales,  refunding  of  moneys  temporarily  advanced,  or  otherwise,  are 
deposited  with  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States  to  the  credit  of  the 
Institution,  and  all  payments  are  made  by  checks  signed  by  the 
Secretary. 

The  vouchers  representing  payments  from  the  Smithsonian  income 
during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1907,  each  of  which  bears  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Secretary,  or,  in  his  absence,  of  the  Acting  Secretary, 
and  a  certificate  that  the  materials  and  services  charged  were  applied 


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XXZII  BBPOBT  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMHITTBE. 

to  the  purposes  of  the  Institution,  have  beeo  examined  by  the  Auditor 
in  connection  with  the  books  of  the  Institution,  and  found  correct. 

Your  committee  also  presents  the  following  statements  in  regard 
to  the  appropriations  and  expenditures  for  objects  intrusted  by  Con- 
gress to  the  care  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  based  on  expendi- 
tures by  the  disbursing  agent  and  audited  by  the  Auditor  for  the 
State  and  other  Departments: 

Detailed  statement  of  di»bur«emenU  from  appropriations  committed  by  Con- 
grees  to  the  core  of  the  Bmitktonian  Inttitution  for  the  flgcal  year  endino 
June  SO,  1907,  and  from  balancet  of  former  iieart. 

INTERNATIONAL  EXCBANOEB.  SUITBSONIAN  JNSTITtTTlON,   1007. 
BECEIPTS. 

ApproprRition  bj  CongresB  for  ttie  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1907, 
"  For  exp«DFie8  of  the  Bystem  of  tntematlonal  exchaDgee  between 
the  United  States  and  foreign  countrlefi  under  tbe  direction  of  ttie 
Smithsonian  Institution.  Including  salaries  or  compensation  of  all 
QeceBsary  employees  sod  the  purchase  of  uecessary  boolts  and  peri- 
odicals" (sundry  civil  act,  June  30,  1906) 528,800.00 

DI8BUKSBMBKT8. 

Salaries  or  compensation : 

1  ABslstant  Secretary,  at  ¥22&  per  month,  {2,700.00 

1  clert.  at  $150  per  month 1, 800. 00 

1  clerk,  at  $126  per  month 304.16 

1  clerk,  at  5126  per  mouth 1, 500. 00 

1  clerk,  at  $116.66  per  mouth 1,399.92 

1  clerk,  at  $80  per  month 960.00 

1  clerk,  at  $80  per  moutb 960.00 

1  clerk,  at  $70  per  montb 137.87 

1  clerk,  at  $70  per  month 84, 16 

1  clerk,  at  $70  per  month 224.00 

1  clerk,  at  $65  per  month 780.00 

1  clerk,  at  $50  per  montb 200.00 

1  at^iograpber.  at  $125  per  month 1,500.00 

I  stenographer  and  typewriter,  at  $60  per 

month 166.00 

1  messenger,  at  $35  and  $45  per  month..  142.00 
1  messenger   boy,    at   $25   and    $30    per 

month  330. 00 

1  messenger  boy,  at  $25  per  montb 300.00 

1  workman,  at  $70  per  mouth 840.00 

1  skilled  laborer,  at  $55  per  month.. 660, 00 

1  skilled  laborer,  at  $30  per  mouth 214. 00 

1  agent,  at  «66,66S  per  montb 800.00 

1  agent,  at  $15  per  month 180.00 

1  agent,  at  $75  per  month 900. 00 

Total  salaries  or  compensation $17,061.91 

Digilized  by  Google 


BEPOBT  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE.  XZXIII 

G«nera)  expenses: 

BoolcB - $156.75 

Boxes   ,- - - 737.55 

Freight,  etc.- 6.816.07 

Furniture - 621,77 

Postage 500.00 

Supplies,  electricity,  ett- _.  361.95 

Stationery,  etc 233.24 

SB.  527. 33 

Total  disbnraements $26,589.24 

Balance  July  1.  1807 2.210.76 

INTERNATIONAL  EXCHANGES,  »UtTH80NIAN  INSTITUTION.   IDM. 
BaluDce  July  1,  1906,  as  |ier  last  reiiort $806.90 


Boiea $203.50 

li'relght 642.64 

Stationery,  boohs,  etc 39.67 

Suppllen  26.10 

Total  rtisburKenicntB _ 901.97 

Balance  July  1,  1007 - 3.08 

INTERNATIONAL  KXrllAN<JE»,  RMITHHONIAN   INSTI'niTION.   IB0.1. 

Balance  July  1,  lOOti,  aH  per  last  reiK>rt $0.08 

No  disbursements. 

Balance  carried,  under  provlstontt  (if  Kovlsed  Statutes,  section  3001,  by  the 
Treasury  Department  to  tbe  credit  of  tbe  surplus  fund,  June  30,  1907. 

AMERICAN  ETHNOLOGY.  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,   1907. 
RECEIPTS. 

Appropriation  by  CongrPHa  for  tbe  fiscal  year  ending  Jane  30,  1007, 
"  FV>r  continuing  etbnologlcal  researches  among  the  American 
Indians  and  the  natives  of  Hawaii,  under  tbe  direction  of  the 
SmltbBonlBD  Instttiitlou,  including  salaries  or  cumpeosatlon  of 
all  necessary  employees,  nod  the  purchase  of  necessary  books  and 
periodicals,  forty  thousand  dollars,  of  which  satn  not  exceeding 
one  thousand  five  hnndred  dollars  may  be  used  for  rent  of  build- 
ing" isundry  civil  act,  June  30,  1906) 1 $4'),l>00.00 

DISBtTRSEMEnrS. 

Salaries  or  compensation : 

1  chief,  at  $333.33  per  month... —  $3,009.96 

1  ethnologist,  at  $250  per  month 3,000.00 

2  ethnologists,  at  $200  per  month 4,800.00 

2  ethnologists,  at  $13.'U3  per  month 3.190.92 

2  ethnol(«islB.  at  $125  per  month 3,000.00 

1  lllostrator,  at  $166.67  per  month 2.000.04 

1  editor,  at  $100  per  month 1. 200. 00 

1  editor  and  proof-reader,  at  $4.68  per 

day   402. 48 


41780-06 8 


..Google 


XXirV  BEPOBT  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE. 

SaUrle*  or  ccMupensaUon — Contlniied. 

1  clerk,  at  $125  per  montb_ $426.00 

1  head  clerk,  at  9100  pet  month 1,200.00 

2  clerka,  at  »100  per  month 2.10a00 

1  clerk,  at  |100  per  moDtb  and  »3.33  pov 

day  468.88 

1  librarian,  at  |100  per  month 1,200.00 

1  tTpewriter,  at  |6S  per  month 448.51 

1  typewriter,  at  f60  per  month— ,  300.00 

1  aasistant,  at  $60  per  month 102.00 

1  messenger,  at  $55  per  month GOO.  00 

1  skilled  laborer,  at  $00  per  month 720.00 

1  laborer,  at  $S0  per  month... 600.00 

1  laborer,  at  $4R  per  month 640.00 

1  book-wrapper,  at  30  cents  per  hour 173.40 

1  laborer,  at  $1.50  per  day 43,50 

1  charwoman,  at  $1.50  per  day 13.50 

Total  salariee  or  compeoaatlon $30,  71S.1& 

0«ii»al  expenses: 

Books,  binding,  etc $547.00 

Drawings,  maps,  etc 326. 00 

Freight,  hauling,  etc... _ _.  06.25 

Famlture  and  fixtures 421.90 

Lifting - 279.21 

Mannscrlpt 717.95 

Miscellaneous 157.27 

Postage,  telephone,  and  telegraph 13S.$4 

Benlal 1.375.00 

Special  services.. 725.57 

Specimens 24.60 

Stationery 843.82 

Supplies 538. 24 

Travel  and  field  expenses 2,154.96 

8. 34&  01 

Total  disbursements _, $39,060.2 

Balance  July  1.  1907 933.  8i 

AMERICAN  KTHNOt.OOy.  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION.   1IKI6. 

Balance  July  1,  1906,  as  per  last  report.. $622.  2: 


Books... $15.17 

Freight 30.38 

Furniture  and  fixtures 30.15 

Lighting 92.98 

Miscellaneous 21.83 

Postage,  telephone,  and  tel^raph 20.41 

Special  services - 28.00 

Stationery 35.48 

Supplies - 69.59 

Travel  and  field  expenses.— 259. 78 

Total  disbursements 612.77 

Balance  July  1,  1907 ^^_— _J,.     9.51 


■rl'vntiglc 


BEPOBT  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE.  XXXV 

AMERICAN    BTHNOLOaV,    SMITHSONIAN    INSTITDTION.    1906. 

e  Jnly  1,  1906,  as  per  last  report *4.40 

No  dlsburaementB, 

Balance  carried,  under  provlsloDs  of  Revised  Statutes,  sectlou  3691,  by  the 
Treasury  Department  to  the  credit  of  the  surplus  fund,  June  30,  1907. 

A8TBOPHY8ICAL    OBSERVATOKV,    SMfTH80NT.\N    INSTITPTION,    1907. 
BECEIFT8. 

Appropriation  by  Congress  for  the  Bscal  year  ending  June  30,  1007, 
"  For  maintenance  of  Astropbyaical  Observatory,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  Including  salaries  of  asslst- 
onts,  tbe  purchase  of  necessary  books  and  periodicals,  apparatus, 
making  necessary  observations  In  high  altitudes,  printing  and  pul>- 
llsblug  results  of  researches,  not  exceeding  1,500  copies,  repairs 
and  alterations  of  buildings,  and  miscellaneous  enpenses,  |14,000  " 
(sundry  clvU  act.  June  30,  1906) ?14,000.00 

DISRUBSCMEHTS. 

Salaries  or  compensation : 

1  acting  director,  at  $225  per  month $2,700.00 

1  Junior  assistant,  at  $190  per  niontb 1,  sm>.  00 

1  computer,  at  $83.33  per  month 833.30 

1  computer,  at  $83^  per  month 4K0.53 

1  t>olometric  asalstaut,  at  $50  per  month.  llti.  67 

1  Instrument-mailer,  at   $100  per  mouth.  1.200.00 

Iclerk.  at  $125  per  mouth 141.07 

Iclerb,  at  $125  per  mootb —  8.3a 

1  steoogropber,  at  $116.60  |>er  month 1, 3!U.  14 

1  messenger  boy,  at  ¥40  per  mouth 480.00 

Icarpenter,  at  $91  per  month... 15.17 

Iflreman,  at  $60  per  month 072.00 

1  skilled  laborer,  at  $J00  per  month 50.00 

1  cleaner,  at  $1,25  per  day 163.75 

1  cleaner,  at  $1  per  day 18.00 

Total  salaries  or  compensation $10,071.50 

General  expenses: 

Apparatus _..  $405.05 

Books  and  blading -  152,78 

Bolldhig  repairs 267.00 

Castings 13.65 

Drawings,  tables,  etc 1 117.25 

Electricity,  gas.  etc _-  222.38 

Freight 76.32 

Furniture 42.54 

Lumber -.  4.10 

Postage,  telephone,  and  tel^raph 13.55 

SUtionery 19.21 

Supplies,  chemicals,  tools,  etc 160.42 

Travel  and  field  expenses 495.55 

1,990.46 

Total  disbursements 12,062.08 

Batance  July  1,  1907 1.937.98 


XXXVI  REPORT  OP  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTSE. 

ASTB0PBX8ICAL  OBSBEVATOBY.  SUITUSONIAN  INSTITCTION.  190G. 

Balance  July  1,  1906.  as  per  last  report---   tZ,2' 


Serrlces  of  bolometrlc  aeslstant.  at  fSO  per  mootb 125.00 

Apparatus 94.65 

Books  and  binding 79.72 

BnlldtngB,  repalra,  etc 599.00 

Electndtf,  gas,  etc 292.  SO 

Freight 158.22 

Poatage,  telephone,  and  telegraph -..-  2.35 

Supplies,  chemicals,  tools,  etc 58.25 

Travel  and  field  expenses 779.03 

Total   disbursements -_       2,  OSS.  82 

Balance,  July  1,  IfiOT. - 157.26 

ASTROrnVSICAl,  OBSERVATORY.    SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION,    IBOn. 

Itulance  Jnly  1,  1«00.  an  per  IbhI  n-ixni-— J22, :«» 


Supplies V>.Xi 

Travel  and  Held  expeustw...  -  9.01 

Total  dlsburxenients !t.3H 

Kalani^e - -...    .        -  lIl.fEi 

Balance  carried,  under  [irovtsloiis  of  Ki-vIi«h1  Statutes.  wttUin  ;(fi!n.  Iiy  tlic 
Treasury  Deparlmeut  to  the  credit  of  the  surplus  fund.  June  :W,  1907. 

CATALOGUE     OF     SCIENTIFIC     LITERATURE,     SMITHSONIAN 
INSTITUTION.   inOT. 


Appropriation  by  Congress  for  the  Oucal  year  endlnj;  June  30,  1907, 
"  For  the  cooiwratlon  of  the  United  States  In  the  work  of  the  Inter- 
national Catalogue  of  Scientific  Literature,  Inclndlng  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  classified  Index  catalogue  of  American  scientific  publica- 
tions for  IncoriKtration  In  the  International  Catalogue,  the  expense 
of  clerk  hire,  the  purchase  of  necessary  books  and  periodicals,  and 
other  necessary  Incidental  expenses,  five  thousand  dollars,  the 
same'to  be  expended  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution"  (sundry  civil  act,  June  30.  1006) $5,000.00 

DIBBDBSBUeNTS, 

Salaries  or  compensation : 

1  chief  assistant,  at  flSi  and  «I50 *1,  675.00 

1  clasaifier.  at  $90 1,080.00 

Iclasslfier,  at  ?75- 128.70 

1  clerk,  at  $125 54.17 

1  clerk,  at  $25.  $30,  and  fOO 512.50 

1  clerk,  at  $30  and  $50 250.00 

1  cataloguer,  at  $60 191.00 

1  cataloguer,  at  $00 „. .  230.84 


BEPOHT  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE.  XXZVII 

Salaries  or  coiiip«nsatiaii — ^'-oDtlnued. 

1  cataloguer,  at  $40. »40.00 

1    typewriter,  at  ?B0 „       58.33 

1    typewriter,  at  JBO 14!>.f)ft 

1  copyist,  at  ¥30 5.00 

1  messenger  boy,  at  J25 100.00 

Total  salaries  or  com peDsatlon _ $4,475.58 

General  expenses: 

Boobs _ 80.19 

Furniture  and  fixtures lUD.tlt) 

Postage,  telephone,  and  telegrapli  ...       .  'M.2!> 

Stationery .  ,_  ._,._._  (Ct.Tti 

SupplieK _  _     _     __     .     <K>.«n 

— 403.48 

Total  dlRbursementii __ -.  $4,87B.O0 

Balance  July  1,  1907.   120.94 

RUIN  Of  TASA  'JR.tNDE.  ARIZONA,  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION.  1907. 
BKCRIPT8. 

Appropriation  by  Congress  for  ttie  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1907. 
"For  protection  of  Cssa  Grande  niln,  In  Pinal  County,  near  Flor- 
ence, Ariz.,  and  for  excavation  on  tbe  reservation,  to  be  expended 
iinder  the  supervision  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Instltn- 
tlun,  tbree  thousand  dollars"  (snndry  civil  act,  June  30.  1901!)...  f3.000.00 


Building  supplies,  subsistence,  etc $632.17 

Labor,  team  hire,  etc _    2,007.80 

Travel  and  Held  ex|»eiisesi 29ft.ri0 

Total    disbursements. _    2,fli)fl,47 

Balance  July  1.  1007 _ .53 

FURNITURE   AND  FIXTURES.    NATIONAL   MUSEUM.    1!M)7. 


Appropriation  by  Cjingreas  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 
1007.  "For  cases,  furniture,  fixtures,  and  appliances  required  for 
the  exhibition  and  safe-keeping  of  the  collections  of  the  National 
Museum,  Including  salaries  or  compensation  of  all  necessary 
employees"  sundry  civil  act,  June  30,  lOOG *20,00a00 


Salaries  or  compensattou : 

1  supeHntendent,  at  $186.06 _     .  .  $90!).90 

1  clerlt,   at  $110 1,320.00 

1  shop  foreman,  at  $90 1,080.00 

4  carpenters,  at  $85 3.145.00 

1  carpenter,  at  $3.35  per  day 137.35 

1  carpenter,  at  $3Ji5  per  day..- _.  81.25 

1  painter,  at  $70  and  $76 822.60 

2  pttlatera,  at  f75 271.25 


..Google 


ZXXTni  EBPORT   OP  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE. 

Salaries  or  compenBatioD— Cootluued. 

1  painter's  belper,  at  $5S  and  ¥70. (832.00 

1  akflled  laborer,  at  $100 800.00 

1  skilled  laborer,  at   J«r> CW.OO 

1  workmao,   at  $5.1 060.00 

6  laborers,  at  $1JW  per  day -18.00 

Total  salaries  or  coDipenaution $10,847.81 

Qeneral  ex  pen  see : 

Drawers,  trafs.  boxes. 2,057.80 

Frames,    etc 28.711 

Glass    5a2.(» 

Hardware -  4S8.81 

Tools    4fl.03 

riotb    - 6.38 

Luiober    1,0flG.7» 

Paints,   oils.    Ptp 210.13 

Office  and  ball   fiirnlturp.  eti; 1,083.11 

Flour    4.80 

Paper 30.30 

.S[)eclat    HPrvkfw .    OS.TiO 

Total  geiieml  ex|iPii»eB 5,009.85 

Total  dlsbursenieiirM $10,507.66 

Balance  July  1,  1007 3.492.34 

FUBNITUHE  ANH  FIXTrURS,   NATIONAL  MUSKUM,   IROO. 

Balance  July  I,  lOOC,  as  per  last  re[H>rt- _ $2,050.98 


G^ieral  expenses : 

Cloth,  cotton,  etc „ $3.00 

Drawers,  trays,  boxes,  etc _  34T.  18 

Glass  jars 2ia23 

Hardware 77.35 

Lumber 281.10 

Office  and  ball  furniture 344.70 

Paints,  oils,  etc ll.TS 

Storage  cases  SI5.65 

Total  dlsborBenientsi —     2,246.05 

Balance  July  1.  1907 410.93 

FURNITURE  AND  FIXTfRES,   NATIONAL  MISBVM.   1905. 
SECEIPTS. 

Balance  July  1,  1900,  as  per  last  report $88.68 

Disbursements,  none. 
Balance 88.68 

Balance  carried,  under  provisions  of  Rerlsed  Statutes,  section  3091,  by  tbe 
Treasury  Department  to  tbe  credit  of  the  surplus  fund,  June  30,  1907. 


>ogle 


BBPOBT  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE   COMMITTEE.  XXXIZ 

HBATINQ  AND  LIOBTINQ,  NATIONAL  MUBBUM,   IMT. 


Appropriation  by  CongresB  for  the  flacal  year  ^dlng  June  30,  1907, 
"  For  expeneeB  of  heating,  lighting,  electrical,  tel^crapblc,  and 
telephonic  eerrlce  for  the  National  Museum  "  (sundry  cItII  act, 
June  30,  1906) ll^OOaoO 

aiSBUBSBUEMIS. 

Salaries  or  compeneation : 

1  engineer,  at  J125 ¥l,50aOO 

1  telephone  operator,  at  |70 821.88 

1  telephone  operator,  at  11.50  per  day 66. 75 

1  fireman,  at  |60 720.00 

1  blacksmith,  at  $60 _   , ^  780.00 

1  steam  fitter,  at  $80 ..  .  960.00 

1  plumber's  assistant,  at  $65 _  777.88 

1  skilled  laborer,  at  $1«0.- 'SOO.OO 

1  skUled  laborer,  at  $80  and  $4  per  day..  986. 00 

1  skilled  laborer,  at  $80 80.00 

2  laborers,  at  $46 l.OSaOO 

3  electrician's  helpers,  at  $2.60  i)er  day...  166.26 

Total  salaries  or  compensation $8, 178. 16 

Oenerol  expenses: 

Coal  and  wood 4, 678. 17 

Blectrlcal  supplies— 674.54 

Electricity 1, 552. 13 

Gas 301. 83 

Heating  supplies 198,  77 

Bent  of  call  boxes 110.00 

Special  eenlces 190.00 

Tel^rams- - 6.26 

Telephones 380. 34 

7.008.04 

Total  disbursements 16, 176. 20 

Balance  Jnly  1.  1907„- 1.823.80 

BSATINO  AND  LIGHTING,  NATIONAL  HDBBITM.  IBOS. 

BECKiprs. 

Balance  Jnly  1,  1906,  as  per  last  report $1, 306.  TO 

DisBCBSBUEirra. 
General  expenses: 

Advertlshig $8.10 

Electrical    supplies. 389.58 

Electricity 132.59 

Gas  37. 40 

Heating  suppUes 303.65 

Bent  of  call  boxes 10.00 


..Google 


XL  BBPOBT  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE  COUMITTEE. 

General  axpoiaes — Continued. 

Telegrams M.18 

Telepbones 144.92 

Special  services 122.00 

Total  dlaburaemeDta 91,162.37 

Balance  July  1,  1907 244.38 

HEATING    AND    LIGHTING.    NATIONAL    Ml'RRCM,    1006. 
BECEIPTB, 

Balance  July  1, 1906,  as  per  laxt  reitort _ „-  $81.02 

Disbursements,  non?. 
Balance   - - - 81.02 

Balance  carried,  under  provisions  ol  Rfvlsetl  Stntutex,  section  3391.  by  the 
Treasury  Department  to  tbe  credit  of  tbe  surplus  fund.  June  30,  1907. 


PBB8BRVATI0N    OF   COLLECTIONS.    NATIONAL    MUSEUU.    190T. 


Appropriation  by  ConKress  Tor  tbe  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 1907, 
"  For  continuing  tbe  preaervatlon,  exhibition,  and  Increase  of  tbe 
collections  from  tbe  surveying  and  exploring  expeditions  of  the 
Oovemment,  and  from  other  sonrces,  Including  salaries  or  com- 
pensation of  all  neceasarj-  employees,  nnd  all  other  necosHnrj- 
expenses,  $180,000,  of  which  jium  ¥r),riOO  may  be  used  for  neces- 
sary drawings  and  lUustratlous  for  publlcatlona  of  the  National 
Museum"  (sundry  civil  act,  June  30.  iflOfi) $180,000.00 


Salaries  or  compensation : 
Scientific  and  administrative  stafT — 
1  assistant  secretary,  at  $258.33  and 

$333.33  $3,399.96 

1  administrative  assistant,  at  $291.00.  3,490.92 
3  bead  curators,  at  $291.66 10,339.3S 

2  curators,  at  $200 3,966.67 

1  associate  curator,  at  $200 2.400.00 

1  curator,  at  $100 840.00 

6  assistant  curators,  nt  $ieO_J 7,  808. 83 

2  assistant  curators,  jit  $143. 3;i 3,439.92 

1  assistant  curator,  ut  $130 1.560.00 

2  assistant  curufors,  at  $12<i.«0 3,030.84 

2  assistant  curators,  at  $125 1,562.50 

1  assistant     curator,     at   $100     nnd 

$116.66 1,291.63 

2  assistant  curators,  at  $110 2,D74.00 

1  assistant  curator,  at  $93.33 1,119.06 

1  second  assistant  curator,  at  $110_..  1,320.00 

1  chief  of  division,  at  $200 2,  400.00 

1  editor,  at  $167— 2,OW.0O 

1  editorial  assistant,  at  $133^3. 1,  mm.  1)6 

1  registrar,  at  $187 2,0(tt.00 


..Google 


REPOBT  OF   THE   EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE. 

Halaries  or  compensat  loo— Con  tin  tied. 

Rcleatlflc  and  admlnUtratlve  staff— cnntlniied. 

1  dlBbUTElQK agent,  at  $12S $1,600.00 

1  aBSlHtaat  librarian,  ut  $13^X1 1.&90.90 

1  aid,  at  W15 1, 367. 00 

1  aid,  at  »100 1,200.00 

1  aid,  at  $85 1, 020. 00 

2  aids,  at  $83.33 1,961.03 

2  aide,  at  $75. .._ 1.800.00 

4  alda,  at  (00 -..  2.306.00 

1  aid,  at  W' ---     000.00 

1  assletaat.  at  fltit    lUi.OO 

$6»,esj.E 

Preparatora — 

3  pltotograptier.  at  $17,''i _  2,100.00 

1  pliotagrapl)li- assistant,  ni  $.'•))  4S0.  UU 

1  clilef  taxidermist.  Ht  f12r>.  1. 000.00 

1  taxldenulst.  ut  $100 1.200.00 

1  taslderiulKt.  nt  $«0_-    ■  720.0*) 

1  taxldenulBt  appn>Dt)iv.  iit  $2r>_  :tOO.  00 

1  modeler,  at  $100 1.200.00 

1  osteologist,  at  $m) _  .           _  1.060.00 

1  preparatur.  ut  |12.''i _  UTiOO.OO 

1  preparator.  ut  $100 _  _  1,200.00 

1  preparator.  nt  |9.'i _.  001, 17 

1  preparator,  at  $90 1.080,00 

1  preparator,  at  $W- „.  34G.U7 

1  preparator,  at  $8.1 _  1.020.00 

1  preparator,  at  $80 iWO.OO 

1  preparator,  at  $70 11,«7 

1  preparator,  ut  $«0 720.00 

2  preparatory,  at  $50 20i>,17 

1  preparator,  at  $45 535.50 

1  preparator,  ut  $!0__ 237,33 

2  preparators,  at  $25 301.67 

1  preparator,  at  $2JW  i>er  day 340.00 

1  asslstaut  preparator.  nt  $45_ 539. 25 

1  custodian,  at  $25 150.00 

1  dasslfler,  at  $100 --     .  1.200.00 

1  recorder,  at  $75 800.00 

1  recorder,  at  $70 840.00 

1  cataloguer,  at  $75 115.00 

1  cataloguer,  at  $60— 720.00 

1  cataloguer,  at  $00  and  $66.(a( 74*[.Ot 

1  catalogtier,  at  $50 331.05 

— 2.S,594.t 

Clerical  staff— 

1  flnance  clerk,  at  $135 --  1.620.00 

1  property  clerk,  at  $100 1.200.00 

1  document  clerk,  at  $55 000.00 

1  clerk,  at  $125 - 1,054.17 

1  clerk,  at  $116.66 — 633.85 

2  clerks,  at  $100 1.850.00 

1  clerk,  at$K 1,017.17 

4  clerks,  at  $80 3,492.6? 

8  clerks,  at  $76 2,700.00               '    ' 


..Google 


XLII  BEPORT   OF   THE    EXECUTIVE   rOMSHTTEB, 

Salaries  or  compensatioD— Contloued. 
Clerical  atafC — Continued. 

1  clerk,  at  $70 $840.00 

1  clerk,  Bt  $65—- 780.00 

4  clerks,  nt  $60 _.  2,013.00 

2  clerks,  at  $50 051.07 

1  clerk,  at  $35 _,_ 420.00 

2  clerks,  at  $1.75  per  day 9B..S8 

1  clerk  aod  typewriter,  at  $7B_.- SWO.OO 

1  clerk  andpreparal(ir.at$0Onnil$<>.''>_  747.50 

1  botanical  aRslstniit.  at  $T.'i 251.25 

1  Btenograplier.  at  $175 _  2.100.00 

1  stenographer,  at  $00 _  (182.60 

1  stenofcraplier.  at  $.s.l.n;!     __         .  264.911 

1  stenographfr,  iii  $.'i'i  _. 100.00 

1  BteuographtT    anil     t.viwwrlter.     iit 

$100 1.200.00 

4  stenOKraplitTR   ami    t.viM'ivrlterM,   ul 

$7r> 1.421.21 

5  steiioBra pliers   auil    ty|><'«TlIerK,    nt 

$60 -   SOT.-'iO 

2  steni>i:rH|ihers  anil    tyite writers,   nt 

too : 179.90 

4  tyix-wrllern.  at  $60 .126.00 

7  typewriters,  at  $5» 1,238.33 

1  Imtanlcal  clerk,  nt  $.'i<» —  -  427.33 

1  messenger,  at  $35 _ 79.33 

1  messenger,  nt  $.tO 300.00 

1  messenger,  ut  $2.'; 7.50 

$30,121.."^ 

Buildings  and  labor^ 

1  captain  of  watch,  at  «KI 1,080.00 

2  lieutenants  of  walcli,  nt  570__ l.GSO.OO 

1  watchman,  at  $05 7SO.00 

24  watchmen,  at  $00 l.^eiMi.OO 

4  watchmen,  at  $5r> 1.084.09 

1  s|>eclal  watcbnian,  at  $.1  per  day-  .  21. 00 

lapeclal  watchman,  ut  $2  r>er  ilny —  14.00 

Iforeman,  at  $75 000.00 

1  workman,  nt  $50 _ 591.06 

Iskllled  laborer,  at  ffiO 266.00 

Iskllled  laborer,  at  ^•Tt —  .  660.00 

3  skilled  laborers,  at  $.™ 951.67 

iskllled  lalKirer,  at  $45 396.00 

3  skilled  laborers,  at  $40 541.66 

68kllled   laborers,  at  $30_ 1,977.50 

3  skilled  laborers,  at  $->.". ^ 405.00 

2  skilled  laborers,  at  $l..'^i  [tor  day...  512,50 

Iclasslfled  lalK>rer.  at  $iai 120.00 

2classlfled  laborers,  at  $47 705.01) 

1  laborer,  at  $47 664.00 

10  laborers,  at  $40 7,495.32 

21aborers,  at  $35 710,83 

4laborerB.  at  $1,50  per  day 111.00 

2  iHljorere,  at  $1  per  day 46.00 


..Google 


BEPOBl  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE   COMMIITBE. 


SaJarice  or  compensation— Coot Inned. 

Buildings  and  labor— <'oti tin ut4. 

n  cleaners,  at  $3ri.  . 

-     $2.MT.83 

1  attendant,  at  *4» 

50.67 

lattendant,  at  $:«• 

.'i46.50 

1  attendant,  at  $1.25  per  Oay 

226.25 

1  seaiuBtress.  at  *1.50  i>er  .lay 

21.00 

$40. 591. 48 

" 

16.S.  989.38 

General  expenses; 

UrnwInKs  and  illiiHtmtlonfi _. 

_     i,r^.tio 

FrelgUt  and  cartnce 

-      1.016,12 

Special  serylceM _     

.       1.04».81 

Stationery -  -         

iHKI.  ti!* 

Supplier .__  ...._     _.. 

_       4.  2(W.  m 

Travellns!  exix-iiKex  ^- 

_       1,170.  (Ml 



12. 320.  SI 

Total  dlBbumeiuentH ___  $176,310.19 

Balance  July  1,  1007 _., 3.0851.81 

I'riESERVATlON  nv  CfH .LECTION'S,  NATIONAL  HIIRBITM.  IIMW. 


Balance  Jnly  1,  lOOC.  as  per  Iniit  report J4.158.60 

By  disallowance  In  voucher  No.  291 ,10 


Drawings  and  lIluBtratloas „ g221.  7S 

Freight  and  cartage 273.34 

Special  services 130.41 

Speclmena  -.- - 939.57 

Stationery _ 327.56 

Supplies  ^ 1,191.05 

Traveling  expenses 49,80 

Total  dlaliiirsenients ,     3,133.51 

Balance  July  1.  1!H>7 _     1.025.19 

PEESEBVATIO-V  Of  COLLECTIONS.  NATIONAL  MUSEUM,  IfKir.. 

Balance  July  1,  IIKW.  na  |)er  last  report $571.30 

DISHtlUSEMENTS. 

(ieneral  expenses : 

Freight *0.2.'* 

Special  sen-ices .52 

Specimens  36.70 

Total  dlsbureements 30.47 

Balance 5.34.8:1 

Balance  carried,  under  provisions  of  Eevlsed  Statutes,  section  3091,  by  the 
Treasury  Department  to  the  credit  of  the  surplus  fund,  June  30,  1907.   i^>na|c 


BEPORr  OP  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE. 
BOOKS,  NATIONAL  UU8SUM.  IMT. 


Appropriation  by  Coagreas  for  tti«  QBcal  year  ending  June  30,  1907. 
"For  purcbaee  of  booka,  pamphlets,  and  periodicals,  for  reference 
in  the  National  Muaeum  "  (Buudr?  civil  act.  June  30. 1906) $2,  000.0 


Books,  pamphlets,  and  perlodicols 658.30 

Balance  July  1.  11W7 _._    1.341.71' 

BOOKa  NATIONAL  MISKI'M.   llllMi. 

Balanc-e  July  1.  IfWd.  iik  per  last  iT|«>rl J737.82 

IHSBfKSEMKNTS. 

Bo»liB,  pamptilels,  and  perlodirals . 679.13 

Balance  Jnly  I.  1!(07-     ., _       58,69 

BOOKS.  NATIONAL  MI'SRI'M.   IWl.'.. 

Balance  July  1,  IQOfi.  na  iter  Inct  reiN)rt 960.27 

BookR  and  perlmllralB , __  M.M 

Balance _._  .     ._       0,74 

Balance  carried,  under  provisions  of  Itovlspil  Stntiiles.  section  3r^*1.  iiy  tlie 
Treasury  Department  to  ttie  credit  of  tLe  siirplns  fund.  June  .10,  1007. 

BDILUING    REPAIRS.    NATIONAL   MISELM.    IWT. 
BMKIITS. 

Appropriation  by  Congress  for  tUe  Becnl  year  ending  Juue  30,  190T, 
"  For  repairs  to  bnlldlngs,  shops,  and  sheds.  Niillnnnl  Musoiini.  Eii- 
clndlng  nil  necessary  latter  and  material "  (sundry  civil  iict.  June 
30.1006) *15, 000.00 

Salaries  or  comi>ensati('u : 

1  BUtieriDteiident.  at  *l(!G.6(i ?!>9(l.96 

1  foreman,  at  ?iKI l.OSO.OO 

1  carpenter,  at  ?8.'i ftso.OO 

2  painters,  at  J75 —  H2.a0 

2  tinners,  at  ?70 S.S1I.00 

1  elasBlfled  laborer,  at  $60 ^ 600.00 

1  skilled  laborer,  at  ?60  and  JSO-..^ 670.00 

1  skilled  laborer,  at  $1.75  per  day 3.50 

1  skilled  laborer,  at  fl.BO  per  day 102.00 

1  laborer,  at  $45- 540.00 

5  lattorerB,  at  $150  per  day 280.50 

Total  aataricB  or  compensation 6,086.«_,  ib.Gooy Ic 


REPORT  OP  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE.  XLV 

Geoeral  expenses : 

Cloth $24.81 

Fireproof  blocks,  i^eiueiit,  plHster.  bricks 460.54 

Gtaas — 60.93 

Hardware  and  tubis 18B.87 

Lumber _  1S9.30 

Paints,  oils,  brushes,  etc 373.43 

PlnmblDg  material  — _ 27.07 

Plastering 103.00 

Re]>alrs  to  roofs  (by  tontrinl) CS02.00 

Sectional  ladders,  etc. 35. 00 

Special  senlces 2.00 

Steel  beams -_  S.55 

$8,283.00 

Total  disbursements '— -  $14.3fl0.4« 

Balance  July  1.  liiOT .. 630.64 

fiUILUINU    UEl'AlItiJ.   N.^'rlONAL  MUtfUUM.    lUOU. 


Balance  July  1,  IIKKJ,  an  iht  liisi  ri'iK.rt- $4,793.48 

DISBURSE  UENTS. 

(ipueral  cx|>eanes: 

Hardware,  etc $5.70 

l.liue.  sand,  etc 2.85 

I'aiiits,  oils,  etc 13.  or. 

Kcimlrs  to  ro<)f8  <by  itHitniil ) 4,«65.00 

Total  dlsburseuieuts 4,687.50 

Balance  July  1,  1007 108.98 

BUILDING   KEfAIHS.   N.VTIONAL  UUSEUM.    11)05. 

Balance  Jnly  1.  1006,  as  per  laot  rPi>ori - $307.59 

Dlsbnrsements,  none. 
Balance _„ — _-.    307.  fi9 

Baluuce  carried,  under  provlxlons  of  tbe  Kim  iMtnl  Statutes,  section  361U,  by  the 
■   Treasnry  Department  to  the  credit  of  the  sundns  fund,  June  30,  1907. 

POSTAGE.    NATIONAL   MUSEUM.    1907. 
RECEIfTB. 

Appropriation  by  ConKress  for  the  Qscal  year  endlQK  June  30,  1907, 
"  For  postage  stamps  and  foreign  postal  cards  for  tbe  National 
Mueeum"  (sundry  dvll  act,  June  30, 1906) -  $500.00 

DISBUBSEMENTS. 

For  postage  stamps  and  cards _,—    500,00 

l,,,_,dbyC_.OOQlC 


.oogk 


HEPOKT  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE. 
BBNT  OF  W0SE8H0P8.   NATIONAL   HUSEUU,   1907. 


Appropriatlnn  b^  Comtms  for  the  fiscal  rear  ending  June  30.  190T. 
"  For  rent  of  workeliops  and  teini>orary  storage  quarters  for  the 
National  Museum  "  (BUndr?  civil  act,  June  30, 1906) $4,580.00 


Bent  of  worliBbope : 

431  Ninth  street  southwest,  12  months,  nt  (ItiR.fiO $1.<H>9.92 

217  Seveuth  street  southwest,  12  niosths.  nt  $105 1, 2B0.00 

aon  and  313  Tenth  street  aouthwcxt.  12  months,  at  ^180.        n«0. 00 
915  Virginia  avenue  (rear),  12  mouths,  at  $30 300.00 

Total  disbursements 4,579.92 

Balance  July  1,  1907. ' .08 

RENT  OF  WORKBUOI'S.   NATIONAL   MUSEUM.   1906. 


Balance  July  1,  lOOC,  as  per  last  reiwrt fO.OS 

Disbursements,  none. 
Balance  July  1,  1907 .08 

BENT  OF  WOnKSHOl'S.  NATIONAL  MUSEUM.  IfK).-. 
BECEIPTS. 

Balance  July  1,  1!K)«,  as  |ht  Inst  report fO.OR 

DisbursemeDts.  none. 
Balance  .OS 

Balaoce  carried,  under  provisions  of  Revised  Statutes,  sectiou  3691.  by  the 
Treasury  Department  to  the  credit  of  the  surplus  fund,  June  30,  1907. 


Balance  July  1.  190C  as  |)er  last  re|>ort $1, 

Disbursements,  none. 
Balance  _  ._  1, 

Balance  carried,  under  provisions  of  Revised  Statutes,  section  36D1, 
Treasury  Department  to  the  credit  of  the  surplus  fund,  March  3,  1907. 

AND  BINDING.  1907. 


Appropriation  by  Congress  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30.  1907, 
"  For  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  for  printing  and  binding  the 
annual  reports  of  the  Board  of  Regents,  with  general  upiiendixes, 
$10,000;  under  tlie  Smithsonian  Institution,  for  the  annua]  reports 
of  the  National  Museum,  with  general  appendixes,  and  for  the 
Annual  Report  of  the  American  Historical  Association,  and  for 
printing  labels  and  blanks,  and  tor  tlie  Bulletins  and  FroceedingH  of 


HEPORT  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE.  XLVn 

tbe  National  Museum,  tbe  edltlous  of  wblcli  shall  not  exceed  4,000 
copies,  and  binding.  In  balf  turkej  or  material  cot  more  espenrive, 
sclttitlflc  books  and  pampblets  presented  to  and  acquired  by  tbe 
National  Museum  Library,  $39,000;  for  the  annual  reports  and 
bulletins  of  tbe  Bureau  of  American  Etbuolog;,  $21,000;  in  all, 
S70,000"  (sundry  civil  act,  June  30,  lOOfl) fTO.OOO.OO 

Reports  of  tbe  Board  of  Regents _ J8. 127.118 

Reports    and    Bulletin  a    of    tbe    Bureau    nf    American 

Ethnology   19,«31.76 

National  Museum: 

Reports  190O  and  1900 $3,502.72 

Bulletins   m,  134.63 

Proceedings _ _    IS,  960. 25 

Miscellaneous  blanks 053.58 

Miscellaneous  binding 1, 004, 33 

Brancb  Printing  Office Ml.OS 

National    Herbarium 5, 122. 94 

Report  American  Historical  Association. _    4,761.34 

■  —  ■  :t8, 980. 47 

Total  disborsements IMJ,  940.21 

Balance  July  1.  1007 , 3,050.79 

NATIONAL  ZOOI.OIjrCAl.   I'AHK.    1!K)7. 


AppTopHflttnn  by  Confrnffl  for  tbo  fiscal  yciir  ciHlIng  Junp  :«i,  1907, 
"  For  continuing  tlie  construction  of  minis,  walks,  bi'lilgus,  water 
Hiipply,  sewerage,  and  drainage:  ami  for  grading,  jilanting.  and 
otherwise  Improving  the  grounds;  erecting  and  reiHiirtng  build- 
ings and  inclosures:  care,  subsistence,  purchnse.  and  transporta- 
tion of  animals;  Including  salaries  or  com|>eneatlou  of  all  neces- 
sary employees,  tbe  purchase  of  necessary  books  and  |>erlodlcala, 
tbe  printing  and  publishing  of  o|>eratlons,  not  exceeding  1.500 
copies,  and  general  incidental  expenses  not  otherwise  provided  for. 
Including  purchase,  maintenance,  and  driving  of  horses  and 
vehicles  required  for  official  puriwscM,  JSKI.OOO"  (sundry  civil  act, 
June  30.  190t!) -   $95,000.00 


Salaries  or  compensation : 

1  superintendent,  at  $2To  Iter  niontb $:t,:(00.00 

I  assistant  superintendent  at  $16G.tH)  [>er 

month 1,90!P,92 

1   clerk,  at  fl2r)  i)er  month 1,012.50 

1  clerk,  at  $125  per  month L.'KIO.OO 

1  stenographer,  at  $S3.33  per  month 990.96 

1  messenger,  at  $l!0.  and  as  copyist,  at  $110 

per  month 570.00 

1  messenger  boy.  at  $30  per  month 71.00 

1  messenger  boy,  at  $30  per  month 16.00 


.y  Google 


ZLVIII  EEPOBT  OF  THE   EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE. 

Salaries  or  compeoBatlou — Continued. 

1  meaaenger  boy,  at  ?1  per  day $47.00 

1  bead  keeper,  at  $12B  per  month 1,  BOO.  00 

11  keepers,  at  ^60  per  month 8,303.67  ■ 

2  keepers,  at  »62.60  per  montli _.,  1,500.00 

2  keepers,  at  $80  per  month 1.438.00 

1  storekeeper,  at  $6G  per  month _-  780,00 

1  sergeant  of  watcb,  at  $80  per  nioittli..,  720.00 

1  watchman,  at  $65  per  month 7S0.00 

8  watchmen,  at  $60  per  month 2,160.00 

1  messenger,  at  $46  per  raonth.  and  as 

watchman,  at  $50  per  month 585.00 

1  attendant,  at  $22J50  per  month 270.00 

1  attendant,  at  75  cents  per  day —  14.25 

Total  salaries  or  coniiiensHtinn $27,6B6.3< 

Qeferal  expenses: 

Buildings 1,.'(02.08 

Building  material 1.52B.I5 

Fencing,  cage  muterlnl.  ctr ,    -  U0B.4S 

Food  lor  animals ,  ]il72.30 

Freight. 37(1.42 

Fuel 1.!>84.43 

Ughtlng 28.  »3 

Lumber 1. 121. 19 

Machinery,  tcmis,  etc 046.82 

Mlscellaneonx 1,  :106. 72 

Paints,  oils,  glasH,   etc lil.3.13 

I'ostagp,  telephone,  nnd  teteKmpli 210.90 

rurchftBe  of  animals ;I,I)21.4U 

Road  material  and  grading 1,102.05 

Stationery,  books,  etc _.  262.74 

Travel  ana  Held  expenses 203.44 

Trees,  plants,  ot.0 30.45 

Water  supply,  sewerage,  etc 345.73 

Total   miscellaneous 27,816,35 

Wages  of  mechanics  and  laliorers  and  hire 
of  teams  In  constructing  biilliilngx  mid  in- 
closures.  laying  water  pipes,  building  roudr', 
gutters,  and  walks,  planting  trees,  and 
otherwise  Improving  the  grounds: 

1  machinist,  at  $100  per  month 1,200.00 

Iforeman.  at  $T7i  per  month 000.00 

1  blacksmith,  at  $3  per  day  and  $65  per 

month 686.00 

1     assistant     blacksmith,     at     $60     |>er 

month 72a  00 

1  tinner,  at  $3.50  per  day... ^_  178.60 

1  carpenter,  at  $86  per  month 1,020.00 

1  carpenter,  at  $3  per  day 40.50 

1  painter,  at  $3  per  day 110.25 

2  clasBlQed  laborers,  at  $65  per  month...  1,660.00 
1  classlfled  laborer,  at  $60  per  month 72a  00 


..Google 


JtBPOBI  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE.  XLIX 

Wages  of  mecbaolcs  and  laborers,  etc. — Contiaued. 

3  classified  laborers,  at  f2  per  day. $2,020.00 

1  clasBtned  laborer,  at  fl.75  per  day 631.75 

4  skilled  laborers,  nt  il-lH  per  day 280.90 

1  workmaQ,  at  JC5  per  month _  780.00 

2  laborers,  at  $55  per  month 1,307.18 

1  laborer,  at  $45  per  month 516.01 

1  laborer,  at  $40  per  month 444.00 

1  laborer,  at  $2.25  per  day 703.13 

2  laborers,  at  *2  per  day— __ 1,40B.00 

3  laborers,  at  $2  per  day 2,046.00 

16  laborers,  at  $1,75  per  day 0,442.68 

39  laborers,  at  $1.50  per  day 6,286.98 

1  laborer,  at  $1  per  day 224.38 

8  helpers,  at  76  cents  per  day 374.00 

2  water  boys,  at  50  cents  i)er  day 63.39 

2  wagons  and  teams,  at  $3.50  per  day...  1,005.39 

8  horses  and  carts,  at  $1.75  per  day 634. 40 

Total  wages  of  mechanics,  etc _ $31,274.53 

Total  disbursements $86,746.15 

Balance  July  1.  1907 S.  253. 85 

NATIONAL   ZOOLOGICAL    PABK,    1906, 

Balance  July  1,  1006,  as  per  last  report $4,812.05 

DI SBUBSKU  ENTS. 

BoUdlngs — „ $310.20 

Bnlldlng  material— 830.91 

Fencing,  cage  material,  etc_-_ 12.50 

Food  for  animals 1,434.01 

Freight  and  transportation  of  animals 1,024.40 

Fuel —  .75 

Lighting .  _ 5.11 

Lumber _ .- 70.94 

Machinery,  tools,  etc. 18,40 

Miscellaneous lie.  10 

Paints,  oils,  glass,  etc _ 60.34 

Postage,  telephone,  aud  telegraph 70.93 

Pnrcbase  of  animals 10S.28 

Bead  material  and  grading - _-  48,68 

Stationery,  books,  printing,  etc 53.72 

Trees,  plants,  etc 3.20 

Water  snpply,  sewerage,  etc -- 56.72 

Total  dlBbursements 4,300,24 

511.81 
To  amount  of  disallowance  In  TOUchcr  No.  146 .90 

Balance  July  1,  1907 — 512.80 


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L  BBPOBT   OF  THE  EXECUTIVE   COMUITTEE. 

NATIONAL   ZOOLOQICAL   PARK.    1905. 

BalaDce  JnJy  1,  1906,  as  per  last  report ¥151.34 

DISBUBSKMENT6. 

SurreylDg.  plana,  etc 15O.O0 

balance — - 1.34 

Balance  carried,  under  provisions  of  Uevleed  Statutes,  section  3UU1,  by  tiie 
Treasury  Department  to  tbe  credit  of  the  surplus  fund,  Jnne  30,  190T. 

EEC  A  PI  TDLAT I  ON. 

Tbe  total  amount  of  funds  admlDistercd  by  tlie  Instltutloa  during  tbe  year 
ending  June  30,  1907,  appears  from  tbe  foregoing  statements  to  bave  Iteen  as 
follows : 

6UITH80NIAN    INSmiTTION. 

From  balance  July  1. 1906 - 510,184.13 

From  receipts  to  June  30,  1907 72, 303. 10 

$82, 547. 23 

APPBOPBIATIOKS  COMMITTED  BV  COKQKESB  TO  THE  CABE  OF  THE  INSTITimON. 

International  Kxchangos — Smltbsonlan  Institution: 

From  balance  of  llKC JO.OG 

From  balance  of  1006 905.95 

From  appropriation  for  WOT 28,800.00 

$20,  706. 01 

American  Etbnologj- — Sniltbsonian  Institution: 

From  balance  of  1»05 4.40 

From  balance  of  1000 —  622.28 

From  appropriation  for  1907 40,000.00 

4a  626.  68 

Astropbyslcal  Observatory— Smithsonian  Institution  : 

From  balance  of  1005 —  22.39 

From  balance  of  1906 2,246.08 

From  appropriation  for  1907 14,000.00 

16.208.47 

Inlemallonal  Catalogue  of  Scientific  I^lterature — l^niltb- 

soninn   Institution : 
From  appropriation  for  1907 _-_ _ r>,00i>.00 

Ruin  of  Caea  Grande.  Arizona — Smithsonian  Institution: 

From  appropriation  for  1907 3,000.00 

Furniture  and  fixtures — National  Mnsenui: 

From  balance  of  1005.. _ SS.«S 

From  balance  of  JOOfi 2,(K>6.98 

From  appropriation  for  1907 „.     20.000.0(» 

— 22, 745.  86 

Heating  and  lighting— National  Museum : 

From  balance  of  1905 _ 81.02 

Prom  tralance  of  1906 _._ __ 1,386.75 

From  appropriation  for  1907 18,000.00 

19.47T.77 


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REPORT  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE.  LI 

Preservation  of  collections — Nnllonal  Museum  ; 

From  balance  of  1905 $071.30 

From  balance  of  1906 4. 1SS.70 

From  appropriation  for  1907 1x0,000.00 

— — fl^.  730. 00 

Hooks — National  Museum : 

From  balance  of  1005 60.27 

From  balance  of  1908 737.82 

From  appropriation  for  1007 2,000.00 

2,798.00 

Building  repairs — National  Museum: 

From  balance  of  ItKMV 307.69 

From  balance  of  1!»C -      4.793.48 

From  appropriation  for  1SW7— 15.000.00 

20,101.07 

I'ofrtage — National  Museum: 

From  appropriation  for  190T-- 500.00 

Rent  of  workBhopB— National  Miiseuni: 

From  Imlonce  of  1005 .08 

From  biilance  of  1906„_ .08 

From  appropriation  for  1907 4,580,00 

4, 680. 16 

Trans|)ortatlon  of  exhibits  acqiilre<l  from  the  txinlslaun 

Purchase  Exposition — National  Museum: 

From  balance  of  appropriation _ 1,171.33 

Printing  and  binding— Smithsonian  Institution: 

From  appropriation  for  1907. __ _     70,000.00 

National  Zoological  Park; 

From  balance  of  UKH 101.a4 

From  balance  of  1906 4,812.05 

E'rom  appropriation  for  1!I07_ 95,000.00 

m.  963. 38 

SUMMARY. 

Smithsonian  Institution ¥82,547.23 

Intpniatlonal   Exchanges- _ 20,706.01 

American    Ethnology 40,626.68 

Aatropliyslcal  Observatory _.     16,268.47 

iQternatlonal  Catalogue  of  Scleiitlllc  I.lteniturc^ _ _.      5,000.00 

Kuln  ofCiisii  Grande,  Arizona 3,000.00 

National  Museum: 

Furniture  and  HitureH '_ $22,745.66 

Heating  and  lighting 19,477.77 

Preservation  of  collections 184,730,00 

Books  2,708.09 

Building   repairs 20,101.07 

Postage    500.00 

Rent  of  workshops— _ 4.680.16 

Transportation  of  exhibits  acquired  from  llic  I^ailal- 

ana  Pnrchase  Exposition 1,171.33 

256. 104. 08 

Printing  and  binding _ _ _._    70,000.00 

National  Zoological  Park 99,963.39 


003, 216.  SU 

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LII  BBPOBT  OP  THE  EXBCDTIVE  COMMITTEE. 

Btatement  of  regular  income  from  the  Smithsonian  fund  avattable  for  tue 
during  the  year  ending  June  SI),  1908. 

BftlBDCe  Jnoe  30,  1907 r-;4.5»2.  01 

Interest  due  and  receivable  July  1,  11)07 »28.247.0] 

Interest  due  and  receivable  January  1,  l!K)s -JiH,  347.  5fi 

Interest,  West  Shore  Railroad  bonds,  due  July  1,  11*07.  ^O.i)i( 

Interest,  West  Shore  Railroad  bonds,  ilue  January  1, 

1908 S40.UU 

58, 274.  57 

Total  available  for  year  ending  June  30,  1908 82.860.  Sis 

Respectfully  submitted. 

J.  B.  Henderson, 
Alexander  Graham  Bell, 
John  Dalzeu,, 

Executiw  Committee. 
Washington,  D.  C,  January  18, 1908. 


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ACTS  AND  EESOLUTIONS  OF  CONGRESS  RELATIVE  TO  THE 
SMITHSONIAN  INSTITDTION,  ETC. 

(CoDtlDUFd  from  prevlauB  rpporta.] 


(Pltlj-DiDtb   Congress.   secoDd  Bes^on.] 


SMITHSONIAN    1N8T1TOTION. 


Resolved  hy  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled.  That  the  vacancy  in  the 
Board  of  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  of  the  class  other 
than  Members  of  Congress,  shall  be  filled  by  the  reappointment  of 
(ieorge  Gray,  a  citizen  of  Delaware,  whose  term  expired  January 
fourteenth,  nineteen  hundred  and  seven.  (Approved  January  21, 
liK)7;  Statutes,  XXXIV,  1419.) 

For  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  for  printing  and  binding  the 
Annual  Reports  of  the  Board  of  Regents,  with  general  appendixes, 
ten  thousand  dollars;  under  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  for  the 
Annual  Reports  of  the  National  Museum,  with  general  appendixes, 
and  for  printing  labels  and  blanks,  and  for  the  Bulletins  and  Pro- 
««dings  of  the  National  Museum,  the  editions  of  which  shall  not 
exceed  four  thousand  copies,  and  binding,  in  half  turkey  or  material 
not  more  expensive,  scientific  books  and  pamphlets  presented  to  and 
acquired  by  the  National  Museum  Library,  thirty-three  thousand 
dollars;  for  the  Annual  Reports  and  Bulletins  of  the  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnologj'.  twenty-one  thousand  dollars;  for  miscellaneous 
printing  and  binding  for  the  International  Exchanges,  two  hundred 
dollars;  the  International  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Literature,  one 
hundred  dollars;  the  National  Zoological  Park,  two  hundred  dollars; 
and  the  Astrophysical  Observatory  (including  the  publishing  of  re- 
sults of  researches,  not  exceeding  one  thousand  five  hundred  copies), 
two  thousand  dollars;  and  for  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Americiin 
Historical  Association,  seven  thousand  dollars;  in  all,  seventy-thive 
thousand  five  hundred  dollars.  (Approved  March  4,  1907;  Statutes, 
XXXrV,  1367.) 

Smithsonian  Deposit  f  Libbaht  of  CoNOKEee] :  For  custodian,  one 
thousand  five  hundred  dollars;  assistant,  one  thousand  four  hundred 


,G6?)glc 


LIV  ACTS  AND  RESOUITIONS  OF   rONOTlERa. 

(loiters;  messenger,  seven  hundred  and  twenty  dollars;  messenger  boy, 
three  hundred  and  sixty  dollars;  in  all,  three  thousand  nine  hundred 
and  eighty  dollars.  (Approved  February  26,  1907;  Statutes, 
XXXIV,  949.) 

INTERNATIONAL  EXCHANOES. 

For  expenses  of  the  system  of  international  exchanges  between  the 
United  States  and  foreign  countries,  imder  the  direction  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  including  salaries  or  compensation  of  all  neces- 
sary employees,  and  the  purchase  of  necessary  books  and  periodicals, 
thirty-two  thousand  dollars.  (Approved  March  4,  1907;  Statutes, 
XXXIV,  1310.) 

Naval  Observatory:  For  repairs  to  buildings,  fixtures,  and  fences, 
furniture,  gas,  chemicals,  and  stationery,  freight  (including  trans- 
mission of  public  documents  through  the  Smithsonian  exchange), 
foreign  postage,  and  expressage,  plants,  fertilizers,  and  all  contingent 
expenses,  two  thousand  five  hundred  dollars.  (Appn»ved  February 
2fi,  1907;  Statutes,  XXXIV,  971.) 

BtmEAl'  (IF  AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY. 

For  continuing  ethnological  researches  among  the  American  In- 
dians and  the  natives  of  Hawaii,  under  the  direction  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  including  salaries  or  compensation  of  all  neces- 
sary employees  and  tlie  purchase  of  necessary  books  and  periodicals, 
forty  thousand  dollars,  of  which  sum  not  exceeding  one  thousand  five 
hundred  dollars  may  be  used  for  rent  of  building. 

For  protection  of  Casa  Grande  Ruin,  in  Pinal  County,  near  Flor- 
ence, Arizona,  and  for  excavation  on  the  i-eservation,  to  be  expended 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, three  thousand  dollars, 

(Approved  March  4,  1907;  Statutes,  XXXIV,  1310.) 

For  American  Ethnology,  Smithsonian  Institution,  thirty-six  dol- 
lars and  ninety-nine  cents.  (Approved  March  4,  1907;  Statutes, 
XXXIV,  1403.) 

A8TROPIIY8ICAL  OBSERVATORY. 

For  maintenance  of  iVstrophysical  Observatory,  under  the  direction 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  inchuling  salaries  of  assistants,  the 
purchase  of  necessary  books  and  periodicals,  apparatus,  making  neces- 
sary observations  in  high  altitudes,  repairs  and  alterations  of  bnilil- 
ings  and  miscellaneous  expenses,  thirteen  thousand  dollars.  (Ap- 
proved March  4, 1907;  Statutes,  XXXIV,  1310.) 


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ACTS  AND  RESOLUTIONS  OF  C0N0BE8B.  LV 

INTERNATIONAL  CATALOOUE  OF   SCIENTIFIC   UTBBATURE. 

For  the  cooperation  of  the  United  States  in  the  work  of  the  Inter- 
national Catalogue  of  Scientific  Literature,  including  the  preparation 
of  a  classified  index  catalogue  of  American  scientific  publications  for 
incorporation  in  the  International  Catalogue,  the  expense  of  clerk 
hire,  the  purchase  of  necessary  books  and  periodicals,  and  other 
necessary  incidental  expenses,  five  thousand  dollars,  the  same  to  be 
expended  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution.     (Approved  March  4,  1907;  Statutes,  XXXIV,  1310.) 

NATIONAL   MnSEUH. 

For  completing  the  construction  of  the  building  for  the  National 
Museuna,  and  for  each  and  every  purpose  connected  with  the  same, 
one  million  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars :  Provided,  That 
if  the  superintendent  of  buildings  and  grounds.  Library  of  Congress, 
now  in  charge  of  the  construction  of  the  new  Museum  building  and 
the  disbursing  of  all  appropriations  made  for  the  work,  be  at  any 
time  incapacitated  to  continue  in  such  charge,  the  Board  of  Regents 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  is  hereby  empowered  to  take  charge 
of  the  construction  and  to  disburse  appropriations  made  for  the  same. 

For  cases,  furniture,  fixtures,  and  appliances  required  for  the  exhi- 
bition and  safe-keeping  of  the  collections  of  the  National  Museum,  in- 
cluding salaries  or  compensation  of  all  necessary  employees,  twenty 
thousand  dollars. 

For  expense  of  heating,  lighting,  electrical,  telegraphic,  and  tele- 
phonic service  for  the  National  Museum,  eighteen  thousand  dollars. 

For  continuing  the  preservation,  exhibition,  and  increase  of  the  col- 
lections from  the  surveying  and  exploring  expeditions  of  the  Govern- 
ment, and  from  other  sources,  including  salaries  or  conlpensation  of 
all  necessary  employees,  and  all  other  necessary  expenses,  one  hun- 
dred and  ninety  thousand  dollars,  of  which  sum  five  thousand  five 
hundred  dollars  may  be  used  for  necessary  drawings  and  illustrations 
for  publications  of  the  National  Museum. 

For  purchase  of  books,  pamphlets,  and  periodicals  for  reference  in 
the  National  Museum,  two  thousand  dollara 

For  repairs  to  buildings,  shops,  and  sheds,  National  Museum,  in- 
cluding all  necessary  labor  and  material,  fifteen  thousand  dollars. 

For  rent  of  workshops  and  temporary  storage  quarters  for  the 
National  Museum,  four  ^ousand  five  hundred  and  eighty  dollars. 

For  postage  stamps  and  foreign  postal  cards  for  the  National 
Museum,  five  hundred  dollars. 

(Approved  March  4,  1907;  Statutes,  XXXIV,  1311.) 


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LTI  ACTB  AND  REaOIJTTIONS  OF   CONQRESS. 

NATIONAL  ZOOLOGICAL    PARK. 

Fop  continuing  the  construction  of  roads,  walks,  bridges,  water 
supply,  sewerage  and  drainage ;  and  for  grading,  planting,  and  other- 
wise improving  the  grounds;  erecting  and  repairing  buildings  and 
inclosures;  care,  subsistence,  purchase,  and  transportation  of  animals; 
including  salaries  or  compensation  of  all  necessary  employees,  and 
general  incidental  expenses  not  otherwise  provided  for,  including  pur- 
chase, maintenance,  and  driving  of  horses  and  vehicles  required  for 
official  purposes,  ninety-five  thousand  dollars;  one  half  of  which  sum 
shall  be  paid  from  the  revenues  of  the  District  of  Columbia  and  the 
other  half  frwn  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States. 

For  reconstructing  and  repairing  roadways  and  walks,  (ifteeD  thou- 
sand dollars. 

(Approved  March  4,  1907;  Statutes,  XXXIV,  1311.) 

JAMESTOWN    TERCENTENNIAL   EXPOSrriON. 


That  April  twenty-sixth,  nineteen  hundred  and  seven,  is  hereby 
fixed  as  the  date  for  the  opening  of  said  celebration  inaugurated 
by  the  Act  of  Congress  approved  March  third,  nineteen  hundred  and 
five,  and  that  November  thirtieth,  nineteen  hundred  and  seven,  is 
hereby  fixed  as  the  date  for  the  closing  of  the  said  celebration,  and 
said  dates  shall  apply  to  the  participation  of  the  United  States  and 
foreign  countries  in  said  celebration  and  in  said  exposition,  as  pro- 
vided for  by  the  Acts  of  Congress  approved  March  third,  nineteen 
hundred  and  five,  and  June  thirtieth,  nineteen  hundred  and  six. 
(Approved  February  9,  1907;  Statutes,  XXXIV,  887.) 

AMENDMENTS  TO   GENERAL  PRINTING   ACT. 

*  •  •  Any  Executive  Department,  bureau,  board,  or  independent 
office  of  the  Government  submitting  reports  or  documents  in  re- 
sponse to  inquiries  from  Congress  shall  submit  therewith  an  esti- 
mate of  the  probable  cost  of  printing  to  the  usual  number.  Nothing 
in  tliis  paragraph  relating  to  estimates  shall  apply  to  reports  or 
documents  not  exceeding  fifty  pages. 

•  •  •  If  the  publication  so  ordered  be  an  annual  report  or 
serial  publication  originating  in  or  prepared  by  an  Executive  Departs 
nient,  bureau,  office,  commission,  or  board,  it  wliall  not  be  numbered  in 
the  document  or  report  series  of  either  House  of  Congress,  but  shall 
be  designated  by  title,  as  hereinafter  provided.  Of  alt  Department 
reports  required  by  law  to  be  printed,  the  usual  number  shall  be 
printed  concurrently  with  the  departmentAl  editioo. 

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ACTS  AND  BESOLUTIONS  OF   C0N0RB8S.  LVn 

*  *  *  In  the  binding  of  O>ngresaionai  iiumber<^d  documentii 
and  reports,  and  Departmental  publications  furnished  for  <listribu- 
tion  to  Stat«  and  Territorial  librarie,s  entitled  by  law  to  receive  thein, 
every  publication  of  sufficient  size  on  any  one  subject  shall  hereafter 
be  bound  separately,  and  receive  the  title  suggested  by  the  subject  of 
the  volume;  and  the  others,  if  of  a  general  public  character,  shall 
be  arranged  in  convenient  volumes  and  bound  in  a  maimer  as 
directed  by  the  Joint  Committee  on  Printing;  and  those  not  of  a  gen- 
eral public  character  shall  be  delivered  to  the  depositories  in  unbound 
form.     *     •     * 

That  in  the  printing  of  any  document  or  report,  or  any  publication 
authorized  by  law  to  be  printed,  or  hereafter  authorized  to  be  printed, 
for  distribution  by  Congress,  the  whole  number  of  copies  of  which 
shall  not  have  been  ordered  within  two  years  from  the  date  of  the 
original  order,  the  authority  to  print  shall  lapse,  except  as  orders  for 
suteequent  editions  may  he  approved  by  the  Joint  Committee  on 
Printing,  and  then  in  no  instance  shall  the  whole  number  exceed  the 
number  originally  authorized  by  law. 

(Approved  March  1,  1907;  Statutes,  XXXIV,  1013,  1014.) 


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REPORT 

SECRETARY  OF  THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTl 

CHARLES  D.  WALCOTT, 
FOR  THE  YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  2907. 


To  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution: 

Gentlemen  :  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  a  report  showing  the  oper- 
ations of  the  Institution  during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1907, 
including  the  work  placed  under  its  direction  by  Congress  in  the 
United  States  National  Museum,  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology, 
the  International  Exchanges,  the  National  Zoological  Park,  the  Astro- 
physical  Observatory,  the  Regional  Bureau  of  the  International 
Catalogue  of  Scientific  Literature,  and  the  excavations  on  the  Casa 
Grande  Eeservation. 

In  the  body  of  this  report  there  is  given  a  general  account  of  the 
affairs  of  the  Institution,  while  the  appendix  presents  a  more  detailed 
statement  by  those  in  direct  charge  of  the  different  branches  of  the 
work.  Independently  of  this  the  operations  of  the  National  Museum 
and  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  are  fully  treated  in  separate 
volumes.  The  scientific  work  of  the  Astrophysical  Observatory, 
covering  its  researches  for  the  past  five  years,  will  be  described  in 
Volume  II  of  the  Annals  of  the  Observatory. 

THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION. 

THE  ESTABLISHMENT. 

By  act  of  Congress  approved  August  10,  1846,  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  was  created  an  Establishment.  Its  statutory  members 
are  "  the  President,  the  Vice-President,  the  Chief  Justice,  and  the 
heads  of  the  Executive  Departments." 

As  organized  on  June  30,  1907,  the  establishment  consisted  of  the 
following  ex  officio  members : 

Theodore  Roosevelt,  President  of  the  United  States. 

Charles  W.  Fairbanks,  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 


.(Dgic 


2  ANNUAL  REPOKT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  19OT. 

Hblvili^  W.  Fuller,  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States. 

EuHD  Soot,  Secretary  of  State. 

Gboboe  B.  Cobt^lyou,  Secretary  of  Uie  Treamiry. 

William  H.  Tapt,  Secretary  of  War. 

Charles  J.  Bonapabte,  Attorney-General. 

George  von  L.  Meter,  Postmaster-General. 

Victor  H.  Metcalf,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

James  R.  Garfield,  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

Jahes  Wilson,  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

OscAB  S.  Stbaus,  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Lctbor, 

THE  BOARD  OF  REGENTS. 

The  Board  of  Regents  consists  of  the  Vice-President  and  the 
Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States  as  ex  officio  members,  three  mem- 
bers of  the  Senate,  three  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
and  six  citizens,  "  two  of  whom  shall  be  residents  of  the  city  of 
Washington,  and  the  other  four  shall  be  inhabitants  of  some  State, 
but  no  two  of  them  of  the  same  State." 

The  following  appointments  and  reappointments  of  Regents  were 
made  during  the  year :  By  appointment  of  the  Speaker,  December  3, 

1906,  Representative  James  R.  Mann  in  place  of  Representative 
R.  R.  Hitt,  deceased ;  by  joint  resolution  of  Congress  approved  Janu- 
ary 21,  1907,  the  Hon.  George  Gray  to  succeed  himself;  by  appoint- 
ment of  the  Vice-President  on  March  4,  1907,  Senator  S,  M.  Cullom 
and  Senator  A.  O.  Bacon  to  succeed  themselves.    On  January  23, 

1907,  the  Hon.  John  Dalzell  was  elected  a  member  of  the  executive 
committee  to  fill  the  vacancy  created  by  the  death  of  Mr.  Hitt. 

It  is  with  deep  regret  that  I  have  to  record  the  death  of  Repre- 
sentative Robert  R.  Hitt  on  September  20,  1906.  Mr.  Hitt  was  a 
member  of  the  Board  of  Regents  on  the  part  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives for  more  than  thirteen  years. 

The  membership  of  the  Board  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  was  as 
follows:  The  Hon.  Melville  W.  Fuller,  Chief  Justice  of  the  United 
States,  Chancellor;  the  Hon.  Charles  W.  Fairbanks,  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States;  Senator  S.  M.  Cullom;  Senator  Henry  Cabot 
Lodge;  Senator  A.-  O,  Bacon;  Representative  John  Dalzell;  Repre- 
sentative James  R,  Mann ;  Representative  W.  M.  Howard ;  Dr.  James 
B.  Angell,  of  Michigan;  Dr.  Andrew  D.  AVhile.  of  New  York;  the 
Hon.  J.  B.  Henderson,  of  Washington.  D.  C:  Dr.  A.  Graham  Bell, 
of  Washington,  D.  C;  the  Hon,  Richard  Olney,  of  Massachusette; 
and  the  Hon,  George  Gray,  of  Delaware. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Regents  held  March  12,  1903,  the 
following  resolution  was  adopted: 

Retolvei,  Tbat  Id  addition  to  tbe  prescribed  meeting  held  on  tbe  fourtta 
Wednesdajr  Id  Jannniy,  regular  meetlagEi  at  tbe  Board  aball  be  held  on  tbe 


BEPOBT   OF   THE   SECBETAST.  3 

Tnesday  after  tbe  first  Mondar  In  Oecember  and  on  tbe  6tb  da;  of  March, 
unless  tbat  date  falls  od  Sundar,  wbeo  tbe  following  Monda;  tbatl  be 
snbstltiited. 

In  accordance  with  this  resolution,  tbe  Board  met  on  Dumber  4, 
1906 ;  January  23,  1907,  and  March  6,  1907.  The  proceedings  of  the 
Board  at  these  meetings  will  be  found  in  its  annual  report  to 
Congress. 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

It  is  with  a  deep  sense  of  responsibility  that  I  have  assumed  the 
office  of  Secretary,  and  I  greatly  appreciate  the  honor  conferred  by 
the  Regents  in  electing  me  to  the  position.  Once  before,  as  acting 
assistant  secretary,  I  had  administrative  charge  for  nearly  two  years 
of  a  most  important  branch  of  the  Institution's  work,  the  United 
States  National  Museum.  I  have  been  associated  with  the  scientific 
work  of  the  Museum  for  almost  a  quarter  of  a  century,  and  for  many 
years  have  been  in  close  persona!  contact  with  other  important 
branches  of  the  Institution's  activities. 

I  fully  recognize  the  obligation  resting  upon  the  man  who  holds 
the  position  which  has  been  successively  occupied  by  Joseph  Henry, 
Spencer  F.  Baird,  and  Samuel  P.  Langley.  By  a  wise  and  conserva- 
tive policy,  maintaining  at  once  the  independence  of  the  Smithsonian 
fund  and  yet  freely  cooperating  with  the  Government  in  securing  aid 
in  the  development  of  its  branches,  the  Institution  has  reached  a  posi- 
tion of  eminence  far  beyond  what  might  have  been  expected  from  the 
comparatively  small  endowment  which  it  possesses.  It  has,  moreover, 
on  numerous  occasions  conducted  in  its  initial  stages  scientific  work 
that  has  proven  to  be  of  great  practical  value,  and  when  the  experi- 
mental stage  was  passed  and  their  economic  utility  had  been  demon- 
strated, the  organizations  and  results  obtained  were  turned  over  to  the 
Grovemment.  Through  one  or  another  of  its  agencies  the  name 
Smithsonian  Institstion  has  been  brought  to  the  attention  of  scien- 
tific workers  in  this  country  and  in  other  lands  and  to  those  edu- 
cated people  generally  who,  though  without  special  training  in 
science,  desire  to  keep  abreast  of  the  progress  of  the  world.  It  has 
abandoned  projects  which  other  institutions  hod  undertaken,  on  the 
theory  that  there  was  plenty  of  work  for  all  to  do,  and  it  has  aided 
investigators  throughout  the  United  States  and  indeed  in  foreign 
lands  as  heartily  as  it  has  supported  the  work  of  its  own  staff. 

In  other  words,  I  feel  that  I  have  come  to  an  establishment  unselfish 
in  its  aims  and  willing  to  help  all  men  in  furtherance  of  the  objects 
for  which  it  was  founded — an  institution  devoted  fully  to  the  progress 
and  spread  of  knowledge  in  every  field  without  limitation  to  one 
branch  of  science  or  to  all  science,  but  having  within  its  pnrview 
the  elevation  of  mankind  through  the  increase  and  spread  of  knowl- 
edge.    The  beads  of  the  Institution  thus  far  have  been  spedalists 


4  ANHUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN  INBTITUTIOH,  1007. 

trained  in  different  branches  of  knowledge.  Heniy  was  a  ph3^cist, 
Baird  a  naturalist,  Langley  an  astronomer  and  ph3^icist.  While 
they  were  carrying  on  the  general  affairs  of  the  Institution  each  of 
these  men  pursued  particular  investigations.  No  one  of  them,  how- 
ever, allowed  his  judgment  to  be  biased  by  the  limitations  of  his  own 
specialty.  I  hope  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  these  men.  In  addi- 
tion to  guiding  the  affairs  of  the  Institution,  I  expect  to  carry  on 
research  work  in  geology  and  paleontology,  and  to  prepare  some 
memoirs  on  these  subjecte  which  have  occupied  a  large  part  of  my 
life.  Such  research  work  produces  a  greater  sympathy  and  under- 
standing of  the  special  work  of  others;  as  in  the  past,  it  will  in  no 
wise  tend  to  alter  the  universal  character  of  the  Institution  or  to 
limit  my  interest  in  all  departments  of  research. 

My  predecessors  have  so  wisely  and  so  economically  administered 
the  affairs  of  the  Institution  that  I  have  come  to  a  well-equipped 
establishment  with  its  traditions  and  its  policy  founded  upon  right 
principles,  and  they  do  not  appear  to  be  susceptible  of  material 
improvement.  I  shall,  however,  through  special  agencies  created 
from  time  to  time,  carefully  study  the  workings  of  the  Institution 
and  of  all  of  its  branches  with  the  purpose  of  satisfying  myself  as 
to  existing  conditions  and  methods,  and  in  order  to  retain  a  practical 
and  high  standard  of  administration. 

Speaking  for  the  Institution  proper,  it  appears  to  me  that  it  has 
been  developed  to  the  full  extent  possible  under  its  present  endow- 
ment. It  can  not  have  escaped  the  attention  of  observers  that, 
in  the  sixty  years  and  more  in  which  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
has  existed,  few  additions  have  come  to  its  funds.  While  money  has 
been  freely  given  for  the  enlargement  of  existing  institutions  of 
learning  and  research  and  even  more  has  been  forthcoming  for  the 
establishment  of  new  ones,  the  fimd  of  this  Institution  remains  at 
about  $1,000,000,  but  a  little  over  double  what  it  was  at  its  founda- 
tion. The  generous  men  and  women  who  have  supported  science 
and  art  in  this  country  have  possibly  not  considered  the  fact  that 
there  is  necessarily  a  waste  in  the  founding  of  a  new  organization. 
Moreover,  a  much  greater  amount  of  good  can  often  be  accomplished 
by  financially  aiding  an  existing  institution  than  by  creating  a  new 
one  of  the  same  type.  That  this  Institution  has  popularity  can  not 
be  doubted,  but  it  has  seemed  to  suffer  from  one  of  its  greatest  advan- 
tages, namely,  its  connection  with  the  Government.  Being  a  ward 
of  the  nation,  it  is  thought  by  the  public  to  be  a  recipient  of  generous 
Congressional  appropriations.  WTiile  this  is  in  a  measure  true  for 
the  branches  in  charge  of  the  Institution,  yet  no  provision  is  made  by 
Congress  for  carrying  on  the  activities  of  the  Institution  proper.  I 
*lunk  1^  is  a  vety  sound  condition,  but  feel  that  it  should  be  made 

Digilized  by  Google 


BEPOBT   OF   THE   SECRETABY.  5 

sufficiently  clear  to  all  who  may  be  interested  or  become  interested  in 
the  Institution  and  its  work. 

There  are  numerous  projects  actually  awaiting  systematic  develop- 
ment that  can  not  properly  receive  support  from  the  Government  and 
which  from  their  nature  might  be  advantageously  conducted  under 
the  charge  of  the  Institution ;  these  include,  among  others,  the  sdea- 
tific  exploration  of  large  areas  of  Central  and  South  America ;  the  in- 
vestigation of  various  problems  connected  with  the  deposition  of  ores ; 
investigations  in  regard  to  the  production  of  petroleum  by  artificial 
means;  the  study  upon  a  large  scale  of  anthropological  and  ethno- 
logical problems  having  direct  bearing  on  the  future  American  peo- 
ple; the  systematic  study  of  seismological  (earthquake)  phenomena. 
Although  it  may  be  held  that  the  practical  demonstration  of  these 
problems  will  be  provided  for  elsewhere,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  few  scientific  activities  are  without  some  ultimate  relation  to 
practical  affairs  and  that  researches  bearing  directly  upon  the  activi- 
ties of  the  people  and  natural  productions  must  be  carried  on  from 
the  scientific  point  of  view. 

In  order  to  further  develop,  if  possible,  that  part  of  the  Institution's 
programme  which  has  to  do  with  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  I  have 
tentatively  initiated  a  plan  which  will  greatly  enlarge  the  scope  of 
the  Institution's  work  in  this  respect.  The  carefully  selected  general 
appendix  to  the  Smithsonian  Annual  Report  is  the  principal  means, 
aside  from  the  International  Exchange  Service,  whereby  the  Institu- 
tion diffuses  knowledge.  Some  10,000  copies  of  these  Reports  are 
printed,  a  large  majority  of  which  are  placed  in  public  libraries,  where 
they  are  accessible  to  many  readers,  while  but  a  small  proportion  can 
be  sent  to  individuals.  I  have  accordingly  initiated  a  plan  of  having 
prepared,  in  popular  language,  abstracts  of  the  publications  of  the  In- 
stitution and  sometimes  special  articles  on  the  investigations  in  prog- 
ress by  the  Institution.  These  have  been  distributed  to  the  daily 
newspapers,  which,  in  the  main,  have  made  use  of  them.  In  this  way 
the  material  in  the  Reports  and  other  publications  of  the  Institution, 
as  well  as  the  knowledge  of  current  investigations,  have  been  rendered 
accessible  to  millions  of  readers. 

Although  I  assumed  the  office  of  Secretary  on  the  Slst  of  January, 
1907,  I  continued,  at  the  request  of  the  President,  the  direction  of 
affairs  of  the  Geological  Survey,  with  which,  however,  my  connection 
as  Director  terminated  on  April  30. 

In  order  that  my  time  might  be  as  free  as  possible  for  the  affairs 
of  the  Institution  and  for  research  work,  I  considered  the  question  of 
severing  my  relationship  with  the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washing- 
ton, of  which  I  am  a  member  of  the  board  of  trustees  and  of  the 


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6  ANNUAL,  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

executive  committee.  After  conferring,  however,  with  my  col- 
leagues on  that  committee  and  with  the  members  of  the  Board  of 
Regents,  it  was  considered  on  all  hands  desirable  and  as  productive  of 
harmonious  and  useful  cooperation  between  two  kindred  institutions 
that  I  should  retain  my  membership  of  the  board  of  trustees  and  of 
the  executive  committee  of  the  Carnegie  Institution. 

During  the  year  the  Smithsonian  Institution  cooperated  with  and 
received  the  aid  of  most  of  the  Government  Departments,  though  I 
may  especially  mention  the  Departments  of  State,  Agriculture,  In- 
terior, and  Conmierce  and  Labor,  and  the  valuable  advice  and  assist- 
ance received  from  the  Department  of  Justice.  Through  its  Ex- 
change Service,  its  publications,  its  collections,  and  in  many  other 
ways,  the  Institution  continues  in  relation  with  most  of  the  important 
scientific  establishments  and  universities  in  this  country  and  other 
lands,  thus  aiding  the  progress  of  science  and  preventing  waste. 
With  the  consent  of  the  Regents  I  have  tendered  to  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences  and  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science  office  accommodations  in  the  Smithsonian  building, 
which  have  been  accepted  by  the  officials  of  both  of  these  important 
national  organizations.  The  Institution  continues  its  cooperation 
with  the  American  Historical  Association  in  accordance  with  the 
provisions  of  the  act  incorporating  that  society.  In  general  I  deem 
it  one  of  the  important  functions  of  the  Institution  that  it  should 
freely  place  its  administrative  machinery  and  opportunities  at  the 
service  of  all  the  great  national  learned  societies  in  the  hope  that  the 
work  of  all  of  them  will  be  aided  and  duplication  of  labor  and  waste 
of  energy  avoided. 

ADMINISTRATION. 

In  the  administration  of  the  Institution  the  Secretary  has  the 
valued  aid  of  experienced  officers  and  a  well-trained  staff.  The 
Museum  is  in  the  immediate  charge  of  Mr.  Richard  Rathbun,  an 
Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Institution,  and  the  Exchange  Service,  the 
library,  and  the  Regional  Bureau  for  the  International  Catalogue  of 
Scientific  Literature  are  under  the  supervision  of  Dr.  Cyrus  Adler, 
an  Assistant  Secretary.  Mr.  W.  H.  Holmes  is  Chief  of  the  Bureau 
.  of  American  Ethnology,  Dr.  Frank  Baker  is  Superintendent  of 
the  National  Zoological  Park,  and  Mr.  C.  G.  Abbot  is  Director  of 
the  Astrophysical  Observatory. 

A  system  in  vogue  of  conferences  between  the  Secretary  and  these 
officers  on  all  subjects  pertaining  to  the  different  branches  has  been 
maintained.  The  Secretary,  as  executive  officer  of  the  Board  of 
Regents,  deems  the  administration  of  the  parent  Institution  hie  first 


.y  Google 


BEPORT    OF    THE    SGCRETABT.  7 

care,  but  fully  recognizes  the  importance  of  the  branches  supported 
by  the  GoTerament,  many  of  which  are  inherent  in  the  organic  act 
of  the  Institution,  and  desires,  in  cooperation  with  the  Board  and 
the  Congress,  to  administer  and  develop  these  important  charges  of 
the  Institution. 

The  duties  of  the  Secretary  from  the  date  of  the  death  of  Mr. 
Langley  up  to  the  end  of  January,  1907,  when  I  was  appointed  to 
that  office,  were  performed  with  ability  and  fidelity  by  Mr.  Richard 
Kathbun,  an  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Institution,  by  designation 
of  the  Chancellor  under  authority  of  the  act  of  May  13,  1894,  pro- 
viding for  the  appointment  of  an  Acting  Secretary. 

It  is  gratifying  to  report  that  the  current  business  of  the  Institu- 
tion was  conducted  in  a  prompt  and  efficient  manner,  and  that  no 
arrearages  in  the  work  of  the  Government  branches  under  its  diret  - 
tion  had  to  be  noted  in  the  quarterly  statements  made  to  the  Presiden- 
and  the  annual  statement  made  to  Congress  in  accordance  with  law. 

In  view,  however,  of  the  recent  examination  by  a  commission 
appointed  by  the  President  into  the  business  methods  of  all  of  the 
Government  Departments,  not  including  tiie  branches  under  the 
charge  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  I  thought  it  wise  to  appoint 
a  committee  for  the  purpose  of  examining  into  the  business  methods 
of  the  Institution  and  its  several  branches,  with  a  view  to  suggesting, 
if  found  desirable,  improvements  in  the  business  methods  of  the 
Institution  and  its  various  branches,  and  in  the  transaction  of  busi- 
ness between  them  and  the  Institution. 

Mr.  H.  W.  Dorsey,  who  had  been  for  many  years  connected  with 
the  Institution,  was  on  March  29  appointed  diief  clerk. 

Several  amendments  affecting  the  operation  of  the  civil-service 
law  and  rules  in  their  bearing  on  the  personnel  of  the  branches  of  the 
Government  service  under  the  direction  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion were  promulgated  by  Executive  order  during  the  year.  The 
only  change  in  the  rules,  however,  which  affects  the  branches  of  the 
Institution  specifically  is  that  announced  in  the  Executive  order  of 
April  15,  1907.  This  provides  that  the  paragraph  in  the  legislative 
act  approved  June  22, 1906  (prohibiting  the  transfer  of  any  employee 
in  the  classified  service  from  one  Executive  Department  to  another 
until  the  employee  shall  have  served  for  a  term  of  three  years  in  the 
Department  from  which  transfer  is  desired),  may  be  waived  in  pro- 
posed transfers  to  or  from  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  certain 
independent  bureaus  or  offices  of  the  Government,  when  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Civil  Service  Commission  the  interests  of  the  service  so 
require. 


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8  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

riNANCES. 

The  permaDent  fund  of  the  Institution  and  the  sources  from  which 
it  was  derived  are  as  follows ; 

DepotUed  In  tite  Treaaury  of  the  United  States. 
Bequest  ot  SmtthsoD,  1846— 


Resldnarr  legacy  of  Smtthson,  1867 2e,2ia63 

D^MMlt  from  savlDgB  of  Income,  1867 106,620.37 

Bequest  of  James  Hamlltou.  1875 ^1,000.00 

Accumulated  lutetest  on  Hamilton  fund.  1895 1,000.00 


t  of  Simeon  Habel,  1880 —  500.00 

Deposit  from  proceeds  of  sale  of  bonds,  1881 —  51,500.00 

Gift  of  Thomas  O.  Hodgklns,  1801. 200,000.00 

Part  of  residuary  leffacy  of  Thomas  G.  Hodgklns,  1894 aOOO.OO 

Deposit  from  savings  of  income,  1903 25,00aOO 

Besldnary  legacy  of  Thomas  Q.  Hodgklns 7, 918. 69 

Total  amount  of  fond  In  the  United  States  Treasury 944,918.60 

Held  at  the  SmitJiaonion  Inttitutbm. 

Registered  and  gnarantecd  bonds  of  the  West  Shore  Railroad  Com- 
pany (par  value),  part  of  legacy  of  Thomas  6.  Hodgklns AOOO.OO 


Total  permanent  fund 986,918.60 

The  balance  of  the  residuary  legacy  of  the  late  Thomas  G.  Hodg- 
kins,  exclusive  of  accumulated  interest,  consisted  of  United  States 
registered  4  per  cent  bonds  of  the  par  value  of  $7,850  maturing 
July  1,  1907.  These  bonds  were  sold  by  order  of  the  Board  of  Re- 
gents, and  the  gross  proceeds  aggregating  $7,918.69  were  deposited  in 
the  Treasury  of  the  United  States  to  the  credit  of  the  permanent 
fund. 

That  part  of  the  fund  deposited  in  the  Treasury  of  the  United 
States  bears  interest  at  6  per  cent  per  annum,  under  the  provisions  of 
the  act  organizing  the  Institution  and  an  act  of  Congress  approved 
March  12,  1894.  The  rate  of  interest  on  the  West  Shore  Railroad 
bonds  is  4  per  cent  per  annum. 

The  income  of  the  Institution  during  the  year,  amounting  to 
$64,444.41,  was  derived  as  follows:  Interest  on  the  permanent  fund, 
$57,900;  proceeds  from  claims  in  litigation,  $1,292.56;  interest  of 
Hodgkins  residuary  fund,  $235.60,  and  miscellaneous  sources, 
$5,016.35;  all  of  which  was  deposited  in  the  Treasury  of  the  United 
States  to  the  credit  of  the  current  account  of  the  Institution. 

With  the  balance  of  $10,184.13,  on  July  1,  1906,  the  total  resources 
for  the  fiscal  year  amounted  to  $74,628.54.  The  disbursements,  which 
are  given  in  detail  in  the  annual  report  of  the  executive  committee, 
amounted  to  $49,936.53,  leaving  a  balance  of  $24,692.01.    Of  this 


BEPOBT  OF   THE   SECBETABY.  V 

amount  $100  was  advanced  for  work  yet  incomplete  aod  $24^92.01 
was  on  deposit  in  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States. 

The  Institution  was  charged  by  Congress  with  the  disbursement 
of  the  foUowing  appropriations  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 1907: 

iDternatlonal  Ezcbangee $28,800 

Amerlcaa  Ettmology 40,000 

AstropbyBlcal  Observatory  14, 000 

United  States  National  Museum : 

Fnmltnre  and  Qxtures ._ 20,000 

Heating  and  lighting.. 18,000 

PreserTatlon  of  collections 180,000 

Books 2,000 

Postage .-- 500 

Rent  of  workBbopB 4,680 

Building  repairs 15,000 

New  bnlldlngfor  National  Museum 500,000 

National  Zoological  Park 95,000 

International  Catalogue  of  Sclentlflc  Literature 6,000 

Protection  and  excavation,  ruin  of  Casa  Grande,  Arizona 3,000 

Tot»\ 925,880 

The  estimates  forwarded  to  Congress  in  behalf  of  the  Government 
branches  of  the  Institution,  and  the  appropriations  based  thereon 
for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1908,  are  shown  in  the  following 
table: 


i1  eichangHi 

Americui  EtbDOlosy 

Aitn^bydcal  ObaerraUny 

NfttloTuI  Uaaenin: 

PuinJtDie  &Dd  flxtnrei 

Heating  and  llsbQns 

PnaerraUon  of  collections 

Books 

Bolldlng  repaln 

Bent  of  workshop* 

SuDdir  BDd  nigh  1  opening 

New  building  for  NaUoDol  HuKum 

NstJonal  Zoological  Park: 

Mational  Zoological  Fsik 

BepaltlDK  roadvari  and  walks 

ReadlosUnent  Of  boundaries 

IntematlonBl  Catalc«ue  of  Sclentlflc  Utenitnre.. 

pToWctloD  and  eicsTadon,  min  of  Ca«a  Qrende, 

Totta ., 


Esllmates. 

"^IX^ 

tM,0«0 

132.000 

50,000 

M.000 

H.O0O 

13.000 

M,000 

20.000 

18,000 

18.000 

IM.000 

190,000 

16,000 

15,000 

),580 

i.fM 

MO 

500 

,,.;::» 

'■■»■•" 

100,000 

06,000 

15,000 

15,000 

6,000 

5.000 

3.000 

3.OD0 

1,790,808 

1.708,080 

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C  SMITHSONIAN  INBTITXnnON,  18(0. 
BXFU)BATIONS  AND  RESBARCHEa 
STDDT  OF  OLDER  BBDIHBNTABX  BOCKE 

During  tiie  past  twenty  years  I  have  been  studying  the  older  sedi- 
mentary rocks  of  the  North  American  Continent  from  Newfoundland 
to  Alabama  on  the  eastern  side  and  from  southeastern  California  to 
northern  Montana  on  the  western.  In  the  interior,  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  studies  were  carried  on  in  Texas,  South  Dakota,  Minne- 
sota, and  Wisconsin. 

Three  important  sections  remained  to  be  examined— one  of  the 
Lower  Cambrian  in  western  Nevada,  one  in  northern  Montana,  and 
another  of  the  lower  Paleozoic  Bocks  of  the  main  range  of  the  Boc^ 
Mountains  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railroad. 

The  latter  was  selected  for  examination  during  the  field  season  of 
1907,  and  although  the  work  did  not  begin  until  after  the  close  of  the 
fiscal  year  I  will  here  briefly  recount  some  of  its  results.  Early  in 
July,  a  camp  outfit  was  secured  at  Field,  British  Columbia,  and  work 
b^un  on  Mount  Stephen.  Subsequently  sections  were  studied  and 
measured  at  Castle  Mountain,  west  of  Banff,  Alberta;  at  Lake  Louise, 
south  of  Laggan,  Alberta,  and  on  Mount  Bosworth  on  the  Conti- 
nental  Divide  near  Hector,  British  Columbia. 

Upwards  of  20,000  feet  of  strata  were  carefully  examined  and 
measured,  and  collections  of  fossils  and  rocks  made  from  many  locali- 
ties. It  was  found  that  the  Cambrian  section  included  over  12,000 
feet  of  sandstones,  shales,  and  limestones,  and  that  the  three  great 
divisions  of  the  Cambrian — the  Lower,  Middle,  and  Upper — were 
represented  in  the  section  of  Bow  River  series  and  the  Castle  Moun- 
tain group.    Characteristic  fossils  were  found  in  each  division. 

ALASKAN  BXPBDITION. 

In  continuation  of  work  already  satisfactorily  begun,  the  Secretary 
authorized,  in  April  of  the  present  year,  an  expedition  for  the  col- 
lection of  the  remains  of  large  extinct  vertebrates,  particularly  mam- 
mals, in  Alaska.  Although  fragmentary  materials  have  been  se- 
cured there  from  time  to  time  by  various  exploring  parties  and 
mining  expeditions,  the  country  is  still,  to  a  considerable  extent,  a 
virgin  field,  and  the  recent  great  development  of  the  mining  industry 
makes  the  present  time  particularly  favorable  for  the  work  proposed, 
especially  on  account  of  the  facilities  for  transportation  thus  rendered 
available. 

The  expedition  has  been  placed  in  charge  of  Mr.  C.  W.  Gilmora,  a 
member  of  the  staff  of  the  National  Museum,  who  will  have  the  aerv- 
'ces  of  a  guide  trained  in  the  methods  of  the  work  to  be  accomplished 

id  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  regions  to  be  explored. 


BBPOBI   OF   THE   SECBBXABY.  11 

The  research  is  an  important  one  and  it  is  hoped  by  means  of  it  to 
increase  our  knowledge  of  the  extinct  famia  of  the  country,  and  to 
add  valuable  and  interesting  specimens  to  the  collection  of  the 
Museum. 

F08B1L  FISHES  OF  BRAZIL. 

A  moderate  grant  was  approved  for  the  preparation  of  an  illus- 
trated article,  to  be  prepared  in  collaboration  by  Dr.  David  Stan- 
Jordan  and  Dr.  J.  C.  Branner,  on  a  unique  collection  of  fossil  fishes 
from  the  Barra  do  Jardin,  a  locality  near  Cear&,  Brazil. 

About  1834  a  collection  of  these  fossil  fishes  was  received  by  Louis 
Agassiz,  and  from  it  he  described  seven  new  species,  some  of  which 
have  never  been  seen  since  his  time.  Some  species  from  the  same  lo- 
-cality  are  now  in  the  British  Museum,  and  Stanford  University  has 
recently  received  nodules  containing  specimens  of  all  those  heretofore 
described  and  probably  several  additional  ones  not  before  noted. 
Doctors  Jordan  and  Branner  are  thus  enabled  to  ^ve  information 
supplementary  to  any  heretofore  recorded  in  regard  to  this  interest- 
ing species  of  fossil  fishes.  An  article  describing  the  research  will  be 
submitted  to  the  Institution  for  publication  when  completed. 

ABIZONA  USTBORITBS. 

In  April,  1907,  Dr.  Greorge  P.  Merrill-,  head  curator  of  geology  in 
the  Kational  Museum,  received  a  limited  grant  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
amining the  remarkable  craterform  depression  known  as  Coon  Butte, 
near  Canyon  Diablo,  Arizona,  with  a  view  to  determining  whether  it 
was  caused  by  explosive  volcanic  action,  as  assumed  by  some  investi- 
gators, or  due  to  ^e  impact  of  a  mass  of  meteoric  iron,  as  asserted  by 
others.  In  conducting  the  research  a  genera!  survey  was  made  of  the 
amount  and  distribution  of  meteoric  irons  and  associated  materials  of 
the  locality. 

Two  preliminary  papers,  one  describing  a  hitherto  unrecognized 
type  of  meteoric  iron,  and  the  other  a  peculiar  form  of  metamorph- 
ism  in  the  siliceous  sandstone  of  the  Butte,  have  been  submitted  and 
published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  National  Musemn  and  the  Smith- 
sonian Miscellaneous  Collections.  The  entire  investigation  will  be 
reported  on  in  detail  after  the  results  are  collated  and  arranged. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  work  at  Coon  Butte,  Doctor  MerriU  visited 
the  fossil  forest,  near  Adamana,  Ariz.,  under  the  authorization  of  the    , 
Department  of  the  Interior,  and  made  collections  of  the  silicified 
woods  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  numerous  applications  re- 
ceived &om  schools  and  colleges  for  such  materials. 

OOOLOOX  OF  THE)  ALPa 

The  problem  of  the  •structure  of  the  Alps,  always  a  question  of 
intense  interest,  has  been  the  subject  of  more  than  usual  attention 


12  ANNUAL  BEPOBT   SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  19ffl. 

and  discussion,  especially  in  Europe,  during  the  last  five  years.  The 
topic  being  one  of  vast  importance  in  general  geology  also,  it  was 
decided  to  make  it  the  subject  of  special  study  during  the  summer  o£ 
1907,  and  Mr.  Bailey  Willis,  a  geologist  prepared  for  the  work  by 
previous  experience  and  training,  was  detailed  for  the  purpose,  under 
a  grant  from  the  Institution. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  investigation,  the  results  of  which  will  be 
issued  in  one  of  the  Smithsonian  publications,  will  aid  in  solving 
questions  of  great  importance  in  general  geology. 

SEISMOLOGICAL   1NVE8T10ATI0NB. 

The  great  earthquake  at  San  Francisco  brought  prominently  to  the 
attention  of  scientific  men  and  establishments  the  importance  of 
seismological  study,  and  when  on  August  16,  1906,  the  earthquake  in 
Chile  took  place,  it  seemed  desirable  that  a  competent  investigator 
should  be  sent  to  that  country  to  make  a  study  on  the  spot  in  order 
that  the  disturbance  in  Chile  might  be  compared  with  that  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  utilized  for  the  furtherance  of  knowledge  of  this  im- 
portant subject 

Through  the  courtesy  of  the  Department  of  State  cable  communica- 
tion was  had  with  the  American  minister  in  Chile,  and  it  was  ascer- 
tained that  the  Government  of  Chile  had  appointed  a  commission 
consisting  of  competent  astronomers  and  geologists  and  that  there 
was  no  need  of  sending  an  observer  from  the  Institution.  The 
American  minister  in  Chile  and  Mr.  Heber  D.  Curtis,  of  the  Lick 
Observatory  Station,  at  Santiago,  kept  the  Institution  informed  as 
to  the  progress  of  the  investigation.  In  general  it  seems  to  be  de- 
termined that  there  had  been  some  elevation  of  the  coast  of  Chile  and 
that  on  the  other  hand  there  had  been  found  no  traces  of  a  rift  such 
as  caused  the  earthquake  at  San  Francisco.  Brief  abstracts  from  the 
communications  received  have  been  published  from  time  to  time  in 
the  Smithsonian  Quarterly. 

Meanwhile  the  importance  of  seismological  investigation,  both 
national  and  international,  has  received  attention,  and  plans  have  been 
considered  for  establishing  stations  in  this  country,  but  the  Institu- 
tion is  without  funds  to  further  the  object,  and  attempts  to  secure 
special  means  or  endowment  for  the  purpose  have  as  yet  not  met 
with  satisfactory  results. 

In  connection  with  this  subject  it  should  be  said  that  the  frequent 
reports  of  observations  of  earthquakes  at  sea  which  reach  the  Hydro- 
graphic  Office  of  the  Navy  Department  are,  through  the  courtesy  of 
that  Department,  regularly  transmitted  to  the  Institution  and  are 
made  known  to  students  interested  in  this  subject  with  the  hope  that 
all  the  data  when  correlated  may  prove  of  advantage  in  the  study  of 
these  great  destructive  phenomena.  ^  Gooolc 


BEFOBI  or  THE  SBCBETABY.  13 

ABBODKOUIC  BESKARCHBB. 

Although  the  experimental  work  in  aerodromics  hegun  by  Secre- 
tary Langley  is  not  now  being  carried  on  at  the  Institution,  it  can 
not  but  be  gratifying  to  note  the  fact  that  this  subject,  which  was 
pUced  upon  a  solid  foundation  by  the  research  work  of  Mr.  Langley, 
is  more  and  more  engaging  the  attention  of  physicists  and  engineers, 
military  establishments,  and  students  throughout  the  world,  and  that 
the  impetus  given  to  it  by  my  predecessor  is  everywhere  recognized. 
This  Institution  has  by  no  means  abandoned  its  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject, and  the  collection  of  books  and  pamphlets  brought  together 
here  is  maintained  as  a  separate  collection  and  rendered  accessible  to 
students.  I  have  made  a  special  grant  to  Mr.  C  M.  Manly,  who  was 
associated  with  Mr.  Langley  in  this  work,  for  the  completion  of  a 
memoir  bringing  the  experiments  up  to  1905,  and  another  for  the 
preparation  of  a  bibliography  on  the  subject,  which  it  is  hoped  may 
be  useful  to  students. 

Dr.  Alexander  Graham  Bell,  a  Regent  of  the  Institution,  and  a 
distinguished  student  of  many  natural  problems,  is  engaged  upon 
aerodromic  experiments  which  it  is  expected  will  prove  useful  and 
important.  He  and  others  have  used,  it  is  hoped  with  profit,  the 
material  in  the  collections  gathered  here.  The  prominence  of  the 
Institution  in  this  subject  has  made  the  National  Museum  the  natural 
place  of  deposit  for  the  original  types  of  different  forms  of  flying 
machines,  and  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  most  important  types  of 
models  of  the  early  attempts  to  solve  this  great  subject  will  be  found 
in  the  collections  here. 

The  engine  of  the  large  aerodrome  was  displayed  in  New  York  at 
the  exhibition  of  the  Aero  Club  in  December,  1906. 

INVESTIGATIONS  UNDER  THE  H0D6KINS  FUND. 
STUDY  OF  ATUOSPSBIBtC  AtB  IM  BBLATION  TO  UANEIND. 

Investigations  on  subjects  of  general  hygienic  interest,  such  as 
have  been  promoted  since  the  begiiming  of  the  administration  of  the 
Hodgkins  fund,  continue  to  receive  encouragement.  Publications 
are  issued  in  this  connection,  and  conmiunications  addressed  to  the 
Institution  on  subjects  which  the  fund  may  properly  aid,  do  not  fail 
to  receive  attention.  The  Hodgkins  gold  medal,  which  is  bestowed 
for  important  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  the  nature  and 
properties  of  atmospheric  air,  or  for  practical  applications  of  our 
existing  knowledge  of  them  to  the  welfare  of  mankind,  is  a  testi- 
monial not  only  to  the  wishes  of  the  founder  of  the  fund,  but  also  an 
expres^on  of  the  interest  of  the  Institution  in  this  regard. 


.y  Google 


14  ANNUAL  HEPOKT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

Among  other  topics,  the  question  of  the  effective  ventilation  of 
buildings  has  been  given  attention,  and  initiative  steps  have  been 
taken  to  learn  what  investigators  are  making  a  serious  study  of  this 
important  subject  The  vitiation  of  the  exterior  atmosphere  in 
closely  settled  localities  is  also  recognized  as  a  question  of  great  im- 
portance to  the  dwellers  in  cities,  and  an  effort  is  making  through  tbe 
publications  of  the  Hodgkins  fund  to  disseminate  the  results  of  late 
noteworthy  investigations  in  this  connection. 

The  application  of  atmospheric  air  to  therapeutics  has  received 
consideration,  and  while  no  research  having  for  its  object  the  direct 
use  of  the  atmosphere  as  a  curative  agent  has,  as  yet,  been  aided,  the 
work  furthered  by  the  fund,  excepting  that  which  deals  almost  ex- 
clusively with  the  mechanics  of  the  atmosphere,  is  closely  related  to 
medicine  and  hygiene.  Consequently  the  reports  of  investigations 
and  experiments  prosecuted  in  widely  separated  localities,  such  as 
London,  South  Africa,  Paris,  and  the  cities  of  .our  own  country, 
have  been  followed  with  interest,  in  common  with  all  classes  of 
research  which  make  broader  the  way  for  the  practical  utilization  of 
our  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  properties  of  atmo^heric  air  for 
the  welfare  of  mankind. 

AB80LUTB  UBASCRB  OF  SOUND. 

The  research  of  Dr.  A  G.  Webster,  of  Clark  University,  on  •  the 
absolute  measure  of  sound,  which  was  aided  again  during  the  present 
year  by  a  moderate  grant  from  the  Hodgkins  fund,  is  reported  as 
advancing  satisfactorily,  toward  completion.  The  instruments  pre- 
pared especially  for  use  in  this  research  are  expected  to  prove  of 
service  in  solving  many  practical  questions  relating  to  sound,  such, 
for  instance,  as  the  testing  of  sound-prooffng  materials,  or  of  audible 
signals.  In  conducting  the  investigation  many  delicate  points  in  the 
theory  of  such  instruments  have  been  settled  by  actual  experiment, 
so  that,  in  some  particulars,  the  experimental  knowledge  is  in  advance 
of  the  present  mathematical  theory. 

The  manuscript  describing  the  methods  and  results  of  diis  research 
will  be  submitted  to  the  Institution  for  publication  when  cnnpleted. 

PBOPBBTIBS  OF   MATTBB   AT   VEBX   LOW  TBUPBBATnBBS. 

The  investigation  of  the  properties  of  matter  at  very  low  tempera- 
tures, involving  the  use  of  liquid  air,  in  aid  of  whidi  a  grant  was 
approved  in  1906,  from  the  Hodgkins  fund  of  the  Institution  on 
behalf  of  Prof.  E.  L.  Kichols,  of  Cornell  Univerdty,  has  beea 
steadily  progressing.  The  research  is  now  to  enter  on  a  careful  stuify 
of  the  index  of  the  refraction  of  gases,  and  gaseous  mixtures  and  va- 
pors, over  extreme  ranges  of  pressure  of  temperature.   The  effect  on  the 


.;,Gooyk' 


BEPOBT   OF   THE   BECEETARY.  15 

physical  properties  of  carbon  of  the  remarkable  absorption  of  gases 
at  low  temperatures  is  to  be  investigated,  and  two  methods  of  deter- 
mining the  specific  heat  of  gases  have  been  perfected.  The  investiga- 
tion of  the  properties  of  matter  at  the  temperature  of  liquid  hydrogen 
will  also  be  continued  and  the  results  recorded. 

9TODY  OP  THE  UPPER  AT.V08PHERE. 

The  meteorological  experiments  of  Mr.  A.  Lawrence  Botch  with 
registering  balloons,  conducted  from  St.  Louis  as  the  starting  point, 
have  been  again  aided  by  a  grant  from  the  Hodgkins  fund.  Before 
the  close  of  similar  experiments  by  Mr.  Sotcb  horn  the  same  point 
in  1906,  the  extreme  height  of  nearly  10  miles  was  attained,  and  a 
temperature  of  — 76°  F.  wbs  once  recorded  somewhat  below  7  miles. 

This  final  series  of  ascensions  aided  by  the  Institution  is  intended 
to  supply  data  for  the  season  of  the  year  in  which  observations  of 
the  upper  air  have  heretofore  been  the  least  frequent,  and  it  is  hoped 
that  the  endeavor  to  ascertain  the  annual  variation  of  temperature 
at  great  heights  in  the  free  air  above  the  American  continent  will 
thus  be  materially  furthered. 

A  sununary  of  the  results  of  the  meteorological  research  conducted 
by  Mr.  S.  P.  Fergusson,  mentioned  in  the  previous  Report  as  having 
been  aided  by  a  moderate  grant  from  the  Hodgkins  fund  of  the 
Institution,  has  been  submitted. 

Stations  for  these  experiments  were  established  on  t^e  summit  of 
Mount  Washington,  1,916  meters  above  sea  level,  and  at  Twin 
Mountain,  1,500  meters  lower  and  15  miles  distant.  Louvred  shelters 
were  built  for  the  proper  exposure  and  protection  of  the  instruments 
at  these  stations,  and  the  anemometer  was  erected  on  the  old  Tip  Top 
House,  the  highest  point  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Washington. 
Records  were  made  at  the  stations,  as  nearly  as  possible  continuous, 
of  pressure,  temperature,  humidity,  and  wind  velocity,  while  the 
meteorographs  recording  the  same  elements  were  sustained  by  kites 
in  the  tree  air  for  as  long  a  time  as  possible  during  the  research. 
Observations  of  the  formation  of  clouds  on  the  mountain  and  in  the 
free  air  were  also  made. 

While  the  apparatus  used  in  this  research  was  the  same  in  principle 
as  that  heretofore  employed,  it  is  hoped  that  certain  devices  which 
were  suggested  by  the  conditions,  and  successfully  adopted,  will 
prove  advantageous  in  later  experiments.  The  time  available  for 
this  research  was  necessarily  limited,  but  the  kites  on  several  different 
occasions  carried  the  meteorograph  sufficiently  high  for  comparison 
with  the  records  obtained  on  Mount  Washington.  On  the  6th  of 
September  the  instrument  was  kept  at  approximately  the  same  height 
in  the  free  air  and  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Washington  for  eight 
hours  between  noon  and  10  o'clock  p.  m.  /—  i 

D,a,i,z.:ibyGoogle 


16  ABNUAli  REPOBT  SMITHBOKIAH   INSTITUIION,  IQOT. 

In  view  of  the  short  time,  practically  about  three  weeks,  during 
which  the  climatic  cooditioDS  rendered  it  possible  to  prosecute  this 
research,  its  results  as  reported  by  Mr.  Fergusson  may  be  considered 
satisfactory. 

UBCHANICB  OF  THE  HASTH'S  ATMOaPHHRH. 

There  was  published  by  the  Institution  several  years  ago  a  volume, 
entitled  "Mechanics  of  the  Earth's  Atmosphere,"  which  consisted 
of  translations  of  articles  by  various  eminent  meteorologists.  Ar- 
rangements have  been  made  with  Prof.  Cleveland  Abbe,  editor  of  the 
first  volume,  for  the  preparation  of  a  second  volume  on  the  same  topic. 

THB   OBOANS   OP   FLIGHT. 

An  additional  grant  has  been  approved  this  year  on  behalf  of  Dr. 
R.  von  Lendenfeld,  of  the  University  of  Prague,  for  an  investigation 
of  the  organs  of  flight  of  the  best  representative  flyers  of  the  insect 
orders — Lepidoptera,  Hymenoptera,  and  Diptera.  A  detailed  ac- 
count of  this  research  will  be  submitted  on  its  conclusion  for  publica- 
tion by  the  Institution  if  desired. 

Previous  researches  of  Doctor  von  Lendenfeld  have  been  described 
in  articles  prepared  under  his  supervision  by  Drs.  Leo  Walter  and 
Bruno  Miiller.  Doctor  Walter's  article,  already  published,  was 
referred  to  in  the  previous  report.  The  paper  by  Doctor  Miiller 
on  the  air  sacs  of  the  pigeon  is  now  in  course  of  publication. 

SMITHSONIAN  TABLE  AT  NAPLES  ZOOLOGICAL  STATION. 

In  July,  1906,  the  renewal  of  the  lease  of  the  Smithsonian  table 
in  the  Naples  Zoological  Station  for  a  term  of  three  years  from  Janu- 
ary 1,  1907,  was  decided  on,  and  the  director  so  Informed.  Doctor 
Dorhn,  with  his  usual  ready  courtesy,  at  once  notified  the  Institution 
of  his  willingness  to  arrange  for  a  double  occupancy  by  extending 
the  time  of  an  appointee  then  conducting  an  important  research  at 
Naples,  although  the  seat  had  already  been  assigned  for  the  period 
in  question  to  another  investigator. 

It  is  the  intention  of  the  Institution  to  interfere  in  no  way  with 
the  regular  assignment  of  the  table,  and  the  desire  of  the  Director 
to  maintain  the  international  character  of  the  station  by  encouraging 
the  action  of  the  various  countries  in  supporting  individual  tables 
is  fully  appreciated.  Nations  widely  separated,  at  least  geographic- 
ally, meet  there  on  the  common  ground  of  interest  in  science,  and 
thus,  as  an  appointee  of  the  Smithsonian  seat  expressed  in  his  report 
to  the  Institution,  an  international  peace  congress,  the  importance  of 
which  can  not  be  overestimated,  is  always  in  session  at  the  Naples 
Zoological  Station. 


.y  Google 


BEPOBT   OP  THE   SECRETARY.  17 

Several  appointmentd  to  the  Smithsonian  table  at  Naples  were 
ratified  for  the  period  between  June  80,  1906,  and  June  30,  1907,  the 
entire  occupation  of  the  seat  for  the  year  being  eleven  months. 
Since  inquiries  as  to  available  dates  are  frequently  received  a  year 
or  even  two  years  in  advance  of  the  time  desired,  it  may  be  well 
to  repeat  that  in  the  interest  of  all  applicants  it  is  not  customary 
to  approve  a  request  for  the  seat  more  than  six  mcmths  in  advance  of 
the  period  desired. 

By  extension  of  his  appointment.  Dr.  Stewart  Paton,  of  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  occupied  the  Smithsonian  seat  until  the  end 
of  June,  1906.  His  work  at  Naples  dealt  principally  with  the  prob- 
lems hitherto  unsolved  in  connection  with  the  nervous  systan  and  -its 
relations  to  the  action  of  the  heart  As  before  noted,  the  results  of 
this  interesting  research  will  be  published  on  completion. 

The  occupation  of  the  Smithsonian  seat  at  Naples  by  Dr.  Maynard 
M.  Metcalf,  formerly  of  the  Woman's  College  in  Baltimore,  and  now 
of  Oberlin  College,  began  before  the  close  of  the  final  session  of 
Doctor  Paton.  Doctor  Metcalf  reports  that  on  beginning  his  term 
at  the  station  he  continued  his  study  of  the  parasites  of  frogs  prose- 
cuted at  Wiirzburg  and  designed  for  publication  in  connection  with 
work  done  there. 

There  being  apparently  some  doubt  as  to  whether  or  not  the  advan- 
tages of  the  Smithsonian  seat  at  Naples  are  available  to  hitherto 
unknown  investigators,  it  may  be  well  to  state  again  that  the  applica- 
tion of  any  student,  who  is  suitably  recommended  to  the  Institution 
as  prepared  to  undertake  original  work  in  embryological,  histological, 
or  other  fields,  will  not  fail  to  receive  prompt  consideration. 

The  continued  prompt  and  helpful  action  of  the  advisory  commit- 
tee in  reporting  on  qu^ions  relating  to  appointments,  etc.,  is  appre- 
ciated. I  am  glad  to  say  that  the  personnel  of  the  committee  remains 
the  same  as  mentioned  in  the  report  of  last  year. 

PUBLICATIONS. 

It  is  mainly  through  its  publications  that  that  vital  principle  of 
the  Institution,  "  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men,"  is  carried 
out.  The  Institution  proper  maintains  three  regular  series  of  pub- 
lications, the  Smithsonian  Contributi(His  to  Knowledge,  the  Smith- 
sonian Miscellaneous  Collections,  and  the  Annual  Reports,  while 
under  its  auspices  are  issued  the  Annual  Keports,  Proceedings,  and 
Bulletins  of  the  National  Museum,  the  Beports  and  Bulletins  of  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  and  the  Annals  of  the  Astrophysical 
Observatory,  the  whole  presenting  a  fund  of  information  covering 
a  wide  range  of  human  knowledge  in  both  a  specialized  and  general 

Digilized  by  Google 


18  ANHUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSIITUXIONj  1907. 

The  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,  now  in  their  thirty- 
fifth  volume,  ore  restricted  to  the  publication  of  positive  additions 
to  human  knowledge  resting  on  original  research,  all  unverified  specu- 
lation being  rejected.  The  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections 
are  designed  to  contain  reports  on  the  present  state  of  our  knowl- 
edge in  particular  branches  of  science,  instructions  for  collecting 
and  digesting  facts  and  materials  for  research,  lists  and  synopses  of 
species  of  the  organic  and  inorganic  world,  reports  of  explorations, 
and  aids  to  bibliographical  investigations.  This  series  is  now  in  its 
fiftieth  voliune,  and  in  the  quarterly  issue  provision  has  been  made 
for  the  early  publication  of  short  papers  descriptive  of  new  discov- 
eries or  containing  information  of  current  interest  in  all  departments 
of  science. 

In  the  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge  several  important 
works  are  in  press.  One  of  these  is  a  memoir  on  "Glaciers  of  the 
Canadian  Rockies  and  Selkirks,"  by  Dr.  William  H.  Sherzer,  of  the 
Michigan  State  Normal  College,  which  is  a  final  report  on  the  Smith- 
sonian expedition  of  1904.  A  preliminary  report  on  this  expedition 
was  published  in  the  quarterly  issue  of  the  Smthsontan  Miscel- 
laneous Collections  in  1905,  There  is  also  a  work  by  Prof.  E.  A. 
Andrews,  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  on  "The  young  of  the  cray- 
fishes astacus  and  cambarus,"  giving  the  results  of  long  and  careful 
observation  of  the  growth  of  these  common  animals. 

Prof.  Hubert  Lyman  Clark,'  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative 
Zoology  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  who  has  been  at  work  for  some  time 
classifying  and  describing  the  specimens  of  Apodous  Holothurians,  or 
sea  cucumbers,  in  the  National  Museum — a  collection  numbering  over 
a  thousand  specimens  from  the  shores  of  North  and  South  America — 
has  submitted  a  report  embracing  the  result  of  his  study  on  the  fami- 
lies Synaptidte  and  Molpadiids  which  will  appear  some  time  during 
the  next  year.  Other  memoirs  for  the  series  of  Contributions  are  in 
preparation. 

'[Die  quarterly  issue  of  the  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections, 
which  was  temporarily  suspended  in  1905,  was  resumed  in  September, 
1906.  Since  then  parts  3  and  i  of  Volume  III,  and  part  1  of  Volume 
IV,  have  been  completed.  Among  the  recent  papers  published  in  tliis 
series  is  a  "  Letter  of  Dr.  Diego  Alvarez  Chanca,"  dated  1494,  re- 
lating to  the  second  voyage  of  Columbus  to  America,  which  was  trans- 
lated and  annotated  by  Dr.  Fernandez  de  Ybarra.  This  letter  is 
notable  as  being  the  first  "written  document  of  the  natural  history, 
ethnography,  and  ethnology  of  America." 

In  the  regular  series  of  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections 
there  has  been  completed  a  second  paper  on  the  "Attainment  of  very 
low  temperatures  "  dealing  with  the  "self-intensive  process  of  liquefy- 

Digilized  by  Google 


BEFOBT   OF   THE   SECBETABT.  19 

iug  gasee.**  This  paper  is  a  report  on  researches  carried  on  under  a 
Sodgkins  grant  by  Dr.  Morris  W.  Travers,  of  the  University  College, 
Bristol,  England. 

Two  other  papers  are  very  nearly  completed.  One  is  a  "  Report 
on  the  Crustacea  of  the  North  Pacific  Exploring  Expedition  of 
1853-1856,"  by  the  late  Dr.  William  Stimpson.  This  manuscript 
has  been  in  hand  since  1872,  but  for  various  reasons  could  not  here- 
tofore be  published.  The  whole  work  was  carefully  gone  over  by 
Miss  Mary  J.  Rathbun,  Assistant  Curator  of  Marine  Invertebrates 
.  in  the  National  Museum,  who  says  in  her  preface: 

Tbe  .  .  .  report  hoB.been  treated  aa  an  blstorlcal  document,  and  Is  pnb- 
llabed  sabstantlall;  as  It  was  written  by  the  autbor,  tbe  only  additions  being 
tbe  references  to  bis  prelimloarr  descrlptlona,  and  tbe  rootnotes  giving  tbe 
cnrrent  or  accepted  name  where  It  dlfTere  rrom  that  nsed  by  Doctor  Stimpson. 
It  Is  hoped  that  tbe  value  of  the  descrlptlona  will  more  than  compensate  for 
tlie  antiquated  nomenclature  .  .  .  there  are  very  Few  stadeats  who  have 
not  felt  tbe  need  of  more  light  on  ttaose  rare  genera  and  apedes  known  only 
from  brief  Latin  diagnoses. 

Another  publication  is  a  "  Catalogue  of  Earthquakes  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  from  1897  to  1906,"  compiled  by  Mr.  Alexander  G.  McAdie,  as 
a  supplement  to  the  list  of  earthquakes  from  1769  to  1896,  compiled 
hj  Cr.  E.  S.  Holden,  and  published  in  the  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous 
Collections  in  1898. 

A  new  edition  of  the  Smithsonian  Meteorological  Tables  to  meet  the 
continued  demand  for  this  work  is  in  press.  The  plates  have  been 
considerably  revised  by  Prof.  Cleveland  Abbe  to  meet  present  re- 
quirements. 

The  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Regents  to  Congress,  which  is 
printed  at  the  Government  Printing  Office,  has  been  the  chief  me- 
dium through  which  the  Institution  has  been  enabled  to  disseminate 
scientific  information  to  the  world  at  large.  Besides  the  official 
account  of  the  operations  of  the  Institution,  this  report  has  for  over 
half  a  century  included  a  general  appendix  giving  a  record  of  the 
progress  in  different  branches  of  knowledge,  compiled  largely  from 
journals  in  foreign  languages  and  the  transactions  of  scientific  and 
learned  societies  throughout  the  world.  The  considerable  number 
of  copies  of  this  publication  placed  by  Congress  at  the  disposal  of 
the  Institution  has  rendered  possible  a  wide  distribution  to  important 
libraries  and  institutions  of  learning,  but  the  allotment  is  wholly 
insufficient  to  supply  more  than  a  small  fraction  of  the  individual 
requests,  and  the  popular  demand  for  the  volume  has  so  constantly 
increased  that  the  entire  edition  of  each  year's  report  is  exhausted 
within  a  few  months  of  its  appearance. 

Tbe  Institution  proper  distributed  during  the  year  a  total  of 
32,921  volumes  and  separates  of  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowl- 

,d  by  Google 


20  ANMUAL  KEPOHT  6MITHS0K1AN   IHBTITtmON,  1901. 

fdge,  Misoellanecms  Collections,  Ammal  Reports,  pubUcatioiu  not 
included  in  the  regular  series,  and  publications  not  Smithscnian.'* 

The  Proceedings  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  the  first 
volume  of  which  was  issued  in  1878,  are  intended  as  a  medium  for  the 
publication  of  original  papers  based  on  the  collections  of  the  Museum, 
setting  forth  newly  acquired  facts  in  biology,  anthropology,  and 
geology,  or  containing  descriptions  of  new  forms  and  revisions  of 
limited  groups.  A  volume  is  issued  annually  or  oftener  for  distri- 
bution to  libraries  and  scientific  establishments,  and  in  view  of  tile 
importance  of  the  more  prompt  dissemination  of  new  facts  a  limited 
edition  of  each  paper  is  printed  in  pamphlet  form  in  advance.  The 
dat£s  at  which  these  separate  papers  are  published  are  recorded  in 
the  table  of  contents  of  the  volume.  The  Museum  Bulletin,  publica- 
tion of  which  was  begun  in  1875,  comprises  a  series  of  more  elaborate 
papers  issued  separately,  and,  like  the  Proceedings,  is  based  chiefly, 
if  not  wholly,  on  the  collections  of  the  Museum,  A  quarto  form  of 
the  Bulletin,  known  as  the  "  Special  Bulletin,"  has  been  adopted  in  a 
few  instances  in  which  a  larger  size  of  page  was  deemed  indispen- 
sable. Since  1902  the  volumes  of  the  series  known  as  "  Contributions 
from  the  National  Herbarium,"  and  containing  papers  relating  to  the 
botanical  collections  of  the  Museum,  have  been  published  in  the 
Bulletin  series. 

The  Annual  Report  of  the  Museum  is  printed  as  a  separate  volume 
of  the  report  of  the  Board  of  Regents  to  Congress. 

The  publications  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  oon^sting 
of  annual  reports  and  bulletins,  relate  to  the  operations  of  the  Bureau 
in  its  various  branches  of  exploration  and  research.  Part  I  of  the 
Handbook  of  American  Indians  (A  to  M)  was  issued  in  March  and 
the  main  portion  of  Part  II  is  in  type.  The  Twenty-fourth  Annual 
Report  has  been  published  and  much  progress  made  on  the  Twenty- 
fifth  Report.    Several  Bulletins  have  been  issued. 

The  Annual  Report  of  the  American  Historical  Association  for  the 
year  1905  was  transmitted  to  Congress  in  May,  1906,  under  the  re- 
quirements of  the  act  of  incorporation  of  the  association,  but  only  one 
of  the  two  volumes  had  been  completed  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year. 
The  Smithsonian  Institution  is  by  law  allowed  a  number  of  copies  of 
reports  of  this  association,  which  are  distributed  in  exchange  for  the 
publications  of  various  foreign  and  American  historical  societies. 

There  was  also  forwarded  to  Congress  on  February  25,  1907,  the 
ninth  report  of  the  National  Society  of  the  Daughters  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution,  in  accordance  with  the  act  of  incorporation  of  that 
organization.     . 

•  ContrlbutloaB  to  Knowledge,  T7S;  MlscellaoeoiiB  Collections,  10,008;  Reporta, 
]8,490;  publications  not  In  regnlar  series,  2.890;  publications  not  Smtthsoolan, 


BEPOBX   OP  THE   BZCBETABT.  21 

In  accordance  with  the  act  of  Congress  approved  March  30,  190(, 
providing  that  the  cost  of  printing  and  binding  for  the  Executive 
Departments  and  Govenunent  bureaus  shall  be  charged  to  specific 
appropriations  for  the  Departments  and  bureaus,  and  the  further 
provision  in  the  sundry  civil  act  of  June  30, 1906,  that  no  appropria- 
tions except  those  specifically  for  printing  and  binding  shall  be  used 
for  such  purpose,  special  allotments  have  been  made  to  the  Institution 
and  its  branches  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 1908,  as  follows : 
For  tlie  Smitlisiiilan  InBtltntion  for  prlotiiig  aod  binding  annual  reports 

ot  tlie  Board  ot  Regents,  with  genernl  appendixes flO,  000 

For  ttie  annua]  reports  of  tbe  National  Unseum,  witb  general  appen- 
dixes, and  for  printing  labds  and  blanks,  and  for  tbe  bulletins  and 
proceedings  of  tbe  National  Mnsenm,  tbe  editions  of  wbicb  shall  not 
exceed  4,000  copies,  and  binding.  In  half  turkey  or  material  not  more 
expensive,  scientific  boobs  and  pamphlets  presented  to  and  acquired 

by  the  National  Museum  Library 33,000 

For  tbe  annual  report  and  bulletins  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Eth- 
nology   21, 000 

For  miscellaneous  printing  and  binding: 

International  exchanges 200 

International  Catalogue  of  Sclentldc  Literature 100 

National  Zoolojflcal  Part 200 

Astropbyslcal  Observatory  (Including  tlie  publlsblDg  of  results  of 

researches,  not  exceeding  l,BO0  copies) 2,000 

Annnsl  report  of  tbe  American  Historical  Association 7,000 

Total ' 73,600 

The  allotments  to  the  Institution  and  its  branches  under  the  head  of 
public  printing  and  binding  during  the  past  fiscal  year  were  as  far  as 
practicable  expended  prior  to  June  30.  It  was,  however,  difficult  to 
determine  the  actual  balances  available  at  any  particular  date,  for  the 
reason  that  the  actual  cost  of  publications  in  press  could  not  be  ascer- 
tained until  their  completion.  The  estimates  not  being  accurate 
enough  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  calculation,  the  transmission  of  new 
works  was  in  some  cases  delayed  so  long  that  their  completion  was 
impracticable  before  the  appropriation  had  expired.  In  the  case  of 
tbe  allotment  of  $10,000  for  the  Smithsonian  Beports  it  was  thus  pos- 
sible to  expend  only  $8,127.98 ;  of  $21,000  allotted  to  the  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology,  $19,831.76  was  expended,  and  of  the  $39,000 
allotted  for  the  National  Museum  and  the  American  Historical  Asso- 
ciation there  was  expended  $38,980.47. 

ADViaOBY  COUUITTBO  ON  PBINTINO  AND  PUBLICATION. 

The  advisory  committee  on  printing  and  publication  appointed  by 
the  Acting  Secretary  on  February  7,  1906,  in  order  that  the  practice 
of  the  Institution  in  the  supervision  of  its  publications  might  corre- 
spond with  that  of  the  Executive  Departments  as  prescribed  in  fiie 


32  ANNUAL  BEPOar  BMITHBONIAH   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

President's  order  of  January  24, 1906,  held  twenty-six  meetings  dar- 
ing the  year  and  reported  on  one  hundred  and  one  manuscripts  sub- 
mitted for  publication,  besides  numerous  blank  forms  for  use  in  the 
bureaus  of  the  Institution. 

Dr.  Leonhard  Stejneger,  of  the  National  Museum,  has  been  added 
to  the  committee,  which  consists  of  the  following  members :  Dr.  Cyrus 
Adler,  Assistant  SecretAry,  chairman ;  Dr.  F.  W.  True,  of  the  United 
States  National  Museum;  Mr.  F.  W.  Hodge,  of  the  Bureau  of  Ameri- 
can Etlinology;  Dr.  Frank  Baker,  of  the  National  Zoological  Park; 
Mr.  C.  Q.  Abbot,  of  the  Astrophysical  Observatory;  Mr.  W.  L 
Adams,  of  the  International  Exchanges;  Mr.  A.  Howard  Clark,  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  Dr.  Leonhard  Stejneger,  of  the 
United  States  National  Museum. 

The  printing  committee  has  had  under  consideration  the  advan- 
tage of  a  uniform  system  of  abbreviation  of  works  cited  by  natural- 
ists in  their  publications.  A  preliminary  list  of  abbreviations  has 
been  prepared  for  the  criticism  of  the  scientific  staff  of  the  Institution 
and  its  branches. 

Dating  of  puhlicationa. — ^Among  the  questjtms  considered  by  the 
printing  committee  was  the  dating  of  publications,  particularly  su<^ 
papers  as  contain  descriptions  of  new  genera  or  species  in  natural 
history,  and  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  committee  tiie  Institu- 
tion has  adopted  the  rule  that  "  whenever  fifty  copies  of  any  paper 
shaU  have  been  mailed  or  distributed  by  messenger,  the  paper  shall 
be  regarded  as  having  been  published,  it  being  understood  that  the 
date  of  such  mailing  or  distribution  shall  coincide  with  the  date  of 
record  in  the  Smithsonian  document  rooms  and  with  the  date  printed 
upon  the  publication." 

Durable  book  paper. — The  introduction  of  a  very  large  portion  of 
wood  pulp  and  ground  wood  in  book  paper  to  the  exclusion  of  cotton 
or  linen  rags  formerly  used  in  its  manufacture  has  been  found  greatly 
to  decrease  the  durability  of  modem  publications.  The  printing  com- 
mittee, after  considering  this  problem,  concluded  that  paper  hereafter 
used  in  Smithsonian  publications  should  be  composed  of  not  less  than 
50  per  cent  of  rag  stock  and  be  free  from  injurious  chemicals.  Defi- 
nite specifications  as  to  the  composition  of  paper  will  later  be  formu- 
lated, in  cooperation  with  the  Executive  Departments. 

THB  LIBEAEY. 

The  total  accessions  during  the  year  to  the  Smithsonian  library 
a^^egated  in  volumes  and  parts  34,382.  The  major  part  of  these 
was  placed  in  the  Smithsonian  deposit  in  the  Library  of  Congress, 
but  these  accessions  include  the  libraries  of  the  Secretary's  office,  the 
National  Museum,  the  Astrophysical  Observatory,  and  Uie  National 


BEPOBT  OF  THE   SECBETABT.  28 

Zoological  Park.  There  were  also  numerous  additions  to  the  library 
of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  which  is  separately  adminis- 
tered. It  is  estimated  that  the  equivalent  of  11,000  volumes  were 
transmitted  to  the  Library  of  Congress  besides  public  documents  and 
other  gifts  to  that  Library  transmitted  through  the  Tntemational 
Exchange  service,  and  such  public  documents  as  were  presented  to 
the  Institution  and  sent  direct  to  the  Library.  Two  hundred  and  fifty 
new  periodicab  were  added  to  the  receipts  and  some  600  defective 
series  were  partially  or  entirely  filled  up.  The  work  of  the  Inter- 
national Catalogue  has  brou^t  a  considerable  number  of  authors* 
separates  to  the  Library.  Efforts  have  been  made  to  increase  the 
series  of  address  books  in  the  office  of  the  International  Exchanges 
service.  The  estate  of  S.  P.  Langley  turned  over  to  the  Institution 
his  scientific  library,  which  has  been  divided  up  among  the  various 
divisions.  The  Gen.  Watts  de  Peystet  library  of  Napoleon  and  other 
subjects  was  increased  about  288  volumes.  It  is  with  regret  that 
I  record  the  death  of  Greneral  de  Peyster,  who  was  a  well-known 
collector  and  had  been  for  many  years  a  generous  donor  to  the 
Institution. 

The  quarters  of  the  library  both  in  the  Institution  and  Museum 
are  entirely  inadequate,  and  no  relief  seems  possible  until  the  com- 
pletion of.  the  new  building  for  the  National  Museum,  when  it  is 
hoped  that  a  large  part  of  the  main  floor  of  the  Smithsonian  build- 
ing can  be  devoted  to  library  purposes,  forming  a  central  library  for 
the  Institution  and  all  its  branches,  though  of  course  the  sectional 
library  system  will  be  continued  as  heretofore, 

PRBBBBVATION  OF  ARCHBOLOGICAL  SITBS. 

The  Institution  has  for  many  years  taken  a  deep  interest  in  pre- 
serving archeological  objects  on  the  public  domain  from  vandals  and 
relic  hunters  and  making  them  accessible  under  proper  regulations 
to  sctentific  institutions  and  colleges.  A  law  covering  this  subject 
was  approved  on  June  8, 1906.  Under  the  terms  of  this  act  uniform 
regulations  for  its  administration  were  to  be  prepared  by  the  Secre- 
taries of  the  Interior,  War,  and  Agriculture.  At  the  request  of  the 
Departments,  the  Institution  participated  in  several  conferences  of 
representatives  of  the  three  Departments  looking  to  the  preparation 
of  such  rules,  which  were  promulgated  on  December  28,  1906.  A 
little  later  some  dissatisfaction  was  expressed  with  thes^  regulations 
by  archeologists,  and  at  their  request  I  invited  the  three  Departments 
to  reconsider  the  regulations.  Accordingly,  further  conferences  were 
held  by  representatives  of  the  Departments,  of  the  Institution,  and  of 
the  Archeological  Institute  of  America,  resulting  in  the  understand- 


24  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

ing  that  the  present  regulations  should  have  a  reasonable  trial  before 
any  amendment  be  considered.    The  regulations  are  as  follows : 

UNIFORM  ROLES  AND  REGULATIONS  PR£SCRIBED  BT  THE  SECRETARIES  OF 
THE  INTERIOR,  AORICULTURX,  AND  WAR  TO  CARRY  OUT  THE  PROVISIONS 
OF  THE  "  ACT  POR  THE  PRESERVATION  OP  AMERICAN  ANTIQOnTBS," 
APPROVED  JUNE  8,  1906   (34  STAT.  L.,  225.) 

1.  Jurisdiction  over  ruins,  archeotoeical  sites,  historic  and  pre- 
historic monuments  and  structures,  objects  of  antiquity,  historic 
landmarks,  and  other  objects  of  historic  or  scientific  interest,  shall  be 
exercised  under  the  act  by  the  respective  Departments  as  follows: 

By  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  over  lands  within  the  exterior 
limits  of  forest  reserves,  by  the  Secretary  of  War  over  lands  within 
the  exterior  limits  of  military  reservations,  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior  over  all  other  lands  owned  or  controlled  by  the  Government 
of  the  United  States,  provided  the  Secretaries  of  War  and  Aoti- 
culture  may  by  agreement  cooperate  with  the  Secretary  of  the  In- 
terior in  the  supervision  of  such  monuments  and  objects  covered  by 
the  act  of  June  8, 1906,  as  may  be  located  on  lands  near  or  adjacent  to 
forest  reserves  and  military  reservations,  respectively, 

2.  No  permit  for  the  removal  of  any  ancient  monument  or  struc- 
ture which  can  be  permanently  preserved  under  the  control  of  the 
United  States  in  sttu,  and  remain  an  object  of  interest,  shall  be 
granted. 

3.  Permits  for  the  examination  of  ruins,  the  excavation  of  archeo- 
logical  sites,  and  the  gathering  of  objects  of  antiquity  will  be  granted, 
by  the  respective  Secretaries  naving  jurisdiction,  to  reputabfe  muse- 
ums, universities,  colleges,  or  other  recognized  scientific  or  educa- 
tional institutions,  or  to  their  duly  authorized  agents. 

4.  No  exclusive  permits  shall  be  granted  for  a  larger  area  than 
the  applicant  can  reasonably  be  expected  to  explore  fully  and  system- 
aticaUy  within  the  time  limit  named  in  the  permit. 

5.  Each  application  for  a  permit  should  be  filed  with  the  Secretary 
having  jurisdiction,  and  must  be  accompanied  by  a  definite  outline  of 
the  proposed  work,  indicating  the  name  of  the  institution  making 
the  request,  the  date  proposed  for  beginning  the  field  work,  the 
length  of  time  proposed  to  be  devoted  to  it,  and  the  person  who  will 
have  immediate  charge  of  the  work.  The  application  must  also  con- 
tain an  exact  statement  of  the  character  of  the  work,  whether  ex- 
amination, excavation,  or  gathering,  and  the  public  museum  in  which 
the  collections  made  under  the  permit  are  to  be  permanently  pre- 
served. The  application  must  be  accompanied  by  a  sketch  plan  or 
description  of  the  particular  site  or  area  to  be  examined,  excavated, 
or  searched,  so  definite  that  it  can  be  located  on  the  map  with  reason- 
able accuracy. 

6.  No  permit  will  be  granted  for  a  period  of  more  than  three  years, 
but  if  the  work  has  been  diligently  prosecuted  under  the  permit,  the 
time  may  be  extended  for  proper  cause  upon  application. 

7.  Failure  to  begin  work  under  a  permit  within  six  months  after  it 
is  granted,  or  failure  to  diligently  prosecute  such  work  after  it  has 
been  begun,  shall  make  the  permit  void  without  any  order  or  pro- 
ceeding oy  the  Secretary  having  jurisdiction. 

,_  ibyGoogle 


BEPOBI  OF  THE   SBCBBTABT.  36 

8.  Applications  for  permits  shall  be  referred  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  for  recommendation. 

9.  Every  permit  shall  be  in  writing  and  copies  shall  be  trans- 
mitted to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  the  field  officer  in  charge 
of  the  land  involved.  The  permittee  will  be  furnished  with  a  copy 
»f  these  rules  and  regulations. 

10.  At  the  close  of  each  season's  field  work  the  permittee  shall  re- 
port in  duplicate  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  in  such  form  as  its 
Secretary  may  prescribe,  and  shall  prepare  in  duplicate  a  catalogue  of 
the  collections  and  of  the  photographs  made  during  the  season, 
indicating  therein  such  material,  if  any,  as  may  he  available  for 
exchange. 

11.  Institutions  and  persons  receiving  permits  for  excavation  shall, 
after  the  completion  of  the  work,  restore  the  lands  upon  which  they 
have  worked  to  their  customary  condition,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
field  officer  in  charge. 

12.  All  permits  shall  be  terminable  at  the  discretion  of  the  Secre- 
tary having  jurisdiction. 

13.  The  field  officer  in  charge  of  land  owned  or  controlled  by  the 
Government  of  the  United  States  shall,  from  time  to  time,  inquire 
and  report  as  to  the  existence,  on  or  near  such  lands,  of  ruins  and 
arcbeofogical  sites,  historic  or  prehistoric  ruins  or  monuments, 
objects  of  antiquity,  historic  landmarks,  historic  and  prehistoric 
structures,  and  other  objects  of  historic  or  scientific  interest. 

14.  The  field  officer  in  charge  may  at  all  times  examine  the  permit 
of  any  person  or  institution  claiming  privileges  granted  in  accord- 
ance with  the  act  and  these  rules  and  regulations,  and  may  fully 
examine  all  work  done  under  such  permit. 

15.  All  persons  duly  authorized  oy  the  Secretaries  of  Agriculture, 
War,  and  Interior  may  apprehend  or  cause  to  he  arrested,  as  provided 
in  the  act  of  February  6,  1905  (S3  Stat.  L.,  700),  any  person  or  per- 
sons who  appropriate,  excavate,  injure,  or  destroy  any  historic  or  pre- 
historic ruin  or  monument,  or  any  object  of  antiquitv  on  lands  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Secretaries  of  Agriculture,  War,  and  Interior, 
respectively. 

16.  Any  object  of  antiquity  taken,  or  collection  made,  on  lands 
owned  or  controlled  by  the  United  States,  without  a  permit,  as  pre- 
scribed by  the  act  and  these  rules  and  regulations,  or  there  taken  or 
made,  contrary  to  the  terms  of  the  permit,  or  contrary  to  the  act  and 
these  rules  and  regulations,  may  be  seized  wherever  found  and  at 
any  time,  by  the  proper  field  officer  or  by  any  person  duly  authorized 
by  the  Secretary  having  jurisdiction,  and  disposed  of  as  the  Secre- 
tary shall  determine,  by  deposit  in  the  proper  national  depository  or 
otherwise. 

17.  Every  collection  made  under  the  authority  of  the  act  and  of 
these  rules  and  regulations  shall  be  preserved  in  the  public  museum 
designated  in  the  permit  and  shall  be  accessible  to  the  public  No 
such  collection  shall  be  removed  from  such  public  museum  without 
the  written  authority  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
and  then  only  to  another  public  museum,  where  it  shall  be  accessible 
to  the  public ;  and  when  any  public  museum,  which  is  a  depository  of 
any  collection  made  under  the  provisions  of  the  act  and  these  rules 
and  regulations,  shall  cease  to  exist,  every  such  collection  in  such 

L,,,_,  ■  Gooylc 


26  AKNVAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   IBSTITnilON,  1907. 

public  museum  shall  thereupon  revert  to  the  national  collections  and 
be  placed  in  the  proper  national  depository. 

Washinoton,  D.  C,  December  S8,  1906. 
The  foregoing  rules  and  regulations  are  berebv  approved  in  tripli- 
cate and,  under  authority  conferred  by  law  on  tne  Secretaries  of  ihk 
Interior,  Agriculture,  and  War,  are  hereby  made  and  established,  to 
take  effect  immediately. 

E.  A.   Hitchcock, 
Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

James  Wii^on, 
Secretary  of  Agriculture. 
Wm.  H.  Tapt, 

Secretary  of  War. 

The  Institution  has  promptly  acted  upon  all  requests  for  advice, 
either  through  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  when  archeological  sites 
were  concerned  or  through  the  National  Museum  when  paleonto- 
logical  collections  were  desired. 

The  national  domain  possesses  priceless  treasures  for  the  archeolo- 
gist  and  for  the  public  generally,  and  this  regulation  of  excavation  is 
in  the  interest  not  only  of  science  but  of  the  whole  people. 

CA8A  ORANDE  RDIN  IN  ARIZONA. 

As  was  stated  in  the  previous  report,  Congress  appropriated  $3,000, 
to  be  expended  under  the  supervision  of  the  Secretary,  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Casa  Grande  ruin,  in  Pinal  County,  near  Florence, 
Ariz.,  and  for  excavation  on  the  reservation.  This  work  was  placed 
in  the  immediate  charge  of  Dr.  J.  Walter  Fewkes,  of  the  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology,  an  experienced  archeologist,  and  the  results 
reached  have  been  beyond  expectations  entertained.  All  the  mounds 
on  the  reservation  have  been  opened  and  about  three-fifths  of  the  com- 
pound excavated.  In  the  course  of  the  work  there  was  found  a  wall 
which  not  only  surrounds  Casa  Grande  but  also  43  large  rooms.  The 
newly  discovered  walls  have  been  repaired  and  protected,  and  when 
completed  there  will  be  restored  for  posterity  a  representative  pre- 
historic settlement  of  the  desert  of  southern  Arizona. 

A  preliminary  report  of  the  first  year's  work  has  been  prepared, 
and  since  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  has  appeared  in  the  Smithsonian 
Miscellaneous  Collections.  Congress  granted  a  second  appropriation 
to  complete  the  work,  which  will,  as  in  the  previous  year,  be  carried 
on  under  the  direction  of  Doctor  Fewkes.  The  very  interesting 
collections  which  have  incidentally  been  found  have  been  deposited 
in  the  National  Museum. 

The  appropriation  for  the  protection  and  excavation  at  Casa 
Grande  was  made  two  years  ago  at  the  recommendation  of  the 
Department  of  the  Interior,  but  the  work  was  placed  under  the 


BEPOBT   OP   THE  SECBEIABY.  27 

direction  of  the  Institution  at  the  initiative  of  the  Committee  on 
Appropriations,  without  any  suggestion  from  the  Institution  itself. 
The  plans  for  the  work  were  submitted  to  the  authorities  of  the 
Interior  Department  and  approved  by  it,  and  a  synoptic  report  of 
the  year's  operations  was  transmitted  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

CORRESPONDENCE. 

The  correspondence  of  the  Institution  shows  that  there  is  even  in 
the  more  remote  parts  of  this  country  and  abroad,  a  widespread 
knowledge  that  one  of  the  primary  purposes  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution is  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  although  the  public  at  large 
does  not  always  possess  a  very  definite  idea  of  the  exact  scope  of 
the  Institution's  functions.  Hence  there  are  received  annually  hun- 
dreds of  letters  asking  for  information  covering  practically  every 
field  of  science,  from  a  simple  inquiry  concerning  the  identity  of 
some  natural-history  specimen  to  a  request  for  an  explanation  of 
some  problem  in  astronomy  or  physics,  which  may  require  quite 
exhaustive  study  on  the  part  of  a  member  of  the  staff.  All  legiti- 
mate requests  for  scientific  information  are  cheerfully  responded  to 
as  far  as  practicable,  and  by  this  means  much  useful  knowledge  is 
disseminated,  although  the  preparation  of  these  communications  con- 
sumes a  considerable  part  of  the  time  of  both  the  scientific  and  cleri- 
cal staff.  It  may  be  well  to  state  in  this  connection,  however,  that 
the  Institution  does  not  undertake  to  maintain  a  "  question  bureau," 
such  as  is  frequently  conducted  by  newspapers  and  magazines,  nor 
does  it  furnish  information  of  a  commercial  nature,  which  could  as 
readily  be  obtained  from  a  professional  advisor  upon  the  payment 
of  a  fee. 

In  addition  to  this  general  correspondence,  there  is  carried  on  by 
the  several  branches  of  the  Institution — the  National  Museum,  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  the  National  Zoological  Park,  the 
International  Exchanges,  and  the  Astrophysical  Observatory — a  con- 
siderable correspondence  relating  to  the  respective  activities  of  each. 
All  matters  affecting  questions  of  policy,  and  all  appointments,  how- 
ever, receive  the  personal  consideration  of  the  Secretory. 

The  practice  of  press-copying  outgoing  letters  in  books  has  been 
abandoned  during  the  year,  and  the  use  of  carbon  copies  substituted 
in  its  stead.  Other  changes  have  also  been  instituted  in  the  method  of 
filing,  by  which  the  papers  on  any  given  subject  are  made  more 
readily  accessible  for  reference. 

EXPOSITIONS,  CONGRBSSBS,  AND  CELEBRATIONS. 

Jatneatown  Exposition. — Out  of  an  appropriation  of  $200,000  for 

the  Govemnjent  display  at  the  Jamestown  Exposition,  $16,000  was 

allowed  for  the  preparation  of  exhibits  by  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 


28  ANNUAL  EEPOBI  SMITHSONIAB  INSTITOTION,  1907. 

tioD  and  the  National  Museum,  and  a  separate  building — Annex  B — 
about  60  by  100  feet,  was  provided  for  the  installation  and  care  of 
the  exhibit.  Mr.  W.  de  C.  Ravenel,  administrative  assistant  of  the 
United  States  National  Museum,  represented  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution and  the  National  Museum  on  the  Government  board,  and  was 
assisted  in  the  preparation  of  the  exhibits  by  an  advisory  committee 
condsting  of  Dr.  Cyrus  Adler,  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution;  Mr.  W.  H.  Holmes,  chief  of  the  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology;  and  Mr.  A.  Howard  Clark,  Curator  of  His- 
tory, United  States  National  Museum.  The  exhibit  is  entirely  his- 
torical in  character  and  mainly  has  to  do  with  the  development  of 
the  United  States  along  various  lines,  such  as  in  land  transporta- 
tion, firearms,  photography,  medicine,  and  other  branches. 

Bordeaux  Exposition. — The  United  States  exhibit  at  the  Interna- 
tional Maritime  Exposition,  opened  at  Bordeaux,  France,  May  1, 1907, 
was  collected  and  installed  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Department  of  State.  Mr.  Ravenel,  administrative  assist- 
ant of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  was  designated  by  the 
Secretary  to  prepare  and  install  this  exhibit. 

Congress  of  Americanists. — ^The  fifteenth  annual  Congress  of 
Americanists  was  held  in  Quebec  September  10-15, 1906.  Mr.  W.  H. 
Holmes,  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  was  unable 
to  accept  the  designation  of  delegate  which  was  tendered  to  him, 
but  his  place  was  filled  by  Dr.  Walter  Hough,  of  the  Division  of 
Anthropology  in  the  National  Museum,  who  represented  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  the  National  Museum,  and  the  Bureau  of  Ameri- 
can Ethnology. 

IntematioTUil  Geological  Congress. — The  Tenth  International  Geo- 
logical Congress  was  held  in  the  City  of  Mexico  September  6-14, 
1906.  Prof.  S.  F.  Emmons,  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey, 
acted  as  representative  for  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

LinncEua  celebrations. — ^The  two  hundredth  anniversary  of  the 
birthday  of  Linne  was  celebrated  at  New  York  May  4,  1907,  by  the 
New  York  Academy  of  Sciences.  Dr.  Theodore  Gill  represented  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  on  that  occasion.  Professor  Farlow,  of  Har- 
vard University,  represented  the  Institution  at  the  Linnseus  celebra- 
tion of  the  Royal  Swedish  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Upsala  on  May  25. 

Dedication  of  engineering  huHding. — Mr.  George  C.  Maynard,  of 
the  National  Museum,  represented  the  Smithsonian  Institution  at  the 
dedication  of  the  new  building  for  the  engineering  department  of  the 
University  of  Pponsylvania,  September  26,  1906. 

Memorial  to  Louis  Agassis.— At  the  unveiling  of  the  memorial 
to  Louis  Agassiz,  in  the  Hall  of  Fame  at  Columbia  University,  New 
York,  on  May  30, 1907,  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  In3tltata<Hi 

ii.;,Gooyk' 


BEPOBT   OF   THE  SECRETABY.  29 

presented  a  brief  tribute  to  that  great  man  of  science  which  was 
afterwards  published  in  the  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections. 

Aberdeen  annivergary,  etc. — ^Prof.  F.  W.  Clarke  represented  the 
Institution  on  the  occasion  of  the  four  hundredth  anoiversary  of  the 
Aberdeen  University,  October  20, 1906.  At  the  request  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  State,  the  Institution  recommended  as  delegates  of  the  Gov- 
ernment to  the  International  Zoological  Congress,  to  be  held  in  Bos- 
ton in  August,  1907,  Mr.  Richard  Rathbun,  Dr.  Theodore  Gill,  Dr. 
W.  H.  Dall,  Dr.  F.  W.  True,  Mr.  Leonhard  Stejneger,  and  Dr.  Har- 
rison G.  Dyar.  The  Secretary  attended  the  inauguration  of  the  Car- 
ne^e  Institute  at  Pittsburg,  April  11-13,  1907.  Mr.  Arnold  Hague 
was  appointed  to  represent  the  Institution  at  the  centenary  of  the 
Geological  Society  of  London,  to  take  place  September  19,  1907,  and 
Prof.  Simon  Newcomb  has  accepted  the  designation  to  represent  the 
Institution  at  the  Fourth  International  Congress  of  Mathematicians, 
to  be  held  at  Rome  April  6-11,  1908. 

Prize  essay  on  fisheries. — In  response  to  an  invitation  from  the 
International  Fishery  Congress,  the  fourth  session  of  which  is  to  be 
held  in  Washington  in  September,  1908,  an  allotment  of  $200  has 
been  made  from  the  Smithsonian  fund  as  a  prize  for  the  best  article 
on  the  international  regulation  of  the  fisheries  of  the  high  seas,  their 
history,  objects  and  results.  It  is  announced  that  any  person,  asso- 
ciation, or  company  may  compete  for  the  various  prizes  to  be  awarded 
in  connection  with  this  congress  by  complying  with  the  published 
conditions  which  govern  the  competition,  as  issued  from  the  office  of 
the  general  secretary  of  the  congress,  Dr.  H.  M.  Smith,  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  Washington,  D.  C. 

HISGBLLANGODS. 

ImprovcTnent  and  maintenance  of  Smithsonian  grounds. — The  sun- 
dry civil  act  approved  March  4,  1907,  contained  an  appropriation  of 
$3,000  for  the  improvement,  care,  and  maintenance  of  the  Smith- 
sonian grounds,  and  also  an  appropriation  of  $5,000  for  resurfacing 
the  asphalt  roadways  in  the  grounds. 

Calif omia  Academy  of  Sciences. — ^As  stated  in  the  previous  report, 
the  good  offices  of  the  Institution  were  tendered  and  accepted  by  the 
California  Academy  of  Sciences  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  it  in  re- 
placing its  library  and  collection  destroyed  by  the  earthquake  and 
fire  of  April,  1906.  In  the  report  of  the  Bureau  of  International  Bx- 
changes  it  is  noted  that  upward  of  7,000  valuable  publications  were 
secured  abroad  and  forwarded  to  the  academy,  and  not  all  of  the  cor- 
respondents of  the  academy  have  yet  responded  to  the  circular.  The 
Institution  also  forwarded  without  cost  to  the  academy  very  consid- 
erable collections  of  books  from  individuals  and  institutions  in  tJie 


80  ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

United  States,  as  well  as  collections  of  specimens.  The  academy  has 
expressed  its  grateful  appreciation  of  the  generous  attitude  of  foreigti 
and  American  societies  and  of  the  aid  offered  by  the  International 
Exchange  Service  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  rehabilitating^ 
its  library  and  collections. 

NATIONAL  MUSEUM. 

The  overcrowding  of  the  present  Museum  building  has  necessarily 
continued,  so  that  in  many  places  it  presents  almost  the  aspect  of  a 
storehouse.  Nevertheless,  the  collections  can  be  viewed  by  visitors, 
although  not  to  the  advantage  which  a  freer  installation  would  render 
possible.  Meanwhile  the  roof  of  the  present  building  is  being  re- 
paired and  various  exhibition  halls  have  been  isolated  with  a  view  to 
obtaining  greater  fire  protection.  Exclusive  of  the  subject  of  the  fine, 
arts,  the  additions  to  the  Museum  during  the  year  consisted  of  about 
a  quarter  of  a  million  specimens  representing  all  the  subjects  em- 
braced in  the  Museum  collections.  Several  expeditions  for  collecting 
and  observation  were  made  by  members  of  the  staff.  Many  of  the 
collections  were  reclassified  and  numerous  papers  published.  Of 
duplicate  specimens  separated  from  the  collections  about  16,000  were 
distributed  in  208  sets  to  educational  establishments  in  differeut  parts 
of  the  United  States.  The  principal  labor  of  representing  the  Insti- 
tution and  the  Museum  at  tiie  Jamestown  Exposition,  and  the  Grov- 
emment,  the  Institution,  and  the  Museum  at  the  Bordeaux  Exposition, 
fell  upon  the  staff  of  the  Museum.  Mr.  W.  de  C.  Ravenel,  the  ad- 
ministrative assistant  of  the  Museum,  acted  as  representative  of  the 
Institution  for  both  these  expositions  with  great  ability  and  success. 

NEW  BDILDINO  FOR  THE  NATIONAL  MUSEDM. 

Although  the  new  building  for  the  National  Museum  has  not  pro- 
gressed so  rapidly  as  had  been  expected,  due  almost  exclusively  to 
delays  in  the  delivery  of  the  granite,  these  conditions  have  now  been 
overcome,  and  it  is  confidently  expected  that  the  building  will  be 
under  roof  by  the  spring  of  1908  and  be  ready  for  occupancy  by  the 
beginning  of  1909,  consuming  a  period  of  time  not  excessive  in  view 
of  the  great  size  of  the  building  and  of  the  solid  and  monumental 
character  of  its  construction. 

As  the  new  building  approaches  completion  certain  questions  con- 
nected with  the  future  administration  of  the  Museum  necessarily 
press  for  consideration.  It  has  been  reasonably  well  determined  that 
the  new  building  will  be  devoted  to  the  scientific  and  historical  col- 
lections, and  the  present  Museum  building  will  be  employed  for  the 
development  of  the  department  of  arts  and  industries;  that  the  upper 
exhibition  hall  of  the  Smithsonian  building  will  be  utilized  to  the 


BEPORT  OP   THE   8ECKETAHY.  31 

fine-art  collection  and  the  lower  hall  to  a  library,  but  carrying  with 
it  certain  exposition  series,  such  as  are  appropriate  to  a  library.  The 
appropriation  for  the  construction  of  the  new  building  did  not  pro- 
vide for  its  equipment,  and  to  commence  this  work  I  have  included 
in  the  estimates  to  Congress  a  request  for  $200,000  to  begin  the  con- 
struction of  cases  and  furnishings  for  the  new  building. 

The  purpose  of  the  Museum  is,  and  must  continue  to  be,  the  cus- 
tody of  the  national  collections,  by  which  is  meant  the  preservation, 
classification  and  exhibition,  and  work  incident  thereto.  The  main 
purpose  of  the  Museum  must  never  be  lost  sight  of.  It  is  but  natural 
and  proper  that  in  the  course  of  classification  and  arrangement 
skilled  scientific  men  engaged  in  this  work  should  make  discoveries 
of  importance  to  science  and  that  the  Museum  should  publish  them. 
In  this  way  the  Museum,  in  all  the  departments  which  its  collections 
represent,  is  a  great  research  institution  as  well,  but  this  research 
work  is  a  by-product  rather  than  the  fundamental  purpose  of  the 
Museum.  Happily  enough,  the  relationship  of  the  Museum  to  the 
Institution  is  of  such  a  nature  that  there  is  no  waste  of  energy,  and 
researches  which  may  be  initiated  through  the  study  of  collections, 
which  for  some  reason  or  other  can  not  be  pursued  without  field  work 
and  further  studies,  can  be  carried  on  either  by  the  parent  Institu- 
tion or  by  some  other  branch  of  it.  From  this  point  of  view  the  fact 
that  the  Institution,  Museum,  and  Bureau  of  Ethnology  are  in  one 
organization  has  produced  most  useful  results,  and  it  is  not  improb- 
able that  in  the  future  other  combinations  which  may  be  of  great 
advantage  to  the  scientific  work  of  the  Grovernment  and  the  advance- 
ment of  science  generally,  can  be  effected  without  in  any  way  inter- 
fering with  the  fundamental  purpose  of  the  Museum. 

NATIONAL  GALLERY  OP  ART. 

The  brief  history  of  the  inception  of  the  National  Gallery  of  Art, 
of  the  tender  and  acceptance  of  the  Freer  collection  and  of  the 
decree  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  resulting  in 
the  securing  of  the  Harriet  Lane  Johnston  collection,  is  given  in  the 
report  for  the  previous  year.  As  described  more  in  detail  in  the 
report  on  the  National  Museum,  these  collections  have  been  tempo- 
rarily installed  in  the  lecture  hall  of  the  Museum,  and,  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  the  place  was  not  designed  for  a  collection  of  art,  have 
been  viewed  by  a  large  number  of  visitors.  Twenty-one  paintings 
of  merit  from  the  Lucius  Tuckennan  collection  have  been  received 
on  deposit,  and  gifts  have  been  received,  among  others,  from  the  Hon. 
J.  B.  Henderson,  the  chairman  of  the  executive  committee  of  the 
Board  of  Regents,  and  from  Miss  Eleanor  Blodgett,  of  New  York. 

A  most  considerable  gift,  especially  gratifying  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  it  furnishes  an  index  of  real  recognition  of  the  importance  of 


82  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  19IK. 

the  National  Gallery  on  the  part  of  a  distinguished  collector,  was 
the  donation  by  Mr.  William  T.  Evans,  of  Montclair,  N.  J.,  of  52 
paintings  in  oil  by  American  artists  of  established  reputation.  No 
space  was  available  for  the  installation  of  this  really  exceptional 
collection  in  the  buildings  of  the  Institution  or  Museum,  and,  through 
the  courtesy  of  the  trustees  of  the  Corcoran  Gallery  of  Art,  the  paint- 
ings have  been  temporarily  hung  in  that  gallery. 

With  a  view  to  providing  space  for  the  National  Gallery  for  a 
period  of  years  and  until  a  proper  building  is  secured,  I  have 
included  in  the  estimates  for  the  coming  6scal  year  an  item  for 
adapting  the  large  second  story  of  the  main  part  of  the  SmiUisonian 
building,  a  hall  200  feet  long  and  about  50  feet  wide,  for  this  purpose. 
It  will  require  some  changes  to  make  it  suitable  for  the  hanging  of 
pictures,  and  improvements  must  be  made  in  the  approaches,  whidi 
are  now  inconvenient  for  the  public.  I  trust  that  Congress  may  see 
its  way  to  grant  this  appropriation  at  its  forthcoming  session. 

The  tender  of  the  deposit  of  13  paintings  by  Edward  Moran,  illus- 
trating American  history,  made  by  Mr.  Theodore  Sutro,  of  New 
York,  was  accepted,  and  in  September,  1907,  this  interesting  histor- 
ical collection  was  hung  on  screens  especially  built  for  the  purpose. 

The  responsibility  assumed  by  the  Institution  for  the  nation  in 
bringing  together  a  worthy  gallery  of  art  has  created  widespread 
interest  and  comment  in  magazines  and  journals  on  the  part  of  artists 
and  art  critics  and  with  hardly  an  exception  has  been  cordially  re- 
ceived. The  Institution  recognizes  the  deep  responsibility  entailed 
by  this  new  movement  and  fully  appreciates  that  the  art  world  and  the 
public  have  a  right  to  expect  that  the  future  gallery  shall  be  worthy 
of  the  nation.  Mr.  Rathbun  has  taken  deep  interest  in  the  promotion 
of  the  gallery  and  has  given  a  great  amount  of  personal  attention  to 
it,  and  Mr.  W.  H.  Holmes,  a  member  of  the  staff,  and  himself  a  pro- 
fessional artist,  has  given  valuable  advice  in  the  matter  of  selection 
and  installation.  It  will  of  course  be  a  considerable  time  before  the 
Institution  can  command  the  services  of  a  staff  experienced  in  the  fine 
arts.  But  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  the  principles  which  have 
for  years  guided  the  Institution  in  administering  upon  scientific  mat- 
ters should  not  be  applied  with  equal  success  to  the  fine  arts.  The 
Secretaries  have  never  relied  exclusively  upon  their  own  judgment, 
nor  even  upon  the  judgment  of  the  very  able  staff,  to  pass  upon 
scientific  memoirs  or  to  administer  funds  for  scientific  purposes,  but 
they  have  been  aided  by  committees  composed  of  the  most  distin- 
guished specialists  throughout  the  country.  Hardly  a  single  scien- 
tific man  through  the  course  of  more  than  half  a  century  has  ever 
declined  to  act  upon  such  a  committee,  and  it  would  seem  feasible  to 
carry  out  the  suggestion  informally  made  to  the  Board  of  Regents  by 
Mr.  Rathbun  nearly  a  year  ago,  that  the  acceptance  of  .paintings  and 


BEPORT   OF  THE   SECRETARY.  38 

indeed  the  general  policy  of  the  National  Gallery  of  Art  should  have 
the  advice  of  a  committee  composed  of  the  most  distinguished  artists, 
sculptors,  and  students  of  art  in  the  country,  which  body  might,  for 
purposes  of  administration,  be  divided  into  subcommittees  to  deal 
with  the  various  aspects  of  the  National  Gallery.  Steps  have  already 
been  taken  to  organize  such  a  committee,  and  conferences  have  been 
held  looking  to  that  end,  and  I  hope  before  very  long  to  bring  a  defi- 
nite plan  for  its  constitution  to  the  attention  of  the  Regents. 

BXJBEAU  OF  AMERICAN  ETHNOLOGY. 

The  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  has  been  engaged  in  investi- 
gations among  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  country  for  upward  of  a  quar- 
ter of  a  century.  The  object  of  these  investigations  has  been  two- 
fold— to  preserve  a  i-ecord  of  the  native  races  of  this  country,  and  to 
place  at  the  disposal  of  the  General  Government  information  which 
would  enable  it  successfully  to  deal  with  the  tribes.  For  this  latter 
work  the  first  requisite  is  a  working  knowledge  of  the  tribes,  and 
the  Bureau  has  collected  data  relating  to  some  60  families  of  lin- 
guistic stocks,  and  upward  of  300  tribes.  It  has  located  and  classi- 
fied these,  and  has  made  progress  in  the  study  of  their  history,  rela- 
tionships to  one  another  and  to  the  whites,  their  needs  as  wards  of 
the  Government,  and  their  capacities  for  and  adaptability  to  civiliza- 
tion. For  this  purpose  it  was  deemed  necessary  to  give  attention  to 
the  culture  of  the  tribes,  especially  their  languages,  social  organiza- 
tion and  government,  systems  of  belief,  religious  customs,  and  arts 
and  industries,  as  well  as  to  their  physical  and  mental  characteristics. 

It  has  not  been  possible  to  study  all  of  the  tribes  in  detail,  but  only 
to  investigate  a  sufficient  number  as  types  to  stand  for  all.  The  re- 
sults of  the  work  heretofore  accomplished  are  embodied  in  published 
reports,  and  in  many  manuscripts  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the 
Bureau.  It  has  been  deemed  advisable  to  take  stock,  as  it  were,  and 
to  issue  a  summary  of  our  present  knowledge  of  the  tribes.  This  has 
taken  the  form  of  a  handbook  of  American  Indians,  the  first  volume 
of  which  has  appeared  and  received  much  favorable  comment.  No 
effort  will  be  spared  to  push  this  work  to  a  conclusion,  and  as  much 
force  and  time  as  are  necessary  for  this  purpose  will  be  employed 
during  the  year.  In  order  to  keep  this  summary  within  the  compass 
of  an  easily  consulted  handbook,  many  important  subjects  have  been 
treated  merely  in  outline. 

The  next  special  subject  to  which  a  publication  will  be  devoted 
will  be  the  languages  and  their  dialects,  for  which  a  handbook  in  at 
least  two  volumes  is  in  progress,  the  first  being  now  ready  for  publi- 
cation.   It  is  the  work  of  our  first  American  philologist,  osEOsted  by 

Cooylc 


34  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

a  score  of  the  ablest  students  of  this  branch  in  the  United  States. 
The  arts  and  industries  will  also  be  treated  in  a  separate  handbook 
now  under  way,  and  other  branches  are  likewise  in  preparation  for 
publication.  These  include  treaties  and  land  sessions,  sign  language 
and  pictography,  religions,  social  systems  and  gOTeriunent,  physical 
and  mental  characteristics,  archeology,  and  other  subjects. 

This  work  of  studying  and  recording  the  Indian  tribes  is  not  only 
of  national  importance,  but  urgent.  It  can  never  be  repeated.  It 
will  constitute  the  only  systematic  record  of  the  red  race  that  can 
ever  be  made.  The  native  race,  one  of  the  four  races  of  men,  is  dis- 
appearing, and  the  processes  of  obliteration  are  irresistible  and  swifL 
A  language  or  culture  of  any  race,  once  destroyed,  can  never  be  re- 
covered. The  work  is  worthy  of  a  great  nation,  and  is  one  that  can  be 
carried  on  systematically  only  by  the  Government.  The  Government 
has  two  great  obligations  which  the  Bureau  is  rapidly  fulfilling: 
(1)  To  know  the  Indian  for  practical  purposes  of  government  and  in 
the  interests  of  humanity;  (2)  to  preserve  to  the  world  an  adequate 
record  of  the  race  which  is  so  rapidly  disappearing. 

With  the  object  of  assisting  the  departments  of  the  Gtovemment 
having  custody  of  the  public  domain  in  the  preservation  of  antiqui- 
ties, the  work  of  compiling  a  descriptive  catalogue  of  antiquities  has 
been  continued,  and  several  bulletins  relating  to  this  work  have  been 
published. 

Uniform  rules  and  regulations  have  been  adopted  by  the  three  de- 
partments in  control  of  the  public  domain  in  carrying  out  the  recently 
enacted  law  for  the  preservation  of  antiquities.  Under  this  law  three 
important  archeological  sites  were  declared  national  monuments,  as 
follows:  Chaco  Canyon  in  New  Mexico,  including  several  important 
ruined  pueblos ;  El  Moro,  New  Mexico,  commonly  known  as  Inscrip- 
tion Rock,  and  Montezuma  Castle,  in  Arizona,  an  important  cliff  ruin. 

INTERNATIONAL  EXCHANGES. 

The  work  of  the  International  Exchange  Service  continues  to 
increase  from  year  to  year,  until  the  number  of  packages  annually 
passing  through  the  hands  of  the  service  now  amounts  to  nearly 
200,000,  and  the  weight  to  over  200  tons.  During  the  past  year 
nearly  2,000  packing  boxes  were  required  in  transmitting  exchanges 
to  other  countries.  These  figures  serve  to  convey  some  idea  of  the 
magnitude  of  the  operations  of  the  service  and  make  apparent  the 
need  of  increased'  appropriations  from  time  to  time  in  order  to  keep 
the  work  up  to  the  high  standard  of  efficiency  which  has  been 
attained.  A  larger  appropriation  was  therefore  requested  for  carry- 
ing on  the  service  during  the  coming  year,  and  it  is  gratifying  to  state 
that  Congress  granted  $32,200,  an  increase  of  $3,400  over  the  sum 
allowed  for  the  year  now  closed.    This  additional  amount  will  per- 


KEPOBT   OF   THE   BECBETARY.  35 

mit  further  improvements  in  the  service  eind  renewed  exertions  to 
procure  larger  returns  of  government  publications  from  abroad  for 
the  Library  of  Congress  and  the  several  Departments  and  Bureaus 
of  the  Government 

The  Smithsonian  Institntion,  throufj^  its  system  of  exchanges,  is 
in  correspondence  with  58,107  establishments  and  individuals,  46,514 
of  which  are  exterior  to  the  borders  of  the  United  States.  As  will  be 
seen  from  a  perusal  of  the  tahle  in  the  full  report  on  the  exchanges 
in  the  appendix,  these  correspondents  are  scattered  throughout  the 
world,  and  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  no  place,  however  remote, 
which  does  not  profit  by  the  service. 

Under  the  Congressional  resolutions  of  March  2,  1867,  and  March 
2,  1901,  setting  apart  a  certain  number  of  documents  for  exchange 
^ith  foreign  governments,  there  are  now  sent  regularly  to  deposi- 
tories abroad  53  full  sets  of  United  States  official  publications  and  30 
partial  sets,  the  governments  of  Ecuador,  Panama,  and  Alberta, 
Canada,  having  been  added  to  the  depositories  of  partial  sets  during 
the  past  year. 

In  order  to  prevent  loss  of  publications  intended  for  Government 
establishments,  special  attention  has  been  given  to  foreign  consign- 
ments of  books  arriving  at  the  various  United  States  custom-houses 
incorrectly  or  insufficiently  addressed.  During  the  past  year  these 
efforts  have  resulted  in  the  clearing  of  a  number  of  consignments 
which  might  otherwise  have  gone  astray. 

The  work  of  increasing  the  office  collection  of  directories  and  other 
books  of  addresses  has  continued  during  the  year,  and  has  resulted  in 
the  accumulation  of  a  very  creditable  assemblage  of  such  publications. 

I  am  gratified  to  state  that  through  the  efforts  of  Dr.  Eypaldo 
Bassier,  a  member  of  the  Greek  Parliament,  an  arrangement  has  been 
effected  whereby  all  exchanges  for  Greece  may  now  be  forwarded  to 
the  National  Library  at  Athens  for  distribution,  instead  of  limiting 
the  consignments,  as  formerly,  to  publications  intended  for  Govern- 
ment institutions  or  individuals  connected  with  them.  This  arrange- 
ment will  enable  the  Institution  to  make  more  frequent  transmissions. 

Recently  a  communication  was  received  from  Dr.  F.  Bonola  Bey, 
secretary-general  of  the  Khedivial  Geographical  Society  in  Cairo, 
stating  that  on  account  of  absence  from  Egypt  it  would  be  necessary 
for  him  to  discontinue  the  distribution  of  exchanges  for  the  Institu- 
tion; adding,  however,  that  the  director-general  of  the  survey  de- 
partment at  Cairo  would  take  charge  of  the  work.  A  letter  from  the 
director-general  has  since  been  received  placing  the  services  of  the 
department  at  the  disposal  of  the  Institution.  Consignments  will 
therefore  be  sent  to  the  survey  department  in  the  future. 

Transniisaons  to  Bulgaria,  which  were  temporarily  suspended  on 
account  of  the  death  of  Dr.  Paul  Leverkiihn,  who  attended  to  the 


36  AKKUAI.  BEPORT   BMITHSQITIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

distribution  of  exchanges  for  that  country,  have  been  resumed.  The 
Prince  of  Bulgaria,  in  response  to  a  request  of  the  Institution,  has 
designated  the  Scientific  Institutions  and  Library  of  Sofia  to  act  as 
the  exchange  intermediary  between  Bulgaria  and  the  United  States. 

As  Hawaii,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  Porto  Rico  are  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  United  States,  the  Institution  feels  that  exchanges 
with  them  can  no  longer  be  termed  "  international,"  and  has  therefore 
discontinued  the  acceptance  of  packages  from  domestic  sources  for 
these  territories. 

The  International  Exchange  Service,  in  its  efforts  to  aid  the  Cali- 
fornia Academy  of  Sciences  in  the  rehabilitation  of  its  library  and 
collections,  destroyed  by  the  earthquake  and  fire  of  April,  1906,  sent 
circulars  to  all  the  foreign  correspondents  of  the  academy  soHdting 
contributions.  I  am  gratified  to  state  that  a  most  liberal  reponse  has 
been  made,  the  number  of  exchanges  received  aggregating  6,370 
packages  and  publications,  which  were  forwarded  to  San  Francisca 
It  may  be  noted  in  this  connection  that  this  is  the  first  time  since  its 
organization  that  the  Exchange  Service  has  sent  out  a  circular  of  this 
character  in  behalf  of  any  establishment. 

NATIONAL  ZOOLOGICAL  PARK. 

By  act  of  Congress  approved  April  30,  1890,  the  National  Zoolog- 
ical Park  was  established  "  for  the  advancement  of  science  and  the 
instruction  and  recreation  of  the  people,"  and  in  pursuance  of  this 
authorization  the  collection  of  living  animals  has  increased  from  year 
to  year,  it  being  the  purpose  to  exhibit  living  species  of  the  various 
types  of  animal  life  for  the  instruction  and  entertainment  of  the 
public 

In  carrying  out  the  first  of  the  objects  stated  in  the  act  of  organ- 
ization, namely,  the  advancement  of  science,  the  original  design  con- 
templated the  establishment  of  methods  of  scientific  research,  but  lack 
of  means,  and  the  more  important  necessities  of  the  park,  have  pre- 
vented this  &om  being  realized.  Plans  for  a  laboratory  are  in  hand. 
The  varied  zoological  collection  now  assembled  affords  material  of 
great  value  for  studying  the  habits  of  animals,  and  for  physiolt^cal 
and  pathological  resekrch,  subjects  of  practical  importance  and 
utility. 

Much  care  and  attention  has  also  been  devoted  to  preserving  the 
natural  beauty  of  the  surroundings  and  to  the  enhancing  of  the 
attractiveness  of  the  park  to  visitors. 

With  a  single  exception,  no  especial  appropriation  has  been  made 
for  the  erection  of  buildings  for  the  animals  in  the  park  since  its 
inception.  They  were  originally  housed  in  wooden  sheds  which  have 
been  gradually  replaced  by  fireproof  structures,  as  the  appropriatitms 

,  I  by  Google 


BLBPOBT  OF   THE   SECRET.UtY.  37 

permitted.  This  plan  will  be  continued.  It  has  not  been  carried  for- 
ward as  rapidly  as  the  necessities  demand,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  appropriation  granted,  for  a  number  of  years,  has  been  but  little 
more  than  sufficient  for  the  maintenance  of  the  park. 

Attention  has  before  been  called  to  the  desirability  of  securing  for 
the  park  the  narrow  tracts  of  land  lying  between  its  boundaries  and 
the  recently  established  highways  on  the  southeast  and  west  The 
highways  were  located  by  the  Engineer  Commissioner  of  ttie  District 
as  close  to  the  park  as  the  topography  would  permit,  in  order  to 
reduce  these  tracts  to  a  minimum.  It  is  estimated  that  the  land  in 
question  can  be  acquired  by  condemnation  for  $40,000,  and  an  item 
for  this  purpose  is  submitted  in  the  estimates. 

The  collection  of  animals  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  numbered 
1,193.  The  small  mammal  house,  which  has  been  under  construction 
for  several  years,  was  opened  to  the  public  on  November  15.  To  it 
were  transferred  the  collection  of  monkeys,  as  there  had  always  been 
a  difficulty  in  keeping  these  animals  in  the  proper  condition  of  health 
in  their  previous  quarters.  Work  upon  two  additional  bear  yards 
has  been  contracted  for  and  considerable  repairs  made  to  some  of 
the  older  cages.  The  Adams  Mill  road  was  overhauled  and  resur- 
faced during  the  autumn  of  1906,  and  the  planting  of  trees  was  car- 
ried on  at  suitable  times  as  far  as  the  available  fund  permitted. 
Five  of  the  more  iqiportant  buildings  were  heated  from  the  central 
heating  plant,  installed  during  the  previous  year.  The  specialists 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  were  offered  opportunities  for 
pathological  studies  when  animab  died,  and  such  dead  animals  as 
might  be  useful  to  the  national  collections  were  sent  to  the  National 
Museum. 

ASTROPHYSICAL  OBSERVATORY. 

The  work  of  the  Astrophysical  Observatory,  carried  on  under  the 
supervision  of  Mr.  C.  G.  Abbot,  who  was  appointed  director  March 
1,  1907,  has  consisted  of  observations  at  the  Mount  Wilson  Observa- 
tory and  at  Washington,  and  the  preparing  of  Volume  II  of  the 
Annals  of  the  Observatory.  About  seventy  days  on  Mount  Wilson 
were  devoted  to  observations  of  the  "  solar  constant "  of  radiation, 
on  which  the  staff  of  the  observatory  had  been  at  work  for  some 
years.  The  results  were  generally  excellent.  A  new  continuous 
recording  pyrheliometer  is  in  course  of  construction  for  this  work, 
of  different  dimensions  and  construction  from  the  one  at  present  in 
use.  Much  attention  was  paid  to  the  observation  of  the  intensity 
of  light  reflected  from  clouds,  with  a  view  to  the  determination  of  the 
albedo  or  total  reflection  of  the  earth.  The  quality  and  amount  of 
the  light  of  the  sky  was  also  measured  on  several  days. 


.y  Google 


88  ANNUAL  BBPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITDTION,  19ffJ. 

Measurements  for  the  determination  of  the  "  solar  constant "  were 
also  made  at  Washington  whenever  atmospheric  conditions  per- 
mitted. These  are  of  great  value  as  supplementary  data  to  the  Mount 
Wilson  observations. 

Volume  II  of  the  Annals  is  in  press,  and  includes  an  account  of  the 
work  of  the  observatory  from  1900  to  1907.  Speaking  broadly,  the 
energy  of  the  observatory  has  been  devoted  to  an  investigation  of 
the  intensity  of  the  rays  of  the  sun  and  the  dependence  of  the  earth's 
temperature  upon  the  radiation. 

The  investigations  have  resulted  in  apparently  definitely  fixing  the 
approximate  average  value  of  the  "  solar  constant "  at  2.1  calories 
per  square  centimeter  per  minute,  and  in  showing  decisively  that 
there  is  a  marked  fluctuation  about  this  mean  value,  sufficient  in 
magnitude  to  influence  very  perceptibly  the  climate,  at  least  of  in- 
land regions,  upon  the  earth. 

The  observatory  buildings,  although  temporary,  have  been  kept  in 
good  repair  by  a  small  expenditure.  Plans  have  been  made  and 
contracts  have  been  awarded  for  the  installation  of  electrical  light- 
ing and  power  to  replace  the  present  inadequate  facilities,  and  some 
additions  have  been  made  to  the  research  equipment  and  library. 

INTERNATIONAL  CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC 
LITERATURE. 

The  International  Catalogue  of  Scientfic  Literatnre  is  a  classified 
author's  and  subject  catalogue  of  all  original  scientific  papers  pub- 
lished throughout  the  world.  The  organization  consists  of  bureaus, 
established  in  each  of  the  civilized  countries,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
furnish  references  to  the  scientific  publications  issued  within  their 
several  regions,  these  references  being  assembled,  edited,  and  pub- 
lished in  seventeen  annual  volumes  by  a  central  bureau  in  London. 

The  cost  of  printing  and  publishing  is  met  by  the  subscribers  to 
the  Catalogue;  and  American  universities,  libraries,  and  scientific 
societies  alone  have  shown  their  appreciation  of  the  work  by  making 
advance  subscriptions  amounting  to  over  $30,000.  The  awt  of  col- 
lecting and  indexing  the  material  for  the  Catalogue  is  in  each  case 
borne  by  the  countries  taking  part  in  the  work,  and  is  for  the  most 
part  derived  from  direct  governmental  grants. 

The  Regional  Bureau  for  the  United  States  was  organized  in  1901 
by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  was  maintained  by  funds  of  the 
Institution  until  it  was  placed  on  a  firm  footing  by  an  appropriation 
made  by  Congress  of  $5,000,  which  became  available  for  use  July  1, 
1906.    A  further  grant  of  $5,000  became  available  July  1, 1907. 

Each  regional  bureau  collects,  indexes,  and  classifies  the  current  sci- 
entific literature  published  within  the  country  it  represents,  and  fur- 
nishes the  material  to  the  central  bureau  in  London  for  publication. 


BEPOBT   or  THE  BBCBETABT.  99 

The  citations  are  secured  by  regularly  going  through  all  of  the 
journals  listed  for  examination,  by  a  daily  search  through  the  publi- 
cations which  are  received  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  by 
examination  of  all  available  sources.  Lists  of  all  papers  indexed  are 
also  from  time  to  time  submitted  for  revision  directly  to  the  authors 
whose  names  appear  on  the  records.  The  authors  are  requested  to 
send  separates  of  their  work  for  the  use  of  the  Catalogue,  a  practice 
which  results  incidentally  in  considerable  accesisons  to  the  library. 

It  has  been  hoped  that  the  material  collected  by  the  Bureau  could 
be  printed  separately  as  a  current  classified  index  of  American  Scien- 
tific Literature,  which  would  make  it  available  for  American  men  of 
»%ience  probably  a  year  before  the  International  Catalogue  was  pub- 
lished, but  since  the  printing  would  have  to  be  done  at  the  expense  of 
the  fund  of  the  Institution,  it  was  decided  after  thorough  considera- 
tion that  the  outlay  co'ilt^  not  at  present  be  justified. 

NECROLOGY. 

During  the  year  the  Institution  has  suffered  the  loss  of  a  Regent 
and  of  three  able  members  of  its  staff.  The  Hon.  R.  R.  Hitt,  dis- 
tinguished for  his  services  in  the  diplomatic  corps  and  as  a  Member 
of  Congress,  where  he  ably  served  for  many  years  as  chairman  of  the 
Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs,  a  man  of  cultivation  and  broadly 
interested  in  science  and  art,  passed  away  on  September  20,  1906. 
He  was  appointed  a  Regent  on  August  11,  1893,  and  served  continu- 
ously until  his  death  and  acted  since  1901  as  a  member  of  the  execu- 
tive committee.  In  the  Proceedings  of  the  Board  of  Regents,  printed 
in  another  place,  there  will  be  found  an  appropriate  tribute  to  his 
memory  by  his  colleagues. 

One  of  the  oldest  members  of  the  administrative  staff  of  the  Institu- 
tion, William  Jones  Rhees,  died  March  18, 1907.  Mr.  Rhees  was  bom 
March  13, 1830.  In  1852  he  became  chief  clerk  of  the  Institution,  and 
in  that  capacity,  and  later  as  keeper  of  the  archives,  served  it  with  a 
brief  interruption  until  the  time  of  his  death.  His  knowledge  of  the 
affairs  of  the  Institution  was  wide,  and  with  him  there  passed  away 
(he  principal  human  repository  of  its  history,  for  he  had  been  con- 
nected with  it  almost  since  its  inception  and  had  served  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  administrations  of  Secretaries  Henry,  Baird,  and 
Langley.  He  was  a  methodical  man,  and  in  addition  to  his  adminis- 
trative labors  issued  publications  valuable  to  the  librarians  of  the 
country  and  others  of  importance  on  the  history  of  the  Institution 
and  its  founder.  He  was  a  public-spirited  citizen,  and  his  deep  de- 
votion to  the  Institution  is  evidenced  by  a  bequest  from  his  modest 
estate. 

Albert  S.  Gatschet,  a  distinguished  linguist  and  for  many  years 

connect«d  with  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  died  on  March 

41780-08 7  "''■  '  <S  ^ 


40  AHHUAL  BEPOBT  SMIIH60HIAB  IKSTITUIION,  1807. 

16,  1907.    Aq  appreciative  acooiint  of  his  career  will  be  given  in  the 
annual  report  on  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology. 

Paul  Kdmond  Beckwith,  Assistant  Curator  of  History  in  the  Na- 
tional Museum,  died  on  June  27, 1907.  A  sketch  of  his  career  is  given 
in  the  report  on  the  Museum. 

LANQLBY  MEMORIAL  MBBTINO. 

On  December  3,  1906,  a  meeting  in  memory  of  the  late  Secretary 
Samuel  P.  Langley,  was,  in  accordance  with  a  resolution  of  the  Board 
of  liegents,  held  in  the  lecture  hall  of  the  National  Museum.  The 
Chancellor  of  the  Institution,  the  Hon.  Melville  W.  Fuller,  Chief 
Justice  of  the  United  States,  presided,  and  after  preliminary  re- 
marks introduced  the  speakers:  The  Hon.  Andrew  D.  White,  who 
presented  the  memoir  on  behalf  of  the  Board  of  Regents;  Prof.  E.  C, 
Pickering,  director  of  Harvard  College  Observatory,  who  described 
Mr.  Langley's  contributions  to  astronomy  and  astrophysics;  and  Oc- 
tave Chanute,  esq.,  of  Chicago,  who  spoke  on  Mr.  Langley's  contribu- 
tions to  aerodynamics. 

The  addresses  delivered  on  that  occasion,  together  with  a  bibliog- 
raphy of  the  published  works  of  Mr.  Langley,  have  been  issued  by  the 
Institution  in  the  series  of  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections, 
and  also  in  a  special  edition. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

Chas.  D.  Walcoti',  Secretary. 


.y  Google 


REPORT  ON  THB  DNITED  STATES  NATIONAL  MUSBDM. 

Sir:  I  bave  tbe  bonor  to  submit  the  followlns  report  on  the  operations  of 
tbe  United  States  Natlooal  Museum  (or  ttae  flscal  year  ending  June  30,  1907: 

The  most  noteworthy  feature  of  the  year  was  the  decided  advance  made  tn 
Ibe  subject  of  tbe  fine  arts,  so  marked  indeed  as  to  call  for  Immediate  action 
in  providing  at  least  a  tempornr;  home  for  the  national  gallery,  whose  nucleus 
already  gathered  has  received  murh  favorable  comment.  While  tbe  erection 
of  the  new  building  for  the  Museum  has  been  retarded  by  delays  In  tbe  delivery 
of  granite,  the  wort  has  proceeded  steadily  and  otherwise  eatisfactorllj.  The 
collections  were  iocrensed  by  about  a  quarter  of  a  million  specimens,  Including 
a  large  amonut  of  material  of  exceptional  Importance.  Tbe  closslScatloii  and 
arrangement  of  tbe  additions  were  carried  forward  as  rapidly  as  possible  under 
tbe  present  limitations  as  to  means  and  space,  and  tbe  collections  as  a  wbole 
have  been  maintained  In  good  condition. 

NATIONAL  OAUXBT  OF  AST. 

The  CongresBlonal  act  of  1846,  foundtug  the  Smithsonian  Inatltntion,  provided 
that  all  objects  of  art  belonging  to  the  United  States  should  be  delivered  Into 
tbe  custody  of  that  establishment  whenever  suitable  arrangemeots  could  be  made 
from  time  to  time  for  their  reception.  The  formation  of  a  national  gallery  of 
art  thus  intmated  to  the  Institution  received  early  and  favorable  consideration 
by  tbe  Board  of  Regents  and  was  embodied  In  the  plan  of  organiiatlon.  It  was 
tbe  sentiment  of  the  Board  that  tbe  gallery  should  Include  both  paintings  and 
Kulpture  na  well  as  engravings  and  architectural  designs,  that  studios  for  young 
artists  should  he  provided,  and,  as  It  was  expected  that  the  collections  would 
accumulate  slowly,  tlmt  tbe  gallery  should  be  partly  used  during  the  winter 
fbr  loan  eibibltlous. 

In  tbe  Smitbaonian  building,  which  was  Immediately  put  in  conree  of  erection, 
two  rooms  were  especially  designed  tor  tbe  collections  of  art,  the  west  ball  and 
connecting  range  on  the  main  floor.  These  quarters  were  so  used  for  a  time 
In  conjunction  with  the  library  and  reading  room,  but  tbe  accommodations  thus 
afforded  proved  so  Inadequate  that  It  became  necessary  to  also  devote  to  tbe 
same  purpose  a  part  of  tbe  lai^e  upper  hall  now  occupied  by  the  collection  of 
prehistoric  archeology. 

Examples  of  art  were  among  tbe  very  first  acquisitions  by  the  Institution, 
and  from  tlnie  to  time  thereafter  additions  of  one  kind  and  another  were 
received,  but  any  sum  that  might  have  been  apared  for  this  purpose  from  the 
Smithsonian  income  would  have  been  wholly  Insnfflcient  to  make  any  pronounced 
or  systematic  advance  In  this  direction.  In  tbe  National  Museum,  however, 
certain  bmncbes  of  art  have  been  fbatered  for  over  n  quarter  of  a  century  and 
are  now  fairly  well  represented. 

Tbe  flnt  collection  purchased  by  tbe  Institution  was  the  valuable  serlee  of 
prints  assembled  by  tbe  Hon.  Oeorge  P.  Harsh,  containing  examples  of  tbe 
work  of  nearly  every  etcher  and  engraver  of  celebrity  from  tbe  early  masters 
to  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  It  was  recognized  as  the  choicest  collection 
of  its  kind  then  In  this  country.    Later  accessions  included,  besides  engravlngn. 


Goo^^lc 


42  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

a  number  of  patntlngs,  reproductions  of  celebrated  pieces  of  scnlptare,  basts  of 
dlatlngalshed  IndlvldnalB,  and  many  Important  books  on  art 

Tlie  early  exblbltloD  In  tbe  npper  Smltbsonlan  ball  consisted  mainly  of  tbe 
unique  collections  of  lodian  portraits  and  scenes  by  J.  M.  Stanley,  C.  B.  Elne, 
and  ottiers,  but  In  tbe  fire  of  1805  tbts  section  of  the  gallery  witb  Its  contents 
was  entirely  destroyed.  Tbe  objects  on  tbe  lower  fioor  escaped  injury  and  were 
sabsequently  deposited  for  safe-keeping  in  tbe  Library  of  Congress  and  tbn 
Corcoran  Gallery  of  Art,  wbere  they  remained  until  about  ten  years  ago.  Since 
tbat  time  one  of  tbe  rooms  in  the  eastern  part  of  tbe  Smithsonian  building  bas 
t)een  utilized  for  the  prints,  books,  and  various  other  works  of  art,  but  the 
larger  part  of  the  collection  has  been  provided  for  In  the  National  Museum. 

Such,  briefly,  was  the  historj'  of  the  art  exhibits  up  to  January.  1906,  when  tbe 
neceptance  by  the  Board  of  R^ents  of  tbe  large  and  notable  collection  of  Mr. 
Charles  L.  Freer  marked  the  beginning  of  a  new  epoch  Id  tbe  affairs  of  tbe 
gallery  of  art  In  tbe  following  July  a  further  advance  was  made  through  the 
acgalBltlon  of  the  valuable  collection  of  tbe  late  Harriet  Lane  Johnston,  baaed 
upon  a  decision  of  the  supreme  court  of  tbe  District  of  Columbia,  essentially 
reaffirming  the  Intent  of  tbe  fundamental  act,  already  referred  to.  tbat  the 
custodianship  of  the  national  gallery  of  art  was  vested  in  tbe  Smithsonian 
Institution.  This  collection  is  especially  noteworthy  In  tbat  it  contains  paint- 
ings by  several  celebrated  masters,  tiesldes  other  pieces  of  merit  and  of  his- 
torical Importance.  It  was  delivered  to  the  Institution  In  tbe  early  part  of 
August,  1006,  and  was  at  once  Installed  In  tbe  reception  room  in  the  Smltb- 
sontan  building,  the  only  place  then  available. 

The  necessity  of  securing  more  extensive  quarters  without  delay  led  to  the 
selection  and  temporary  flttlng  up  of  tbe  lecture  hall  in  the  Museum  bulldliig 
for  tbe  purposes  of  tbe  gallery  and  especially  for  the  paintings.  On  tbe  com- 
pletion of  these  changes  in  tbe  latter  part  of  November,  1906,  tbe  Harriet  Lone 
Johnston  collection  and  otber  paintings  were  transferred  there,  and  these,  witb 
several  loans  and  donations,  fully  occupied  tbe  existing  wall  apace:.  Among  tbe 
loans  should  be  mentioned  21  paintings  from  tbe  Laclns  Tuckerman  collection, 
and  among  the  gifts,  one  by  tbe  Hon.  J.  B.  Henderson,  of  Washington,  and 
one  by  Miss  Eleanor  Blodgett,  of  New  York. 

During  the  latter  part  of  tbe  winter  the  gallery  received  a  most  substantial 
and  gratifying  recognition  from  Mr.  William  T.  Evans,  of  Montclalr,  N.  J., 
the  welt-known  connoisseur  and  patron  of  art,  whose  contribution,  made  with- 
out solicitation,  consisted  of  52  paintings  in  oil  by  American  artists  of  estab- 
lished reputation.  Unfortunately  no  place  could  be  found  in  the  Muaeum  build- 
ing for  this  valuable  collection,  and  it  was  necessary  to  provide  elsewhere 
for  its  temporary  keeping.  This  has  been  accomplished  tbroi^h  tbe  courtesy 
of  tbe  trustees  of  the  Corcoran  Gallery  of  Art,  wbere  the  pictures  are  now  bung, 
filling  tbe  greater  part  of  tbe  large  atrium.  ^ 

Leaving  out  of  consideration  tbe  Freer  collection,  which  is  to  remain  at  tbe 
home  of  Its  generous  donor  during  his  lifetime,  the  national  gallery  now  bos 
in  its  possession  valuable  paintings  and  otber  art  objects  for  whose  exblbltlon 
under  suitable  conditions  It  Is  Important  to  arrange  without  delay.  For  this 
l>urpose  there  Is  no  better  place  In  the  existing  buildings  than  the  second  story 
of  tbe  main  part  of  the  Smltbsoiiian  building,  a  ball  200  feet  long  bj  BO  feet 
wide.  It  will  require  some  changes  to  adapt  It  to  tlie  baling  and  lighting 
of  picturee,  and  some  Improvement  In  its  approaches  which  are  now  Incon- 
venient for  the  public.  Involving  an  expenditure  greater  than  Is  possible  tma 
the  current  appropriation,  but  It  Is  hoped  that  Congress  may  provide  tor  this 
ivork  at  its  forthcoming  session. 

Digilized  by  Google 


fiEPOBI'OF   THE   SECBEIABY. 


At  the  beginning  of  the  Inst  Becal  year,  work  on  the  new  bnlldlng  for  tHe 
Mnaeiim  bad  progressed  to  tbe  extent  of  completing  the  baaement  walla  and 
pters  and  tbe  steel  framework  and  brick  arches  resting  upon  them,  except  at 
the  jouth  and  north  pavilions.  The  court  walls  of  the  main  story  had  also  been 
started.  From  that  time  onward  the  construction  of  the  building  would  have 
advanced  more  rapidly  but  for  delays  In  tbe  delivery  of  the  granite.  Instead, 
therefore,  of  being  ready  for  the  roofs  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year,  as  had  t>eeD 
expected,  the  outer  walla  have  been  carried  only  to  the  height  of  the  lintels  at 
tbe  top  of  tbe  second  story  on  the  eastern  section  of  tbe  building,  and  not  so  high 
on  tbe  weatern  section.  The  two  entrance  pavlllona  bare  only  reached  the  top 
of  the  basement  floor,  but  the  steel  work  and  arches  of  the  second  floor  are  Id 
place  and  the  basement  lecture  hall  baa  been  inclosed  and  partly  vaulted  and 
tiled.  With  the  receipt  of  the  final  shipment  of  tbe  white  Bethel  granite  all 
-troubles  In  the  matter  of  construction  sliuuld  be  ended,  as  there  have  been  no 
delays  lu  tbe  fulfillment  of  all  other  contracts  for  supplies,  and  the  stone  for  the 
upper  Btory  has  been  on  hand  for  Revernl  months. 

Tbe  retardation  in  tbe  erection  of  this  building  baa  rendered  difficult  the 
administration  of  tbe  Museum,  since  tbe  overcrowding  of  tbe  present  buildings 
and  outside  rented  quarters  by  the  immense  and  Invaluable  collections  has 
introduced  several  elements  of  danger  which  can  only  be  obviated  by  the 
occupancy  of  the  new  structure. 

Tbe  rebulldhig  of  the  roofs  of  the  present  Museum  building,  without  serious 
derangement  of  the  collections,  was  auccesBfully  continued.  Contracts  have  been 
made  for  tbe  replacement  of  four  additional  roofs  during  the  new  year,  leaving 
only  the  roof  of  tbe  central  rotunda  to  be  provided  for  thereafter. 

Progress  was  al^  made  in  the  Isolation  of  the  several  exhibition  halla  with 
the  view  of  obtaining  greater  fire  protection,  this  work  consiating  in  tbe  fllling 
in  of  the  large  arched  openings  between  the  balls  with  fireproof  materiale,  a 
plan  which  should  be  continued  each  year  to  tbe  extent  poaslble  with  tbe  funds 
available. 

ADDinOKB  TO  THE  COLLECTION. 

The  number  of  acceaslons  received  during  tbe  year,  not  Including  tbe  subject 
of  the  fine  arts,  was  1,398,  comprising  a  total  of  atwut  250,000  apecimens,  of 
which  nearly  4,000  were  anthropological,  14C>,000  biological,  and  over  100,000 
geological  and  paleontoloKical. 

Tbe  principal  additions  in  etbiiplc«y  came  from  tbe  Congo  region  of  Africa 
and  the  Philippine  Islands.  Anong  tbe  more  notable  smaller  ones  were  baskets 
and  lace  of  Malacca  workmanship,  rare  Chllcootin  baskets,  and  examples  of 
rtcb  old  embroideries.  The  most  important  accessions  In  prehistoric  archeology 
comprised  several  bnndred  Implements,  vessels,  examples  of  fabrics  and  basket 
work,  and  skeletal  remains,  obtained  during  excavations  at  Casa  Grande,  Ari- 
zona, under  tbe  direction  of  tbe  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  a  large  number 
of  earthenware  and  stone  objects  of  various  kinds  and  uses  from  Panama,  Costa 
Rica,  Guatemala,  Honduras,  Mexico,  and  tbe  State  of  Tennessee.  Of  European 
origin  were  stone  Implements  and  fragments  of  Romano-Brltlah  urns  from  near 
Norfolk,  England,  and  flint  Implements  from  La  Qulna,  France.  Examples  of 
Greco-Egyptian  papyri  and  other  Interesting  objects  were  secured  for  the  di- 
vision  of  historic  archeology.  The  additions  In  physical  anthropology  consisted 
chiefly  of  a  large  series  Illustrating  the  principal  types  of  normal  variations  In 
tbe  human  akeleton,  a  number  of  akulls  of  tbe  extinct  Huron  Indians,  and  many 
specimens  of  the  brains  of  various  animals  prepared  for  comparative  purposes. 


44  ANNUAL   REPORT   BMITHBONUN    INBTITUTION,   1907. 

The  dlTlsloQ  of  tecbaology  was  etipecially  etirlcbed  In  tbe  subject  of  flreamw, 
mainly  througb  tbe  courtesy  of  tbe  War  DepartmeuL  This  dlTlsion  now  pos- 
sesses tbe  finest  historical  collection  in  existence  of  the  rtflea,  muskets,  carbines, 
pistols,  etc,  of  tbe  colonial  period  and  the  military  service  of  the  Nutlonal  Gov- 
ernment Tbe  collection  is  supplemented  by  extensive  data  sathered  as  a  basis 
for  K  comprebensive  study  of  the  subject.  Other  ooteworthy  contributions  to 
the  division  Indnded  a  series  of  models  from  the  Department  of  tite  Interior, 
representing  important  historical  Inventions,  the  earliest  dating  from  before  the 
Christian  Era;  a  number  of  pieces  of  apparatus  devised  by  Mr.  Emlie  Berliuer. 
illustrating  Important  early  steps  in  the  development  of  the  telephone;  and  tbe 
Santos  Dumont  airship  No.  9.  The  division  of  ceramics  received  many  fine 
specimens  of  pottery  from  Japan  and  the  United  States  ;  the  division  of  graphic 
arts,  examples  of  binding  by  the  St.  Huijert  Guild  of  Art  Craftsmen  and  of  color 
photography ;  the  section  of  musical  instruments,  one  of  tbe  earliest  cburcb 
oi^iis  brought  to  tbis  country ;  and  tbe  section  of  medicine,  a  scries  of  en- 
larged photographs  of  tbe  more  eminent  of  American  pbyslclans  and  surgeons. 

Tbe  bistorical  collections  were  increased  by  a  number  of  important  gifts  and 
loans,  the  most  noteworthy  consisting  of  some  of  the  early  physical  apparatus 
devised  by  the  late  Secretary  Langley.  and  tlie  many  medals  and  diplomas 
awarded  htm  for  his  distinguished  services  In  the  advancement  of  science,  nil 
nf  which  have  lieen  Installed  In  an  appropriate  case  In  the  hall  of  hlstnry.  Tbe 
principal  additions  to  the  division  of  historic  religions  consisted  of  two  loans. 
comprising  a  collection  of  lamps,  amulets,  and  embroideries  used  in  Jewish 
■   religious  life,  and  a  large  scries  of  Chinese  and' Japanese  rosaries. 

The  transfers  from  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries  constituted  In  tbe  aggregate  tbe 
principal  acceslon  to  the  department  of  biology,  'i'hey  comprised  a  large  collec- 
tion of  marine  fishes  and  Invertebrates,  with  some  land  animals,  from  tbe 
Albatross  cruise  of  lOOG  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean  and  Okhotsk  Sea;  extensive 
collections  of  Japanese  fishes  and  Hawaiian  corals  and  hydrolds.  Including 
many  rare  and  recently  described  species;  over  3.000  specimens  of  fishes  from 
the  fresb  waters  of  West  Virginia,  and  other  valuable  material.  MaJ.  E.  A. 
Meams.  surgeon.  U.  S.  Army,  who  has  been  stationed  In  the  Philippine  Islands, 
forwarded  an  extensive  series  of  mammals,  birds,  reptiles,  fishes  and  mnlltiBlcs. 
obtained  mainly  on  certain  of  the  smaller  and  less  known  Islands,  and  contain- 
ing some  new  genera  and  many  new  species. 

Noteworthy  contributions  of  mammals  were  received  from  Venezuela.  Cuba. 
nnd  the  Kan-sn  Province  of  China ;  of  birds  and  birds'  eggs  from  Costa  Rica 
and  elsewhere;  of  reptiles  and  batrachions  from  Europe,  Patagonia,  Cuba,  and 
Virginia;  and  of  fishes  from  Australia  and  the  Philippines,  the  latter  through 
the  Philippine  Commissiou  to  the  St  Louis  Exposition.  The  total  number  of 
specimens  of  fishes  acquired  was  attout  25.000.  The  division  of  mollnsks 
obtained  some  600  spet.'les  from  the  Philippines  and  Kastem  Asia,  many  being 
cotypea  of  species  described  by  Mollendorf;  a  large  collection  of  fresh-water 
forms  from  tbe  vicinity  of  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  Including  a  good  series  of  tbe 
rare  PlanorttU  magni/lcus;  and  many  interesting  land  shells  from  Central 
America.  Tbe  additions  In  entomology  comprised  about  44,000  specimens. 
Including  20,000  of  Ilemiptera  from  Dr.  P.  R.  Ubier,  of  Baltimore ;  8.000  of 
Lepidoptera  from  Mr.  William  Schaus,  and  over  6,000,  representing  various 
groups,  from  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  Besides  the  transfers  from  the 
Bureau  of  Fisheries,  tbe  division  of  marine  invertebrates  received  extensive 
series  of  corals  from  Hawaii  and  French  Somallland.  and  236  microscopic  slides 
of  deep-sea  sponges  from  Doctor  Von  Lendenfeld.  Tbe  helmlntbologlcal  collec- 
tion was  Increased  by  over  500  specimens  from  tbe  Bureau  of  Animal -IndostiT 
and  tbe  Public  Health  and  Marine- Hospital  Service.  (    ixnilr 


BEPOET   OP   THE   SECBITABT.  45 

The  dlvlsloo  of  plants  received  about  47,000  speclmms.  mainly  from  tbe  fol- 
lowing sources:  The  West  Indies,  and  especially  Cuba,  over  6,000  specimens; 
Central  Amerlea,  about  1,400  speolmens;  Meslco.  2.200  specimeos;  the  Pbllippine 
Islands.  5,571  specimens;  District  of  Colnmbla,  about  G,000  specimens;  from 
different  localities,  through  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  over  4,000  speci- 
mens; the  private  herbarium  of  Mrs.  J.  N.  Mllllgan,  of  Jacksonville,  III.,  com- 
prising about  2,200  specimens;  and  tbe  collection  of  tbe  late  Prof.  T.  A. 
Williams,  numbering  about  4,400  speclmenB. 

One  of  tbe  most  noteworthy  acceaslona  In  geology  consisted  of  a  large  amount 
oC  material  obtained  by  the  head  curator  during  an  InTeetlgation  of  Coon  Butte, 
Arizona.  Tbe  Geological  Survey  transmitted  a  large  number  of  rocks  and  ores 
from  Wyoming,  Colorado,  Washington,  Arizona,  and  Maine,  and  material  of 
the  same  character  as  well  as  minerals  were  obtained  from  other  sources.  The 
collection  of  meteorites  was  Increased  by  seven  specimens. 

The  additions  In  paleontology  were  exceptionally  large  and  valuable,  tbe 
more  Important  comprising  about  45,000  specimens  from  tbe  Fre-Cambrlan, 
Cambrian,  and  Ordovlclan  horizons  In  tbe  United  States,  transferred  by  tbe 
Geological  Survey ;  the  Pate  collection  of  about  50,000  specimens  from  the 
Paleozoic  rocks  at  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  several  hundred  specimens  from 
tbe  Devonian  of  Jllesourl,  both  presented  by  the  Hon.  Frank  Springer;  the 
Nettleroth  collection,  containing  practically  all  of  tbe  many  types  figured  in 
that  author's  Kentucky  Fossil  Shells ;  and  an  especially  fine  representation  ot 
the  Silurian  and  Devonian  faunas  of  Indiana  and  Kentucky. 

BXPIOR4TI0NS. 

While  no  extensive  field  work  was  carried  on  directly  by  tbe  Museum,  sev- 
eral expeditions,  both  for  collecting  and  observation,  were  made  by  members  of 
the  staff,  as  follows  i  Doctor  True  In  ^tlaryland.  Doctor  Stejaeger  In  Virginia, 
Doctor  Bartsch  In  North  Carolina,  Mr.  Bean  In  Florida,  Mr.  Habn  In  Indlnna, 
Doctor  Dyar  and  Mr.  Caudell  In  California.  Doctor  Hose  In  Mexico,  Mr.  Mason 
In  Cuba,  and  Doctor  Merrill  In  Arizona.  Mr.  Cbarles  W.  Ollmore.  of  the  depart- 
ment of  geology,  was  sent  by  tbe  Smlttaaonlan  Institution  to  Alaska  to  search 
for  tbe  remains  of  large  fossil  mammals,  while  Doctor  Bassler  and  Doctor 
Peale  were  detailed  to  field  work  In  conjunction  with  tbe  Geological  Survey. 
Tbe  explorations  by  which  the  Museum  was  mainly  benefited  were,  as  hereto- 
fore, tboae  of  tbe  Geological  Survey,  tbe  Department  of  Agriculture,  tbe  Bureau 
of  Fisheries,  and  tbe  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology.  Mention  should  also  be 
made  of  the  personal  field  work  In  tbe  Philippines  of  Doctor  Meams,  of  tbe 
Army,  and  In  Malaysia  of  Dr.  W.  L.  Abbott;  and  also  of  the  excavations  by 
Doctor  Fewkes  at  Casa  Grande.  Arizona,  under  a  special  act  of  Congress. 

CABK   ANO   CI^SSIFICATION   OIT   THE   COLLECTIONS. 

The  reorganbuitlon  of  the  oateologlcal  collection  in  physical  anthropology, 
which  comprises  parts  of  about  8,000  skeletons,  was  C'ompleted  during  the  year. 
Doctor  Brdllfka,  tbe  assistant  curator  In  charge  of  this  division,  has  carried 
on  Investigations  relating  to  tbe  crania  and  skeletons  of  Indiana  and  the 
orang.  and  to  the  brain  in  the  higher  vertebrates,  including  man.  An  exten- 
sion of  storage  space  has  permitted  the  classified  arrangement  of  a  much  greater 
number  of  Objects  of  ethnology  than  heretofore.  Professor  Mason  and  Doctor 
Ilough  were  mainly  occupied  In  working  up  tbe  ethnological  collections  from 
Malaysia,  and  the  latter  also  continued  tbe  preparation  of  his  report  on  the 
Moseam-Gates  expedition  of  1906  In  Arizona,  and  on  the  Pueblo  collections  In 
tbe  Uuseom.    Doctor  Casanowlcz  has  begun  a  descriptive  account  of -tbe  exhl- 


46  ANNDAI,  REPOET  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1W7. 

blUon  ot  Jewish  rellgloiu  rites  nud  ceremonials,  wblch  Is  probablf  tbe  flaest  In 
the  couDtrr. 

Some  chaagea  and  improTements  are  to  be  noted  In  the  storage  and  classifi- 
cation of  eereral  groups  of  mammals  and  birds.  The  systematic  arrangement  of 
the  reserve  series  of  fishes  has  been  contlnaed,  and  fair  progress  has  been  made 
In  tbe  installation  of  tbe  new  system  of  steel  racks  and  hard-wood  drawers 
for  inaecta  The  labeling  and  reKlstering  of  marine  Invertebrates  has  he^t 
pace  as  nearly  as  possible  with  the  receipt  of  material,  and  mach  has  been  done 
toward  completing  tbe  card  catalogue  of  identified  specimens.  In  April.  1907, 
two  assistants  were  detailed  to  tbe  Tale  University  Museum  to  engage  In 
separating  the  large  collection  of  marine  Invertebrates  from  the  earlier  Fish 
Commission  explorations,  wblch  have  remained  In  tbe  charge  of  Prof.  A.  E. 
Verrlll.  Tbe  first  set  of  dnplicatee  will  become  tbe  property  of  Professor 
Verrlll,  tbe  reserve  series  and  other  duplicates  coming  to  tbe  National  Museum. 

Tbe  researches  by  members  of  tbe  soologlcat  staff  and  other»  were  extensive 
and  varied,  tbe  principal  subjects  being  briefiy  as  follows :  Fossil  cetaceans,  by 
Doctor  True;  tbe  birds  ot  North  and  Middle  America,  by  Mr,  Rltfeway;  and 
those  of  Malaysia  and  tlie  China  Sea,  by  Mr.  Oberholaer;  the  reptiles  of  Japan, 
the  Philippines,  West  Indies,  and  Costa  Rica,  by  Doctor  Stejneger ;  flsbes  from 
Argentina,  tbe  Philippines,  and  the  west  coast  of  North  America,  by  Professor 
Evermann;  from  tbe  Philippines,  by  Mr.  Bean  and  Mr.  Scale;  and  from  the 
Pacific  region  generally  by  Ekictor  Jordan  and  Doctor  Gilbert;  a  monograph 
of  the  mosquitoes  by  Doctor  Dyar;  tbe  Pyramldelllda;  of  Oregon,  by  Doctor 
Dall  and  Doctor  Bartscb;  crabs  of  North  America,  tbe  North  Pacific  Ocean,  and 
the  Gulf  of  Slam,  by  Miss  ttatbbun;  Isopods  of  tbe  North  Pacific  Ocean,  by 
Doctor  Richardson;  tbe  entire  Museum  collection  of  stalked  barnacles,  by 
Doctor  Pllsbry;  tbe  crlnolds  from  tbe  North  Pacific  Ocean  and  elsewhere,  by 
Doctor  Clai^. 

The  systematic  rearrangement  of  the  herbarium,  wbicb  has  been  In  progress 
for  several  years,  was  nearly  completed,  and  experiments  were  carried  on  look- 
tug  to  tbe  construction  of  fireproof  herbarium  cases  for  the  new  building. 
Doctor  Rose  continued  studies  on  Mexican  plants  and  tbe  cacti,  Mr.  Maxon  on 
American  ferns,  and  Mr.  Painter  on  water  lilies. 

Tbe  principal  rontine  work  In  tbe  department  of  geology  comprised  tbe 
systematizing  of  the  petrographlc  material  recently  received,  tbe  separation  of 
duplicates  from  tbe  reserve  series,  the  renovation  of  the  exhibition  series  of 
minerals  and  gems,  tbe  arrangement  of  tbe  Pate  and  Ulricb  (collections  of  fossil 
Invertebrates,  and  tbe  working  out  of  specimens,  and  tbe  designation  of  types 
and  Illustrated  specimens  of  fossil  vertebrates.  Doctor  Merrill.  In  collaboration 
with  Mr.  Taesin,  made  studies  upon  meteorites  and  associated  phenomena,  and 
many  specimens  of  minerals  were  Identified.  The  Investlgatious  by  Doctor 
Bassler  related  mainly  to  tbe  bryozoa  and  ostrecoda  of  several  geological 
horizons,  and  those  of  Mr.  GIdley  and  Mr.  Gllmore  to  both  mammalian  and 
reptilian  forma. 

KxiiiBiTion  coLUEcnoNS. 

Tbe  crowded  condition  of  tbe  public  balls  has  rendered  It  imitossible  for 
several  years  past  to  make  any  material  additions  to  tbe  exhibition  collections, 
and  practically  nothing  more  can  be  done  in  this  direction  until  tbe  new  build- 
ing has  been  completed.  During  tbe  past  year,  however,  an  Interesting  series 
of  specimens  bas  been  made  accessible  to  the  lulelligent  visitor  In  tbe  latMratoiy 
of  physical  anthropology.  A  group  of  Roumanian  peasants  has  been  Installed 
In  tbe  west  hall,  and  a  number  of  recently  acquired  antiquities  bave  been  pro- 
Tided  for  In  tbe  ball  of  archeology.  Tbe  entire  collection  of  firearms  has  be«i 
>n>ii(bt  together  In  the  east  hall.  In  wblch  also  one  of  the  original  LUlenthil 


KEPOBT   OF   THE   8ECEETABT.  47 

flying  machines  baa  beea  Biupended  from  tbe  roof.  Tbe  additions  In  zoology 
have  conalBted  mainly  of  mammals  and  Insecte,  and  In  geology  of  foesll  verte- 
bratea,  rocks,  and  minerals.  As  explained  elsewhere,  the  lecture  ball  le  now 
temporarily  occupied  by  tbe  National  Qallery  of  Art 

IIiaCEU.ANEOUB. 

Of  dupllcflte  specimens  separated  from  tbe  collections  In  the  conrse  of 
recent  InveaiigatiooB,  about  16,000  were  distributed  In  208  seta  to  educational 
eatabllahmentB  In  different  parts  of  the  United  States  and  about  !^000  were 
used  In  making  exchanges  witta  other  eatabllabments  and  with  Individuals. 
Over  fl.OOO  speelinens  were  lent  to  specialists  for  study. 

The  poblleations  Issued  during  the  year  were  tbe  annual  reports  for  1905  and 
1006;  volumes  31  and  32  of  the  Proceedings;  the  second  volume  of  Bulletin 
63,  completing  the  catologue  of  type  and  figured  specimens  In  the  department 
of  geology;  Part  I  of  Bulletin  56,  on  tbe  mammals' of  the  Mexican  boundary 
of  tbe  United  Statea;  Bulletin  57,  on  tbe  families  and  genera  of  bats;  a  supple- 
ment to  Bulletin  51,  being  a  list  of  tbe  publications  of  tbe  Museum  from  1001 
to  1906 :  Volume  XI  of  tbe  Contributions  from  tbe  National  Herbarium,  consisting; 
ot  a  single  paper  entitled  "  The  Flora  of  tbe  State  of  WashlngtOD,"  and  three 
parts  of  Volume  X  of  tbe  same  series,  relating  mainly  to  tbe  botany  of 
Uexico,  Central  America,  and  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  following  bulletins 
were  in  print  at  the  close  of  tbe  year,  but  were  not  Issued  until  early  in  July: 
Part  IV  of  Bulletin  50,  tbe  Birds  of  North  and  Middle  America;  Bulletin  68, 
Herpetology  of  Japan  and  Adjacent  Territory,  and  Bulletin  59,  "  Recent  Madre- 
pora  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  and  Laysau."  A  number  of  short  papers  based 
on  collections  In  tbe  Museum  were  also  printed  In  tbe  quarterly  issue  of  tbe 
Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections  and  elsewhere. 

Tbe  additions  to  tbe  library  of  tbe  Museum  comprised  2,581  books  and  3,567 
pamphlets  and  periodicals.  The  total  number  ot  pieces  recorded  In  the  library 
at  tbe  close  of  tbe  year  was  30.307  volumes,  47,642  unbound  papers,  and  108 
manuscripts. 

At  tbe  Jamestowu  Ter-Centennlal  Exposition,  wbicb  opened  ou  April  26,  1907, 
the  subject  assigned  to  the  Museum,  namely,  tbe  aboriginal,  colonial,  and 
national  history  of  America,  has  been  as  fully  Illustrated  as  tbe  means  and 
lipsce  permitted.  The  collection  comprises  prehistoric  Indian  Implements; 
representations  of  the  native  arts  of  Alaska,  Porto  Rico,  Hawaii,  Samoa,  and 
the  Philippine  Islands;  pictures,  relics,  and  models  Illustrating  the  different 
hlstorie  periods  of  tbe  country,  land  and  water  transportation,  the  Invention 
of  the  telegraph  and  telephone,  and  tbe  firearms  used  by  tbe  United  States 
Army.  Tbe  central  feature  Is  a  life-sized  group,  depleting  Capt  John  Smith 
and  bis  men  in  a  small  sailboat  trading  for  com  and  skins  with  the  Powhatan 
Indians  at  the  mouth  of  tbe  James  River. 

The  Museum  has  also  taken  part  In  the  International  Maritime  Exposition  at 
Bordeaux  which  opened  on  May  1,  although  the  exhibit  of  the  United  States  was 
not  finally  installed  until  about  the  1st  of  July.  Tbe  objects  supplied  by  tbe 
Museum  consist  of  a  number  of  models  illustrating  the  water  craft  used  by  tbe 
aborigines  of  tbe  Western  Hemisphere  and  Illustrations  and  models  of  the 
earlier  steamboats.  Including  those  of  John  Fitch  and  Robert  Fulton. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

Rich  ABU  Ratbbu». 
A.Miatan%  Secretary,  *»  Oharne  of  V.  8.  f/ational  Museum. 

Dr.  Chasixs  D.  Waicoit, 

Secrelary  of  (he  Smithaanian  Imlitntioa.  ^~~  . 

DiailizedbyLTOOgle 


Appendix  II. 

REPORT  ON  THE  BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN  ETHNOLOGY. 

Sn;  I  bave  the  lioDor  to  aubmit  tbe  following  report  oa  tbe  operfttiona  of 
Un  Bureau  of  American  Bthnoloer  for  tbe  Sscal  year  aiding  June  30.  1907 : 

SYSTIWATIC  BUBABCBES. 

Tbe  operations  of  tbe  Bnreau  of  American  Etbnology,  conducted  In  accord- 
ance with  tbe  act  of  Congrees  making  provlstou  for  continuing  researches 
relating  to  tbe  American  Indians  under  direction  of  tbe  Smitbsonlan  Institution, 
bave  been  carried  forward  In  conformity  with  tbe  plan  of  operations  approved 
by  tbe  Secretary  July  19,  1906. 

Systematic  ethnological  researches  have  been  prosecuted  by  the  scientlBc  staff 
of  tbe  Bureau,  assisted  by  a  number  of  collaborators  who  hove  been  invited  to 
conduct  iDvestigatlons  for  which  tbey  were  especially  qualified.  Tbe  Bureau's 
scientific  staff  is  restricted  to  a  small  number  of  Investigators  whose  field  of 
labor  Is  necessarily  limited,  and  it  has  always  been  the  policy  of  the  Bureau 
to  widen  its  scope  by  enlisting  the  aid  of  specialists  in  various  Important 
branches.  WliHe  thus  seeking  to  cover  In  the  fullest  possible  manner  tlie  whole 
field  of  American  ethnology,  It  baa  sought  rtith  particular  care  to  pursue  only 
Bucb  branches  of  research  as  are  not  adequately  provided  for  by  other  agencies, 
public  or  private.  Tbe  result  sought  by  tbe  Bureau  Is  tbe  complettou  of  a  sys- 
tematic and  well-rounded  record  of  tbe  tribes  before  the  ever-accelerating  marcb 
of  change  bas  robbed  them  of  their  aboriginal  characteristics  and  cutture- 

During  the  year  researcbts  bave  been  carried  on  In  New  Mesico,  Arizona, 
Oklahoma,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Florida,  New  York,  and  Ontario.  Tbe  field 
work  has,  however,  not  been  so  extensive  as  during  most  previous  years,  for  tbe 
reason  that  a  number  of  tbe  ethnologists  had  to  be  retained  Id  tbe  office  to 
assist  In  the  completion  of  tbe  Handbook  of  American  Indians  and  In  tbe  proof 
reading  of  reports  passing  through  the  press. 

Tbe  Chief  of  the  Bureau  remained  on  duty  In  the  office  during  nearly  tbe 
entire  year.  Administrative  duties  occupied  mucb  of  hla  time,  but  during  tbe 
winter  and  spring  months  he  was  called  upon  to  assist  In  the  preparation  of  tbe 
exhibit  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  at  the  Jamestown  Exposition,  and  in 
April  In  installing  this  exhibit  Tbe  completion  of  numerous  articles  for  tbe 
Handbook  of  American  Indians,  the  revision  of  various  manuscripts  submitted 
for  publication,  and  the  proof  reading  of  reports  and  bulletins  claimed  hla 
attention.  Aside  from  these  occupations  his  duties  as  honorary  curator  of  tbe 
department  of  prehistoric  archeology  In  tbe  National  Museum  and  aa  curator  of 
the  National  Gallery  of  Art  absort>ed  a  portion  of  bis  time.  Tbe  cblef  waa  also 
called  upon  to  assist  In  formulating  the  uniform  rules  and  regnlatlotts  required 

"  tbe  Departments  of  the  Interior,  Agriculture,  and  War  in  carrying  out  tbe 


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EEPOBT  07   THE  SEOEETABY.  49 

proTlalona  of  the  law  for  ttie  prwervatioD  of  antlqultlea,  to  pass  upon  varlooa 
appllcttdona  for  permlU  to  explore  among  tbe  antiquities  of  tbe  public  domain. 
and  to  fumlab  data  needful  In  tbe  lelecUon  of  the  arcbeotoglcal  eltea  to  be  set 
aside  aa  national  moaumenta.  In  addition  he  waa  able  to  give  aome  attention 
to  carrying  forward  tbe  syatemaUc  atudy  of  aboriginal  technology  and  art,  on 
which  be  has  been  engageB  for  several  years,  as  occasion  offered. 

At  the  beginning  of  tbe  year  Mrs.  M.  C.  Steveasoo,  ethnologist,  was  In  the 
Indian  village  of  Taos,  New  Mexico,  continuing  her  studies  of  the  arts,  habita. 
cuatoms,  and  language  of  tbia  tribe  begun  during  the  previous  year.  Although 
the  Beld  waa  new  and  the  traditional  conservatism  of  tbe  tribe  made  Inveettga- 
tion  in  certain  directions  difficult  or  Impoaalble,  much  progress  waa  made,  and. 
when  tbe  worii  Is  completed,  results  of  exceptional  value  will  doubtless  have 
been  obtained. 

In  November  Mrs.  Stevenson  visited  Santa  Clara  pueblo  (or  the  purpose  of 
making  studies  of  tbe  people  and  tbeir  culture  for  comparative  purposes,  and 
observations  were  made  of  tbe  social  cnatoma  and  religious  observances  of  tbe 
people.  Afterwarda,  several  days  were  spent  In  Santa  Pe,  examining  tbe  old 
Spaniab  records  preserved  In  tbe  archives  of  tbe  Historical  Society  of  New 
Mexico,  with  tbe  view  of  learning  something  of  tbe  early  relations  of  tbe  local 
tribes  with  tbe  Spaniab  Invaders  and  with  their  Spa Dish-Bpea king  neighbors  of 
later  times.  Late  in  November  Mrs.  Stevenson  visited  the  pueblo  of  ZuSl,  the 
site  of  her  former  extended  researches,  and  spent  some  weeks  In  completing 
h^  studies  on  certain  phases  of  tbe  native  ritual  and  worahtp,  on  religious  sym- 
bolism as  embodied  In  pictography  and  ceramic  and  textile  decoration,  and  In 
tbe  revision  of  ber  list  of  ptantaemployedfor  food,  medicine,  and  dyes.  Numer- 
ous photc^raphs  and  sketches  of  ceremonials  and  ceremonial  objects  were  made, 
A  number  of  changes  were  noted  In  tbe  dramas  and  other  ceremonies  since  her 
last  visit,  and  ZuQI,  heretofore  presenting  at  night  the  quiet  somberness  of  an 
aboriginal  village,  has  now,  when  tlie  dusk  falls,  the  appearance  of  an  eastern 
town,  with  many  lighted  windows.  Mrs.  Stevenson  notes  that  changes  are 
creeping  steadily  into  all  the  pueblos,  Taos  perhaps  excepted,  and  la  led  to 
express  the  earnest  boi>e  that  tbe  work  of  Investigating  tbe  town-buUding  trlbea 
of  the  Southwest  be  carried  forward  with  all  possible  energy. 

On  April  1  Mrs.  Stevenson  returned  to  the  office,  where,  during  tbe  remainder 
of  tbe  year,  sbe  has  been  engaged  in  tbe  preparation  of  reports  on  her  Held 
remerches. 

Dr.  Cyrus  Thomas,  ethnologist,  has  been  employed  tbe  greater  portion  of  tbe 
jrear  In  assisting  Mr.  Hodge  on  tbe  Handbook  of  American  Indians,  not  only  In 
the  preparation  of  separate  articles,  but  also  In  Bsalstlng  the  editor  on  certain 
lines  of  proof  reading  relating  to  omlBsions,  uniformity  Id  names,  etc.  Such 
time  as  could  be  spared  from  these  duties  was  devoted  to  the  preparation  of  a 
Catalogue  of  Books  aud  Papers  relating  to  tbe  Hawaiian  Islands.  For  this  pur- 
pose tbe  Congressional  and  other  libraries  In  Wesblngton  were  consulted  and  a 
short  trip  to  Worcester  and  Boston,  Massachusetts,  was  made  for  the  purpose 
of  examining  tbe  libraries  of  those  cities,  which  arc  tbe  chief  depositories  in  the 
United  States  of  the  early  publications  of  the  missionaries  In  Hawaii.  The 
number  of  titles  so  far  obtained  Is  about  2,000.  Doctor  Thomas  assisted 
also  with  tbe  official  correspondence  on  subjects  with  which  be  Is  particularly 
tamlUar,  bis  attaimnents  aa  a  student  of  ancient  Mexican  writings  having 
proved  of  special  value  in  tbe  examination  of  certain  manuscripts  in  the 
Cakchlkel  language  submitted  by  tbe  Librarian  of  tbe  American  Philosophical 
Society  of  Philadelphia. 


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60  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

Dnrlng  tbe  latter  part  of  tbe  previous  fiscal  year,  to  pnrsnance  of  bts  Itii' 
gulstlc  studies,  Dr.  John  R.  Swanton.  etbnoioKlst,  was  engaeed  Id  preparing  an 
English-Natcbez  and  Natchez-Engilsb  analytical  dictionary,  embodying  all  tbe 
pubiisbed  and  unpubllabed  material  available — tbat  Is,  about  two  tbousand  words 
and  pbrasea ;  tie  also  copied  on  carda  all  tbe  words  and  pbraaes  collected  by  tbe 
late  Doctor  Oatschet  from  tbe  Attacapa,  Cbitlmacba,  and  Tnnlca  Indiana.  At 
tbe  tfeglnning  of  tbe  Bacal  year  Doctor  Swanton  was  engaged  In  compiling  a 
dictionary  of  tbe  Tnnlca  language  similar  to  tbat  made  for  tbe  Natebez.  In  tbe 
fleld  of  general  etbnology  be  excerpted  and.  wben  necessary,  translated,  all  tbe 
available  material  bearing  on  tbe  tribes  of  tbe  lower  Mississippi  Valley,  and 
arranged  for  publlcatloD  tbat  portion  dealing  wltb  tbe  Natctiez. 

On  April  3  he  left  Wasblngton  to  make  Investigations  among  tbe  tribal  rem- 
nants of  Louisiana  and  Oklahoma,  and  visited  tbe  members  of  tlie  Houma. 
Cbitlmacba,  Attacapa,  Alitiamu,  Biioxi,  Tunica,  and  Natcbez  tribes,  and  was 
able  definitely  to  establlsb  the  relationship  of  tbe  Houma  to  tbe  Cboctaw  and  to 
Identify  the  Ouspie — a  small  people  referred  to  by  tbe  early  PVeach  writers— 
with  tike  OCfagouia.  From  tbe  Tunica  and  Cbitlmacba  be  collected  several 
stories  wblcb  will  be  of  importance  Id  tbe  endeavor  to  restore  tbe  mytbology 
of  the  tribes  of  tbls  area,  now  almost  a  blanlc.  In  tbe  Cberokee  Nation  (Okla- 
humn),  contrary  to  expectation.  Doctor  Swanton  found  several  persons  wbo 
still  ^>eak  tbe  Natcbez  language.  This  discovery  will  necessarily  delay  the 
publication  of  tbe  Natcbez  material  already  referred  to,  but  if  prompt  measures 
are  taken,  will  Insure  tbe  preservation  of  that  language  In  its  completenes. 
At  Eufaula  (Creek  Nation)  be  made  a  slight  Investigation  Into  the  social  organi- 
zation of  the  Creeks — enough  to  determine  tbat  much  work  stilt  remains  to  be 
done  in  tbat  tribe  entirety  apart  from  language.  Doctor  Swanton  returned  to 
tbe  office  June  7,  and  during  tbe  remainder  of  tbe  year  was  engaged  In  arraog- 
Ing  aDd  collating  tbe  material  collected  by  him. 

Dr.  J.  Walter  Fewkes,  ethnologist,  was  employed  In  tbe  office  during  tbe 
first  month  of  the  year  reading  proofs  of  bis  articles  on  Tbe  Aborigines  of 
Porto  Rico  and  Neighboring  Islands  and  on  Antiquities  of  Eastern  Mexico,  for 
tbe  Twenty-fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau.  Part  of  August  and  all  of 
September  were  devoted  to  the  preparation  of  a  bulletin  on  tbe  Aittlqnlties  of 
tbe  Little  Colorado.  He  spent  seven  months  In  Arizona,  leaving  Wasblngton  on 
October  15  and  returning  the  middle  of  May.  During  four  months  he  supv- 
lutended  the  work  of  excavation,  repair,  and  preservation  of  the  Casa  Grande 
Ruin,  Id  PInal  County.  Arizona,  and  in  March  and  April  visited  a  number  of 
little-known  and  undescrihed  mW  along  Canyon  Diablo  and  Grapevine  Can- 
yon, gathering  material  for  bis  huiletlD  on  Tbe  Antiquities  of  tbe  Little  Colo- 
rado Valley.  During  May  and  June  be  was  employed  in  the  office,  devoting 
bis  time  to  tbe  preparation  of  an  account  of  the  excavations  at  Casa  Grande. 
The  explorations  at  Casa  Grande  were  conducted  under  a  special  appropriation 
disbursed  directly  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  Doctor  Fewkee's  pre- 
liminary report  has  been  submitted  to  tbe  Secretary.  It  Is  anticipated  tbat  a 
final  report  on  the  work  when  completed  will  be  published  by  tbe  Bureau  of 
American  Etbnology. 

Mr.  J.  N.  B.  Hewitt  was  occupied  during  tbe  earlier  months  of  the  year  In 
preparing  and  correcting  matter  for  tbe  Handbook  of  American  Indians,  devot- 
ing special  attention  to  the  articles  on  the  Iroqnolan  family,  Iroquois,  Mohawk, 
Montour,  Mytbology,  Nanabozbo,  Neutrals,  Oneida,  Onondagn.  and  Ottawa,  and 
to  the  lists  of  towns  formerly  belonging  to  the  Iroquois  trlt»ee. 

From  tbe  20tb  of  January  to  tbe  23d  of  March.  1907.  he  was  engaged  in 
field  work  among  tbe  Iroquois  tribes  In  Kew  York  and  In  Ontario,  Canada, 
"he  entire  period  was  devoted  to  collecting  texts  in  tbe  Ooondaga  and  Mohatrit 


BEFOBT   OF   THE   BEOHBTABT.  51 

dialects,  embodrlDg  tbe  baeic  principles  and  tbe  cItII  and  political  structure 
lu^  orgaolzatloD  of  tbe  Leagae  of  tbe  Iroquois  and  data  relating  tbereto.  Tbe 
Onondaga  texts  aggr^ate  about  20,9SS  words  and  tbe  Mobawk  texts  about 
1,480  words,  making  a  total  of  27,435  words.  Tbe  following  captions  will 
indicate  anfficlentlr  tlie  subject-matter  of  tbese  texts :  Tbe  Constitution  of  tbe 
Le^ne,  the  Powers  of  tbe  T'badoda'bo',  AmeodmeDts,  Powers  and  RIgbts  of 
the  Cblefs,  Powers  and  RIgbts  of  tbe  Women,  Powers  of  tbe  Women  Chiefs, 
Procedure  on  Failure  In  Succession,  Powers  and  Restrictions  of  "Pine  l^ree" 
Cblefs.  Procedure  In  Case  of  Murder,  Address  of  Condolence  for  Deatb  In  a 
Cbiers  Famllj.  Forest-edge  Cbanted  Address  of  Welcome,  Tbe  Chant  for  tbe 
Dead,  Interpretation  of  tbe  Fundamental  Terms,  Peace,  Power,  and  Justice. 

Mr.  Hewitt  also  continued  bis  duties  as  custodian  of  tbe  collection  of  liu- 
galatic  manuscripla  of  the  Bureau,  the  completion  of  tbe  catalogue  of  wblcb  was 
'■ntrusted  to  Mr,  J.  B.  Clayton,  bead  clerk.  He  has  also  been  called  upon  to 
fnmlsh  data  tor  the  correspondence  of  tbe  office,  more  particularly  that  part 
relating  to  the  Iroquolan  tribes. 

Mr.  F.  W.  Hodge,  etbnologlat,  baa  been  engaged  daring  tbe  entire  year  on  tbe 
Handbook  of  American  Indians,  tbe  editorial  work  of  wblcb  bas  proved  ex- 
tremely arduoos  and  dlfficnlt  This  work  la  In  two  parts:  Part  I,  A — M,  was 
Issued  from  tbe  press  la  March  last,  and  tbe  main  body  of  Part  II  was  la  type 
at  tbe  close  of  tbe  fiscal  year,  though  progress  In  proof  reading  was  exceedingly 
slow  on  account  of  tbe  great  dWerslty  of  the  topics  treated  and  the  difficulty  of 
bringing  up  to  date  numbers  of  articles  relating  often  to  obscure  tribes  and 
snbjects. 

During  the  entire  fiscal  year  Mr.  James  Moon€y,  etbnolo^st,  remained  in  the 
office,  occupied  chiefly  on  the  Handbook  of  American  Indians  and  In  tbe  clas- 
sification of  tbe  large  body  of  material  previously  obtained  relating  to  the 
tribes  of  the  Qreat  Plains.  His  extended  article  on  Indian  Missions,  written  for 
the  Handbook,  has  been  made  tbe  subject  of  a  special  reprint,  a  small  edition 
of  wblcb  was  Issued  by  tbe  Bureau.  Mr.  Moooey  bas  also  given  valuable 
aselstance  la  the  correapondeace  of  the  Bureau,  more  especially  that  portl<m 
relating  to  the  languages  of  tbe  Algonqulan  stotHi. 

SPeClAI.   BBSKABCBBS. 

For  a  number  of  years  Dr.  Franz  Boas,  assisted  by  a  large  corps  of  linguists, 
bas  been  engaged  In  tbe  preparation  of  a  work  on  the  American  languages,  to  be 
published  as  a  bnlletln  of  tbe  Bureau,  entitled  "  Handbook  of  American  Lan- 
guages," and  It  Is  expected  that  tbe  mannscrlpt  of  the  first  part  of  this  work  will 
be  submitted  for  publication  at  an  early  datei  Sections  relating  to  tbe  languages 
of  the  Bsklmo  and  the  Iroquois  alone  remain  Incomplete.  During  tbe  summer 
of  1006  Mr.  Bdward  Saplr  was  engaged  in  collecting  data  for  tbe  handbook  on 
tbe  language  of  the  Takelma  tribe,  located  on  tbe  Slletz  Agency,  Oregon,  nntl 
toward  the  close  of  tbe  year  Mr.  Leo  J.  Fracbtenbei^  began  similar  studies 
among  tbe  Tutelo  remnant  on  tbe  Tuscarora  Reservation,  Ontario,  Canada. 

Reports  of  tbe  discovery  of  fossil  remains  of  men  of  extremely  primitive 
type  In  tbe  vicinity  of  Omaba,  Nebraska,  led  to  the  assignment  of  Dr.  Alei 
Hrdllffca,  curator  of  physical  anthropology  In  the  National  Museum,  to  the  duty 
of  visiting  tbe  Dulverell?  of  Nebraska,  at  Lincoln,  wh^  tbe  remains  are  pre- 
served, and  also  the  site  of  their  exhumation.  The  examinations  were  made 
with  tbe  greatest  care,  and  tbe  results  are  embodied  In  Bulletin  33  of  tbe 
Bureau,  wblcb  was  In  press  at  the  close  of  tbe  fiscal  year.  Tbe  conclusion 
reached  by  Doctor  Hrdll%a  with  respect  to  the  age  and  character  of  these 
remains  Is  that  they  are  not  geologically  ancient,  belonging  rather  to  the  mound- 


62  AMHUAL    BEPOBT   SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION,   1907. 

building  period  In  the  MiMisatppI  Valley,  and  that,  alttaongb  a  nnmber  of  tbe 
crania  are  of  low  type,  this  was  a  cbaracterlgf  c  freqnentlT  appearing  among 
comparativelT  recent  moand-baildlDg  tribes. 

At  the  b^iunlng  of  tbe  fiscal  jear  tbe  Bnrean  was  fortunate  enongb  to  enter 
Into  arrangements  wltb  Prof.  Herbert  E.  Bolton,  of  tbe  TTnlverslty  of  Texas, 
for  recording  tbe  bistor;  of  tbe  Texan  tribes.  During  tbe  early  historical 
period  the  French  controlled  and  came  Into  Intimate  relatlona  wltb  tbe  nortbem 
Caddo,  bence  tbe  early  blatory  of  tbla  group  Is  to  be  found  cblefly  In  French 
records ;  but  wltb  tbls  exception  It  is  mainly  In  Spanish  records,  scattered  and 
almost  wholly  unprlnted.    These  facts  make  the  task  in  every  sense  a  pioneer 

Tbe  Spanish  manuscript  sources  available  to  Professor  Bolton  and  upon 
which,  aside  from  the  printed  French  aources,  he  baa  thus  far  mainly  drawn. 
consist  of  (1)  tbe  B&xar  archives,  a  rich  collection  of  perhaps  300,000  pages 
of  original  mannscrlpts  that  accumulated  at  San  Antonio  during  the  Spanish 
occupnncy,  and  now  in  the  University  of  Texas;  (2)  tbe  Nacogdoches  archives. 
a  similar  but  much  smaller  collection  that  accamulated  at  Nacogdoches  and 
which  are  now  In  tbe  State  Historical  Library;  (8)  tbe  Lamar  papers,  a  small 
collection  of  Spanish  manuscripts,  now  in  private  bands;  (4)  mission  records 
preserved  at  tbe  residence  of  tbe  Bishop  of  San  Antonio;  <5)  copies  of  docu- 
ments from  tbe  Arcblvo  Oeneral  of  Mexico,  belonging  to  tbe  University  of 
Texas  and  to  Professor  Bolton ;  and  (6)  tbe  various  Mexican  archives.  From 
these  have  been  extracted  a  great  many  notes,  but  much  materiel  yet  remains 
to  be  examined. 

During  tbe  year  Professor  Bolton's  efforts  have  taken  three  principal  direc- 
tions: <1)  He  bas  systematically  and  fully  indexed,  on  about  10,000  cards,  a 
large  amount  of  the  early  material.  Including  tribal,  Instltntional,  llngnlstic, 
historical,  and  other  data  on  the  whole  Texas  Bald.  (2)  From  this  material  as 
a  basis  be  bas  written  many  brief  articles  on  tribes  and  missions  for  tbe  Hand- 
boob  of  American  Indiana,  aggregating  about  20,000  words.  (3)  While  Id 
tbe  analysis  of  tbe  materials  and  tbe  making  of  the  index  cards  be  bas  covered 
tbe  whole  field,  in  the  final  work  of  conatnictlon  be  has  begnn  the  Caddoao 
tribes  of  eastern  Texas,  wltb  tbe  design  of  treating  them  separately.  In  this 
work  Professor  Bolton  has  made  commendable  progress.  He  has  already 
written  a  detailed  description,  consisting  of  about  40,000  words,  of  the  location, 
social  and  political  organization,  economic  life,  religion,  and  ceremonial  of  tbe 
Hoslnal,  commonly  designated  "  Texas."  as  known  and  described  by  tbe  earliest 
European  chronicles,  accompanied  with  a  map. 

The  task  of  writing  a  history  of  tbe  Texas  tribes  Is  a  great  one,  and  can  be 
performed  only  by  long  and  painstaking  effort,  but  Its  successful  accompllsb- 
ment  promises  an  important  addition  to  our  knowledge  of  the  native  Amerlcaos. 

PBESERVATION    OF    ANTIQUITIES. 

With  tbe  object  of  assisting  tbe  departments  of  tbe  Oovemment  having  cus- 
tody of  tbe  public  domain  in  the  Initiation  of  measures  for  tbe  preservation  of 
tbe  antiquities  of  tbe  country,  tbe  compilation  of  a  descriptive  catalogue  of 
antiquities  has  been  continued,  and  tbe  preparation  of  bulletins  having  the  same 
end  In  view  has  also  received  every  possible  attention.  Bulletin  32,  Antlqultiee 
of  tbe  Jemez  Plateau,  by  Edgar  L.  Hewett,  was  published  and  distributed  dur- 
ing the  year,  and  Bulletin  35.  Antiquities  of  tbe  Upper  Qlla  and  Salt  River 
Valleys  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  by  Dr.  Walter  Hough,  was  In  page  form  at 
tbe  close  of  the  year,  while  bulletins  by  Dr.  J.  Walter  Fewkes,  on  tbe  Antlqul- 
Mes  of  the  Little  Colorado  Valley,  and  Edgar  L.  Ilewett,  on  tbe  Antiquities  of  the 
'eoa  Verde,  Colorado,  were  In  course  of  preparation.  (    ixiolt' 


BEPOET   OF   THE   SECEETARy.  68 

The  SDm  of  $3,000,  sppn^rlated  by  CoDgreas  for  tbe  ezcaTatlon,  repair,  and 
preserratloD  of  Casa  Qrande  RdId,  Id  Arlaona,  wbb  dlaburHd  hy  tbe  fimltb- 
BonlBD  InstltntloD,  Dr.  J.  Walter  Fewkes.  of  tbe  Bureau  of  American  Etbnology, 
baring  cbarge  of  tbe  work.  A  brief  preliminary  report  on  tbe  Brst  year's  opera- 
tions will  appear  In  tbe  Quarterly  Isaue  of  tbe  Smltbsonlan  Miscellaneous  Ool- 
Icctlons.  A  second  appropriation  of  $3,000  Is  provided  for  continiilng  tbe  work 
during  tli,e  coming  year. 

During  tbe  year  uniform  rulea  and  regulations  Intended  to  serre  In  carrying 
out  tbe  recently  enacted  law  for  tbe  preservation  of  national  antiquities  were 
formulated  and  adopted  by  tbe  tbree  dq>artments  having  control  of  tbe  public 
domain.  Under  tbeee,  on  recommendation  of  tbe  Secretary  of  tbe  SmitbaoniaQ 
Institution,  permits  were  Issued  for  conducting  explorations  on  Indian  reserva- 
tions and  national  forests  In  Idabo  and  Wyoming,  by  tbe  American  Mnseum  of 
Natural  History,  New  York,  and  among  tbe  ancient  ruins  on  tbe  public  lands 
in  Navabo  and  Apacbe  counties,  Ariiona,  by  tbe  University  of  California.  Ar- 
rangements were  also  made  witb  tbe  Interior  Department  for  carrying  on 
explorations  at  Casa  Grande  Ruin,  Arizona,  by  tbe  Smitbaonlan  Institution. 
Doder  tbe  Banie  law  during  tbe  year  tbree  important  arctaeoioglcal  sites  were 
declared  national  monumentB  by  tbe  President  of  tbe  United  States.  Tbey  are 
as  follows :  Chaco  Canyon,  in  New  Mexico,  InclndliiK  several  Important  mined 
pueblos;  EI  Moro,  New  Mexico,  cwmmonly  known  as  Inscription  Rock;  and 
Uontexuma  Castle,  In  Arluina.  nn  Important  clllt  ruin. 

CATAtoauE  or  LtNomenc  uAHtr»CRiFT8. 

The  fltchlves  of  tbe  Bureau  contain  1.826  manuscripts,  mainly  llDKUlstlc,  of 
which  only  a  partial  catalogue  had  previously  been  made.  In  January  Mr. 
J.  B.  Clayton,  head  clerk,  began  the  preparation  of  a  card  catalogue,  which  was 
(.■ompleted  at  the  close  of  tbe  year.  The  manuscripts  were  jaclieted  Id  manlla 
envelopes  of  uniform  size,  except  where  bulk  prevented,  and  were  numbered 
from  1  to  1026. 

Tbe  catalogue  comprises  about  14.000  cards  which  give,  as  completely  as 
available  data  permit,  tbe  names  of  stock,  language,  dialect,  collector,  and  local- 
ity, as  well  as  tbe  dale  of  tbe  mannscrtpt.  It  was  not  possible  In  every  Inxtance 
to  supply  all  the  Information  called  for  under  these  beads,  but  tbe  card  has 
l>een  made  as  complete  in  each  ease  as  the  Intormatton  permitted.  Tbe  cards 
hare  l>een  arranged  In  one  alphabetical  aerlea,  the  names  of  the  languages  not 
only  under  these  language*  in  their  proper  alphabetical  place,  but  also  alpha- 
betically under  their  stocks.  Under  the  name  of  each  collector  bis  manuscripts 
are  Indexed  under  stocks,  languages,  and  dialects.  The  data  in  regard  to 
"place"  are  very  defective,  and  quite  n  number  of  tbe  manuscripts  are  from 
anonymons  sources. 


Mr.  Joseph  G.  Gurley,  who  was  appointed  to  the  position  of  editor  for  a 
prolHitlonary  period  during  the  previous  year,  was  permanently  appointed  on 
August  16,  1006. 

Tbe  editorial  work  of  the  year  may  be  summarized  briefly  as  follows :  Tbe 
proof  reading  of  the  Twenty-fourth  Annual  Report  was  completed  and  the 
work  advanced  to  publication.  At  tbe  close  of  tbe  year  the  Twenty-fifth 
Annual  was  practically  flnlsbed,  witb  tbe  exception  of  the  presswork,  while 
tbe  Twenty-sixth  Report  was  In  t^age  form,  so  that  tbe  work  was  practically 
ready  for  printing.  Bulletin  32  was  completed  and  published  early  in  tbe  year, 
and  Bulletin  36  also  has  been  issued,    rulletlns  33,  34,  and  35  are  Jn  type,  and 


54  ANNUAL  EEPOBT  BMITHSONUM   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

the  proof  reading  on  BalletlnB  33  and  3S  bae  progressed  so  tar  tliat  tber  can 
be  pat  on  the  preu  at  an  early  day. 

For  abont  tbree  months  tbe  Bureau  bas  bad  tbe  efBclent  serrlcea  of  Mr. 
Stanly  Searlee,  wbo  was  courteously  detailed  for  the  purpose  from  tbe  proof 
reading  force  of  tbe  Oovernmeat  Frintlng  Office.  The  editor  has  assisted  to 
some  extent  In  (be  proof-reading  of  tbe  Handbook  of  Amerlcati  Indians,  Bulletin 
30,  wblcb  la  In  cbarge  of  Mr.  F.  W.  Hodge. 

PUBLICATIONS. 

During  the  year  tbe  Twenty-slztb  Annual  K^wrt  and  Bulletins  33,  34,  36, 
snd  36  were  forwarded  to  tbe  Public  Printer.  Bulletins  31  and  32  were  pub- 
lished In  July.  Part  I  of  tbe  Handbook  of  Ainerican  Indians  (BulIeUn  30) 
appeared  In  March  and  tbe  Twenty-fonrtb  Annas)  Report  Id  May.  One  thou- 
sand copies  of  the  List  of  Publications  of  the  Bureau  (Bulletin  36)  and  500 
copies  of  a  special  article  on  Indian  missions  were  Issued  Id  June.  Fifteen 
hundred  copies  of  tbe  TwenQ'-fonrth  Annual  Report  and  tbe  same  number  of  - 
Bulletin  30,  Part  1,  and  Bulletin  32  were  sent  to  regular  reciplrats.  About 
1.500  copies  of  Bulletin  30,  Part  I,  and  200  copies  of  the  Twenty-fourth  Annual, 
as  well  as  numerous  bulletins  and  separates,  were  distributed  In  response  to 
special  requests,  presented  for  tbe  most  part  by  Members  at  Congress. 

The  distribution  of  publications  was  continued  as  In  former  years.  Tbe  great 
increase  in  tbe  number  of  libraries  in  tbe  country  and  tbe  multiplication  of  de- 
mands from  the  public  generally  have  resulted  In  the  almost  Immediate  exhans- 
tloD  of  tbe  quota  of  volumes  (3,500)  allotted  to  tbe  Bureau.  Few  copies  of  any 
of  tbe  r^wrts  remain  six  months  after  tbe  date  of  Issue. 


Tbe  library  remains  In  cbarge  of  Miss  Ella  Leary.  wbo  was  able  to  bring  tbe 
nccessionlng  and  cataloguing  of  books,  pamphlets,  and  periodicals  up  to  date. 
In  all.  there  hare  been  received  and  recorded  during  tbe  year  760  volumes,  IJIOO 
pamphlets,  and  the  current  Issues  of  upward  of  600  periodicals,  while  aiwut  500 
volumes  have  been  bound  at  the  Government  Printing  Offlce.  The  library  now 
contains  13,657  volumes,  9,800  pamphlets,  and  several  thousand  copies  of  peri- 
odicals wblcb  relate  to  anthropology.  Tbe  purcbase  of  books  and  periodicals 
has  been  restricted  to  such  as  relate  to  anthropology  and,  more  especially,  to 
such  as  have  a  direct  bearing  on  tbe  American  aborigines. 

coixEcnoNs. 

The  collections  of  tbe  year  comprise  large  series  of  objects  obtained  by  Dr. 
J.  Walter  Fewkes,  In  his  excarations  at  Casa  Grande  Ruins,  Arizona,  conducted 
under  tbe  immediate  auspices  of  tbe  Smithsonlao  Institution,  and  by  Mrs.  M.  C. 
Stevenson  In  Zufli  and  Taos  pueblos.  New  Mexico. 

Some  of  tbe  minor  collections  are  a  cache  of  stone  knife  blades  from  tbe 
vicinity  of  Tenleytown,  District  of  Columbia,  obtained  througb  the  kindness  of 
Mr.  C.  C.  Glover;  a  series  of  relics  (fragments  of  pottery)  from  the  temple  of 
DlBua  at  Caldecote,  presented  by  Mr.  Robert  C.  Nightingale;  relies  from  the 
shell  heaps  of  Popes  Creek,  Maryland,  presented  by  Mr.  8.  H.  Morris,  of  Faulk- 
ner, Maryland ;  and  a  Dumber  of  atone  Implements  and  unfinished  soapstone 
utensils  from  tbe  ancient  quarries  on  Connecticut  avenue  extended,  Washington, 
District  of  Colombia,  coUected  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Gill. 


.y  Google 


BEFOBT   OF  THE   SBCBETA&T. 


ILUTBTRATIOnB. 


Tbe  dlTlelon  of  Illustrations  waa,  as  heretofore,  tn  charge  of  Mr.  De  Lancey 
GUI,  wbo  was  asslstetl  by  Mr,  Henir  Walttier,  One  boodred  and  flftjr-nlne  Ulna- 
tratlons  were  prepared  fbr  Bulletins  30,  33,  Si,  and  36,  and  a  large  nnmber 
of  proofs  of  lUnatratlons  for  tbe  varlons  volumes  were  read  and  rerleed.  Tbe 
pbotorrapblc  work  Included  tbe  making  of  277  negatives  required  In  tbe  lllus- 
tratloD  work  and  160  portraits  of  Indians  of  vlaltlng  delegations.  Negatires 
developed  for  ethnologists  returning  from  tbe  field  numbered  96.  During  tbe 
rear  a  total  of  11,078  pbotograpbic  prints  was  made^ 

Albert  Samuel  Oatscbet,  a  dIstlDgulBbed  pbUologlst  and  etbnologlBt,   tor 
man;  years  connected  witb  tbe  Bureau,  died  at  bia  borne  In  Waeblngton,  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  Marcb  16,  1907.    A  suitable  notice  of  his  career  will  be  found 
In  tbe  Annual  Report  of  tbe  Bureau. 
Bespectfuily  submitted. 

W.  H.  HoLUts,  Chief. 
Dr.  Chablzs  D.  Walcoit, 

Secretary  of  thr  ftmithtonian  /fuMtitlfon. 
41T80— 08 8 


.y  Google 


Appendix  III. 
REPORT  ON  THE  INTEKNATIONAL  KXCHANGES. 

Sib:  I  bave  tbe  bonor  to  sabmlt  the  foIlowlDg  report  on  tbe  operations  of 
the  iDternatlonal  Excbangee  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  Jane  30,  1007 : 

Tbe  Exchange  Service,  whose  existence  la  atmoet  coeval  with  that  of  tbe 
InstltntJoD,  wtts  originally  designed  for  the  pnrpose  of  exdiaDglng  Smltbaonian 
publications  lor  those  of  learned  societies  and  nnlverBltlea.  Tbroagb  Uic  action 
o(  Congress  and  a  treaty  negotiated  with  Tarlous  foreign  countries,  to  wblcb 
man;  nations  have  since  ndbered,  It  has  become  an  Important  International 
agency  for  ttie  exchange  of  governmental,  eclentlflc,  and  literary  publications, 
and  Is  intended  to  benefit  Institutions  in  this  countiy  and  abroad,  serving  as  one 
of  tbe  most  Important  means  for  carrying  out  a  fundamental  purpose  of  the 
Institution,  "the  dlCfasion  of  knowledge  among  men." 

Tbe  service  conducts  Its  operations  on  behalf  of  all  branches  of  this  Gov- 
ernment, and  reciprocally  receives  the  cooperation  of  most  of  the  Etepnrtments 
and  Bureaus  at  Washington.  I  desire,  however,  especially  to  mention  the 
valued  coDperntion  of  (he  Department  of  State,  which  unfailingly,  wbeu 
reQuested,  takes  action,  through  our  representatives  abroad,  on  behalf  of  the 
service;  and  of  the  Trensary  Department,  which,  by  Its  InetructlonB  to  collectors 
of  customs,  greatly  facilitates  tbe  exchange  work. 

Its  operations  bave  been  zealously  carried  on  during  tlie  year  by  tbe  experi- 
enced staff  that  Ims  been  gathered  together.  Etetalls  of  tbe  regular  work  are 
given  below,  to  a  considerable  extent  in  tabular  form,  but  before  proceeding 
to  them  certain  exceptional  matters  arc  briefly  discussed. 

Tbe  amount  appropriated  by  Congress  for  tbe  expenses  of  tbe  service  during 
tbe  fiscal  year  1907  was  $28,800,  and  tbe  sum  collected  on  account  of  repay- 
ments during  the  same  period  was  $4.6(18.^.  making  the  total  available  re- 
sources for  carrying  on  (he  system  of  International  Exchanges  $33,368.25. 

The  estimate  submitted  to  Congress  for  conducting  the  service  during  tbe 
year  1908  was  $32,200,  nn  increase  of  $3,400  over  the  current  appropriation. 
It  Is  gratifying  to  state  that  this  amount  bas  been  alloned. 

Tbe  Improvements  and  changes  In  tbe  electric  wires  which  furnish  light  for 
the  Exchange  Service,  referred  to  in  tbe  last  report,  have  been  completed.  The 
wires  were  placed  In  metal  pipes,  and  the  liability  of  fire  from  tbls  source  Is 
now  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  appearance  of  tbe  office  rooms  bas  been  much 
improved  by  tbe  painting  of  the  walls,  woodwork,  and  floors,  and  tbe  banging 
of  new  shades. 

When  it  Is  considered  that  nearly  2,000  boxes  have  been  shipped  during  tbe 
year  to  every  quarter  of  tbe  globe,  the  statement  that  tbe  service  has  not 
suffered  tbe  loss  of  any  of  Its  consignments  Is  noteworthy. 

A  close  supervision  has  been  kept  over  entries  of  foreign  consignments  of 
books  at  tbe  Georgetown  mstom-houae  and  over  tbe  auction  sales  of  all  tbe 
principal  ports  of  the  Dnlted  States,  in  order  to  prevent.  If  possible,  tbe  going 
astray  of  exchanges  from  abroad  which  are  not  properly  addressed,  and  which, 
therefore,  fail  to  reach  the  Smithsonian  Institution.     During  tbe  past  year 

M  ii.;,Gooyk' 


SBPOBT   CV   THE  8ECBZTABT.  57 

tbeee  efforti  hare  remlted  In  the  cleartiiK  of  a  mnnber  of  oaoBigniDeDtB  (or  the 
SmltbBODiaa  Inatitntlon  and  the  Ltbrary  of  OooKrew  wtilch  might  othernlse 
have  miscarried.  Whenever,  during  tlu  Tisits  to  the  cnrtom^ionBe.  any  ex- 
cbange  conslpuneot  addrened  to  a  Bdentlflc  establlebmeDt  has  been  fonnd 
unclaimed,  steps  have  been  taken  to  nottfj'  the  proper  penooB  regarding  the 
matter.  In  such  cases  the  sender  baa  been  Informed  of  the  channels  through 
whl44i  ^Hdiangea  shonid  be  forwarded  to  burare  their  prompt  and  safe 
delivery. 

CompIalntB  of  delays  In  the  tranamlsslon  of  exchaages  are  becoming  fewer 
each  year.  Every  endeavor  has  been  made  to  Improve  the  service  bo  that  the 
catise  of  complaint  may  be  entirely  eliminated,  and  each  complaint  Is  care- 
fully traced  In  order  that  the  cause  of  delay  may  be  ascertained.  It  shonid  be 
stated,  however,  that,  with  tlie  exception  of  the  countries  In  which  the  Institu- 
tion has  paid  agents,  the  responsibility  of  the  Institution  for  outgoing  shipments 
necessarily  ceases  after  th^  have  been  shipped,  as  tbe  distribution  In  foreign 
countries  fs  conducted  by  tbe  government  bureaus  of  the  respective  countries, 
over  which  the  Smithsonian  Inetltutlon,  of  coureo.  has  no  control.  In  special 
rases,  and  usually  upon  the  request  of  govoiuaent  establishments  where  the 
imblications  are  of  such  a  nature  that  their  value  lai'gely  depends  upon  the 
promptest  possible  delivery,  and  to  addresses  in  countries  to  which  shipments 
are  very  Infrequent,  packages  are  now  sent  by  mall. 

It  has  been  the  established  rule  to  make  shipments  In  boxes  of  standard  size, 
bearing  a  weight  of  about  200  pounds  each,  and  not  to  make  a  transnilsskin 
to  any  country  until  a  snfBcIent  number  of  pubHcatlons  to  All  at  least  one  such 
box  had  act-u  mala  ted.  This  has  caused  no  delay  In  Bhtpments  to  any  of  the 
larger  countries,  but  has  rendered  them  lees  frequent  to  those  places  with 
which  the  exchange  Is  not  very  conBiderable.  It  Is  proposed  during  the  coming 
year  to  employ  emaller  caees  for  snch  countries,  thus  making  more  frequent 
sblpments  possible. 

Regarding  the  charge  made  by  the  consuls  of  certain  South  and  Central 
American  countries  for  certifying  bills  of  lading,  it  Is  a  pleasure  to  state  that 
In  nearly  every  Instance  tbe  consuls  have  consented  to  waive  such  fees  in  the 
future. 

Within  recent  years  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippine  Islands  came 
under  tbe  Jurisdiction  of  tbe  Doited  States.  Prior  to  this  they  had  been  sub- 
ject to  foreign  Jurisdiction  and  thus  came  within  the  purview  of  the  exchange 
service,  but  under  tbe  existing  clrcumstaoces  It  appeared  that  this  construc- 
tion must  be  abandoned,  and  the  Instltntlon  has  discontinued  the  acceptance  of 
packages  from  domestic  Bonrces  for  these  territories,  since  exchanges  with  them 
DO  longer  come  within  the  designation  "iDtem  at  tonal." 

Special  attention  continues  to  be  given  to  Increasing  the  office  collection  of 
directories  and  other  books  of  addresses. 

In  tbe  last  report  reference  was  made  to  fbt  steps  that  were  being  taken 
through  the  Department  of  State  to  have  the  Government  of  the  Argentine 
Republic  designate  one  office  to  assume  charge  of  the  distribution  of  exchanges 
In  that  country,  In  order  that  the  practice  of  sending  to  Ave  difFerent  estaMlsh- 
ments  might  be  discontinued.  In  response  to  tiie  communication  of  tbe  Depart- 
ment of  State,  the  Argentine  minister  of  foreign  affairs  stated  that  a  section 
of  exriianges  was  already  established  nnder  tbe  direction  of  the  National 
library  of  Buenos  Aires,  and  requested  that  future  consignments  be  sent  In 
care  of  that  library.  TransmlBslons  to  Argentina  have  accordingly  been  made 
In  this  manner  since  January,  1007. 

As  was  reported  last  year,  nil  tranamisalons  to  Bulgaria  were  temporarily 
suspended  owing  to  tbe  death  of  Dr.  Paul  Levei^tihn,  who  attended  to  the 


58  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMTTHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

dietrlbiitlon  of  exchanges  In  that  conntrr.  It  Is  gratifying  to  state  that  sbfp- 
ments  bave  now  been  remmed,  tbe  Prince  of  Bulgaria  baring  been  good  enongb, 
in  response  to  tbe  reqaest  of  tbe  Instltndon,  to  designate  tbe  scientific  tnstltn- 
Uons  and  IttMraTj'  at  Sofia  to  act  as  tbe  exchange  lut^medlarr  between  Bulgaria 
and  tbe  United  States. 

Tbe  final  arrangement  of  details  concerning  the  sblpment  of  QoTenim^it 
documents  to  China  has  not  beoi  perfected,  and  therefore  tbe  first  consignmoit 
of  offldal  publications  to  that  coundy  has  not  yet  been  made. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  present  Bacal  j-ear  a  communlcadoa  was  re- 
ceived from  Dr.  F.  Bonola  Bey,  secretary-general  of  the  Ehedlvlal  Oet^raphlcal 
Soclel^r  In  Cairo,  announcing  that  as  be  was  about  to  leave  Egypt  for  some  time 
be  felt  It  would  be  necessary  for  blm  to  give  up  tbe  work  which  be  had 
been  conducting  for  the  Smlthsonloo  Institution  for  a  number  of  yearB,  and 
that,  at  bis  request,  the  director-general  of  tbe  survey  department  at  Cairo 
bad  offered  to  take  charge  of  the  dlstrlbntion  of  exchangee.  A  letter  was  also 
received  from  tbe  director-general  placing  the  Bervlcee  of  bla  department  at  the 
dle^ioeal  of  tbe  Institution.  Consignments  will,  therefore,  t>e  sent  to  the  survey 
department  in  tbe  future.  The  grateful  acknowledgments  of  tbe  Institution 
are  due  to  Dr.  Bonola  Bey  for  the  valuable  services  which  he  has  rendered  . 
during  the  past  seventeen  years  in  the  distribution  of  exchanges  to  correspond- 
ents In  Egypt.  , 

Under  tbe  arrangement  which  has  eziated  for  a  number  of  years  with  the 
national  library  at  Athens,  the  Smithsonian  Institution  has  been  permitted  to 
forward  to  that  library  pack^es  Intended  for  dlstrlbntion  only  to  Government 
Institutions  and  offidals  connected  therewith,  it  being  necessary  to  forward  all 
other  exchanges  for  Greece  in  care  of  tbe  American  School  of  Classical  Studies 
at  Athens.  On  account  of  this  division  of  consignments  It  was  often  necessary 
to  bold  packages  here  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  before  a  suffldent  nimt- 
ber  accnmniated  to  constitute  a  sblpment  Tbe  national  llbrarr.  however, 
through  the  good  olBces  of  Dr.  Eypaldo  Bassler,  member  of  tbe  Greek  Parlia- 
ment, has  finally  l>een  prevailed  upon  to  distribute  exchanges  for  all  addresses 
in  Greece,  wblch  greatly  Increases  tbe  ^clency  of  tbe  service  between  that 
country  and  tbe  United  States.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  stated  that  the 
services  which  the  American  School  of  Classical  Studies  rendered  the  Institu- 
tion In  the  distribution  of  exchanges  for  miscellaneous  addresses  In  Greece 
have  been  eminently  satisfactory,  and  tbe  thanks  of  the  Institution  are  due  tbe 
officers  of  that  school  for  their  promptness  In  forwarding  packages  to  their 
destinations. 

Dr.  Julius  Plkler,  who  was  temporarily  appointed  agent  for  Hungary  on 
July  1,  1906,  to  fill  the  vacancy  caused  by  the  death  of  Dr.  Joseph  von  KSrSsy. 
was,  on  February  7, 1907.  permanently  appointed. 

No  response  has  yet  been  received  from  the  Eorea  branch  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society  at  Seoul  regarding  the  request  of  tbe  Institution  that  tbe 
society  act  as  tbe  extdionge  medium  through  which  packages  to  and  from  Eorea 
may  be  forwarded.  Tbe  Institution  is,  therefore,  still  without  means  oC  for- 
'  warding  packages  to  Eorea,  transmissions  to  which  country  were  suspended 
during  the  late  Russo-Japanese  war. 

INTEBC  HANOI  OF  PUBLIC ATIOKB 


The  total  number  of  packages  handled  by  the  International  Exchange  Service 
during  tbe  past  year  was  189,830,  an  Increase  over  the  number  for  the  preceding 
year  of  ]7,M7.    Tbe  weight  of  these  packages  was  460,536  pounds,  a  decrease 


BEPOBT    OF    THE    BECBETABT. 


from  1906  of  2,023  pounds.    Tbe  statement  which  foHowe  sbows  In  detail  the 
Qumber  of  packages  escbaoged  between  tbe  United  States  and  other  countries: 


Statement   of  packages  received  for  trammigsion  through  the   International 
Exchange  Service  during  the  gear  cniling  June  SO,  1907. 


ANNUAL    REPOBT   BMITHSfiNIAN    INSTITUTION,    19(0. 


Stattm^it  ofpaekaga  neeivedfor  tnmtnatman  Ihrough  lAa  Inlemaiionai  Bkdumge 
Senia  during  the  year  au&ng  June  30,  1907 — Contmued. 


Reunion ■ 

RhodoU I 

St.  Helen* 

8t  KltM I 

St.Lucta 

8t.Kartln 

St.  Pierre  and  Mlquelon 

fil.Tbom*! 

81.  Vlaceol 

San  Sslvadoi 

SaDto  Domingo | 

Berrla I 

Seycbellea  Islands , 

sum 

SlBira  Leone 

Society  lalandii i 


,  Dnrlng  the  year  tbere  were  seot  abroad  1333  boxes,  28S  of  wblcb  contalnea 
full  sets  of  United  States  Governmeiit  documents  for  authorized  depositories, 
and  1,568  consisted  of  dqjartmenta]  and  other  publlcaUons  for  mlscellaneotui 
correspondents.  The  decrease  in  the  □omber  of  boxes  sent  abroad  as  compared 
with  the  prertons  year  is  due,  In  part,  to  the  fact  that  a  great  many  more  pack- 
ages were  forwarded  directly  by  mall  than  formerly,  and,  in  part,  to  the  reduc- 
tion In  size  of  Government  publications.  The  number  of  boxes  of  mlscellaneons 
exchanges  sent  to  each  country  la  given  below : 


-  ■  

l^jr. 

From- 

B.4TT 

i.zm 

13, 5K. 
1,S,V1 
I.ITT 

■i.iai 

1.234 

■JM 

... 

I  0-2 

TrtnldHd 

Turkey 

Western  Australia 

z 

18»,g30 

20 
64 
B2 

2 
19 
14 

2 

1 
18 

4 
11 

8 

4 
18 
10 

T 

-      153 

.      278 

308 

Austria 

Belgium 

Guatemala 

Haiti 

British  colonies 

British  Guiana 

British  Honduras- 

India 

Italy .- 

Jamaica 

Japan  

China 

Colombia,.- 

Natal 

Egypt - - - 

Prance  and  colonies.. 

Nicaragua — 

Norway  

Great  Britain  and  Ireland,.- 

ParaBnay „_ __ 

Google 


SBPOBT   OF   TUZ   B£CB&TAST. 


Pwn 

Portugal    

QaeeoBland 

Russia   

Salvador 

Santn  Domingo... 

Slam   

Soulb   Australia-. 

Spain 

SwedMi 


Switzerland   

Syria 

Tasmania    

Transvaal  

Trinidad  

Turkey  _-_ .- 

Uruguay   

Venezuela  

Victoria - 

Weetera  Austral  ta-. 


The  number  of  packages  sent  abroad  through  the  International  Exchange 
Service  by  United  States  Government  InHtltutlons  during  the  year  was  100,114, 
an  Increase  over  those  forwarded  dnrlng  the  preceding  twelve  months  of 
33,086;  the  number  received  In  exchange  was  11,041,  a  decrease  of  16.127. 
The  increase  In  the  number  sent  Is  due  partly  to  the  addition  of  three  new 
depositories  of  partial  Bets  of  official  documents  and  partly  to  the  greater 
number  of  publications  received  from  Qovemment  establishments  for  dls- 
tributlon  abroad.  The  decreaed  does  not  slgni^  an  actual  reduction  In  the 
number  of  publications  from  foreign  countries,  and  is  accoimted  for  by  the 
fact  that  all  packages  for  the  Library  of  Congress  have,  at  the  request  of 
the  Librarian,  been  delivered  Intact,  bo  that.  In  the  case  of  the  receipts  for 
the  Library,  one  package  sometimes  represents  a  whole  box  of  publtcatlona 

The  exchange  on  account  of  the  various  branches  of  the  Government  la 
shown  In  detail  In  the  following  table: 


Btatemt^t 


f  United  8 


Historical  AsKici- 


AitTophyslcal  Otonratorjr . 
Aodltor  for  the  Btftte  and 

other  Departmenla 

Bureau  of   American   Eth- 

Burean  of  the  Ameilci 

Boreku  of  llie  Ceiutu. 
Biuemof 


Re-  I 


Lu  ol  riaheriea  . . . 
BoicaQ  of  ImmisisUon 
Bureaa  of  InsulBr  Affain.  - . 


Borean  of  the  Hint 

Boreau  of  KavlgatloD,  Hmv 

Department 

Borean  of  Navigation,  Se- 

aodLatNir 


Package- 

BecelTod 

25 

gen 

bj- 

Bureauol  Public  Health  and 
Marfne-Hoepital  Service.. 

Bucean  of  Blatisdca,  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce  and 

,IW 

Burean  o[  Steam  Eoglnecr- 

,i 

Coast  and  Oeodetlo  Sorvey. . 

1M 

610 

28 
U 

s 

Department  of  Agilcalture.. 

1« 
361 

Department  of  the  Interior. . 

DepartmeDt  of  State 

Englneec  School  of  Applica- 

208 

^ 

Google 


ANNUAL  REPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION.  1907. 


Oealoglcal  Survey 

Hoiue  o(  RepresenlAlJveB  - 

HydrOKimpMc  Omce 

Hyglealc  Laboratory 

iDlcnUite  CommeTce  Cnm 


UbiKry  of  CoDgrest . . 
Life-Saving  Servtcc  .. 
Ugtit-Houie  Board . . . 
Matianal  Academy  o 


Matloual  Herbarium 

National  Hiucum 

KauUcal  Aluuoac  Office . . 
Maval  ObseiratoiT 


26 

4« 

4.m 

H,727 

m 

57 

X 

634 

67 

lea 

IM 

7S7 

Office  of  tbe  Chief  of  Stafl .... 

OlBte  ol  Indian  Affaire 

Ordnance  Offlce.  War  De- 
partment   

Patent  Office 

Senate  Library 

BmltluonlBn  Institution 

Inipeclion  Serv- 


SupeilDtendeat   < 


SurseoDiGeneial'i  on 
Treasury  Department 

War  Department 

Weather  Bureau 


100,  U4 


As  will  be  seen  from  tbe  foregoing  statement,  the  number  of  documents  sent 
abroad  by  the  Departments  and  Bureaus  of  this  Govemment  Is,  In  most  instances, 
much  greater  than  the  quantity  of  similar  works  received  In  exchange.  While 
this  may  partly  be  due  to  the  fact  that  few  govermnents  publish  so  ezteoslvelr 
as  the  United  States,  yet  It  seems  unlikely  that  the  fullest  possible  exchange 
haa  been  attained,  and  It  is  proposed  during  tbe  coming  year  to  use  a  part  of  tbe 
Increase  In  tbe  excbai^  appropriation  in  the  employment  of  an  additional 
clerk  to  assist  Id  carrying  on  tbe  work  of  completing  and  increasing  the  nnm- 
t)er  of  foreign  govwnment  publications  received  by  American  govemmeatal 
eetabllshmenta. 

POBEION    DEPOSITORIES    OF    UNITED    STATES    OOVEBRMEnT    DOCDHEnTB. 

In  accordance  with  treaty  stipulations  and  under  the  authority  of  tbe  Con- 
gressional resolutions  of  March  2,  1S6T,  and  March  2,  1901,  setting  apart  a 
certain  number  of  documents  for  exchange  with  foreign  countries,  there  are 
DOW  seait  regularly  to  depositories  abroad  63  full  sets  of  United  States  official 
publications  and  30  partial  sets.  During  the  past  year  tbe  Librarian  of  Goo- 
gress,  In  accordance  with  tbe  discretion  vested  In  blm  by  the  act  of  1901,  directed 
that  the  legialatlve  library  at  Edmonton,  Alberta,  tbe  national  library  at  Quito, 
Ecuador,  and  tbe  Panama  department  of  foreign  affairs  at  Panama  be  added 
to  the  list  of  depositories  of  partial  sets.  The  recipients  of  full  and  partial 
seta  are  as  follows ; 


Argentina :  Mlnisterlo  de  Relaciones  Bxterlores,  Buenos  Aires. 
Argentina :  Blblioteca  de  la  Unlrersldad  Naclonal  de  La  Plata. 
Anstralla :  Library  of  the  Oommonweaith  Parliament,  Melbourne. 


.y  Google 


BEPOBT   OF   THE   SEOB£IABT.  68 

AoBtria :  K.  K.  StaUstlsclie  Geotral-Cloininlssloii,  Vienna. 

Baden:  UnlTereltita-Bibllotbek,  Freibarg. 

Bavaria :  KOnigllcbe  Hof-  and  Staata-BlbUothek,  Montch. 

Belgiom:  Blblloth^ue  Royale,  Broseela. 

Brazil :  Bibllotheca  Nacfonal,  Bio  de  Janeiro. 

Canada:  Parlianientary  Library,  Ottawa. 

Cape  Colony :  Government  Stationery  DepartmeBt,  Cape  Towa 

Chile:  Biblloteoa  del  Congreeo  Nadonal,  Santiago. 

Colombia:  Blblloteca  Nadonal,  BoKOtfi. 

Costa  Rica :  Ofldna  de  DepOelto  y  Canje  de  PnbUcaclones,  San  Job& 

Cnba :  Department  of  State,  Eabana. 

Denmark:  Kongelige  Blbllotheket,  Copenbagen. 

E^laad:  British  Mnaemn,  London. 

England:  London  School  of  Economics  and  Political  Science.  London. 

France:  Blbllotb^ne  Natlonale,  Paris. 

France :  PreCectnre  de  la  Seine,  Paris, 

Germany;  Deutsche  Relchfltaga-Blbllottiek,  Berlin. 

Greece:  National  Library,  Athens. 

Haiti :  Secreuirerle  d'£tat  des  Relations  Bzterieures,  Port-aa-Prlnce. 

Hungary :  Hungarian  House  of  Delegates,  Budapest 

India :  Home  Department,  Govemmeat  of  India,  Calcutta. 

Ireland:  National  Library  of  Ireland,  Dublin. 

Italy:  Blblloteca  Nazlonale  Tlttorlo  Bmannele,  Rome. 

Japan :  Department  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Tokyo. 

Manitoba :  Provincial  Library,  Winnipeg. 

Mexico:  Instltuto  BlbllogrflQco,  Blblloteca  Naclonal,  Mexico. 

Netherlands :  Library  of  the  States  General,  The  Hague. 

New  South  Wales :  Board  for  International  Excbanges,  Sydney. 

Kew  Zealand:  Genera]  Assembly  Library,  Wellington. 

Norway :  Stortblngets  Blbllotb^,  Cbrlstlanla. 

Ontario:  Legislative  Library,  Toronto. 

Peru :  Blblloteca  Naclonal,  Lima. 

Portagal :  Bibllotheca  Naclonal,  Lisbon. 

Prussia :  KOnigllcbe  Blbllothek,  Berlin. 

Quebec:  Legislative  Library,  Quebea 

Queensland :  Farllamentary  Library,  Brisbane. 

Buseia :  Imi>erlal  Public  Library,  St  Petersburg. 

Saxony:  KOoIgilcIie  OetTentllche  Blbllothek,  Dresdea 

South  Australia :  Parliamentary  Library,  Adelaide. 

Spain:  Dep6sltD   de  LIbroe,   Camblo    Intemadonal   y   Blblloteca   General    del 

Mlnlsterlo  de  InstrucclOn  PdbUca  y  Bellas  Artes,  Madrid. 
Sweden:  Eongltga  Biblioteket,  Stockholm. 
Switzerland :  Blblloth^ue  F&ierale,  Berne. 
Tasmania :  Parliamentary  Library,  HobarL 
Transvaal :  Government  Library,  Pretoria. 
Tniliey :  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  Constantinople 
Uruguay :  Oflcina  de  DepAelto,  Rcparto  y  Canje  Interoaclonal  de  Pnbllcaclones, 

Montevideo. 
Venezuela :  Blblloteca  National,  Cartkaa. 
Victoria :  Public  Library,  Melbourne. 

Western  Australia:  Public  Library  of  Western  Australia,  Perth. 
WOrttemberg:  KSnlgliche  Landcsbibllothek,  Stuttgart 


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ANNUAL.   BEPORT   SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION,   1907. 


Alberta :  Legislative  Library,  Edmonton. 

AoBtrla-HnngaTy :  BttrKermelBter  der  Haupt-  und  Reaidens-Stadt,  Vienna. 

BollTla :  United  SUtee  Mlotster,  La  Paz. 

Britlsb  Columbia :  Legislative  Llbraiy.  Victoria. 

Bnlgaria :  Minister  of  Foreign  AHatrs,  Sofia. 

Ceylon :  United  States  Consul,  Colombo. 

Ecuador:  Biblloteca  Nadonal,  Qalto. 

Egypt:  Blbllotbeque  Kbedlvlale,  Cairo. 

Germany :  Orossberzogllcbe  Hof-Blbllotbek,  Darmstadt 

Germany :  Senatskommlsslon  fQr  die  Relcha-  und  AnewErtigen  Angelesenhelteu, 

Hamburg. 
Germany:  Eommisslon  ftlr  Reicfas-  und  Auswattlge  Augelegenheiteu,  RreiDen. 
Guatemala  :  Secretary  of  tbe  Government,  Guatemala. 
Honduras ;  Secretary  of  the  Government,  Tegucigalpa. 
Jamaica:  Colonial  Secretary,  Elngaton. 
Lourenco  Marqnez :  QoTemment  Library,  Louren^  Marquez. 
Malta :  Lieutenant-Governor,  Valetta. 
Newfoundland:  Colonial  Secretary,  St  Johns. 
New  Brunswick :  Legislative  Library,  St  John. 
Natal:  Colonial  Governor,  Pietermarltzburg. 
Nicaragua :  Snperlntendente  de  ArcblvoB  Naclonales,  Managna. 
Nova  Scotia :  Legislative  Library,  Halifax. 
Northwest  Territories:  Government  Library,  Reglna. 
Orange  River  Colony ;  Government  Llbmry,  Bloemfonteln. 
Panama:  Secretarla  de  Relaclones  Exterlores,  Panama. 
Prince  Edward  Island:  Legislative  Library,  Charlottetown. 
Paraguay :  Ofldna  General  de  Informaclones  y  Canjea  y  Commisaria  General 

de  Inmlgraclon,  Asuncion. 
Roumanla:  Academia  Romano,  Bukharest 
Salvador:  Minlsterlo  de  Reladonee  Exterlores,  San  Salvador. 
Straita  Settlements:  Colonial  Secretary,  Singapore. 
Slam :  Department  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Banglcob. 

COKBESPONiatlfTS. 

The  record  of  exchange  correspondents  at  tlie  dosa  of  the  year  contained 
68,107  addresses,  being  an  Increase  of  1,7&3  over  tbe  preceding  year.  The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  tbe  number  of  correapondents  In  each  country,  and  also 
serves  to  Illustrate  the  scope  of  the  service,  whose  ntilltr  Is  becoming  every 
year  better  and  more  widely  appreciated. 


.y  Google 


i  THE   BBCBETISZ. 


Vttmbw  at  corpM|Kmd«nt»  of  Ue  I 


shC^tTslAIrica.... 

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,  Google 


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,  Google 


BEPOBI   09  THE  BBCBETABT.  67 

FollowiDg  ts  a  list  of  bnreaoB  or  agencies  tbroneb  which  the  dlatrtbotion  of 
ezcbanges  Is  etTected.  Those  In  tlie  larger  couDtrlea  and  In  many  of  the  smaller 
ones  forward  to  the  Smithsonian  Instltntloa  reciprocal  cootrlbntlons  for  dls- 
trlbndon  In  the  United  States: 

UBT  OF  BDRKAUB  OB  AaEHGIEB  THBOUOH   WHICH   EXCRANOKS  AKE  TBANSIHTTED. 

Algeria :  TIa  France, 
Angola :  TIa  Portugal. 
AzgQitlaa:  Secclon  de  Deptelto.  Reparto  j  Canje  de  Pnbllcaciones.  Blblloteca 

Naclonal,  Buenos  Aires. 
Anstrfa :    K.   K.   Statlatlscbe  Central-Oomml salon,   Vienna. 
Azores:  TIa  Portugal. 

Barbados:  Imperial  Detriment  of  Agrlcnltore,  Bridgetown. 
Belgium :  Service  Beige  des  £chaiiges  tnteroatlonaux,  Brussels. 
Bermuda:   Sent  by  mall. 

Bolivia :  Oflclna  Naclonal  de  InnilgraclAn,  Bstadlstlca  y  Propaganda  Oeogr&flcn. 
Brazil:  Serrlgo  de  Permula^Qs  Intemaclonaes,  BIbllotheca  Naclonal,  Rio  de 

British  colonies:  Crown  Agents  for  the  Colonies,  London." 

British  Golana :  Royal  Agricultural  and  Commercial  Society,  Georgetown. 

British  Honduras:   Colonial  Secretary,  Belize. 

Bnlgada :  Institutions  et  Blbllotb^ue  sclentlflguee  de  S.  A.  R.  le  Prince  de  Bul- 

garle,  Sofia. 
Canada :  Sent  by  mall. 
Canary  Islands :  TIa  Spain. 

Cape  Colony:  Government  Stationery  Department.  Cape  Town. 
Chile:  Unlversldfld  de  Chile,  Santiago. 
China :  Zl-ka-wel  Observatory,   Shanghai. 
Colombia:  Oflclna  de  Canjee  Internaclonalea  y  Reparto,  Blblloteca  Naclonal. 

Bogota. 
Costa  BIca :  Oflclna  de  DepOslto  y  Canje  de  Pnbllcaciones,  San  3os&. 
Cuba:  Sent  by  mall. 

DeDmark :  Koagellge  Danske  TIdenskabemea  Selsknb.  Copenhagen. 
Datch  Gnlana :  Snrlnaamscbe  Kolonlale  BIbllotheek,  Paramaribo. 
Ecuador :  Mlnlsterlo  de  Relaclones  Biterlores,  Qnlto. 
Egypt :  Director-General,  Survey  Department,  Cairo. 
France :  Service  des  Echanges  Intern atlonaux,  Paris. 
Friendly  Islands:  Sent  by  mall. 

Germany :  Earl  W.  Htersemann,  Kenigastrasse  3,  Leipzig. 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland:  Messrs.  William  Wesley  &  Son,  28  Essex  street. 

Strand,  London. 
Greece:  Blbllotta^ue  Natlonale,  Athens, 
Greenland :  TIa  Denmark. 
Gnadeloupe :  Tia  France. 

Guatemala ;  Instltuto  Naclonal  de  Guatemala,  Guatemala. 
Guinea:  TIa  Portugal. 

Haiti :  Secretalrerle  dTStat  dea  Belations  Est^rleures,  Port  au  Prince. 
Honduras:   Blblloteca   Naclonal,  Tegucigalpa. 

a  This  method  Is  employed  for  communicating  with  »  large  number  of  the 
British  colonies  with  which  no  route  Is  available  for  forwarding  exchanges 
direct. 


.y  Google 


68  ANNUAL  BEPCWT  BMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

HuiigaTT:  Dr.  Jnlltu  Plkler,  Hnaictpal  Office  of  BtttlBtles,  Oit7  H«ll,  1 

loeland :  Tla  Denmarfc. 

lodla  :  Indlx  Store  Department,  Limdoa 

Italy:  Ufflcio  degll  ScambI  laternazioiiall,  BlbUoteca  Nasloiule  Tlttorlo  Ibm- 
nuele,  Roma 

Jamaica :  Institute  of  Jamaica,  Klngstoa. 

Japao :  Departmeot  of  Toretgn  AlTalra.  Tokyo. 

Java :  Via  Netherlands. 

Korea:  SbtpiuentB  temporarily  suspended. 

Liberia :  Care  of  American  Colonization  8o<Aets,  Waabington,  D.  Q 

Lourenco  Marqnez-.  QoTemment  Library.  Lonrengo  Uarquee. 

Luxembarg:  Via  Germany. 

Madagascar:  Via  France. 

Madeira:  Via  Portugal. 

Mexico :  Sent  by  mall. 

Mozamblqne :   Via  Portngnl. 

Natal ;  Agent-General  for  Natal,  London. 

Netherlands :  Bureau  Scientiflque  Central  Nterlandals,  Blbllotb^ue  de  rOni- 
verelte,  Leyden. 

Newfoundland :  Sent  by  mall. 

New  Guinea :  Tla  Netberlands. 

New  Hebrides:  Sent  by  mall. 

New  South  Wales :  Board  for  Inteniatlonal  Bxcbanses.  Sydn^. 

New  Zealand :  Colonial  Museam,  Wellington. 

Nicaragua :  Mlnlsterio  de  Belaclones  Ezterlorea,  Managua. 

Norway :  KongeKge  Noreke  Frederiks  Unlversltet  Blbllotbeket,  Christtaola. 

Paraguay :  Mlnlsterio  de  Relaclones  Exterlores,  Asuncion. 

Persia :  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Cburch,  New  York  City. 

Peru :  Oflclna  de  Reparto,  Depfielto  y  Canje  Intemaclonal  de  PubllcacloDes, 
Mlnlsterio  de  Fomeoto,  Lima. 

Portugal:  Blbllotbeca  Naclonal,  Lisbon. 

Queensland:  Board    of    Exchanges    of    International    Publications,    Brl^Miie. 

Ronmania :  Via  Germany. 

Russia:  Commission  Busse  des  &;hanKe8  intematlonaux,  Bibliotb^que  imp^ 
riale  Publlque.  St  Petersburg. 

St  Christopher :  Sent  by  malL  , 

Salvador :    Museo  Naclonal,  San  Salvador. 

Santo  Domingo :  Sent  by  mall. 

Servla:  Via  Germany. 

Slam :  Department  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Bangkok. 

Soufh  Australia :  Public  Library  of  South  Australia,  Adelaide. 

Spain :  DepAslto  de  LIbros,  Camblo  Intemaclonal  y  BlbKoteca  General  del  Mln- 
lsterio de  InstrucclAn  PAbllca  y  Bellas  Artes,  Madrid. 

Sumatra :  Via  Netherlands. 

Sweden:  Kongliga  Svenska  Vetenskaps  Akademlen,  Stockbolm. 

Switzerland :  Service  des  Changes  Intematlonaui,  Blbllotb^oe  FM4rale  Cen- 
tra le,  Berne. 

Syria :  Board  of  FYireign  MiBslons  of  the  Presbyterian   Church,   New  York. 

Tasmania:  Royal  Society  of  Tasmania,  HobarL 

Transvaal :  Government  Library,  Pretoria. 

Trinidad:  Victoria  Institute,  Port  of  Spain. 

Tunis:  Via  France. 

Turkey :  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Mlsdons,  Boston. 


CooyTt 


BBPORT    OF    THE    SECBETABY.  Hv 

VeaeEoela :  Blblloteca  Naclonal,  Caracfts. 

Victoria :  Public  Library  o(  Victoria,  Melbourne. 

WeaCem  Australia :  Public  Library  of  Western  Australia,  Pertb. 

Zaaclbar:  Sent  by  mall. 

Tbe  earthquake  in  San  Francisco  In  April,  1006.  and  the  great  fire  which 
followed  destroyed  the  buildings  of  the  California  Acad«ny  of  Sciences, 
together  with  their  entire  contents.  The  Smithsonian  Institution  has  In  various 
i^ays  been  aiding  the  Academy  in^the  rehabilitation  of  Its  library  and  collec- 
tions. As  a  part  of  this  general  effort  the  lutematlonal  Exchange  Berrlce  sent 
a  circular  to  tlie  foreign  correapoadents  of  the  Academy  eollcltlng  contributions, 
and  to  this  a  most  liberal  response  baa  been  received,  aggregating  in  ati  6,370 
pa<Aagea  of  pabilcatloDB,  whicb  bave  been  received  from  abroad  and  forwarded 
from  Washington  to  San  Francisco.  All  the  eoirespondents  of  the  Academy 
luTe  not  yet  responded  to  the  circular  from  tlie  loatltntlon,  and  it  Is  antlcliMted 
tbat  still  further  contributions  will  be  received.  It  may  be  added  that  this  Is 
the  first  time  since  Its  organization  tbat  the  Exchange  Service  has  seat  ont  a 
circular  of  this  character  In  behalf  of  any  establishment  The  foregoing  re- 
marks refer  only  to  the  foreign  part  of  tbe  work,  which  the  Snilthsonlau  Insti- 
tution has  undertaken  in.  behalf  of  tbe  California  Academy  of  Sciences,  the 
dooieBtic  part  being  attended  to  by  tbe  Institution  proper. 

Mr.  v.  V.  Berry,  who  has  been  connected  with  tbe  service  nearly  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  and  has  been  acting  chief  clerk  of  the  International  Exchangee 
■fnce  tbe  transfer  of  Sir.  W.  I.  Adams  to  the  position  of  disbursing  agent  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  io  1005,  was  In  recognition  of  his  faithful  and 
capable  services  appointed  to  tbe  post  of  cblef  clerk,  to  take  effect  July  1,  1007. 
Mr.  Adoms,  whose  experience  In  the  office  and  knowledge  of  conditions*  abroad 
are  moet  helpful,  will  continue  to  give  his  advice  and  cooperation. 

In  coDCloBlon,  meatlon  should  be  made  of  the  valuable  services  which  are 
rendered  the  Institution  by  those  correspondenta  abroad  who  give  their  per- 
sonal attention  and  doubtless  often  expend  private  means  In  furthering  tJie 
Interests  of  tbe  International  exchange  service.  Tbe  thanks  of  the  Smlth- 
sooiaii  Institution  are  also  due  Mr.  Charles  A.  King,  deputy  collector  of  customs 
at*  the  port  of  New  York,  for  bis  constant  assistance  In  clearing  exchange  con- 
slcnments  from  abroad. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

Cybub  ADt£B. 
Ag*igtattt  Secretary,  in  Charge  of  Llbrarv  end  Exchanffea. 

Dr.  CttAKLEB  D.  Walcott. 

Secretary  of  the  Smtlhtonian  Inalilutlon. 


.y  Google 


Appbiidix  rV. 
BBPOHT  ON  THE  NATIONAL  ZOOLOGICAL  PARK. 

Sm:  I  bare  the  honor  to  mbmlt  tbe  following  report  on  the  operadonB  oC  tbe 
National  Zoological  Park  (or  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1907: 

The  amount  appropriated  by  Congress  for  the  park  during  the  year  amounted 
to  f9S,000,  and  at  the  beginning  of  tbe  year  there  was  prepared  tbe  following 
scheme  of  operations : 

Itegnlar  maintenance  expenses $78,630 

Collecting,  purchase,  and  transportation  of  anlmalR _.      4.600 

Work  on  small  mammal  house -' 3,000 

Work  on  heating  plant - 1,000 

Repairs  to  animal  Inclosnres 1,800 

Repairs  to  aquarium 300 

Repairs  to  shop  building -_ 270 

Planting  shade  trees  and  shrubs.- _ 500 

Provisionally  assigned  to  laboratory  and  hospital 5.200 

Total 95,000 

The  expenditures  for  the  year  practically  followed  this  scheme,  excepting  In 
tbe  case  of  tbe  amount  reserved  for  a  laboratory  and  hospital  bnlldlng.  Condi- 
tions that  arose  made  It  necessary  to  apply  this  sum  as  follows : 

Bear  yards - $2,400 

Repairing  Adams  Mill  road 1,100 

Survey  of  park 916 

Purchase  of  animals 500 

New  roof  on  llama  house 280 

Painting  flying  cage IBO 

Repairing  office - 125 

Total - — - 5,200 

HOUSE  roa  BMAu.  uauuaia. 

Tbe  small  mammal  house  which  has  been  under  coostmctlon  for  seveiral  years 
was  flnally  opened  to  the  public  on  November  15.  It  Is  found  to  be  much  the 
most  satisfactory  of  the  buildings  erected  at  the  park,  being  easily  warmed, 
quite  sanitary,  and  free  from  drafts.  The  method  of  lighting  is  tinusaal, 
there  being  skylights  formed  of  glass  tile  In  the  roof  which  admit  light  directly 
over  the  cages,  the  central  corridor  la  which  the  public  are  admitted  bdng 
lighted  Indirectly.  Screens  of  ribbed  glass  protect  the  animals  from  the  cold  air 
which  descends  from  the  roof.  The  cages  are  readily  ventilated  by  tlltli^  these 
screens.    A  plan  of  this  building  was  published  In  the  report  of  1901. 

Tbe  outside  cages  required  for  tbis  bouse  were  not  wholly  completed  at  the 
end  of  the  year,  owing  to  tbe  dlScolty  of  obtaining  some  of  the  neceasarj 
material.    Work  upon  tbem  was,  however,  well  advanced. 

DigilizedbyGOOglC 


KEPOBT   OF   THE  BBCBETAET.  71 

As  ttaere  baa  always  been  great  difficulty  In  keeping  the  monkeys  at  tbe  park 
In  a  proper-  condttioa  of  bealtb.  It  waa  decided  to  transfer  all  specimens  of 
qnadrnmana  to  tbis  bnllding  and  to  add  auch  otbera  as  would  serve  to  represent 
tbe  order.  Funds  were  lacking  for  purcbasing  any  of  tbe  larger  or  ontbropold 
apes,  but  there  Is  a  fair  collection  of  specimens  of  both  New  World  and  Old 
World  monkeys,  wblcb  attracts  great  attention,  and  la  appreciated  by  tbe  pnblla 

Tbe  grounds  about  the  building  bave  been  graded,  Improved,  and  planted,  and 
contracts  let  for  a  concrete  walk  along  two  sides. 

ADDmONU.  BBAB  TASDB. 

Contracts  were  made  for  the  Boors  and  steel  work  of  two  additional  yarda 
In  the  series  already  begun.  These  yards  will  each  bave  a  width  of  40  feet  at 
the  front  and  a  depth  of  32  to  40  feet  Tbey  will  be  similar  In  all  respects  to 
those  already  built,  now  occupied  by  polar  bears  and  Alaskan  brown  bears. 

A  concrete  walk,  with  a  width  of  12  feet,  will  be  constructed  at  tbe  same  time 
that  tbe  pavement  Is  put  In  for  tbe  yards. 


Tbe  flying  cage  was  repainted  throughout,  a  new  roof  was  put  on  tbe  llama 
bouse,  tbe  aquarium  roof  waa  repaired,  new  supports  put  in  for  tbe  tanks,  and 
other  necessary  repairs  made ;  tbe  temporary  building  used  for  blacksmith  and 
carpenter  shop  and  in  wblcb  also  the  boilers  of  tbe  central  heating  plant  are 
located  was  repaired  and  tbe  walls  celled  on  tbe  Inside,  so  that  the  bnllding 
might  be  kept  at  a  reasonably  warm  temperature  during  tbe  winter. 

Several  of  tbe  old  outdoor  cages,  which  had  become  unsafe  through  decay, 
were  replaced  by  new  ones.  A  considerable  part  of  the  wire  fencing  around 
tbe  American  bison  paddock  had  to  be  renewed  and  a  large  amount  of  other 
fence  repairs  bad  to  be  made.  Tbe  deer  shed,  wblcb  was  bo  badly  weakened  by 
decay  that  It  was  no  longer  safe,  was  removed.  Tbe  site  of  this  abed  in  the  hill- 
side near  the  creek  was  so  damp  that  It  was  found  to  be  unhealthy  for  the 
animals. 


Heavy,  torrential  rains  almost  completely  denaded  of  surface  layer  tbe  stecv 
portion  of  this  road,  about  1,700  feet  In  length,  and  tbe  larger  stone  became  so 
loosened  that  tbe  road  was  hardly  sate  for  use.  As  this  Is  one  of  tbe  principal 
driveways  of  the  District,  much  used  for  pleasure  driving,  It  was  considered 
Imperative  that  It  abonld  be  put  in  a  safe  condition  at  once.  It  was  thoroughly 
overhauled  and  resurfaced  during  the  autumn  of  1906. 

A  new  walk  was  built  to  connect  tbe  log  bridge,  by  way  of  a  picturesque 
lavlne,  with  tbe  more  important  animal  buildings.  A  rock  work  was  bnllt 
with  bowlders  at  the  bead  of  tbe  ravine  and  tbe  waste  water  from  tbe  aquarium 
tanks  and  hydraulic  pump  carried  there  to  form  a  cascade. 

Planting  was  carried  on  at  snltable  times  throughout  the  year,  as  far  as 
available  fonda  permitted.    Tbe  whole  park  should  be  carefully  gone  over  and 
tbe  forest  be  properly  thinned  so  tbat  the  trees  can  have  an  opportunity  to 
develop.    At  present  much  of  It  Is  too  thli^ly  wooded. 
41780-08 9 


.yGOOgll 


e 


72  ANNUAL  BEPOET  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,   19(0. 

CEHTKU.   aXATIIta   PLANT. 

Tbe  central  heating  plant  whicb  bad  been  Installecl  during  tbe  prevlons  year 
was  operated  tbroi^bout  tbe  winter  of  1906-7  and  Ave  of  the  more  important 
buildings  were  heated  from  It  Steam  1b  used  for  the  present,  as  there  was  not 
a  Bufficlent  amount  available  for  tbe  plant  to  put  In  a  hot-water  erstem  with 
forced  circulation.  AH  mains,  however,  are  of  suitable  rize  Cor  bot  water  and 
it  Is  expected  that  It  will  ultimately  be  converted  Into  a  hot-water  system.  It 
has  worked  very  satisfactorily  and  there  has  been  practically  no  losa  of  beat 
from  tbe  outdoor  conduits.  The  buildings  formerly  heated  by  Individual  boilera, 
and  now  supplied  from  tbe  central  heating  plant,  are  free  from  dirt  and  dust 
and  the  new  arrangement  la  In  every  way  a  great  ImprovemeDt.  Thanks  are 
due  to  tbe  Supervising  Architect  for  advice  and  asslstauce  and  (or  detailing 
an  expert  beating  engineer  to  plan  and  supervise  this  work. 

snaviT  OP  THE  PARK. 

Tbe  detailed  topographic  survey  of  the  park,  which  was  carried  on  in  1904-6 
and  1905-6,  was  finally  completed  during  this  year,  about  1071  acres  being  care- 
fully plotted.  This  survey  extends  to  tbe  line  of  the  new  highways  on  the 
southeastern  and  western  sides  of  the  park.  The  resulting  map  Is  on  a  scale 
of  50  feet  to  tbe  Inch  and  shows  contours  at  elevations  of  2  feet,  also  all  promi- 
nent objects  and  tbe  uudergrotmd  drains  and  water  pipes. 

ACCESSIORS   AND  LOSSES. 

(Hfts. — Tbe  following  animals  were  received  by  gift: 

From  B.  H.  Plumacber,  United  States  consul,  Maracalbo,  VenetmelH.  1  capy- 
bara.  1  crab-eating  dog,  1  king  vulture,  1  ntacnw. 

From  C.  H.  Jones.  Campeche,  Mexico.  2  ocelots,  6  Mexican  curassows,  1  Chap- 
man's curassow,  3  chachalacaa. 

From  O.  J.  Field,  chief  clerk,  Department  of  Justice,  1  cinnamon  bear. 

From  Victor  J.  Evans,  Washington,  District  of  Columbia.  2  mangabey  monkeys. 

From  Mrs.  Geo.  R.  Sbanton,  Ancon,  Canal  Zone.  Panama,  2  Panama  curassows. 

Exchangeg.—The  more  Important  animals  secured  In  this  manner  during  tlie 
year  were:  One  leucoryx,  from  the  New  York  Zoological  Park;  2  American 
marten ;    1  victoria  crowned  pigeon. 

Purchanea. — Among  tbe  purchases  were  tbe  following :  Two  American  bison, 
2  South  American  Jaguars,  1  Mexican  Jaguar.  1  tigress,  I  black  leopard,  I  pair 
of  ocellnted  turkeys,  1  pair  of  California  sea  lions. 

Bfrifts.— Among  tbe  births  were:  Two  American  bison,  6  American  elk,  3 
mule  deer,  1  Baraslngba  deer,  2  red  deer,  1  Cuban  deer,  3  Barbary  sbeep,  1 
llama.  3  peccaries,  and  11  wild  turkeys,  besides  a  number  of  species  of  heron. 
Ibis,  cormorant,  etc.,  nested  In  the  flying  cage. 

Important  deoffta.— The  more  Important  deaths  were  as  follows : 

Young  lion  presented  to  the  President  by  the  King  of  Abyssinia,  from  chronic 
arthritis. 

Black  bear,  from  an  extreme  case  of  Infestation  with  Ascarls  transfuge ;  tbe 
duodenum  was  perforated  In  several  places. 

Bactrian  camel,  female,  from  peritonitis  and  secondary  pneumonia. 

Llama,  male,  from  pneumonia. 

Moose,  from  catarrhal  enteritis  and  fntty  degeneration  of  liver. 

Great  gray  kangaroo,  from  pulmonary  tuberculosis. 


.y  Google 


BBPOBT   OP   THE   BECBETABY.  73 

Fifteen  blue  foxes,  most  of  them  from  Depbrltis  and  fatty  defeneration  of 
liyer,  although  the  pattaologEstB  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  tbls 
condition. 

California  condor,  from  gastro-^iterltls. 

The  deaths  also  Included  1  mule  deer,  2  beaverB,  1  Coluinblatl  bladc-tailed 
deer,  1  tahr,  1  markbor.  1  young  tapir,  a  number  of  moqkers  (mostly  tbosa 
recently  received  from  dealers),  and  1  ocellated  turkey.  Just  received. 

G astro-enteritis  was  still  tb'e  most  frequent  cause  of  deatb,  and  pneumonia 
second,  except  with  the  newly  received  monkeys,  several  of  which  died  from 
tuberculosis. 

Btatemenf  of  animal  coltecUon. 

Accessions  during  the  year: 

Presented 04 


Purchased   and  collected 179 

Received  In  exchange 6 

Bom  in  National  Zoological  Park 78 

Captured  In  National  Zoological  Park _.      1 

Total - - M3 

There  was  considerable  loss  of  birds  during  the  year,  especially  among  the 
smaller  species.  Several  hundred  birds  wblcb  had  been  procured  for  the  exhibit 
of  tlie  parh  at  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition  were  brought  to  Washington 
at  Its  close,  and  they  added  materially  to  the  Interest  and  attractiveness  of  the 
eollectloQ  here.  The  only  place  available  for  them  dnring  winter,  however, 
baa  been  the  temporary  bird  house,  where  the  cage  accommodations  have  been 
altogether  Inadequate.  The  loss  has  not  been  greater  than  must  be  expected 
under  such  conditions,  but  has  reduced  the  number  of  birds  In  the  collection  by 
about  100,  as  It  did  not  seem  advisable  to  replace  these  birds  until  permanent 
and  suitable  accommodations  could  be  provided.  The  number  of  mammals  In 
the  collection  Is  slightly  greater  than  at  the  close  of  the  previous  year,  while 
tlie  number  of  reptiles  remains  practically  unchanged. 


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74  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

Animab  praenltd  during  the  fitad  year  ending  June  SO,  1907. 


Booty  DuuigabeT  .  ■ 


Whiie-uiroated  cspuchln . 
"Weeper"  opuchia 

Cnt>«(ttliis  dog 


Thlrleen'liiied  ipennophlle 

Praliiedofi 

Woodchnck 

CapTbum 


Amuon  panot . . . 


SpMTOwbawk 

Do 

Sw&lnaoD'B  hawk. . 


Victor  J.  EvBiu,  WaibiDgtoD,  DimlGlof  ColumbU... 

CapL  J.  L.Brooka,  DolMd  States  Annr 

Lieut.  B.  Y.  Bhea.  United  8lala>  Uulne  Cotpa 

Ur.  Luti,  WaaliitigtOD,  District  el 


coniDl,  Uancalbo,  Vene 


Hoa,  B.  E.  PlnowobeT, 

H.  S,  KDlgbt,T»komaP>ik.  DiBtiletof 

H.  D.  Bogbea,  WuhlDgten,  DUtrlct  of  Cutumbla 

Bobeit  AUeo,  Waabington,  Dlatilc I  of  Colombia 

O.J.  Field.  WaablDgton,  Diitiict  of  Columbia 

Bamiun  ^B^lerBbowi,  Bridgeport,  ConnecUcot 

Donor  unknown 

Dr.  I_  WilaoD,  WaaUngtoo,  DIalrict  oC  Columbia 

W.  E.  Calladay,  Blonghton,  Wtooondn 

Hon.  E.  H.  Plumacber.  American  conanl,  Maiacalbo,  Veoe- 


Hlv  Fwter,  Wuhlngton.  Dletilct  of  COlnmbia 

Dr.  M.  F.  Tbompeon.  Waahlngton.  DlMtlct  oC  Colombia 

F.  W.  Jackaon.  Waabington,  Diatrlct  of  Columbia 

Capt.  W.  W.  Somerrllle,  Wajhlnglon,  Dtstriot  of  Coltunbla . . 

Ura.  Price,  WaabiogtOD,  District  ol  ColnmbU 

Hon.  B.  H.  FliuuicheT,  American  ccnml,  Haracalbo,  Veoe- 


Heni?  Seymour,  WaablngtOD,  DlMricI  of  ( 
Ura.  Gny  Norman.  Waibington,  Dinrict  ol 

D.  W.  Adanu.  Heradon,  Virginia 

Dr.  C.  B,  Koblnaon,  Waibington,  Dlrtricl  of  Columbia 

Cbutt:b  of  tbe  AicenaloD.  Waabington,  Dlitriet  a 


Donor  unknown 

Wm.  Lawrence  Taotier.  Waibington,  District 
Master  Howard   tlaiuln,  jr.,  Waabington,  DisCrlct 


Ooellated  turkey 

Alligator 

Diamond  rattlesnake  (with 
13  young). 

Copperbead  

Kmperorboa 

Bog-noaed  snake 


do 

do 

Mrs.  a.  R.  Bbanton.  Anoon,  Canal  Zone.  Fanama... 

Charles  E.  Jonee.  Campecbe,  Mexico 

UlsB  Brewster,  Washington.  District  of  Columbia... 
Miss  Stephenson,  Washington,  District  of  Columbia. 
Dr.  E.  H.  Sellards,  aaiuearille,  Florida 

D.  B.  Wbaeler,  Wasbington.  District  ol  Colombia . . . 

W.  B.  Honey.  Culebra.  Canal  Zone.  Panama 

Donor  unknown..... .,.., 


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BBPOBT   OF   THE   BECBETABT.  75 

BDMMAXT. 

s  on  hand  July  1.  1906 1,2T2 

Acceflsiona  dnrlng  the  year 343 

Total 1,615 

Deduct  loss  (by  exchange,  death,  and  retnraiDg  ot  aolmalB) 422 

On  hand  June  30,  1907 1,193 

Reapectfalty  Bobmltted. 

Feank  Bakbb, 
Buperiniendent. 
Dr.  Chables  D.  WAI.COTT, 

B«cretarif  of  the  BmilhsonUm  Inetitutiim. 


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REPORT  ON  THE  ASTROPHXSICAL  OBSERVATORY. 

Sib:  I  bave  the  honor  to  present  the  following  report  on  the  operations  of 
the  Astropbyslcal  Observatory  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  Jnoe  30.  1907 : 

During  the  past  year  the  cost  of  the  necessary  reiiaira  aad  repainting  of  tbe 
Observatory  Inclosure  and  buildings  has  been  $300.  Plans  bave  been  prepared 
and  contracts  awarded,  incurring  a  total  liability  of  $2,000,  for  the  Installation 
of  electric  lighting,  power,  and  laboratory  service  currents,  to  replace  tbe  pres- 
ent Inadequate  facilities.  These  Improvements  are  not  as  yet  completed. 
,  Apparatus  for  research  bns  been  procured  at  a  cost  of  $800. 

Tbe  usual  scIentlQc  periodicals  bave  been  continued,  and  books  of  reference 
pnrcbased  nt  a  total  cost  to  the  Observatory  of  8600. 

No  ioBsea  of  proj>erty  have  occurred. 

Personnel. — C.  G.  Abbot  was  promoted  to  be  acting  director  Jnly  1,  1906,  and 
Director  March  1.  1907. 

F.  E.  Fowle  was  promoted  to  be  aid  March  1,  1907. 

J.  C.  Dwyer  was  promoted  to  be  messenger  March  1, 1907. 

L.  R.  Ingersoll  served  as  temporary  bolometrlc  assistant  from  Jnly  1  to  Sep- 
tember 10,  lOOC. 

Misa  C.  V.  Barber  served  as  temporary  computer  January  2  to  June  25,  1907. 

P.  R.  Tavenner.  flreman,  was  transferred  to  the  Department  of  Agrlcnlture 
Jane  15,  1907. 

WOBK   OF   THE   OBSEBVATOBY. 

The  work  of  tbe  Observatory  bas  consisted  as  follows: 

1.  Observations  at  Mount  Wilson  aud  Washington. 

2.  Preparation  of  Volume  II  of  tbe  Observatory  Annals. 

OBBBBVATIONS    AT    UOUNT    WILSON, 

The  staff  of  the  Mount  Wilson  expedition,  mentioned  In  last  year's  report, 
continued  observations  for  determining  the  "  solar  constant "  of  radiation  until 
October  22,  1906,  when  the  apparatus  was  packed  and  in  part  returned  to  Wash- 
ington. Daring  the  stay  of  the  expedition  In  1906  about  seventy  days  were 
devoted  to  "  solar  constant "  observations,  and  with  generally  excellent  results. 

Much  attention  was  paid  to  tbe  observation  of  tbe  Intensity  of  Ilgbt  reflected 
from  clouds,  with  a  vjew  to  tbe  determination  of  the  albedo,  or  total  reflection 
of  the  earth.  Tbe  quality  and  amount  of  light  of  the  sky  was  also  measured- 
on  several  days.  Very  successful  trials  were  made  with  the  continuously  record- 
li«  standard  pyrbellometer  mentioned  In  former  reports,  and  the  other  instru- 
ments used  on  Moant  Wilson  were  compared  carefully  with  each  other  and  with 
It  From  these  comparisons,  made  on  dltTerent  days  and  with  widely  differing 
conditions,  It  appears  that  the  scale  of  values  heretofore  employed  In  tbe  redac- 
tion of  Mount  Wilson  observations  is  probably  1.5  per  cent  too  high.  But  It 
baa  been  decided  not  to  make  a  correction  for  this  until  the  completion  and  trial 
of  a  new  contlnaoualy  recording  pyrbellometer,  now  partly  done,  of  different 
dimensions  and  improved  construction. 

"  „,«.,Google 


REPOBT   OF   THE   SECBETAEY. 


OBBSBTATIOnS  AT  WASQINOTON. 


MeasuremeatB  for  tbe  determination  of  the  "solar  constant"  of  radiation 
were  made  wtaenever  tlie  atmospberJc  conditions  permitted.  These  DCLUsions 
are  too  Infrequent  to  permit  db  to  make  at  WaBblngton  e  fnll  record  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  sua,  but  in  connection  with  and  BUpplemeotary  to  the  Mount  Wilson 
work,  the  Washington  results  are  of  very  great  value. 

Ueaanrements  have  been  made  frequeoUr  of  the  dlstrlbntlon  of  brightness 
over  the  solar  disk,  and  tbe  resultB  of  these  measurements  Indicate,  though 
perhaps  not  conclusively,  that  when  the  contrast  In  brightness  between  tbe 
L«nter  und  edge  of  the  solar  disk  is  greater  than  usual,  the  intensity  of  solar 
radiation  available  to  warm  the  earth  is  less  than  usual,  and  vice  versa.  This 
relation  was  suspected  in  former  years. 

PBEFABATION    OF    VOLUME    II    OF    THE    OBSEBVATOBT    AimALB. 

The  reduction  and  preparation  for  publication  of  the  results  of  the  thousands 
of  holographic  records  made  in  the  research  on  solar  radiation  has  involved 
measurements  and  computations  requiring  the  recording  of  upward  of  2,000,000 
separate  Qgures.  The  reductions  have  been  chiefly  in  the  care  of  Mr.  Fowle, 
and  he  has  been  ably  seconded  by  Miss  Qravea.  Very  nsefnl  and  painstaking 
assistance  has  been  rendered  by  Mr.  Dwyer  and  by  the  temporary  computers 
employed.  Tbe  text  and  Illustrations  have  been  prepared  under  the  care  of  the 
writer.  In  consultation  with  Mr.  Fowle.  Tbe  whole  work  was  nearly  completed 
at  the  conclusion  of  the  fiscal  year,  and  at  this  writing  (September  15)  is  now 
ready  for  tbe  press.  As  the  story  of  the  year's  work  is  chiefly  the  story  of  this 
volume.  It  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  give  here  a  sommary  of  Its  principal 
contents. 

SCUMABT    OF    THE    FOBTBCOUTNO     VOLCUE     OF    AHNAU. 

The  present  volnme  is  an  account  of  the  work  of  the  Astropbyslcal  Observa- 
tory from  IDOO  to  1007,  with  details  of  the  Investigations  made,  tbe  apparatus 
and  methods  used,  and  the  results  (d>talned. 

Speaking  broadly,  the  investigation  relates  to  the  Intensity  of  the  rays  of  tbe 
son,  and  the  dependence  of  tbe  earth's  temperature  thereon.  Tbe  subject  Is  here 
treated  in  three  parts:  First,  the  amount  of  tbe  solar  radiation  as  It  would  be 
found  If  measured  outside  tbe  earth's  atmc«phere,  at  mean  solar  distance,  or,  as 
it  is  often  termed,  "  Tbe  solar  constant  of  radiation."  Second,  the  dependence 
of  the  earth's  temperature  on  the  amount  of  solar  radiation.  Third,  the  dllfer- 
ence  In  brightness  between  the  center  and  edge  of  the  son's  disk  and  Its  relation 
to  tbe  quantity  of  solar  radiation  received  by  the  earth. 

Tbe  work  Is  not  limited  to  a  determination  of  constants  of  nature,  for  the 
possibility  was  early  recognized  that  the  radiation  of  tbe  sun  might  be  far 
from  uniform,  so  that  the  "solar  constant  of  radiation"  might  prove  to  be 
a  mean  value  about  which  the  Intensity  of  the  solar  beam  would  be  found  to 
fluctuate  very  perceptibly  from  time  to  time.  A  principal  aim  of  the  work  has 
therefore  been  to  prove  whether  snch  fluctuations  of  tbe  quantity  of  solar 
rays  do  exist,  and.  If  so,  what  may  be  the  magnitude  of  the  changes,  their 
effects  on  climate,  and  their  causes.  For  these  purposes  the  measurement  of 
the  Intensity  of  solar  radiation  and  of  the  distribution  of  brightness  over  the 
disk  of  tbe  smi  have  been  made  as  often  as  possible  for  several  years,  and  a 
study  of  tbe  variation  of  temperature  for  the  last  thirty  years  at  about  fifty 
stations  scattered  as  widely  as  possible  over  tbe  Inland  areas  of  the  world  has 
also  been  made. 


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78  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1807. 

A  part  of  the  meaeuremeDts  bave  been  made  In  WasbliiKtou,  and  therefore 
practically  at  sea  level,  aod  a  part  at  Mount  WllBon.  in  California,  at  about 
1,800  met^^  or  nearly  6,000  feet  elevation.  Tbe  radiation  of  the  bud  has  been 
atndied,  not  only  In  tlK  total,  but  also  as  dispersed  into  its  spectrum,  and  not 
only  in  the  part  visible  to  the  eye,  bnt  also  in  those  portions  whose  wave  lengtba 
are  too  long  or  too  sbort  to  affect  the  eye.  For  all  these  different  rays  tbe 
earth's  atmo^here  produces  different  degrees  of  absorption,  or  of  diffuse  reflec- 
tion, and  la  tbe  conrse  of  the  work  the  transparency  of  ttie  earth's  atmosphere  for 
many  different  rays  has  been  extensively  investigated.  Tbe  reflecting  powers 
of  tbe  clouds  and  tbe  air  have  l>eeD  measured,  and  also  tbe  quaitt;  of  tbe 
sky  ligbt  as  jegards  tbe  relative  Intensity  of  its  rays  of  different  colors. 

We  use  as  our  unit  of  measuretnent  that  Intensity  of  radiation  which,  when 
fully  absorbed  for  one  mtnate  over  a  square  centimeter  of  area,  placed  at  rlgfat 
angles  to  the  ray,  would  produce  heat  enough  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a  gram 
of  water  1*  centigrade.  This  unit  Is  termed  1  calorie  per  square  centimeter  per 
minute.^ 

The  mean  result  of  130  measurements  conducted  on  Mount  Wilson  In  the 
summer  and  autumn  monttis  of  1905  and  1906  Qses  the  Intensity  of  solar  radia- 
tion outside  the  atmosphere  at  mean  solar  distance  as  2.023  calories  per  square 
centimeter  per  minute. 

The  mean  result  of  41  measurements  at  Wasbtngtbu  from  1902  to  1007  la 
2.D61  calories. 

It  Is  probable  that  tbe  mesn  result  of  such  measurements,  if  conducted  for  a 
long  term  of  years,  would  be  higher,  and  tbe  probable  mean  value  of  the  solar 
constant  may  be  estimated  In  round  numbers  at  2.1  calories  i»er  square  centi- 
meter per  minute. 

Expressed  In  another  way,  tbe  solar  radiation  Is  capable  of  melting  an  Ice- 
shell,  35  meters  (114  feet)  thick,  annually  over  tbe  whole  surface  of  tbe  earth. 

The  results  of  Langley,  while  seemingly  In  contradiction  of  these,  in  reality 
support  them.  For,  as  be  states  on  page  211  of  tlie  Keport  of  tbe  Mount 
Whitney  expedition,  bis  value  (3  calories)  for  the  "solar  constant"  depends 
npoD  an  allowance  which  he  made  for  an  apparent  "  systematic  error  In  high 
and  low  sun  observations  at  one  station,"  of  sucb  a  nature  as  becomes  manifest 
"by  calculating  at  tbe  lower  station,  from  our  high  and  low  sun  observations 
there,  tbe  heat  wblcb  sbould  be  found  at  a  certain  height  In  tbe  atmosphere, 
then  actually  ascending  to  this  height,  and  finding  tbe  observed  beat  there  con- 
spicuously and  systematically  greater  than  the  calculated  one."  As  shown  Id 
Chapter  VII,  Part  I,  of  tbe  present  volume,  this  seeming  discrepancy  arose  from 
a  mlsapprehensloD  of  tbe  requirements  of  tbe  calculations.  In  fact,  there  la 
no  sucb  systematic  error,  no  correction  for  It  should  have  been  applied  by 
Lsngley,  and  the  best  mean  value  of  bis  experimental  determination  of  the 
"solar  constant"  at  Mount  Whitney  and  Lone  Pine  Is  2.14  calories  per  square 
centimeter  per  minute. 

Substantial  agreement  as  to  tbe  magnitude  of  tbe  "  solar  constant "  Is  there- 
fore reached  by  observations  at  sea  level,  at  1,800  meters,  and  at  3,500  metos 
elevation. 

Tbe  solar  radiation  Is  far  from  being  constant  In  Its  Intensity.  The  values 
determined  on  Mount  Wilson  range  from  1.93  calories  to  2.14  calories,  and 
those  In  Washington  from  1.89  calories  to  2.22  calories.  A  change  of  tbe  in- 
tensity of  solar  radiation  of  31  per  cent,  due  to  the  decrease  in  solar  dlstam«, 
occurs  from  August  to  October,  and  tbts  Is  readily  discernible  In  the  work  done 

•As  above  stated,  it  is  possible  that  tbe  numerical  results  to  be  given  in  ToL 
II  of  the  Annals  may  be  1.5  per  cent  higher  than  tbey  should  t>e  In  these  nnlts. 


Goo'^lc 


BEFOBT  OF   THE  SBCBETABY.  79 

OD  Moniit  Wilson,  botb  In  1905  and  1906,  bo  tbat  there  cao  be  little  question  that 
the  large  changes  noted  there  are  really  solar  changes  and  not  of  atmospheric 
or  accidental  origin. 

The  reality  of  the  supposed  solar  origin  of  the  changes  of  radiation  observed 
Is  attested  by  many  other  evidences  stated  in  Chapter  VI,  Part  I,  and  Chapter 
III,  Part  III. 

The  temperature  of  the  earth  Is  shown  to  he  In  good  agreement  with  the  as- 
snnied  value  of  the  "  solar  constant,"  2.1  calories.  Indeed,  It  la  shown  that  un- 
less the  albedo,  or  reflection,  of  the  earth  exceeds  37  per  cent  (a  value  here 
detennlned  for  It  and  based  on  observations  at  Washington  and  Mount  Wilson), 
then  the  mean  value  of  the  solar  constant  can  not  exceed  2.33  calories,  else  the 
earth  must  be  a  better  radiator  than  the  "  absolutely  black  body  "  or  perfect 
radiator. 

It  Is  shown  that  the  surface  of  the  earth  can  radiate  only  very  slightly  to 
space,  on  account  of  tbe  Interference  of  clouds  nnd  water  vapor  to  terrestrial 
radiation;  and  that  the  substance  which  maintains  tlte  earth  at  nearly  con- 
stant temperature,  by  emitting  to  space  radlatlou  equal  to  that  received  by  th« 
sun,  is  principally  the  water  vapor  layer  at  4,000  to  5,000  meters  In  elevation, 
whose  mean  temperature  Is  10°  or  more  below  0°,  C. 

There  is  introduced  the  conception  of  an  "  hypothetical  earth,"  similar  In  di- 
mensions and  motions  to  the  real  eartb.  but  hollow  and  like  a  soap  bubble  in 
tblcboess  of  wail ;  perfectly  absorbing  tor  solar  radiation,  and  a  perfect  radiator 
for  long  waves ;  perfectly  conducting  for  heat  olong  parallels  of  latitude,  but 
perfectly  non-conducting  along  meridians  of  longitude.  The  temperature  of  this 
"  hypothetical  eartb  "  is  calcniated  for  all  times  of  the  year,  and  for  all  lati- 
tudes, by  the  aid  of  the  known  value  of  the  "  solar  constant"  and  the  laws  of 
radiation  of  perfect  radiators. 

A.  comparison  Is  made  between  tbe  annual  march  of  temperature  of  tbe 
"  bypotbeticai  earth "  and  the  otiserved  annual  march  of  temperature  for  U 
stations  on  tiie  real  earth.  It  Is  thereby  abown  that  a  given  fractional  change 
of  solar  radiation  running  Its  cycle  In  a  year  produces  one-fourth  tbe  given 
fractional  change  in  the  absolute  temperature  of  tbe  "  by[M>tbetlcal  earth," 
one-fourteenth  of  the  given  fractional  change  in  tbe  temperature  of  most  Inland 
stations,  one  twenty-fifth  for  coast  stations ;  and  one-flftteth  for  small  islands 
In  great  oceans.  For  a  fluctuation  of  6  per  cent  In  solar  radiation  having  a 
period  of  about  a  year  there  would  be  produced  a  change  of  only  about  1*  O. 
In  the  mean  temperature  of  Inland  stations  and  only  about  0.3*  C.  for  Island 
stations.  Tbe  effects  of  more  rapid  changes  of  solar  radiation  would  be  less 
readily  discernible  in  their  effects  on  mean  temperatures,  but  may  nevertheless 
be  of  meteorological  importance  as  promoters  of  atmoapberlc  circulation. 

Prom  a  comparison  extending  over  thirty  years  of  the  temperatures  of  47 
well-distributed  Inland  stations  It  offiears  probable  that  changes  of  solar 
radiation  do  produce,  not  Infrequently,  well-marked  and  recognizable  changes 
of  temperature  over  the  continental  areas  of  tbe  world.  Such  changes  of  tem- 
perature would  be  predictable  if  accurate  measurements  of  the  solar  radiation 
were  systematically  continued  at  a  few  favorable  stations. 

Numerous  measurements  of  tbe  comparative  brightness  of  the  center  and 
edge  of  the  solar  disk  Indicate  that  tbe  observed  changes  in  solar  radiation  are 
attended  by  a  variation  of  the  transparency  of  tbe  solar  envelope,  and  perhaps 
are  caused  by  It 

Many  resalts  of  observation  not  here  enumerated,  such  as  the  mean  trans- 
parency of  the  upper  and  lower  strata  of  air,  the  reflecting  power  of  the  cinnda, 
the  probable  temperature  of  the  ann,  and  the  quality  of  the  radiation  of  son- 
wpota,  will  be  found  set  forth  both  la  words  and  by  charts;   aad_jU80  a  i 

,    iiv.GoOQ 


>  a  AiU 


80  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  19OT, 

description  of  the  apparattta  and  methoda  employed  for  tbe  varloaa  kinds  oC 
reaearcb,  and  the  sources  and  magnitude  ot  the  errors  attending  thetr  use. 

The  work  thns  summarized  seems  deflnltely  to  fix  tbe  approximate  averase 
value  of  the  intenalty  of  solar  radiation  at  about  2.1  calories  per  eqaare 
centimeter  per  minute,  and  to  show  declalvel;  that  there  la  a  marked  flnctnatlon 
about  this  mean  value,  sulSeient  In  magnitude  to  Influence  very  perceptibly  th* 
climate,  at  least  of  Inland  stations,  upon  the  earth.  This  being  so,  there  Is 
good  reason  for  makiog  the  series  of  measurements  of  solar  radiation  as  com- 
plete and  continuous  as  possible  for  some  years  to  come.  In  order  to  determloe 
more  thoroughly  tbe  causes  and  limits  of  the  solar  changes,  and  their  precise 
ettects  upon  climate.  The  former  part  of  the  study  will  Involve  further  solar 
measurements,  and  the  latter  part  a  more  complete  study  of  meteorolt^cal 
records  in  connection  with  the  solar  measurements.  Thus  far  no  other  observa- 
tory has  been  so  well  equipped  as  this  one  for  the  special  kinds  of  measurement 
Involved,  and  It  will  naturally  be  oiir  task  for  some  time  to  come  to  coutlntw 
the  work  along  tbe  lines  stated. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

O.  G.  Abbot. 
Director  of  the  Aalrophvttoal  Obtervatory 

Dr.  Chables  D.  Walcott, 

Becretary  of  the  Bmithtotiian  IntiitutUtn, 


.y  Google 


BBPORT  ON  THE  LIBRABT. 

Sot:  I  bave  tbe  honor  to  present  tbe  following  report  on  the  operatlonB  of 
tbe  librarj  of  tbe  Smithsonian  Institution  for  the  flscal  year  eodlng  June  30, 
1907: 

In  tbe  accession  book  of  the  Smithsonian  deposit,  Llbraiy  of  Congress,  there 
have  been  recorded  1,741  volames,  16,567  parts  of  volnmea,  6,065  pamphlets,  and 
613  cbarts,  making  a  total  of  25.486  pabllcations.  Tbe  accession  Dumbers  mn 
from  47^,179  to  4S2.31&  As  in  tbe  past  these  pnbilcatlonB  have  been  sent  to 
tbe  Library  of  Congress,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  needed  for  the  scientific 
wort  of  the  Institution,  wbicb  have  been  held.  In  transmitting  the  publications 
to  tbe  Library  of  Congress  276  hoses  were  used  which,  it  is  estlmatpd,  contained 
tbe  eqnlralent  of  11,000  volumes,  a  number  which  does  not  inclnde  tbe  public 
documents  presented  to  the  Smttbsonlaii  Institution  and  sent  direct  to  tbe 
Ubrary  of  Congress  as  soon  as  received,  without  stamping  or  recording ;  or  the 
public  documents  and  other  gifts  to  tbe  Library  of  Congress  received  through 
tbe  International  Exchange  Service. 

Tbe  librarlefl  of  tbe  Office,  Astropbyslcal  Observatory,  and  National  Zoological 
Park  have  received  480  volumes  and  pamphlets,  1,849  parts  of  volumes,  and  TO 
charts,  making  a  total  of  2,348,  and  a  grand  total.  Including  the  publications 
for  the  Smithsonian  deposit  and  the  Watts  de  Peyster  Collection,  of  28,123. 

Tbe  parts  of  serial  publications  that  were  entered  on  the  card  catalogne 
nambercd  26,499.  Three  hundred  slips  for  completed  volumes  were  made  and 
^1  cards  for  new  periodicals  and  annuals  were  added  to  tbe  permanent  record 
from  tbe  periodical  recording  desk. 

Inaugural  dissertations  and  academic  publlAitions  were  received  from  onl- 
verslties  at  the  following  places : 

Baltimore  (Johns  Hopkins).  Lund. 

Berlin.  Madison  (Wisconsin). 

Bern.  Marburg. 

Bonn.  New  Tork  <Colnmbla). 

Breelaa.  Paris. 

Erlangen.  Philadelphia     (University    of 

Freibarg.  Pennsylvania). 

Olessen.  Rostock. 

Grelfswald.  Strassburg. 

Heidelberg.  Toulouse. 

Helslngfors.  Tubingen. 

Kiel.  Upsalo. 

KSnlgsberg.  Utrecht 

Leipzig.  WUrtzburg. 

Lou  vain. 
The  following  technical  high  schools  have  also  sent  publications  of  the  same 
cbaracter: 

Berlin.  Darmstadt  Karlambe. 

Braunschweig.  Delft  Munich. 

In  carrying  out  the  plan  to  elTect  new  exchanges  and  to  secure  missing  parts 
to  complete  sets,  1,785  letters  were  written,  resulting  In  2S0  new  periodicals 


.y  Google 


82  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

being  added  to  tbe  receipts,  wblle  about  000  defective  aerlee  were  partly  or 
entirely  completed.  In  addition  to  tbe  letters  referred  to,  80  posts!  cards  were 
•ent  and  abont  SO  mlsalns  parts  received  In  response. 

Tbe  plan  adopted  by  tbe  International  Catalogue  of  Sdentlflc  Literature  of 
smdlng  to  antbors  lists  of  thetr  scientlQc  writings  tbat  bare  been  Indexed  in 
the  Catalogue,  and  requesting  any  that  have  not  been  cited,  baa  been  contlnaed, 
with  the  result  tbat  nearly  500  authors'  separates  have  been  received,  whltA 
wlit  ultimately  come  to  tbe  library. 

In  the  reading  room  there  were  withdrawn  40  bound  volumes  of  periodicals 
and  3,485  parts  of  scientific  periodicals  and  popular  magaslnes,  making  a  total 
of  3,525.  The  use  of  these  publlcatlonB,  and  those  In  the  secUoual  libraries  of 
tbe  InstltDtion,  by  persons  from  various  bureaus  of  tbe  Qovernment  has  con- 
tinued, but  Id  the  main  tbe  consultation  has  been  by  membera  of  the  staff. 

The  mall  receipts  numbered  34,600  packages,  the  publications  contained 
therein  being  stamped  and  distributed  for  entry  from  the  mall  desk.  Abont 
6,000  acbnowledgtuents  were  made  on  the  regular  form  In  addition  to  thoae 
for  publications  received  In  response  to  the  requests  of  the  Institution  for 


As  tbe  books  formerly  In  the  Secretary's  library  will  no  longer  be  kept 
B^tarate  from  the  general  library,  one  change  may  be  noted  in  the  nomber  of 
sectional  libraries  maintained  in  the  Institution,  there  now  being  the  office 
library  and  the  employees'  library,  together  with  those  of  the  Aatrophysical 
Observatory,  aerodromlcs,  Intematlooal  exchanges,  and  law  reference. 

The  emplot/eea'  Kbrarv.— The  books  added  to  the  library  numbered  40,  27  of 
which  were  presented  by  Mr.  C.  Li.  Poltard,  and  SO  volumes  of  magaslnes  were 
bound.  The  number  of  books  borrowed  was  2,620,  and  tbe  sending  of  a  selected 
number  of  tbe  books  from  this  library  to  the  National  Zoological  Park  and  tbe 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  each  month  has  been  continued. 

The  estate  of  8.  P.  Lannley.—Tbe  estate  of  S.  P.  Langley  turned  over  to  tbe 
Institution  his  scleutltlc  library.  These  books  have  been  stamped,  entered,  and 
placed  In  the  divisions  to  which  they  relate. 

The  Watta  de  Peytter  ooUection. — Oen.  John  Watts  de  Feyster  continued,  up 
to  tbe  time  of  his  death,  May  4,  IflOT,  to  present  books  relating  to  Napoleon 
Buonaparte  and  his  time,  together  with  volumes  on  other  subjects  for  the  Watts 
de  Feyster  collection  in  the  Institution,  There  were  received  from  this  source 
during  the  year  2S8  volumes. 

The  art  room.— Tbe  work  of  cataloguing  the  Marsh  collection  Is  progressing, 
and  during  the  year  115  prints  have  been  identifled  and  cards  made  for  th«n 
giving  full  Information  as  to  the  engraver,  the  subject,  tbe  manner  of  execution, 
and  tbe  size  of  tbe  print  and  ptate. 

Another  important  addition  to  the  library  was  tbe  receipt  of  three  Important 
series  of  publicatioos  from  tbe  Light-House  Board;  Annales  des  Fonts  et 
Chansseea,  1831-1833,  152  volumes ;  Annales  de  Cbimle,  1788-1815.  97  volamea, 
and  Annates  de  Chlmie  et  de  Phrsique,  1816-1872,  139  volumes,  which  are  a 
permanent  transfer  to  tbe  Institution. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  work  in  the  library  a  partial  blbll<^raphy  of 
aeronautical  literature,  which  Included  tbe  papers  by  Langley,  Channte,  Ltlien- 
thal,  Herrli^,  and  Hargrave,  and  a  bibliography  of  the  writings  of  Dr.  S.  F. 
Langley  were  prepared  for  publication  by  tbe  assistant  librarian,  Mr.  FanI 
Brockett 

THE    MUSEUU    UBRASZ. 

The  Museum  library  has  beeu  fortunate  In  continuing  to  receive  from  E^£. 
O.  T.  Mason.  Dr.  W.  L.  Ralph,  and  Dr.  C.  A.  White  many  sdentlflc  publlcaUona 
of  Importance  In  completing  the  sets  and  series  in  the  Museum.    Dr.  C.  W.  Rich- 


BEPOBT  OF   THE   BECRETABT.  83 

mond  baB  contlnned  to  cootrlbote  to  the  library,  And  a  number  of  rare  sclentlBc 
works  not  to  be  fonnd  elsewhere  ia  tbe  clt;  have  been  received  from  blm. 

Tbe  library  of  the  MuBeum  has  also  benefited  by  the  plan  adopted  by  tbe 
Intematlmial  Catalogue  of  Scieotlflc  LlteratDre  of  sending  to  authors  lists  of 
their  BtSentlflc  writings  that  have  been  entered  Id  the  catalogue  and  requesting 
any  that  have  not  been  cited,  as  tbe  larger  number  of  the  responses  received 
are  la  the  form  of  separates  from  periodicals.  Jonmals,  etc.,  which  are  no 
longer  desired  for  tbe  Smithsonian  deposit 

In  the  Mnseum  library  there  are  now  30,307  volumea,  47,642  onbound  papers, 
and  108  manuscripts.  The  additions  during  the  year  conaisted  of  2,581  books, 
8,067  pamphlets,  and  111  partB  of  volumes.  There  were  catalogued  1,301  books, 
of  which  87  belonged  to  the  Smithsonian  library,  end  3,567  pamphlets,  of  whlcb 
54  belonged  to  the  Smithsonian  library,  and  13,216  parts  of  periodicals,  of 
which  668  belonged  to  the  Smithsonian  library. 

In  connection  with  the  entering  of  separates  and  periodicals,  721  memoranda 
were  made  reporting  volumes  and  parts  missing  In  the  seta,  together  with  a 
few  titles  of  pabllcations  that  were  not  represented  In  the  library.  The  result 
of  tbla  work  was  the  completing  or  partial  filling  up  of  660  sets  of  publications. 

Attention  has  been  given  to  the  preparation  of  volnmes  for  binding,  with  the 
resDlt  that  1,020  books  were  sent  to  the  Government  bindery. 

Tbe  number  of  books,  periodicals,  and  pamphlets  borrowed  from  the  general 
library  amounted  to  34369,  Including  0,387,  which  were  assigned  to  tbe  sec- 
tional libraries.  This  does  not  Include,  however,  tbe  large  number  of  books 
consulted  In  the  library  but  not  withdrawn. 

The  sectional  libraries  established  in  tbe  Hueeum  have  remained  tbe  same, 
the  complete  list  now  standing  as  follows: 

Admlnlatratlon.  History.  Photography. 

Administrative  aaatstant     Insects.  Physical  anthropology. 

Anthropology.  Mammals.  Prehistoric  arctueology. 

Biology.  Marine  Invertebrates.  Reptiles. 

Birds.  Materia  medlca.  Stratlgraphlc     paleontol- 

Botany.  Hesozolc  fossils.  ogy. 

Comparative  anatomy.         Mineralogy.  Superintendent 

Editor.  Mollusks.  Taxidermy. 

Ethnology.  Oriental  arcbRology.  Technology. 

Flabes.  Paleobotany. 

Oeology.  Parasites. 

Id  tbe  following  table  are  summarised  ail  tbe  accessions  during  the  year  for 
the  Smltbsonlan  deposit,  for  the  libraries  of  the  office,  Astrophyslcal  Observ- 
atory, United  States  National  Museum,  and  National  Zoological  Park.  That  of 
ttie  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  is  not  included,  as  it  Is  separately  ad- 
ministered : 

Smithsonian  deposit  In  the  Library  of  Congress 26,486 

Office,  Astropliyslcal  Observatory,  International  Exchanges 2,349 

Watts  de  Peyster  collection 288 

United  States  Nattonal  Museum  library — _    6,259 

Total  _  84,882 

Respectful  ly  submitted. 

Ctbus  Aolkb. 
AasUtant  Secretary,  bt  Charge  of  Library  and  Exchangee. 
I>r.  C&ABLCfl  D.  Walcott, 

Beoretary  af  the  Smithsonian  InttUution.  DigmzedbyGoOQle 


Appendix  Vli. 


Sib:  I  have  tbe  bonor  to  eabmit  tbe  following  report  on  tbe  operatlooe  of  the 
regional  bureau  for  tbe  United  States  of  tbe  International  Catalogue  of  Sclen- 
tlflc  Literature  for  tbe  flscal  year  ending  June  90,  1907 : 

TbiB  work  IB  carried  on  under  the  authority  of  Congress,  )■  accordance  wttii 
the  following  Item  In  tbe  sundry  cirll  appropriation  bill: 

Intebrattonal  Catalogdt:  or  Scibntific  Literatube:  For  the  eooperatlon  of 
tbe  United  States  tn  the  work  of  the  International  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Llt^- 
ature,  iacluding  tbe  preparation  of  a  classified  Index  catalogue  at  American 
scientific  publications  for  Incorporation  Id  the  iDteruatioiial  Catalogue,  the  ex- 
pense  of  clerk  hire,  the  purchaRe  of  neceHaary  books  and  periodicals,  and  otber 
neceaeary  Incidental  expenses,  Are  thousand  dollars,  tbe  aame  to  be  expended 
under  the  direction  of  tbe  Secretary  of  tbe  Smithsonian  Institution. 

Tbe  International  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Literature  Is  a  classified  BUbJect 
index  of  current  sclentlflc  literature  published  In  London  Id  17  annual  volnmes, 
the  result  of  tbe  combined  cooperative  work  of  regional  bureaus  established  in 
all  of  tbe  civilized  countries  of  the  world.  All  of  tbe  prlnclpai  governmenta 
of  the  world  are  tending  tbeir  aid  to  this  important  International  undertaking. 
Each  country  collects.  Indexes,  and  classlfles  tbe  current  scientific  literature  pub- 
Ilslied  within  Its  borders  and  furnlsbes  to  the  central  bureau  In  London  the 
materia]  thus  prepared  (or  publication  in  tbe  annual  volumes.  The  cost  of 
preparation  la  borne  by  the  countries  taking  part  In  tbe  enterprise.  Tbe  coat 
of  printing  and  pubtlsbing  is  paid  by  the  subscrltters  to  the  Catalogue.  Tbe 
enterprise  was  begun  In  1901,  and  for  the  first  five  years  of  its  existence  the 
norh  in  the  United  States  was  done  through  tbe  Smithsonian  Institution  at 
the  expense  of  its  fund.  For  tbe  present  flacnl  year  Congress  appropriated  the 
sum  of  $5,000  to  continue  the  work  tbus  begun,  and  it  was  carried  on  as  hereto- 
fore. The  persons  In  charge  of  tbe  work  up  to  that  dote  bad  been  employees 
of  the  parent  Institution,  and  being  entirely  familiar  with  the  work,  and  having 
shown  intelligence  and  devotion  In  carrying  It  out,  they  were,  upon  request, 
Included  In  the  classified  civil  service  by  an  Executive  order  dated  July  14.  1906. 

One  volume  a  year  is  devoted  to  each  of  tbe  follow! tig-named  subjects:  Math- 
ematics, mechanics,  physics,  chemistry,  astronoiny,  meteorology  (lucludlng  ter^ 
restrlal  magnetism),  mineralogy  (including  petrology  and  crystallc^rapliy), 
geology,  geography  (mathematical  and  physlcol),  paleontology,  general  biology, 
botany,  zoology,  human  anatomy,  physlcnl  anthropology,  physiology  (Including 
experimental  psycology,  pharmacology,  and  experimental  pathology),  and 
bacteriology. 

The  citations  are  secured  by  regularly  going  through  all  of  the  JonraBls 
listed  to  t>e  examined,  by  a  dally  search  through  tbe  large  number  of  pablica- 
tiona  received. by  tbe  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  by  the  examination  of  all 
available  lists.  Nevertheless,  so  diverse  are  the  places  of  publication  In  tlie 
United  States  that  even  this  careful  scrutiny  was  not  considered  sufficient,  and 
there  was  compiled  from  the  authors  records  in  tbls  oOlce  a  list  of  papers, 

84  ii.;,Gooyk' 


BBPOBT   OF   THE   SECEETABT.  85 

by  aotbors,  which  list  was  sabmitted  to  them  for  verificatloD,  crltlclBtns,  and 
addttloDB.  At  the  same  time  each  author  was  requested  to  supply  his  separates 
to  tbe  Isstltatlon  especially  for  the  pdrposee  of  the  Catalogue; 

This  method  of  keeping  Id  direct  commuulcatioo  with  the  authors  of  sclentlflc 
papers  Is  very  desirable  for  many  reasons,  as  it  not  only  renders  It  possible  to 
publish  a  complete  Gatalogue,  bnt  also  aids  materially  In  tbe  proper  and  satis- 
factory claflslflcfltlon  of  the  work  done,  which  from  tbe  point  of  Tiew  of  tbe 
users  of  tbe  Catalogue  Is  of  as  great  Importnnce  as  It  Is  to  hare  the  Catalogue 
complete. 

During  the  year  there  were  28,629  references  to  American  sclentlflc  literature 
completed  for  tbe  central  bureau,  as  follows: 
Literature  of^ 

1901 384 

1902 511 

1903 862 

1904 5,272 

190B 1 0, 022 

1906 12, 578 

Total 28, 629 

Thirteen  volumes  of  the  Catalogue  were  received  and  delivered  to  the  sub- 
scribers in  this  country,  as  follows: 

Fourth  annual  Issue:  Chemistry,  meteorology,  general  biology,  botany,  7.oology, 
bnman  anatomy,  physical  anthropology,  and  physiology,  completing  the  Issue. 

Fifth  annnal  Issue:  Mathematics,  astronomy,  geology,  geography,  and  paleon- 
tology. 

Tbe  practice  has  gradually  been  gaining  ground  In  some  of  the  regional 
bareaus  of  Including  references  to  technical  and  industrial  matters,  which 
while  of  great  general  Interest  do  not  come  strictly  within  the  definition  of  the 
scope  of  the  work,  which  was  to  refer  only  to  original  published  contributions 
to  tbe  physical  and  natural  sciences.  This  matter  has  had  careful  const  deration 
here,  and  It  was  deemed  not  only  necessary  but  wise  to  adhere  strictly  to  the  plan 
agreed  upon,  since  It  was  felt  that  a  rigid  following  of  the  plan  was  essential 
where  so  many  different  nations  were  concerned,  and  for  the  further  reason 
that  an  Indei  can  readily  become  too  cumbersome  for  easy  reference.  Ulti- 
mately It  may  be  possible  to  embrace  In  this  Catalogue  all  records  of  progres- 
sive bnman  Interest,  bnt  It  would  seem  at  present  the  wisest  policy  to  limit  the 
work  strictly  to  the  original  purpose. 

Tbe  regional  bureau  In  tbe  United  States  was  so  organized  In  the  bef^lnnlng 
that  It  could  at  any  time  be  expanded  to  embrace  any  subject  found  advisable 
to  Include  In  the  work,  but  the  bureau  Is  at  the  present  time  worked  to  the 
limit  of  Its  capacity  with  the  funds  now  at  its  disposal. 

Several  of  the  regional  bureaus.  Including  those  of  Germany,  France,  and 
Poland,  are  printing  In  periodical  form  the  matter  Indexed  by  tbem.  It  was  for 
a  time  hoped  that  this  could  be  done  In  this  country,  and  for  several  months, 
banning  with  January  1.  1907,  all  scientific  matter  was  currently  collecteu. 
Indexed,  classified,  and  prepared  as  printer's  proof  ready  for  publication  by  the 
Institution,  either  monthly  or  quarterly,  as  a  much-needed  current  classified 
index  to  American  scientific  literature.  This  method  of  publication  would 
promptly  furnish  references  to  all  of  the  scientific  literature  of  tbe  country 
practically  as  soon  as  published  and  probably  a  year  In  advance  of  the  perma- 
nent assembled  volumes  published  by  the  central  bureau.    Tbe  two  methods  of 


.y  Google 


86  ANNUAL  EEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

publication  would  In  no  nay  conflict ;  the  Qrst  would  be  a  check  list  of  carrent 
national  work,  while  the  eecond  Is  a  permanent  dasMfied  international  record. 

The  actual  cost  of  printing  a  sofflclent  number  of  sacb  a  periodical  woald. 
hnwerer,  have  to  be  met  bf  the  private  fnnd  of  the  lostltntlon.  After  thorongb 
consideration  It  was  decided  that  the  ontia?  wonid  not  be  JostlBed.  It  Is  aln- 
cerelr  to  be  hoped  that  ttie  pabllcatlon  of  this  material  In  the  form  mentlotied, 
or  Its  egnlvaleut,  can  be  aoon  begnn. 

Congress  In  tbe  sundrr  civil  bill  approved  March  4,  19OT,  appropriated  $5,000 
to  carry  on  tbe  woric  for  tbe  Sscal  year  ending  June  30,  1006,  It  being  the  same 
amount  as  that  appropriated  for  the  past  year. 

1  desire  to  acknowledge  tbe  zeal  and  fidelity  of  tbe  staff  who  are  nnder  ttie 
Immediate  direction  of  Mr.  Leonard  C.  Gnnnell. 

Very  req>ectfQlIy.  yonrs,  Otbub  Adleb, 

Assistant  Becretarv,  in  Charge  of  Library  and  Bxchanoe*. 

Dr.  Ghables  D.  Walcott, 

Beoretam  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 


.y  Google 


Apphndix  Vin. 

REPORT  ON  THE  PUBLICATIONS. 

Sm:  I  hare  tbe  bonor  to  sobmlt  tbe  followiog  report  an  tbe  publications  of 
the  SmltbMiilaD  Institution  and  Its  brancbes  during  tbe  year  endlDfc  Jane  30, 
1907: 

/.     Smithsonian  OonMbitttona  to  Enowteige. 

In  tbe  series  of  tbe  Smltbsonlan  Contributions  to  Knowledge  tbree  memoirs 
were  in  press  at  tbe  close  of  tbe  flscal  year  and  several  mannscrlpts  were  In 
in«pa  ration. 

IQB2.  Glaciers  of  tbe  CsDadlan  Rockies  and  Sellctrks.  Report  of  tbe  Smltb- 
sonlan Expedition  of  1904.  By  William  HIttell  Sberaer,  Pb.  D.  Qnerto.  Pages 
xil,  135,  witb  42  plates.    Part  of  Volume  XXXIV.    In  press. 

Tbe  advertisement  of  tbls  publication  describes  It  as  follows: 

Dr.  William  H.  Sherzer,  professor  of  natural  science  at  Michigan  State  Nor- 
mal College,  has  hrought  together  In  the  present  memoir  tbe  results  of  an  ei- 
pedltlou  uudertaken  by  tbe  Smltbsonlan  Institution  among  tbe  glaciers  of  tbe 
Canadian  Rockies  and  Selkirks  In  the  year  1904.  The  general  objects  of  tbe 
research  were  to  reader  available  a  description  of  some  of  the  most  accessible 
glaciers  upon  the  American  continent,  to  Investigate  to  what  extent  the  known 
glacial  features  of  otber  portions  of  the  world  are  reproduced  In  tbese  American 
representatives,  and  to  ascertain  wbat  additional  Ilgbt  a  study  of  similar 
features  might  shed  upon  glacier  formation  and  upon  some  of  tbe  unsettled 
problems  of  Pleistocene  geology. 

A  systematic  survey  was  made  of  the  Victoria  and  Wenkchemna  glaciers  Id 
Alberta,  and  of  the  Xobo  and  lllecUIewaet  glaciers  In  British  Columbia,  located 
about  200  miles  north  of  the  boundary  of  the  United  States.  Tbe  largest  of 
tbese  Is  the  Yoho  glacier,  extending  more  than  3  miles  below  the  n6v^  Qeld 
and  1  mile  in  width  for  two-thirds  of  Its  length.  Doctor  Sherzer  Investigated 
various  surfsce  features  of  eacb  of  these  glaciers,  tbe  nature  and  cause  of  Ice 
flow,  tbe  temperature  of  tlic  Ice  at  various  depths  and  Its  relation  to  air  tem- 
perature, the  amount  of  surface  melting,  and  the  possible  transference  of  ma- 
terial from  tbe  surface  to  the  lower  portion ;  their  forward  movenieut  and  the 
recession  and  advance  of  tbeir  extremities,  and  the  general  structure  of 
glad  a  1  Ice. 

Id  summarizing  the  most  Important  results  Doctor  Sherzer  discusses  the 
Indicated  physiographic  cbanges  In  the  region  daring  the  Mesozolc  and  Pleisto- 
cene periods;  tbe  question  of  precipitation  of  snow  and  rain,  and  the  effect  of 
climatic  cycles  on  glacial  movements,  the  structure  of  the  Ice  as  to  stratifica- 
tion, shearing,  blue  bands,  Ice  dykes,  glacial  granules,  and  the  possible  methods' 
of  their  development.  In  discussing  the  theories  of  glacial  motion  the  author 
expresses  his  conviction  that  tbe  nature  of  the  Ice  movement  can  be  satlsrac- 
torll?  explained  only  upon  the  theory  that  under  certain  circumstances  and 
within  certain  limits  Ice  Is  capable  of  behaving  as  a  plastic  body — that  la. 
capable  of  yielding  continuoualy  to  stress  without  rupture — but  the  plasticity 
of  Ice,  a  crystalline  subBtauce,  must  be  thought  of  as  essentially  different  from 
that  manifested  by  such  amorphous  substances  as  wax  or  aspbaltum. 

Doctor  Sherzer  also  discusses  the  cause  of  tbe  richness  and  variety  of  color- 
Ing  of  glaciers  and  glacial  lakes. 

ITia  Tbe  Young  of  tbe  CrayQshes  Astacus  and  Cambams.  By  B.  A.  Andrews. 
Quarto.     Pages  79,  with  10  plates.    Part  of  Vol.  XXXV.     In  press. 


88  AHNUAl.  BEPOBT   SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  IMl. 

In  this  memoir  there  la  described  and  itlnstrated  tbe  yonng  of  two  kiDda  of 
craffiBhee,  one  from  Oregon  and  one  from  Maryland.  representlOK  tbe  two  most 
diverse  forms  In  Nortb  Amerlm.  Tbe  flrst,  second,  and  third  larval  stages  are 
detennined,  and  tbere  Is  described  the  hitherto  unlinown  nature  of  sat^cesslre 
mechanical  attachments  of  the  offspring  to  the  parent 

1723.  The  ApodouB  Holotburlans.  A  Monograph  of  tbe  Sjnaptlds  and  Molop- 
adlidie.  Including  a  report  on  the  representatives  of  these  families  In  tbe 
collections  of  the  United  States  National  Mnsenm.  By  Hubert  Lyman  Clark. 
Quarto.    Pages  218+.  with  13  plates.    Part  of  Vol.  XXXV.    In  press. 

Tbis  memoir  gives  ft  summary  of  present  knowledge  of  tbe  two  families  of 
aea  cucumbers,  which  lack  tnbe  feet. 

The  most  important  featnre  of  the  work  la  tbe  recognition  of  tbe  changes 
taking  place  In  tbe  maturing  aod  senescence  of  Individual  holot  hurl  ana.  par- 
ticularly in  tbe  family  Molopadtldte.  As  a  result  of  this,  radical  changes  In 
nomenclature  have  been  necessary,  but  every  effort  has  l>een  made  to  have  tbe 
system  adopted  accord  with  the  mo8t"wldely  accepted  codes,  and  thus  t>e  as 
stable  as  possible.  Special  attention  has  been  given  to  geograpblcal  distribution, 
bat  the  work  In  this  line  Is  chletly  of  value  as  a  summary  of  our  present  very 
Inadequate  knowledge.  Artificial  keys  to  g«iera  and  species  have  been  freely 
used  with  the  intention  of  making  the  work  as  uaefnl  as  possible  to  all  subse- 
quent Investigators,  and  the  numerous  figures,  most  of  which  are  copied  from 
other  writers,  are  given  with  the  same  end  In  view. 

11.  Smithsonian  mscellaneaus  Oollectlotu. 

In  the  series  of  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections  there  were  published 
24  papers  in  tbe  Quarterly  Issue,  Vol.  111.  Parts  3  and  4.  and  Vol.  IV.  Part  1,  as 
follows ; 

1G5G.  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections.  Quarterly  Issue.  VoL  111, 
Part  3  (containing  Nos.  1657-1664).  Octavo.  Pages  241-37D,  with  plates 
ui-Lxin.  . 

1057.  The  Species  of  Mosquitoes  in  tbe  Genus  Megarblnus.  By  Harrison  G. 
Dyar  and  Frederick  Knab.  Published  September  27,  1906.  Octavo.  Pages  241- 
25S. 

IGGS.  A  Contribution  to  the  Knowledge  of  some  South  American  Uymenop- 
tera,  cblefiy  from  Paraguay.  By  C,  Schrottky.  Published  February  4,  1907. 
Octavo.    Pages  25»-274. 

1G50.  Description  of  a  New  Sqnlrrel  of  the  Sclurus  prevostll  Group  from  Pulo 
Temnju,  West  Const  of  Borneo.  By  Marcus  Ward  Lyon,  Jr.  Published  Febru- 
ary 4,  1007.    Octavo.    Pnges  275-276, 

1660.  The  Squirrels  of  the  SciuruB  vlttatns  Group  in  Sumatra,  By  Marcus 
Ward  Lyon,  Jr.    Published  February  4,  1907.    Octavo.    Pages  277-283. 

1601.  A  study  of  tbe  Butterfly  Wing- Venation,  with  special  regard  to  the 
radial  vein  of  the  front  wing.  By  Thomas  J.  Headlee.  Published  February  4, 
1907.    Octavo.    Pages  2S4-206.  with  plates  lix-lxiii. 

I6C2.  Some  Noteworthy  Extra -En  ropean  Cyprinlds.  By  Theodore  Gill.  Pub- 
lished February  4,  1907.    Octavo.    Pages  297-340. 

1663.  A  review  of  the  American  Volutldfa  By  William  Healey  Dall.  Pub- 
lished February  4,  1007.    Pages  341-373. 

1664.  Notes  to  Quarterly  Issue.    Vol.  III.    Part  3.    Octavo.    Pages  374-379. 
1695.  Smithsonian    Miscellaneous   Collections.     Quarterly    Issue.      Vol.    Ill, 

Part  4  (containing  Nob.  1696-1701).  Octavo.  Pages  381-567,  plates  lsiv-lix, 
and  table  of  contents  and  Index  to  Volume  III  of  the  Quarterly  Issue. 

1096.  The  breeding  habits  of  the  Florida  alligator.  By  Albert  M.  Reese. 
Published  May  4,  1907.    Octavo.    Pages  381-387,  with  plates  liiv-liv. 

1697.  Life  histories  o(  Toadflsbes  (Batracholdlds),  compared  with  those  of 
Weavers    (Trachlnlds)    and    Stargazers    (Dranoscopida),    By    Theodore   QIIL 


Published  May  4,  1907.    Octavo.    Pages  38S-427. 


BEPOBT   OF   THE   SECBETABT.  89 

1698.  The  letter  of  Dr.  Diego  Alvarez  Cbaoca,  dated  1494,  relatlDg  to  tbe 
second  voyage  ot  Columbus  to  America  (belDg  tbe  first  written  document  on 
tbe  natural  blatory,  etbnograpliy,  and  etbnology  of  America).  Translated,  witb 
notes,  by  A.  M.  Fernandez  de  Ybarra.  Publisbed  May  4,  1907.  Octavo.  Pages 
428-457,  with  plate  Lxvt. 

1699.  Tbe  origin  of  tbe  so-called  Atlantic  animals  and  plants  of  western 
Norway.  By  Leonhard  Stejneger.  Published  May  4,  1907.  Octavo.  Pages 
458-613,  with  plates  utvu-L-ts. 

1700.  Manners  and  customs  of  the  Tagbanuas  and  other  tribes  of  tbe  Island 
of  Palawan,  Pbtllppines.  By  Manuel  Hugo  Ventnrello.  Published  May  4, 
1907.    Octavo.    Pages  514-558. 

1701.  Notes  to  Quarterly  Issue,  Vol.  III.  Part  4.    Octavo,    Pages  569-562. 

1702.  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections.  (Quarterly  Issue.  Vol.  Ill), 
VoL  XLvni.    Octavo.    Pages  vil,  1-067,  with  plates  i-lxx, 

1708.  Smithsonian  MIseellaneons  Collections.  (Quarterly  Issue),  VoL  IV, 
Part  1  (containing  Kos.  1704-1716).    Octavo.    Pages  1-131,  with  plates  i-siv. 

1704.  Notes  on  some  Upper  Cretaceous  Volutldfr,  with  descriptions  of  a  new 
species  and  a  revision  of  the  grou|>s  to  which  they  belong.  By  W.  H.  DalL 
Published  March  17,  1907,    Octavo.     Pages  1-23. 

1706.  Notes  on  some  squirrels  of  tbe  Sclurus  hippurus  group,  with  descrip- 
tions of  two  new  species.  By  Marcus  W.  Lyon,  jr.  Published  April  S,  1907. 
Octavo.    Pages  24-29. 

170flL  A  new  Calamarlne  snake  from  the  Pblltpplne  Islands.  By  Leonbard 
Stejneger.    Publiahed  April  8,  1907.    Octavo.    Pages  30-31. 

1707.  Addltlouul  notes  on  Mexican  plants  of  the  genus  Ribes.  By  J.  N. 
Rose.    Published  May  1,  1007.    Octavo.    Page  32. 

1T08.  Morkinia,  a  new  name  for  the  genus  Cbltonla;  with  description  of  a 
new  species.  By  J.  N.  Rose  and  Joseph  H.  Painter.  Published  May  1,  1907. 
Octavo.     Pages  33-34, 

1709.  Tbe  "Webster"  ruin  Iq  Southern  Rhodesia,  Africa.  By  Edward  M. 
Aodreivs.    Published  May  1.  1907.    Octavo.    Pages  35-47,  with  plates  i-iu. 

1710.  Tbe  Bororo  Indians  of  Matto  Qrosso,  Brazil.  By  W.  A.  Cook.  Pub- 
liahed May  1,  1907.    Octavo.    Pages  48-62,  with  plates  iv,  v. 

1711.  Cactus  Maxonil,  a  new  cactus  from  Guatemala.  By  J.  N.  Rose.  Pub- 
lished Jnne  15.  1007.     Octavo.     Pages  C3-C4,  with  plate  vi. 

1712.  Od  tbe  clasping  organs  attaching  the  bind  to  tbe  fore  wings  In  Hyme- 
noptera.  By  Leo  Walter.  Published  June  24.  1907.  Octavo.  Pages  65-87. 
with  plates  vii-x. 

1713.  Notes  on  Mammals  collected  at  Mount  Rainier,  Washington.  By  M.  W. 
Lyon,  Jr.    Published  June  27.  1907.    Octavo.    Pages  80-02. 

1714.  The  Archaic  monetary  terms  of  the  United  States.  By  C  A.  White. 
Pnbllabed  June  27,  1907.    Octavo.    Pages  93-104. 

1715.  Description  of  a  collection  of  Kootanle  plants  from  tbe  Great  Falls  coal 
Held  of  Montana-  By  F.  II.  Knowlton.  Published  June  27,  1907.  Octava 
Pages  105-128.  with  plates  ri-xiv. 

1710.  Notes  to  Quarterly  Issue,  Vol.  IV,  Part  1.     Octavo.     Pages  129-1.11. 

Among  the  papers  In  press  for  the  Quarterly  Issue  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal 
year  may  be  mentioned:  The  Air-Sncs  of  the  Pigeon,  by  Bruno  MtlUer;  and 
Excavations  at  Casa  Grande.  Arliona.  in  190C  and  1007.  by  J.  Walter  Fewtes. 

Tb»e  was  also  published  in  tbe  regular  series  of  tbe  Smithsonian  Miscel- 
laneous Collections  tbe  following  report  of  researches  under  a  grant  from  the 
Bodgklns  fund: 

1654.  Researches  on  the  Attainment  of  Very  Low  Temperatures.  Part  II. — 
Further  notes  on  tbe  Self  Intensive  Process  for  Liquefying  Oases.     By  Morris 


90  AKHUAL  EEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

W.  Travera  (with  A.  G.  a  Gwyer  and  P.  L.  Usber).  Part  of  VoL  ZUX. 
Octavo.    Pages  1-14. 

Tbere  was  In  press  at  tbe  close  of  tbe  rear  additional  copies  of  tbe  SIIlItl^ 
BODian  Meteorological  Tables  Id  tbe  form  of  a  tbird  edition  of  tbat  work. 

Tbe  followlDg  work  was  Issued  In  continuation  of  tbe  Catalogne  prepared  bj 
Prof.  Edward  8.  Holden,  issued  by  tbe  Stnitbsonlan  InsUtntion  in  1898,  No.  1087. 

1721.  Catalogue  of  Earthquakes  on  tbe  Pacific  Coast.  1897  to  1006.  Bj  Alex- 
ander G.  McAdle.    Part  of  Volnme  XLIX.    Octava    Pages  64. 

There  was  in  press  at  the  dose  of  tbe  year  a  work  on  crabs  of  tbe  North 
Paclflc   nnder  tbe  following  title: 

1717.  Report  on  tbe  Cmstacea  (Brachyara  and  Aoomnra),  collected  by  the 
North  Pa<^fic  Exploring  Expedition,  1863-1856.  Bf  Wlillam  Stimpsoo.  Octavo. 
Pages  240,  with  26  plates.    Part  of  Volnme  XLIX. 

The  work,  written  by  Doctor  Stimpson,  who  died  In  1802,  Is  edited  by  Miss 
Mary  J.  Ratbbnn.  in  the  Introdactory  note  tbe  editor  thns  describes  tbe  char- 
acter of  the  report  and  tbe  causes  for  delay  In  its  publicatioD : 

Tbe  North  Pacific  Exploring  Expedition  was  sent  ont  by  tbe  Navy  Department 
nnder  an  nppropriation  from  Congress  in  1852,  for  "  building  or  purchase  of  suit- 
able TesBcIs.  and  for  prosecuting  a  survey  and  recoDDolHsance,  for  naval  and 
commercial  purposes,  of  sucb  parts  of  Bebrlng  Straits,  of  tbe  North  Paclflc 
Ocean,  and  tbe  Cbinn  seas,  as  are  frequented  by  American  whale  ships,  and  by 
trading  vessels  in  tbeir  routes  twtween  ttie  United  States  and  Cbina."  The  ex- 
pedition set  sail  In  June.  1^3,  and  retnmed  In  1850.  Capt.  C.  Ringgold,  U.  S. 
Navy,  was  placed  in  command,  bnt.  being  recalled  to  tbe  United  States  In  1851, 
be  was  superseded  by  Capt.  John  Rodgers,  D.  S.  Navy.  William  Stimpson  acted 
as  eoologisL  After  learing  Norfolii  the  five  vessels  in  service  touched  at  Ma- 
deira, and  then  proceeded  to  Hongkong  via  tlM  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  On  this 
passage  tbe  sloop  Vincennes  and  tbe  brig  Porpoiie  took  tbe  more  southerly  route 
to  Van  Dlemens  Land,  tbence  through  tbe  Coral  Seas,  and  by  tbe  Caroline.  La- 
drone,  and  Bashee  Islands,  while  tbe  steamer  JoJtn  Hancock  and  the  other  two 
vessels  of  tbe  fleet  traversed  tbe  straits  of  Sundo  and  Gaspar.  tbe  Carimatii  aud 
Bllleton  passages,  and  tbe  Sootoo  Sea.  Subsequently  tbe  expedition  advanced 
northward,  continnlng  work  along  the  coasts  of  Japan  and  Kamchatka,  Id 
Bering  Strait,  on  the  coast  of  California,  and  at  Tahiti,  returning  around  tbe 
Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Of  the  vast  collections  obtained,  it  was  estimated  that  the  Crustacea  numbered 
980  species. 

A  few  years  after  his  return  to  the  United  States.  Dr.  William  Stimpson  be- 
came director  of  tbe  Chicago  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  moved  to  that  place 
nearly  all  of  the  invertebrate  material  obtained  by  tbe  expedition  and  belonging 
to  the  United  States  Goveminent  Several  preliminary  papers  had  been  pre- 
pared and  published  by  blm  in  tbe  Proceedings  of  tbe  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  when  the  collections  with  notes  and  drawings  were 
destroyed  by  the  memorable  flre  in  1871.  In  a  statement  of  losses  sustained. 
Doctor  Stimpson  enumerated  tbe  manuscript  and  drawings  of  tbe  final  report 
on  tbe  Crustacea  Brachyura  and  Anomura.  After  his  death  in  1872,  however, 
this  report  was  discovered  at  the  Navy  Department  and  was  sent  to  tl»e  Smitb- 
sonian  Institution,  where  It  has  remaloded  to  tbe  present  time  unpublished. 

In  tbe  meantime  there  are  few  students  of  tbe  higher  Crustacea  who  have 
not  felt  tbe  need  of  more  light  on  those  rare  genera  and  species  known  only  fran 
brief  Latin  diagnoses. 

Tbe  following  report  has  been  treated  as  an  historical  document,  and  la  pub- 
lished substantially  ns  it  was  written  by  the  author,  tbe  only  additions  being  the 
references  to  bis  preliminary  descriptions  and  the  footnotes  giving  tbe  current 
or  accepted  name  where  it  dilTers  from  that  used  by  I>octor  Stimpson.  It  la 
hoped  tbat  tbe  value  of  the  descriptions  will  more  than  compensate  for  the  an- 
tiquated nomenclature. 

There  was  also  In  press  at  the  close  of  tbe  year  In  the  series  of  Smltbaonlan 
Miscellaneous  Collections  tbe  following  publication : 

1720,  Samuel  Plerpont  Langley.  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
188T-100G.  Memorial  meeting  December  3.  1906.  Addresses  by  Doctor  WUte, 
Professor  Pickering,  and  Mr.  Chanute.     Octavo.     Pages  49.     Part  of  Volume 

xux. 


BEFOBI   OF  THB  SBCSETABT.  91 

III.  Smithsonian  Annual  Reporti. 

Tbe  Annaal  Heport  for  190S  waa  dlstrlbnted  early  in  the  fiscal  fear: 

1667.  Annual  Report  of  tbe  Board  of  Regents  of  tbe  Bmitbaonlan  Instltntlon. 
Sbowlng  the  operatlona,  expendltnreB,  and  condition  of  tbe  Instltntion  for  tbe 
rear  ending  June  30,  1006.    Octavo.    Pages  i-llv,  1-ST6.  with  48  plates. 

Tbe  following  papeis  Inclnded  Id  tbe  Annnnal  Report  of  tbe  Board  of  R^ents 
for  1905  were  Issued  separately  In  pampblet  form : 

1668.  Joarnal  of  Proceedings  of  tbe  Board  of  Events  of  the  Smithsonian 
InsUtatlon  at  Meetings  of  December  6,  1901,  and  Janoary  25,  and  March  C, 
1906.  B^»rt  of  Executive  Oofflmitte&  Acts  and  resolution  of  Congress. 
Octavo.    Pages  xl-llv. 

1669.  New  Ueasurementa  of  tbe  Distance  of  tbe  Bon.  By  A.  R.  Hloks. 
Octavo.    Pages  101-118. 

1670.  Pbotograpblng  L^btnlng  with  a  Moving  Camera.  By  Alex.  Laiaea. 
Octava    Pages  llft-127,  with  plates  i-iv. 

1671.  The  Tantalnra  Lamp:  By  W.  von  Bolton  and  O.  Feoerleln.  Octavo. 
Pages  129-140. 

1672.  Some  Eeflnements  of  Hecbanlcal  Science.  By  Ambrose  Swasey. 
Octavo.    Pages  141-lSO. 

1673.  Progress  In  Radiography.  By  L.  Gastlne.  Octavo.  Pages  ISl-lfll. 
wltb  plates  i-vin. 

1674.  Bistory  of  Photography.  By  Robert  Hiint  OcUvo.  Pages  168-192, 
with  plates  i-iv. 

1675.  Tbe  Oeoesia  of  tbe  Diamond.    By  Gardner  F.  WlllIamB.    Octavo.    Pages 


1676.  A  deecrlptlon  of  tbe  Big  Diamond  recently  found  Id  tbe  Premier  Mine, 
Transvaal.  By  F.  H.  Hatch  and  O.  S.  Gorstorphbie.  Octavo.  Pages  211-213, 
with  plates  i,  u. 

1677.  Oold  In  Science  and  Indnatry.  By  Q.  T.  Beilby.  Octavo.  Pages 
216-234. 

1678.  Submarine   Navigation.    By    Sir   William    H.    White.    Octavo.    Pages 


1679.  Liberia.    By  Sir  Harry  Johnston.    Octavo.    Pages  247-264,  with  plates 
i-vn. 

1680.  Geographical  Results  of  the  Tibet  Mission.    By  Sir  Fnuic  Yonngbns- 
band.    Octavo.    Pages  265-277,  wltb  plates  i-iv. 

16SL  The  Development  of  Bhodesia  and  Its  Railway  System  In  Relfttloa  to 

Oceanic  Hlgbways.    By  J.  T.  P.  Heatley.    Octavo.    Pages  279-282,  with  plate  i, 

1682.  Tbe  Ethics  of  Japan.    By  Baron  Kencho  Suyematsn.    Octavo.     Pages 


1683.  Plague  hi  India.    By  Charles  Crelgbtmi.    Octavo.    Pages  309-33a 

1684.  Tbe  Fight   against  Yellow   Fever.     By   A.    Dastre.     Octavo.     Pages 


leSD,  Luminosity  In  Plants.    By  Hans  Molisch.    Octavo.    Pages  351-862. 

1686.  Notes  on  the  Victoria  Lyre  Bird  (Menora  Tictortie).  By  A.  E.  KltncoL 
Octavoi    Pages  363-874,  with  plates  i-n. 

1687.  The  Influence  of  Physical  Conditions  In  tbe  Genesis  of  Species.  By  Joel 
A.  AUen.    Octavo.    Pages  375-402. 

168S.  Parental  Care  Among  Fresb-Water  Plsheo.  By  Tbeodore  Gltl.  Octavo. 
Pages  403-631,  with  plate  l 

1689.  On  tbe  Relatione  ttetween  tbe  United  States  of  America  and  Germany, 
especially   in  tbe  Held  of   Science.    By    Wllhelm    Waldeyer.    Octavo.    Pages 

iiv.Goo^^lc 


92  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

1690.  Walter  Reed.  A  Memoir.  By  Walter  D.  McCaw.  Octavo.  Pages 
640-656,  witb  plate  l 

1691.  Radolph  Albert  von  KOlllker,  M.  D.  By  William  StlrllnK.  Octavo. 
Pages  657-582,  with  plate  i. 

The  Acting  Secretary's  Report  for  1906,  forming  a  part  of  the  Annual  Report 
of  the  Board  of  R^ente  to  Congress,  was  prlnteal  as  usual  la  pamphlet  form 
In  November,  1906,  for  the  nse  of  the  Board,  and  in  January  a  larger  edition 
was  Issued  for  public  distribution,  as  follows: 

1693.  Report  of  the  Acting  Secretary  of  tbe  Smithsonian  iDBtltctlon  for  the 
year  ending  Jpne  30.  1906.    Octavo.    Pages  01. 

Tbere  was  also  Issued  for  the  use  of  the  Regents  a  smalt  edition  of  the  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Board, 

1743.  Proceedings  of  Board  of  Regents  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1906. 
Report  of  Executive  Committee.  Acts  and  Resolutions  of  Congress.  Octavo. 
Pages  ii-LT. 

The  full  retort  for  1906  was  In  type,  although  not  ready  for  distribution  at 
tbe  close  of  the  fiscal  year. 

1742.  Annual  Bei>ort  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Instltntion, 
showing  the  Operations  and  Expenditures  and  Condition  of  tlie  [nstitutton  for 
tbe  year  ending  June  30;  1906.    Octavo.    Pages  1-11,  1-646,  with  43  plates. 

The  contents  or  the  General  Appendix  are  as  follows : 

1744.  The  Smithsonian  Institution.    Octavo.    Pages  97-102. 

1746.  Modem  Theories  of  Electricity  and  Matter.  By  Madame  Curie.  Octav*. 
Pages  103-115. 

1746.  Radioactivity.    By  Franz  Rimstedt    Octavo.    Pages  117-130. 

1747.  Recent  Advances  In  Wireless  Telegraphy.  By  Q.  Marconi.  Octavo. 
Pages  131-145. 

1745.  Revisions  of  the  Theory  of  Electrolysis.  By  H.  S.  Carhart.  Octavo. 
Pages  147-160. 

1749.  Recent  Progress  In  Astronomical  Research.  By  O.  G.  Abbot  Octavo^ 
Pages  161-171,  with  plates  i,  n. 

1750.  Astronomy  on  Mont  Blanc.    By  H.  Radau.    Octavo.     Pages   173-186. 

1751.  Tbe  Problem  of  the  Metalliferous  Veins.  By  James  Furman  Kemp. 
Octavo.    Pages  187-206. 

1752.  Iron  Ore  Reserves.  By  Cliarles  Kenneth  Leltb.  Octavo.  Pages  207- 
214. 

1763.  The  Geology  of  tbe  Diamond  and  Carbonado  Washings  of  Babia,  BraxU. 
By  Orville  A.  Derby.    Octavo.    Pages  215-221,  witb  plates  i,  ii. 

1754.  Tbe  Eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  April,  1906.  By  A.  Lecrolz.  Octavo. 
Pages  223-24S,  with  plates  i-xiv. 

1756.  To  tbe  North  Magnetic  Pole  and  through  tbe  Northwest  Passage.  By 
Boald  Amundsen.    Octavo.    Pages  249-273,  with  plates  i-vl 

1750.  Iceland:  Its  History  and  Intiabitants.  By  Herr  Jon  Stefansson.  Oc- 
tavo.   Pages  275-294, 

1757.  Tbe  Recently  Discovered  Tertiary  Vertebrate  of  Egypt  By  a  W. 
Andrews.    Octavo.    Pages  295-30T, 

1758.  Polyembryony  and  the  Determination  of  Sex.  By  E.  Bngnlon.  Octavft 
Pages  309-320. 

1759.  A  Contribution  to  tbe  Morphology  of  the  Mammoth,  Elephas  prlmi- 
genlus  Biumenl)ach ;  with  an  explanation  of  my  attempt  at  a  restoration.  By 
E.  Pfizenmayer.    Octavo.     Pages  321-.331.  with  plate  i. 

1760;  Heredity.    By  L.  Cuenot,    Octavo.    Pages  335-344. 
1761.  Tbe  Bisons  of  tbe  Caucasus.    By  A.  Yermoloff.    Octavo.    Pages  34t^ 
353,  with  plates  i,  u. 


BBPOBT   OF   THE  SECBETABY.  93 

1762.  The  FotiDdIng  of  Colonies  by  Atta  sexdenB.     By  Jakob  Huber.    Octavo. 
F^es  355-372.  witb  plates  i-v. 

1763.  Quateniary  Humaa  Remains  tn  Central  Europe.    By  Hugues  Obermaler. 
Octavo.     Fagee  373-397. 

1764.  The  Origin  of  the  Slara,    By  Professor  ZaborowskL    Octavo.    Pages 


17W,  Scalping  In  America.    By  Georg  Priedericl.    Octavo.    Pages  423-438. 

1766,  Zoology  and  Medicine.  By  Raphael  Blanctaard.  Octavo.  Pages  439- 
452. 

1767.  Tbe  ROle  of  Cbecnlstry  in  Painting.  By  Eugene  Lemalre.  Octavo. 
Pages  453-458.  with  plate  i. 

176&  Oils.  Varnishes,  and  Mediums  Used  In  the  Fainting  of  Pictures.  By 
A.  P.  Lanrie.    Octavo.    Pages  459-468,  with  plate  l 

1769.  Xatlonal  Reclamation  of  Arid  Lands.  By  C.  J.  Blanebard.  Octavo- 
Pages  469-492,  with  plates  i-vn, 

1770.  International  Science.    By  Arthur  Schuster.    Octavo.    Pages  493-514. 

1771.  Samuel  Plerpont  Langley.    By  Cyrus  Adler.    Octavo.    Pages  515-533. 

IT.  Special  PubticaUons. 

There  was  Issued  during  tile  year  a  special  publication  In  the  form  of  the 
Smithsonian  Coatributious  to  Knowledge,  but  It  was  not  included  In  that  series 
since  only  a  limited  number  of  copies  of  tbe  accompanying  plate  were  available. 
The  woiii  Is  entitled : 

1694.  Remarks  on  tbe  Type  of  tbe  Fossil  Cetacean  Agorophlus  pygmaeus 
(Mailer).  By  Frederick  W.  True.  City  of  Washington:  Published  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  1907.    Quarto.    Pages  8,  with  1  plate. 

The  author  In  the  first  paragraph  of  tbe  work  says : 

Somewhat  more  tban  fifty  years  ago  the  Smltbsonlan  Institution,  tben 
recently  founded,  undertook  the  publication  of  a  number  of  memoirs  by  Prof. 
Louis  Agnssiz.  and  prepared  some  lithographic  plates  to  accompany  them. 
Before  tbe  work  bad  proceeded  very  far,  Professor  Agasalz  made  other  arrange- 
ments for  tbe  publication  of  his  writings  and  the  plates  were  never  issued.  One 
of  these  unpublished  plates  represents  the  type  specimen  of  a  very  remarkable 
species  of  fossil  cetacean,  now  known  as  Agorophius  pygmaeus  (Mtllier).  and 
on  account  of  circumstances  which  are  detailed  below  It  has  been  thought 
desirable  to  Issue  It,  with  a  brief  explanation  as  to  Its  Importance. 

As  a  special  publication.  No.  1722,  there  was  printed  an  octavo  pamphlet  of 
38  pages  entitled  "  Classified  List  of  Smithsonian  Publications  available  for 
Distribution  April,   1907." 

For  general  distribution  to  correspondents  there  was  published,  without  bear- 
ing n  serial  number,  a  duodecimo  pamphlet  of  sis  pages  entitled  "Tbe  Smith- 
BODian  Institution,  at  Washington,  for  tbe  Increase  and  Diffusion  of  Knowledge 
among  Men."  Tbls  pamphlet  gives  a  brief  description  of  tbe  functions  of  the 
Institution  and  Its  brancbes  for  the  general  Information  of  the  public. 

V.  PubHcationt  of  United  States  National  Museum. 

Tbe  publications  of  tbe  National  Museum  are:  (a)  Tbe  Annual  Report,  form- 
ing a  separate  volume  of  tbe  Report  to  Congress  by  tbe  Board  of  Regents  of  tbe 
Smltbsonlan  Institution;  (b)  tbe  Proceedings  of  tbe  United  States  National 
Museum;    (c)  the  Bulletin  of  tbe  United  States  National  Museum. 

The  publications  Issued  during  the  year  are  enumerated  in  tlie  Report  on  the 
National  Museum.  These  Included  the  Annual  Reports  for  I9(ra  and  1906; 
volumes  31  and  32  of  the  Proceedings;  volume  2  of  Bulletin  53;  Part  I  of  Bul- 
letin 56 ;  Bulletin  57 ;  a  supplement  to  Bulletin  51 ;  Volume  XI  of  Contributions 
to  the  National  Hecharlnm  and  three  parts  of  Volume  X  of  tbe  same  series. 


Three  other  bulletins  were  In  press  at  the  close  of  the  year. 


94  ANNUAL   REPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

VI.  PitbUcaltont  of  the  Bureau  of  ^tneHcan  Ethnologji- 

The  twent7-slxtta  oimual  report  of  tbe  Bnreau  of  American  Kthnologr  uid 
BulletlDB  33,  34,  35,  and  36  were  sent  to  the  printer  during  tbe  year.  BnlletlnB 
31  and  32  were  publlslied  in  Jnly.  Part  1  of  Bulletin  30,  Haodboo^  of  American 
Indians,  appeared  In  March,  and  the  tweaty-fourtb  annual  report  In  May.  A 
Hat  of  publications  of  tbe  Bnreau  and  a  speclol  article  on  Indian  missions  were 
Issued  In.  June.  These  publlcattons  are  elsewhere  described  in  detail  in  tbe 
report  on  the  Bureau. 

VII.  Report  of  the  Afnerican  HMorUsal  AssoctaHon, 

The  annual  report  of  tbe  American  Historical  Association  for  tbe  year  190S 
was  sent  to  the  printer  In  May,  1906,  and  Volume  I  was  completed  In  November 
of  that  year.  Volume  II,  however,  comprising  a  complete  bibliography  of  the 
publications  of  American  historical  societies  for  more  than  a  centory,  bad  not 
been  Issued  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year. 

The  manuscript  of  the  report  for  190fl  was  received  In  May,  1907,  but  was 
not  forwarded  to  the  printer  until  after  tbe  close  of  tbe  Sscsl  year. 

VIII.  Report  of  tfte  Danghtera  of  tlte  American  Revolution. 

Tbe  ninth  report  of  the  National  Society  of  tile  Daughters  of  the  American 
Revolution  was  received  from  the  society  in  February,  1907,  and  submitted  to 
CongresB  In  accordance  with  law. 

IX.  SmUJuonian  Committee  o;t  Printing. 

The  editor  has  served  as  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  advisory  conuilttee 
on  printing  and  publlcatlou.  To  this  committee  liave  been  referred  tbe  manu- 
scripts proposed  for  publication  by  the  various  brancbes  of  the  Instltntlon, 
also  those  oCTered  for  printing  in  the  Quarterly  Issue  of  tlie  Smithsonian 
Miscellaneous  Collections.  The  committee  has  also  passed  upon  blank  forms 
for  current  use  In  tbe  Institution  and  Its  branches.  The  committee  considered 
and  reported  to  tbe  Secretary  on  various  questions  relating  in  general  to  print- 
ing and  publication.  Twenty-six  meetings  were  held  during  the  year  and  101 
manuscripts  were  reported  upon. 

X.  Prete  Abatraota  of  Publioationa. 

Beginning  In  March.  1907,  an  editorial  assistant  was  aaslKned  to  tbe  prepara- 
Uon  of  abstracts  of  such  publications  of  tbe  Institution  and  its  brancbes  as 
conld  be  put  In  popular  lan^piage  for  the  use  of  newspapers  throughout  tbe 
country.  There  tins  also  been  sent  out  a  number  of  brief  accounts  of  current 
Investigations  and  longer  descriptions  of  general  work  In  the  National  Museum, 
tbe  International  £Uchanges.  tbe  Astrophyslcal  Observatory,  tbe  Zoological 
Park,  and  other  brancbes  of  the  Institution's  work. 
Respectfully  submitted. 

A.  Howjum  Cl*xs, 

Bttttor. 
Dr.  Chables  D.  Walcott, 

Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Inatitution. 


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GENERAL  APPENDIX 

TO  THE 

SMITHSONIAN  REPORT  FOR  1907 


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ADVERTISEMENT. 


The  object  of  the  General  Appekdix  to  the  Annual  Report  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  is  to  furnish  brief  accounts  of  scientific  dis- 
covery in  particular  directions;  reports  of  investigations  made  by 
collaborators  of  the  Institution ;  and  memoirs  of  a  general  character 
or  on  special  topics  that  are  of  interest  or  value  to  the  numerous 
correspondents  of  the  Institution. 

It  has  been  a  prominent  object  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  from  a  very  early  date;  to  enrich  the  annual 
report  required  of  them  by  law  with  memoirs  illustrating  the  more 
remarkable  and  important  developments  in  physical  and  biological 
discovery,  as  well  as  showing  the  general  character  of  the  operations 
of  the  Institution;  and  this  purpose  has,  during  the  greater  part  of 
its  history,  been  carried  out  largely  by  the  publication  of  such  papers 
as  would  possess  an  interest  to  all  attracted  by  scientific  progress. 

In  1880  the  Secretary,  induced  in  part  by  the  discontinuance  of  an 
annual  summary  of  progress  which  for  thirty  years  previous  had  been 
issued  by  well-known  private  publishing  firms,  had  prepared  by  com- 
petent collaborators  a  series  of  abstracts,  showing  concisely  the  prom- 
inent features  of  recent  scientific  progress  in  astronomy,  geology, 
meteorology,  physics,  chemistry,  mineralogy,  botany,  zoology,  and 
anthropology.  This  latter  plan  was  continued,  though  not  altogether 
satisfactorily,  down  to  and  including  the  year  1888. 

In  the  report  for  1889  a  return  was  made  to  the  earlier  method  of 
presenting  a  miscellaneous  selection  of  papers  (some  of  them  original) 
embracing  a  considerable  range  of  scientific  investigation  and  discus- 
alon.    This  method  has  been  continued  in  the  present  report  for  1907. 


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THE  STEAM  TURBINE  ON  LAND  AND  AT  SEA." 


f  Hon.  Cbabuis  A.  Pabsons,  C.  B.,  M.  A.,  D.  ! 


If  was  with  some  diffidence  that  I  accepted  the  subject  of  steam 
turbines  on  land  an.d  at  sea  for  this  evening's  lecture,  for  since  I  had 
the  privilege  of  dealing  with  this  subject  six  years  ago  in  this  room, 
there  seemed  to  me  to  be  very  little  new  to  add,  either  from  a  scientific 
or  a  practical  point  of  view,  which  had  not  then  been  to  some  extent 
considered.  However,  after  consideration,  there  seemed  to  be  a  hope 
that  an  account  of  some  further  developments  during  the  last  six 
years  on  land  and  on  sea,  and  a  more  extended  description  of  the 
ntechanics  of  the  turbine  and  its  applications,  might  prove  of  some 
interest,  in  view  of  the  more  general  adoption  of  the  turbine  principle 
for  the  generation  of  electricity,  for  the  propulsion  of  vessels,  and 
for  driving  air-compressors,  fans,  and  pumps. 

Six  years  ago  there  were  75,000  horsepower  of  turbines  on  land, 
and  25,000  on  sea.  At  the  present  time  there  are  more  than  2,000,000 
horsepower  at  work  on  land  and  800,000  horsepower  at  work  or  build- 
ing for  use  at  sea. 

There  are  at  present  afloat,  equipped  with  turbines,  three  pleasure 
steamers,  nine  cross-channel  steamers,  five  ocean-going  vessels,  three 
Atlantic  liners,  six  yachts,  three  destroyers,  and  two  cruisers. 

Yet  it  can  not  be  said  that  the  turbine  engine  is  superseding  the 
reciprocating  engine  generally,  although  this  is  undoubtedly  to  some 
extent  the  case  in  certain  fields  of  work. 

On  land  the  chief  application  of  the  turbine  is  found  in  large  elec- 
trical generating  stations,  and  its  adoption  in  preference  to  the  piston 
engine,  in  its  most  perfect  development  of  compound,  triple,  or 
quadruple  expansion  engine,  is  becoming  general  in  this  field  of  work. 

At  sea,  its  use  is  commencing  to  extend  for  all  the  larger  and 
faster  class  of  ships;  for  cross-channel  steamers  it  has  foimd  great 
favor,  and  for  Atlantic  liners  and  ships  of  war  it  is  being  used  to  a 

'Paper  read  before  the  Boyal  iDstitutlon  of  Great  Britain  at  Its  weekly 
eTening  meeting.  Prldnj,  May  4,  1906.  Reprinted,  by  permission,  from  tbe 
TraDBactloQB  of  tbe  Boyal  Institution. 


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THE  STEAM  TURBINE  ON  LAND  AND  AT  SEA." 


By  Hon.  Cbabu»  A.  Pabboks,  C.  B..  M.  A.,  D.  Sc.,  F.  1 


If  was  with  some  diffidence  that  I  accepted  the  subject  of  steam 
turbines  on  land  and  at  sea  for  this  evening's  lecture,  for  since  I  had 
the  privilege  of  dealing  with  this  subject  six  years  ago  in  this  room, 
there  seemed  to  me  to  be  very  little  new  to  add,  either  from  a  scientific 
or  s  practical  point  of  view,  which  had  not  then  been  to  some  extent 
considered.  However,  after  consideration,  there  seemed  to  be  a  hope 
that  an  account  of  some  further  developments  during  the  ]ast  six 
years  on  land  and  on  sea,  and  a  more  extended  description  of  the 
mechanics  of  the  turbine  and  its  applications,  might  prove  of  flome 
interest,  in  view  of  the  more  general  adoption  of  the  turbine  prioriple 
for  the  generation  of  electricity,  for  the  propulsion  of  vessels,  aad 
for  driving  air-compressors,  fans,  and  pumps. 

Six  years  ago  there  were  75.000  horsepower  of  turbines  od  hut 
and  25.000  on  sea.  At  the  present  time  there  are  more  than  *//>:•.'<!< 
horsepower  at  work  on  land  and  800.000  horsepower  at  ^oA  « *Kf^> 
ing  for  use  at  sea. 

There  are  at  present  afloat,  equipped  with  turbines,  ttrw  ^^k^^c^ 
steamers,  nine  cross-channel  steamers,  five  ocean-pwn^  T»?-(ek  -ai^B 
Atlantic  liners,  si.i  yachts,  three  dei^troyen-.  and  two  »7-b*r*^ 

Yet  it  can  not  be  said  that  the  turbine  engine  i^  fsryr^fcn^  Ta! 
reciprocating  engine  generally,  although  thLs  is  imiiiixtcr  '•:  «imi« 
extent  the  case  in  certain  fields  of  work. 


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100  ANNTJAL  EEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITnXION,  1907. 

more  and  more  considerable  extent,  and  this  tendency  is  not  confined 
alone  to  England,  but  is  shown  also  on  the  Continent,  and  in  the 
United  States  and  Japan.  It  will  g^ve  a  clearer  idea  of  the  subject 
if  we  first  of  all  examine  more  closely  the  characteristics  of  the  steam 
turbine,  and  generally  how  it  works. 

All  turbines  derive  their  power  from  the  impact  of  the  steam,  or, 
more  correctly  speaking,  from  the  momentum  of  the  steam,  flowing 
through  them,  just  as  a  windmill  receives  its  power  from  the  wind. 

There  are  three  principal  types  of  turbines  now  in  general  use,  as 
well  as  some  which  may  be  described  as  admixtures  of  these  three 
classes.  They  differ  essentially  in  some  respects,  more  particularly  in 
their  methods  of  extracting  the  power  from  the  steam. 

The  first  to  receive  commercial  application,  1884,  was  the  com- 
pound or  multiple  expansion  steam  turbine;  the  second  was  the  De 
Laval  or  single-bucket  wheel,  in  1888,  driven  by  the  expanding  steam 
jet ;  and,  lastly,  the  Curtis  turbine,  in  1896,  which  comprises  some  of 
the  principal  features  of  the  others  combined  with  a  sinuous  treat- 
ment of  the  steam. 

In  the  compound  turbine,  the  steam  is  caused  to  flow  through  a 
series  of  many  turbine  elements  of  gradually  increasing  size,  grad- 
uated so  as  to  allow  of  the  expansion  of  steam  in  small  increments  of 
volume  at  each  element,  these  increments  of  volume  corresponding  to 
the  fall  of  pressure  necessary  to  cause  the  steam  to  flow  through  each 
element.  Each  element  consists  of  a  row  of  guide  blades  and  a  row  of 
moving  blades.  The  guide  blades  are  attached  in  circumferential 
rows  to  the  case  and  project  inwardly,  and  the  moving  blades  are 
attached  in  rows  to  a  drum  and  project  outwardly.  The  end  of 
the  blades  throughout  the  turbine  nearly  touch  the  drum  and  case 
respectively. 

To  form  some  idea  of  the  forces  at  work  in  a  turbine  we  should 
consider,  with  approximate  accuracy,  that  the  steam  flows  through 
the  turbine  with  a  force  about  ten  times  as  great  as  that  of  the 
strongest  hurricane;  and  though  the  force  acting  on  each  blade  is 
small,  perhaps  only  a  few  ounces,  or  in  the  largest  only  a  few  pounds, 
yet  in  the  aggregate  the  force  is  great  and  can  propel  large  ships  or 
drive  large  dynamos. 

The  important  factors  upon  which  the  proportions  of  the  turbine 
are  based  are  the  pressures,  velocities  and  percentages  of  moisture  in 
the  steam,  as  it  gradually  expands  from  turbine  row  to  turbine  row. 

The  blades  of  the  turbine  are  made  of  rolled  and  drawn  brass, 
well  shaped,  and  polished  so  as  to  reduce  the  frictional  losses  in  the 
steam  to  a  minimum.  The  steam  enters  all  round  the  shaft  and  first 
traverses  the  shortest  blades  on  the  smallest  drum,  then  through 
larger  and  larger  blades  set  on  larger  and  larger  drums,  and  so  on 
till  as  it  leaves  the  last  blades  it  is  expanded  about  100-fold  in  vol- 

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THE  STEAM   TUBBINE — PARSONS.  101 

lime.  At  the  opposite  end  to  the  blade  drums  are  seen  the  balance 
pistons,  or  dummy  drnms,  which  serve  to  balance  the  end  pressure 
of  the  steam,  and  are  kept  steam-tight  with  the  casing  by  packing 
grrooves  on  the  dummy  drums  which  rotate  in  close  proximity  to 
corresponding  but  stationary  brass  rings  keyed  into  the  case. 

In  land  turbines,  for  driving  dynamos  or  other  fast  moving  ma- 
chinery, no  end-pressure  on  the  shaft  is  required,  nor  is  it  permis- 
Ab\e  because  of  the  mechanical  difficulties  met  with  in  thrust -bearings 
c'arrying  heavj'  end-pressure  and  rotating  at  high  speed,  and  there- 
fore balance  pistons  are  provided,  which,  while- being  practically 
steam-tight,  serve  to  balance  all  end-pressure  arising  from  the  steam 
acting  upon  the  rotating  barrels  and  vanes. 

In  marine  turbines,  on  the  other  hand,  the  dummy  drums  are  so 
proportioned  as  to  leave  an  unbalanced  end-pressure,  which  counter- 
acts and  balances  the  thrust  of  the  propeller,  thus  relieving  the  thrust-' 
bearing  from  pressure. 

The  bearings  of  the  engine,  it  will  be  seen,  have  only  to  support 
the  weight  of  the  rotating  part  of  the  engine ;  this  is  comparatively 
small,  and  as  continuous  lubrication  is  provided  by  an  oil  pump 
AvJiich  circulates  the  oil  continuously  through  the  journals  round  and 
round,  there  is  practically  no  wear,  even  after  years  of  continuous 
work;  and  the  maintenance  of  the  shaft  in  a  truly  central  position 
relatively  to  the  casing,  which  is  of  great  importance,  is  easily  main- 
tained in  practice. 

Before  proceeding  further  with  the  examination  of  the  compound 
steam  turbine,  let  us  consider  the  De  Laval  steam  turbine  introduced 
by  Doctor  De  Laval,  of  Stockholm,  in  1888. 

In  this  turbine  the  steam  at  full  pre.smire  issues  from  a  diverging' 
conical  jet,  so  formed  and  proportioned  that  the  steam  after  passing 
through  the  neck  of  the  jet  enters  a  gradually  divergent  passage  of 
increasing  cross-section,  in  which  it  expands;  the  result  being  that 
nearly  the  whole  available  energy  in  the  steam  is  utilized  in  impart- 
ing to  it  a  very  high  velocity,  reaching,  with  100-pound  boiler  pres- 
sure and  a  good  vacuum,  as  much  as  4,200  feet  per  second,  and  the 
discovery  of  this  property  of  the  expanding  jet  is  due  chiefly  to 
Doctor  De  Laval. 

This  rapidly  moving  column  of  expanded  steam  is  directed  against 
cupped  steel  buckets  on  the  periphery  of  a  wheel  made  of  the 
strongest  steel,  the  wheel  being  shaped  so  as  to  permit  of  the  highest 
peripheral  velocity  consistent  with  safety,  which  may  be  from  800  to 
1,200  feet  per  second;  the  steam,  by  striking  the  cups  and  reacting, 
partly  by  vfelocity  of  flow  and  partly  by  elastic  gaseous  rebound 
from  the  concave  surface  of  the  cups,  leaves  the  wheel  with  a  con- 

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102  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

siderable  backward  velocity,  and  to  obtain  the  highest  efficiency  it 
is  necessary  to  reduce  this  backward  velocity  by  increasing  the  ve- 
locity of  the  wheel  to  the  uttermost.  The  strongest  materials,  how- 
ever, do  not  permit  of  a  close  approach  to  the  speed  necessary  for 
the  maximum  efficiency ;  yet  in  this  turbine,  owing  to  the  compara- 
tive absence  of  losses,  which  are  present  to  some  extent  in  the  other 
types  (and  which  we  will  consider  presently),  the  efficiency  of  this 
turbine  compares  favorably  for  moderate  and  small  powers. 

In  this  beautiful  construction,  developed  with  mechanical  skill 
and  guided  by  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  properties  of  steam 
and  materials,  there  are  many  minor  features  of  interest.  Among 
them  may  be  mentioned  the  elastic  shaft,  to  permit  of  the  rotation 
of  the  turbine  wheel  about  its  dynamic  axis.  A  device,  consisting 
of  frictional  damping  washers,  which  had  the  same  purpose  as  this 
elastic  shaft,  was  used  in  1885  in  the  early  development  of  the  com- 
pound steam  turbine.  It  was  superseded  in  1892  by  the  damping 
effect  of  thin  films  of  oil  between  several  concentric  loosely-fitting 
tubes  surrounding  the  bearings. 

The  De  Laval  turbine  has  for  many  years  been  extensively  used* 
on  the  Continent  and  in  this  country,  in  sizes  up  to  about  400  horse- 
power. Its  chief  use  has  been  for  the  driving  of  dynamos,  pumps, 
fans,  and  motive  power  generally;  and,  owing  to  its  very  high 
angular  speed,  it  is  necessary  in  most  cases  to  use  gearing,  except 
when  driving  very  fast-running  centrifugal  pumps  and  fans. 

The  gearing  is  of  steel,  and  it  is  accurately  cut  with  very  fine 
spiral  teeth,  and  it  works  satisfactorily  even  at  the  speed  of  30,000 
revolutions  per  minute. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  Curtis  turbine.  It  ranks  in  a  class  by 
itself,  because  it  comprises  the  principle  of  the  sinuous  treatment  of 
expanded  steam  first  put  into  extended  commercial  use  by  Mr.  Curtis 
under  the  auspices  of  the  General  Electric  Company  of  America. 

This  sinuous  treatment  of  the  steam  consists  in  giving  to  it  a  high 
initial  velocity  by  passing  it  through  a  jet  of  the  De  Laval  type,  or  a 
group  of  such  jets;  it  then  impinges  on  a  ring  of  bucket-blades  like 
those  used  by  De  Laval,  and  after  leaving  the  first  row  of  such  blades 
it  is  caught  by  a  ring  or  a  sector  of  stationary  bucket-blades  set  in 
the  reverse  directiwi,  and  by  them  its  direction  is  changed  into  that 
of  the  next  succeeding  row  of  moving  blades  (there  may  be  three 
rows  of  moving  blades  in  all  and  two  sectors  of  fixed  blades) ;  and 
the  height  of  each  succeeding  row  is  increased,  to  allow  a  greater 
area  for  the  steam  as  it  flags  in  velocity  after  each  rebound  between 
the  moving  and  fixed  blades. 

The  object  of  this  treatment  is  to  transfer  a  large  percentage  of 
the  kinetic  energy  of  the  rapidly  moving  steam  to  the  moving  blades 


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THE  STEAM  TUBBINE — PARSONS.  108 

and  wheel,  without  the  necessity  of  very  high  peripheral  speeds  of 
blades,  such  as  are  necessary  with  the  single-wheel  type.  As  regards, 
however,  "  multiple  series  action,"  the  principle  resembles  the  com- 
pound turbine. 

The  expansion  process  in  nozzles,  and  subsequent  sinuous  treat- 
ment of  the  steam,  is  repeated  several  times  by  four  or  more  similar 
wheels  on  the  same  axis,  but  in  separate  steam-tight  chambers,  until 
the  steam  is  fully  expanded. 

If  there  are  four  such  operations,  the  velocity  of  outflow  from  the 
nozzles  will  be  about  2,000  feet  per  second,  and  the  peripheral  velocity 
of  wheel  about  400  feet  per  second;  and  at  each  operation  the  steam 
is  expanded  through  one-fourth  of  the  whole  range,  and  at  each  it  is 
brought  to  rest  before  flowing  to  the  next  chamber  through  the  jets. 

A  great  many  other  varieties  of  the  turbine  have  been  proposed, 
and  some  have  received  a  limited  application.  The  Rateau,  the  Geid- 
ler  Stumpf,  the  Zoelly,  the  Escher  Wyss,  and  many  others  might  be 
mentioned  as  varieties  of  the  three  fundamental  turbines  we  have  con- 
sidered ;  indeed  in  some  cases  the  variation  would  appear  to  have  been 
only  a  retrograde  step,  and  represents  some  discarded  form  tried  by 
one  of  the  originators  of  the  three  fundamental  types. 

As  far  as  we  can  gather  from  the  history  of  the  steam  turbine,  it 
may  be  said  broadly  that  all  the  chief  features  at  present  in  use  in 
turbines  have  been  suggested  or  described  in  the  rough  by  experi- 
menters long  ago  in  the  hundred  and  more  patents  prior  to  1880. 

For  instance,  Hero  of  Alexandria,  B.  C.  130,  made  a  reaction 
wheel. 

William  Gilmore  first  suggested  the  compound  steam  turbine  in 
1837. 

Matthew  Heath  first  enunciated  the  principle  of  the  diverging 
conical  jet  in  1838. 

James  Pilbrow  in  1842  used  cupped  buckets,  and  suggested  a  sinu- 
ous treatment  of  the  steam. 

Bobert  Wilson  developed  the  compound  steam  turbine  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  in  1848. 

It  would  take  too  long  to  trace  the  initiation  of  each  idea,  but 
we  may  say,  in  the  light  of  recent  experience,  that  most,  if  not  all, 
the  designs  showed  a  want  of  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  steam 
and  materials,  and  could  not  have  given  a  satisfactory  performance. 

Let  us  again  recur  to  the  compound  turbine,  and  look  more  closely 
into  the  principles  of  its  working,  and  more  particularly  consider  the 
course  of  the  steam  in  its  passage  through  the  vanes  or  blades  of  the 
engine 

Viewing  the  turbine  as  a  whole  we  see  that  the  steam  passes  through 

the  forest  of  fixed  and  moving  blades  just  as  water  flows  from  a  lake 

41780-08 11  Google 


104  ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

of  higher  level  through  a  series  of  rspids  and  interTening  pools  to  a 
lake  of  lower  level.  The  boiler  corresponding  to  the  lake  of  higher 
level  and  the  condenser  to  that  of  lower  level. 

In  the  flow  through  the  turbine  the  steam  is  repeatedly  gathering 
a  little  velocity  from  the  small  falls  of  pressure,  which  is  as  soon 
checked  and  its  energy  transferred  to  the  blades,  over  and  over  again ; 
fifty  to  one  hundred  times  is  this  repeated  before  it  is  fully  expanded 
and  escapes  into  the  condenser. 

The  number  of  blades  in  a  steam  turbine  is  very  great;  in  a  2,000- 
horsepower  engine  it  may  be  from  20,000  to  50,000  and  the  surface 
speed  of  the  several  barrels  of  the  turbine  will  be  from  150  to  300  feet 
per  second.  In  such  an  engine  it  is  arranged  that  the  lineal  velocity 
of  the  blades  will  approximate  to  one-half  that  of  the  tangential  com- 
ponent of  the  steam  issuing  from  the  guide  blades.  The  blades,  as  we 
have  seen,  are  curved,  with  thickened  backs,  and  are  smooth;  the 
steam  therefore  flows  around  them,  and  past  them,  without  much  loss 
by  shock  or  eddy  current  or  frictional  loss.  The  proportions  of  tur- 
bines as  regards  diameter,  height  of  blade,  and  blade  openings  are 
calculated  so  that,  under  avei;age  working  conditions,  the  correct 
expansion  of  the  steam  shall  be  attained,  and  the  fall  in  pressure  and 
velocity  of  steam  at  each  turbine  of  the  series  shall  be  such  as  to  secure 
for  it  the  highest  efficiency. 

When  a  turbine  is  tested  the  pressures  at  many  points  along  the 
barrel  are  recorded,  and  the  calculated  pressures  confirmed  and  veri- 
fied by  experiment,  and  these  are  usually  in  close  accord.  As  the 
r^ult  of  data  accumulated  from  experiments  on  many  turbines,  the 
probable  horsepower  that  will  be  obtained  from  a  given  design  of 
turbine  can  be  predicted  with  as  much  accuracy  as  in  the  case  of  the 
reciprocating  engine.  The  best  results  that  have  been  obtained  from 
large  turbines  show  that  about  70  per  cent  of  the  available  energy  in 
the  steam  is  converted  into  brake  horsepower;  and  where,  we  may 
inquire,  has  the  other  30  per  cent  gone  to? 

The  chief  losses  of  efficiency  in  all  steam  turbines  are  due  to  three 
principal  causes:  Firstly,  to  skin-friction  of  the  steam  coursing  at 
high  temperature  through  the  small  openings  between  the  blades; 
secondly,  to  unavoidable  leakages;  and,  thirdly,  to  eddy-current  losses 
arising  from  insufficient  blade  velocity  and  errors  of  workmanship. 

The  first  of  these  losses,  the  friction  of  the  steam,  is  reduced  by 
superheating,  and  thus  partially  removing  the  fluid  frictional  loss 
arising  from  the  drops  of  condensed  water  mingled  with  the  steam. 
In  some  cases  this  gain  in  efficiency  is  worth  the  extra  cost  of  the 
superheater,  but,  unless  intermediate  superheaters  are  used,  initial 
superheat  cannot  be  raised  high  enough  to  maintain  dryness  through- 
out the  major  part  of  expansion  without  destroying  the  turbine. 
Moderate  initial  superheat,  however,  is  generally  used  with  some  gain 

ii.;,Gooyk' 


An  Ehlarqed  Photograph  of  a  Hardened  Steel  File, 
Showing  the  Destructive  Action  of  Steam  at  Hiqh 
Velocities. 


Inch  Bbnoluti;  u[  m 


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THE  STEAM  TUBBINE — PABSONS.  105 

in  economy,  which  in  the  compound  turbine  amounts  to  1  per  cent 
for  every  10°  F.  of  superheat.  The  second  loss,  which  is  from  leakage, 
is  present  in  the  compound  and  the  sinuous  types  but  not  in  the  De 
Laval  type.  The  amount  of  this  loss  decreases  as  the' size  of  the  engine 
increases.  It  is  also  chiefly  consequent  on  the  coefficient  of  expansion 
of  metals,  which  is  a  bugbear  to  the  turbine  designer.  If  a  metal 
with  a  much  smaller  coefficient  of  expansion  than  steel  and  iron  could 
be  obtained  at  a  reasonable  price  and  of  suitable  qualities  for  the  con- 
struction of  turbine  cases,  drums,  and  shafts,  a  considerable  increase 
of  economy  could  be  obtained,  as  it  would  allow  of  smaller  working 
clearances  and  less  leakage.  The  third  loss,  from  insufficient  blade- 
velocity,  is  not  present  to  a  material  extent  in  the  larger  compound  or 
sinuous  course  turbines,  but  is  present,  as  already  explained,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  in  the  single-wheel  type. 

Beviewing  more  closely  the  motion  of  the  steam  through  the  blades 
of  a  compound  turbine,  we  see  that  the  portion  of  its  course  during 
which  it  is  traveling  at  relatively  high  velocity,  and  in  close  prox- 
imity to  the  blades,  is  short  in  comparison  with  the  total  length  of  its 
travel  within  the  turbine.  The  passageways  between  the  blades  con- 
stitute virtually  jets  of  rectangular  cross  section,  but  hav^og  easy 
curves,  and  the  frictional  losses  are  consequently  small.  After  leav- 
ing the  blades,  it  traverses  the  intervening  space  in  the  form  of  an 
annular  cylinder  with  a  spiral  motion,  the  angle  of  pitch  being  about 
80°  to  a  plane  normal  the  axis;  and,  as  the  succeeding  blades  are 
moving  in  a  similar  direction  to  this  flow,  we  see  that  the  velocity 
with  which  the  steam  is  cut  by  their  frontal  edges  is  much  less — in 
fact,  less  than  one-half  the  velocity  at  which  the  steam  has  issued 
from  the  previous  blades.  From  this  we  see  how  small  is  the  loss 
due  to  the  cutting  of  the  steam  by  the  frontal  edges  in  the  compound 
turbine,  and  also  how  small  is  the  velocity  with  which  drops  of  water 
strike  the  metal  of  the  blades. 

This  is  an  important  feature. 

It  has  been  shown  by  experiment  that  if  drops  of  pure  water, 
arising  from  the  condensation  of  expanding  steam,  impinge  on  brass 
at  a  greater  velocity  than  about  500  feet  per  second  there  results  a 
slow  wearing  away  of  the  metal.  It  is  very  slow,  and  would  require 
about  ten  years  to  erode  the  surface  to  a  depth  of  ^  inch.  In  the 
compound  turbine  the  striking-velocity  is  much  below  this  figure, 
and  the  preservation  of  their  form  and  smoothness  of  surface  has 
been  found  to  be  practically  indefinite. 

It  appears  that  the  erosive  power  of  drops  of  pure  water  moving 
at  high  velocity  increases  rapidly  with  the  velocity,  it  may  probably 
be  as  the  square.  Experiment  has  shown  that  if  saturated  steam  at 
100  pounds  pressure  be  allowed  to  flow  through  a  divergent  jet  into  a 

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106  ANBtJAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAlff  INSTITUTION,  1901. 

good  vacuum,  attaining  a  velocity  of  about  4,500  feet  persecond,  and 
allowed  to  impinge  on  a  stationary  brass  blade,  the  blade  will  be  cut 
through  in  a  few  hours,  and  the  hardest  steel  will  be  slowly  eroded. 
The  action  seems  to  be  the  result  of  the  intense  local  pressure  from 
the  bombardment  of  the  drops,  which  may  exceed  100  tons- 
Owing  to  the  receding  velocity  of  the  blades  from  the  blast,  and 
consequently  reduced  striking  velocity,  the  erosion  of  the  blades  in 
impact  turbines  is  much  reduced,  and  in  compound  turbines  there  is 
complete  immunity  from  such  erosion. 

It  may  be  asked,  how  is  it  that  the  steam  turbine  in  the  larger 
sizes  is  more  economical  in  steam  per  horsepower  development  than 
the  best  triple  or  quadruple  expansion  reciprocating  engine  f  The 
reason  is  that  all  large  steam  turbines  are  able  to  take  full  advantage 
of  the  whole  expansive  energy  of  the  steam,  even  when  expanding  to 
the  very  attenuated  vapor  densities  produced  by  the  best  condensers. 
It  is  indeed  easy  to  construct  the  low-pressure  portion  of  the  turbine 
to  deal  effectively  with  the  very  attenuated  vapor,  whereas  the  re- 
ciprocating engine,  from  its  nature,  can  only  take  full  advantage  of 
about  two-thirds  of  the  whole  range  of  expansion,  and  is  unable  to 
deal  usefully  with  very  low  vapor  densities — the  low-pressure  cyl- 
inders can  not  {because  of  structural  difficulties)  be  made  large 
enough,  and  the  last  part  of  the  expansion  has  to  be  allowed  to  run 
to  waste. 

The  growth  in  size  of  the  turbine  is  perhaps  interesting.  The  first 
practical  steam  turbine,  constructed  in  1884,  was  of  10  horsepower. 
By  1892  the  largest  size  for  driving  dynamos  had  reached  200  horse- 
power. It  has  been  continuously  increasing,  and  has  now  reached 
12,000  horsepower  in  one  unit  driving  one  alternating  dynamo. 

In  1894  the  Turbima,  of  2,000  I.  H.  P.,  was  conunenced.  The 
diagram  (fig.  5)  shows  her  low-pressure  and  reversing  turbine.  The 
L.  P.  turbine  is  3  feet  in  diameter. 

The  Kinff  Edward  was  built  in  1902,  9,300  I.  H.  P.,  and  the 
diagram  shows  one  of  her  L.  P.  turbines  and  reversing  turbine  in  one 
casing,  to  the  same  scale. 

In  1903  The  Queen,  of  9,000  I.  H.  P.,  commenced  to  ply  between 
Dover  and  Calais.  The  diagram  shows  one  of  her  L.  P.  and  revering 
turbines. 

In  1905  the  Allan  liners  Virginian  and  Victorian,  of  12,000  I.  H.  P.. 
went  on  service  between  Liverpool  and  Canada.  The  diagram  shows 
one  of  the  L.  P.  and  reversing  turbines,  which  is  10  feet  in  diameter 
and  35  feet  in  length ;  and  in  last  December  the  Oarmania,  of  30,000 
tons  displacement  and  20,000  horsepower,  commenced  to  ply  between 
Liverpool  and  New  York.  The  diagram  shows  her  L.  P.  turbine, 
which  is  14  feet  in  diameter. 

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THE  STEAM  TURBINE — FAB80NS.  107 

The  application  of  the  turbine  to  the  propulsion  of  vessels  involved 
some  interesting  problems.  The  most  important  was,  how  slow  could 
a  turbine  be  made  to  rotate  consistently  with  the  maintenance  of  its 
efficiency  in  steam  consumption,  and  at  the  same  time  be  of  moderate 
weight  and  cost ! 

In  the  same  problem  naturally  arose  the  question  of  how  fast  could 
a  screw  propeller  be  made  to  revolve  when  propelling  a  vessel  of  a 
given  size  and  at  a  given  speed — in  other  words,  when  delivering  a 
given  propulsive  horsepower  at  a  given  speed?  The  first  question  as 
to  designing  a  low-speed  turbine  was  solved  in  1894  to  1896,  by  the 
aid  of  the  accumulation  of  accurate  data  from  experiments  on  land 
turbines;  and  the  modification  arrived  at  in  the  turbine  has  been 
chiefly  directed  to  the  splitting  of  it  up  into  two  or  three  or  more  tui> 
bines  in  series  on  the  steam,  and  each  working  a  separate  shaft.  This 
splitting  up  of  the  turbine  results  in  a  twofold  advantage.  It  makes 
the  turbine  (which  otherwise  would  be  very  long)  much  shorter,  and 
because  of  being  shorter  finer  clearances  and  less  loss  by  leakage  re- 
sults, and  the  whole  engine  is  lightened.  A  secondary  gain,  resulting 
from  the  division  of  the  power  over  several  separate  shafts,  arises 
from  the  fact  that  smaller  propellers  may  be  used,  making  higher 
speeds  of  rotation  admissible,  which  again  acts  in  lightening  and  im- 
proving the  economy  of  the  turbines. 

The  second  question,  that  of  the  propeller,  was  much  more  difficult. 
It  was  not  simply  the  problem  of  designing  a  screw  with  a  moderate 
slip  ratio  and  a  moderate  loss  by  skin-friction  of  the  blades  in  the 
water,  but  it  was  complicated  by  cavitation,  or  the  hollowing  out  of 
the  water  and  the  production  of  vacuous  cavities  caused  by  Che  force 
of  the  blades  tearing  through  the  water,  a  phenomenon  first  noticed 
by  Sir  John  Thomycroft  and  Mr.  Sidney  Bamaby  in  1893,  and  by 
them  named  cavitation.    This  apparatus  ^ows  the  phenomenon. 

[A  small  tank  was  shown,  with  a  model  of  the  screw  of  a  cross- 
channel  boat  or  of  an  Atlantic  turbine  liner.  It  was  pointed  out 
that  it  was  very  difficult  to  make  the  screw  cavitate,  because  it  was 
especially  designed  not  to  cavitate;  it  was,  however,  made  to  do  so 
in  the  tank  by  removing  the  atmospheric  pressure  from  the  surface  of 
the  water  above  the  propeller  by  the  air-pump.  The  removal  of  the 
atmospheric  pressure,  which  helped  to  keep  the  water  solid,  enabled 
cavitation  to  be  induced  at  a  much  lower  speed  of  revolution.  In  the 
tank  there  was  a  head  of  about  1^  inches  of  water  above  the  topmost 
blades.  If  the  tank  had  not  been  exhausted  there  would  have  been  a 
head  equivalent  to  32  feet,  plus  1^  inches,  plus  capillary  forces,  tending 
to  keep  the  water  solid.  ThereforCv  instead  of  1,500  revolutions  (the 
speed  of  the  propeller  when  serious  cavitation  was  induced),  a  speed 
of  at  least  20,000  revolutions  would  have  been  required  (because  forces 

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108  AMNUAI,  BEPOKT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

that  induce  cavltstioD  vary  as  the  square  of  the  surface-speeds  of  the 
blades).]  Serious  cavitation  causes  an  mordinate  loss  of  power, 
chiefly  because  it  disturbs  the  steam  lines  around  the  propeller  blades, 
and  it  was  proved  by  this  experiment  how  easy  it  is  to  put  too  much 
work  on  a  screw.  There  is  a  limiting  thrust  that  it  will  bear,  and  if 
weexceed  this  thrust  it  will,  so  to  speak,  more  or  less  strip  its  thread 
in  the  water  and  its  efficiency  will  rapidly  fall.  The  solution  of  the 
problem,  as  regards  the  screw  propeller,  has  therefore  resulted  in  a 
modification  of  the  proportions  of  the  ordinary  propeller,  and  has 
Iain  in  the  direction  of  smaller  diameters,  wider  blades,  and  a  slightly 
finer  pitch-ratio,  which  three  slight  changes  have  combined  toward 
higher  angular  speeds  of  the  propeller  without  material  loss  of 
efficiency. 

Let  us  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  economic  results  of  the  steam 
turbine.  In  the  case  of  large  engines  and  dynamos  that  are  coming 
generally  into  use,  for  the  generation  of  electricity  in  this  and  other 
countries,  of  a  horsepower  of  1,000  to  12,000  and  upward,  the  steam 
turbine  with  its  accompanying  dynamo  is  found  to  be  cheaper  in  first 
cost,  running  expenses,  and  fuel  than  the  reciprocating  engine  and 
its  slow-speed  dynamo;  and  so  much  is  this  the  case  that  it  seems 
possible  to  generate  electricity  in  colliery  districts  almost,  if  not  quite, 
as  cheaply  for  electro-chemical  purposes  as  it  can  be  produced  at 
Kiagara  and  some  other  large  centers  of  water  power. 

The  chief  items  in  which  saving  has  resulted  as  compared  with 
the  reciprocating  engine  are:  The  total  capital  cost  of  the  station  is 
reduced  by  from  25  per  cent  to  40  per  cent;  the  reduction  in  the 
cost  of  fuel  and  boilers  is  between  10  per  cent  and  30  per  cent,  and 
the  consumption  of  oil  is  reduced  to  one-sixth,  while  the  engine-room 
staff  is  reduced  by  25  per  cent  to  50  per  cent. 

As  to  the  economic  results  of  turbine  vessels  compared  with  vessels 
propelled  with  piston  engines,  reliable  statistics  are  available. 

In  1897  the  Turbinia  was  found  to  have  an  ebonomy  in  steam  per 
horsepower  developed  equal  to,  if  not  superior  to,  that  of  similar 
vessels  propelled  by  reciprocating  engines;  and  later,  in  1903,  she  was 
again  tried  with  modified  propellers  as  now  generally  used  which 
gave  a  further  increase  of  efficiency  of  about  10  per  cent  over  the 
1897  trials. 

In  1902  the  first  turbine  passenger  boat,  King  Edvmrd,  on  the  Clyde, 
was  found  to  consume  about  15  per  cent  less  coal  than  a  similar  vessel 
propelled  by  triple  expansion  engines  and  twin  screws. 

In  the  diagram  (pi.  vi)  is  shown  the  principal  running  expensoa 
of  the  turbine  steamer  Queen,  plying  between  Dover  and  Calais, 
compared  with  three  other  vessels  on  the  same  service.  The  cost  of 
coal,  engine-room  staff,  and  oil  are  shown  in  terms  of  the  number  of 
passengers  each  vessel  is  capable  of  carrying,  p  ,,.,,|,. 


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THE  STEAM  TUBBINE — PABS0N6.  109 

The  statistics  of  the  turbine  vessels  Onward  and  Invtcta,  on  the 
Boulogne  and  Folkestone  route,  have  confirmed  these  results. 

The  trials  of  the  third-class  cruiser  Ameihysi,  in  1904,  and  of  her 
sister  vessel  the  Topae,  propelled  by  triple  expansion  engines  and 
screws,  showed  that,  at  a  speed  of  11  knots,  the  consumption  of  steam 
was  the  same  in  both  vessels,  but,  as  the  speeds  were  increased,  the 
turbine-  vessel  gained  relatively  in  economy,  and  at  18  knots  was  15 
per  cent  more  economical,  and  at  20}  knots  31  per  cent,  and  at  full 
speed  36  per  cent.  Her  superior  economy  in  coal  enabled  her  to  reach 
a  speed  of  28.63  knots,  or  1}  knots  more  than  the  Topaz,  on  the  same 
coal  allowance.  The  results  of  the  trials  also  showed  that,  at  a 
speed  of  20  knots,  the  ATnethyst  could  steam  about  50  per  cent  more 
miles  than  the  Topaz  on  the  same  quantity  of  coal. 

The  experience  as  regards  Atlantic  liners  is  as  yet  limited  to  three 
vessels,  the  Virginian,  the  Victorian,  and  the  Carmania.  The  first 
two  are  of  the  Allan  line,  520  feet  in  length,  15,000  tons  displacement, 
and  12,000  horsepower,  with  a  sea  speed  of  from  16  to  17  knots. 

These  vessels  have  been  running  since  the  spring  of  1905,  and 
the  consumption  of  coal  has  been  estimated  to  be  no  more,  and  prob- 
ably less,  than  would  have  been  the  case  had  they  been  fitted  with 
the  most  economical  engines  of  ordinary  type. 

The  Cunard  liner  Carmania,  of  672  feet  in  length,  30,000  tons  dis- 
placement, and  21,000  horsepower,  is  a  sister  vessel  to  the  Caronia, 
propelled  by  quadruple  expansion  engines  of  the  most  economical 
type,  and  during  the  last  four  months  the  consumption  of  coal  in  the 
two  vessels  has  been  carefully  measured,  but  it  is  too  soon  as  yet  to 
give  the  results.  However,  on  the  official  ti-ials,  the  turbine  vessel 
exceeded  the  speed  of  her  sister  ship  by  1  knot 

Some  of  the  advantages  found  to  exist  with  turbine  propulsion 
are,  that  the  propellers  never  race  in  the  heaviest  seas,  and  that,  as  a 
consequence,  the  speed  is  better  maintained  under  all  weather  condi- 
tions; and  the  cause  of  this  is  to  be  traced  to  the  smaUer  diameter  of 
the  propellers,  wider  blades,  and  deeper  immersion.  There  is  also 
much  less  vibration. 

The  tendency  of  late  has  been  to  increase  the  reversing,  or  astern, 
power  of  turbine  vessels  to  such  an  extent  that,  in  many  cases,  the 
stopping  and  maneuvering  powers  have  been  equal  to  those  of  twin 
screw  vessels  with  reciprocating  engines.  The  starting  of  turbine 
vessels  is  relatively  quick,  for  the  torsional  force  of  a  turbine,  when 
starting  from  rest  with  full  steam  on,  is  at  least  SO  per  cent  greater 
than  the  torque  at  the  usual  running  speed,  because  the  blades,  when 
running  slowly,  meet  the  full  blast  of  the  steam  instead  of  moving 
with  it  as  they  do  at  their  usual  speeds.  With  ordinary  engines  the 
starting  torque  does  not  exceed  the  torque  at  full  speed.    When 

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110  ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

maneuTering,  turbines  can  not  fait  to  respond  when  steam  is  turner 
on,  for  they  have  no  dead  centers  upon  which  to  stick,  as  in  the 
reciprocating  engine. 

From  the  fact  that  the  faster  and  larger  the  vessel  the  better  has 
been  the  performance,  it  seems  safe  to  infer  that  the  two  very  large 
and  fast  Cunarders  now  building  will  give  satisfactory  results,  and 
the  same  may  be  expected  as  regards  new  turbine  construction  ic 
ships  of  war. 

The  diagram  (pi.  vn)  shows  the  various  steps  in  the  development 
of  the  steam  turbine  as  applied  to  marine  propulsion. 

The  total  horsepower  in  steamships  sailing  under  all  flags  is  at 
present  about  8,000,000.  Of  this  total,  about  one  quarter,  or  2^000,000, 
is  in  the  faster  class  of  ships  to  which  turbines  are  suitable. 

Of  the  remaining  6,000,000  horsepower,  about  three  to  four  are 
in  the  larger  class  of  ocean  tramps,  and  the  remainder  in  coasting 
steamers  and  small  river  boats,  etc. 

By  a  combination  of  the  turbine  with  the  reciprocating  engine 
there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  three  or  four  millions  horsepower 
of  large  ocean  tramps  may  be  successfully  propelled  with  a  saving 
of  from  15  to  20  per  cent  in  cost  of  fuel. 

This  combination  has  not  yet  been  applied  to  any  vesseL  In  it 
the  reciprocating  engine  first  expands  the  steam  from  the  boiler  down 
to  about  atmospheric  pressure,  and  then  passes  on  to  the  turbines, 
which  complete  the  expansion  down  to  the  condenser  pressure.  The 
turbine  thus  utilizes  the  lower  part  of  the  expansion,  which  the  re- 
ciprocating engine  can  not  do,  and  the  combination  is  therefore  a 
good  one.  For  maneuvering  or  stopping  the  vessel,  either  the  engine 
or  the  turbines,  or  both,  may  be  used,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt 
that  this  arrangement  will  come  into  vogue  for  the  slower  class  of 
vessels  of  larger  size. 

Turbines  have  been  applied  to  other  uses  within  the  last  ten  years. 
The  most  important  of  these  are  for  the  working  of  rotary  blowers, 
air  compressors,  and  water  pumps. 

The  photograph  (pi.  vjii)  shows  a  cross  section  through  a  turbo- 
blowing  engine,  capable  of  compressing  21,000  cubic  feet  of  free  air 
per  minute  to  a  pressure  of  17  pounds  per  square  inch,  which  repre- 
sents about  1,000  horsepower  in  the  air,  reckoned  in  adiabatic  com- 
pression. In  genetal  construction  the  turbine  air-blower  portion  is 
similar  to  a  steam  turbine.  The  blades  or  vanes  which  propel  the  air 
are  plano-convex  in  section,  and  set  in  rows  at  an  angle  similar  to 
that  of  the  blades  of  a  ship's  propeller.  Between  the  rows  of  moving 
blades  are  rows  of  guide  blades  inwardly  projecting  from  the  case. 
These  latter  are  also  of  plano-convex  sectioO)  and  are  set  with  theii' 

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THE  STEAM  TUEBINE — PABSONS.  Ill 

plane  surfaces  parallel  to  the  axis;  and  their  purpose  is  to  assist  the 
flow  and  to  stop  the  rotation  of  the  air  after  being  acted  on  by  the 
moving  blades.  Each  row  of  moving  and  fixed  blades  adds  a  little 
to  the  pressure,  and  compresses  the  air  gradually  along  the  annular 
&pace  between  the  drum  and  the  case.  Balance  pistons  or  dummies 
are  provided  for  balancing  the  end  thrust  of  the  air,  as  in  the  steam 
turbine.  The  speed  of  rotation  is  3,600  revolutions  per  minute  and 
the  tip  velocity  of  the  air  blades  about  400  feet  per  second. 

Note. — Since  this  lecture  was  given,  many  of  the  predictions  con- 
tained therein  have  been  realized.  The  two  new  large  express 
Cunarders,  the  Luaitania  and  the  Mauretania,  have  given  eminently 
satisfactory  results.  The  steam  consumption  of  the  main  turbines 
has  been  ascertained  to  be  12f  pounds  per  shaft  horsepower  at  full 
power. 

In  view  of  the  satisfactory  results  obtained  in  the  earlier  war  ves- 
sels fitted  with  turbine  machinery  for  the  British  Navy,  the  Ad- 
miralty decided  to  adopt  the  Parsons  turbine  exclusively  for  new 
construction,  from  the  largest  battle  ship  and  cruiser  down  to  and 
including  torpedo  boats. 

The  progress  of  the  Parsons  turbine  in  other  countries  has  also 
been  very  noteworthy.  In  the  United  States  the  results  attained 
recently  on  the  trials  of  the  scout  Chester,  equipped  with  Parsons 
turbines,  when  compared  with  a  sister  vessel,  the  Birmingham^  fitted 
with  reciprocating  engines,  have  shown  in  favor  of  the  turbines  at 
all  speeds.  At  full  speed,  on  a  six  hours'  trial,  the  Chester  obtained 
a  speed  of  26.5  knots  per  hour,  as  against  24. S  in  the  Birmingham. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  there  are  in  the  United  States  six  mercan- 
tile vessels  now  on  service  (passenger  and  freight),  and  five  torpedo- 
boat  destroyers  are  also  at  present  under  construction,  representing  a 
total  horsepower  of  110,000  built  and  under  construction. 

In  Japan  there  are  two  large  liners  now  nearing  completion,  one 
of  which  has  already  completed  her  official  trials,  having  exceeded 
the  contract  speed  of  19^  knots  by  1  knot.  Two  small  passenger 
vessels  are  now  on  service  in  Japan.  A  dispatch  boat  is  also  being 
fitted  out  for  the  Japanese  Government,  and  two  new  passenger  ves- 
sels and  one  large  liner  are  at  present  under  construction,  representing 
a  total  horsepower  of  90.000. 

In  France  six  large  battle  ships  and  three  destroyers  are  under 
construction  of  150,000  horsepower;  in  Germany  excellent  results 
were  obtained  recently  with  torpedo-boat  destroyer  G.  137,  and  at  the 
present  time  a  large  and  powerful  cruiser,  as  well  as  a  small  cruiser 
and  several  torpedo-boat  destroyers,  are  under  construction,  of  about 
110,000  horsepower;  in  Italy  a  cruiser;  in  Austria  a  cruiser;  and  in 

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113  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

this  country  two  scouts  are  under  construction  for  Brazil.  Negotia- 
tions are  pending  for  the  placing  of  four  tai^  turbine  battle  ships 
for  Russia. 

All  the  above  are  fitted  with  the  Parsons  type  of  turbines. 

Other  countries  are  also  at  the  present  time  considering  projects 
for  various  classes  of  vessels  to  be  fitted  with  the  Parsons  turbine. 

The  total  I.  H.  P.  built  and  at  present  under  construction  of  marine 
turbines  is  over  one  and  three-quarter  millions  of  horsepower. 

On  land,  in  almost  every  country,  the  new  construction  of  large 
generating  units  are  nearly  all  turbine-driven. 

Aphil  6,  1908. 


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THE    DEVELOPMENT  OF  MECHANICAL  COMPOSITION 
IN  PRINTING." 


By  Prof,  A.  Tubpaih, 
UtUverHtv  of  PoMen. 


Since  the  year  1776  efforts  have  been  made  to  increase  the  efficiency 
of  the  compositor  by  adding  to  the  ordinary  types  in  the  case  certain 
combinations  of  letters  which  are  frequently  repeated.  The  use  of 
these  logotypes  makes  the  type  case  much  more  complicated,  and  in- 
stead of  increasing  the  rapidity  of  composition,  diminishes  it  by  ' 
causing  more  errors  and  consuming  more  time  in  finding  the  type. 

It  was  then  sought  to  accomplish  mechanically  the  several  steps  in 
composition.  Let  us  recall  these  steps:  When  a  line  of  type  is  once 
a-ssembled  in  the  stick,  the  compositor  justifies  it  by  so  distributing 
between  the  words  the  free  space  at  the  end  as  to  give  to  the  line  its 
proper  length.  After  the  type  has  been  used,  the  workman  must  re- 
turn it  again  to  the  case. 

The  first  idea  of  a  composing  machine  seems  to  have  been  made 
public  by  an  Englishman,  Church,  in  1822,  The  first  practical  appli- 
cation of  this  idea,  in  accordance  with  a  method  devised  by  Ballanche 
in  1833,  consisted  in  supplying  the  case  with  a  keyboard,  the  manipula- 
tion of  which  freed  the  characters  or  type,  and  these  assembled  them- 
selves in  the  composing  stick.  It  was  only  the  operation  of  picking 
out  the  letters  that  was  rendered  mechanical;  the  justification  and  the 
distribution  remained  manual. 

By  another  process,  invented  a  little  later,  the  compositor  was  en- 
abled to  use  both  hands  in  picking  out  the  type.  The  type  were  thus 
more  rapidly  selected  and  were  thrown  into  a  funnel  whence  they 
were  directed  and  assembled  automatically  in  the  composing  stick. 

These  two  processes  saved  time  in  the  selecting  and  assembling  of 
the  type  in  the  composing  stick,  but  there  was  no  economy  of  time 
in  the  manual  processes  of  justification  and  distribution. 

The  keyboard  apparatus  was  imitated  and  perfected  successively  by 
Gobert  (1839),  by  De  Klieger  (1840),  byYoug  and  Delcambre,  who 

'  TraiiBlated  and  abridged,  by  permiBBlon.  from  tlie  second  part  of  "  De  la 
Presee  A  bras  a  la  Linotype  et  ft  t'Slectrotypograpbe  "  In  tlie  Revue  GSnerale  des 
Sciences  puree  et  appUqufea,  Paris,  NOTonber  IB,  1907. 


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114  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

in  1844  exhibited  a  machine  which,  though  immediately  adopted  in 
the  Parisian  workshops,  was  discarded  as  soon  as  its  disadvantages 
became  apparent. 

Since  then  many  composing  machines  have  been  invented.  £ach 
of  these  showed  some  improvement  over  its  predecessor.  In  this  way, 
by  successive  improvement,  the  composing  machine  has  become  almost 
perfect,  so  that  hardly  any  criticism  can  be  made  of  the  latest  mode) 
presented,  the  electrotypograph,  which  was  introduced  in  1902,  and 
which  was  still  further  improved  in  1907  and  combined  with  the  tele- 
typograph.  Its  introduction  once  more  greatly  advances  economy  in 
typography,  and  it  is  likely  to  increase  typographical  efficiency  almost 


inBnitely.    With  its  aid  the  printer  need  not  fear  to  undertake  orders 
requiring  unheard-of  speed  and  numbers  of  impressions. 

Before  describing  the  electrotypograph,  we  will  review  the  earlier 
forms  of  composing  machines  in  order  to  understand  it  more  clearly. 
Only  the  most  characteristic  of  these  will  be  described. 

MACHINES   WITH    MOVABLE  CHARACTEK8. 

The  composing  machines  first  to  be  considered,  the  Kastenbeim, 
Thorrie,  Simplex,  Lagerman  (1885),  Paige,  Desjardins  (1898),  Cal- 
endoli  (IdOO),  etc.,  form  a  class  accomplishing  composition  by  mov- 


UECBAIflCAL  COMPOSIXION   IN   PRINTING TUBPAIN.  115 

^le  type  which  they  afterwards  distribute,  often  by  mechanisms 
independent  of  those  of  composition.  Most  of  these  machines  com- 
pose by  the  operation  of  a  keyboard,  freeing  the  type  from  the  chan- 
nels of  a  magazine,  but  only  a  few  of* them  justify  the  line. 

Lagerman  machine. — The  Lagerman  machine  (fig.  1)  is  very  simple 
in  its  arrangement  and  uses  finger-stalls  instead  of  a  keyboard  both  in 
composing  and  distributing.  The  justification  of  the  line  is  automatic. 
The  machine  separates  the  words  equally  by  two  3-em  spaces,  making 
the  line  either  the  proper  length  or  too  long.  If  too  long,  the  justify- 
ing mechanism  then  does  its  work  by  replacing  a  3-em  space  by  a  4-em 
space,  thus  reducing  the  line  by  one-twelfth  of  a  quad  between  each 
word.    This  process  is  repeated  till  justification  is  completed. 


Pin.  2.— D«BJardlns  jualtfylag  marhlne. 

Desjardins  machine. — The  Desjardins  machine  (fig.  2)  is  a  justify- 
ing mechanism  used  in  America  in  connection  with  composing  ma- 
chines. The  lines  of  tlie  galley  are  successively  raised  by  the  machine, 
which  counts  the  number  of  spaces  by  means  of  little  copper  strips 
projecting  above  the  type  whidi  have  been  inserted  for  that  purpose. 
Another  part  of  the  machine  feels,  so  to  speak,  the  space  remaining 
at  the  end  of  the  line,  adds  it  to  the  total  o£  the  counted  spaces,  and 
divides  the  whole  by  this  number  of  spaces.  By  the  combination  of 
three  sizes  of  spaces  (17,  24,  and  31  thousandths  of  an  inch),  which  it 
keeps  in  reserve,  the  machine  forms  and  inserts  between  the  words  the 
space  which  it  has  thus  automatically  measured.  If  there  be  a  re- 
mainder after  the  division,  an  ingenious  arrangement  of  the  machine 
reserves  it,  and  adds  it  to  the  last  space  of  the  line.  The  working  of 
the  calculating  mechanism  takes  less  than  a  second.  Oi-inoli- 


116  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

CalendoU  machine. — We  will  not  complete  this  brief  examination 
of  the  first  type  of  composing  machines  without  a  word  concerning 
the  Calendoli  machine  (fig.  3),  which  is  solely  a  composing  machine. 
It  composes  with  the  speed  of  a  typewriter,  that  is  to  say  15,000  ems 
or  characters  per  hour.  The  type,  cast  in  a  special  shape,  issues  from 
90  type-bar  magazines  consisting  of  mushroom  rails  on  which  the 
type  is  threaded,  A  workman  behind  the  machine  recharges  the 
magazines  as  they  are  emptied.    An  inclined  cylinder  provided  with 


Fig.  8. — Calendoli  composing  macblDe. 

rails  along  its  long  dimension  receives  each  type  as  the  operator 
frees  it  by  the  manipulation  of  a  keyboard.  The  type  is  thus  ar- 
ranged in  the  galley  by  its  own  weight.  The  machine  neither  justi- 
fies nor  distributes.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  combine  it  with  a 
justifying  and  distributing  apparatus,  or  with  a  casting  machine. 
Composition  is  effected  so  rapidly  as  to  allow  comparatively  more 
time  to  be  given  to  the  justification  and  distribution.  One  could, 
moreover,  combine  a  Desjardins  machine  of  the  type  already  de- 
scribed with  the  Calendoli  machine.  Goo^lc 


MECHANICAL  COMPOSITION   IN   PBINTING TURPAIN.  117 

CASTING    MACHINES. 

A  second  class  of  composing  machines  marks  an  interesting  im- 
provement over  the  first  in  that  the  distribution  of  type  is  obviated. 
These  are  coating 
machines.  They 
thus  answer  the  crit- 
icism made  against 
their  predecessors, 
the  necessity  of  spe- 
cial type  with  par- 
ticular notches  (the 
Lagerman  notch,  the 
Calendoli  groove, 
for  example),  per- 
mitting the  seizure 
of  the  type  by  the 
parts  of  the  ma- 
chine. The  casting 
machines  should  be 
separated  into  two 
distinct  classes. 

(a)       Machines      fqb 
Casting  the  Line, 

In  the  first  class 

,  ,  FiQ.  t.—DlagriDi  abowlng  operation  o(  the  llnoljpe  machine, 

we  place  the  ma- 
chines that  produce  solid  lines.  The  operator  plays  on  the  keyboard 
and  composes  the  line  in  copper  matrices.  It  is  justified  by  copper 
wedges  forced  between  the  words.  A  jet  of  molten  lead  flows  into  a 
moid  the  bottom  of  which  is 
formed  by  the  matrices,  and  a 
solid  line  of  type  is  thus  made. 
We  find  here  the  system  of  stereo- 
typing invented  by  Herhan  in  1801 
applied  to  a  single  tine  of  charac- 
ters. In  the  first  class  of  casting 
machines  is  included  the  typo- 
graph  (pi.  i)  of  Rogers,  the,  mon- 
oline  (pi.  i)  of  Scudder,  and 
finally  the  linotype  of  Mergenthaler,  which  is  the  oldest  and  in  France 
one  of  the  best  known  machines  for  forming  a  solid  line  (figs.  4-8). 
I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  no  distributing  function  is  employed 
in  these  casting  machines,  for  the  matrices  must  be  returned  to  their 

ii.;,Gooylc 


5. — Linotype  n 


118  ANNUAL  HEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

respective  chambers  after  the  line  is  cast.  In  the  linotype  machine 
this  is  effected  by  a  V-shaped  distribution  bar  the  sides  of  which  have 
a  series  of  grooves  that  engage  teeth  corresponding  to  them  on  the 
sides  of  each  matrix.  The  arrangement  of  the  teeth  varies  on  each 
matrix  and  the  position  of  the  grooves  likewise  varies  on  the  dis- 
tributing bar  above  the  compartments  of  the  magazine.  The  ap- 
paratus is  so  designed  that  as  the  matrix  is  pushed  along  the  distribu- 
ting bar,  when  it  reaches  its  proper  channel,  nothing  prevents  it 

from     dropping 
into  its  compart- 
ment in  the  maga- 
zine. We  here  find 
something   analo- 
gous    to     the 
"*™"       "  feeler "     which, 
in   Baudot's  tele- 
graphic  machine, 
""t™"     by    means    of    a 
combination       of 
five  levers,  prints 
'°  '  each  letter  at  the 

moment  when  the 
type    wheel    car- 
rying   the    letter 
nait  01  noun  brings  it  into  a  vertical 

position.  This  is  not  the 
only  mechanical  similar- 
ity between  composing 
machines  and  multiple 
telegraphs,  for  few  ma- 
chines are  more  involved 
one  with  the  other  than 
Mcnv  those  used  in  rapid  teleg- 

uiMM  raphy  and  typography. 

"^  The  motive  force  neces- 

sary to  work  a  linotype 
machine  is  less  than  half 
a  horsepower.  The  speed 
of  composition  is  normally  5,000  ems  or  characters  per  hour,  and 
may  attain,  with  skilled  operators,  6,000  to  7,000  ems  per  hour, 

A  single  operator  manipulates  the  machine.  One  caretaker  can 
clean  and  keep  in  order  five  or  six  machines.  On  the  other  hand,  cor- 
rections necessitate  the  complete  making  over  of  the  line,  and,  as  in 
similar  machines,  the  mental  strain  on  the  operator  is  incomparably 
greater  than  that  felt  by  the  band  compositor.    Not  only  must  he  read 


5 


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i 


u 


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MECHANICAL  COMPOSITION  IN   PBINTINO — TUBPAIN,  119 

the  manuscript  five  or  six  times  more  quickly  than  the  hand  composi- 
tor, but  he  must  also  watch  both  the  keyboard  and  the  melting 
furnace. 

Besides  the  inooaveniences  of  this  first  class  of  casting  machine, 
such  as  the  making  over  of  the  whole  line  for  the  least  correction, 
there  is  another  objection.  Printers  complain  that  in  casting  the 
monolines,  the  typographs,  and  the  linotypes  the  metal  does  not  flow 
into  the  shallow  matrices  at  a  temperature  low  enough  to  give  a  good 
face  and  to  print  a  very  clear  impression.    Furthermore,  the  metal 


Via.  8. — General  view  of  the  llaolfpe  machlDe. 

lines  are  often  hollow  and  may  be  crushed  in  putting  them  in  the  form 
for  presswork, 

Tbe  rototype  (pi.  ii),  invented  very  recently  by  an  Austrian,  M. 
Scbimmel,  likewise  produces  a  line  cast  as  a  single  block.  A  large 
wheel  carries  four  collectors  placed  at  right  angles.  The  collector,  I, 
at  the  extremity  of  the  horizontal  diameter  of  the  wheel  in  the  posi- 
tion of  departure,  receives  the  row  of  matrices  forming  a  line.  It  is 
carried  below  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  where  the  line  is  justified, 
while  the  second  collector,  II,  receives  in  its  turn  a  row  of  matrices. 
41780-08 12  O^lc 


130  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  IBffl. 

The  justification  is  no  less  ingenious.  The  lines  are  composed  with 
elastic  spaces  and  are  always  a  little  too  long.  In  shortening  the  line 
to  the  required  length,  each  space  is  contracted,  which  is  made  possible 
by  its  ccanpressibility.  A  quart«r  turn  of  the  wheel  brings  the  justi- 
fied line  to  the  casting  pot.  At  the  same  time  collector  I  receives  the 
cast  line,  the  line  in  collector  II  is  justified,  and  collector  III  receives 
the  series  of  matrices  forming  a  third  line.  Finally  a  last  quarter  of 
a  turn  carries  the  matrices  of  the  first  composed  line,  previously  free 
from  the  cast  line,  to  the  height  of  the  vertical  diameter,  where  they 
are  distributed  in  the  magazine  for  further  composition.  The  same 
successive  rotation  by  a  quarter  of  a  turn  continues,  so  that  when  the 
machine  is  in  operation,  while  one  line  is  being  composed,  the  preced- 
ing one  is  justified,  the  one  before  that  is  cast,  and  the  matrices  of  the 
previous  one  distributed. 

One  of  the  advantages  of  the  rototype  is  that  the  melting  pot  is 
placed  as  far  as  possible  from  the  operator. 

The  distribution  of  matrices  is  simplified  by  the  use  of  disks  analo- 
gous to  the  die  of  the  electrotypograph,  but  with  ten  characters 
instead  of  three.  Thus,  on  the  circumference  of  the  same  disk  are 
associated  the  matrices  of  letters  of  the  same  thickness,  capitals 
G,  M,  W,  .  .  .  small  straight  letters,  i,  1,  t,  !,  .  .  .  and  small  letters 
of  equal  thickness,  d,  c,  e,  .  .  .  All  disks  of  the  same  thickness  and 
with  the  same  letters  have  the  same  compartment  in  the  magazine. 
The  machine  in  freeing  them  threads  them  around  an  axle,  to  which 
they  become  attached  only  when  the  desired  letter  has  reached  the 
vertical  position. 

The  rototype  can  compose  6,000  characters  per  hour  and  requires 
only  one-eighth  of  a  horsepower  for  its  operation.     •     •     • 

The  1907  model  of  the  rototype  has  no  wheel,  properly  speaking, 
but  has  three  arms  with  only  three  matrix  carriers.  These  are 
hinged,  and  thus  simplify  corrections.  The  keyboard  of  the  latest 
model  has  100  keys,  with  400  roman  and  400  italic  matrices.  The 
face  of  the  character  is  deeper  than  that  of  the  linotype.  Finally, 
the  machine,  which  weighs  about  450  kilograms,  occupies  only  a 
(^mall  space,  being  1.40  m.  in  length,  0.85  m.  in  width,  and  1.50  m. 
in  height. 

(B)  Machines  Casttkq  S1N01.E  Type. 

To  avoid  the  disadvantages  of  slug-casting  machines,  a  second 
class  has  been  devised.  These  machines  compose  with  movable  char- 
acters cast  to  measure  and  assembled  in  justified  lines  by  means  of 
spaces  cast  to  measure  with  dimensions  calculated  in  advance.  This 
machine  performs  the  same  work  as  the  compositor  at  the  case,  omit- 
ting none  of  the  successive  steps,  but  enormously  increasing  the 

,_Ki  by-Google- 


MECHANICAL  COMPOSITION   IN  FEINTING — tURPAIN.  131 

speed  of  composition.  As  usual,  these  machines,  certain  types  of 
vhich  have  attained  the  highest  degree  of  perfection,  apply  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  division  of  labor.  Two  absolutely  distinct  machines  are 
associated :  First,  a  composing  machine  with  a  keyboard ;  that  is,  a 
writing  machine  which  perforates  a  ribbon  to  be  transferred  to  the 
casting  machine;  second,  a  casting  machine,  which  receives  the  per- 
forated ribbon  from  the  composing  machine,  casts  the  successive  let- 
ters as  well  as  the  spaces,  and  assembles  them  in  justified  lines. 

The  principle  of  these  machines  was  conceived  in  1872  by  an 
American  named  Westcott.  One  can  not  help  comparing  the  prin- 
ciple followed  in  both  of  these  machines,  namely,  the  perforated 
ribbon,  with  that  of  the  Wheatstone  automatic  telegraph,  invented 
by  the  physicist  Wheatstone  in  1859. 

The  first  two  types  in  this  class  are  the  Goodson  grapliotype  and 
the  Lanston  monotype  (pi.  ii). 

The  graphotype,  to  solve  the  problem  which  we  have  just  men- 
tioned, employs  more  than  650  contacts  of  mercury  and  60  teleetro- 
magnets.  There  are,  therefore,  opportunities  for  inaccuracies  in  its 
operation.  Furthermore,  the  keyboard  operator  must,  at  the  end  of 
each  line,  read  two  numbers  on  the  tables  or  dials,  and  then  choose  in 
a  definite  order  a  certain  number  of  special  keys  which  control  the 
justification  perforations.  Each  movement  of  the  block  which  car- 
ries the  matrices  is  followed  bya  sudden  stop,  and  as  the  block  weighs 
3  kilograms  and  performs  20,000  movements  per  hour,  this  is  a  source 
of  wear  and  tear  on  the  machine. 

The  monotype  is  based  on  the  same  principle.  The  manipulation 
of  the  keyboard  of  the  perforating  machine  produces  a  ribbon,  per- 
forated with  letters  clear  like  those  of  a  typewriter,  thus  allowing  an 
inspection  of  the  composition.  Justification,  as  in  the  graphotype, 
riecessitates  a  reading  and  the  choice  of  a  lever;  the  speed  of  compo- 
sition can  not,  therefore,  attain  that  of  the  ordinary  typewriter. 

The  perforated  ribbon  is  then  transferred  to  the  casting  machine, 
where  it  is  drawn  between  a  series  of  holes  which  follow  the  line  of 
perforations  and  a  groove  through  which  comes  a  jet  of  compressed 
air.  This  jet  of  air  passes  through  the  perforations  and  actuates  a 
mechanism  which  frees  the  matrix  corresponding  to  the  perforated 
character  and  carries  it  under  the  melting  pot  containing  type  metal 
kept  in  fusion  by  a  gas  jet.  A  drop  of  molten  metal  runs  into  the 
matrix  and  thus  forms  the  type  which,  cooling  almost  immediately,  is 
deposited  in  a  channel  where  the  entire  line  of  type  is  assembled. 
Corrections  are  easily  made,  as  each  type  is  a  separate  piece.  Never- 
theless, the  whole  process  is  a  delicate  one  on  account  of  the  appli- 
cation of  compressed  air. 


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122  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITH80MIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

THE  ELECTBOTTPOGRAFH. 

The  electrotypograph,  designed  by  the  Hungarian  inventors,  Me- 
ray  and  Rozar,  is  incontestably  superior  to  its  predecessors.  Justi- 
fication is  absolutely  automatic.  The  keyboard  operator,  without 
making  any  reading,  manipulates  a  single  lever  at  the  end  of  each 
line.  One  can  therefore  attain  the  speed  of  a  typewriter  in  compo- 
fiition,  or  about  15,000  characters  per  hour, 

(1)  Composing  machine. — The  composing  machine  consists  of  a 
Williams  typewriter,  a  perforator,  and  a  calculator.    The  typewriter 


Fiu.  0.— Tbe  compoBlDg  macbloe  o(  the  elect  rot;  pograph. 

furnished  a  copy  of  the  composition,  which  can  be  corrected,  thus  giv- 
ing a  proof  before  casting.  The  perforator  makes  a  row  of  holes  in 
a  paper  ribbon  or  band.  There  are  ei^t  series  of  these  holes  ar- 
ranged in  rows  across  tlie  band  (fig,  10) ;  let  us  designate  them  by 
(he  numbers  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  0,  C,  and  7.  The  perforations  by  the  scries 
0  are  continuous  and  are  for  the  purpose  of  advancing  the  band. 
The  combinations  of  perforations  1,  2,  3,  4,  5  correspond  to  the  series 
of  small  or  lower-case  letters,  just  as  do  the  combinations  of  the  five 

Cooolc 


MECHANICAL  COMPOSITIOH   IN   PRINTING TUBPAIN.  128 

levers  of  the  manipulator  in  the  Baudot  telegraph.  If  to  these  com- 
binations the  perforation  7  is  added,  the  letter  becomes  a  capital.  If 
the  perforation  6  is  joined  to  one  of  the  combinations  1,  2,  3, 4,  and  5, 
a  punctuation  mark  is  obtained.  Thus  the  perforations  3  and  4  cor- 
respond to  the  small  letter  b,-  the  perforations  3,  4,  and  7  to  the  capi- 
tal B,  and  the  same  perforaticms  3  and  4  with  6  indicate  the  excla- 
mation mark  (  ! ) . 

As  the  band  is  perforated,  the  calculating  device  registers  the 
thickness  of  the  characters  as  they  will  be  finally  cast,  the  thickness 
being  measured  in  tenths  of  a  millimeter.  The  spaces  between  the 
vords  are  estimated  by  the  calculator  at  the  normal  value  of  15  tenths 
of  a  millimeter.  These  spaces  are  added  up  as  the  line  is  written. 
At  the  end  of  the  line  all  the  operator  has  to  do  is  to  press  the  justifi- 
cation key  and  the  apparatus  (1)  calculates  the  difference  between 
the  total  of  the  spaces  and  the  desired  length  of  the  line,  (2)  divides 
this  difference  by  the  number  of  the  spaces,  and  (3)  inscribes  on  the 
band  as  a  special  perforation  the  resulting  correction  for  each  space. 

These  corrections  indi-  ^ ^ 

cate  either  an  addition 
to  the  normal  spacing 
of  15  tenths  of  a  milli- 
meter or  a  subtraction 
from  that  spacing. 
Three  successive  per- 
forations are  produced       Fio.   lO.— Perforated  band  fnrQlsbed  by  the  composlntc 

by  the  single  manipu-  ""'""  "'  '"*  ei*«rotrpogr.ph. 

lation  of  the  justification  key;  the  first  two  relating  to  the  operation 

of  justification  and  the  third  indicating  the  end  of  the  line. 

The  result  of  the  calculation  for  justification,  inscribed  on  the  band, 
indicates  how  many  tenths  of  a  millimeter  more  or  less  are  needed  for 
each  norma]  space,  15  tenths  of  a  millimeter,  to  obtain  the  justified 
line. 

When  we  pass  from  one  font  to  another,  from  the  roman  to  the 
italic  for  example,  it  is  only  necessary  to  substitute  in  the  computing 
apparatus  a  special  cylinder  which  is  easily  removed.  No  change  is 
needed  in  the  justification  apparatus. 

Theory  of  justification. — The  operator  is  warned  by  a  bell  when 
there  remains  only  5  millimeters  of  the  line  to  be  filled;  he  can,  how- 
ever, go  5  millimeters  beyond  the  prescribed  length  of  the  line.  He 
therefore  has  a  latitude  of  10  millimeters  and  can  terminate  at  the 
end  of  a  word  or  a  syllable. 

Let  I  be  the  length  of  the  prescribed  line,  A  the  length  of  the  line 
as  made  by  the  operator  with  the  normal  spaces  of  15  tenths  of  a 
niilliaieter  each,  and  n  the  number  of  spaces  in  the  line 

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124  ANNUAL  REPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

The  difference  between  the  length  of  the  line  as  it  must  be  justified 
and  its  length  as  actually  made  is  the  difference  between  I  and  A ;  I 
may  be  either  greater  or  less  than  A. 

Let  us  say  that  the  differenje  between  I  and  A,  divided  by  a,  is  ±g, 
and  suppose  first  that  this  division  gives  a  quotient  g  without  re- 
mainder. Each  space  in  the  line  would  be  increased  (-}-)  or  dimin- 
ished ( — )  by  the  amount  g  according  to  its  sign.  These  calculations 
are  performed  automatically  by  the  machine,  and  it  is  the  value  of  q 


Fid.  11. — The  raBtlne  mochlDc  ol  the  elcclrotypognpb. 

that  is  indicated  by  perforations  on  the  ribbon  when  the  justification 
lever  is  operated. 

Ijet  us  suppose,  however,  that  the  difference  between  I  and  A,  di- 
i-ided  by  n,  gives  the  remainder  v,  which  is  generally  the  case,  as  the 
machine  can  not  calculate  the  spaces  closer  than  a  tenth  of  a  milli- 
meter. In  this  case  besides  the  correction  g,  which  affects  each  space 
in  the  line,  the  v  first  spaces  receive  a  supplementary  correction  of 
one-tetith  of  a  millimeter,  until  the  remainder  v  is  used  up. 

Proof  before  casting. — ^The  proof  copy,  furnished  by  the  writing 
machine  working  in  the  ordinary  way,  may  be  corrected  even  befoi* 
the  type  is  cast.    Corrections  which  require  the  res^tiiig  o£  one  or 


MECHANICAI.  COMPOSITION   IN  PBINTlNO— TOBPAIN,  125 

several  lines  are  made  by  cutting  the  defective  part  out  of  the  ribbon 
and  substituting  a  piece  of  corrected  ribbon.  Corrections  of  one  or 
two  letters  are  made  in  tbe  line  by  the  ordinary  nippers  after  it  is 
cast. 

Keyboard. — In  the  latest  model  of  the  electrotypograph  (1907)  the 
keyboard  has  in  all  97  keys,  90  of  which,  by  means  of  a  shift  key, 
allow  the  writing  of  180  characters.  One  key  is  reserved  for  justifica- 
tion ;  its  manipulation  is  entirely  mechanical,  the  operator  having 
only  to  press  it  at  the  end  of  each  line  without  any  preliminary  read- 
ing. One  key  is  added  for  the  feeding  holes,  0,  in  the  ribbon ;  another 
large  key  for  variable  spaces  and  finally  four  keys  for  the  fixed  spaces, 
1  em,  2  em,  etc. 

(2)   Coating  machine. — ^The  perforated  ribbon  or  band,  taken  from 
the  composing  machine,  is  transferred  to  the  casting  machine  (fig. 
11).    These  two  machines  are  entirely  independent.    The  perforated 
bands  can  be  composed  at  leisure  and  the  type  cast  as  needed.    This 
is  not  one  of  the  least  advantages  of  machines  casting  movable  char- 
acters, and  as  the  electrotyjpograph  is  a  perfect 
example  of  this  class  of  machines,  its  superiority 
is  particularly  marked.    It  permits  the  printing 
of  a  limited  number  of  copies  of  a  work,  and  since 
the  perforated  bands  are  preserved,  a  new  edition 
may  be  printed  by  again  casting  the  type.    Thus 
as  many  successive  editions  as  desired  may  be 
produced  without  new  composition,  or  the  storage     fio,  12.— Matrix  dim 
of  a  considerable  stock  of  type  or  stereotype  plates.        °^^^  eiectrotjpo- 

Thus,  by  a  process  more  economical  than  stereo- 
typing, one  of  the  desires  of  the  bookseller  is  realized.  One  large 
printing  office  in  Saxony  before  the  Revolution,  and  before  the  inven- 
tion of  stereotyping,  was  able  to  furnish  books  at  prices  much  lower 
than  its  rivals  by  preserving  the  composition  in  storage  and  printing 
in  proportion  to  the  demand.  But  at  the  price  of  how  much  inactive 
capital  1 

The  perforated  band  of  the  electrotypograph  of  MM.  Meray  and 
Bozar  passes  through  the  casting  machine  in  an  opp<^ite  direction 
from  its  make-up.  The  lines  are  thus  cast  letter  by  letter  in  an  oppo- 
site direction,  from  right  to  left.  In  this  way,  the  machine  knows,  be- 
fore commencing  a  line,  the  exact  value  of  the  spaces  it  must  .furnish. 
This  is  another  manifest  advantage  of  this  machine. 

The  molten  metal  is  injected  into  a  mold,  one  end  of  which  is 
closed  by  an  indented  matrix,  where  the  face  of  the  character  is 
formed.  A  movable  carriage  holds  29  disks  on  the  facets  of  which 
are  cut  the  matrices.  Each  disk  has  three  facets  at  angles  of  45° 
(fig.  12).  The  middle  facet  bears  a  small  or  lower-case  letter,  the 
one  to  the  left  the  capital  or  upper-case  of  the  same  letter,  and  tiie  one 


136  ANNUAL.  BEPOBT  8MITHS0NUN   INSTITUTION,  19(0. 

to  the  right  the  corresponding  sign.  The  choice  of  the  disk  is  made 
according  to  the  combination  of  the  perforations  on  the  ribbon,  in  a 
manner  analogous  to  that  of  the  combiner  and  feelers  of  the  Baudot 
telegraph.  The  spaces  are  cast  in  the  same  way  as  the  letters,  the 
mold  being  closed  by  a  disk  without  a  matrix.  The  thickness  of  the 
space  is  determined  by  the  slide  valve  of  the  mold,  the  heel  of  which 
strikes  against  the  justification  apparatus.  This  mechanism  con- 
sists of  four  disks  mounted  on  the  same  axle,  forming  a  combination 
which  expands  or  contracts  according  to  the  result  of  the  calculation 
of  justification.  When  a  line  is  finished,  it  is  pushed  automatically 
into  a  galley.  The  machine  then  stops  casting  for  three  turns,  while 
the  justification  apparatus  receives  the  measurement  corresponding 
to  the  spaces  to  be  furnished  to  the  line  which  is  to  be  composed,  a 
dimension  indicated  by  the  perforations  D„  D^  (fig.  10),  These 
perforations  are  reserved  for  justification  at  the  end  of  each  line. 
The  first  row,  D,  (fig.  10),  indicates  by  the  position  of  its  perforation 
the  number  of  spaces  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  line  which  should  re- 
ceive the  supplementary  correction 
of  one-tenth  of  a  millimeter;  the 
second  row,  D„  indicates,  by  add- 
ing the  values  determined  by  the 
position  of  its  perforations  from  1 
to  5  (perforation  5  representing 
the  value  of  10),  the  number  of 
tenths  of  a  millimeter  to  be  added 
Fio.  13.— DiagrntD  of  regiBtering  ap-     OT  Subtracted  to  all  the  spaces  of  the 

parstuB  In  (he  casting  macblne  of  tbe       line 

Let  US  take  for  example  the  band 
shown  in  fig.  10.  The  perforations  of  series  6  represent  subtraction, 
those  of  7  addition. 

In  D,  we  find  perforations  3  and  6  indicating  that  it  is  necessary 
to  subtract  (perforation  6)  one-tenth  of  a  millimeter  from  each  of 
the  first  three  (perforation  3)  spaces  of  the  line. 

In  D«  we  find  perforations  1,  2,  5,  and  7,  showing  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  add  (perforation  7)  to  each  normal  space  of  15  tenths  of  a 
millimeter,  a  number  of  tenths  of  a  millimeter  l-|-2+10  (perfora- 
tion 5  having  the  value  of  10),  that  is  13  tenths  of  a  millimeter. 
Thus  in  this  line,  the  first  three  spaces  will  be  cast  with  a  thickness  of 
15-f-13 — 1,  or  27  tenths  of  a  millimeter,  and  all  others  with  a  thick- 
ness of  15-1-13,  or  28  tenths  of  a  millimeter. 

The  perforated  strip,  A  (fig.  13),  is  carried  along  by  a  cogwheel 
whose  teeth  engage  the  perforations  of  the  series  0. 

Tbe  machine  makes  90  turns  a  minute,  advancing  the  band  one 
division  and  casting  a  character  at  each  turn.    The  movement  of 


MECHANICAL  COJtPOSITION  IN   PEINTINO TUHPAIN.  127 

the  wheel  is  very  rapid,  lasting  scarcely  one-fifteenth  of  a  second, 
the  band  then  remains  stationary  for  nine-fifteenths  of  a  second,  the 
whole  turn  thus  taking  ten-fifteenths,  or  two-thirds  of  a  second. 
While  the  band  is  motionless,  seven  letters,  Z  {fig.  13),  press  against 
the  paper,  and  those  that  find  perforations  make  contacts  closing 
electric  circuits.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  heel  of  the  lever  Z, 
which  raises  the  piston  X,  pressing  the  spring  B  against  C  and 
making  the  contact 

The  electrotypograph  is  controlled  by  electricity,  hence  its  name, 
but  its  inventors  used  only  very  simple  electrical  arrangements,  with 
weak  electro-magnets  requiring  a  current  of  low  tension.  In  con- 
trast to  the  Goodson  graphotype,  the  perforating  machine  of  the 
electrotj^wgraph  does  not  use  electricity.  All  its  functions  are 
purely  mechanical,  without  compressed  air  or  electric  current.  Mech- 
anism was  substituted  because  of  the  inaccuracy  of  electric  or  other 
contacts  established  by  the  play  of  a  keyboard,  which  produces  vari- 
able pressure  in  rapid  work.  In  their  casting  machine,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  inventors  of  the  electrotypograph  made  a  very  judicious 
use  of  electric  power;  there  the  mechanical  movement  of  the  parts 
assures  perfect  contacts.  Unlike  the  graphotype,  the  electrotypo- 
graph uses  only  15  (instead  of  60)  electro-magnets.  These  are  all 
of  the  same  strength  and  hare  a  resistance  of  100  ohms,  using  a  cur- 
rent of  only  0.1  ampere  under  a  potential  of  10  volts.  There  is  never 
but  one  electro-magnet  in  action  at  a  time  in  the  machine,  and  the 
duration  of  its  excitement  is  less  than  one-twentieth  of  a  second.  In 
the  most  recent  machines,  a  single  electro-magnet  automatically  stops 
the  machine  in  case  of  damage  or  trouble  in  operation  arising  from 
the  negligence  of  the  operator.  Thus,  the  machine  stops  when  the 
end  of  the  perforated  ribbon  is  reached.  In  this  way  the  machine  is 
automatic  to  such  an  extent  that  one  workman  can  easily  watch  two 
machines     •     •     ". 

IMFROVSHENTa   AND  RESULTS  OF   THE   ELECTROTTPOOSAFH. 

Since  the  trials  made  by  the  journal  Le  Temps  with  the  1902  model 
of  the  electrotypograph — trials  which  were  attended  with  complete 
success — important  improvements  have  been  made  in  the  mechanism 
of  the  machine,  and  it  has  now  advanced  beyond  the  experimental 
stage. 

The  new  model  has  many  and  very  important  improvements  over 
the  1902  model,  among  which  are:  A  mechanism  permitting  the  cast- 
ing at  will  of  high  or  low  spaces;  the  addition  of  letters  with  a  pro- 
jecting face  like  V  in  italics;  simplified  construction  in  the  justifica- 


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128  ANHTJAL  HEK)BT  SMITHSONIAN   INSIITUTION.  1907. 

tion  mechaniBtn  in  the  casting  machine,  allowing  the  use  of  a  single 
electro-magnet  in  place  of  eight;  an  increase  in'  the  width  of  the 
galley,  permitting  the  production  of  lines  40  pica  ems  (180  mm.)  in 
length;  an  arrangement  for  the  automatic  feeding  of  the  melting 
pot;  an  improved  composing  machine  in  which  all  the  parts  are  easily 
accessible,  and  which  furnishes  a  band  on  which  each  letter  is  printed 
below  its  corresponding  perforation ;  and  finally  a  change  in  the  cast- 
ing machine  permitting  the  casting  to  commence  with  the  first  letter 
written,  thus  making  the  combination  of  the  two  machines  possible. 

The  latest  improvement  is  valuable  in  the  composition  of  news- 
papers. A  considerable  loss  of  time  is  avoided,  as  it  is  no  longer 
necessary  to  have  all  the  lines  of  an  article  cast  before  putting  it  in 
page  form.  The  casting  machine  only  has  to  wait  for  th^perfora- 
tion  of  a  single  line  before  engaging  the  band ;  then  it  deciphers  the 
justification  perforations  to  regulate  the  spaces,  and  casts  the  line 
following  the  band  letter  by  letter  as  fast  as  it  is  produced. 

Plate  III  represents  the  1907  model  of  the  elect^-otypograph.  We 
see  in  "  a  "  a  portion  of  the  band  corresponding  to  a  line,  attached 
in  the  casting  machine  so  as  to  allow  the  combination  of  the  two 
machines.  The  composition  may  thus  commence  with  the  first  per- 
forated letter.  ' 

The  electrotypograph  has  the  following  advantages  over  previous 
composing  machines: 

1.  The  movable  characters  facilitate  the  corrections  indicated  by 
the  reading  of  the  copy  sheet  furnislied  by  the  composing  machine. 

2.  The  matrices  have  a  deep  face,  and  thus  give  a  clearer  impres- 
sion. They  are  few  in  number,  making  it  possible  to  replace  them 
at  small  cost.  Thorough  tests  have  demonstrated  that  the  machine 
composes  in  d-point  type  with  the  same  clearness  as  with  the  largest 
characters. 

3.  The  division  of  the  apparatus  into  two  machines  makes  the 
learning  of  its  operation  easier,  and  permits  a  more  general  use  of 
it,  since  even  small  printing  offices  can  purchase  the  composing  ma- 
chine at  a  slight  cost  and  send  the  perforated  bands  to  shops  possess- 
ing casting  machines.  The  perforated  band  thus  takes  the  place 
of  the  stereotype  plate,  but  is  less  cumbersome,  entails  no  idle  capital, 
and  can  be  passed  about  one  hundred  times  through  the  casting  ma- 
chine. During  the  slack  season  and  at  other  times  when  not  in  use, 
the  casting  machine  may  be  employed  to  manufacture  type. 

But  there  is  still  more  to  be  said.  An  apparatus  analogous  to  the 
Baudot  telegraph  called  the  teletypograph  has  been  designed  which 
makes  possible  the  telegraphic  transmission  of  the  band  perforated 
by  the  electrotypograph.     A  single  band  produced  by  the  writing 


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II 


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MECHANICAL  COMPOSITION   IN   PRINTING TURPAIN.  129 

machine  can  be  reproduced  at  a  distance  by  telegraphy,  giving  an 
esact  reproduction,  whicb  can  be  placed  on  the  casting  machine  and 
will  furnish  immediately  the  composed  and  justified  text  ready  to  be 
put  on  the  press.  In  this  way  a  newspaper  article  sent  from  Paris 
in  this  form  can  be  reproduced  ready  to  be  printed  in  various  dis- 
tant cities,  and  it  is  possible  for  large  newspapers  to  have  country 
editions  without  increase  in  expense  and  without  delay,  a  great  step 
forward  in  journalism. 

Finally,  on  account  of  its  mathematically  perfect  justification  and 
its  ease  of  correction,  the  electrotypograph  stands  forth  as  an 
apparatus  suitable  for  every  sort  of  delicate  work. 


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SOME  FACTS  AND  PROBLEMS  BEARING  ON  ELECTRIC 
TRUNK-LINE  OPERATION.' 


7  Frank  J.  Sfbaghe. 


One  of  the  foremost  railroad  men  of  this  country,  in  discussing  the 
needs  of  the  present  railway  system  a  few  months  ago,  said: 

Tbe  oDly  relief  wblcb  can  be  obtained  through  economies  of  physical  opera- 
tloo  mnst  come  tbrongh  the  outlay  of  enormous  amounts  of  money  such  as 
woQld  be  Involved  in  a  general  electrification  or  a  change  In  gsnge. 

At  the  April  meeting  of  the  Buffalo  Chamber  of  Commerce  another 
eminent  railroad  official  said: 

If  the  development  and  expansion  of  tbe  nation  is  to  go  on,  If  the  profrress 
made  during  the  last  ten  years  may  be  accepted  as  in  any  respect  a  measure 
of  progress  to  be  made  during  the  coming  decade,  almost  as  much  money  will 
■lave  to  be  expended  in  increa^ng  tbe  facilities  of  existing  railroads,  and  In 
bnilding  additional  railroads,  as  has  been  expended  during  tbe  eighty  years 
since  the  l)eglnnlug  of  the  construction  of  railroads  In  the  United  States. 

These  opinions  are  confirmed  by  still  another  prominent  capitalist, 
who  some  time  ago  startled  the  investing  world  by  his  estimate  of 
a  billion  dollar  annual  expenditure  for  American  railroads,  now 
actually  shown  by  detailed  estimates. 

But  it  IS  especially  to  be  noted  that  the  keynot«  of  the  prophecies 
of  the  future  is  more  specifically  sounded  in  the  word  capacity,  not 
only  such  as  is  possible  and  individual  to  electric  application,  but 
also  such  as  is  common  to  the  larger  developments  of  railroads,  how- 
ever operated. 

How  much  has  been  actually  spent  in  steam  railroad  development 
it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  that  it  is  a  stupendous  amount,  giving 
some  suggestion  of  future  capital  demands,  is  evidenced  by  the 
fact  that  the  total  of  the  outstanding  stock,  bonds,  and  other  obliga- 
tions of  the  steam  railroads  in  the  United  States  now  aggregate 
about  $13,800,000,000;  while  similar  obligations  of  the  electric  rail- 

"Abridgment  of  a  paper  presented  at  tbe  216th  meeting  of  tbe  American  Instl- 
tnte  of  Electrical  Engineers.  New  York,  May  21,  1907.  Reprinled,  by  permis- 
sion of  author  and  publisher,  from  the  Proceedings  of  tbe  American  InBtltnte 
of  Eaectrical  Engineers,  July,  lOOT.  ■ 


1S3  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  8MITH80NUN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

roads,  which  began  their  commercial  expansion  with  the  signing 
of  the  Richmond  contract  almost  twenty  years  ago  to-day,  exceed 
$3,500,000,000. 

My  attitude  on  the  broad  question  of  trunk-line  operation  may  be 
briefly  summarized  in  the  simple  statement  that,  taken  as  a  whole, 
the  electrical  equipment  and  operation  of  trunk  lines  is  essentially 
more  of  a  financial  than  a  technical  problem.  It  is  certainly  not 
solvable  by  ingenious  methods  of  bookkeeping,  or  transmission  of 
burdens  to  posterity. 

Fifteen  years  ago,  in  ray  inaugural  address  as  president  of  this 
Institute,  on  the  subject  of  "  Coming  Developments  of  Electric  Rail- 
ways," I  said : 

Any  predictions  which  are  made  concerning  the  future  of  electric  propulsion, 
eltber  in  Ignorance  or  disregard  of  the  possibilities  of  steHin  duty,  and  tJie 
limitations  neceBsarlly  existing  in  all  systems  of  transportation,  deserve  and 
will  receive  little  consideration  from  those  charged  with  the  reflponsibilitloH 
of  conducting  our  great  railway  system,  for  unless  passengers  and  goods  can 
be  moved  over  a  system  with  Increased  t>aieflt  to  a  community,  or  at  a  reduced 
cost,  or  with  a  commensurate  return  on  capital  invested,  an  electric  will  not 
replace  a  steam  system. 

In  discussing  the  subject  of  electrification  of  trunk  lines,  there  is 
a  tendency  sometimes  to  ignore  the  varying  conditions  on  the  ro^ds, 
and  also  the  changes  in  methods  of  operation  which  the  introduction 
of  electricity  may  make  possible.  The  railroads  seem  to  be  often 
regarded  as  systems  which  must  be  conducted  very  much  on  present 
lines;  that  is,  operated  with  locomotive-drawn  trains.  In  order  to 
come  to  any  clear  decision,  on  many  roads  at  least,  this  conception 
must  be  changed.  There  is  no  hard  and  fast  rule  of  classification. 
A  trunk  line  may  generally  be  considered  as  a  system  joining  impor- 
tant terminal  cities,  over  which  is  conducted  all  kinds  of  traffic, 
through  and  local,  passenger,  express  and  freight,  and  in  the  larger 
systems  a  heavy  suburban  passenger  service.  The  divisions  and 
character  of  service  of  course  vary  widely,  but  the  constant  tendency 
is  toward  an  increasing  density  of  traffic,  multiplication  of  tracks, 
and  extension  of  the  limits  of  local  and  suburban  services. 

A  change  of  motive  power  involving  vast  expenditures  of  money 
and  radical  changes  in  methods  of  operation  can  not  safely  be  deter- 
mined upon  except  after  presentation  of  a  comprehensive  report,  and 
a  general  plan  of  equipment  and  operation  based  upon  an  investiga- 
tion of  previous  practice,  present  or  pending  developments,  and  an 
analysis  of  important  features  and  details.  And  this  seems  all.  the 
more  essential,  for  at  the  present  time  the  technical  press  is  filled  with 
the  rival  claims  of  the  advocates  of  dii-ect  and  alternating  current 
systems,  the  merits  and  defects  of  single-phase,  polyphase,  and  direct- 
current  motors,  and  the  beauties  and  ugliness,  the  danger  and  safety 


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ELECTRIC  TBUNK-LINE  OPEBATIOK — 6PBAQUE.  183 

of  various  types  of  overhead  and  third-rail  constructions.  Hi^  and 
low  potentials,  15  and  25  cycle  frequencies,  gearless  and  geared  mo- 
tors, and  air  and  electric  controls — all  are  actively  discussed. 

But  above  the  discordant  notes  there  arises  now  and  then  the  cry 
of  standardization.  For  example,  in  a  recent  paper  the  view  was 
expressed  that  but  a  single  plan — the  high-tension  overhead  trolley, 
with  15-cycle  single-phase  alternating-current  motors — ^was  possible 
of  serious  consideration  on  trunk-line  service,  and  that  this  system 
should  now  be  adopted  and  standardized,  despite  the  fact  that  there 
was  not  in  existence  a  single  equipment  of  this  character  in  practical 
railway  operation ! 

I  do  not  intend  to  burden  this  paper  with  statistics — one  can  prove 
abnost  anything  by  them — but  I  will  epitomize  certain  conclusions 
which  I  think  will  bear  the  test  of  time. 

1.  Of  the  two  broad  lines  on  which  electrification  can  be  considered, 
if  increased  economy,  that  is,  reduction  of  operative  expenses  by  re- 
placing the  steam  locomotive  with  an  electric  one,  with  concentration 
of  prime  power  and  perhaps  the  use  of  water  power,  be  deemed  the 
dominant  reason  for  change  of  motive  power,  then  every  wheel  in  an 
electrified  division  should  be  turned  electrically;  and  the  savings 
effected  should  pay  not  only  a  fair  rate  of  depreciation  of  the  total 
equipment,  but  a  satisfactory  rate  of  interest  on  the  new  capital  ex- 
pended, in  fact  a  better  rate  than  if  spent  in  some  other  way. 

2.  Increase  of  capacity,  both  in  locomotive  haulage,  schedule  speeds, 
motor-car  trains  and  terminal  facilities,  of  a  character  impossible 
to  steam  service — all  resulting  in  augmented  traffic,  and  increased 
use  and  capacity  of  the  dead  part  of  the  systems,  the  tracks  and 
roadbed — will  ordinarily  be  the  more  potent  influence  in  leading  to 
the  adoption  of  electric  operation,  and  will  often  warrant  heavy 
capital  expenditures. 

3.  Every  large  road  is  a  problem  which  must  be  considered  finan- 
cially and  technically  on  its  own  merits,  and  in  most  features  other 
than  those  which  without  effort  can  be  harmonized  its  decision  will 
be  of  little  practical  concern  to  other  roads. 

4.  The  adoption  of  electricity  will  ordinarily  begin  with  those 
divisions  where  traffic  is  comparatively  dense,  and  once  adopted  the 
territory  over  which  it  can  be  extended  will  naturally  increase.- 

5.  Terminal  properties  in  great  citjes,  underground  and  tunnel  sec- 
tions, and  heavy  mountain  sections  where  duplication  of  tracks 
because  of  extra  heavy  construction  cost  is  prohibitive  offer  an  imme- 
diate field  for  the  serious  consideration  of  electrification. 

6.  There  can  not  now  be  safely  established  any  final  standard,  or 
any  single  ^stem  selected  as  the  best  for  all  roads.  What  is  the  best 
ht  one  might  easily  be  less  advantageous  for  another,  and  there  is  no 
Talid  reason  why  any  road  should  adopt  something  fitting  to  ^,lf^- 


134  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1B07. 

degree  it3  particular  requirements  because  of  the  action  of  some 
foreign  road. 

7.  Extraordinary  adrances  have  been  and  are  being  made,  and  new 
discoveries  are  always  possible.  The  limits  of  none  of  the  systems 
now  in  use  are  clearly  defined,  and  it  would  seem  both  natural  and 
wise  that  the  various  manufacturing,  technical,  and  inventive  activi- 
ties should  pursue  every  lead  to  its  logical  conclusion,  for  the  best  will 
be  none  too  good. 

It  is  not  my  present  intention  to  investigate  railroad  economics,  nor 
to  formulate  any  final  conclusions  in  the  matter  of  steam  railway  elec- 
trification, but  rather  briefly  to  analyze  and  make  running  comment 
upon  various  phases  of  the  problem  often  discussed  by  engineers;  to 
give  some  comparative  facts  as  they  have  thus  far  developed;  to 
describe  sundry  developments  in  electric  locomotive  construction ;  and 
to  illustrate  in  some  detail  features  specifically  characteristic  of  the 
three  typical  initial  equipments  now  commanding  attention. 

Motor  equipments. — In  discussing  the  selection  of  any  system,  the 
first  thing  to  investigate  is  the  motor.  In  railway  operation  that 
which  is  to  be  replaced  is  a  steam  locomotive,  in  other  words,  a  motor 
supplied  by  a  local  boiler,  furnace,  and  coal  bin ;  that  which  is  pro- 
posed in  its  place  is  another  motor,  or  group  of  motors  supplied 
through  a  wire  by  bigger  boilers,  furnaces,  and  coal  bins,  or  by 
energy  from  a  water  power.  The  working  conductor,  with  every- 
thing connected  to  it  in  transmission  or  generation,  although  essen- 
tial, is  tributary  to  the  motor  and  its  requirements. 

It  is  not  sufficient  that  the  source  of  power  can  be  made  of  any 
desired  size,  although  it  is  an  essential  feature;  in  any  case  such  con- 
centrated generating  equipment  must  supply  a  number  of  motors. 
What  is  essential,  and  in  the  last  analysis  vital,  is  that  the  new  motor 
shall  have  not  only  certain  mechanical  advantages,  to  the  extent  of 
eliminating  the  evils  of  reciprocating  parts,  and  reducing  the  cost  of 
up-keep,  but  above  ail  it  must  have  capacity,  measured  not  alone  by 
drawbar  pull  or  speed,  but  by  both,  and  it  must  be  of  sustained  char- 
acter; and  to  accomplish  more  than  the  steam  locomotive,  it  must  be 
greater  than  that  of  the  latter.  Such  capacity  should  naturally  be 
attained,  first,  by  betterment  of  the  individual  motor  or  locomotive, 
and  then,  when  this  increase  has  reached  its  limit,  by  combining 
motors  or  locomotives  under  a  common  control  by  the  multiple-unit 
system.     •     •     • 

Capacity  being,  therefore,  the  keynote  of  the  equipment,  I  shall 
discuss  at  some  length  the  characteristics  of  conductors  and  motors 
used  with  direct  current  and  with  alternating  current.  In  so  far  as 
these  comments  relate  to  single-phase  alternating-current  operation, 
they  will  in  some  measure  be  based  upon  the  only  existing  commer- 
cial development  of  this  character  now  in  the  United  States,  that  is. 


Gamz  1  .&00- Horse  power  Polyphase  Electric  Locomotive. 


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ELECTEIC  TBUNK-LINE   OPERATION — BPBAQUE.  136 

npon  the  series-wound,  commutating,  single-phase  motor  with  com- 
pensated fields,  operated  at  25  cycles. 

Lowering  the  number  of  cycles  to  increase  the  capacity  of  the 
siiigle-phase  motor,  as  has  been  suggested,  although  not  yet  devel- 
oped in  commercial  practice,  of  course  merits  serious  consideration, 
and  I  shall  add  some  comments  upon  this  proposed  change.     •     •     • 

Types  of  motor. — Among  the  many  types  of  motors  proposed  for 
railway  service,  four  are  now  being  exploited:  Polyphase  alternat- 
ing-current motor;  single- phase  alternating-current  motor,  repulsion 
type;  single-phase  alternating-current  motor,  series  type;  direct-cur- 
rent motor. 

Of  these,  two,  the  direct-current  and  the  three-phase  motors,  each 
have  a  continuous  rate  of  energy-input,  while  the  single-phase  motor 
has  an  intermittent  and  variable  rate.  Moreover,  there  is  combined  in 
the  single-phase  motor  two  distinct  functions,  those  of  a  motor  and  a 
transformer,  and  the  latter  can  not  be  entirely  eliminated.  The  result 
is  a  reduction  in  both  continuous  and  overload  capacities.    •    *    • 

When  considering  locomotives,  the  net  result  is  that  the  total 
weight  of  a  single-phase  alternating-current  locomotive,  with  a  serv- 
ice capacity  equal  to  that  of  a  direct-current  locomotive  of  like  arma- 
ture speeds  and  permissible  temperature-rise  (this  temperature-rise 
being  the  ultimate  limitation  of  a  motor  for  continuous  service), 
will  easily  be  from  30  to  50  tons  more. 

An  increase  in  the  total  weight  of  a  train  amounting  to  from  3  to 
10  per  cent  is  perhaps  not  of  itself  of  so  much  importance,  because 
such  a  difference  in  net  power  demand  can  easily  appear  for  various 
reasons;  but  a  ratio  of  2  to  1  in  capacity  for  the  limit  of  equipment 
possible  to  install  within  given  allowable  dimensions  and  number 
of  units  is  a  matter  of  vital  importance. 

Comparative  weights  of  direct-cuiTent  and  25-cycle  aingle-pkaae 
alternating-current  motors. — While  the  testimony  is  practically  uni- 
versal that  not  only  is  any  single-phase  motor,  whatever  the  number 
of  alternations,  more  or  less  inefficient  than  a  direct-current  motor  of 
like  weight  or  capacity,  the  differences  of  efficiency,  excluding  the 
losses  in  the  gearing,  are  variously  estimated.    •    *    * 

An  increase  of  10  per  cent  in  the  amount  of  current  used  on  a 
direct-current  system,  because  of  improper  gear-ratio,  change  of 
schedule,  or  careless  handling  of  equipments  by  motormen,  does  not 
mean  that  this  excess  energy  is  dissipated  in  internal  losses  in  the 
motors,  for  these  may  be  increased  only  about  1  per  cent.  The  situa- 
tion in  regard  to  the  single-phase  motor  is,  however,  entirely  different 
for  it  is  subject  not  only  to  increased  power  consumption  with  its 
proportionate  losses  because  of  careless  operation,  but  it  also  has  its 
individual  increased  internal  loss,  which  is  variously  estimated  to  be 
41780-08 13  Google 


136  ANNUAL  BEPOET  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

much  more  than  that  found  in  properly  designed  direct-current  mo- 
tors of  equal  weight  and  like  physical  limitations.    *    *     * 

It  is  customary  to  adopt  a  single-phase  alternating-current  motor 
rating  which  is  based  upon  the  performance  of  some  direct-current 
motor.  For  example,  a  125'horsepower  single-phase  machine  is  sup- 
posed to  do  the  same  work,  that  is,  handle  the  total  number  of 
tons  on  some  specified  service,  as  a  125-horsepower  direct-current 
motor.  This  may  be  an  ingenious  comparison,  but  it  is  misleading.  . 
The  fact  is  that  such  a  motor  equipment,  including  its  transformer, 
will  be  much  heavier  than  the  motor  equipment  with  which  it  is  com- 
pared, and  consequently  the  net  load  which  it  can  handle  will  be 
much  less. 

What  is  of  vital  consequence  is  a  comparison  of  capacities  for 
equal  weights,  not  only  of  motors  but  of  total  apparatus  which  must 
be  carried  on  a  car,  and  also  to  compare  the  speed-relations  and  the 
polar-clearances,  in  other  words,  the  allowable  wear  of  bearings,  all 
of  which  is  quite  aside  from  gear  and  commutator  brush  considera- 
tions, which  are  of  themselves  serious. 

Valatin  and  others  have  indicated  one  measure  of  comparison  be- 
tween motors  of  different  makes,  types,  and  capacities — the  "  weight- 
coefficient," — which  for  convenience  may  be  expressed  by  the  follow- 
ing equation: 

_,  .  ,  ,        a:  ■     J.        Nominal  rated  horsepower. 
Weighl-coefflcent  =  RevolutionsXweight  in  tons. 

This  is  a  factor  of  the  greatest  importance,  and  it  should  be  con- 
sidered not  only  for  the  one-hour  TS'-rise  load,  but  throughout  the 
whole  thermal  curve. 

Let  us  investigate  two  standard  modem  machines. 

An  initial  comparison  is  as  per  this  table: 


MxJUm. 

Tjrpo. 

ToIt«B«. 

Air  ftp. 

l-honr 
rating. 

1K.W«. 

W.UI.I. 

POUOdi. 

X 

Direct  cur™t.„__ _ 

HO 

2£S 

O.ZS 

»0 

6.47! 

""'  -  - - - 

S.IT* 

The  weights  are  minus  pinions,  gear,  and  gear  cases.  There  is  a 
difference  of  less  than  4  per  cent  in  net  weights,  or  about  2.5  per  cent 
in  total  weights.     •     •     * 

The  accompanying  curves  (fig.  1)  show  graphically,  almost  start- 
lingb'i  the  comparative  speeds,  capacities,  and  weight  coefficients  of 
these  machines,  all  referred  to  the  time  required  to  rise  75°  in  tem- 
perature when  operating  at  full  normal  potential  under  varying  loads 
and  with  natural  ventilation. 

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ELEOTBIC  TBUHK-UNB  OPEKATIOH — SPBAGUE.  187 

Generally  speaking,  it  will  be  noted  that,  starting  at  500  revolu- 
tions  for  a  39-minute  run,  the  capacity  of  the  direct-current  motor 
averages  approximately  nearly  double  that  of  the  alternating  cur- 
rent throughout  the  thermal  range;  the  speed  of  the  alternating- 


MM 

n 

aoo- 

— 

COMPARISON  ON  THERMAL  BASIS 

SmOLE'PHASE  ALTERNATINQ  CURRENT  MOTORS 

OF  EQUAL  WEIGHTS 

; 

y 

/ 

1300 

^ 

\ 

lc< 

^^ 

...a 

\ 

^ 

t 

2 

1100 

1 

\ 

^ 

% 

„.! 

\ 

> 

O 

.uuu 

/ 

toa 

%. 

.-' 

1 

h\ 

,.•<* 

X 

. 

/ 

S 

fc: 

d 

^^ 

rij 

TO 

«»« 

^ 

Ua 

"^ 

Y 

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^ 

f^ 

A 

f^ 

fSS\ 

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t 

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s 

P 

BOO 

y 

V, 

h^ 

U? 

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tta 

.■aj 

»C0 

i 

\ 

tSj 

r-s! 

■sr. 

«.. 

— 

-- 

-«- 

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V 

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"^" 

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►-« 

2% 

^' 

'1 

H 

I_A[ 

i=»N 

jrtNj 

CUR 

» 

9T( 

"" 

, 

EHT. 

ciurent  motor  rises  at  a  much  more  rapid  rate,  until  on  a  5-hour  run 
it  is  double  that  of  the  direct-current  motor,  despite  the  fact  that 
it  is  only  developing  one-half  the  power;  the  direct-current  motor 
has  a  5-hour  capacity  in  excess  of  the  1-hour  capacity  of  the  alter- 
nating-current motor;  and  the  ratio  of  the  weight  coefficients,  begin- 


188  ANNUAL  BEPOET  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

ning  at  a  trifle  of  over  2  to  1,  rises  to  more  than  4  to  1  in  favor  of 
the  direct-current  motor  on  the  longer  runs.  This  comparison  of 
weight  coefficients  does  not  include  the  collectors,  control  switches, 
rheostats,  transformers,  or  wiring,  which  in  the  aggregate  are 
enough  heavier  for  the  alternating-current  motor  to  maintain  these 
disparities. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  a  pair  of  these  alternating-current 
motors  can  handle  only  about  one-half  of  the  total  load  of  the  direct- 
current  motors,  with  all  the  disadvantage  of  higher  armature  speed 
and  smaller  air  gaps;  and  considering  the  excess  weight  of  the  con- 
trol apparatus,  the  net  load  over  and  above  the  electric  equipment 
would  be  considerably  less  than  one-half. 

This  general  comparison  is  not,  so  far  as  the  relative  characteristics 
are  concerned,  individual  to  this  particular  size  of  motor,  but  seems 
at  present  to  be  equally  applicable  through  a  wide  range,  and  indif- 
ferently as  to  the  make,  or  whether  the  alternating-current  motor  is 
of  the  series-compensated  or  the  repulsion  type. 

Polyphase  and  direct-current  motor  characteristics. — Opposed  to 
the  two  types  of  single-phase  motors  are  the  polyphase  and  the  direct- 
current  motors,  the  former  with  a  rotating  field  and  the  latter  with 
a  field  of  fixed  character.  They  have  similarly  high  weight  effi- 
ciencies, the  former  having  somewhat  the  advantage  when  compared 
with  the  ordinary  type  of  direct-current  motor. 

The  polyphase  motor,  however,  is  a  normally  constant-speed  ma- 
chine. It  can,  through  a  rearrangement  of  fields,  be  run  at  two 
different  speeds,  but  each  is  practically  a  constant  one.  Or  where 
there  is  a  plurality  of  motors,  half  and  full  speed  can  be  obtained  by 
having  one  pair  of  different  character  from  the  other,  and  operated 
in  cascade  relation  to  it,  with  the  necessity,  however,  of  throwing  one 
pair  of  motors  out  of  service  when  running  at  full  speed.  With 
cascade  operation  and  field  changing  combined  there  can  be  three  run- 
ning speeds.  These  motors,  so  far  as  their  supply  is  concerned,  have 
been  limited  for  practical  reasons  to  a  potential  of  3,000  volts  on  the 
trolley,  because  the  supply  requires,  be^des  the  rail,  two  wires  over- 
head, although  a  recent  undertaking  in  the  United  States,  the  opera- 
tion in  the  Cascade  Tunnel,  is  to  be  attempted  at  6,000  volts. 

Polyphase  motors  have  an  enormous  overload  capacity,  and  the  fact 
that  they  run  at  synchronous  speeds  with  a  very  small  slip,  and  if  the 
frequency  is  unchanged  will  run  upgrade  nearly  as  fast  as  on  a  level, 
would  indicate  at  first  sight  excessive  loads  on  main  and  substations. 
But  a  curious  and  perfectly  natural  result  has  been  pointed  out  by 
Cserhati  and  Von  Eando,  namely,  that  with  suitable  provision  for 
regulation  at  the  central  station,  so  that  with  excessive  loads  the  gen- 
erators will  drop  in  speed,  there  will,  with  such  speed  reduction,  be 


ELECTBIC  TBDNK-LINE  OPEEATION — 6PEAOUE.  139 

not  only  a  temporary  cessation  of  drawing  power  by  the  locomotive, 
but  there  may  actually  be  a  return  of  energy  to  the  line  while  slowing 
down.  While  of  course  this  slowing  down  affects  all  trains  on  a  sys* 
t«m,  it  is  quite  conceivable  that  when  there  are  a  number  of  trains  in 
operation  a  mean  result  may  easily  be  attained  which  will,  in  the 
matter  of  load  Suctuation,  compare  favorably  with  that  of  any  other 
system.  Multiple-unit  grouping  and  operation  is  ordinarily  imprac- 
ticable because  of  the  small  slip.  In  spite  of  the  splendid  work  done 
by  the  Ganz  Company,  and  the  strong  support  of  many  Italian  engi- 
neers, I  feel  that,  all  things  considered,  neither  the  motor  character- 
istics nor  the  limitations  of  overhead  construction  are  acceptable  for 
such  service  and  conditions  as  exist  on  our  trunk-line  roads. 

On  the  other  hand,  considered  by  itself,  the  direct-current  motor, 
with  its  high  average  weight  efficiency,  simplicity  of  construction, 
facility  of  control,  automatic  response  in  torque  and  speed  to  varying 
grades  and  curvatures,  and  great  sustained  capacity  for  enormous 
torque  at  low  speed,  besides  the  advantages  of  speed-ranges  obtained 
by  motor-grouping,  and  the  use  of  a  single  conductor  and  track 
return,  offers  a  most  effective  machine  to  meet  the  conditions  of 
much  of  our  railway  service.  Through  it,  as  with  the  polyphase 
machine,  the  "  ruling  grade,"  often  of  limited  length,  is  eliminated, 
for  the  motor  can  always  respond  to  these  temporary  demands  up  to 
the  limit  of  track  adhesion. 

Direct-current  motor  improvements. — During  the  last  two  years 
important  developments  have  taken  place  in  direct-current  motor 
construction  which  materially  change  any  preconceived  conclusions 
as  to  its  limitations. 

The  first  is  the  introduction  of  the  commutating  pole,  which  has 
practically  eliminated  commutator  troubles,  such  as  sparking,  undue 
heating,  and  flashing  over,  so  that  even  a  four-pole  machine,  within 
a  wide  range  of  potential  and  load,  runs  absolutely  black  at  the 
brushes.  That  this  improvement  has  reached  a  high  degree  of  com- 
mercial standing,  despite  very  recent  technical  criticism  and  opposi- 
tion, is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  orders  for  nearly  a  thousand  such 
railway  motors  have  been  placed  within  the  last  two  months. 

This  improvement  makes  possible  the  shunted-field  addition  to  the 
series-parallel  control  of  speed,  the  construction  of  motors  for  opera- 
tion at  much  higher  potentials,  and  the  operation  of  two  motors  in 
series  at  double  potential. 

An  especially  important  development  is  that  illustrated  by  the 
gearless  locomotives  built  for  the  New  York  Central  Railroad 
(pi.  i),  in  which  the  hitherto  invariable  practice  of  maintaining  a 
fixity  of  relation  between  the  armature,  or  rotating  part,  and  the 
field  magnet,  or  fixed  part,  has  been  abandoned ;  the  armatures  are 

Digilized  by  Google 


140  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

mounted  directly  on  the  axle,  the  Beld  mafrnets  fomiing  a  part  of 
tlie  locomotive  frame,  supported  by  its  springs  and  hence  movable 
with  regard  to  the  armatures.  In  this  constructoin,  therefore,  there 
are  no  armature  or  field  bearings.  This  locomotive  is  of  the  simplest 
type  possible,  electrically  and  mechanically,  and  when  operating 
under  conditions  for  which  it  is  properly  applicable  it  has  not  only 
the  highest  weight  efficiency,  but  the  lowest  cost  of  repairs  of  any 
direct-current  machine,  and  much  lower  than  is  possible  for  any 
single-phase  locomotive.  It  is  structurally  a  natural  high-potential 
machine  on  account  of  having  but  two  poles. 

Difference  between  direct-current  and  single-phase  altemating- 
eurrent  motors. — The  present  inherent  differences  between  direct- 
current  and  single-phase  motors  may  be  briefly  summed  up  as 
follows : 

1.  The  input  of  current  in  one  is  continuous;  in  tJie  other  inter- 
mittent. 

2.  One  has  a  single  frame,  the  electrical  and  mechanical  parts 
being  integral;  the  other  has  a  laminated  frame  contained  within 
an  independent  casing.  Hence  there  is  not  equal  rigidity,  or  equal 
use  of  metal. 

3.  One  has  exposed  and  hence  freely  ventilated  field  coils;  the  othet- 
has  field  coils  imbedded  in  the  field  magnets. 

4.  One  has  a  large  polar  clearance,  and  consequently  ample  bearing 
wear;  the  other  has  an  armature  clearance  of  about  only  one-third 
as  much,  and  hence  limited  bearing  wear. 

5.  One  is  operated  with  a  high  magnetic  flux,  and  consequently 
high  torque  for  given  armature-conductor  current;  the  other  has  a 
weak  field,  and  consequent  lower  armature  torque. 

6.  One  has  a  moderate  sized  armature  and  commutator,  and  runs 
at  a  moderate  spyeed;  the  other,  with  equal  capacity,  has  a  much 
larger  diameter  of  armature  and  commutator,  and  runs  at  a  much 
higher  speed. 

7.  One  permits  of  a  low  gear  reduction,  and  consequently  a  lai^ 
gear  pitch ;  the  other  require.^  a  higher  gear  reduction  and  a  weaker 
gear  pitch. 

8.  The  windings  of  one  are  subject  to  electrical  strains  of  one 
character;  in  those  of  the  other  the  strains  are  of  rapidly  variable  and 
alternating  character. 

9.  The  mean  torque  of  one  is  the  corresponding  maximum;  the 
mean  torque  of  the  other  is  only  about  two-thirds  of  the  maximum. 

10.  The  torque  of  one  is  of  continuous  character;  that  of  the  other 
is  variable  and  pulsating,  and  changes  from  nothing  to  the  maximum 
fifty  times  a  second. 

11.  One  has  two  or  four  main  poles  only,  two  paths  only  in  the 
armature,  and  two  fixed  sets  of  brushes;  the  other  has  four  to  twelve 


ELECTRIC  TBUNK-LINE  OPERATION — SPBAGUE.  141 

poles,  as  many  paths  in  the  armature,  leading  to  unbalancing,  and 
as  many  movable  seta  of  commutator  brushes. 

12.  One  can  maintain  a  high  torque  for  a  considerable  time  while 
standing  still;  the  other  is  apt  to  bum  out  the  coils  which  are  short 
circuited  under  the  brushes. 

13.  In  one,  all  armature-coil  connections  are  made  directly  to  the 
commutator;  in  the  other,  on  the  larger  sizes,  resistances  are  intro- 
duced between  the  coils  and  every  bar  of  the  commutator,  some  of 
which  are  always  in  circuit,  and  the  remainder  always  present. 

14.  In  one  the  sustained  capacity  for  a  given  weight  is  within  the 
reasonable  requirements  of  construction;  in  the  other  it  is  only  about 
half  as  much. 

15.  Finally,  the  gearless  type,  with  armature  and  field  varying 
relatively  to  each  other,  is  available  for  one,  but  this  construction  is 
denied  to  the  other. 

Consideration,  then,  of  the  characteristics  peculiar  to  each  class  of 
motor  indicate,  not  that  the  single-phase  motor  can  not  be  used,  but 
that  if  adopted  the  weight  or  number,  and  the  cost  of  locomotives  or 
motors  required  to  do  the  work  must  be  much  greater;  that  the  depre- 
ciation of  that  which  is  in  motion  will  be  higher;  and  that  there 
will  always  be  an  excess  weight  of  fixed  amount  per  unit  which  must 
be  carried  irrespective  of  the  trailing  or  effective  loads.  We  must, 
therefore,  in  many  cases  be  led  to  the  selection  of  the  direct-current 
motor,  that  motor  which  has  the  higher  weight  capacity,  the  greater 
endurance,  and  the  lower  cost  per  unit  of  power. 

Electric  braking. — Recuperation  of  energy  to  reduce  the  amount 
of  power  used,  and  to  make  the  motors  act  as  brakes  to  retard  the 
acceleration  of  a  train,  has  been  a  favorite  project,  and  attended 
by  many  prophecies  since  the  beginning  of  the  electric  railway 
industry.    •    *     • 

On  ordinary  railroads  the  gradients  are  not  sufficient  to  make  it 
worth  while  to  attempt  any  recuperation  of  energy ;  the  acceleration 
due  to  any  excess  of  gravity  coefficient  above  that  necessary  to  over- 
come the  friction  of  the  train  is  usually  welcomed.  On  mountain 
roads,  however,  electric  braking  may  become  an  important  adjunct, 
not  because  of  power  economy,  but  for  safer  operation.  In  any  case, 
simplicity  of  application  and  absolute  reliability  of  action  are  first 
essentials. 

There  are  two  general  methods  available :  One  in  which  the  energy 
of  the  descending  train  drives  the  motors,  acting  with  shunt  or  inde- 
pendent field  characteristics,  at  an  aggregate  potential  above  that  of 
the  line  at  the  rail,  and  sending  current  back  into  the  line;  another  in 
which  the  motors  are  disconnected  from  the  line,  and  driven  as  self- 
exciting  generators  on  a  closed  circuit,  as  much  of  the  energy  of  the 
descending  train  as  desired  being  used  up  in  heating  rheostats.  *  f  * 


142  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

Oomparhon  of  direct-current  and  alternating  •current  hraking. — 
On  the  general  subject  of  braking  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  with 
direct  or  continuous  current  motors  there  is  always  a  residual  magnet- 
ism in  the  fields  because  of  their  construction,  and  the  fact  that  the 
exciting  current  never  changes  direction.  Such  machines,  therefore, 
can  always  promptly  build  up  automatically  when  properly  closed 
upon  themselves,  and  the  reverser  is  set  in  the  proper  direction. 

A  similarly  effective  method  of  braking  has  been  claimed  for 
motors  operated  by  single-phase  alternating  currents,  but  it  would 
seem  that  in  this  case  there  is  not  the  same  degree  of  reliability.  In 
such  motors  the  field  is  laminated  to  the  last  degree  to  cut  down 
heat  losses,  and  to  increase  the  capacity ;  it  will  hold  but  little  resid- 
ua] magnetism  under  any  circumstances,  and  furthermore  the  field  is 
excited  by  a  rapidly  varying  alternating  current.  It  is  therefore  pos- 
sible that  at  times  the  field  will  be  nearly  inert,  and  comparatively 
slow,  with  its  low-turn  winding,  in  building  up,  or  possibly  the 
field  may  be  entirely  inert,  and  may  refuse  to  build  up  at  all.  There 
seems,  therefore,  no  certainty  whatever  that  a  single-phase  alternat- 
ing-current motor,  disconnected  from  the  line,  and  without  any  other 
exciting  source,  will,  when  closed  upon  itself,  always  build  up  into  a 
braking  dynamo. 

AH  things  considered,  reliability  and  simplicity  of  operation  dic- 
tate the  use  of  the  self-exciting  method  of  braking  with  the  direct- 
current  motor,  which  lends  itself  to  that  purpose  in  the  highest 
d^ree. 

Working  conductors. — ^Whatever  motors  are  used — and  all  the 
principal  types  will  be  used — there  are  various  methods  of  con- 
struction and  use,  especially  as  applied  to  locomotive  building,  and 
alternate  methods  of  current  supply  and  use. 

Generally  speaking,  conductors  may  be  divided  into  two  classes: 
Flexible  or  rigid  overhead,  and  third-rail.  One  would  suppose  from 
many  references  and  some  of  the  arguments  which  have  been  made, 
that  direct-current  systems  are  essentially  and  necessarily  dependent 
upon  the  third-rail,  and  that  the  overhead  trolley  is  a  thing  individ- 
ual to,  and  has  been  developed  for,  alternating-current  operation  only. 
This  impression  should  be  corrected,  not  of  course  for  the  information 
of  engineers,  but  because  this  somewhat  erroneous  idea  is  in  danger 
of  being  accepted  as  a  fact  by  non-technical  men. 

The  overhead  system  has  been  a  distinctive  feature  of  all  electric 
roads  operated  by  direct  current  since  the  days  of  the  historic  Rich- 
mond road,  with  the  exception  of  those  using  the  third  rail ;  and  until 
recently  the  only  practical  modification  has  been  the  somewhat  lim- 
ited use  abroad  of  the  sliding  bow  or  roller  in  place  of  the  grooved 
trolley  wheel.    This  latter,  although  tised  with  high  speeds  on  inter- 


.yGOOgll 


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ELECTRIC   TBUNK-LINE  OPERATION — SPRAOUE.  148 

urban  roads,  is  unfitted  for  trunk-line  operation,  and  wliere  overhead 
trolley  wires  are  used  the  long  collector  will  prohably  take  its  place. 

Physically,  the  overhead  trolley  is  not  individual  to  any  particular 
system;  practically,  its  use  depends  upon  the  amount  of  current 
which  has  to  be  collected.  If  at  low  potentials,  then  it  must  be  either 
strongly  reinforced,  and  there  must  be  a  plurality  of  contacts,  or  if 
these  are  diminished  the  amount  of  current  to  be  collected  must  like- 
wise be  reduced,  and  the  potential  raised.  In  the  abstract,  therefore, 
the  possible  use  of  the  overhead  trolley,  no  matter  by  what  system,  is 
a  question  of  allowable  operative  potential,  and  the  amount  of  current 
which  can  be  practically  collected. 

Until  recently  the  invariable  practice  with  overhead  construction 
has  been  to  use  a  flexible  wire  supported  at  comparatively  long  dis- 
tances on  tangents,  with  pull-off  at  curves,  and  easily  yielding  to  the 
pressure  of  a  trailing  trolley.  This  is  the  practice  which  charac- 
terizes not  only  direct-current  trolley  operation,  but  has  also  distin- 
guished practically  all  operation  abroad  where  single-phase  or 
polyphase  currents  have  been  used.  The  introduction  of  high  ten- 
sions has,  however,  now  made  it  necessary  to  provide  by  additional 
supports  against  the  possible  breakage  of  the  trolley  wire.  This  has 
led  to  the  introduction  of  catenary  construction,  the  catenary  being 
either  single  and  supporting  the  trolley  at  frequent  intervals,  or 
double  to  prevent  lateral  swaying.  In  the  former  case  the  trolley 
is  only  partly  flexible,  and  in  some  cases  the  support  has  been  sup- 
plemented by  an  intermediate  catenary,  as  on  the  Blankenese- 
Ohlsdorf  Railway,  where  greater  flexibility  of  the  trolley  wire  itself 
is  insured  by  loosely  suspending  it  from  the  lower  member  of  the 
catenary  instead  of  making  the  latter  the  trolley  wire,  and  providing 
for  varying  the  tension.  In  other  cases  it  is  to  some  extent  main- 
tained by  having  less  frequent  supports,  and  also  by  introducing  a 
movable  part  at  the  suspender. 

The  most  recent  and  extended  application  of  double-catenary  con- 
struction is  that  on  the  New  Haven  road  for  use  with  its  single-phase 
locomotives  (pi.  iii).  Here  a  trolley  wire  is  put  under  high  tension 
and  is  supported  at  frequent  intervals  by  solid  clips  attached  to  rigid 
triangles,  in  turn  secured  to  galvanized-iron  wire  cables  carried  on 
insulators  on  the  top  of  bridges  which  span  the  tracks  at  intervals 
on  tangents  of  about  300  feet.  The  catenaries  are  drawn  together 
between  the  spans  so  as  to  give  the  utmost  rigidity  to  the  whole  sys- 
tem, the  intent  being  to  maintain  the  trolley  wire  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble in  one  plane.  At  cross-overs  and  sidings  the  supporting  triangles 
overlap,  and  the  angle  between  the  junction  and  the  trolley  wires  is 
filled  with  additional  conductors,  more  readily  to  insure  safe  passage 
of  the  vertically  moving  sliding  contact  which  has  been  adopted. 
At  intervals  of  about  2  miles  the  trolleys  are  sectionalized  at  anchor 


144  ANNUAL  EEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  IftW. 

bridges,  where  are  provided  the  necessary  switches  for  cutting  oat 
sections,  and  for  looping  to  extra  supply  conductors. 

The  modem  pantograph  consists  of  a  sliding  or  rolling  contact, 
which  forms  the  upper  number  of  a  light  yet  strong  collapsible  struc- 
ture maintaining  an  upward  spring  pressure.  The  theory  of  this 
siystem  of  collection  is  that  a  locomotive  normally  moves  between  two 
parallel  planes,  on  one  of  which  it  runs  and  from  the  other  of  which 
it  collects  current,  and  that  the  ordinary  motion  of  the  contact  will  be 
inappreciable.  This  assumption  is,  however,  modified  in  practice. 
The  collectors  are  carried  normally  22  feet  above  the  track  on  a  super- 
structure (pi.  ii)  which  must  respond  in  some  measure  to  track  irregu- 
larities, and  which  has  considerable  inertia  and  some  friction.  There 
is  a  drag  because  of  friction  against  the  trolley  wires  and  wind  pres- 
sure due  to  motion  of  the  locomotive.  This  upward  pressure  must 
necessarily  be  changeable  because  of  variation  of  angle,  friction,  and 
the  resultant  motion.  To  maintain  contact  it  must  rise  and  fall. 
When  traveling  70  miles  an  hour  it  passes  supports  which  are  more  or 
less  rigid  nine  times  a  second,  and  between  these  supports  the  trolley 
wire,  no  matter  what  the  tension,  will  be  convexed  upwards.  As  the 
collector  approaches  any  suspender  the  pressure  will  normally  con- 
siderably increase,  and,  as  it  leaves  it,  diminish.  The  practical  ques- 
tion arises  whether,  considering  all  the  forces  acting  on  it  and  its 
inertia,  it  can  satisfactorily  respond  in  addition  to  other  requirements 
to  a  double  change  in  vertical  direction  nine  times  a  second.  If  con- 
tact depended  upon  the  whole  structure  of  the  pantograph  moving 
thus  rapidly  some  trouble  might  be  anticipated,  but  possibly  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  upper  part  will  prove  sufficient. 

An  ingenious  method  of  making  contact  with  an  overhead  single 
trolley  line  is  that  developed  by  the  Oerlikon  Company  mider  the 
direction  of  Mr.  Huber  (pi.  rv).  In  this  system  the  trolley  is 
stretched  with  comparative  rigidity  on  top  of  insulators  supported 
on  posts  alongside  the  track,  with  cross-overs  where  needed.  In  place 
of  the  ordinary  wheel  and  bow  trolleys,  a  curved  hinged  arm  of  fair 
length,  and  sweeping  over  nearly  one  half  a  circle  in  a  plane  trans- 
verse to  the  line  of  track,  is  supported  on  insulators  on  the  side  of  the 
car.  Normally,  tbis  bow  rests  on  top  of  the  wire,  pressing  lightly 
on  it,  and  thus  avoiding  the  under  formation  of  icicles.  On  cross- 
overs and  in  tunnels,  where  the  trolley  wire  is  carried  over  the  track, 
the  arm  swings  toward  the  center  of  the  car,  and  is  depressed,  making 
contact  progressively  from  the  top  around  to  the  side,  and  then  under- 
neath the  trolley  wire.  In  addition,  the  saddle  which  carries  the  bow 
is  movable  laterally,  increasing  the  radius  of  action.  Of  course  two 
bows  can  be  used. 

The  alternative  type  of  working  conductor  is  the  third  rail,  already 
adopted  on  about  forty  roads,  some  of  considerable  sztent,  most  of 


,  Google 


Oerlihom  TnoLLEV— Under-Contact. 


Protected  Third  Rail  on  Four-Track  Division,  New  Yobk  Central. 


ELECTBIC   TBUKK-LINB   OPERATION — 8PBAOUE. 


145 


them  with  heavy  passenger  traffic,  and  operated  under  greatly  vary- 
ing conditions.  A  large  proportion  of  these  roads  have  used  the  or- 
dinary type  of  top-contact  rail,  carried  by  insulators  on  the  ties, 
sometimes  entirely  exposed,  and  again  partly  guarded  by  side  boards, 
as  on  the  Manhattan  Elevated,  or  by  a  wooden  shield  carried  by 
yokes  from  the  rail  itself,  as  on  the  Interborougb.  While  this  is  the 
simplest  form  of  tbird-rail  construction,  and  has  given  good  service 
for  years,  it  has  certain  disadvantages.    If  exposed,  it  is  a  constant 


Via.  3.— DetallH  o(  WIIehh  nnd  Spniffue  protected  third  mil. 

menace,  especially  in  yards;  and  even  when  guarded  it  can  not  be 
wholly  protected  from  snow  and  ice.  The  lower  part  is  only  about 
4  inches  above  the  tie,  while  the  holding  clips  generally  used  reduce 
even  this  clearance,  so  that  the  danger  of  grounding  from  accumula- 
tion of  wet  snow  and  ashes,  and  from  flooding  is  increased.  In  the 
latt«r  case  over-all  flooding  has  the  whole  rail  surface  for  leakage. 

These  various  objections  led  to  the  abandonment  of  the  top-contact 
tail  in  connection  with  the  New  York  Central  work,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  an  under-oontact  sheathed  rail  supported  by  insulators  from 


146  ANNUAL  BBPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

brackets  carried  un  tlie  ties,  and  with  the  body  of  the  rail  about  9 
inches  vleur  (fig.  '2).  This  type  of  rail  has  been  adopted  for  the  285 
.miles  of  trackage  under  electrification,  as  well  as  on  a  number  of 
other  roads. 

The  structure  consists,  briefly,  of  a  series  of  iron  brackets  carried 
on  the  ties,  to  the  tongued  vertical  face  of  which  are  clamped  non- 
charring  moisture-proof  insulator  blocks  which  loosely  embrace  the 
head  of  the  rail.  Intermediate  between  the  insulators  the  rail  car- 
ries an  insulating  sheathing,  which  embraces  the  head  and  reaches 
down  nearly  to  the  bottom  face  of  the  rail,  but  extends  outward  from 
the  web  to  form  a  petticoat  protection  against  snow  and  sleet 

For  moderate  potentials,  say  of  GOO  volts,  the  two  halves  of  the 
insulator  blocks  are  alike,  but  for  the  higher  potentials  the  inner  in- 
sulator block,  that  is,  the  one  next  to  the  face  of  the  bracket,  is  ex- 
tended so  as  partly  to  shroud  the  head  of  the  bracket.  The  sheath- 
ing between  the  insulator  blocks,  depending  upon  local  conditions 
and  price  of  materials,  as  well  as  potential  used,  is  fonned  of  three 
wooden  strips,  one  grooved  on  the  under  side  and  inclosing  the  head 
of  the  rail,  and  the  other  two,  attached  to  and  dependent  from  it, 
reaching  in  towards  the  web  of  the  rail.  Where  good  wood  is  not 
available,  an  alternate  protection,  costing  about  the  same  and  having 
a  higher  electrical  resistance,  although  not  quite  so  good  a  mechanical 
one,  is  a  semiflexible  shell  of  indurated  fiber  conformed  to  the  rail- 
section.     *     •     * 

General  comparison  of  working  conductors. — All  working  conduct- 
ors are  in  many  ways  objectionable,  but  since  they  are  a  necessary 
connecting  link  between  the  source  of  supply  and  the  motors,  some 
comparisons  may  be  made  of  the  two  kinds,  the  under-contact,  pro- 
tected type  of  third  rail  and  the  overhead  trolley,  as  affected  by  con- 
struction and  operation. 

The  third  rail  is  an  inert  structure;  it  can  be  aligned  accurately 
with  the  track,  is  not  under  strain,  and  its  expansion  can  be  readily 
taken  care  of.  The  overhead  trolley  is  necessarily  a  system  under 
strain,  and  where  permanency  is  desired  and  high  potentials  are  used 
it  must  be  carried  by  one  or  more  catenary  cables,  which  on  roads  of 
high  curvature  makes  the  construction  more  difScult.  Its  alignment 
in  the  latter  case  does  not  correspond  with  the  line  of  track,  and  as 
ordinarily  constructed  it  is  subject  to  extreme  variations  of  tension 
on  account  of  weather  changes. 

The  third  rail  offers  some  hindrance  to  the  ordinary  maintenance 
of  track;  but  overhead  construction  is  inelastic,  and  the  laying  of 
additional  tracks  or  changes  in  grades  or  alignment  require  radical 
and  expensive  alterations  or  additions  in  permanent  overhead  struc- 
tures. 


.y  Google 


ELECTRIC   TBTJNK-LINE   OPEEATION BPRAQUE.  147 

Derailments  will  crush  one  form  of  conductor  to  the  ground,  form- 
ing a  short  circuit  which  will  cut  off  the  section ;  but  they  may  also 
knock  down  the  supporting  structures  of  the  other,  and,  where  there 
ia  a  plurality  of  tracks,  put  them  all  out  of  service. 

In  wrecking,  the  third  rail  offers  some  obstruction  to  the  throwing 
of  the  equipment  to  one  side;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  overhead  con- 
ductors may  interfere  with  the  operation  of  the  crane  booms  of  the 
wrecking  car. 

Where  there  are  two  or  more  tracks  snow  can  not  be  piled  up 
between  them  if  the  third  rails  are  located  there;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  overhead  conductors  are  a  source  of  danger  to  train  men,  to 
snowshed  and  tunnel  repairers,  and  in  the  open  are  subject  to  troubles 
of  sleet  formation. 

The  third  rail  will  oftentimes  be  covered  with  snow,  but  is  un- 
affected by  sleet.  Very  thor- 
ough tests  made  in  connec- 
tion with  the  New  York 
Central  work  show  satisfac- 
tory operation,  not  only  in 
sleet  storms,  but  with  the 
rail  buried  in  snow.  Addi- 
tional depth  should  not  add 
much  difficulty.  With  re- 
gard to  frogs  and  switches, 
there  are  no  problems  which 

can    not  be  solved   with  this        p,„     3.-Det«lls    ot    Wllgu«    .nd    Spru^ue    prc^ 

type  of  third   rail,  with   an  lectea  tWtd  rail  on  Philadelphia  Rapid  Transit 

occasional  overhead  section,        B»iiwar. 

and  any  required  amount  of  power  can  be  collected  at  operative 

speeds. 

On  western  roads,  where  a  rotary  snoWplow  is  used,  overhead 
conductors  and  the  supporting  insulators,  especially  in  yards,  will 
be  subject  to  a  heavy  bombardment  of  snow,  ice,  and  refuse,  with 
possible  resultant  breakage,  and  the  under  sides  of  the  umbrellas 
of  the  insulators  will  be  often  filled  up  with  wet  snow. 

Then  there  are  corrosion  and  soot  deposits  when  steam  and  electric 
operation  are  maintained  over  the  same  track.  Where  the  steel  sup- 
porting bridges  also  carry  signals,  as  is  proposed  in  some  cases, 
there  is  increased  danger  to  men  engaged  in  cleaning,  painting,  or 
repairing  overhead  structures  and  taking  care  of  signals:  and  when 
spanning  two  or  more  tracks  there  is  a  possible  interception  of  the 
train  operator's  view  of  signals  because  of  dips  in  the  railroad  grades 
bringing  overhead  bridges  in  front  of  the  semaphores,  which  like- 

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148  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

wi&e  may  be  made  less  distinctive  if  they  have  truss  members  for  a 
background. 

Relative  direct-current  potentials  in  overhead  trolley  and  third 
raU. — Now  that  the  improvements  in  direct-current  motor  construc- 
tion, not  only  those  promised  but  those  actually  accomplished,  have 
made  it  possible,  quite  irrespective  of  what  may  be  done  with  alter- 
nating-current motors,  to  use  much  higher  potentials  than  ordinary — 
not,  of  course,  as  high  as  those  available  in  single-phase  alt«pnating- 
current  systems — the  question  sometimes  arises.  Will  not  the  permis- 
sible potential  be  high  enough,  taking  into  account  certain  other 
facts,  to  meet  in  large  measure  the  demands  of  railroad  operation, 
whether  by  overhead  or  third  rail! 

Engineers  have  generally  proceeded  on  the  assumption  that  the  use 
of  a  sufficiently  high  potential  for  practical  purposes  is  possible  only 
with  overhead  conductors.  In  the  Siemens-Schuckert  installation  at 
Mazi^res,  where  2,000  volts  direct  current  are  used,  the  current  is 
taken  from  two  trolley  wires  of  like  potential  supported  by  cross- 
wire  catenaries  from  side  poles  of  the  same  construction  as  is  com- 
monly used  to  carry  the  warning  tickler. 

A^in,  the  third-wire  system  has  been  proposed,  as  on  the  Erizik 
road,  and,  on  a  recent  installation  with  many  grades  and  heavy  tun- 
nels in  the  Iselle  mining  district  in  France,  where  two  overhead 
trolley  wires  are  used  at  2,400  volts,  with  the  track  as  a  neutral,  and 
with  the  motors  grouped  in  series  of  two,  current  being  supplied  by 
two  Thury  generators  in  series  and  grounded  in  the  middle. 

A  comparison  of  potential  relations  ^ving  the  same  losses  on  three 
systems  is  interesting.    The  systems  are : 

1.  Three-wire,  with  two  No.  0000  trolleys  and  76-pound  bonded 
single  track. 

2.  Two-wire,  with  same  trolley  wires  and  track  return. 

8.  Third  rail,  70-pound  special,  and  with  same  track  return. 
The  following  table  gives  the  comparisons: 


™. 

"•'.T.'" 

tUtIo  ot 

yKiOio. 

"cris."" 

No.  1 - - - 

.1«6 

.OTE 

1.0000 

l.lt 

2,100 

1,160 

B30 

».100 

:: : 

""■h  a  showing  there  is  little  excuse  for  departing  from  the 

tials  and  the  simpler  systems,  and  being  handicapped  with 

oltage  problems  and  complication  of  switches  in  the  three- 

If  any  smaller  trolley  wire  be  used,  then  the  disparity 

j.  1  or  2  and  No.  3  would  be  emphasized. 

.ogle 


SmiiKuniin  Rtpon,  1907.~SeftKi». 


PHOTECTio  Third  Rail  Bohieo  in  Snow. 


.y  Google 


,  Google 


ELECTBIC  TRUNK-LINE  OPEEATION — BPBAGUE.  149 

The  relation  of  potentials  indicated  in  this  table  raises  the  question 
whether,  in  view  of  the  disparity  of  current  conducting  capacity 
between  an  overhead  system  and  the  third  rail,  it  is  not  also  possible 
that  a  sufficiently  high  potential  can  be  used  on  the  latter  if  from  a 
practical  railroad  standpoint  the  balance  of  advantages  and  objections 
should  be  enough  in  its  favor  to  warrant  its  material  extension. 

Some  time  ago  I  stated  that  in  my  opinion  it  waa  practicable  to 
operate  at  double  the  ordinary  potentials  with  a  properly  protected 
under-contact  sheathed  third  rail.  I  am  glad  to  be  now  able  definitely 
to  announce  that  it  seems  possible  to  construct  and  operate  at  these 
increased  potentials  with  a  degree  of  safety  hitherto  deemed  doubtful. 

Fifteen-cycle  operation. — The  principal  object  sought,  and  cer- 
tainly a  most  desirable  one  in  the  use  of  higher  potentials,  whether 
direct  current  or  alternating  current,  is  not  now  so  much  reduced  cost 
of  working  conductors  on  a  trunk-line  system — for  practice  has  shown 
that  this  cost  is  not  materially  affected — but  lessened  feeder  invest- 
meot,  increase  of  substation  distances,  reduction  of  total  substation 
capacity,  and,  in  the  single-phase  system,  the  abolition  of  moving 
machinery  in  the  substations.    •    •     • 

The  degree  of  success  of  the  alternating-current  development  will 
depend  primarily  on  the  development  of  capacity  and  all-round  oper- 
ative features  in  single-phase  locomotive  and  car  equipments.  The 
25-cycle  motor  (hitherto  the  only  frequency  actually  installed  for 
single-phase  equipments),  whether  judged  by  individual  comparison 
or  specific  equipments,  as  I  have  already  illustrated,  or  the  general 
testimony  of  electrical  engineers  of  manufacturing  companies,  has 
proved  inadequate  when  compared  with  its  rival.  To  correct  this 
defect  it  has  been  proposed  to  adopt  16  cycles  as  a  standard  of 
operation. 

This  number  of  cycles  has  been  under  consideration  for  some  time. 
It  is  successfully  used  by  the  Ganz  Company  in  its  polyphase  installa- 
tions, it  has  been  proposed  in  this  cotmtry  by  the  General  Electric  and 
Westinghouse  companies  for  important  work,  and  has  lately  been 
urged  as  a  standard  by  a  number  of  engineers. 

Motor  and  locomotive  constructions. — Motors  are  of  the  geared 
ud  gearless  types,  may  be  entirely  separate  units  or  partly  integral 
with  the  truck  frame,  and  may  be  wholly  or  partly  spring-supported. 
Locomotive  designs,  influenced  in  part  by  the  type  pf  motor  adopted, 
show  a  great  variety  of  constructions,  and  may  be  very  generally 
classed  as  rigid  frame  with  all  weight  on  the  driving  axles  and  without 
leading  trucks,  rigid  frame  with  either  single  axles  or  bogie  leading 
trucks,  and  bogie-truck  locomotives,  the  bogies  being  pivoted  under 
the  cab,  and  sometimes  linked  together. 

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150  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

On  all  multiple-unit  trains,  except  such  as  are  designed  for  very  high 
speed,  in  which  case  there  is  a  possibility  of  a  gearless-motor  develop- 
ment, the  standard  method  of  motor  mounting  I  introduced  on  the 
Manhattan  Elevated  Railway  in  1886,  and  which  has  been  in  vogue 
ever  since,  bids  fair  to  continue.  It  provides  for  sleeving  the  motor 
and  carrying  a  part  of  its  weight  upon  the  driven  axle,  to  which  it  is 
connected  by  any  required  ratio  of  gearing,  the  free  end  being  flexibly 
susi>ended  from  the  truck  above  the  side  springs. 

Up  to  capacities  of  250  horsepower,  about  the  limit  required  and 
permissible  for  motor-car  equipment,  single  driving  on  one  end  can 
be  used;  but  when  this  type  of  motor  is  built  for  larger  sizes,  in  con- 
nection with  locomotives,  it  seems  almost  necessary  to  provide  for 
gear  driving  at  each  end,  which  presents  some  difficulties  in  coO' 
atruction. 

The  rigid  wheel-base  type  of  locomotive  witliout  leading  trucks  is 
illustrated  by  a  direct-current  machine  built  under  the  direction  of 
some  associates  and  myself  a  number  of  years  ago  for  experimental 
work  on  one  of  the  lines  running  out  of  Chicago,  and  also  by  one 
class  of  double-unit  locomotives  which  has  been  frequently  proposed 
by  various  companies  for  single-phase  alternating-current  opera- 
tion.   •    *    • 

An  analysis  of  the  action  of  a  locomotive  demonstrates  beyond 
question  that  this  general  type  of  machine — that  is,  one  having  a  rigid 
frame  and  no  guiding  trucks — is  limited  to  moderate  speeds,  and 
would  be  unsafe  if  operated  at  high  speed  on  a  road  with  much 
curA'ature  and  special  work. 

Particular  interest  naturally  centers  upon  the  distinctive  types  of 
locomotives  installed  on  four  important  railway  systems,  the  Valtel- 
lina  and  the  Simplon  Tunnel  in  Switzerland,  the  New  York  Central, 
and  the  New  York  and  New  Haven,  which  well  illustrate  three  of 
the  principal  methods  of  construction  developed  to  meet  the  demands 
of  different  electrical  systems.  I  will  briefly  describe  each,  as  well  as 
make  some  comment  upon  a  few  of  the  many  other  types  recently 
proposed. 

As  illustrating  a  high  order  of  electrical  and  mechanical  engineer- 
ing, the  work  of  the  Ganz  Company  merits  special  mention,  for  it  is 
undoubtedly  true  that  the  present  status  of  the  polyphase  system, 
which  stands  on  a  favored  plane  with  many  Italian  engineers,  is 
owing  almost  entirely  to  the  efforts  of  this  company. 

The  polyphase  motor  locomotives  (pi.  n)  built  for  the  Valtellina 
Railway  and  for  the  Simplon  Tunnel  are  strikingly  individual  in 
their  construction.  The  axle  mounting  of  motors  is  abandoned,  the 
motors  being  entirely  separate  units  mounted  on  the  locomotive 
frame,  and  coupled  to  each  other  and  the  62-inch  driving  wheels 
through  an  ingenious  combination  of  connecting  and  side  rods.    Ol 

Gooylc 


ELECTRIC  TBUNK-IilNE  OPEBATION — BPKAQUE.  151 

tiw  three  pairs  of  main  drivers,  the  middle  only  is  journaled  in  the 
mun  frame,  each  end  pair  being  journaled  at  one  end  of  a  pivoted 
guiding  truck,  at  the  outer  end  of  which  are  guiding  wheels  about 
one-half  the  diameter  of  the  driving  wheels.  The  end  drivers  have 
a  limited  end  play,  and  one  king  bolt  has  a  similar  freedom  of  move-  . 
ment,  while  the  other  is  fixed,  resulting  altogether  in  great  freedom 
of  adjustment  to  track  curvature.  The  two  motors,  spring-supported 
Uirough  the  locomotive  frame,  are  each  quarter-cranked  and  con- 
nected to  side  rods  having  downwardly  projecting  jaws  which  loosely 
engage  the  driving  pins  of  the  middle  drivers,  the  centers  of  which 
are  somewhat  below  the  centers  of  the  motors.  On  each  side  of  the 
jaws  of  the  side  rod  are  coupled  the  connecting  rods  of  the  outer 
drivers,  provision  being  made  In  all  bearings  for  the  necessary  free- 
dom of  movement  and  adjustment. 

In  an  earlier  type  the  locomotives  were  equipped  with  two  sets  of 
twin  motors  for  high  and  low  tension,  the  low  tension  to  be  operated 
in  cascade  relation  to  get  slow  speed  in  starting  and  for  running  on 
grades, then  to  be  cut  out,and  the  regular  running  to  be  with  the  high- 
tension  motors  alone.  In  the  lat^  machines  the  twin-motor  con- 
struction has  been  abandoned,  and  the  locomotives  are  equipped  with 
two  15-cycle  high-tension  polyphase  motors,  one  having  8  and  the 
other  12  poles,  and  an  arrangement  of  field  circuits  in  the  latter  ma- 
chine such  that  it  can  be  temporarily  made  a  low-tension  motor  oper- 
ating in  cascade  relation  with  the  other.  This  combination  permits 
of  three  regular  operating  speeds  of  about  16,  26,  and  40  miles  per 
hour.  At  the  lowest  speed  the  motors  are  in  cascade  relation,  with 
higti  draw-bar  pul! ;  at  middle  speed  the  12-pole  motor  is  in  operation 
alone  on  high  tension;  and  at  the  highest  speed  the  8-pole  motor  is 
used  alone,  likewise  on  high  tension.  Of  course  the  physical  connec- 
tion of  the  two  motors  together  and  to  all  drivers  makes  this  method 
of  operation  possible.  The  rated  capacity  of  the  motors,  as  given  by 
Valatin,  is  extraordinarily  high,  that  with  the  12  poles  being  stated  as 
1,200  horsepower,  and  that  with  8  poles  1,500  horsepower,  based  upon 
the  one-hour  rise  of  temperature  to  75°.  The  motors  average  about 
13  tons  each. 

The  use  of  connecting  rods  in  this  locomotive  is  not  as  objection* 
able  as  the  use  of  the  driving  and  connecting  rods  in  a  steam  loco- 
motive, because  the  strains  are  very  different,  and  the  rotative  wei^ts 
can  be  far  more  perfectly  balanced.  It  can  be  fairly  said  to  have  the 
advantage  that  with  the  minimum  possible  weight  of  locomotive 
there  is  no  such  thing  as  slipping  an  individual  wheel,  a  trouble 
which  will  occur  at  times  with  all  locomotives  having  independently 
driven  axles  if  equipped  with  powerful  enough  motors,  because  of 
variation  in  motor  characteristics,  track  and  wheel  conditions,  and 
nnequal  wheel  pressure  caused  by  the  drawbar  pull.  ,-,  , 


152  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

Almost  the  entire  weight  of  the  locomotive  is  spring  borne,  and 
the  behavior  of  the  machine  on  curves  even  at  high  speeds  ought  to 
be  very  satisfactory.  The  same  general  construction  would  lend 
itself  very  effectively  to  the  application  of  high-tension  inter-pole 
direct-current  motors,  and  may  be  very  seriously  considered  in  this 
connection. 

The  general  characteristics  of  the  New  York  Central  type  of  loco- 
motive (pi.  i),  the  Batchelder  machine  as  developed  by  the  General 
Electric  Company,  is  pretty  generally  understood,  and  my  description 
will  be  limited.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  heavy  steel  frame  in  which 
are  joumaled  four  main  axles,  and  which  is  terminated  by  pivoted 


Kiu.  4.-  IjiDKltudlnnt  Rcrtlan — blpolnr  direct-current  motor, 
single-axle  ponies  provided  with  spring  resistance  against  deflection 
from  the  central  position.  The  motors  are  the  gearless  type,  the  arma- 
tures being  mounted  directly  on  the  axles  (PI.  VI)  and  the  bipolar 
field  magnets  forming  an  integral  part  of  the  main  frame;  they  are, 
therefore,  carried  with  it  by  the  equalizing  springs,  and  have  free 
motion  relative  to  the  armatures.  In  addition  to  the  regular  truck 
frame,  an  additional  path  is  provided  for  the  magnetic  flux,  which 
pu-ssGs  through  all  the  armatures  and  field  poles  in  series,  by  a  heavy 
bar  extending  the  length  of  the  frame,  and  carried  above  the  motors. 
Being  of  the  two-pole  type  (fig.  4)  and  with  a  quadrant  winding, 
the  motors  are  extraordinarily  free  from  sparking  tendencies;  in  fact, 
they  are,  structurally,  natural  1,200-volt  machines,  although  only 
wound  for  present  operation  at  650.  So  marked  is  this  characteristic, 
that  the  brushes,  which  are  180°  apart,  instead  of  being  carried  on 


SmrthBnifln  Rtpoili  190T. — Sprafu*. 


,  Google 


.y  Google 


BLECTBIG  TBUNE-LINE  OFEBATION — SPBAGUB.  168 

jokes  concentrically  with  the  commutator,  are  carried  on  arms  al^ 
tached  to  the  field-magnet  frame,  and  although  moving  with  it  funo 
tion  perfectly. 

The  electrical  and  mechanical  construction  is,  therefore,  reduced  to 
an  acme  of  simplicity  never  hitherto  attained  in  electric  locomotives, 
for  not  only  are  there  no  gears,  but  there  are  no  armature  or  field  bear- 
ings, quills,  driving  spiders,  or  special  spring  connections,  although 
all  the  weight  of  the  motors  except  the  armature  is  spring  supported. 

The  air  gap  is  very  large,  and  as  the  pole  pieces  are  very  nearly  flat 
a  complete  axle  unit  with  its  armature  can  be  readily  dropped  out 
and  replaced  without  disturbing  the  balance  of  the  motor  equipment. 
This  type  of  machine,  of  course,  can  not  be  used  with  any  form  of 
alternating-current  directly,  no  matter  what  the  frequency. 

When  first  proposed  the  design  was  considered  so  radical  that  its 
choice  met  with  a  good  deal  of  criticism,  but  experimental  trials 
extending  over  two  years,  with  67,000  miles  of  operation,  amply 
demonstrated  its  remarkable  reliability  and  efficiency,  qualities  con- 
firmed by  the  operation  of  thirty-five  of  these  locomotives  now  de- 
livered and  in  regular  servire. 

The  total  weight  of  the  locomotive,  without  heating  equipment,  is 
about  95  tons,  of  which  70  tons  is  on  the  drivers.  The  nominal  ca- 
pacity, with  75"  rise  and  natural  ventilation,  is  2,200  horsepower,  at 
which  output  with  600  volts  the  motors  run  at  300  revolutions,  corre- 
sponding to  40  miles  an  hour.  The  rigid  wheel  base  is  13  feet,  the 
total  wheel  base  27  feet,  and  the  length  over  all  37  feet. 

The  individual  control  is  the  series-parallel  bridge  method,  with 
resistance  variation,  the  grouping  of  motors  varying  from  four  in 
series  to  four  in  multiple,  and  current  is  taken  from  the  under- 
contact  rail  by  side-extending  spring  flipper  shoes. 

The  exigencies  of  service  are  responsible  for  a  recent  remarkable 
test  On  April  26  the  Lake  Shore  Limited,  north  bound,  consisting 
of  nine  heavy  Pullman  cars  hauled  by  a  Central-Atlantic  type  of 
steam  locomotive,  was  stopped  in  the  tunnel  under  Sixty-sixth  street, 
on  a  0.5  per  cent  upgrade,  because  of  some  mishap  to  the  en- 
gine. Following  it  was  a  train  of  seven  standard  day  coaches,  shop- 
bonnd  and  hauled  by  an  electric  locomotive,  which  promptly  coupled 
on  to  the  leading  train,  and  without  any  assistance  from  the  steam 
loccanotive,  which  was  dead,  started  the  entire  load  of  sixteen  cars 
and  two  locomotives,  weighing  nearly  1,000  tons,  with  good  acceler- 
ation, and  made  the  run  up  a  1.02  per  cent  grade,  a  half-mile  long,  at 
satisfactory  speed  and  without  difficulty. 

The  New  York  Central  equipment  has  been  developed  under  extra- 
ordinarily difficult  circumstances,  but  already  305  train  movements, 
representing  86  per  cent  of  the  present  total  of  the  New  York  Central 
and  Harlem  trains,  both  locomotive-drawn  and  multiple-unit,  an 


154  ANNUAL   HEPOBT  SMITHBONIAN    INSTITUTION,   1807. 

operated  electrically.  The  o^^gate  delay  has  been  less  than  with 
the  old  steam  service,  a  fact  particularly  noticeable  in  times  of  snow* 
storms.  The  main  station  output  for  twenty-four  hours  is  but  about 
65,000  kilowatt  hours,  and  when  the  batteries  are  in  service  but  one 
steam  unit  is  required  at  time  of  maximum  load. 

Th(?  New  Haven  alternating  current-direct  current  locomotive, 
built  by  the  Westin^ouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company,  is 
of  the  two-axle  free  bogie  type,  the  bogies  being  pivoted  under  and 
transmitting  their  effort  through  the  frame  which  carries  the  cab,  in 
which  are  mounted  the  transformers,  blowers,  rheostats  and  con- 
trollers (pi.  ii).  On  each  truck  are  mounted  two  spring-supported 
motors,  each  complete  within  itself.  The  armatures  are  carried  on 
quills,  terminating  in  spiders  at  each  end,  which  engage  eccentrically 
wound  springs  inclosed  in  pockets  in  the  main  drivers. 

The  rigid  wheel  base  is  8  feet,  the  total  wheel  base  22  feet,  and  the 
length  over  all  37  feet.  The  weight  of  the  locomotive  is  93  tons,  hav- 
ing been  raised  considerably  over  early  expectations.  It  has  an 
hour  rating,  on  the  usual  standard,  of  1,000  horsepower  when  oper- 
ated at  25  cycles,  but  is  equipped  with  blowers  to  raise  the  average 
capacity.  It  is  intended  to  handle  a  200-ton  trailing  load  at  schedule, 
with  some  margin  of  performance. 

Although  built  primarily  for  operating  directly  from  11,000-volt 
single-phase  alternating  current,  these  locomotives  must  operate  also 
from  the  650-volt  direct  current  while  on  the  Harlem  tracks.  They, 
therefore,  have  additional  control  provision,  and  besides  the  double- 
pantograph  collectors,  have  contact  shoes,  those  on  the  side  being 
arranged  for  lifting  by  air  pressure  on  account  of  limited  clearances 
on  a  part  of  the  run. 

The  motor  armatures  are  wound  for  operation  at  a  normal  maxi- 
mum of  about  250  volts,  and  hence  are  connected  in  permanent  series 
of  two,  while  the  field  circuits  are  arranged  for  each  pair  of  motors 
in  a  separate  group,  and  for  series-parallel  grouping  independently 
of  the  armature  circuits,  to  provide  for  the  varying  flux  in  alternating- 
current  and  direct-current  operation.  Of  course,  the  two  motor 
groups  can  be  connected  for  series-parallel  operation  with  direct- 
current  supply,  but  with  the  disadvantage  of  using  about  double  the 
amount  of  current  at  slow  speeds  that  is  required  when  four  motors, 
each  wound  for  the  full  potential,  are  in  series. 

The  first  of  these  machines,  pulling  a  short  train,  made  entry  into 
the  Grand  Central  Station  on  May  11.  1907,  and  in  a  short  time  the 
operation  of  e<]iiipment  should  be  under  ser\'ice  test. 

In  order  to  combine  the  possibility  of  single-phase  alternating-cur- 
rent current  transmission  at  high  voltage  by  overhead  trolley,  and  the 
imquestioncd  advantages  of  the  direct-current  motor,  it  has  several 
times  been  proposed  to  introduce  between  the  line  jsupply,  apd  the 


ELECTRIC  TBUNK-UNB  OPERATION — BPBAQTTB. 


.y  Google 


156  ANNUAL  BBPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

motors  a  motor-generator  set,  comprising  an  induction  motor  taking 
current  directly  from 
the  line,  and  driving  a 
continuous-current  gen- 
erator to  supply  the 
motors,  this  converting 
set  being  carried  in  the 
main  cab,  with  provi- 
sion made  for  the  ex- 
tra weight  by  bogie 
trucks  at  each  end,  or 
in  an  independent  ten- 
der taking  the  place  of 
the  steam  tender  in  ex- 
isting steam  practice 
(fig.  5).  Of  course 
this  is  the  introduction 
of  a  moving  substation 
individual  to  the  loco- 
motive which  is  oper- 
ated by  it,  and  makes 
the  latter  subject  to  all 
the  idiosyncrasies  of 
the  intermediate  appa- 
ratus, besides  laying  up 
an  enormously  expen- 
sive machine  in  case  of 
any  special  trouble. 
^Vhe^e  the  motor-gen- 
erator set  is  carried  in 
a  separate  tender,  this 
disablement  only  cuts 
out  a  part  of  the  equip- 
ment, which  can  be  re- 
placed by  another  like 
part,  but  in  any  case  it  is 
debatable  whether  such 
a  moving  substation 
offers  any  advantage 
over  the  stationary  one. 

Some  time  since 
made  a  very  careful  ii 
vestigation  of  the  pos- 
sibilities of  direct-cur- 
rent gearless  and  geared  motors  (fig.  6),  the  former  of  the  bipolar 
type,  for  identically  the  same  service,  a  very  severe  one. 


ELECTRIC   IBUKE-LINE  OPERATION — SPRAGUB.  157 

Both  machines  are  of  the  four-axle  bogie-truck  type,  the  trucks 
being  linked  together.  The  geared  locomotive  weighs  93  tons  and  the 
gearless  126  tons,  but  the  weight  per  axle  is  well  within  the  usual 
allowance.  On  each  track  are  four  motors,  connected  two  in  series, 
to  be  operated  at  a  maximum  line  potential  of  1,500  volts.  The 
geared  motor  construction  is  of  the  usual  standard,  but  fitted  with 
commutating  poles,  while  the  gearless  machine  has  modified  bipolar 
motors  of  the  New  York  Central  type. 

A  comparison  of  the  efficiency  curves  of  the  two  machines  is  inter- 
esting, these  showing  for  each  from  87  to  88  per  cent  on  a  five-hour 
load,  and  falling  only  to  83  per  cent  with  50  per  cent  increase,  while 
at  half  this  load  the  efficiency  of  the  gearless  machine  is  much  higher 
than  that  of  the  geared.  Some  adequate  idea  of  the  capacity  of  the 
gearless  machine  may  be  gathered  from  a  statement  that  it  will  main- 
tain a  drawbar  pull  of  nearly  25,000  pounds  at  a  good  rate  of 
speed  for  several  hours  continuously,  and  with  natural  tentilation. 
These  extraordinary  characteristics  would,  for  the  class  of  service  for 
which  these  machines  were  considered,  amply  war^nt  the  additional 
weight  because  of  the  simplicity  of  the  gearless  machine. 

A  very  promising  type  of  machine  (fig.  7),  embodying  many  of 
the  good  features  of  those  which  had  preceded  it,  is  now  under  con- 
struction for  use  either  on  direct  current  or  with  a  motor-generator 
set  supplied  from  an  alternating-current  trolley.  This  machine  is 
of  the  four-axle  free  bogie  type,  the  drawbar  pull  being  taken  through 
the  main  frame.  On  each  truck,  and  forming  an  integral  part  with 
it,  are  two  bipolar  gearless  motors  driving  the  middle  pair  of  axles, 
and  at  either  end  of  each  truck  is  a  pair  of  leading  wheels  of  smaller 
diameter,  which  have  a  limited,  spring-resisted  side  play.  The  nor- 
mal wheel  base  of  each  truck  is  12  feet,  the  total  wheel  base  32  feet, 
and  the  length  over  all  36  feet.  This  machine  should  be  capable  of 
an  almost  unmatched  speed  and  freedom  in  following  irregular  curva- 
tures, and  with  special  ease  of  track  approach. 

The  various  locomotives  thus  briefly  described  are  but  a  fraction 
of  those  proposed  by  various  makers  to  fit  particular  conditions  and 
types  of  apparatus.  Their  construction  does  not,  in  many  particulars, 
meet  the  preconceived  ideas  of  some  steam-locomotive  builders,  with 
whom  a  high  center  of  gravity  and  all  the  weight  possible  carried  on 
springs  is  a  cardinal  principle,  and  a  very  correct  one  when  we  con- 
aider  the  necessities  of  the  steam  locomotive.  The  electric  locomotive 
has  a  lower  center  of  gravity,  that  of  the  New  York  Central  machine 
being  about  44  inches,  the  New  Haven  61,  and  the  Ganz  probably 
somewhat  higher,  while  that  of  the  steam  locomotive  is  sometimes 
IS  high  as  73  inches.  The  electric  machine,  therefore,  will  have  less 
tendency  to  topple  over,  but  a  greater  resultant  side  pressure  in  case 
of  irregularity  of  track  when  entering  a  curve,  or  running  on  an 

logTe 


158  AKNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

irregular  track,  than  its  rival,  a  larger  portion  of  whose  weight  heels 
over  and  increases  the  vertical  pressure  on  the  rail.  Careful  investi- 
gation, however,  carried  on  through  many  sources,  seems  to  indicate 
that  with  electric  motors  properly  guided  any  increased  tendency  to 
side  thrust  is  more  than  compensated  for  by  certain  other  advan- 
tages.   *    ♦    * 

Train  control  and  operation. — Restriction  of  operation  in  an  elec- 
tric system  to  methods  in  vogue  with  steam  operation  would  be  a 
useless  throwing  away  of  one  of  the  greatest  possibilities  of  improve- 
ment in  train  operation  where  passenger  service  is  heavy  and  terminal 
facilities  congested.  Ten  years  ago  I  inaugurated  on  the  South  Side 
Elevated  of  Chicago  a  new  .<^stem  of  train  control,  which  permitted 
the  aggregation  into  trains  of  any  number  of  independently  equipped 
motor  cars,  and  dead  cars  if  desired,  and  their  control  from  either 
end  of  any  car,  irrespective  of  train  make-up.  This  system,  now 
known  the  world  over  as  the  "multiple-unit"  (fig.  6),  has  made 
such  advance  that  it  is  now  generally  recognized  and  adopted  as  the 
best  method  of  handling  trains  wherever  service  is  crowded  and  hi^ 
schedules  are  required. 

The  essential  result  accomplished  by  this  system  is  increase  of 
capacity,  by  providing  high  power  equipments,  proportional  to  the 
length  of  the  train,  increased  schedules  and  density  of  train  move- 
ment, the  lowest  maximum  speeds  for  any  given  schedule  similarity 
of  equipment,  reduced  switching  and  signal  movements,  increased 
safety,  and  generally  the  utmost  independence  and  facility  of  opera- 
tion. Whatever  tentative  plans  may  for  the  present  be  adopted,  I 
believe  that  it  is  inevitable  that  all  local  and  suburban  passenger 
service  on  electrically  equipped  railways  requiring  train  operation 
will  be  eventually  conducted  on  the  multiple-unit  plan,  and  its  Use 
will  spread  over  a  continually  increasing  area,  even  to  the  operation 
of  passenger  cars  run  over  divisions  of  considerable  length. 

Storage  batteries. — ^The  use  of  the  storage  battery  in  connection 
with  electric  railway  operation  is  a  proposal  concerning  which  much 
may  be  said,  for  and  against,  depending  largely  upon  what  value  one 
attaches  to  restriction  of  peak  loads  on  moving  machinery  and  to  in- 
surance. That  it  has  been  and  is  being  used  successfully  in  connec- 
tion with  direct-current  equipment  of  moderate  potential  admits  of 
no  dispute,  and  it  has  been  stated  that  it  is  equally  available  for 
alternating-current  installations.  This  latter  claim  is  misleading. 
On  direct-current  systems  the  principal  function  of  a  battery  is 
that  of  an  equalizer.  If  installed  at  a  central  or  substation  it  is 
usual  to  provide  boosters  to  govern  the  charging  and  discharging. 
These,  however,  are  only  of  differential  watt  capacity,  and  while  tiiey 
are  necessary  for  regulation,  it  is  perfectly  possible  to  use  the  battel? 
^n  some  emergencies  by  direct  connection  with  the  line. 

,  I  by  Google 


ELECTRIC  TEONK-UNE  OPEBATION — 6PBAGUE.  159 

With  an  aitemating-current  system,  the  battery  at  a  substation 
plays  an  entirely  different  role.  It  must  be  charged  by  a  direct-cur- 
rent generator  driven  by  an  alternating-current  motor,  and  in  dis- 
charging drives  the  alternating-current  motor  as  a  dynamo  through 
the  direct-current  generator  acting  as  a  motor.  In  addition  to  the 
introduction  of  moving  machinery  in  an  alternating-current  sub- 
station, its  watt  capacity  must  be  equal  to  that  of  the  full  discharge 
of  the  battery,  and  the  latter  can  have  no  function  in  supplying 
current  to  the  working  conductor  except  through  the  medium  of  two 
rotating  machines  of  large  capacity. 

Use  of  step-up  and  step-down  transformers. — Where  the  distance 
is  not  great,  as  on  the  present  proposed  limited  operation  of  the 
New  Haven  road,  both  step-up  and  step-down  transformers  have 
been  omitted,  and  the  11,000-volt  trolley  line  is  supplied  from  the 
station  switchboard.  This  means  direct  connection  between  an  ex- 
tended system  of  overhead  working  conductors  and  generators  op- 
erated at  high  potential,  with  one  side  grounded,  with,  of  course, 
whatever  protection  lightning  arresters  can  provide.  Such  are  the 
vagaries  of  lightning  and  the  uncertainty  of  the  very  best  arresters, 
that  I  cannot  but  feel  that  this  practice,  which  subjects  costly  gen- 
erating equipments  to  direct  lightning  attack  and  special  grounding 
stress,  will  not  obtain  to  any  great  extent;  for  the  possibility  of  lay- 
ing up  a  complete  unit  of  great  capacity,  steam  engine  as  well  as 
generator,  because  of  a  lightning  flash  or  accidental  ground,  is  too 
great -a  penalty  to  pay  for  eliminating  transformers,  and  is  a  special 
handicap  upon  the  possibilities  of  transmission. 

It  is  certain  that  standardization  should  be  directed  to  the  con- 
struction of  generators.  Any  material  increase  of  potential  above 
that  now  common  means  reduced  capacity  and  efficiency,  increased 
danger  of  breakdown,  and  greatly  increases  individual  cost,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  capitalized  risk  of  failure.  Quite  aside  from  the 
question  of  cost  and  efficiency,  air  cooling,  the  only  possible  method 
for  generators,  manifestly  cannot  be  safely  carried  above  that  which 
is  tolerable  for  static  transformers,  which,  when  wound  for  the  higher 
potentials,  are  invariably  oil-cooled.  Therefore  I  expect  to  see  stand- 
ardization of  generator  potentials,  the  pressure  being  stepped  up  by 
transformers  to  whatever  transmission  potential  is  necessary,  and 
then  stepped  down  to  the  working  pressure  on  the  trolley  wire  if 
alternating  current  be  used,  or  to  a  lower  pressure  and  converted  if 
direct  current  be  used. 

The  transformer,  per  se,  is  the  simplest  and  most  flexible  device  for 
changing  aitemating-current  volume  and  pressure,  and  its  moderate 
cost  and  high  efficiency,  taken  in  connection  with  the  like  elements  of 
moderately  high  potential  generators,  will  leave  the  total  cost  and 
efficiency  of  generating  equipment  roughly  the  same.    There  will  be 

o 


160  ANNUAL  REPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  IWJ. 

the  added  very  great  practical  advantage  that  the  generators  not 
only  work  at  lower  potentials,  but  on  closed  metallic  circuits,  are 
removed  from  direct  contact  with  working  conductors  and  earth,  and 
have  interposed  between  them  and  the  line  at  least  one  set  of  static 
transformers,  which  practical  experience  has  shown  to  be  one  of  the 
best  generator  safeguards  against  lightning,  and  which,  if  broken 
down,  do  not  involve  large  and  costly  units  nor  wholesale  sacrifice  of 
capacity  on  roads  where  the  adoption  of  electricity  is  warranted. 

General  cost  comparison  of  direct-current  and  single-phase  alter- 
nating-current systems. — I  have  made  many  comparative  analyses, 
involving  millions  of  dollars,  and  I  have  found  that  where  equal 
permanence  of  installation  is  provided  for,  and  equal  ultimate  as  well 
as  average  duty,  there  is  not  on  demonstrated  facts  a  wide  variation 
in  (he  initial  cost  of  plant. 

Ordinarily,  the  signal  systems  used  on  railroads  will  have  to  be 
changed  at  considerable  cost.  Fortunately,  methods  have  been  de- 
veloped which  permit  the  use  of  all  the  rails  for  the  main  return 
circuit  by  using  a  special  alternating-current  circuit  for  operating 
the  signals.  Where  the  tracks  are  used  for  direct-current  return, 
reactance  bonds  are  inserted  which  permit  the  flow  of  the  direct 
current,  but  resist  that  of  the  alternating  signal  current.  Where 
the  tracks  are  used  for  alternating-current  operation,  and  are  like- 
wise subject  to  the  flow  of  direct  currents,  the  signals  must  be  oper- 
ated by  alternating  currents  of  high  frequency  through  apparatus 
which  is  inoperative  to  currents  of  low  frequency  or  to  continuous 
currents. 

Field  of  the  single-phase  alternating-current  motor. — It  would  be 
idle  to  deny,  and  I  have  no  wish  to  belittle  the  good  work  done  and 
the  results  achieved  in  the  development  of  the  single-phase  motor, 
just  as  it  would  be  equally  unwise  to  ignore  what  has  been  done  in 
polyphase  and  direct-current  work.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  present 
principal  field  of  usefulness  of  the  single-phsse  system  is  on  roads  of 
considerable  extent  which  operat*  an  irregular  and  sparse  traffic,  and 
where  only  a  moderately  expensive,  or  what  may  be  called  a  second- 
class  overhead  construction,  which  will  keep  down  the  ratio  of  line 
investment  to  that  df  the  balance  of  equipment,  is  tolerable.  As  one 
departs  from  this  condition,  adopts  more  permanent  construction, 
and  faces  the  problems  of  denser  traffics  and  higher  capacities,  any 
advantages  of  the  single-phase  system  disappear,  and  the  superiority 
of  the  direct-current  equipment,  with  such  improvements  as  are  in 
sight,  becomes  manifest.  But  whatever  may  he  the  future  of  single- 
phase  operation  under  the  conditions  stated,  any  present  claim  for  it 
as  the  preferable  equipment  for  congested  service  demanding  high 
schedules  and  great  capacity  is  not  worth  a  moment's  thought,  for  in 
this  field  it  can  not  touch  the  direct-current  system.     ^ 

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ELECTRIC   TBUNK-UNB  OPERATION — SPBAOUE.  16X 

In  closiiig,  let  me  again  remind  you  of  the  probability,  nay  cer- 
tainty, that  there  is  at  present  no  single  system,  which  can  be  selected 
as  best  for  alt  purposes,  but,  rather,  that  a  wide  and  increasing  use  of 
each  will  be  created,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases  a  compromise  selec- 
tion of  the  best  elements  of  alternating  and  direct  current  practice 
will  obtain. 

While  there  are  many  things  in  railroading  which  have  been  stand- 
ardized, and  others  which  can  now  very  properly  be,  and  which  of 
themselves  do  not  militate  against  the  independent  judgment  of 
operating  railway  officials  in  matters  individual  to  their  own  systems, 
I  think  it  is  certain  that  these  same  officials  will  in  the  future,  as  in  the 
past,  consider  the  problems  involved  in  a  change  of  motive  power  from 
st«am  to  electricity  from  an  individual  standpoint,  and  that  they  will 
demand  from  manufacturers,  as  well  as  from  their  engineers,  all 
possible  freedom  from  restricton,  exercising  in  a  large  measure  their 
own  judgment  as  to  the  adoption  of  any  system.  I  see  no  practical 
necessity  to  formulate  conclusions  by  averaging  conditions,  and  I  can 
not  conceive  the  responsible  officers  of  any  trunk-line  road  being 
guided  in  their  determination  of  what  seems  best  for  their  own 
requirements  by  consideration  of  what  some  road  thousands  of  miles 
removed  in  location,  and  enormously  differing  in  operating  conditions 
may  do. 

In  any  case,  the  most  satisfactory  siystem  will  be  that  one  which 
will  permit  of  continuous  all-round  operation  under  such  conditions 
as  will  utiUze  to  the  utmost  all  the  beneficial  features  of  electric 
application.  If  any  one  system  can  be  demonstrated  to  meet  these 
conditions  better  than  all  others,  then  that  system  will  become  pre- 
eminent, no  matter  what  standards  may  have  been  adopted  or  recom- 
mended, and  no  matter  what  our  preconceived  prejudices  may  be. 


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RECENT     CONTRIBUTIONS    TO     ELECTKIC     WAVE 
TELEGRAPHY." 


By  Prof.  J.  A.  FusuiRo.  M.  A.,  D.  So.,  F.  R.  S.,  M.  R.  I., 
Pender  Profeaaor  of  Electrical  Bngineerinff  in  the  Untveraitv  of  London. 


The  achievements  and  possibilities  of  wireless  telegraphy  have  not 
yet  ceased  to  interest  the  public  mind.  In  less  than  ten  years  from 
the  practical  inception  of  that  form  of  it  conducted  by  electric  waves, 
it  has  developed  into  an  implement  of  immense  importance  in  naval 
warfare  and  maneuvers.  It  has  provided  a  means  of  communication 
between  ship  and  shore  which  has  added  greatly  to  the  safety  of  life 
and  property  at  sea.  It  has  so  far  altered  the  conditions  of  ocean 
tmvel  that  great  passenger  liners,  separated  by  vast  distances  on 
stormy  seas,  speak  to  each  other  through  the  ether  with  far-reaching 
voices,  and  are  never  out  of  touch  with  land  during  the  whole  of 
their  voyage  from  port  to  port. 

Ton  are  doubtless  aware  that  it  is  now  the  usual  thing  for  an 
Atlantic  liner,  equipped  with  long  distance  receivers,  to  be  in  com- 
munication with  either  the  Marconi  stations  at  Foldhu  in  England 
or  Clifden  in  Ireland,  and  that  at  Cape  Cod  in  the  United  States 
throughout  the  voyage,  and  at  the  same  time  to  exchange  messages 
not  only  with  the  other  shore  stations  when  passing,  but  with  a  score 
or  so  of  sister  vessels  during  the  journey.* 

On  board  many  of  the  Cunard  liners  small  daily  newspapers  are 
published  containing  the  latest  news  of  the  day  sent  by  wireless 
telegraphy  from  both  coasts. 

Every  important  navy  in  the  world  has  now  adopted  it  in  some 
form  as  an  indispensable  means  of  communication.     In  our  own  navy, 

'Paper  read  before  the  Royal  Inatltutlon  ot  Great  Britain  at  Its  weekly  even- 
>iiK  meeting,  Friday,  May  24, 1907.  Reprinted,  by  permission,  from  tbe  Trausac- 
tlonB  of  tbe  Royal  Institution. 

^The  Cunard  liner  Lucania,  which  arrived  March  18,  1907,  at  Liverpool  from 
Kew  York,  reported  that  she  was,  when  In  mld-Atlantlc,  In  communication  by 
wireless  telegraphy  with  Poldhu,  In  Cornwall,  and  Cape  Cod,  In  the  United 
States,  at  the  same  time.  During  the  voyage  she  spolce  with  tbirty-two  Nortb 
itlBRtlc  steamers,  and  with  twenty-four  of  these  she  had  wireless  commonl- 
mion. 


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164  AHNTJAI,  REPOBT   BMITHBONIAN   1K8TITUTI0N,  1901. 

Admiral  Sir  Henry  Jackson,  to  whom  the  country  is  so  much  indebted 
in  this  matter,  informs  me  that  every  ship  above  the  size  of  a  torpedo 
boat  is  or  will  soon  be  fitted.  Large  battle  ships  carry  fairly  high- 
power  transmitters  for  long-distance  work.  The  Admiralty  are  satis- 
fied that  this  method  of  signaling  is  of  the  greatest  utility,  and  there 
is  no  need  to  remind  you  of  the  evidence  of  this  furnished  in  the  re- 
cent Russo-Japanese  war.  No  modem  liner  or  large  passenger  vessel 
is  now  complete  without  a  wireless  telegraph  equipment,  and  an 
elaborately  organized  system  of  communication  has  been  created  by 
the  Marconi  Company  in  connection  with  this  marine  telegraphy. 

Concurrently  with  this  practical  development  of  the  art,  much 
scientific  investigation  has  been  conducted,  having  for  its  object  the 
elucidation  and  measurement  of  the  various  physical  operations  in- 
volved, as  well  as  further  improvement.  There  comes  a  time  in  the 
history  of  every  applied  science  when  the  ability  to  measure  precisely 
the  effects  concerned  is  a  condition  of  further  progress.  It  is  this 
alone  which  enables  us  to  test  our 
theories,  or  hold  in  leash  hasty 
opinions  as  to  the  possibilities  of 
the  invention. 

In  considering,  then,  during  the 
present  hour  some  of  the  recent 
contributions  to  this  new  telegra- 
phy, we  may  pay  a  moment's  at- 
tention to  the  nature  of  the  things 
or  effects  in  it  which  can  be  meas- 
ured. An  essential  element  in  all 
electric  wave  telegraphy  is  the  elevated  insulated  wire  or  wires 
called  the  antenna,  in  which  high  frequency  electric  currents  are 
set  up,  and  from  which  the  electric  waves  radiate.  Consider  a  long 
vertical  wire,  insulated  completely  from  the  earth  and  charged 
with  electricity,  (See  fig,  1.)  There  must  be  somewhere  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth  near  by  a  charge  of  opposite  sign.  If  the  wire 
is  negatively  charged,  then,  on  its  surface,  there  is,  according  to 
modem  views,  an  excess  of  negative  ions  or  electrons,  and  on  the 
ground  surface  round  the  wire  there  is  a  deficiency,  that  is,  there 
is  a  positive  charge.  Furthermore,  in  the  interspace  around  the  rod 
there  is  a  state  of  strain  of  some  kind  distributed  along  certain  curved 
lines,  commonly  called  lines  of  electric  force.  From  one  point  of  view 
these  lines  may  be  regarded  simply  as  a  convenient  mode  of  deline- 
ating the  direction  of  the  strain,  having  not  more  material  reality 
than  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude.  There  are,  however,  some  rea- 
sons for  considering  that  they  do  possess  an  actual  physical  existence, 
and  that  they  are  a  necessary  part  of  the  mechanism  of  atoms  and 

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ELECTKIO   WAVE  TELEGRAPHY — FLEMING.  165 

electrons.*  They  have  a  strong  resemblance  in  many  ways  to  the 
vortices  or  vort«x  lines,  which  can  be  created  in  a  fluid.  Moreover, 
jost  as  vortex  lines  in  a  fluid  can  be  self-closed  or  endless,  or  else 
terminate  in  little  whirlpools  on  the  free  surface  of  the  liquid,  so  lines 
of  electric  force  can  form  either  closed  loops,  or  else  have  their  ends 
terminating  on  opposite  charges  of  electricity,  that  is,  on  an  electron 
at  one  end  and  the  positive  charge  of  an  atom,  whatever  that  may  be, 
at  the  other  end.  Suppose,  then,  that  the  rod  is  suddenly  connected 
to  the  earth  at  the  bottom  end  by  allowing  it  to  spark  to  the  earth. 
Its  electric  charge  rushes  out,  that  is,  the  excess  or  deficit  of  electrons 
00  its  surface  disappears,  and  this  movement  of  electricity  constitutes 
an  electric  current  flowing  into  or  out  of  the  rod  from  the  earth.  The 
electrons,  however,  possess  inertia  or  mass,  hence  when  they  ru^  out 
of  the  rod  into  the  earth  they  not  only  discharge  it,  but  overdo  it,  and 
leave  the  rod  with  a  positive  charge.  They  then  rush  back  again,  and 
the  process  repeats  itself,  and  we  thus  obtain  a  rapid  ebb  and  flow  of 
electricity  into  and  out  of  the  wire,  called  a  series  of  electric  oscilla- 
tions. Each  rush,  however,  is 
feebler  than  the  last,  and  there- 
fore the  oscillations 
away  or,  as  it  is  termed,  are 
damped.  The  enei^  repre- 
sented by  the  initial  charge  is 
frittered  away,  partly  owing  to 

CoUisionS    of    the    electrons    and  p,„     2._Dl,granim«(lc   c^preseHatlon    ot    the 

atoms  in  the  rod  and  spark  dur-  dBUcbment  o(  semlloops    of   elecinc   strain 

,,                            ,           ,           ,,  (rom  a  Blmcile  Marconi  antenna. 
ing  the  movement,  and  partly 

because  the  electron  radiates  or  communicates  its  kinetic  energy  to 
the  medium  when  it  is  accelerated  or  retarded. 

We  have  next  to  attend  to  the  effects  taking  place  outside  the  rod 
or  antenna.  As  the  negative  charge  disappears  from  the  rod  owing 
to  the  removal  of  the  excess  of  free  electrons  from  its  surface  the  ends 
of  the  lines  of  electric  force  which  abut  on  it  and  stretch  between  it 
and  the  earth  glide  downwards  along  the  rod  and  end  by  forming  a 
semiloop  of  electric  force  or  strain  with  its  ends  or  feet  resting  on 
the  earth.     (See  fig.  2.)     This  arises  from  the  facts  that  the  lines  of 

*  Cf.  Faraday.  "  Experimental  Researches  In  Electricity,"  Vol.  Ill,  series 
XXIX,  S2T3,  32»7,  and  3209.  "  On  Physical  Lines  of  Maimietlc  Force."  Faraday 
<»ed  the  expression  physical  Hoe  of  force  to  denote  their  concrete  reality  as 
dtBtlnguished  from  a  mere  geometrical  conception.  Also  In  his  |ia|>er.  "  Thoughts 
on  Ray  Vibrations,"  Phil.  Mag.,  ser.  3,  Vol,  XXVIII,  1846,  he  considers  that  light 
may  be  a  vibration  propagated  along  Hues  of  force.  See  also  J.  J.  Tbomaon, 
'Bletrtrlclty  and  Matter,"  p.  63,  for  an  argument  for  the  physical  reality  of  lines 
ot  electric  force  drawn  from  the  Ionization  of  gases  by  BOntgen  rays. 


i-izfdbyGqpgle 


166  ANNUAL  EEPOBT    BMtTHSONlAN    IBSIITUTIOM,   1901. 

forc«  exercise  a  lateral  pressure  on  each  other,  whilst  lengthways  they 
are  in  a  state  of  tension,  and  also  that  lines  of  electric  strain  can  not 
exist  inside  a  conductor  such  as  a  spark.  Hence  when  the  spark 
happens,  the  lines  which  a  moment  ago  stretched  across  the  spark  gap 
disappear.  There  is  then  an  unbalanced  pressure  on  the  remaining 
lines  which  are  thus  squeezed  in  toward  the  gap  and  deformed,  so 
that  they  finally  extend,  not  from  rod  to  earth,  but  from  two  adjacent 
places  on  the  earth  and  form  a  semiloop. 

But,  as  above  explained,  the  rod  does  not  simply  become  discharged. 
Owing  to  the  inertia  of  the  electrons  when  they  rush  out,  they  more 
than  discharge  the  rod,  they  overdo  it  and  leave  it  positively  charged. 
This,  then,  implies  that  a  fresh  system  of  lines  of  electric  force  grows 
up  between  the  earth  and  the  rod,  and  the  first  formed  set  ot  semi- 
loops  is  pushed  outward.  Then  the  process  is  repeated  as  the  oscilla- 
tions of  the  electrons  in  and  out  of  the  rod  die  away,  and  in  the 
space  around  we  have  a  system  of  semi- 
loops  of  electric  force  being  pushed  out- 
ward in  every  direction  as  shown  in  the 
diagram  in  fig.  2.' 
3h      -^  >  -^  There  is,  however,  another  factor  in- 

^-^      -#:_"-  -^        volved  in  the  process.    The  movement  of 
the  electrons  into   and   out  of  the  rod 
constitutes  an  alternating  electric  current 
and  this  is  accompanied  by  the  production 
■MRMI      of  an  alternating  magnetic  field,  the  di- 
[sj  rection  of  which  is  represented  by  a  sys- 

Fio.  .■!.-Li„«  ot  m,guMc  force  *«"™  <**  conccntrlc  circles  with  their  cen- 
roand  »n  antenna  dating  di»-  tcrs  on  the  antenna  (scc  fig,  3).  When 
'^*"'**'  the  current  in  the  rod  is  reversed  in  direc- 

tion, the  field  is  not  reversed  at  all  parts  of  space  instantaneously,  but 
the  reversal  is  propagated  outward  with  the  speed  of  light.  Accord- 
ingly, the  electric  oscillations  in  the  antenna  create  periodic  variations 
of  magnetic  force  and  electric  force  in  the  space  outside.  At  points 
near  the  earth's  surface  some  way  from  the  rod  the  magnetic  force  is 
parallel  to,  and  the  electric  force  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of 
the  earth  or  sea.     Experience  shows  that  electric  wave  telegraphy 

"  In  referring  to  lines  or  semlloopB  of  electric  force  as  movlQK  tbroiigli  space, 
we  do  not  neceBBarlly  mean  to  Imply  that  each  line  Is  earmarked  eo  that  It 
preserves  an  Indiviilnal  Identity.  All  that  actually  bappens  at  any  point  In 
the  fleld  la  a  perlodio  oNclllatlon  or  cyclical  change  In  the  electric  and  magnetic 
force  at  that  [tolnt.  Thle.  however,  le  repeated  successively  from  point  to  point, 
and  wc  luny  hence  stx^k  of  the  line  of  force  as  moving  forward  Jnst  as  we 
speak  of  a  surface  water  ware  moving  forward,  when  In  reality  the  ODljr  move- 
ment In  the  latter  case  Is  a  small  np  and  down  motion  of  the  water  at  eacb 
place,  or  at  least  a  circular  motion  of  no  rer;  great  extent 

:;•:  ....   -  .  ,_  ibyGoogle 


ELECTBIC   WAVE  TELEOaAPHY FLEMING.  167 

over  any  large  distances  can  not  be  conducted  unless  the  antenna  is 
BO  placed  that  the  electric  force  is  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the 
orth  or  sea. 

At  any  distance  from  the  antenna,  and  at  any  one  spot,  the  magnetic 
■ad  electric  forces  are  therefore  periodically  varying  in  magnitude, 
and  owing  to  the  finite  rate  of  propagation  of  the  forces  through 
space  we  find  that  at  certain  equispaced  intervals  these  forces  are 
similarly  reversed  in  direction  at  the  same  instant. 

When  we  speak  of  the  length  of  the  electric  waves  we  mean  the 
shortest  distance  which  separates  two  adjacent  places  at  which  either 
the  electric  or  magnetic  force  reverses  direction  in  the  same  way  at 
the  same  instant.  In  wireless  telegraphy  the  length  of  waves  em- 
ployed may  vary  from  200  to  300  feet  to  many  thousands  of  feet  or 
several  miles.  The  determination  of  this  wave  length  is  a  practically 
important  matter,  and  accordingly  instruments  have  been  designed 
specially  for  its  measurement  by  Donitz,  by  Professor  Siaby,  and  by 
me.  I  have  ventured  to  name  my  own  appliance  for  measuring  long 
electric  wave  lengths,  a  cymometer.'  The  importance  of  the  measure- 
ment is  as  follows:  We  know  that  the  properties  of  short  electric 
waves  constituting  light  and  radiant  heat  depend  upon  their  wave 
length,  and  that  some  bodies  are  opaque  to  light  waves  but  trans- 
parent to  heat  waves.  So  in  the  case  of  the  much  longer  ether  or 
electric  waves  used  in  telegraphy,  the  ease  with  which  they  pass 
throu^  buildings,  forests,  and  even  mountains  or  cliffs,  or  round  the 
earth's  curved  surface  is  determined  by  their  wave  length.  Waves  of 
one  or  two  hundred  feet  in  length  are  considerably  obstructed  by  the 
closely  packed  houses  in  a  town,  but  much  longer  waves  go  easily 
through  them.  The  measurement  of  the  wave  length  is  made  to  de- 
pend upon  the  fact  that  there  is  a  simple  relation  between  the  velocity 
of  these  waves  (which  is  the  same  as  that  of  light),  the  periodic  time 
of  the  oscillations  in  the  antenna,  and  the  wave  length  as  expressed 
by  the  formula  wave  length.  ^  velocity  X  periodic  time.  Since  the 
velocity  is  neariy  1,000  million  feet  per  second,  the  wave  length  in  fert 
is  easily  found,  when  we  know  the  time  period  of  the  oscillations  in 
the  ant«nna.  This  last  quantity  can  be  found  by  placing  near  to  the 
antenna  a  circuit  in  which  secondary  electric  oscillations  can  be 
sympathetically  induced  by  those  in  the  antenna.  For  this  purpose 
we  must  have  a  circuit  which  possesses  the  two  qualities  of  capacity 
and  inductance.  This  is  secured  by  joining  in  series  some  form  of 
Leyden  jar  or  condenser  and  some  form  of  spiral  wave  or  inductance. 
Moreover,  we  must  have  the  means  of  varying  this  capacity  and  in- 
ductance, so  as  to  bring  the  cymometer  circuit  into  tune,  as  it  is  called, 

■  See  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  Vol.  LXXIV,  p.  490,  1905.  Od  an  Instrument  for  tbe 
UeBBuremeot  of  tbe  Length  of  Long  Electric  WaTcs.  Alao  PUL  Mag.,  Junc^ 
1906,  on  the  Applications  of  the  Cymometer.  Gotwlc 

41780-08 16 


168  ANNUAL  BEPOHT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

with  the  antenna.  Every  such  circuit  containing  capacity  and  indoct- 
ance  has  a  natural  period  of  electric  oscillation,  resembling  in  this 
respect  the  time  of  swing  of  a  mechanical  system  composed  of  a  heavy 
body  suspended  by  an  elastic  spring."  In  my  cymometer  the  condenser 
part  consists  of  one  to  four  sliding  tubes,  each  consisting  of  a  pair  of 
brass  tubes,  separated  by  an  ebonite  tube.  The  out«r  tubes  can  slide 
off  the  inner  ones  and  so  vary  the  capacity.  The  inductance  consists 
of  a  long  spiral  of  copper  wire,  and  the  circuit  is  completed  by  a 
thick  copper  bar.  Matters  are  so  arranged  that  when  the  outer  tubes 
are  drawn  off  the  inner  tubes  so  as  to  vary  the  electrical  capacity,  the 
effective  amount  of  the  spiral  included  in  the  circuit  is  simultaneously 
varied  in  exactly  the  same  proportion.  To  determine  when  the  time 
period  o^  the  cymometer  circuit  is  in  agreement  with  that  of  the 
antenna,  I  use  a  neon  vacuum  tube.  Some  three  years  ago  I  found 
that  such  a  tube  was  extremely  sensitive  to  a  high  frequency  electric 
field,  being  caused  to  glow  brilliantly  when  subjected  to  its  action. 

You  are  already  familiar  with  the  beautiful  method  discovered  by 
Sir  James  Dewar  for  obtaining  neon  from  atnjospheric  air  by  the  use 
of  charcoal  at  very  low  temperatures,  and  tubes  filled  with  rarefied 
neon  prepared  by  his  process  are  able,  as  I  have  shown,  to  serve  im- 
portant purposes  in  connection  with  wireless  telegraphy. 

In  the  cymometer  a  neon  tube  is  connected  to  the  opposite  coatings 
of  the  condenser.  If  then  the  cymometer  bar  is  placed  near  to  the 
lower  part  of  a  transmitting  antenna,  and  we  slide  along  the  outer 
condenser  tube,  thus  varying  the  capacity  and  inductance  of  the  in- 
strument, provided  it  has  a  suitable  range,  a  position  will  be  found  in 
which  the  neon  tube  glows  brightly.  The  cymometer  is  equipped 
with  a  scale  which  shows  for  every  position  of  its  handle  the  corre- 
sponding frequency  or  time  period,  and  the  related  wave  length. 
Hence  the  simplest  operation,  which  a  child  can  perform,  serves  to  de- 
termine in  one  instant  the  frequency  of  the  oscillations  in  the  antenna 
and  the  wave-length  of  the  radiated  waves.  I  have  devised  instru- 
ments of  this  type  covering  the  whole  range  of  wave-length  measure- 
ment from  50  to  100  feet  up  to  20,000  feet  or  more.  An  instrument 
of  the  same  kind,  but  with  a  more  sensitive  oscillation  detector  than 
a  neon  tube,  can  be  used  to  measure  the  wave-length  of  waves  being 
received  on  the  antenna.  The  cymometer  has  other  uses  besides  wave- 
length measurement.  One  of  these  is  to  draw  a  resonance  curve  and 
thence  reduce  the  rate  of  decay  of  the  oscillations  in  a  train  and  their 
number.  In  a  train  of  ascillations  the  time  period  occupied  by  each 
oscillation,  whether  of  current  or  potential,  is  the  same,  but  the  am- 

"  If  the  capacity  C  la  reckoned  as  usiinl  In  mlcrofnrecls.  and  tbe  Inductance  L 
in  centimeters,  then  the  time  period  T  of  the  osciltatton  1b  given  by  the  formtila 
T=v/CL/5O3300O. 


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ELECTRIC   WAVE  TEIiEGRAPHT — FLEMING. 


169 


pUtudes  die  away  in  geometric  ratio.  Hence  the  ratio  of  two  succes- 
ave  amplitudes  or  oscillations  is  constant,  and  the  natural  logarithm 
of  this  ratio  is  called  the  decrement.  We  can  determine  this  decre- 
ment when  we  know  the  frequency  of  the  oscillations  in  the  primary 
circuit  and  the  current  induced  in  any  secondary  oscillation  circuit, 
placed  near  to  the  first,  when  the  latter  is  in  exact  syntonism,  and  also 
slightly  out  of  ^ntonism,  with  the  primary.  Employing  a  formula 
of  Bjerknes,  we  can  find  the  sum  of  the  decrements  D  and  d  of  the 
primary  and  secondary  circuits  by  the  formula 


1'  +  <'=<i  +  5)Va^ 


where  a  is  the  current  in  the  secondary  circuit  when  it  is  tuned  to  a 
frequency  n,  and  A  is  the  maximum  current  when  the  secondary 
circuit  is  tuned  to  agree  with  the  frequency  N  of  the  primary  circuit. 
For  this  purpose  I  modified  the  cymometer  by  including  in  the  bar 


«  0- 

I 


\ 

'• 

\ 

i 

\ 

/■ 

'\ 

J 

^ 

"^ 

=■ 

Fia,  4. — ReBonance  cnrve  of  looselr  coupled  oscillatory  circuit, 
two  fine  resistance  wires,  against  one  of  which  a  sensitive  thermo- 
junction  of  iron  and  bismuth  is  attached.  This  enables  me  to 
measure  the  value  of  the  current  in  the  cymometer  bar.  The  process 
of  measurement  is  then  as  follows :  We  place  the  cymometer  alongside 
the  antenna  and  slide  along  the  handle  slowly,  thus  altering  its  time 
period  or  natural  frequency.  We  observe  the  current  and  frequency, 
»nd  plot  a  curve  called  a  resonance  curve  showing  the  secondary 
or  cymometer  current  in  terms  of  the  frequency.  (See  fig.  4.)  This 
curve  rises  to  a  maximum  value,  sometimes  very  sharply,  the  maxi- 
mum corresponding  to  the  condition  of  exact  syntonism  between  the 
antenna  and  cymometer  circuits."    From  the  curve  we  can  determine 

'U  tbe  damping  of  the  secondary  circuit  Is  small,  as  it  Is  In  the  case  of  the 
crtDometer  circuit,  then  the  reeonance  curve  Is  very  sharply  peaked  or  rises 
Quickly  to  a  maximum  when  the  primary  oticlllatlons  ore  feebly  damped,  pro- 
vided always  that  the  "coupling"  or  mutual  Inductance  of  the  two  coimected 
<^ults  Is  atoall. 


170 


ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  19(0. 


the  sum  of  the  decrements  of  the  cymometer  and  antenna.  A  second 
experiment  made  with  a  known  additional  resistance  inserted  in  the 
cymometer  bar  enables  us  to  eliminate  the  decrement  (D)  of  the 
cymometer  it^tf,  and  thus  find  that  of  the  antetma  alone.    When 


Ar- ^\f^ — l\f^^- 


this  is  done  we  know  what  percentage  each  oscillation  in  the  antenna 
is  of  the  previous  one.  Suppose  we  agree  that  when  the  oscillations 
have  decayed  away  to  1  per  cent  of  their  initial  value,  the  train 
shall  be  considered  to  be  finished,  then  another  simple  formula 
M={4.605+D)/2  D  enables  us 
to  find  the  number  of  complete 
oscillations  M  in  a  train  when 
we  know  the  decrement  D." 

Electric  oscillations  are  clas- 
sified into  highly  damped,  fee- 
bly damped  and  undamped 
varieties  corresponding  to  few, 
many  and  infinite  oscillations 
in  a  train.  {See  fig.  5.)  In 
electric  -  wave  telegraphy  we 
have  various  kinds  of  transmit- 
ters or  wave-makers  which  are 
intended  to  create  these  types  of 
oscillation.  In  the  first  case,  if 
we  set  up  an  antenna  and  con- 
nect the  lower  end  to  one  of  the  spark  balls  of  an  induction  coil, 
the  other  being  to  earth,  we  have  an  arrangement  which  produces 
highly  damped  oscillations  and  waves.  (See  fig.  6.)  This  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  since  the  capacity  of  the  antenna  itself  is  small, 

•  See  "  The  Frlnciplea  of  Electric- Wave  Telegraphy,"  FleminB,  p.  167. 


ELECTWC   WAVE  TELEGEAPHY — FLEMING. 


171 


the  energy  which  can  be  stored  up  in  it  and  lilierated  at  each 
spark  discbarge  is  also  small,  at  most  a  fraction  of  a  foot-pound 
or  a  few  foot-pounds.  Hence  it  is  rapidly  frittered  away  by  resist- 
ance and  in  radiation,  and  the  oscillations  are  few,  say  half  a 
dozen  or  so,  and  highly  damped.  If,  however,  we  form  an  oscilla- 
tion circuit  consisting  of  n  large  condenser,  inductance  and  spark 
gip  we  can  store  up  a  larger  amount  of  energy  and  liberate  this  sud- 
denly across  the  spark  gap  at  each  discharge.  (See  fig.  7.)  If,  then, 
these  oscillations  are  made  to  induce  others  in  a  directly  or  induc- 
tively connected  antenna,  we  can  liberate  the  energy  as  radiation, 
and  having  a  larger  store  to  draw  upon  create  longer  trains,  say  of  20 
to  100  more  feebly  damped  oscillations. 

Corresponding  to  these  types  of  transmitter  there  are  various  suit- 
able forms  of  receiver.  With  a  highly  damped  radiator  we  must  use 
some  form  of  wave-detector,  such  as  a  coherer,  which  is  chiefly  af- 
fected by  the  first  or  maximum  oscillation,  and  this  must  be  inserted 
in  a  receiving  circuit  which  is  easily  set  in  oscillation  by  a  single  or 
at  most  a  few  electromag- 
netic impulses.  On  the 
other  hand,  this  renders 
the  receiver  more  liable  to 
disturbance  by  vagrant 
electric  waves  due  to  at- 
mospheric electricity,  or 
other  transmitters  if  of 
sufficient  strength. 

If,  however,  we  employ 
a  feebly  damped  radiator 
emitting  long  trains  of 
waves,  say  20  to  50  waves, 
we  can  make  use  of  a 
stiffer  receiver  circuit,  ^ 
that  is  one  containing  a 
good  deal  of  inductance,  and  a  detector  such  as  Marconi's  magnetic 
detector,  which  operates  under  the  action  of  feeble  but  oft-repeated 
and  properly  timed  impulses.  We  have  then  the  advantage  that  the 
receiving  circuit  can  be  made  far  less  sensible  to  non-syntonic  or 
isolated  impulses  unless  these  are  of  extreme  violence. 

Again,  there  are  certain  forms  of  detector — such  as  the  thermal 
and  one  of  my  own,  to  be  described  presently — which  are  aAected  by 
the  product  of  the  mean-square  value  of  the  oscillations  during  a 
train  and  by  the  number  of  trains  per  second.  Hence,  in  this  case 
the'  effect  on  such  a  receiver  at  a  given  distance  under  the  same  con- 
ditions will  be  increased  by  increasing  the  number  of  trains  of  oscil- 
lations per  second,  as  well  as  by  diminishing  damping  in  each  train. 


172  ANNUAL  BEPOET  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

It  was  therefore  foreseen  that  we  should  gain  some  advantage  by  the 
use  of  undamped  trains  if  some  form  of  electric  radiator  could  be 
found  emitting  waves  continuously,  like  the  steady  note  of  an  organ 
pipe,  rather  than  sounds  like  intermittent  blasts  on  a  trumpet  or 
blows  on  a  drum.  There  are  at  least  three  ways  in  which  these 
undamped  osciUations  can  be  created.  The  6rst  is  a  mechanical 
method,  viz,  by  a  high-frequency  alternator.  Assuming  we  possess 
an  alternating  current  dynamo  giving  a  current  of  a  sufficiently  high 
frequency,  we  can  connect  one  terminal  to  earth  and  the  other  to  a 
radiating  antenna,  and  then  on  setting  the  machine  in  operation  high- 
frequency  undamped  currents  would  be  created  in  the  antenna,  and 
corresponding  waves  radiated.  To  secure  the  best  results,  it  is 
necessary,  however,  to  syntonise  the  free-time  period  of  the  antenna 
circuit  and  the  natural  frequency  of  the  alternator.  The  chief  diffi- 
culty, however,  is  to  construct  a  machine  which  shall  give  alternating 
currents  of  sufficiently  high  frequency  and  voltage  with  sufficient 
power  and  current  capacity.  Sixteen  or  seventeen  years  ago  Prof. 
Elihu  Thomson  and  M.  Tesia  built  dynamos  giving  an  alternating 
current  of  10  amperes  at  a  frequency  of  10,000  to  15,000,  and  an 
output  of  about  1,000  watts.  Mr.  Duddell  exhibited  to  the  Physical 
Society,  in  April,  1905,  an  alternator  capable  of  a  frequency  of 
120,000,  but  its  power  output  was  not  more  than  0.2  watt.  I  have 
on  the  table  a  small  alternator  made  by  Mr.  S.  G.  Brown,  giving  an 
alternating  current  having  a  frequency  of  12,000,  an  E.  M.  F.  of 
20  volts,  and  a  power  of  about  50  watts.  Professor  Fessenden  has 
recently  given  a  description  of  an  alternator  made  for  him  having  a 
frequency  of  60,000,  with  an  output  of  250  watts,  running  at  a  speed 
of  10,000  R.  P.  M.,  and  giving  an  E.  M.  F.  of  60  volts.  Since  steam 
turbines  of  the  Laval  type  are  nofr  made  to  run  at  500  revolutions 
a  second,  it  is  not  difficulf  to  construct  an  inductor  alternator  having 
a  frequency  of  50,000  to  100,000,  Such  a  type  of  alternator  has, 
however,  always  a  large  fall  in  terminal  potential  difference  if  called 
upon  to  give  out  current.  For  this  reason,  a  type  of  machine  with- 
out iron  in  the  armature  is  to  be  preferred,  but  then  it  becomes  more 
difficult  to  balance  the  moving  parts  for  very  high  speeds.  In  spite 
of  some  attempts,  the  difficulties  of  making  and  driving  a  high- 
frequency  and  high -potential  alternator  of  any  considerable  output, 
say  10  kilowatt  size,  have  not  yet  been  overcome.  Even  if  we  could 
secure  a  frequency  of  50,000,  this  corresponds  to  a  wave  of  4  miles 
in  length,  and  special  antenna  arrangements  are  necessary  to  radiate 
and  receive  such  waves.  Hence  the  alternator  method  of  electric 
wave  production  will  certainly  not  supersede  the  spark  method, 
although  in  some  cases  it  may  be  practicable  and  useful. 

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ELECTRIC   WAVE  TBLEQEAPHY — FLEMING.  178 

Id  the  next  place  we  have  the  electric  arc  method,  to  which  so  much 
attention  has  lately  been  directed,  employing  a  continuous  current  arc 
with  a  condenser  and  inductance  placed  in  series  across  the  terminals 
of  the  arc.  As  in  many  other  cases,  the  seeds  of  this  invention  were 
sown  in  the  form  of  discoveries  by  several  workers.  In  July,  1892, 
Prof.  Elifau  Thomson  filed  a  United  States  Patent  No.  500630,  in 
which  he  proposed  a  method  for  creating  high-frequency  alternating 
currents  by  connecting  a  condenser  and  inductance  to  a  pair  of  spark 
balls  and  this  spark  gap  was  also  connected  through  two  other  in- 
ductances with  a  source  of  continuous  current  supply  such  as  a  stor- 
age battery  or  dynamo.  {See  Sg.  8.)  An  air  blast  or  magentic  field 
was  employed  to  continually  extinguish  the  continuous  current  arc 
formed.  The  operation  of  the  arrangement  was  thou^t  to  be  as 
follows:  When  the  arc  is  blown  out,  or  before  it  is  formed,  the  con- 
denser is  charged  by  the  dynamo."  When  the  arc  is  reestablished  the 
condenser  is  discharged  with  oscillations.  In  the  above  specification 
nothing  is  said  about  the  use  of  a  continuous  current  arc  between 

*  aojoiiinr  '-www* — r 


iFia.  0. — Duddell  musical 

carbon  poles,  but  Professor  Thomson  asserts  that  oscillations  with 
frequency  up  to  50,000  could  be  obtained.  In  1900  Mr.  Duddell 
showed  that  if  a  suitable  condenser  and  inductance  was  shunted  across 
the  poles  of  a  continuous  current  arc  formed  with  solid  carbons,  high- 
frequency  alternating  curren'ts  were  set  up  in  the  condenser  circuit 
and  the  arc  emitted  a  musical  sound.    {See  fig.  9.) 

Much  discussion  subsequently  took  place  as  to  the  causes  of  the 
effect  and  as  to  the  highest  frequency  of  oscillation  it  was  possible  to 
secure  by  this  method.  Duddell  and  others  based  their  explanation 
of  the  phenomenon  upon  the  known  fact  that  a  small  decrease  in  the 
current  through  the  carbon  arc  is  accompanied  by  an  increase  in  the 

■An  Interesting  and  not  Tery  dissimilar  device  bns  recently  been  described 
bj  Mr.  S.  G.  Brown.  He  employs  a  revolving  aluminum  wbeel  against  wbich 
B  copper  spring  presses  llgbtly.  Tbe  spring  and  wbeel  are  connected  through 
an  Inductance  and  resistance  wltb  a  source  of  direct  current  supply,  and  also 
by  a  circuit  consisting  ot  Leyden  jar  In  series  wltb  a  coll  of  wire.  When  the 
vbeel  revolves  an  arc  Is  formed  at  the  loose  contact,  and  bigb-frequency  oscilla- 
tions are  set  up  In  tbe  Leyden  Jar  circuit.  (See  The  Electrician,  November  23, 
IflOa,  Vol.  LVIII,  p,  201.) 


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174  ANNUAL  BEPOHT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  19(0. 

potential  difference  of  the  carbons.     The  continuous  arc  with  solid 
carbons  was  said  therefore  to  have  a  negative  resistance." 

The  explanation  of  the  manner  in  which  the  continuous  current 
arc  maintains  undamped  oscillations  in  the  condenser  circuit  is  then 
as  follows :  If  a  condenser  and  inductance  are  shunted  across  the  arc, 
the  condenser  begins  to  be  charged,  and  this  robs  the  arc  of  some 
current.  This  change,  however,  raises  the  potential  difference  of  the 
carbon  poles  and  the  charging  of  the  condenser  therefore  continues. 
When  the  condenser  is  full  the  arc  current  is  again  steady.  The 
condenser  then  begins  to  discharge  back  throu^  it,  and  this  increases 
the  current  through  the  arc  and  therefore  decreases  the  potential  dif- 
ference of  the  carbons.  The  condenser  therefore  continues  to  dis- 
charge. The  action  resembles  that  by  which  the  vibrations  of  the 
column  of  air  in  an  organ  pipe  controls  the  behavior  of  the  jet  of 
air  from  the  mouth  which  impinges  against  its  lip,  forcing  the  jet  of 
air  alternately  into  and  outside  the  organ  pipe,  and  so  maintaining 
stationary  oscillations  in  it.  The  jet  of  air  from  the  mouth  of  the 
pipe  corresponds  to  the  continuous  current  arc,  the  closed  or  open 
pipe  associated  with  it  is  a  resonant  circuit  and  corresponds  with  the 
condenser  and  inductance. 

Consider  the  state  when  the  oscillations  have  been  set  up  in  the 
condenser  circuit.  We  must  assume  that  there  is  a  stream  of  elec- 
trons from  the  negative  terminal  of  the  arc  making  their  way  across 
the  interspace  to  the  positive  terminal.  If,  then,  we  consider  the 
state  at  the  instant  when  the  condenser  has  reversed  its  charge,  so  that 
the  coating  connected  to  the  negative  arc  terminal  is  positively 
charged,  we  see  that  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  stream  of  electrons 
to  enter  the  condenser  and  supply  the  deficiency  represented  by  the 
positive  charge  on  that  plate.  They  are,  so  to  speak,  sucked  into  the 
condenser.  Accordingly  this  action  either  annuls  or  reduces  the  car- 
rent  in  the  arc.  When  the  condenser  is  charged  to  the  potential 
difference  then  existing  between  the  terminals  of  the  arc,  no  mora 
electrons  enter  it,  and  they  then  all  travel  across  the  arc  This  In-  ' 
crease  in  the  arc  current  is  accompanied  by  a  fall  in  the  electronic 
density  difference,  or  the  potential  difference  of  the  arc  terminals, 
and  the  condenser  then  begins  to  di^^charge  across  the  arc,  and  still 
more  reduces  this  potential  difference.  Owing  to  the  inductance  in 
series  with  the  condenser,  or  in  other  words  in  consequence  of  the 
kinetic  energy  of  the  moving  electrons,  the  condenser  is  not  only  dis- 

■■  The  term  negative  resistance  la  a  veir  inappropriate  term.  It  la  better  to 
call  the  curve  for  an  electric  arc  showing  the  relation  of  current  through  the  arc 
to  potential  dlETereuce  of  the  electrodes  or  poles  the  chantcteriitic  cttrve  of  that 
arc,  following  a  usual  nomenclature  In  connection  with  dynamos.  This  charac- 
teristic Is  a  curre  sloping  downward  when  the  current  Is  taken  aa  abscissa 
and  the  P.  D.  as  ordinate. 


.;,Gooyk' 


ELECTBIC  WAVB  TEI^BGRAPHY^ — -FLEMING. 


175 

charged  but  charged  up  again  in  the  opposite  direction."  It  parts 
with  the  excess  of  electrons  forming  the  negative  charge  on  its  plate 
in  connection  with  the  negative  arc  terminal,  and  that  plate  is  left 
with  a  deficiency  of  electrons,  that  is  with  a  positive  charge.  Then 
the  process  repeats  itself  over  again.  Two  conditions  seem  neces- 
sary for  the  automatic  continuance  of  this  process.  First,  the  arc 
must  be  formed  between  terminals  of  such  nature  and  in  such  sur- 
ronndings  that  rapid  variations  of  current  through  it  must  cause 
correspondingly  rapid  and  large 
changes  in  the  potential  difference 
(P.  D.)  of  the  terminals  in  an  in- 
verse sense,  that  is,  as  H.  T.  Si- 
mon has  shown,  there  must  be  a 
steep  falling  characteristic  curve 
for  the  arc.  (  See  fig.  10. ) »  Sec- 
ondly, the  arc  must  have  the 
power  of  restarting  itself  if  en- 
tirely extinguished  for  a  short 
time,  but  this  should  not  take 
place  until  the  P.  D.  between  the 
terminals  exceeds  a  certain  value, 
that  is,  it  must  not  take  place  too 
easily  or  at  too  low  a  voltage.  If 
the  arc  is  formed  between  solid 
carbon  terminals  then  it  appears 
that  these  conditions  are  only  ful- 
filled up  to  a  certain  frequency, 
that  is  when  employing  a  rather 
large  capacity  in  the  condenser 
circuit.  We  then  obtain  Mr.  Duddell's  musical  or  singing  arc, 
which  emits  a  sound  because  the  rapid  variation  of  current  through 

'  The  amplItDde  ol  tbe  potential  difference  ot  the  pondeneer  terminals  may 
and  does  become  very  mucb  greater  than  tbe  mere  steady  potential  difference 
of  the  electrodea  betvreen  which  the  arc  1b  formed.  Thus,  with  a  P.  O.  of  220 
or  300  voItB  across  the  arc  tbe  B.  M.  S.  of  the  condenser  plates  may  reach 
1,000  or  1,500  volts. 

'A  careful  study  of  the  phenomena  of  the  electric  arc  between  metal  and 
metal  and  carbon  terminals  In  air  and  bydrc^en  has  recently  been  made  la  my 
laboratory,  under  my  direction,  by  Mr.  W.  L.  Upson.  It  has  been  fouad  that 
for  an  arc  between  a  cold  metal  and  a  carbon  terminal  in  hydrogen  for  the 
tame  length  of  arc,  tbe  rate  of  decrease  of  terminal  voltage  with  Increase  of 
current  Is  always  greater  than  for  an  arc  in  air  between  two  carbon  terminals. 
In  other  words  the  volt-ampere  characteristic  Is  steeper.  Also  it  has  been 
found  that  In  the  case  of  a  carbon  arc  in  air  tbe  current  can  be  Interrupted  for 
a  much  longer  time  without  permanently  extinguishing  the  arc  than  la  the  case 
for  tbe  metal-carbon  arc  In  air  or  bydrogen, 

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V 

v\ 

^ 

S^s 

1 

C 

"• 

1 

'\ 

\ 

a.  10,~Cbararterl9llc  carves  tor  cod- 
tlnuouB-raTreat  arc  In  air  and  hydrogen 
(Opson),     Arc  lengtb  ^  1.25  mm. 


176 


ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SUITHBOnIaN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 


the  arc,  by  varying  the  energy  expended  in  it,  expand  and  con- 
tract the  column  of  incandescent  vapor  forming  the  true  arc,  and 
therefore  the  layers  of  air  next  to  the  arc,  and  hence  send  out  air 
waves  which  are  heard  as  sound.  Frequencies  up  to  10,000  or  so  are 
possible,  although  many  physicists,  such  as  Bannti,  Corbino,  and  also 
Maisel,  contend  that  much  higher  frequencies  can  be  obtained.  In 
1903  Mr.  Poulsen  introduced  a  further  improvement.  He  found  that 
by  inclosing  the  arc  in  a  vessel  containing  hydrogen  or  coal  gas,  and 
forming  the  arc  between  a  cold  meta)  terminal,  which  is  the  positive, 
and  a  large  carbon  terminal,  which  is  the  negative,  the  arc  being  also 
traversed  by  a  strong  magnetic  field,  much  higher  oscillation  fre- 
quencies could  be  obtained  than  with  the  double  carbon  arc  in  air. 
(See  fig.  11.) 

He  also  found  it  is  an  advantage  to  rotate  the  carbon  terminal. 
When  this  arc  is  shunted  by  an  appropriate  small  condenser  in  series 


with  an  inductance,  we  can  obtain  in  this  last  circuit  electric  oscilla- 
tions having  a  frequency  of  a  million  or  mcire  depending  on  the 
capacity  and  inductance  used.  If  a  suitably  tuned  antenna  is  con- 
nected to  one  terminal  of  this  condenser,  and  one  arc  terminal  to 
the  earth,  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  we  are  able  to  radiate  from  the 
antenna  undamped  trains  of  electric  waves. 

I  have  before  me  an  apparatus  of  this  kind  with  which  much  work 
has  been  done  in  my  laboratory  during  the  last  few  months.  It  con- 
sists of  a  water-jacketed  brass  cylinder  with  marble  ends,  through 
which  project  at  one  end  a  thick  carbon  rod,  kept  in  rotation  by  a 
motor,  and  at  the  other  a  water-cooled  brass  tube  with  copper  beak 
at  the  end.  An  electric  arc  is  formed  with  400-500  yolte  between 
these  terminals  taking  6-10  amperes.  t^TOO'^K 


ELECTRIC   WAVE  TELEGRAPHY — FLEMING.  177 

The  terminals  are  connected  by  a  sliding  inductance  and  by  a  con- 
denser. Then,  in  addition,  a  long  helix  of  wire  is  connected  to  one 
tenniDal  of  the  condenser.  This  helix  is  tuned  to  the  condenser  cir- 
cuit and  may  be  taken  to  represent  the  antenna  when  the  apparatus 
is  used  in  wireless  telegraphy.  If  we  start  the  arc,  then  high-fre- 
quency oscillations  are  produced  in  the  helix,  and  by  the  action  of 
resonance  the  potential  at  the  free  ends  becomes  large  enough  to  cre- 
ate an  electric  brush  discharge.  There  is,  of  course,  a  strong  oscil- 
latory electric  field  outside  the  helix,  and  vacuum  tubes  held  there, 
particularly  neon  tubes,  glow  brilliantly.  It  has  been  contended 
that  these  oscillations  are  undamped  and  continuous,  but  I  can  show 
you  a  simple  experiment  with  a  neon  tube  which  proves  that  they 
ure  not  always  uninterrupted.  If  I  hold  a  neon  tube  near  the  helix, 
and  move  it  rapidly  to  and  fro,  you  see  a  broad  band  of  light,  due 
to  persistence  of  vision,  but  this  is  cut  up  by  dark  lines  and  spaces. 
In  the  same  manner  if  a  neon  tube  is  rotated  near  the  helix  it  does 
not  produce  a  uniform  disk  of  light,  but  the  disk  presents  the  appear- 
ance of  radial  dark  bands  and  bri^t  spaces.  The  same  effect  is 
seen  with  a  vacuum  tube  filled  with  any  other  gas,  provided  the  tube 
bi  sufficiently  narrow  in  the  bore.  It  appears  to  me  that  this  proves 
incontestably  that  the  oscillations  are  not  uninterrupted,  but  are  cut 
up  irregularly  into  groups  of  various  lengths." 

To  obtain  these  high-frequency  oscillations  the  various  contribu- 
tory factors — strength  of  magnetic  field,  length  of  arc,  supply  of  coal 
gas — ^have  to  be  carefully  adjusted  with  reference  to  the  capacity 
and  inductance  used  and  the  voltage  on  the  arc  No  one  who  has 
practically  worked  with  the  apparatus  can  say  that  it  is  a  simple  and 
easy  one  to  use.  A  very  little  want  of  exact  adjustment  causes  the 
arc  to  be  extinguished  or  else  it  fluctuates  greatly  in  current,  and 
compared  with  the  extremely  simple  appliances  required  for  spark 
telegraphy,  the  advantage  in  ease  of  working  is  largely  on  the  side  of 
tbe  spark.  But  we  have  to  consider  whether  there  are  not  counter- 
balancing advantages  as  a  generator  of  telegraphic  electric  waves 
which  make  up  for  the  increased  difficulty  of  working  and  greater 
complexity  of  apparatus.     The  claim  made  for  it  is  that  if  the  trans- 

'  Previous  experimentalists  seem  to  have  been  satisfied  with  examining  in  a 
rerolving  mirror  the  flaming  arc  or  bnisli  produced  at  the  secondary  terminals 
ot  a  transformer,  the  primary  of  which  forms  the  Inductance  In  the  condenser 
drcnlt,  and  finding  the  Image  drawn  out  Into  a  band  of  light  concluded  that 
tbe  oscillations  were  continuous.  The  neon  tube  la  a  more  delicate  test,  and 
repeals  the  discontinuity  mentioned  above.  This  dlsconliuulty  of  the  train  of 
oscillations  seems  to  depend  to  some  degree  upon  a  want  of  perfect  regularity 
to  the  rotation  of  the  carbon  terminal.  It  may  also  be  brought  about  by  the 
•oerg;  transferred  to  tbe  condenser  circuit  being  radiated  or  dissipated  faster 
Uien  it  U  snppUed. 

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178  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  Iflffl. 

niitter  produces  undamped  continuous  oscillations  these  can  be  re- 
duced to  such  small  amplitude  that  they  will  not  affect  other  neigh- 
boring wireless  nonsyntonic  receivers  even  if  only  a  little  out  of  tune, 
but  can  by  the  cumulative  effects  of  resonance  actuate  their  own  cor- 
responding or  exactly  syntonized  receiver  at  the  same  or  a  greater 
distance.  This  claim  is  based  on  the  known  fact  that  for  certain 
types  of  receiving  circuit,  the  current  created  in  them  can  be  largely 
increased  by  increasing  the  number  of  oscillations  in  the  incident 
train  of  waves,  so  that  if  oscillations  or  waves  are  undamped  they  can 
make  up  for  feebleness  by  their  persistency.  This,  however,  depends 
essentially  upon  the  nature  of  the  receiving  circuit,  and  is  only  true 
within  certain  limits. 

When  electric  waves  radiated  from  one  antenna  fall  on  another 
syntonized  or  tuned  secondary  circuit  they  set  up  oscillations  in  the 
latter  of  the  same  period.  It  might  be  thought  that  if  these  imping- 
ing waves  are  undamped,  we  should  have  an  infinitely  large  current 
produced  in  the  secondary  circuit.  As  a  matter  of  fact  we  do  not. 
The  electro-motive  impulses  from  the  sender  only  increase  the  second- 
ary current  up  to  a  certain  point.  The  secondary  circuit  necessarily 
possesses  resistance  and  other  sources  of  energy  dissipation  which 
rapidly  increase  with  the  current  induced  in  it.  Moreover,  when  the 
secondary  circuit  has  an  antenna  attached,  this  itself  radiates  part 
of  the  energy  it  absorbs.  Hence  it  follows  that  beyond  a  certain 
point  the  energy  thrown  onto  the  secondary  circuit  is  no  longer 
utilized  to  increase  the  current  in  it,  but  only  just  suffices  to  maintain 
it.  The  case  is  exactly  analogous  to  that  of  a  body  being  warmed  by 
radiant  heat.  A  thermometer  exposed  to  full  sunshine  only  rises  to  a 
certain  height. 

A  comparison  between  the  damped  and  undamped  radiation,  to  be 
valid,  must  be  made  as  follows :  Assume  that  we  have  two  wireless 
transmitting  stations  side  by  side,  one  sending  out  intermittent  trains 
of  feebly  damped  oscillations,  the  other  continuous  trains  of  un- 
damped oscillations,  and  let  them  be  so  adjusted  that  the  transmitters 
take  the  same  mean  power  to  work  them.  Let  the  frequency  of  these 
damped  and  undamped  waves  so  radiated  be  the  same.  At  a  dis- 
tance let  there  be  a  suitable  movable  receiving  station,  say  a  ship, 
with  receiver  tuned  to  the  same  frequency.  Then  the  principal 
question  at  issue  is,  whether  the  undamped  wares  can  affect  this  re- 
ceiver at  a  greater  distance  than  the  damped  waves  of  the  same  in- 
tegral energy.  Otherwise,  at  the  same  distance  can  the  undamped 
wave  station  affect  the  receiver  when  using  less  power  than  the 
damped  wave  station.  Since,  however,  by  assumption  the  undamped 
waves  from  one  station  have  the  same  integral  energy  as  the  damped 
waves  from  the  other,  the  latter  will  have  a  higher  initial  value  in 
each  train  to  compensate  for  their  decreased  value  and  intermittent 


ELBCTBIC   WAVE   TELEQBAFHY FLEMING.  179 

cessation.  Hence  we  may  ask  another  question,  viz,  What  will  be 
tiieir  relative  effect  on  receiving  stations  in  their  neighborhood  not 
quite  in  tune  with  the  emitted  waves?  Can  we  bring  the  undamped 
waves  nearer  into  tune  with  these  outlander  stations  without  disturb- 
iDg  the  latter,  than  we  can  in  the  case  of  the  damped  waves,  and  if 
so  within  what  ratio  of  wave  length )  Claims  have  been  made  for  a 
great  superiority  in  this  respect  in  the  case  of  undamped  waves,  but 
we  are  still  awaiting  quantitative  confirmation.  Among  other  as- 
sertions it  has  been  stated  that  the  undamped  waves  are  less  easily 
"  tapped,"  to  use  the  newspaper  expression.  This  is  a  fallacy.  With 
the  proper  experimental  appliances  a  receiving  circuit  can  be  grad- 
ually adjusted  to  any  electrical  frequency,  and  when  it  comes  to  the 
right  frequency  it  must  be  affected  just  as  much  as  true  receiving 
stations  for  which  the  waves  are  intended.  It  is  all  a  matter  of  ap- 
paratus and  skill.  To  illustrate  the  first  point,  viz,  the  effect  of  the 
nature  of  the  receiving  circuit  we  may  take  an  instance  from  optics. 
^Vben  we  look  through  a  telescope  at  the  stars  we  can  see  a  certain 
number  down  to  some  limiting  magnitude.  No  amount  of  prolonged 
gazing  when  using  the  eye  as  a  wave  receiver  increases  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  a  just  invisible  star.  If,  however,  we  use  a  photographic 
plate  the  effect  on  it  is  cumulative,  and  we  can  by  a  sufficiently  long 
exposure  obtain  impressions  of  invisible  stars  in  countless  numbers. 
The  photographic  film  is  a  wave  detector  of  quite  a  different  kind  to 
the  retina.  In  the  case  of  the  film  it  can  make  up  by  time  what  is 
wanting  in  intensity  in  the  wave  motion.  In  the  case  of  wireless 
telegraphy  it  is  clear,  therefore,  that  the  nature  of  the  receiver  has 
a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  possible  advantages  of  undamped  waves, 
and  it  is  not  merely  a  question  of  the  tuning  or  the  transmitter." 
Again,  the  ordinary  10-inch  induction  coil  and  spark  transmitter  as 
used  on  ships  takes  up  one-fifth  of  a  horsepower  when  in  full  work, 
and  can  send  wireless  messages  200  miles  or  more  when  an  appropriate 
receiver  is  used.     I  find  it  very  difficult  if  not  impossible  to  obtain 

■■  la  order  that  be  may  tBke  the  utmost  adraotage  of  tbe  principle  of  res- 
iniance,  Mr.  Ponlaen  uses  la  tbe  receiver  a  device  be  calls  a  "  ticker."  Tbla 
Krres  to  keep  tbe  condeneer-iDductaDce  circuit  of  tbe  receiver  closed,  until 
rescmance  bae  exalted  tbe  osciUatlonB  to  tbe  utmost.  Tbe  ticker  then  opens 
It  at  lutervalB  and  Inserts  tbe  particular  oscillation  detector,  wbether  electro- 
l/tlc  or  otber,  which  makes  the  audible  or  visible  signal.  In  his  syntonic 
receiver  Mr.  Marconi  has  always  adopted  a  similar  plan,  for  be  keeps  tbe 
coherer  terminals  joined  by  a  condenser  whlcb  closes  tbe  secondary  circuit  of 
the  receiving  Jigger.  A  point  of  Interest  not  yet  considered  Is  wbether  we  do 
need  absolutely  undamped  waves  to  gain  all  the  possible  practical  advantages 
derivable  from  tbem.  It  may  be  that  very  slightly  damped  trains  containing, 
my,  50  oscillations  per  train  and  following  each  otber  several  hundred  times 
per  second  wilt  wltb  aa  appropriate  receiver  give  us  all  that  we  can  obtain 
from  the  use  of  forced  undamped  waves.  ,-.  , 


180 


AMNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 


sufficiently  high  frequency  oscillations  by  the  arc  metiiod  unless  at 
least  1  or  1^  horsepower  is  being  expended  in  the  arc.  Hence,  for 
short  distance  work  on  the  point  of  economical  working  as  well  as 
simplicity  of  apparatus  and  ease  of  working  the  spark  method  has 
advantages  denied  to  the  arc.  We  were  told  not  long  ago  by  an 
eminent  electrician  that  the  arc  method  of  creating  undamped  waves 
sounded  the  death  knell  of  spark  telegraphy.  It  is  always  advisable 
to  exercise  some  caution  in  issuing  obituary  notices  of  well  tried  in- 
ventions prior  to  their  actual  decease,  and  in  this  case  although  the 
power  to  create  continuous  trains  of  electric  waves  will  doubtless 
greatly  assist  space  telegraphy,  it  does  not  follow  that  their  gener- 
ation by  the  arc  method  is  the  best  or  final  method. 

In  the  production  of  continuous  oscillations  we  are  not  limited  to 
the  arc  method.  Mr.  Marconi  has  for  some  time  past  been  engaged 
in  developing  an  ingenious  method  of  creating  undamped  electric 
waves  for  telegraphic  purposes  which  involves  neither  an  arc  nor 
alternator,  but  is  a  new  mechanical  method  of  great  simplicity. 

This  method  is  capable  of  pro- 
ducing astonishingly  large  alter- 
nating currents  of  very  high  fre- 
quency, in  other  words,  so  called 
undamped  or  persistent  oscilla- 
tions. I  have  recently  witnessed 
some  of  his  experiments,  and  was 
surprised  at  the  results  obtained. 
Long  distances  have  been  tele- 
graphically covered  with  every 
prospect  of  great  efficiency.  Un- 
fortunately, the  incomplete  state 
of  certain  foreign  patents  prevents 
me  from  entering  into  details  of 
this  method  now,  but  I  hope  he 
himself  will  be  able  to  do  so  soon. 
Turning  then  from  transmitters  to  receivers,  we  may  notice  one  or  two 
recent  types.  By  far  the  larger  portion  of  electric  wave  telegraphy 
was  until  a  few  years  ago  conducted  by  means  of  some  form  of  coherer, 
either  requiring  tapping  or  else  self-restoring.  The  coherer  in  certain 
forms  has  the  advantage  that  a  current  of  about  0.1  to  1.0  milliampere 
can  be  passed  through  it,  and  hence  through  a  relay,  so  that  messages 
can  be  printed  down  by  it  when  using  a  Morse  inker  in  dot  and  dash 
signals.  After  that  came  Mr.  Marconi's  magnetic  detector,  making  use 
of  a  telephone  to  create  an  audible  signal.  This  is  now  the  instrument 
■  employed  by  him  on  all  long  distance  work.  In  Germany  and  the 
United  States  a  type  of  telegraphic  wave  detector  has  come  into  use, 
commonly  called  the  electrolytic  receiver.     In  one  f orm^it  was  iayented 


Electrolytic  detector. 


ELBCTBIC   WAVE  TELEGRAPHY — FLEMING,  181 

in  the  United  States  by  Fessenden,  and  called  by  him  a  liquid  barret- 
ter. It  was  independently  discovered,  and  described  shortly  after- 
wards in  Gtermany  by  W.  Schloemilch,  and  is  generally  there  called  the 
electrolytic  detector.  (See  fig.  12.)  It  consists  of  an  electrolytic  cell 
or  vessel  containing  some  electrolyte,  usually  nitric  acid.  In  it  are 
placed  two  electrodes,  one  a  metal  or  carbon  plate  of  large  surface, 
and  the  other  an  extremely  fin©  platinum  wire  prepared  by  the  Wol- 
laston  process,  a  very  short  length  of  which  is  immersed  in  the  liquid. 
A  convenient  plan  is  to  prepare  a  Wollaston  wire  of  silver,  having  a 
core  of  platinum  which  is  drawn  down  until  the  latter  is  only  one 
one-thousandth  of  a  millimeter  in  diameter.  If  the  electr(tlyte  is 
strong  nitric  acid,  then  when  the  above  wire  is  immersed  to  the  depth 
of  a  millimeter  the  acid  dissolves  off  the  silver  and  leaves  the  fine 
platinum  wire  exposed  as  an  electrode.  This  cell  has  its  two  elec- 
trodes connected  respectively  to  a  receiving  antenna,  and  an  earth 
plate,  and  also  to  a  circuit  containing  a  shunted  voltaic  cell  and  a  tele- 
phone. (See  fig.  12A.)  The  voltaic  cell  sends  a  current  through  the 
electrolyte  in  such  a  direction 
as  to  make  the  fine  wire  the 
positive  electrode  or  anode. 
Some  dispute  has  taken  place 
whether  the  cell  will  work 
when  the  fine  wire  is  the  nega- 
tive electrode.  Fessenden,  who 
adopts  a  thermal  theory  of  the 
cell,  claims  with  Rothmund  and 
Lessing  that  it  is  equally  sen- 
sitive, whether  the  small  elec- 
trode is  positive  or  negative.  , 

According  to  one  theory,  the       [T] 
action  of  the  cell  as  a  wave  de-  ' 
tector  depends  on  the  power  of   '""'  iaA.-Ei«troiyiic  detector  with  .hunted 

.,;    ^.  ^  .,  -^n  ami  telephone. 

the  oscillations  to  remove  the 

so-called  polarization  of  the  electrodes  or  adhering  films  of  ions.  Ac- 
cording to  another  theory  it  is  due  to  the  heating  action  of  the  oscilla- 
tions on  the  small  electrode  and  liquid  in  its  neighborhood.  *  In  any 
case,  the  action  is  just  as  if  the  resistance  of  the  electrolytic  cell  were 
suddenly  changed,  either  increased  or  decreased.  It  has  also  been 
found  by  Rothmimd  and  Lessing  that  the  cell  may  be  made  to  supply 
its  own  electromotive  force.  If  we  form  a  simple  polarizable  voltaic 
cell  with  fine  zinc  and  platinum  wires  immersed  in  dilute  acid  and  con- 
nect a  telephone  or  high  resistance  galvanometer  to  these  elements; 
then,  when  electric  oscillations  pass  through  the  cell,  the  current  sent 
by  it  through  the  telephone  or  pdvanometer  is  momentarily  increased. 

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:x'i 


182 


ANNtTAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  IWl. 


—Oscillation  val 


That  the  action  is  not  altogether  due  to  the  removal  of  polarization 
films  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  fine  platinum  wire  in  the  Schloe- 
milch  form  of  detector  wears  away  or  is  dissolved  in  the  nitric  acid 
when  oscillations  are  passed  for  some 
time  through  the  cell,  and  there  is  some 
evidence  that  gold  and  platinum  can 
be  made  to  dissolve  even  in  dilute  acids 
by  the  action  of  electric  oscillations. 

In  1904  I  was  so  fortunate  as  to  disi- 
cover  another  and  quite  different  prin- 
ciple on  which  a  sensitive  electric  wave 
detector  can  be  based.  If  a  carbon 
filament  glow  lamp  has  a  metal  plate 
carried  on  a  third  terminal  sealed  into 
the  bulb,  it  is  well  knq^n  that  a  cur- 
rent of  negative  electricity  flows  from 
the  plate  to  the  positive  terminal  of 
the  lamp,  when  the  filament  is  ren- 
dered incandescent  by  a  continuous 
current.  This  is  the  so-called  Edison 
effect.  It  is  also  now  known  that  in- 
candescent bodies  discharge  negative 
corpuscles  or  electrons  from  their  surface,  and  incandescent  carbon, 
when  in  a  vacuum,  exhibits  this  power  in  a  marked  degree.  Negative 
electricity  escapes  freely 
from  it,  but  not  positive. 
In  1904  I  was  endeavoring 
to  find  some  way  of  recti- 
fying electric  oscillations, 
that  is,  of  separating  out 
the  two  sets  of  alternate 
currents  and  making  them 
separately  detectable  by 
an  ordinary  galvanome- 
ter. It  occurred  to  me  to 
make  uSe  of  a  carbon  fila- 
ment lamp,  having  a  metal 
cylinder  insulated  in  the 
bulb  surrounding  the  fila- 
ment, the  cylinder  being 
connected  to  a  platinum 
wire  sealed  through  the  bulb, 
as  follows :  A  circuit  was  connected  between  the  terminal  of  the  metal 
plate  and  the  negative  terminal  of  the  filament,  the  latter  being  made 


;.  13.)    This  lamp  was  then  used 


.y  Google 


ELECTEIC  WAVE  TELEOBAPHY — FLEMING.  188 

brightly  incandescent  by  a  small  battery.  In  this  circuit  a  galvanom- 
eter and  one  circuit  of  a  small  transformer  or  induction  coil  was  - 
inserted.  On  connecting  the  other  circuit  of  the  transformer  be- 
tween an  antenna  and  the  earth,  I  found  that  the  oscillations  set  up 
in  the  antenna  caused  a  deflection  in  the  ordinary  mirror-galvanom- 
eter. (See  fig.  14.)  The  action  is  as  follows:  The  antenna  oscilla- 
tions induce  others  in  the  circuit  of  the  transformer,  which  is  in  con- 
nection with  the  lamp.  A  movement  of  electricity  in  this  circuit,  which 
consists  in  the  flow  of  negative  electricity  from  the  filament  to  the 
plate  through  the  vacuum,  can  take  place,  since  this  negative  electric- 
ity is,  so  to  speak,  carried  across  the  vacuous  space  by  the  electrons 
emitted  from  the  hot  carbon.  On  the  oUier  hand,  negative  electricity 
can  not  flow  in  the  opposite  direction.  Hence  the  glow  lamp  sepa- 
rates out  the  two  oppositely  directed  movements  of  electricity  and 
allows  only  one  to  pass.  I  therefore  called  the  appliance  an  oscilla- 
tion valve.  This  instrument  was  shown  by  me  to  the  Royal  Society 
early  in  February,  1905,  and  was  employed  by  Mr.  Marconi  soon  after 
asa  long-distance  wireless-telegraph  receiver,in  conjunction  with  other 
improvements.  M.  Tissot,  of  the  Naval  College,  Brest,  in  France, 
has  made  use  of  this  glow-lamp  detector,  and  with  a  sensitive  galva- 
nometer has  received  signals  at  a  distance  of  50  kilometers."  Employ- 
ing a  special  form  of  transformer,  and  a  telephone  in  place  of  a  gal- 
vanometer, Mr.  Marconi  has  used  it  for  some  time  past  over  distances 
of  200  miles  or  more,  and  finds  it  a  very  sensitive  form  of  receiver. 
Since  this  particular  form  of  electric  wave  detector  was  brought  to 
notice  by  me,  Doctor  Wehnelt  has  found  that  a  metallic  wire,  coated 
with  oxides  of  calcium,  barium,  or  other  earthy  metals,  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  carbon  filament  in  the  vacuous  bulb. 

The  oscillation  valve  is  capable  of  giving  very  remarkable  effects 
when  used  as  a  receiver  with  a  transmitter  producing  undamped 
waves.  The  reason  for  this  is  obvious.  The  valve  passes  all  the 
unidirectional  currents  in  the  attached  secondary  circuit.  If,  then, 
these  are  intermittent  damped  trains,  say  having  a  frequency  of 
100,000,  and  50  trains  of  20  oscillations  per  second,  the  total  time 
during  which  electric  current  is  passing  is  only  one-thousandth  of 
the  whole  time.  Accordingly,  if  we,  so  to  speak,  fill  up  the  gaps 
between  the  trains  of  oscillations  with  other  oscillations,  and  generate 
a  continuous  train,  we  greatly  increase  the  quantity  of  electricity 
passing  and  repassing  any  point  in  the  secondary  circuit,  and  the 
indications  on  a  galvanometer  in  circuit  with  the  valve  are  enor- 
mously increased.    A  true  comparison  between  the  two  cases  of 

'See  The  Electrician,  Vol.  LVIII,  p.  730,  Feb.  22,  1907.    M.  C.  Tisaot,  "On 
lonlaed  Gas  Electric  Ware  Detectors." 
41780—08 m 


.y  Google 


184  ANNUAL  BBPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITtJTION,  IWK. 

damped  and  undamped  waves  involves  man;  factors,  and  is  not  fair 
unless  we  compare  together  transmitters  taking  the  same  mean  power. 
Generally  speaking,  however,  we  may  say  that  not  only  this  glow- 
lamp  detector,  but  all  forms  of  thermal  detector,  give  greatly 
increased  effects  when  employing  undamped  oscillations.  X  find, 
for  instance,  that  if  undamped  oscillations  are  created  in  a  closed 
wire  circuit  which  forms  part  of  a  circuit  containing  capacity  and 
inductance  shunted  across  a  Poulsen  arc,  I  can  induce  powerful 
secondary  oscillations  in  a  similar  closed  and  syntonic  secondary 
circuit  at  a  considerable  distance,  and  detect  these  by  the  use  of  my 
oscillation  valve  and  a  galvanometer  placed.  In  fact,  the  use  of 
undamped  oscillations  in  a  closed  primary  circuit,  and  this  oscillation 
valve  used  with  a  telephone  in  a  closed  secondary  circuit,  brings  to 
the  front  again  the  possibility  of  making  use  of  so-called  wireless 
telegraphy  by  electro-magnetic  induction  over  very  large  distances. 
The  old  form  of  electro-magnetic  induction  telegraphy  as  practiced 
by  Trowbridge,  Preece,  Lodge,  and  others  made  use  of  low-frequency 
alternating  currents  (50  to  100)  in  a  closed  primary  circuit,  and 
employed  a  telephone  in  a  distant  closed  secondary  circuit  to  detect 
the  magnetic  field  so  produced,  signals  being  made  by  interrupting 
the  primary  current  I  have,  however,  found  a  means  of  greatly 
improving  this  form  of  wireless  telegraphy.  In  a  closed  primary 
circiiit  I  establish  continuous  undamped  oscillations  of,  say,  a  quarter 
of  a  million  frequency  by  the  arc  method.  At  a  distance  I  place  a 
^ntonic  secondary  circuit  containing  my  oscillation  valve  as  a 
detector,  a  telephone  being  used  with  it  connected  between  the 
middle  plate  and  negative  filament  terminal.  Both  the  primary 
circuit  and  secondary  circuit  are  connected  to  earth  at  some  point. 
The  signals  are  made  by  breaking  and  making  the  earth  connection 
of  the  transmitter  in  accordance  with  Morse  code.  When  the 
earth  connection  is  made  at  both  ends  a  sound  is  heard  in  the  tele- 
phone, but  not  when  it  is  broken.  This  seems  to  depend  upon  the 
fact  that  the  oscillations  produced  by  the  arc  method  are  not  abso- 
lutely continuous,  but  cut  up  into  groups,  as  already  proved  by  the 
experiment  with  the  rapidly  moving  neon  tube  and  helix. 

I  have  found  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  employ  a  high-voltage 
carbon  filament,  a  small  lamp  with  4-volt  filament,  taking  about  one 
ampere,  works  quite  as  well  as  a  wireless  telegraph  receiver  as  a  12  or 
100  volt  lamp.  The  filament  has,  however,  to  be  at  a  certain  critical 
temperature  to  obtain  the  best  result;  the  vacuum  also  has  to  be 
extremely  good.  There  are,  no  doubt,  many  possible  variations  of 
the  above-mentioned  type  of  oscillation  valve  wave  detector.  Every 
glass  vessel  containing  rarefied  gases  or  mercury  vapor  having  elec- 
trodes of  different  sizes  or  shapes  or  temperatures,  has  some  degree 
of  unilateral  conductivity,  and  can  be  used  in  the  above  manner 


ELBCTBIC   WAVE  TELEGRAPHY — FLEMING.  185 

to  separate  out  the  two  constituent  currents  of  an  electrical  oscilla- 
tion, and  make  them  detectable  by  an  ordinary  galvanometer  or 
telephone.  I  have  also  tried  with  some  success  a  flame  in  which  two 
platinum  wires  are  immersed,  one  of  which  carries  a  bead  of  potas- 
sium sulphate  as  a  means  of  rectifying  oscillations  of  high  frequency. 
It  is  well  known  that  negative  ions  are  then  liberated  in  the  flame, 
and  negative  electricity  can  pass  over  more  freely  from  the  electrode 
which  carries  the  bead  of  salt  to  the  other  than  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. I  have  not,  however,  found  anything  as  simple  and  useful  as 
the  above- described  low-voltage  carbon  filament  glow  lamp.  More- 
over, other  inventors  have  indorsed  its  utility  by  granting  it  the 
compliment  of  imitation.  In  October,  1906,  Doctor  de  Forest 
described  to  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers  an 
appliance  be  called  an  "  audion,"  which  is  merely  a  replica  of  my 
oscillation  valve,  described  to  the  Royal  Society  eighteen  months 
previously  and  to  the  Physical  Society  of  London  six  months  before, 
particularly  with  reference  to  its  use  as  a  wireless  telegraph  receiver. 
Apart  from  the  name  the  only  difference  introduced  by  him  was  to 
substitute  a  telephone  and  battery  in  series  connected  between  the 
middle  plate  and  positive  terminal  of  the  filament,  for  the  gal- 
vanometer used  by  me  connected  between  the  middle  plate  and  the 
native  terminal.  As  Mr.  Marconi  had  before  that  time  used  my 
oscillation  valve  with  a  telephone  with  it  for  long  distance  work, 
and  M.  Tissot  has  found  a  galvanometer,  used  as  I  described  it, 
effective  up  to  50  kilometers,  the  modification  made  by  Doctor  de 
Forest  does  not  make  any  fundamental  difference  in  the  operation  of 
the  device  as  a  wave  detector." 

Very  closely  connected  with  the  question  of  the  production  of  con- 
tinuous or  undamped  electric  waves  is  that  of  the  electrical  trans- 
mission of  speech  through  space  without  wires;  in  other  words, 
vireless  telephony.  Some  considerable  progress  has  already  been 
made  in  this  direction.  Any  complete  treatment  would  require  a 
lecture  in  itself.  If,  however,  we  pass  by  the  investigations  of  Bell 
with  the  photophone,  Simon,  Buhmer,  and  others  with  apparatus 
employing  the  resistance  variation  of  selenium  by  projected  beams  of 
powerful  light,  and  also  those  of  Preece,  Gavey,  and  others  with 
electro-magnetic  induction,  we  may  say  that  at  the  present  time  the 
chief  interest  attaches  to  methods  of  wireless  telephony  which  involve 
the  use  of  undamped  electric  waves.  The  problem  may  then  be 
stated  to  be  as  follows :  Articulate  speech  made  against  a  diaphragm 
at  a  transmitting  station  has  to  affect  similarly  the  diaphragm  of  a 
telephone  at  a  receiving  station  not  connected  with  it  by  wire. 

•In  a  private  letter  M.  C.  Tissot  has  already  acknowledged  gmcefallf  my 
prtorttj-  of  invMition  In  tbla  matter,  althougli  lie  blmself  was  Indepaideatlr 
working  la  tbe  same  direction.  CiOOQlC 


186 


ANNUAL  RBPOBT  8U1TH80N1AN  IKHTITUTION,  1M7. 


Time  only  permits  me  to  give  you  a  brief  sketch  of  some  interest- 
ing experiments  which  have  been  carried  out  lately  l^  the  German 
Wireless  Telegraph  Company  between  Berlin  and  their  large  station 
at  Nauen,  20  miles  distant.  At  the  transmitting  station  they  employ 
12  electric  arcs  in  series,  each  of  which  is  composed  of  a  carbon  nega- 
tive and  a  water-cooled  copper  positive  electrode.  These  arcs  take  4 
amperes  at  440  volts.  (See  fig,  14.)  In  parallel  with  this  series  of 
arcs  is  joined  a  condenser  and  inductance,  to  which  is  inductively  but 
loosely  coupled  an  antenna  from  which  undamped  electric  waves,  800 
meters  in  wave  length,  are  radiated,  having  a  frequency,  therefore,  of 
400,000,  The  oscillations  set  up  in  this  antenna  can  be  more  or  less 
enfeebled  by  shunting  them  to  earth  through  a  microphone  trans- 
mitter, the  resistance  of  which  is  varied  by  the  act  of  speaking  against 
it.  Hence,  although  the  wave  length  of  the  emitted  electric  waves  is 
not  altered,  their  intensity  is  modulated  in  accordance  with  the  wave 


Fig,  is.— wireless  (elephODr  by  electric  waiea. 

form  of  the  sounds  impressed  on  the  transmitter  diaphragm.  At  the 
receiving  station  there  is  a  receiving  antenna  tuned  to  the  wave 
length  used,  having  a  quantitative  electrolj-tic  detector  in  connection 
with  a  telephone  coupled  inductively  to  the  antenna  circuit.  Hence 
the  vibrations  of  the  transmitter  diaphragm  vary  the  intensity  of  the 
radiated  electric  waves  but  not  tlieir  wave  length.  These  waves  travel 
through  space,  fall  on  the  receiving  antenna  and  affect  the  resistance 
of  the  electrolytic  detector  in  proportion  to  their  intensity.  Hence 
the  receiving  telephone  repeats  tlie  sounds  or  articulations  made 
against  the  transmitting  microphone  and  reproduces  speech.  The 
German  experimentalists  say  that  a  satisfactory  wireless  transmission 
of  speech  can  be  made  in  this  manner,  20  kilometers  or  12  miles  over 
water  with  antennee  25  meters  or  about  SO  feet  high.    * 

Ruhmer  has  recently  described  in  the  Elektrotechnische  Zeitschrift 
some  similar  esperimeats  made  with  a  220-volt  Foulseu  arc.    In  this 


ELECTRIC   WAVE   TELEGRAPHY — FLEMING.      '  187 

case  the  necessary  modulation  was  impressed  upon  the  radiated  elec- 
tric waves  by  inserting  the  primary  circuit  of  an  induction  coil  in  the 
continuous  current  arc  circuit,  and  closing  its  secondary  through  a 
microphone  transmitter  and  working  battery.  The  receiving  ar- 
rangement involved  an  electrolytic  receiver  as  just  described.  Pro- 
fessor Fessenden  has  recently  described  very  similar  arrangements 
for  electric  wave  wireless  telephony."  We  can,  however,  say  that 
something  more  than  a  beginning  has  been  made  in  the  art  of  the 
wireless  transmission  of  human  speech  to  a  distance.  The  energy  ex- 
penditure is  at  present  considerable,  and  much  will  have  to  be  done 
before  telephony  without  wires  can  be  looked  upon  as  coming  within 
the  range  of  commercial- work.  Nevertheless,  having  regard  to  the 
enormous  improvements  in  wireless  telegraphy  in  the  last  seven  years, 
it  is  quite  within  the  bounds  of  possibility  we  may  soon  be  able  to 
speak  across  the  English  Channel  without  a  wire,  and  not  scientific- 
ally impossible  for  the  sounds  of  the  human  voice  to  be  some  day 
transmitted  from  the  shores  of  England  or  the  United  States  to  an 
Atlantic  liner  in  mid-ocean. 

We  may  consider  in  the  next  place  another  problem  of  greet  prac- 
tical importance,  toward  the  solution  of  which  some  considerable 
progress  has  been  made,  viz,  that  of  locating  the  direction  of  the 
sending  station  and  giving  direction  to  the  emitted  radiation  sent  out 
from  it.  The  early  attempts  to  do  this  depended  upon  the  use  of 
parabolic  mirrors,  or  some  arrangement  of  vertical  rods  equivalont 
to  it.  But  although  comparatively  short  electric  waves  of  a  few  feet 
in  wave  length  can  be  directed  in  this  manner  in  the  form  of  a  beam, 
it  is  out  of  the  question  for  electric  waves  hundreds  of  feet  in  length, 
because  reflection  can  only  take  place  when  the  dimensions  of  the 
mirror  are  at  least  comparable  with  that  of  the  wave  length. 

The  ordinary  vertical  antenna,  of  course,  radiates  equally  in  all 
directions,  and  when  it  is  so  far  off  as  to  be  below  the  horizon  a  corre- 
sponding receiving  antenna  may  respond  to  it,  but  can  not  locate  the 
position  of  the  sending  station. 

It  seems  to  have  been  noticed  by  several  persons  that  if  the  antenna 
is  not  vertical,  it  radiates  rather  more  in  one  direction  than  another, 
and  the  same  for  a  nonvertical  receiving  antenna.  It  is  more  recep- 
tive to  waves  coming  from  one  direction  than  another.  Various 
(rf>9erTatJons  on  the  operation  of  nonvertical,  looped,  or  duplex 
antetin«e  have  from  time  to  time  been  made  by  Zenneck,  Sigsfeld, 
Strecker,  Slaby,  and  De  Forest,  whilst  methods  for  locating  the  send- 
ing station  or,  directing  the  transmitted  waves  were  described  in 
patent  specifications  by  De  Forest,  Garcia,  and  Stone.  Although 
claims  were  made  for  arrangements  said  to  be  effective,  these  various 

•  See  The  KlecWlclan,  Vol.  LVIII,  p.  710,  1907. 


188 


ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION.  1901. 


bUhwUOA 


'MarcoDi  b«Dt  aDt«Dna. 


researches  were  not  pressed  to  such  logical  issue  as  to  disclose  any 
definite  general  scientific  principle,  whilst  in  some  cases  the  results 
said  to  have  been  obtained  are  clearly  in  contradiction  to  well  ascer- 
tained facts. 

Time  will  not  permit  further  reference  to  these  early  and  inconclu- 
sive observations. 
In  March  last  year  Mr.  Marconi  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society 
a  paper  on  the  radiation 
from  an  antenna  having 
a  short  part  of  its  length 
vertical  and  the  greater 
part  horizontal,  and  on 
the  receptive  powers  of  a 
similar  antenna  in  vari- 
ous azimuths.  (See  fig. 
16.)  He  found  that  such  a  bent  antenna  emits  a  less  intense  radiation 
at  any  given  distance  in  the  direction  in  which  the  free  end  points  than 
in  the  opposite  direction.  Also,  since  the  law  of  exchanges  holds  good 
for  electric  radiators,  a  similar  form  of  antenna  receives  or  absorbs 
best  electric  waves  which  reach  it  from  a  direction  opposite  to  that 
to  which  the  free  end  points."  Hence  two  similar  bent  antennee,  when 
set  up  back  to  back,  that  is,  with  their  free  ends  pointing  away  from 
each  other,  form  a  system 
of  radiator  and  receiver 
which  has  greater  range 
in  that  position  than  in 
any  other  for  the  same 
distance, '  and  hence  has 
directive  qualities  not 
possessed  by  the  ordinary 
vertical  antennse. 

Although  I  have  given 
the  mathematical  expla- 
nation of  the  reasons  for 
this  in  another  place,^  it 
is  not  difficult  to  trans- 
late the  common  sense  of 
it  into  nonsymbolic  lan- 


B  m 


-e®- 


[''la.  IT. — Tbeory  at  Marconi  bent  ■nienn*. 


guage.     Imagine  a  square  circuit  of  i 


I  half  buried  vertically  in 


'  This  is  an  eitensioD  to  electric  radiation  of  the  principle  known  ns  PrevostV 
Tbeory  of  Exchanges,  as  amplified  by  Balfour  Stewart  and'ElrcbhofT,  wlilcb 
forms  tbe  basis  of  spectrum  analyelB  laid  down  by  Stokes.  KlrcbbolT,  Bunsen. 
and  otbers. 

»  See  "A  Note  on  the  Theory  of  Directive  Anteaote,"  Proc  Roy.  Soc.  Lood., 
Vol.  LXXVIIU.  1906,  p.  1.  .-,  , 


ELECTOIC   WAVE  TELEGRAPHY — FLEMING.  189 

the  eartli.     (See  fig.  17.)     Let  a  current  be  supposed  to  flow  round 
it,  in   clockwise  direction.     Then  it  creates  a   magnetic   field,  the 
direction  of  which  along  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  a  direction  at 
right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  circuit,  and  at  equal  distances  from 
the  center,  is  toward  the  spectator  on  both  sides.     Suppose,  then, 
that  a  wire  equal  in  length  to  one  side  of  the  square  is  placed  in 
contiguity  to  one  vertical  side,  and  that  it  carries  a  current  oppo- 
site in  direction  to  that  in  the  side  of  the  square   (say,  the  right- 
hand  ade)  to  which  it  is  in  proximity.    Then  the  magnetic  field  of 
this  straight  current  is  from  the  spectator  at  the  right-hand  side  and 
to  the  spectator  on  the  left-hand  side.     Accordingly,  the  total  field  on 
the  right-hand  side,  due  to  the  currents  in  the  closed  and  open  cir- 
cuits together,  is  less  than  that  on  the  left,  because  the  individual 
fields  are  added  on  one  side  and  subtracted  on  the  other.     Since  the 
two  oppositely  directed  currents  in  the  adjacent  wires  may  be  imag- 
ined to  come  so  close  as  to  annul 
each  other,  and  since  the  parts  of 
the  remainder  below  ground  may 
be  considered  to  be  removed  with- 
out affecting  the  field  above  ground, 
we  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  an 
antenna  partly  vertical  and  partly 
horizontal   radiates  most  strongly 
in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  in 
which  the  free  end  points. 

Mr.  Marconi  discovered  this  fact 
experimentally,  and  made  meas- 
urements of  the  currents  induced 
in    receiving    antenna    placed    at 

1     J'^„„„         ~^.,^A     *u:^    u^^t     •'""'■   18- — a«<llatloQ   In  various  ailmullu 

equal    distances   round    this   bent  f^„  M.rconi  bent  .ntenm. 

transmitter,  and  plotted  the  results 

in  the  form  of  a  polar  curve.  (See  fig.  18.)  As  a  quantitative  receiv- 
ing detector  he  made  use  of  a  Duddell's  thermal  ammeter.  In  repeat- 
ing and  confirming  these  experiments  on  a  smaller  scale  last  summer 
in  the  grass  quadrangle  of  tTniversity  College,  I  employed  a  form  of 
thermal  ammeter  of  my  own  design,  made  as  follows:  A  vacuum 
vessel  made  like  those  which  Sir  James  Dewar  devised  for  storing 
liquid  gases  has  four  platinum  wires  sealed  through  the  bottom  of  the 
inner  test  tube.  One  pair  of  these  is  connected  in  the  vacuous  space 
by  an  extremely  fine  constantin  wire  and  the  other  pair  by  a  fine 
tetlurium-bismuth  thermo-junction,  with  the  junction  resting  on  the 
fine  wire.  (See  fig.  19.)  "When  a  galvanometer  of  suitable  resist- 
ance is  connected  to  the  terminals  of  the  thermo-junction  and  the  con- 
stantin wire  inserted  in  the  circuit  of  the  receiving  antenna  we  have 
an  arrangement  which  enables  us  to  measure  as  well  as  detect  the  in- 
tensity of  the  electric  waves  incident  on  the  antenna.    This  detector, 


190 


ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INBTITIJTION,  IftM. 


Fio.  19. — Tbermat  detector. 


skillfully  made  by  my  assistant,  Mr.  Dyke,  proved  very  useful.  I 
was  thus  able  to  confirm  Mr.  Marconi's  observations  and  my  own 
theory  of  them,  and  furthermore  noticed  that  when  the  nonvertical 
part  of  the  transmitting  antenna  was  bent  so  that  it  was  not  hori- 
zontal but  pointed  downwards,  a 
very  remarkable  nonsymmetry  of 
radiation  occurred,  quite,  however, 
accounted  for  by  theory.  ( See 
fig.  20.)  Mr.  Marconi  has  made 
very  effective  practical  use  of  the 
bent  receiving  antenna  to  locate  the 
position  of  a  ship  or  station  send- 
ing out  electric-wave  messages 
when  60  far  off  as  to  be  below  the 
horizon. 

In  this  case  he  arranges  the  re- 
ceiving antenna  so  that  a  very  short 
part  is  vertical  and  the  greater 
part  horizontal,  and  furthermore 
permits  the  horizontal  part  to  be 
swiveled  round  the  vertical  part  as  a  center.  In  the  vertical  portion 
he  places  his  magnetic  or  some  other  detector.  If,  then,  there  be  a 
distant  station  in  correspondence  with  this  receiver,  the  direction  in 
which  the  transmitter  lies  can  be  determined  within  a  few  degrees 
by  swiveling  round  the 
receiving  antenna  and  not- 
ing the  position  in  which 
it  picks  up  signals  or  picks 
them  up  best  from  this 
transmitter.  The  trans- 
mitter then  lies  in  the  di- 
rection opposite  to  that  in 
which  the  free  end  of  the 
receiver  wire  points.  If  it 
is  not  convenient  to  swivel 
round  the  horizontal  por- 
tion, then  Marconi  ar- 
ranges a  number  of  hori- 
zontal receiving  antenna: 
like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel, 
all  having  a  common 
shorter  vertical  part  as  their  center.  (See  fig.  21.)  In  the  vertical 
part  a  magnetic  detector  is  inserted,  and  by  means  of  a  switch  any  one 
of  the  horizontal  radial  antennte  can  be  put  in  connection  with  it.  By 
finding  which  radial  gives  the  strongest  dgnals,  the  cUiection  of  the 


] 


B1.BCTEI0  WAVE  TELEOBaPHT — FLEMING.  191 

sendiog  station  is  easily  located.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  two 
well-defined  principles  had  been  arrived  at  by  Marconi.  First,  that 
the  qonsymmetry  of  the  radiation  and  reception  depends  upon  the  em- 
ployment of  antennse  having  their  horizontal  portions  large  compared 
with  the  vertical,  and  secondly,  that  the  maximum  radiation  is  in  the 
direction  opposite  to  that  in  which  the  free  end  of  the  horizontal  part 
points.  These  observed  effects  rest  on  a  sound  scientific  basis,  and,  as 
I  have  shown,  are  immediately  derivable  from  first  principles. 

Previously  to  Marconi's  experiments  no  definite  guiding  principles 
as  to  directive  telegraphy  had  been  published,  but  a  number  of  uncon- 
nected observations  made,  not  always  correctly  interpreted  or  even 
described,  and  in  any  case  with  limited  application. 

Meanwhile,  however,   Prof,   F,   Braun,   of  Strassburg,  had   been 
engaged  on  a  different  plan  for  directing  the  radiation  from  antenna. 
Briefly  stated,  his  method  is  as  foUows:  He  erects  three  vertical 
antennae  at  the  corners  of  an  equi- 
lateral triangle,  or  four  at  the  cor- 
ners of  a  square,  the  sides  of  which 
are  about  equal  to  the  height  of  the 
antennie,  and  he  creates  in  them 
electrical  oscillations  which  have  a 
defined  and  constant  difference  of 

phase  by  methods  contrived  by  /'"IT^    l_ 

him,  Doctors  Papaltni  and  Man-  '       ' 

delstam,  not  yet  fully  described. 
It  is  found  that  the  waves  sent  off 
from  these  three  antennte  interfere 
with  each  other  in  an  optical  sense,  ^ 

exalting  each  other  in  some  direc- 
tions and  nullifying  each  other  in  ^'°'  21—""™°'  ""^""""s  a-.™-- 
other  directions,  in  accordance  with  their  relative  amplitude  and  phase 
difference.  The  resultant  effect  can  be  so  arranged  that  the  radiation 
is  extremely  unsymmetrical,  being  much  more  toward  one  side  than 
the  other.  The  intensity  in  various  azimuths  may  be  represented  by 
the  radii  vectores  of  a  sort  of  oval  or  heart-shaped  curve,  the  triple 
transmitter  occupying  a  position  on  the  cusp  or  apex  of  the  curve. 
(See  fig.  22.)  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  popular  notions  on  the 
subject  of  directive  telegraphy  are  wide  of  the  mark.  Whilst  we  can 
not  yet  project  a  narrow  beam  of  long-wave  electric  radiation  in  any 
required  direction,  or  focus  it  entirely  on  a  given  receiving  station  at 
a  great  distance,  much  can  be  done  to  prevent  radiation  being  sent  out 
from  transmitters  in  directions  in  which  it  is  of  no  use  or  not  desired. 

At  coast  stations  communicating  with  ships  at  sea  something  has 
already  been  done  to  achieve  this  result.    Mr.  Marconi  has  for  some 

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192  ANHUAL.  BEPOHT   BMITHSONUN   INSTITUTION,  IBM. 

time  past  employed  such  directive  antenna  at  his  large  power  stations 
at  Poldhu  and  elsewhere. 

These,  then,  are  a  few  of  the  contributions  which  have  recently 
been  made  by  practicians  and  theorists  to  this  fascinating-  and  pro- 
gressive subject.  But  whilst  we  may  congratulate  ourselves  that 
progress  continues  to  be  made,  there  are  still  large  districts  of  it  in 
which  our  knowledge  is  most  incomplete.  One  matter  having  a  very 
practical  bearing  is  the  necessity  for  systematic  study  of  the  causes 
which  vary  the  transparency  of  space  to  long  electric  waves.  You 
will  continually  see  references  in  the  daily  papers  to  isolated  feats  of 
communication  between  ship  and  ship,  or  ship  and  shore,  over  un- 
usually large  distances.  Ships  equipped  with  what  is  called  short- 
distance  apparatus,  that  is  intended  to  send  and  receive  over  200 
miles  or  so,  are  able  occasionally  to  communicate  with  others  600,  800, 
or  even  1,000  miles  away.  This  is 
not  altogether  a  matter  of  personal 
skill  or  of  apparatus.  Our  terres- 
trial atmosphere  varies  from  day  to 
day  and  hour  to  hour  in  its  trans- 
parency to  long  telegraphic  electric 
waves,  just  as  it  does  to  the  short 
li^ht  waves.  One  reason,  and  prob- 
ably a  valid  one,  which  has  been  ad- 
vanced for  this  is  the  ionization  of 
the  atmosphere  by  sunlight,  radio- 
active matter,  or  matter  electrically 
charged  reaching  our  earth  from 
the  sun  or  cosmical  space.  These 
Fio.  22.— Poisr  diagram  tor  Brauo's  ions  OF  electrically  charged  par- 
triple  directiTE  anienna.  ticles  Suspended  in  the  air  are  set 
in  motion  by  the  electric  force  of  long  electric  waves  pasang 
through  the  region.  This,  however,  involves  energy  which  must 
be  taken  from  the  wave,  and  hence  the  wave  passes  on  so  much  the 
weaker.  This  effect  is  altogether  different  from  the  disturbing  effects 
of  atmospheric  electricity  on  the  receiving  antenna.  As  first  noticed 
by  Mr.  Marconi  on  one  of  his  Atlantic  voyages,  the  atmospheric 
transparency  for  long  electric  waves  is  decreased  by  daylight  and 
this  reducing  effect  of  light  on  the  wave  energy  takes  place  chiefly 
near  the  transmitting  antenna  where  the  electric  force  is  largest.  It 
fluctuates  from  hour  to  hour  and  month  to  month  according  to  laws  as 
yet  undetermined,  and  has  no  douht  secular  and  irregular  fluctuations 
superposed  on  its  regular  variations.  The  subject  of  long-distance 
wireless  telegraphy  is  yet  too  young  to  provide  observations  for  aay 


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ELECTBIC  WAVE  TELEQEAPHT — FLEMING.  198 

safe  generalizations  on  this  matter,  but  doubtless  these  will  be  accu- 
mulated in  course  of  time. 

Wireless  telegraphy  has  now  reached  a  position  of  such  importance, 
especially  in  connection  with  supermarine  communication,  that  scien- 
tific research  for  its  advancement  should  have  the  utmost  possible 
enconragetnent,  subject,  of  course,  to  the  consideration  that  there  is 
only  one  ether  for  us  all.  Whilst  we  derive  satisfaction  from  the 
thought  that  so  much  valuable  discovery  and  invention  has  already 
rewarded  the  labors  of  workers  in  many  lands,  we  have  but  to  glance 
around  us  to  see  in  all  directions,  in  connection  with  it,  unsolved  prob- 
lems, untrodden  paths,  wide  fields  of  knowledge  ripe  for  harvest  in 
which  the  sickle  of  the  reaper  has  never  yet  been  moved. 


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ON  THE  PROPERTIES  AND  NATURES  OF  VAKIOUS 
ELECTRIC  RADIATIONS. - 


B7  W.  B.  Bbaoo,  M.  a.,  p.  R.  S., 
BMer  Profettor  of  Mathematict  and  Physic*  in  the  VnlverMy  of  Adelaide. 


We  are  now  aware  of  the  existence  of  a  number  of  different  types 
of  radiation,  each  of  which  is  able  to  ionize  a  gas,  to  act  on  a  photo- 
graphic plate,  and  to  excite  phosphorescence  in  certain  materials. 
Of  these  the  a  and  canal  rays  consist  of  positively  charged  particles 
of  atomic  magnitude ;  the  cathode  and  j8  rays  are  negative  rays,  and 
consist  of  electrons;  the  X  and  7  rays  are  supposed  to  be  ether  pulses; 
and  ultra-violet  light  consists  of  short  ether  waves.  The  8  rays  stand 
by  themselves,  for,  though  they  consist  of  negative  electrons  like  the 
cathode  and  p  rays,  they  have  so  small  a  velocity  that  they  possess  no 
appreciable  ionizing  powers. 

The  present  paper  contains,  in  the  first  place,  an  attempt  to  find 
whether  there  is  anything  to  be  learned  from  a  comparison  of  the 
properties  of  the  various  rays;  and,  in  the  second  place,  a  discussion 
of  the  possibility  that  the  y  and  X  rays  may  be  of  a  material  nature. 

It  appears  to  me  to  be  a  first  deduction  from  such  a  comparison 
that  in  all  cases  the  bulk  of  the  ionization  which  the  rays  effect  is  of 
the  same  character,  and  consists  in  the  displacement  of  slow-moving 
electrons,  or  8  rays,  from  the  atoms  of  the  gas  or  other  substance 
which  they  traverse.    I^et  us  consider  the  various  rays  in  turn: 

In  the  case  of  the  cathode  rays  this  principle  has  been  clearly 
established  by  Lenard  in  the  course  of  his  long  series  of  beautiful 
experiments.  He  has  shown  that  cathode  rays  of  the  most  varied 
speeds,  impinfpng  on  bodies  of  various  kinds,  or  traversing  different 
gases,  cause  the  liberation  of  slow-speed  electrons  from  the  atoms  of 
the  solid  or  gas.  The  speed  of  the  electrons  is  in  every  case  that  due 
to  the  fall  through  less  than  ten  volts.  This  is  in  no  way  a  contradic- 
tion of  the  fact  that  cathode  rays  of  high  speed  are  also  liberated 
from  a  solid  surface  struck  by  primary  cathode  rays;  or  from  atoms 

■Read  before  tbe  Rojal  Society  of  South  Australia  fo  two  parts:  tbe  first  on 
Mar  7'  ySffl,  the  second  on  Jnne  4,  1907.  Reprinted,  by  permission,  from  tbe 
PhUosopblcal  Magailne  for  October,  1907.  GoOi'lc 


196  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

of  a  gas  through  which  the  primary  rays  pass.  But,  whether  these 
high-speed  secondary  rays  are  scattered  primary  rays,  or  are  true  sec- 
ondary rays,  they  must  in  their  turn  produce  electrons  of  slow  speed 
in  the  gas  through  which  they  pass;  and  so,  directly  or  indirectly,  by 
primary  or  secondary  or  tertiary  or  rays  still  more  transformed, 
eventually  the  great  majority  of  the  electrons  set  free  in  the  ioniza- 
tion chamber  of  ordinary  experiment  are  of  the  slow-speed  type. 

In  the  case  of  the  a  rays  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  their  im- 
pact on,  or  emergence  from,  solid  surfaces  causes  the  ejection  of  slow^- 
«peed  electrons.  (J.  J.  Thomson,  Cambridge  Phil.  Soc.  Trans.,  Feb- 
ruary, 1905 ;  Rutherford,  "  Nature,"  March  2,  1905 ;  Logeman,  Proc. 
Roy.  Soc,  September,  1906.)  Now,  it  is  generally  characteristic  of 
all  these  electric  radiations  that  they  are  concerned  with  the  in- 
dividual atoms  and  molecules,  and  that  they  do  not  recognize  any 
difference  between  the  atom  in  the  solid  and  the  atom  in  the  gaseous 
condition.  Consequently,  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
hetivy  ionization  caused  by  an  a  particle  in  traversing  a  gas  consists 
in  the  production  of  the  same  slow-speed  electrons  as  are  set  free 
from  a  solid,  and  indeed  no  trace  of  faster-moving  electrons  has  ever 
been  found.  The  slow-speed  electrons  originated  by  a  rays  have  been 
called  S  rays,  and  the  term  may  be  applied  to  all  such  slow-speed  elec- 
trons as  we  are  now  considering. 

Again,  it  has  been  shown  by  Fuchtbauer  (Phys.  Zeit.,  November  1, 
1906)  that  8  rays  are  emitted  from  a  metal  surface  struck  by  canal  rays; 
and  here  also  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  gas  molecules 
struck  by  such  rays  emit  the  same  8  particles.  The  same  author  has 
shown  by  a  direct  comparison  that  the  velocity  of  these  particles  is 
the  same  as  that  of  the  8  rays  displaced  by  ca^ode  rays,  i.  e.,  about 
3.3X10'  cm./sec.,  or  the  velocity  due  to  about  20  volts,  a  velocity  only 
slightly  larger  than  that  found  by  Lenard. 

As  regards  fi  and  y  rays,  it  is  true  that  is  has  not  been  definitely 
proved  that  most  of  the  ionization  which  they  cause  is  of  the  S  type. 
But  this  may  be  inferred  from  well-known  experiments,  such  as 
those  of  Durack  (Phil.  Mag.,  May,  1903),  or  McClelland  {Trans. 
Roy.  Dub.  Soc.,  February,  1906).  When  a  pencil  of  p  radiation  is 
allowed  to  cross  an  ionization  chamber  normally,  and  fall  upon  the 
opposite  wall,  it  gives  rise  to  a  secondary  ionization,  less  in  quantity, 
but  not  much  less  in  speed  than  the  primary.  A  tertiary  radiation 
is  caused  by  the  secondary  rays  if  they  impinge  on  the  walls  of  the 
chamber,  and  there  will  doubtless  be  still  further  derivations.  But 
it  appears  that  the  quantity  of  the  derived  radiations  dies  away 
much  more  quickly  than  the  speed.  Thus  the  chamber  is  crossed 
and  recrossed  (a  few  times)  by  electrons  of  high  speed,  able  to  tra- 
verse an  average  path  of  about  100  cm.  in  air  at  atmospheric  pres- 

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BLECXBIC   RADIATIONS— BBAQG.  197 

sure.  If  the  chamber  is  first  exhausted  and  air  gradually  admitted, 
it  is  found  that  the  number  of  ions  produced  by  the  p  rays  is  pro- 
poitional  to  the  pressure.  The  paths  of  the  p  rays  will  not  be 
appreciably  affected  by  the  introduction  of  the  air;  and  so  the  ex- 
perimental results  are  consistent  with  the  simple  hypothesis  that 
ifae  p  particle  (primary  or  secondary)  makes  slow-speed  ions  in 
proportion  to  the  niunber  of  gas  atoms  traversed.  Nor  does  any 
other  hypothesis  seem  to  be  consistent  with  the  facta.  It  can  not 
be  supp<»ed  that  the  bulk  of  the  ionization  which  is  caused  in  the 
ionization  chamber  conasts  of  high-speed  secondary  rays,  though, 
of  course,  these  are  originated  when  the  primary  rays  strike  the 
metal  surface  of  the  chamber,  and  to  a  small  extent  when  they  strike 
gas  molecules.  For  if  all  the  negative  electrons  set  free  by  the  p 
nys  were  of  high  velocity  we  should  expect  certain  effects,  as  may 
be  seen  from  the  following  considerations,  and  none  of  these  effects 
have  been  observed. 

Rutherford  has  shown  ("  Radioactivity,"  2d  edition,  p.  434)  that 
tbe  a  particle  of  Ra  makes  about  86,000  ions  in  air;  that  one  p 
particle  is  emitted  from  Rn  for  every  four  a  particles;  and  that  the 
ionization  due  to  j3  particles  is  of  the  order  of  1  per  cent  of  that  due 
to  a  particles  in  the  case  of  Ra  in  equilibrium.  Thus  the  p  particle 
of  Ra  produces  some  thousands  of  ions.  This  is  also  evident  from 
the  experiments  of  Durack  (Phil.  Mag.,  May,  1903),  who  has  shown 
that  the  p  particle  produces  about  130  ions  per  cm.  in  air  at  atmos- 
pheric pressure.  Now,  the  p  particle  runs  a  course  in  the  open  air 
of  an  average  length  of  100  cm.  This  leads  to  an  estimate  of  its 
ionization  even  greater  than  that  obtained  by  Rutherford.  If  all 
the  electrons,  so  liberated,  had  a  high  velocity,  the  energy  set  free 
would  be  out  of  all  proportion  to  that  of  the  ori^al  p  particle.  Yet 
if  we  are  to  ascribe  a  high  velocity  to  the  electrons  set  free,  it  must  be 
a  very  high  one,  for  it  has  been  shown  by  Allen  (Phya.  Review, 
August,  1906),  that  the  secondary  radiation  of  p  rays  consists  of 
electrons  moving  with  a  speed  approximating  to  that  of  the  primary. 
We  can  not  suppose  that  all  these  electrons  are  of  this  high-speed 
type.  Moreover,  if  this  were  the  case,  the  free  path  of  such  electrons 
would  become  comparable  with  the  dimensions  of  the  ionization 
chamber,  when  the  air  pressure  was  only  moderately  reduced,  and 
the  electrons  would  then  be  beyond  the  control  of  the  electric  field. 
Thus  the  ionization  would  not  be  proportional  to  the  air  pressure, 
as  was  found  by  Durack  and  McClelland.  The  difficulty  as  to  the 
energy  is  not  obviated  by  supposing  each  primary  p  particle  to  set 
free  only  a  few  secondary  electrons  of  high  speed,  each  of  these  to 
become  in  turn  the  originator  of  a  few  more,  and  so  on.  For  if  that 
were  the  case,  a  reduction  of  gas  pressure  would  imply,  not  only 

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198  ANNUAL  REPOKT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

that  each  primary  electron  set  free  fewer  secondary  electrons,  but 
that  each  of  the  latter  set  free  fewer  tertiaries,  and  so  on,  so  that 
the  ionization  would  fall  at  a  far  greater  rate  than  the  pressure  as 
soon  as  the  free  path  of  the  electrons  became  c<nnparable  with  the 
dimensions  of  the  chamber.  And,  again,  the  ^  rays  differ  only  in 
speed  from  cathode  rays,  which  produce  quantities  of  slow-speed 
electrons,  even  where  their  own  velocity  is  great. 

For  these  reasons  I  think  it  must  be  concluded  that  the  fi  particle 
(and  any  high-speed  secondary)  produces  slow-speed  electrons  along 
its  path,  in  very  much  the  same  way  as  the  a.  particle  does,  though 
not  in  such  great  numbers.  The  high-speed  secondary  rays,  studied 
by  McClelland,  Allen,  and  others,  are  but  few  in  number  compared 
to  the  slow-speed  electrons,  though  their  greater  energy  puts  them 
more  in  evidence.  McClelland  concludes  from  his  experiment  that 
the  p  rays  do  not  produce  any  slow-speed  electrons,  when  they  strike 
a  metal  surface,  which' are  comparable  in  number  with  the  electrons 
displaced  in  the  gas  through  which  they  have  passed.  This  is  quite 
consistent  with  what  has  been  said  above.  There  must  be  a  few, 
but  the  number  to  be  expected  is  quite  anall,  for  the  p  electrons  dive 
so  deep  into  the  metal  which  they  strike,  and  ionize  so  few  of  the 
molecules  through  which  they  pass,  that  very  few  of  the  slow-speed, 
highly  absorbable  electrons  can  be  discharged  from  the  surface  of 
the  plate.  Even  in  the  case  of  the  a  particle  these  electrons  are  not 
readily  observed ;  in  the  case  of  the  /3  particle  the  difficulty  must  be 
much  greater. 

As  regards  X  rays,  we  have  no  such  accurate  measurements  of  the 
velocities  of  the  electrons  which  are  ejected  from  the  molecules  of  a 
gas  traversed  by  the  rays,  as  we  have  in  the  case  of  the  cathode  rays, 
so  far  as  I  am  aware.  But  a  very  large  amount  of  labor  has  been 
spent  on  the  investigation  of  the  secondary  radiation  caused  by  the 
X  rays,  from  which  we  may  gather  much  indirect  evidence  on  the 
point.  Perrin  (Ann.  Chim.  Phys.,  XI,  p.  496,  1897)  has  shown  that 
the  rate  of  production  of  ions  per  cc.  by  rays  of  given  ihtensity  is 
proportional  to  the  pressure  of  the  gas.  Again,  we  know  from  the 
investigations  of  Curie  and  Sagnac,  Townsend  and  Barkia  that 
metals  struck  by  X  rays  return  a  secondary  radiation,  which,  in  the 
case  of  the  low  atomic  weights,  may  be  considered  to  consist  princi- 
pally of  scattered  primary  radiation,  and  in  the  case  of  the  high 
atomic  weights  to  contain  both  X  rays  more  absorbable  than  the  pri- 
mary and  cathode  rays.  Dorn  has  shown  that  the  latter  have  speeds 
averaging  about  5X10'  cm.,  so  that  they  must  produce  considerable 
ionization,  consisting  of  S  rays,  in  the  few  millimeters  of  air  close  to 
the  metal.  The  free  path  of  electrons  having  this  speed  is  about  one  ■ 
millimeter  in  air  at  atmospheric  pressure.     Since  the  X  rays  do  not 


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BLEOTBIO  RADIATIONS — BSAQG.  199 

appear  to  produce  cathode  rays  of  any  speed  from  the  air  molecules 
which  they  traverae,  or  from  the  molecules  of  any  gas  consisting  of 
atoms  of  small  weight,  and  since  they  prodnce  much  ionization  in 
EtHne  way  or  other,  we  may  conclude  fairly  that  they  produce  slow- 
speed  ions  themselves.  Thus,  whether  they  act  directly  or  indirectly 
through  cathode  rays,  the  result  is  the  same.  The  principal  effect 
appears  to  be  due  rather  to  secondary  than  primary.  As  Sagnac  re- 
marks (Ann.  Chim.  Phys.,  XXIII,  p.  196),  "The  transformation  of 
X  rays,  by  increasing  the  activity  at  any  point,  permits  the  detection 
there  of  very  penetrating  X  raya,  which  would  otherwise  have  passed 
unperceived." 

In  the  case  of  the  y  rays,  such  eridence  as  we  have  is  also  in  favor 
of  the  existence  of  slow-speed  ions,  as  the  result  of  their  action.  It 
is  known  that  p  rays  of  high  speed  originate  where  they  strike  the 
molecules  of  a  solid  body  (Eve,  Phil.  Mag.,  December,  1904) ;  such 
an  action  may,  therefore,  be  expected  in  the  case  of  gas  molecules  also. 
It  is  possible,  however,  that  there  may  be  a  differential  effect  in  re- 
spect to  heavy  and  light  atoms,  as  in  the  case  of  the  X  rays.  The  /3 
rays  will  produce  S  rays  in  their  turn;  and  if,  as  is  probably  the  case, 
the  7  rays  are  themselves  able  to  ionize,  the  product  will  consist  of  h 
rays,  a  conclusion  which  may  be  safely  adopted  from  the  analogies  of 
the  cathode  rays  on  the  one  hand  and  the  X  rays  and  ultra-violet 
light  on  the  other.  As  in  the  case  of  the  hard  X  rays,  the  existence 
of  y  rays  is  often  made  dear  by  the  secondary  effects  which  they 
prodace,  as  has  been  shown  by  Becquerel. 

To  sum  np  what  has  been  raid,  the  ionization  which  we  measure  in 
the  ionization  chamber  is  almost  wholly  due  to  the  emission  of  slow- 
speed  electrons  from  the  atoms  of  the  gas  contained  in  the  chamber 
or  of  the  chamber  walls;  and  this  is  true  for  all  forms  of  radiation. 

Moreover,  there  is  some  evidence  to  show  that  the  speed  of  the  S 
ray^  is  ahnost  independent  of  the  cause  and  manner  of  their  produc- 
tion. As  has  already  been  said,  Fuchtbauer  found  the  velocity  of 
the  S  rays,  caused  by  canal  rays,  to  be  about  3  3X10*,  and  the  same 
in  the  case  of  cathode  rays.  Logeman  found  the  velocity  of  the  S 
rays,  emitted  from  a  plate  struck  by  a  rays,  to  be  such  that  they  were 
deflected  by  a  weak  magnetic  field.  Ewers  found  (Phys.  Zeit., 
March,  1906)  the  8  ray's  of  polonium  to  possess  a  speed  of  3.25X10'. 
With  these  may  be  compared  Lenard's  estimate,  viz,  10*,  of  the  speed 
with  which  the  ions  leave  a  plate  struck  I^  ultra-violet  light.  It 
seems  probable  that  we  have  here  a  critical  speed  for  the  electron. 
Below  this  it  is  not  able  to  leave  the  parent  atom.  If  its  velocity 
exceeds  the  critical  amount  it  possesses  powers  of  penetration  and  of 
causing  ionization,  the  extent  of  these  powers  depending  on  tne 


41780—08 ^17 


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200  ANHUAD  BEPOBT  BMITHSOKIAN   INSTITUTION,  1B07. 

The  existence  of  a  common  speed  for  all  8  rays  may,  of  course, 
imply  that  the  ejection  is  not  directly  effected  by  the  ionizing  agent,  i 
but  that  the  latter  simply  precipitat«s  the  discharge.    A  man  running  ! 
through  a  battery  might  pull  the  triggers  of  some  or  all  of  the  guns 
which  it  contained,  and  the  velocity  of  the  shot  would  not  depend  on 
the  strength  of  the  man,  nor  the  rate  at  which  he  ran,  nor  how  much  ' 
energy  he  spent  in  the  transit.     And  so  it  may  be  understood  why  S 
raya  are  projected  at  a  speed  which  is  independent  of  the  nature  of 
the  agent,  as  has  been  said  above.    So  also  it  appears  to  be  inde- 
pendent of  the  intensity  of  the  agent's  action.    Fuchtbauer  found  the 
velocity  of  the  8  rays  produced  by  canal  rays  to  be  independent  of  the 
intensity  of  the  primary  rays;  Lenard  found  the  same  for  ultra- 
violet light 

In  my  own  experiments  on  the  a  rays  (Phil.  Mag.,  March,  1907), 
I  have  brought  forward  evidence  to  show  that  the  amount  of  ioniza- 
tion produced  in  an  atom  is  proportional  to  the  volume  of  the  atom 
approximately.  Taking  this,  in  conjunction  with  the  rule  that  the 
ionization  produced  in  a  gas  is  nearly'  proportional  to  the  inverse  of 
the  speed,  we  have  the  very  simple,  if  approximate,  law  that  the 
ionization  produced  by  an  a  particle  in  any  atom  under  any  circum- 
stances is  inversely  proportional  to  the  time  spent  inside  the  atom. 
This  appears  to  point  to  the  ionization  as  purely  a  trigger  effect-  Not 
that  the  a  particle  spends  no  energy  in  the  atom;  it  is  clear  it  must  do 
so,  since  its  speed  is  gradually  reduced,  but  there  is  not  a  direct  con- 
nection between  the  energy  spent  and  the  number  of  ions  produced. 
But  whatever  energy  the  ionizing  agent  may  spend,  or  in  what- 
ever way  it  may  spend  it,  it  seems  likely  that  the  issue  of  the  8  particle 
is  the  result  of  some  disruption  in  the  atom,  or  subatom,  which  is  the 
same  for  all  atoms  and  under  all  circumstances. 

If  we  turn  our  attention  now  to  all  secondary  radiation  other  than 
the  8  rays,  it  seems  to  be,  in  general,  a  rough  reflection  or  scattering 
of  the  primary.  Allen  has  shown  that  there  is  only  a  little  less  ve- 
locity in  the  secondary  rays  than  in  the  primary  p  rays,  or  in  the  ter- 
tiary than  in  the  secondary.  McClelland  has  measured  the  total  ioni- 
zation produced  by  the  secondary  as  compared  with  the  primary  0 
radiation ;  and  dnce  he  used  a  small  ionization  chamber  with  which 
he  explored  the  whole  space  traversed  by  th4  secondary  rays,  which 
chamber  the  secondary  rays  would,  as  a  rule,  completely  cross  if  they 
entered  it,  it  may  be  taken  that  he  really  compared  the  number  of  0 
particles  in  the  secondary  beam  with  the  number  of  those  in  the  pri- 
mary. The  numbers  which  he  obtained  varied  from  15  per  cent  to 
50  per  cent,  according  to  the  substance,  which  is  the  order  of  things 
we  should  expect  if  the  secondary  were  simply  scattered  primaiy 
radiation.  Again,  the  loss  of  velocity  of  the  cathode  particles,  whidi 
is  found  to  occur  on  scattering  at  a  plate,  presuming  the  secoadaiy 


ELBCTBIC  HADIATIONS — BRAGG.  201 

radiation  to  be  scattered  primary,  is  just  what  we  should  expect.  In 
the  case  of  the  a  rays  no  secondary  radiation  other  than  S  rays  has 
been  found ;  but  a  small  reflection  of  canal  rays  has  been  observed, 
e.  g.,  by  Fuchtbauer.  (Phys.  Zeit.,  March  1,  1906.)  Barkla  has 
shown  that  the  secondary  radiation  produced  by  X  rays  consists  in 
part  of  scattered  primary  radiation,  especially  when  the  surface 
struck  is  of  material  whose  atomic  weight  is  low.  The  only  cases  in 
which  a  secondary  radiation  appears  tiiat  is  neither  8  radiation  nor 
reflected  primary  rays  are  those  in  which  p  rays  are  produced  at  the 
impact  of  X  or  y  rays,  and  in  which  X  rays  are  produced  by  cathode 
rays.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  the  former  of  these  cases  there  is  very 
great  difficulty  in  accounting  for  the  high  speed  which  is  possessed 
by  the  secondary  radiation,  caused  by  X  rays  and  y  rays.  (Wien, 
Ann.  d.  Phys.,  December  28,  1905.)  It  may  well  be  that  further  re- 
search will  bring  these  cases  into  better  agreement  with  the  rest 

The  next  question  which  it  is  interesting  to  consider  in  relation  to 
the  -various  types  of  radiation  is  that  of  the  law  of  absorption  in  pass- 
ing through  matter. 

Absorption  in  the  case  of  the  material  radiations  appears  to  be  due 
to  two  main  causes:  Loss  of  energy,  which  causes  a  gradual  loss  of 
speed,  and  scattering,  which  means  a  diminution  in  the  number  of 
particles  in  the  primary  beam.  There  is  a  possibility  of  a  third,  viz, 
absorption  of  the  flying  particle  by  an  atom  which  it  is  traversing. 

In  the  case  of  the  a  particle,  I  have  shown  that  the  first  of  these 
canses  operates  alone,  so  that  the  particle  pursues  a  rectilinear  course 
throughout  its  career.  (Australasian  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,  January,  1904;  Phil.  Mag.,  December,  1904.)  It  is 
the  absence  of  any  effective  amount  of  scattering  that  makes  the  study 
of  the  motion  of  an  individual  a  particle  comparatively  simple.  The 
loss  of  energy  in  traversing  an  atom,  or  more  exactly  the  probable 
loss  in  crossing  a  given  space  occupied  by  an  atom,  is  nearly  propor- 
tional to  the  square  root  of  the  atomic  weight,  and  the  effects  appear 
to  be  exactly  additive. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  we  consider  a  stream  of  fi  particles  projected 
into  matter,  and  attempt  to  And  the  history  of  their  motion,  we  are 
faced  with  a  problem  of  great  complexity.  If  we  look  for  an  answer 
expressed  statistically,  we  must  And  the  number  of  particles  in  each 
unit  volume  of  the  absorbing  matter  as  a  function  of  the  time,  the  ve- 
locity, and  the  direction  of  motion.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  try  to 
follow  the  motion  of  any  one  particle,  we  must  And  the  chance  that 
the  particle  considered  has  any  particular  position,  velocity,  and  di- 
rection of  motion  at  any  given  time ;  which  is  really  equivalent  to 
Ending  the  function  just  mentioned.  Moreover,  the  data  are  very  un- 
certain. We  know  so  little  of  the  interior  of  the  atom  that  we  are 
unable  to  say  with  what  forces  the  electrons  will  be  influenced  when  it 


303  ANNUAL  BBFOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITTTTtOTT,  1907. 

penetrates  within ;  Trhether,  for  example,  we  may  neglect  the  action  of 
the  positive  electricity  of  the  atom,  and  consider  only  the  electrons  as 
repdling  the  /3  particle  with  a  force  varying  as  the  inverse  square  of 
the  distance,  or  whether  we  are  to  consider  positives  and  negatives 
arranged  in  doublets,  whose  moment  will  be  the  important  power,  and 
whose  law  of  attraction  will  not  be  that  of  the  inverse  square.  It  is 
a  certain  simplification  to  suppose  that  scattering  is  mainly  respon- 
sible for  the  fading  away  of  a  stream  of  ^  particles.  The  experi- 
ments of  Allen,  McClelland,  and  others  show  that  the  secondary  ra- 
diation has  a  velocity  not  much  less  than  that  of  the  primary;  and, 
therefore,  that  this  simplification  is  justifiable;  though,  clearly,  it 
can  not  be  pushed  too  far.  This  allows  us  to  concentrate  our  atten- 
tion on  the  deflections  of  the  particles  only ;  but  even  then  the  diffi- 
culties are  still  immense.  It  is  not  like  any  pn^lem  in  the  kinetic 
theory  of  gases,  for  there  we  deal  with  established  conditions:  here 
with  a  gradual  development  from  initial  conditions." 

But  if  we  turn  from  the  theoretical  to  the  experimental  investiga- 
tion we  find  a  much  more  encouraging  prospect.  The  experiments  of 
Lenard  are  practically  a  complete  graphical  solution  of  the  question. 
(See  Taf,  IV,  Wied.  Ann.,  Bd.  SI.)  We  know  that  an  assemblage  of 
atoms  behaves  just  the  same  in  respect  to  these  radiations  when  it  is 
condensed  in  a  solid  or  spread  out  as  a  gas.  Thus  the  sketches  which 
Lenard  gives  us  showing  the  way  in  which  the  cathode  rays  diverge 
from  a  small  window  and  scatter  in  going  through  various  gases  at 
different  densities  must  be  quite  applicable  to  solids  also. 

'In  bli  "Conduction  of  Glectrlctty  througb  GaaeB."  2d  edition,  p.  376,  Pro- 
feeaor  Thomson  Inveatlgates  the  motion  of  a  stream  of  /3  partlclee  tbrough  an 
absorbing  la^er.  It  appears  to  me — I  say  U  with  verr  great  diffldeoce — tbat 
the  Bolntion  does  not  take  a  true  acconnt  of  the  facts.  The  solntlon  may  be 
stated  briefly  ttaaa :  Tahlng  «,  v.  w  as  the  components  of  the  Telocity  F  of  tlie 
moving  corpnacle,  an  expreoslon  Is  fonnd  for  the  probable  change  in  h  at  the 
n«xt  encounter.  Galtlog  this  change  <u.  we  have  Sit= — uK,  my  where  £  1b  a 
function  of  the  mass  of  the  corpiiBCle,  the  effective  mass  of  the  electron  of  the 
attsorbing  body,  the  velocity  V  of  the  corpuscle,  which  Ib  taben  as  constant,  the 
atomic  charge,  and  tbe  shortest  distance  between  two  corpuscles  in  the  atom. 
E  Is  then  multiplied  by  the  probable  number  of  encounters  In  moving  a  distance 
^  along  the  axis  of  c,  from  which  follows  an  exponenUallaw  for  «  in  terms  of  z. 
It  seems  to  me,  in  the  first  place,  that,  assuming  sncta  a  multiplication  to  have 
any  meaning,  the  proper  factor  should  have  been  greater  than  that  adopted  In 
the  proportion  of  V  to  tf,  for  in  advancing  a  distance  Sv  along  the  axis  of  a  the 
corpuscle  moves  a  distance  Tax/u,  not  Sx.  If  this  change  is  made,  the  expo- 
nential form  disappears  from  tbe  answer.  But,  apart  from  this,  it  does  not 
seem  tiiat  the  step  is  Justifiable  at  all.  It  la  tantamount  to  putting  the  cor- 
puscle bade  In  its  old  track  after  each  encomiter,  and  la  equivalent  to  neglecting 
the  existence  of  the  function  mentioned  above,  and  the  abeolute  necessitT  of 
flndiog  It 


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BLEOTBIC   BADUTIOim'— BKAOQ.  308 

Lenard  found  that  his  results  could  be  accounted  for  aa  the  suppo^ 
dtion  that  there  was  an  absorption  according  to  an  exponential  law, 
over  and  above  the  weakening  due  to  spreading  from  a  center. 

li  a.  P  particle  or  cathode  particle  were  liable  to  complete  absorp- 
tion by  an  atom  which  it  entered,  such  an  exponential  law  would 
result  at  once.  Aa  a  matter  of  fact,  it  looks  as  if  several  violent  de- 
Sections  might  take  place  before  the  final  disappearance  of  the  par- 
ticle's activity.  It  looks,  also,  I  think,  as  if  deflections  were  usually 
not  at  all  great  during  .the  progress  of  the  particle  through  the  atom, 
but  were  apt  to  be  severe  when  they  did  happen,  as  if,  in  fact,  the 
field  of  force  which  deflected  the  particle  was  strong  but  drcxmi- 
scribed.  This  would  happen  if  the  positives  and  negatives  were 
arranged  in  doublets.  When  a  particle  is  deflected  from  a  beam 
crossing  a  thin  plate,  it  starts  off  on  a  new  path  which  leads  much 
less  directly  to  the  open  air,  and  its  velocity  is  somewhat  diminished. 
It  may  be,  therefore,  that  the  infrequency  but  severity  of  the  parti- 
cle's encoimters  makes  it  possible  to  look  upon  each  encounter  as  an 
absolute,  or  at  least  a  definite,  loss  to  the  stream,  so  that  an  expo- 
nential law  results. 

Certainly  the  application  of  this  law  to  the  interpretation  of  ex- 
periments has  had  very  great  success,  both  in  respect  to  cathode 
and  to  /?  and  y  rays.  As  examples  of  the  latter  we  may  take  Rnther- 
ford's  determination  of  the  absorption  of  the  ^  rays  of  uranium  and 
Godlewski's  similar  determination  for  actinium.  (Jahrbuch  der 
Bad.  und  Elek.,  Bd.  Ill,  Heft  2,  p.  159.)  In  experiments  of  this 
kind  the  radiating  material  is  spread  evenly  on  a  level  surface,  and 
sheets  of  absorbing  material  are  placed  upon  it.  The  ionization 
produced  in  the  space  above  the  sheets  is  compared  with  the  thick- 
ness of  the  sheets,  and  the  two  variables  are  found  to  be  connected 
together  more  or  less  exactly  by  an  exponential  law.  There  is  some 
difficulty  in  determining  whether  such  measurements  give  more 
nearly  the  number  or  the  energy  of  the  stream  of  particles  which 
emerges  from  the  plate,  as  Kutherford  ("  Radioactivity,"  2d  ed.,  p. 
134)  and  Thomson  {"  Conduction  through  Gases,"  2d  ed.,  p.  375) 
have  pointed  out.  The  point  was  also  discussed  in  my  address  to 
Section  A  of  the  Australasian  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science,  Dunedin,  1904,  page  69.  There  is  also  an  uncertainty  due  to 
the  application  of  a  formula  to  radiation  from  an  assemblage  of 
points  which  is  really  only  applicable  to  a  plane  wave,  or  a  stream 
moving  normally  to  the  plate.  If  a  point  source  of  radiation  is 
placed  below  an  absorbing  plate  of  thickness  d,  and  there  is  a  true 
coefficient  of  absorption  A,  the  fraction  that  emerges  from  the  fur- 
ther side  of  the  plate  is  not  e->d;  much  of  the  radiation  passes 
obliquely  through  the  plate  and  is  absorbed  to  a  greater  degree 

L,,,.,dbyG00glc 


304 


ANHUAIi  BBPOET  8MITHB0NIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 


than  that  which  passes  normallj.  This  has  often  been  pointed  out, 
e.  g.y  by  N.  R.  CampbeU  (Phil.  Mag.,  April,  1905,  p.  541),  who  also 
gives  some  figures  from  which  the  proper  curve  of  absorption  may 
be  drawn.  I  am  not  aware,  however,  that  it  has  been  noticed  that 
the  form  of  the  absorption  curve,  which  is  far  from  an  exponential 
curve  for  a  thin  radiating  layer,  approximates  much  more  closely 
to  it  for  a  thick  radiating  layer.  And  it  is  interesting  to  find  that 
the  experimental  curves  which  are  most  nearly  exponential  are  those 
for  which  the  layers  of  radioactive  material  were  thick  compared 
to  the  penetration  of  the  rays  imder  investigation.  As  examples, 
we  may  take  those  of  uranium  and  actinium  already  mentioned. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  curve  which  H.  W.  Schmidt  (Ann,  d.  Phys,, 
Bd.  XXI,  1906,  p.  651)  has  obtained  for  the  fi  rays  of  RaC,  the 
radioactive  material  being  deposited  in  a  very  thin  layer  on  metal 
foil,  shows  just  about  the  amount  of  departure  from  the  exponential 
form  which  is  to  be  expected  if  the  absorption  is  truly  exponential, 
and  there  is  only  one  absorption  coefficient,  not  two,  as  Schmidt  has 
suggested. 

The  following  figures  give  the  proportional  amount  of  the  original 
radiation  which  passes  through  a  plate  of  thickness  n/X,  where  k  is 
the  absorption  coefficient:  (1)  for  a  thin  layer;  (2)  for  a  thick  layer. 
The  figures  are  also  given,  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  for  the  case 
of  a  plane  wave,  or  a  pencil  of  rays  passing  through  the  plate 
normally. 


., 

fraTnthla 
l»7«r. 

Irom  thick 
ItTtr. 

PlBIW 

(pnrdT 

"tlX"- 

0 

LOW 

1.000 

l.OOO 

.m 

.884 

.BOS 

1 

M 

.702 

.Sl» 

s 

.«T 

.600 

.742 

•sw 

.B» 

6. 

.823 

.487 

.807 

a 

.174 

,87S 

.MB 

.288 

.4(6 

t 

.200 

.888 

.«£0 

s 

,171 

.£48 

.406 

.Its 

.814 

.8«S 

The  absorption  of  a  material  used  in  a  thin  sheet  naturally  appears 
greater  than  the  absorption  when  the  thickness  of  material  is  in- 
creased, because  the  rays  which  are  moving  obliquely  are  absorbed 
first, 

The  absorption  of  y  and  X  rays  appears  to  follow  a  purely  ex|>o- 
nential  law  so  far  as  experiment  has  been  made.  The  E  rays  are 
absorbed  by  molecules  immediately  on  their  production. 

.ogk- 


ELEOTBIC  EADUTIOHS — BBAQO.  205 

Having  thus  discussed  certain  properties  of  the  various  rays  which 
do  exist,  it  seems  interesting  to  make  an  attempt  at  the  estimation 
of  the  properties  of  some  rays  which  mi^t  exist,  though  the  fact  has 
not  been  proved  as  yet.  Radioactive  substances  emit  both  positive 
and  negative  particles.  It  does  not  seem  at  all  out  of  place  to  con- 
sider the  possibility  of  the  emission  of  neutral  particles,  such  as,  for 
example,  a  pair  consisting  of  one  a  or  positive  particle  and  one  j8  or 
negative  particle.  The  recent  additions  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
laws  of  absorption  of  a  and  ^  particles  give  us  some  grounds  on 
which  we  may  attempt  to  found  an  estimate  of  the  properties  of 
such  pairs. 

We  know  that  the  a  particle  moves  in  a  rectilinear  course  throu^- 
oat  its  whole  range,  and  passes  through  the  atoms  which  it  encounters 
without  deflection.  It  does  not  pursue  a  course  which  is  straight 
on  the  whole,  but  zigzag  in  detail;  the  direction  and  amount  of  a 
particle  in  motion  are  the  whole  characteristics  of  that  motion  at  any 
instant,  and  no  memory  of  any  previous  motion  exists.  If,  there- 
fore, a  particle  pursues  a  straight  line  in  its  motion  as  a  whole,  it 
must  keep  to  that  line  entirely  and  make  no  excursions  from  side  to 
side.  We  must,  therefore,  suppose  that  an  atom,  or  at  least  an  a 
particle,  endowed  with  sufficient  speed,  can  pass  directly  throu^ 
another  atom  without  appreciable  deflection.  The  a.  particle  loses 
speed  as  it  penetrates  atoms  in  this  way ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  its  charge,  that  is  to  say,  the  field  which  is  about  it,  is  a  main 
cause  of  this  loss  of  energy.  But  if  a  ;3  particle  is  associated  with 
the  a  particle  so  that  the  tubes  of  induction  pass  from  one  particle  to 
the  other,  and  the  field  is  greatly  contracted,  it  would  seem  that  the 
chief  cause  of  the  stopping  of  the  a  particle  has  been  removed."  The 
penetrating  power  of  a  pair  might  be  very  great  indeed,  and  its 
ionizing  power  correspondingly  reduced;  for,  although  there  does 
not  seem  to  be  a  direct  connection  between  energy  spent  and  ioniza- 
tion produced,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  two  are  simultaneous. 
The  limitation  of  the  field  of  the  pair  would  depend  on  its  moment; 
if  the  latter  were  small,  that  is  to  say,  if  the  positive  and  negative 
were  close  together,  the  field  would  be  more  circumscribed.  It  is, 
therefore,  possible  to  provide  for  pairs  to  have  varying  penetrating 
and  ionizing  powers;  a  pair  of  small  moment  being  a  good  pene- 
trator  but  a  bad  ionizer.  Such  a  pair  would  be  incapable  of  deflection 
by  magnetic  or  electric  fields,  and  would  show  no  refraction.  It 
is  conceivable  that  it  might  show  a  one-sided  or  polarization  effect, 
for  if  it  were  ejected  from  a  rotating  atom  it  would  itself  possess  an 
axis  of  rotation. 

<■  See  also  Rutherford's  "  Badloactlve  TranstormatloDS,"  p.  272. 

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206  ANHnAL  BEFOBT  8HITHS0NIAS  INBTITUTION,  IWl. 

When  X  rays  were  first  iiiTestigated,  and  again  when  y  rays  were 
discovered,  it  was  often  su^eeted,  in  each  case,  that  the  radiation 
might  consist  of  material  particles.  Bontfien  himself  proposed  in 
the*  third  of  his  memoirs  a  theory  of  this  nature.  But  it  was  always 
felt  that  the  difficulty  of  accounting  for  the  great  penetration  of 
these  radiations  was  insuperable.  It  seems  now  that  this  difficulty 
was  quite  exaggerated,  and  even  imaginary.  It  does  not  appear  out 
of  place,  therefore,  to  reconsider  the  position  in  the  light  of  more 
recent  knowledge. 

Assuming,  then,  that  the  neutral  pair  has  great'penetrating,  but 
weak  ionizing  powers,  is  uninfluenced  by  magnetic  or  electric  fields, 
and  shows  no  refraction,  it  does  so  far  conform  to  the  properties  of 
the  Y  ray.  And,  further,  if  it  has  any  moment  at  all,  and  therefore 
any  external  field,  it  may  at  last  suffer  some  violent  encounter  which 
will  resolve  it  into  a  positive  and  a  negative,  an  a  and  a  ;3  particle. 
Of  these  the  p  particle  would  be  the  one  possessed  of  much  the  greater 
velocity,  and  would  appear  as  a  secondary  ray.  Thus,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  point  of  impact,  an  ionization  would  appear  of  much 
greater  intensity  than  anything  produced  along  the  track  of  the  pair 
itself.  So  Becquerel  has  found  the  action  of  the  y  rays  on  a  photo- 
graphic plate  to  be  almost  entirety  due  to  the  secondary  rays  which 
they  produce.  On  this  view  the  appearance  of  the  p  secondary  ray 
would  be  really  a  scattering  of  the  incident  ray,  and  this  would  make 
the  y  ray  fall  into  line  with  other  radiations  whose  secondary  radia- 
tions are  either  scattered  primary  or  8  rays. 

If  the  gradual  disappearance  of  a  stream  of  y  radiation  were  caused 
by  collision  in  this  way,  the  number  disappearing  in  any  unit  of 
length  of  the  course  would  be  proportional  to  the  total  number  in 
the  stream,  so  that  an  exponential  law  would  result. 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  all  the  known  properties  of  the  y  rays 
are  satisfied  on  the  hypothesis  that  they  consist  of  neutral  pairs. 

If  the  y  ray  is  material  and  contains  an  a  particle,  this  fact  must 
be  considered  in  reckoning  the  number  and  magnitude  of  the  steps 
from  the  atomic  weight  of  radium  to  that  of  lead.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested to  me  by  my  colleague,  Doctor  Bennie,  that  the  rayless 
changes  of  Ra  may  really  be  accompanied  by  the  emission  of  neutral 
pairs  of  very  small  moment.  This  adds  another  unknown  factor  to 
the  calculation.  The  enei^  involved  in  such  emissions  might  be 
quite  small,  and,  moreover,  if  pairs  can  be  taken  up  into  atoms,  so 
as  to  form  new  atoms,  the  whole  of  the  energy  may  not  appear  as 
heat. 

It  is  interesting  to  carry  the  speculation  a  little  further  and  to 
observe  that  a  pair  possessing  a  very  circumscribed  field  might  cause 
little  or  no  ionization,  and  be  capable  of  very  great  penetration.    Its 

ui.n.fdbyGoogle 


ELEOTBIC  BADU.TI0N8 BBAOG.  207 

end  might  be  incorporation  with  an  atom  traversed.  Professor 
Rutherford  has  suggested  to  me  that  suefa  a  fate  may  befall  the  a 
particle  at  the  end  of  its  range.  On  this  view  it  would  be  possible 
for  a  portion  of  a  disintegrating  atom  to  break  away,  to  pass  over 
an  appreciable  distance,  and  finally  to  become  part  of  another  atom, 
the  atomic  weight  of  which  would  be  thereby  increased.  Internal 
atomic  energy  might  be  transferred  at  the  same  time.  For  if  we 
suppose  that  it  is  possible  for  some  of  the  internal  energy  of  an  atom 
to  be  set  free,  and  recent  discoveries  seem  to  compel  the  supposition, 
then  we  must  also  consider  it  possible  for  atoms  to  withdraw  energy 
from  circulation  and  add  it  to  their  internal  store.  If,  therefore, 
the  handing  of  neutral  pairs  from  one  atom  to  another  is  a  process 
which  actually  occurs,  Uien  matter  and  energy  may  be  continually 
transferred  from  atom  to  atom  without  our  being  aware  of  it:  the 
whole  operation  may  take  place  in  a  world  apart.  We  can  not  follow 
it  by  radioactive  tests,  for  the  ionization  is  so  feeble;  nor  chemically, 
because  the  rate  of  atomic  change  is  so  slow ;  nor  thermally,  because 
the  energies  appear  at  no  stage  in  tangible  form. 

Since  the  properties  of  y  rays  are  amongst  the  properties  of  X  rays, 
an  hypothesis  which  will  suit  one  form  of  radiatio'h  will  also  so  far 
suit  the  other.  But  we  know  much  more  about  the  latter  form  of 
radiation  than  we  do  about  the  former.  It  is  of  interest,  therefore,  to 
consider  the  extent  to  which  our  additional  knowledge  can  be  fitted  to 
a  neutral  pair  hypothesis.  It  is  true,  of  course,  that  the  ether  pulse 
theory  has  been  most  ably  developed,  and  is  now  widely  accepted. 
Nevertheless  the  evidence  for  it  is  all  indirect ;  and  indeed  some  of  it 
is,  I  think,  a  little  overrated.  It  is  quite  possible  that  ether  pulses 
may  not,  after  all,  constitute  the  bulk  of  Rontgen  radiation.  If, 
therefore,  there  is  anything  to  be  said  in  favor  of  any  other  hypoth- 
esis, it  seems  right  that  it  should  be  said  and  considered. 

Let  us  therefore  for  the  moment  suppose  the  X  rays  to  consist 
mainly  of  a  stream  of  neutral  pairs. 

We  have  at  once  an  explanation  of  the  absence  of  deflection  in 
electric  and  magnetic  fields  and  of  regular  reflection  and  refraction. 
There  should  be  great  penetration,  whose  amount  might  vary  with 
the  moments  of  the  pairs,  or  the  velocity,  if  the  latter  were  a  variable. 
We  can  understand  that  a  pair  which  struck  a  light  and  yielding 
atom  might  be  returned  unchanged;  yet  if  it  struck  a  heavier  and 
more  resisting  atom  it  might  be  disarranged  so  as  to  acquire  a  greater 
moment,  and  thus  to  become  a  better  ionizer,  but  more  readily  ab- 
sorbed ;  or  it  might  be  shattered  altogether,  giving  rise  to  a  secondary 
ray  of  the  cathode  type.  The  softer  the  ray,  i.  e.,  the  greater  the 
moment  of  the  pair,  the  more  readily  might  this  be  done,  and  the 


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208  ANNtJAL  BBBPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1901. 

lighter  the  atom  that  would  do  it.  (See  J.  J.  Thomson  on  BarUa's 
researches,  "  Electrician,"  April  6,  1907.) 

In  order  to  explain  these  known  effects  on  the  ether-pulse  theory 
it  is  necessary  to  suppose  that  in  light  atoms  the  corpuscles  are  not 
appreciably  acted  on  by  forces  due  to  other  corpuscles,  but  that  in 
heavy  atoms  there  is  a  strong  influence  of  this  kind.  In  the  former 
case  the  thickness  of  the  secondary  pulse  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
primary;  in  the  latter  it  is  not.  It  is  also  necessary  to  suppose  that 
when  the  atom  is  heavy  enough  to  cause  a  modification  of  the  primary 
radiation,  it  differs  from  a  light  atom  in  such  a  way  that  the  pulse 
can  cause  cathode  particles  to  be  ejected  at  a  speed  due  to  thousands 
of  volts,  whereas  this  is  impossible  with  light  atoms. 

If  the  cathode  particles  in  the  X-ray  tube  so  affect  the  motion  of 
an  atom  which  they  strike  as  to  make  it  throw  off  a  pair,  then  the 
plane  of  rotation  of  the  pair  will  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  atom 
from  which  it  has  come,  and  will  contain  the  direction  of  the  trans- 
latory  motion  of  the  pair.  The  pair  will  therefore  be  able  to  show 
polarization  effects,  and  if  such  a  pair  falls  upon  a  reflecting  surface, 
it  is  not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  it  is  liable  to  be  taken  up  only 
by  an  atom  revolving  in  the  same  plane,  and  sometimes  to  be  ejected 
again.  Thus  its  subsequent  rotation  and  translation  will  continue  to 
take  place  in  the  one  plane.  The  tertiary  ray  will  therefore  be 
strongest  when  it  is  in  the  same  plane  as  the  primary  and  secondary; 
and  this  is  Barkla's  polarization  effect. 

If  the  X  ray  is  an  ether  pulse,  it  is  difficult  to  understand  why  the 
spreading  pulse  affects  so  few  of  the  atoms  passed  over  ("  Conduc- 
tion of  Electricity  through  Gases,"  pp.  294-297),  why  the  high-speed 
secondary  cathode  rays  are  ejected  with  a  velocity  which  is  independ- 
ent of  the  intensity  of  the  pulse,  and  why  it  should  be  able  to  exercise 
ionizing  powers  when  its  energy  is  distributed  over  so  wide  a  surface 
us  that  of  a  sphere  of  say  10  or  20  feet  radius.  All  these  phenomena 
are  more  simply  explained  if  we  suppose  the  ray  to  be  a  neutral  pair 
which  has  only  a  local  action,  i.  e.,  can  only  affect  the  molecules  on  its 
path,  which  can  penetrate  to  great  distances  in  air,  losing  little  speed 
as  it  goes,  and  which  gives  rise  to  a  cathode  ray  when  it  is  broken  by 
impact. 

It  seems  to  me  that  the  material-nature  hypothesis  shows  to  advan- 
tage when  we  consider  the  secondary  radiation  of  the  X  rays.  The 
rays  cause  the  emission  of  cathode  rays  whose  speed  averages  about 
5X10*.  (Dom.)  We  have  no  experience  of  any  ether  wave  caus- 
ing the  emission  of  any  but  S  rays,  i.  e.,  electrons  with  a  speed  of 
about  10".  It  can  hardly  be  said  that  differences  in  intensity  of 
the  ether  pulse  can  account  for  this  remarkable  contrast,  for  the 
speed  of  the  8  rays  caused  by  ultra-violet  light  has  been  shown  by 
Lenard  to  be  independent  of  the  intensity  of  the  liglit,  and, the  ve- 


BLBCTBIC  RADIATIONS BBAOO.  209 

lodty  of  the  X-ray  seconctary  radiation  does  not  depend  on  the 
intensity  of  the  X  rays.  It  may  be  ar^ed  that  the  breadth  of  the 
pulse  is  the  prime  factor,  on  the  grounds  that  Lenard  found  the 
velocity  of  the  8  rays  due  to  ultra-violet  light  to  depend  somewhat 
on  the  nature  of  the  light;  but  it  is  hard  to  believe  that  a  diminu- 
tion of  the  width  of  the  pulse,  no  matter  how  extreme,  can  increase 
(he  energy  of  the  ejected  electron  about  a  thousand  times. 

But  if  we  regard  the  secondary  radiation  as  the  result  of  the 
break-up  of  a  neutral  pair,  the  high  velocity  of  the  ejected  electron 
(5X10*)  may  be  more  readily  explained.  The  action  must  be  en- 
tirely different  from  that  of  ultra-violet  light. 

It  is  difficult  to  found  any  arguments  for  or  against  either  theory 
on  considerations  of  the  relative  energies  of  the  original  cathode 
stream,  the  X  rays,  and  the  secondary  rays,  for  if  the  energies  of 
any  transformation  do  not  balance,  it  is  easy  to  square  the  account 
by  postulating  eitber  some  release  of  the  internal  energy  of  the  atom, 
or  the  reverse,  viz,  the  absorption  of  energy  by  the  atom  involving 
a  disappearance  of  the  visible  energy.  On  the  neutral-pair  hypothe- 
sis the  cathode  rays  would  probably  have  a  trigger  action,  and  the 
pairs  would  draw  their  energy  from  that  internal  to  the  atom;  it 
might  not  be  necessary  to  invoke  the  aid  of  internal  atomic  energy 
in  order  to  account  for  the  energy  of  the  secondary  radiation.  In 
the  case  of  the  ether-pulse  theory  it  is  necessary  to  suppose  that  the 
secondary  radiation  derives  its  energy  from  the  atom's  store.  ("  Con- 
duction of  Electricity  through  Gases,"  p.  321.)  It  is  not  clear 
whether  such  a  call  must  also  be  made  at  the  transformation  of 
cathode  into  X  rays.  The  whole  question,  taken  into  conjunction 
with  the  diffraction  experiments  of  Haga  and  Wind,  has  lately  been 
under  discussion  by  Wien  {Ann.  d.  Phys.,  XVIII,  p.  991,  1905; 
XXII,  p.  793, 1907)  and  Van  der  Waala,  jr.  (Ann.  d.  Phys.,  XXII,  p. 
603, 1907),  but  no  definite  conclusion  is  reached. 

It  is  not  easy  to  see  how  the  irregular  stoppage  of  the  cathode 
particles  can  give  rise  to  pulses  of  sufficient  definition  and  uniformity 
to  show  diffraction.  It  would  be  easier  to  explain  such  an  effect  as  the 
result  of  uniform  disturbances  arising  when  pairs  of  uniform  nature 
are  torn  from  the  atoms  of  the  anode. 

On  the  ether-pulse  theory  hard  X  rays  are  supposed  to  be  thin 
pulses,  soft  rays  to  be  thick  pulses.  Swift  cathode  particles  are  sup- 
posed to  take  less  time  in  deflecting  and  stopping  than  slower  parti- 
cles, and  therefore  to  give  rise  to  thinner  pulses.  On  the  other  theory 
we  must  suppose  that  the  rays  are  hard  when  the  moments  of  the 
pairs  are  small,  or  possibly  that  hardness  is  due  to  high  velocity.  If 
the  former  is  the  case,  it  may  be  that  fast  cathode  particles  spend  less 
time  within  the  anode  atoms  than  the  slow  ones  do,  and  therefore  dis- 
arrange the  pairs  less  before  they  are  ejected.  (    ("Kiolf 


310  ANNUAI,  BEPOBT  SBIITHSONIAM  INBTITUTION,  IBW. 

There  is  another  entirely  different  argument,  which  seems  to  sap- 
port  the  neutral-pair  hypothesis. 

The  a,  p,  and  y  rays  all  ionize  the  gases  which  they  traverse.  It 
has  just  been  shown  by  Kleeman  <■  that  the  ionization  per  atwn  due 
to  /3  and  y  rays  is  nearly  proportional  to  the  ionization  per  atom 
due  to  a  rays  (and,  therefore,  approximately  proportional  to  the 
volume,  as  I  have  shown,  Proc.  Roy.  See.  of  S.  A.,  Oct.,  1906;  Phil. 
Mag.,  March,  1907).  The  figures  for  the  heavier  atoms  are  rather 
larger  for  the  p  than  the  a  rays,  and  still  larger  for  the  y  rays.  It  is 
known  that  the  ionizations  due  to  X  rays  differ  considerably  from 
those  due  to  y  rays  when  the  X  rays  are  soft,  but  approximate  to 
them  when  the  X  rays  are  hard. 

All  this  fits  in  excellently  with  the  theory  that  all  four  types  of  rays 
are  material.  Take  the  a  particle  Erst,  since  its  circumstances  are  the 
most  simple.  It  moves  directly  through  the  atoms,  without  scatter- 
ing or  transformation.  It  liberates  ions  in  the  form  of  S  rays  as  it 
goes,  approximately  according  to  the  volmne  law.  The  j3  ray  is  also 
a  charged  particle,  and  it  is  readily  to  be  supposed  that  it  would,  if 
its  whole  motion  were  rectilinear,  liberate  ions  according  to  the  same 
law  (comparing  atom  with  atom)  as  the  a  particle,  though  the  num- 
bers would  be  less.  But  the  j9  particle  is  liable  to  scattering,  and  each 
act  of  scattering  generally  implies  an  increase  in  the  path  of  the 
particle  in  the  gas,  and  increased  ionizing  power  since  its  speed  is  a 
little  diminished.  Now,  scattering  is  proportional  to  the  atomic 
weight,  whilst  the  ionization  is  more  nearly  proportional  to  the  square 
root  of  the  atomic  weight.  Thus  a  heavy  atom  is  the  cause  of  more 
than  its  proper  amount  of  ionization;  and  so  we  find  in  Kteeman's 
table  that  the  ionizations  of  the  atoms  CI,  Br,  and  I  are  rather  higher 
than  in  the  case  of  the  a  particle.  Again,  the  y  particle  is  liable  to 
resolution  into  its  elements,  with  a  relatively  large  amount  of  ioniza- 
tion. Since  this  transformation  is  chiefly  effected  by  impact  with 
heavy  atoms,  these  latter  will  be  the  cause  of  a  disproportionately 
large  ionization,  as  compared  with  the  a  rays;  and  this  is  also  shown 
by  Kleeman's  figures.  Passing  on  to  X  rays,  we  find  a  further  illus- 
tration of  this  effect,  until  we  come  to  very  soft  rays,  when  we  find 
that  the  heavy  atoms  are  the  occasion  of  exceedingly  large  ionization. 
{"  Conduction  of  Electricity  through  Gases,"  2d  ed.,  p.  300.)  There 
is  a  good  continuity  in  all  these  phenomena,  with  gradual  diver- 
gences just  where  we  should  expect  them.  The  a,  jS,  y,  and  X  rays 
all  produce  the  same  primary  ionization,  comparing  atom  with  atom, 
and  differ  only  in  the  effects  due  to  scattering  and  transformation; 

'Mr.  Kleeman  has  be«n  good  enough  to  inform  me  of  IiIb  results  by  letter; 
but  I  believe  I  am  at  liberty  to  quote  them,  since  he  has,  I  understand,  recently 
read  a  paper  on  the  subject  before  tlie  Royal  Society. 

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V 


BLBCTBIC  KADIATIONS — BEAGO.  211 

that  is  to  say,  differ  only  as  regards  their  production  of  secondary 
ionizatioD.  Now,  the  a  and  0  rays  are  certainly  material  particles, 
possessing  electric  fields.  There  is,  therefore,  a  reasonable  argument 
that  the  y  and  X  rays  are  also  material,  and  possess  electric  fields. 
This  is  the  case  if  they  are  pairs,  and  the  smaller  the  moments  are 
the  more  circimiscribed  are  Uie  fields  and  the  less  the  ionization  and 
the  loss  of  energy. 

If  the  X  rays  contain  etiier  pulses  only,  it  is  difficult  to  see  why 
their  effects  should  mn  so  exactly  in  parallel  with  those  of  the  a  and 
P  rays. 

It  has  been  announced  by  Marx,  as  the  result  of  a  most  ingenious 
experiment  (Phys.  Zeit,  1905,  p.  268),  that  Rontgen  rays  move  with 
Hia  Telocity  of  li^t.  It  is  extmnely  improbable  that  material  par- 
ticles can  possess  such  a  velocity,  and 
&e  experiment  of  Marx  might  seem  at 
first  sight  to  be  strongly  against  any 
material  nature  of  the  X  rays.  But  it 
is  not  clear  that  Marx  really  measured 
the  velocity  of  a  radiation  causing  the 
emiesion  of  high-speed  electrons,  which 
is  the  characteristic  feature  of  X  rays. 
All  that  he  showed  was  that  the  bun- 
dle of  X  rays  contained  radiation 
moving  with  the  speed  of  light  and 
capable  of  exciting  8  rays.  To  see  this 
it  is  necessary  to  consider  briefly  the 
details  of  the  experiment. 

An  electric  pulse  is  made  to  travel 
along  a  wire,  W,  as  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying sketch.  When  it  reaches 
the  cathode,  C,  cathode  rays  are  driven 
against  the  anode,  A,  and  X  rays  are  ^'°  ^ 

given  out,  some  of  which  travel  toward  the  saucer-shaped  electrode,- 
B.  At  the  focus  of  B  is  a  small  Faraday  cylinder,  F,  connected  to  an 
electrometer,  E.  A  small  impulse  is  derived  from  the  wire,  W,  by 
electrostatic  induction  at  D,  and  travels  down  to  B.  If  the  various 
distances  and  wire  lengths  are  properly  adjusted,  so  that  the  X  rays 
arrive  at  B  at  the  same  moment  as  the  derived  impulse,  electrons  are 
liberated  at  B  by  the  rays,  and  guided  by  the  impulse  into  the  cylin- 
der, F,  and  thence  to  the  electrometer.  If  now  the  distance  of  the 
X-ray  bulb  from  B  is  altered,  say,  by  an  increase  of  10  cm.,  the  wire 
from  D  to  B  has  to  be  lengthened  by  10  cm.  Thus,  according  to 
Marx,  the  X  rays  travel  with  the  same  velocity  as  the  impulse  in  the 
wire,  and  therefrae  with  the  velocity  of  li^t 


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212  ANNUAL  REPOBT  8MITHBON1A3I  INSTITtTTION,  1907. 

But  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  electrons  which  are  liberated 
by  X  rays  have  an  initial  velocity  averaging  about  5X10*  per  sec, 
i.  e.,  a  speed  due  to  thousands  of  volts,  and  are  scattered  in  all  direc- 
tions from  the  surface  on  which  the  rays  fall.  Neither  the  weak  im- 
pulse applied  to  B  by  the  wave  coming  along  the  wire,  DB,  nor  the 
peculiar  form  of  the  surface,  B,  could  have  any  sensible  effect  in  the 
way  of  guiding  these  fast-moving  electrons  into  the  cylinder,  F.  Only 
slow-moving  electrons  or  8  rays  could  be  guided  by  such  means.  It  is 
no  doubt  true  that  X  rays  do  liberate  a  certain  number  of  S  rays, 
but  it  is  clear  that  the  experiment  of  Marx  is  quite  consistent  with  the 
hypothesis  that  the  X  rays  are  complex,  and  consist  in  part  of  ether 
pulses  traveling  with  the  velocity  of  light,  and  producing  S  rays, 
and  in  part  of  material  particles,  or  pairs,  traveling  at  a  speed  as  yet 
undetermined,  and  exciting  high-speed  cathode  rays.  It  would  be 
reasonable  to  expect  that  a  stream  of  pairs  should  be  accompanied 
by  ether  pulses  which  had  their  origin  at  the  time  and  place  where  the 
pairs  broke  away. 

It  is  possible  that  the  example  of  the  a  particle  shows  that  a  pair 
can  not  possess  a  velocity  greater  than  10°,  since  at  a  higher  speed 
it  would  be  stripped  of  an  electron,  and  become  an  a  particle.  J.  J. 
Thomson  has  suggested  that  at  this  critical  speed  the  a  particle  be- 
comes electrically  neutralized  by  the  attachment  of  an  electron.  Pre- 
sumably such  a  pair  would  then  go  on  as  a  y  ray.  N^o  such  conse- 
quence has  been  observed ;  and  on  the  present  hypothesis  it  would  be 
better  to  suppose  that  the  a  particle  ends  its  career  by  being  taken  up 
by  an  atom,  as  Rutherford  has  suggested.  There  is  no  reason  to  sup- 
pose the  y  ray  or  X  ray  to  possess  any  great  speed,  so  as  to  give  it 
enough  penetrating  power.  The  latter  might  depend  rather  on  the 
limitation  of  the  field  of  the  pair ;  and  a  sufficient  range  for  the  veloc- 
ity can  be  found  between  the  minimum  speed  of  the  a  particle  and  the 
maximum  speed  necessary  for  penetration,  which  appears  to  be  about 
10"  for  a  charged  particle,  but  may  be  less  for  one  without  charge.  A 
-  moderate  speed  would  account  for  the  reflection  or  scattering  of  the 
X  ray,  and  would  indeed  be  necessary  for  this  purpose. 

To  sum  up,  it  is  clear  that  a  stream  of  X  rays  contains  some  eth^ 
pulses,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  explain  all  the  properties  of  X  rays  on  the 
ether-pulse  theory.  The  explanations  are  easier  if  the  rays  are  sup- 
posed to  consist  mainly  of  neutral  pairs;  and  the  existence  of  such 
pairs  is  not  improbable  a  priori. 

(Added  July  18.  1007.] 

Since  this  was  written  several  important  papers  have  appeared, 
with  which  the  outlined  theory  seems  to  me  to  be  in  harmony. 

I  have  supposed  it  possible  for  positive  electrons  to  be  detached 
from  atoms  of  matter  in  the  X-ray  tube  and  to  be  sent  out  in  com- 
pany with  negative  electrons,  me  of  each  going  to  the  formatitm  of 


EI.ECTBIC   RASIATIONB BRAOO.  213 

s  neutral  pair.  Now,  J.  J.  Thomson  has  just  shown  (Phil.  Mag., 
May,  1907)  that  the  canal  ntjs  consist  of  positive  electrons,  which 
may  be  H  or  H^  or  He,  according  to  circumstances,  and  that  these 
appear  no  matter  what  the  material  is  in  the  tube.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  Villard  (Ions,  Electrons,  Corpuscules,  p.  1022)  was  so  im- 
pressed with  the  continual  presence  of  hydrogen  in  vacuum  tubes  that 
he  supposed  the  cathode  particles  to  consist  of  hydrogen,  until  ac- 
rtuate  measurements  of  the  mass  and  velocity  of  the  particles  were 
made.  He  was  largely  influenced  by  the  reducing  action  of  the  rays. 
After  all,  it  may  be  tliat  H  is  produced  where  they  strike,  and  that 
Villard's  observations  can  be  explained  in  this  way.  Sir  William 
Ramsay  (Joum.  Chem.  Soc,  May,  1907)  has  shown  that  there  is  an 
excess  of  hydrogen  in  water  decomposed  by  radium  emanation ;  but 
the  circumstances  are  too  complicated  to  malce  the  connection  more 
than  a  possibility  at  present. 

H.  W.  Schmidt  has  arrived  at  the  conclusion  (Phys.  Zeit.,  June, 
1907)  that  the  "  secondary "  radiation  caused  by  p  rays  striking 
aluminium  consists  of  scattered  primary  rays.  This  is  in  agreement 
with  the  argument  stated  above.  He  has  also  shown  that  undeflected 
j8  particles  lose  no  speed  in  passing  through  a  metal  plate.  This  im- 
plies either  that  the  energy  required  to  produce  ions  does  not  come 
from  the  p  particle  or  that  the  j3  particle  does  not  produce  ions  until 
it  is  deflected.  There  seem  several  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  latter 
supposition,  though  it  is,  of  course,  a  possibility.  It  seems  to  me 
probable  that  the  ^  particle  rarely  produces  more  than  one  ion  from 
a  traversed  molecule,  but  that  an  a  particle  may  produce  many,  and 
that  initial  recombination  is  to  be  explained  in  this  way.  Kleeman 
has  pointed  out,  in  his  Royal  Society  paper,  that  an  a  particle  which 
has  lost  several  ions  has  not  yet  been  observed;  but  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  such  a  molecule  would  probably  dissociate  'Ut  once,  and 
it  is  well  known  that  the  a  particle  does  produce  dissociation. 

NOTB. — Id  a  supplementarr  paper  contributed  to  tlie  SiojaX  Society  of  Sontb 
Australia  and  dated  Jannair  2,  1908,  Bragg  has  described  certain  esperlmeDts 
whlcli  be  bas  performed  witb  the  object  of  teatlng  tbe  bjpotheseB  of  tbe  original 
paper. 

He  argues  that  on  the  ether-pulse  theotr  there  stioald  be  perfect  symmeti; 
In  the  secondary  radiations  on  the  two  sides  of  a  thin  plate  through  which  a 
stream  of  y  rays  Is  passed  normally.  He  flnds,  however,  that  such  an  expecta- 
tion is  completely  contradicted  by  experiment. 

On  the  other  hand,  he  shows  that  on  the  neutral  pair  theory  the  quantity  of 
secondary  cathode  radiation  which  Is  excited  on  the  near  side  of  the  plate,  1.  e., 
the  side  on  which  the  rays  are  incident,  should  depend  on  the  atomic  weight 
of  tbe  matoial  of  the  plate  according  to  the  same  law  as  that  wblcb  holds  for 
the  secondary  cathode  radiation  dne  to  p  rays. 

It  Is  well  known  tbat  this  is  actually  the  case.  A^aln,  he  shows  that  on  the 
nme  neutral  pair  theory  the  qnantlty  of  secondary  radiation  which  Is  excited 
on  the  far  aide  of  the  plate^  1.  &,  the  side  from  which  tbe  rays  emerge,  should 


214  ANNUAL  BEPOET  SMITHSONIAN  INBTITnTION,  19ff7. 

be  Uie  same  lor  all  mbstancea,  aasoinlDK  (1)  that  tbe  absorpUoa  of  y  rays  de- 
pends only  on  tbe  density  of  tbe  material  traverBed  and  not  on  Its  atomic 
welgbt;  (2)  tbat  the  p  rays  behave  like  tbe  y  rays  la  tbts  respect;  <3)  that 
tbe  7  rays  are  not  liable  to  selective  absorptloa. 

He  then  shows  by  experim^it  tbat  the  "  emergence  "  radiations  sbow  no  sign 
of  following  the  p  ray  law,  as  tbe  Incidence  ndiatloos  do;  that  tbey  are  of  the 
same  order  tor  all  sabstances,  and  that  tbe  observed  differences  promise  to  be 
readily  explained  when  proper  accouat  is  taken  of  tbe  imperfections  of  each 
of  tbe  three  assumptions  mentioned  above. 

He  further  discusses  the  possibility  that  the  cathode  particle  o(  the  X-ray 
tube  may  become  an  X  ray  by  picking  up  a  positive  of  small  mass  at  tbe  anode, 
and  may  afterwards  by  dropping  tbe  positive  become  tbe  secoDdary  cathode 
ray,  tbe  speed  remaining  approximately  the  same  throughout. 


.y  Google 


PKOGRESS  IN  ELECTRO-METALLURGY.' 


The  electro-metallurgical  industries  are  the  growth  of  the  last 
twenty  years,  but  in  that  period  very  remarkable  progress  has  been 
made.  Only  one  industry  existed  prior  to  1886,  namely,  that  oi 
copper  refining.  This  was  carried  on  in  a  few  works  upon  an 
extremely  limited  scale  of  operations.  To-day  the  electrolytic  cop- 
per-refining industry  is  second  in  importance  only  to  that  of  copper 
smelting,  and  over  one-half  of  the  world's  production  of  copper 
is  submitted  to  the  former  process.  The  manufacture  of  alu- 
minium, calcium,  carbide,  carborundum,  ferroalloys,  and  sodium  are 
other  important  and  expanding  electro-metallurgical  industries, 
while  the  application  of  the  electric  furnace  to  steel  refining  is  a  new 
development  which  may  lead  to  very  important  changes  in  the 
iron  and  steel  industries,  for,  in  conjunction  with  gas  engines  and 
dynamos,  it  may  serve  as  a  means  of  utilizing  the  enormous  power 
DOW  tost  in  the  waste  gases  from  our  blast  furnaces. 

The  following  pages  deal  with  the  various  electro-metallurgical  in- 
dustries in  alphabetical  order,  describing  briefly  the  processes  or 
methods  in  use  and  the  extent  to  which  these  methods  have  been 
applied  upon  an  industrial  scale. 

Aluminium. — The  manufacture  of  aluminium  by  the  electrolytic 
method  was  commenced  at  New  Kensington  in  America  in  the  year 
1888,  and  at  Neuhausen  in  Switzerland  in  the  year  1889.  The  pro- 
cesses were'  worked  out  independently  by  Hall  in  America  and  by 
Heroult  in  France,  but  as  now  operated  they  are  practically  identi- 
cal, and  consist  in  the  electrolysis,  with  carbon  electrodes,  of  alumin- 
imn  oxide  held  in  solution  in  a  fused  bath  of  cryolite  and  fluorspar. 
Since  the  introduction  of  the  electrolytic  method  of  manufacture  in 
1889  the  production  of  aluminium  has  increased  from  85  tons  to  12,000 
tons  in  1906.     The  following  tabular  statement  shows  the  gradual 

'  Reprlntetl,  by  permlBSlon,  from  the  E<ngiiieerlDg  Magazioe,  New  York,  Octo- 
ber and  November,  1907. 


41780—08 18 


.;.(i®ogle 


216  ANNUAL  BEPOET  SMITHSONIAN  INSTXTUTION;  1907. 

increase  in  output  and  fall  in  price  which  has  marked  the  industrial 
development  of  the  electrolytic  process : 


T««. 

Produc- 

PrlM, 

■ssr 

T«„. 

Produo- 
tlon. 

PtIm. 

Tom. 

14.90 
B.K1 

as  .to 

86.M 
8«6.B0 

m.f» 

1,067.00 

600.0 
MO.O 
2SO.0 
12S.0 
IW.O 
IM.O 

sz.o 

1S8«. 

Toiu. 

s,sa 

t.DSS 
S.1S8 
7,162 

7, an 

7,7SO 
8.10E 

9,000 

00 

00 

00 
00 
TO 

oo 

00 

18.  B 

iBsa 

»»• - 

mm 

Ifi  5 

IS  6 

K.O 

19KL - 

10  0 

Note, — The  productloD  is  gtven  In  tons  ot  2,S40  pounda  Hod  tbe  price  la  p^ncp  per 
pound,  rrom  1002  onward  the  production  dgurcs  are  cBtlmated,  Bdd  from  1697  to  lOtM 
the  BgureB  (or  price  are  based  on  the  American  valueB. 

The  manufacture  of  aluminum  is  now  carried  on  in  a  number  of 
works,  controlling  over  84,000  horsepower.  Details  of  these  so  far 
as  they  are  known,  are  given  below. 


!.„.o.  «.....,. 

Locality  of  vorki. 

PO^. 

•10,000 

■<£,ooa 

Swlt»rl«Dd(lncour»o(enjctIOQl.. 

T,MD 

OslT 

(st.  PeUl. 

c,no 

S.0OO 

Pescara 

B.  Pltt>bar«  Keductlon  Co 

Shawtalgan  Pall.  <Canada) 

G.tno 

K,000 

•On  tbeiKUthorltT  of  the  Rerua  iDdUBtrlelte,  ISOT,  p.  23£,  aa  quoted  In  I^Iaduatrla. 

Assuming  that  4  horsepower  are  required  for  one  year,  to  produce 
1  ton  of  aluminium,  the  aggregate  power  available  in  these  works 
would  suffice  to  produce  35,000  tons  of  the  metal  per  annum.  Owing, 
however,  to  the  diminished  power  available  during  the  summer 
droughts  and  to  other  causes,  the  maximum  total  of  power  is  not 
available  for  the  manufacture  all  the  year  round,  and  my  estimate 
of  the  1906  production  is  about  12,000  tons. 

The  past  year  has  been  marked  by  the  expiration  of  five  of  the 
United  States  patents  granted  to  Hall  in  1889.    The  Heroult  patents 

,,ih;,Goot^lc 


PBOGBB88  IN   ELECTBO-METAU^UEGT — KEBSHAW.  217 

lapsed  io  Europe  in  1902,  and  the  manufacture  of  aluminium  by  the 
electrolytic  method  can  therefore  now  be  carried  on  without  the  pay- 
ment of  patent  royalties.  The  use  of  the  electric  current  for  keeping 
the  bath  in  the  molten  state  is,  however,  still  covered  in  America  by 
the  Bradley  electric-furnace  patents,  which  do  not  sxpire  until  1909. 
In  that  country  the  Pittsburg  Reduction  Company  therefore  still 
possess  the  monopoly  of  the  electrolytic  reduction  process. 

As  regards  utilization,  the  demand  for  the  metal  in  Europe  during 
1906  has  been  in  excess  of  the  output,  and  the  reduction  plants  are 
being  extended  in  several  of  the  works,  in  order  to  benefit  by  the 
higher  prices  now  obtainable  for  the  metal.  The  British  Aluminium 
Company,  in  addition  to  the  development  of  a  new  water  power  in 
Switzerland,  are  carrying  out  a  very  lai^  scheme  on  Loch  Leven  in 
Scotland,  which  when  completed  will  add  enormously  to  their  power 
resources  in  Scotland.  The  Aluminium  Industrie  Aktien  Gesell- 
schaft,  of  Xeuhausen,  are  likewise  developing  a  large  power  scheme 
on  the  Hirer  Navisonce  in  Switzerland,  from  which  it  is  expected 
that  25,000  horsepower  will  be  derived.  A  new  aluminium  works 
has  been  erected  by  an  Italian  company  in  the  Valley  of  Pescara  in 
Northern  Italy,  and  is  about  to  commence  operations.  In  a  few 
years,  therefore,  the  productive  capacities  of  the  aluminium  com- 
panies will  be  more  than  doubled,  and  it  will  be  of  interest  to  note 
whether  the  demand  shows  a  similar  expansion. 

The  metal  is  now  being  used  in  very  large  quantities  for  motor- 
car construction  and  for  general  foundry  work,  while  the  "  Thermit " 
and  "  Weldite  "  processes  also  consume  large  quantities  of  aluminium 
in  the  form  of  powder.  In  every  direction  in  which  the  metal  has 
been  applied  with  success  its  use  has  increased  during  1906. 

Mr.  Schoop,  of  Paris,  has  worked  out  the  details  of  a  process  for 
the  autogenous  welding  of  aluminium  which  overcomes  the  diffi- 
culty of  finding  a  suitable  solder  for  the  metal.  By  this  process 
aluminium  sheets,  rods,  or  tubes,  of  any  thickness,  can  be  welded 
without  any  difficulty,  and  the  joints  are  said  to  be  as  strong  as  the 
other  parts  of  the  metal.  This  method  of  welding  will  probably 
lead  up  to  increased  consumption  of  the  metal  ia  many  industries  and 
to  its  use  for  larger  articles  and  vessels  than  have  yet  been  manu- 
factured from  it.  Another  direction  in  which  the  use  of  aluminium 
is  extending  is  for  the  manufacture  of  pans,  etc.,  for  use  in  the  wax- 
refining  and  jam-boiling  industries,  which  have  hitherto  employed 
copper  vessels  for  this  purpose. 

Bullion  refining. — Electrolytic  methods  have  been  applied  with 
great  success  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic  in  the  refining  of  gold  and 
silver  bullion,  the  Moebius  process  being  used  for  silver  and  the  Wohl- 
will  process  for  gold.  In  the  Moebius  process  a  dilute  solution  of 
silver  nitrate  containing  free  nitric  acid  is  employed  as  electrolyte, 


318  AlfNUAl,  BEPOBT  SMITHBONUIT   INSTITnTION,  1907, 

while  in  the  WohlwUl  process  a  solution  of  gold  chloride  is  utilized. 
In  America  the  Philadelphia  and  Denver  mints  are  equipped  with 
electrolytic  parting  apparatus,  and  a  similar  installation  of  electr€>- 
lytic  baths  is  now  being  erected  at  the  Government  mint  in  San 
Francisco.  Many  of  the  American  copper  -  refineries  also  have  an 
electrolytic  plant  for  refining  the  silver  obtained  as  a  by-product  in 
the  copper-refining  process.  Id  Europe  electrolytic  refining  is  carried 
on  at  Frankfort  by  the  Deutsche  Gold-  imd  Silber-Scheide  Anstalt 
aB,d  by  the  Xorddeutsche  Affinerie  at  Hamburg,  details  of  the  Wohl- 
wiJl  gold-refining  process  having  been  worked  out  at  the  latter  refin- 
ery. Electrolytic  bullion  refining  is  also  carried  out  in  Great  Britain 
and  in  France,  but  no  details  of  the  works  are  available  for  publica- 
tion. A  recent  improvement  of  the  Moebius  process  is  the  use  of 
gelatine,  which  gives  a  smooth  coherent,  in  place  of  a  rou^  crystal- 
line deposit  at  the  cathode. 

Calcium  carbide  and  acetylene. — Calcium  carbide  is  obtained  by 
heating  lime  and  coke  in  an  electric  furnace,  and  it  was  first  produced 
in  a  large  scale  by  Willson  at  Spray  in  the  United  States  in  the  year 
1893.  The  late  Henri  Moissan  about  the  same  time  produced  this 
compound  in  his  laboratory  in  Paris,  and  the  European  patents 
granted  to  Willson  have  not  been  upheld,  owing  to  the  earlier  publi- 
cation of  the  results  of  Moissan's  chemical  researches  upon  the  electric 
furnace  and  its  products  in  the  "  Comptes  Rendus  "  of  1894. 

The  early  history  of  the  calcium  carbide  and  acetylene  industries 
is  chiefiy  a  record  of  reckless  finance,  worthless  patents  having  been 
used  for  company  flotations  upon  a  large  scale,  with  serious  results 
for  the  investors  and  for  the  industry.  The  period  culminated  in 
1899-1900  with  a  series  of  failures  and  financial  "  reconstructions." 
Since  that  year  the  companies  have  been  slowly  recovering  from  the 
effects  of  this  unwise  boom.  Thou^  acetylene  gas  has  not  displaced 
other  illuminants  to  the  extent  that  was  at  one  time  expected,  it  is 
now  used  for  various  purposes  much'  more  widely  than  is  generally 
recognized,  and  central  acetylene-generating  stations  are  found  in 
very  many  small  village  communities  in  Europe  and  America. 

According  to  the  most  recent  estimates  there  are  now  between  sixty 
and  seventy  works  engaged  in  the  production  of  calcium  carbide,  and 
the  aggregate  production  amounts  to  between  90,000  and  100,000  tons 
per  annum,  valued  at  £1,000,000.  The  United  States,  Italy,  and 
France  head  the  list  of  producing  countries,  and  are  also  the  largest 
consumers  of  carbide  for  acetylene-generation  purposes.  During  the 
period  of  inflated  finance  several  works  for  the  manufacture  of  carbide 
were  started  in  the  United  Kingdom.  All  of  these  have  ceased  oper- 
ating, and  only  one  small  works  is  now  active,  at  Askeaton  in  Ireland. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  carbide  consumed  in  the  United  Kingdom 
is  therefore  imported  from  Norway  and  from  other  countries  which 


,  Google 


A  Carborundum  Furnace  After  a  Rum. 

Digilized  by  Google 


PBOOBESS  IN   ELBCTBO-METALLUBGT — KEB8HAW.  219 

produce  in  excess  of  their  requirements.  In  Prance  the  industry  is 
c4H)tTolled  by  a  syndicate  with  headquarters  in  Paris,  and  this  exer- 
cises a  close  watch  over  output  and  price.  Eleven  works  are  reported 
to  be  still  operating,  situated  around  the  following  centers  of  cheap 
water  power:  Bellegarde,  Grenoble,  Nice,  and  Toulouae.  The  esti- 
mated output  of  these  works  in  1906  was  24,000  tons;  the  annual 
consumption  in  France  is  about  15,000  tons. 

Germany  is  dependent  upon  Switzerland,  Austria,  and  Norway  for 
two-third^  of  its  supply  of  carbide,  only  8,000  tons  being  produced 
at  home,  whilst  16,000  tons  are  imported.  In  the  United  States  the 
production  of  carbide  is  estimated  to  amount  to  25,000  tons  per  annum, 
the  Union  Carbide  Company,  with  works  at  Niagara  Falls,  being  the 
chief  producers.  A  large  new  factory  designed  for  the  utilization  of 
10,000  horsepower  is  now  being  erected,  however,  in  a  new  center  in 
the  States. 

Although  calcium  carbide  is  being  employed  chiefly  for  generating 
acetylene  for  illuminating  purposes,  its  application  for  production  of 
"  calcium  cyanamide  "  is  likely  to  lead  to  developments  of  some  im- 
portance. The  use  of  acetylene  gas  in  the  ozyacetylene  blow  pipe,  for 
the  autogenous  welding  of  metals,  is  another  application  of  consider- 
able industrial  importance,  since  temperatures  can  be  obtained  with 
this  apparatus  which  approach  those  of  the  electric  arc,  and  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  6ame  are  more  suited  for  welding  purposes. 

Calcium. — Calcium  in  the  metaUic  state  is  one  of  the  latest  electro- 
metallurgical  products,  the  metal  being  produced  by  electrolysis  of 
fused  calcium  chloride  and  fluoride  with  a  rising  cathode,  which  just 
touches  the  surface  of  the  fused  electrolyte.  This  method  is  adopted 
to  prevent  the  re-solution  in  the  molten  electrolyte  of  the  calcium  de- 
posited at  the  cathode.  The  temperature  of  the  bath  is  kept  at  about 
670°  C,  and  the  process  works  most  satisfactorily  with  fresh  and 
neutral  calcium  chloride.  The  metal  is  obtained  in  the  form  of  an 
irregular  rod,  made  up  of  a  series  of  buttons,  fused  together.  The 
metal  is  dark  gray  in  color,  of  speciflc  gravity  1.51. 

Calcium  is  now  being  manufactured  upon  a  commercial  scale  by 
the  Elektrochemische  Werke  at  Bitterfeld  in  Germany,  under  the 
Rathenau  patents,  and  is  being  placed  upon  the  market  by  the  same 
firm.  The  only  difficulty  in  the  development  of  the  new  manu- 
facture lies  in  the  lack  of  applications  or  uses  for  the  metal.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  it  might  be  used  in  the  place  of  aluminium 
for  removing  Uie  oxides  from  steel,  but  at  present  aluminium  is  the 
cheaper  metal.  For  many  other  reduction  processes  calcium  can  not 
replace  sodium,  since  its  affinity  for  oxygen  is  not  so  great.  At- 
tempts to  form  alloys  of  calcium  with  copper  and  other  metals  have 
also  failed,  as  one  would  have  expected. 


.y  Google 


220  A2JNUAI,  BEPOKT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTTTDTION,  1807. 

Carborundum. — Carborundum  is  the  trade  name  given  to  a  carbide 
of  silicon,  first  made  bj  E.  G.  Acheson  at  Niagara  Falls,  by  heating 
coke,  sand,  and  sawdust  to  a  temperature  of  between  2,000°  and 
3,000°  C.  in  an  electric  furnace  of  the  resistance  type.  The  product 
has  the  formula  SiC,  and  the  manufacture  has  grown  into  one  of 
considerable  importance  on  account  of  the  excellent  abrasive  prop- 
erties of  the  carbide.  In  1893,  1,000  pounds  of  carborundum  were 
produced  at  the  Niagara  works,  whereas  in  the  last  year  for  which 
complete  figures  are  available  (1906)  the  output  had  increased  to 
6,226,000  pounds.  For  many  years  the  Niagara  Falls  works  sup- 
plied all  the  demand  for  this  compound. 

Another  artificial  substitute  for  emery  has  also  appeared,  in  the 
form  of  an  electric- furnace  product  called  "  alundum,"  obtained  by 
heating  bauxite  to  a  high  temperature.  In  order  to  meet  the  in- 
creased competition,  the  Carborundum  Company  of  the  United 
States  have  arranged  to  carry  on  the  subsidiary  manufacture  of 
grinding  wheels,  abrasive  tools,  and  materials  in  Germany,  a  new 
works  for  this  purpose  having  been  erected  there  in  1906. 

Tucker  and  Lampen  have  recently  carried  out  some  laboratory 
experiments  with  carborundum,  and  have  found  that  the  temperature 
originally  given  by  Acheson  for  its  formation  and  dissociation  are 
too  high.  According  to  Acheson  these  temperatures  were  over  2,500° 
C,  while  Tucker  and  Lampen  give  1,600°  to  1,900°  and  2,220°  C. 

Copper. — The  electrolytic  copper-refining  industry  is  the  oldest 
of  the  electro-metallurgical  industries,  having  been  started  by  James 
Elkington  at  Pembrey  in  South  Wales  in  the  year  1869.  The  process 
and  methods  used  by  Elkington  in  this  small  refinery  were  similar 
in  all  respects  to  those  in  use  at  the  present  day,  copper  sulphate 
being  employed  as  the  electrolyte  with  raw-copper  anodes  and  thin 
sheets  of  pure  copper  as  cathodes.  The  only  change  has  been  in 
the  magnitude  of  the  operations.  At  Pembrey  the  electrolyte  was 
contained  in  small  earthenware  pots,  and  the  output  was  15  hundred- 
weight per  day,  or  250  tons  per  annum.  To-day  there  is  one  refinery 
in  America  producing  electrolytic  copper  at  the  rate  of  350  tons  per 
twenty-four  hours,  and  the  aggregate  output  of  all  the  refineries 
is  estimated  at  400,000  tons,  or  53  per  cent  of  the  total  raw-copper 
production  of  the  world.  This  enormous  growth  of  the  industry 
has  occurred  chiefly  in  recent  years,  the  capacity  and  output  of  the 
American  refineries,  which  contribute  over  85  per  cent  of  the  total, 
having  been  doubled  within  the  last  seven  years.  The  expansion 
IS  due  partly  to  the  great  demand  for  a  very  pure  copper  for  elec- 
trical purposes  and  partly  to  the  presence  of  silver  and  gold  in  the 
American  raw  copper,  in  sufficient  amount  to  pay  for  their  recovery 
from  the  slimes  obtained  in  the  electrolytic  process  of  copper  refin- 


Gooylc 


PKOGRESS  IN   ELECTBO-METALLUBGY — KEB8HAW.  221 

ing.  Thirty-four  electrolytic  refineries  are  now  operated  in  Europe 
and  America. 

The  chief  progress  of  recent  years  in  this  industry  has  been  in  the 
substitution  of  machine  for  hand  labor,  the  casting  of  the  raw-copper 
anodes,  and  the  charging  and  discharging  of  the  vats  by  mechanical 
methods,  now  being  carried  out  in  all  the  large  up-to-date  refineries. 
The  chief  improvement  on  the  chemical  side  of  the  process  has  been 
the  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  hydrochloric  acid  to  the  electrolyte 
in  the  vats.  This,  according  to  Carlson,  prevents  the  loss  of  silver 
which  otherwise  occurs,  the  insoluble  silver  chloride  being  precipitated 
with  the  slimes. 

Dianumtine. — This  is  a  trade  name  given  to  a  new  product  ob- 
tained by  heating  alumina  with  small  quantities  of  silica  to  a  high 
temperature  in  the  electric  furnace.  When  finely  powdered  and 
mixed  with  clay  and  water,  the  new  material  is  said  to  form  a  useful 


Pia.  1. — Btassano  fixed  type  electric  luniaee  tor  copper. 

wash  for  the  inside  lining  and  walls  of  furnaces  exposed  to  a  high 
temperature.  The  new  product  is  being  manufactured  upon  a  com- 
mercial scale  by  the  Diamantine  Werke  at  Rheinfelden,  Germany. 

Graphite. — The  production  of  a  hard  variety  of  artificial  graphite 
has  been  carried  on  since  1892  by  Acheson  at  Niagara  Falls.  The 
method  of  manufacture  is  to  form  first  a  carbide  in  tlie  electric 
furnace  and  then  to  decompose  it  by  increasing  the  heat  up  to  a  point 
at  which  it  dissociates  and  the  second  element  is  volatilized.  Under 
these  conditions  the  carbon  remains  in  the  furnace  in  the  form  of 
graphite.  Acheson  in  his  earlier  work  used  coke  mixed  with  silica 
or  sand,  but  he  has  since  found  that  it  is  simply  necessary  to  start 
with  ordinary  anthracite  coal;  the  impurities  of  this  suffice  to  pro- 
vide the  second  element  of  the  carbide,  and  when  raised  to  a  definite 
temperature,  these  elements  volatilize  and  leave  the  carbon  as  graphite. 
The  manufacture  has  been  a  very  successful  one,  and  the  work  of  the 

ogle 


222  AKNOAIi  BEPOBT  SMTTHBOKIAN   INSTITUTION,  1007. 

International  Acheaon  Graphite  Company  at  Niagara  Falls  now 
utilize  2,000  horsepower,  and  produce  over  2,000  tons  of  artiBcial 
graphite  per  annum.  The  greater  portion  of  this  output  is  used  for 
electro-chemical  and  electro-metallur^cal  work,  the  Achesoa  artifi- 
cial graphite  having  been  found  specially  suited  for  electrodes. 
During  1906  Acheson  discovered  a  process  by  which  the  soft  variety 
of  graphite  can  be  produced  in  the  electric  furnace,  and  it  is  expected 
that  this  new  artificial  graphite  will  become  a  keen  competitor  of 
the  natural  variety,  especially  as  it  shows  more  uniformity  of  compo- 
sition. No  details  of  the  new  process  of  manufacture  have  yet  been 
publi^ed. 

FerroaUoya. — The  application  of  the  electric  furnace  for  producing 
alloys  of  iron  with  silicon,  chromium,  manganese,  tun^ten,  and 
vanadium  has  developed  into  a  large  and  important  metallurgical 
industry.  Since  Moissan's  early  research  work,  the  value  of  these 
alloys  for  the  manufacture  of  special  steels  has  been  recognized  by 
expert  steel  makers  Ln  all  countries.  The  manufacture  of  ferroalloys 
is  carried  on  at  present  chieSy  in  France  and  Switzerland,  a  cheaply 
developed  water  power  being  essential  for  the  commercial  production 
of  these  compounda  In  France,  MM.  Keller,  Leleux  &  Cie.  are  pro- 
ducing ferrosilicon  and  ferrochrome  in  large  amounts  at  Livet  and 
Kerrous&e,  while  the  Soci£t£  Electro-metallurgique  Fran^aise  devote 
■  a  portion  of  their  power  to  the  same  manufactures  at  La  Praz  and 
St  Michel.  The  largest  works  are,  however,  to  be  found  in  the 
Haute  Savoie,  on  the  borders  of  Switzerland,  where  the  Soci£t£ 
Electro-metaUurgique  Giroud  are  utilizing  18,000  horsepower  for 
the  production  of  a  ferrosilicon,  ferrochromium,  ferrotungsten,  and 
ferromolybdenum,  the  aggregate  output  of  the  three  works  owned  by 
this  company  being  given  by  Doctor  Hutton  as  9,000  tons  per  annum 
and  the  value  as  £360,000. 

In  Germany  MM.  Goldschmidt  &  Cie.  and  MM.  BJnpp  are  using 
the  aluminium  reduction  process,  in  place  of  the  electric  furnace,  at 
Essen  for  producing  ferroalloys  free  from  carbon. 

In  America  the  ferroalloys  industry  is  less  developed,  the  Willson 
Company,  with  works  at  Kanawaha  Falls  and  at  Holcombs  Rock, 
Virginia,  being  the  only  producers  of  ferrochromium;  about  3,000 
tons  are  produced  in  the  two  works.  Rossi  is,  however,  experiment- 
ing at  Niagara  Falls  with  electric-furnace  methods  of  producing 
ferrotitanium,  and  a  new  works  has  been  erected  during  1906  at 
Newmire,  Colorado,  by  the  Vanadium  Alloys  Company  of  New  York, 
for  the  manufacture  of  ferrovanadium.  Recent  trials  of  ternary  and 
quaternary  steels,  made  with  the  addition  of  vanadium,  have  proved 
that  these  steels  are  specially  suited  to  the  demands  made  by  motor- 
car work,  and  it  is  expected  that  in  time  the  manufacture  of  vans- 
diom  steel  may  become  a  branch  industiy  of  considerable  importance. 


Interior  of  Furnace  Room,  the  Carborundum  Company,  Niagara  Falls,  N.  V. 


.y  Google 


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PROGBESS  IN   ELECTBO-METALLURGT KEBSHAW.  328 

With  regard  to  the  use  of  ferroalloys  generally,  ferrosilicon  is 
employed  as  a  deoxydizing  agent,  while  the  other  alloys  are  em- 
ployed for  introducing  the  rarer  metals  into  the  steel,  it  having  been 
found  that  a  more  homogeneous  product  is  obtained  when  the  metal 
is  introduced  into  the  molten  st«el  in  the  form  of  an  alloy  than  when 
it  is  introduced  in  the  pure  state.  All  the  chrome-steel  used  for 
armour-plate  manufacture  is  now  made  with  the  aid  of  ferrochrome. 

Iron  and  steel. — The  methods  of  producing  iron  and  steel  in  the 
electric  furnace  have  been  developed  chiefly  by  French  electrometal- 
lurgists,  a  large  number  of  works  in  France  having  been  rendered 
idle  by  the  collapse  of  the  boom  in  the  calcium-carbide  industry  in 
1899-1900,  and  new 
applications  being  re- 
quired for  the  water- 
power  and  electric- 
furnace  plant  thus 
made  available.  The 
earliest  trials  of  the 
electric  furnace  for 
iron  and  steel  produc- 
tion date  from  1899, 
and  since  that  year 
experimental  work 
has  been  carried  on 
continuously.  D  u  r  - 
ing  the  last  three 
years  the  new  meth- 
ods have  attracted  the 
attention  of  steel 
makers,  and  it  is  now 
generally    recognized 

that     certain     of     the        Fiq.  2.— vertical  eecttoD  of  a  aiToud  electric  tornace 

methods  and  processes  '"'  •=™^""*^  indiTidn.uy  heated, 

have  attained  a  permanent  footing  in  the  iron  and  steel  industry. 
The  Heroult  and  Kjellin  methods  of  steel  refining  by  aid  of  electric 
heat  have  shown  the  most  striking  development,  and  a  large  number 
of  works  in  Europe  and  America  are  using  these  methods  with  satis- 
factory results. 

The  Heroult  steel-refining  furnace  is  of  the  crucible  type,  and  the 
heating  is  initially  effected  by  means  of  the  electric  arc,  which  forms 
between  the  surface  of  the  slagging  materials  covering  the  metal  and 
the  two  massive  carbon  electrodes  which  are  suspended  above  it.  The 
slag  when  molten  is  used  for  resistance  heating,  the  carbons  being 
lowered  until  they  touch  it.  The  impurities  of  the  iron  are  removed 
by  renewing  the  slag  from  time  to  time.  The  refining  operation  thus 
becomes  a  "  washing  out "  of  the  impurities  of  the  iron,  by  treatment 


3S4  AKMtTAL  BBPOBI'  8MITH80KUN  IKSTITDTION,  1907. 

with  suitable  slags.  When  purified,  "  carburite  "  in  requisite  amount 
is  added,  and  the  crucible  is  tipped. 

Heroult  claims  that  with  this  furnace  iron  or  steel  of  any  degree 
of  impurity  can  be  refined,  and  that  from  the  purified  metal,  a  st«el 
of  any  desired  composition  can  be  produced  by  the  addition  of  the 
necessary  amount  of  "  carburite  "  and  other  ferro-alloys. 

The  Heroult  furnace  is  now  in  operation  at  La  Praz  and  Froges 
in  France,  at  Kortfors  in  Norway,  at  Remscheid  in  Germany,  and 
at  Syracuse,  New  York.  The  Remscheid  plant  has  been  in  operation 
since  February,  1906,  and  is  on  a  smaller  scale  than  the  Syracuse  plant. 


Fio.  3. — Longltudlaa]  and  traDSTcrse  sectlODB  of  Heroult  crucible  furnace. 

The  Kjellin  furnace  has  been  developed  at  Gysinge  m  Sweden,  and 
differs  materially  from  the  Heroult  furnace.  In  place  of  the  use  of 
direct  current  for  combined  arc  and  resistance  heating,  the  Kjellin 
process  utilizes  induced  currents,  and  the  heating  effect  is  obtained  by 
the  rapid  changes  in  the  magnetic  state  of  the  iron  or  steel  which 
forms  the  secondary  coil  of  the  circuit.  The  Kjellin  furnace  is  in 
reality  a  large  transformer,  in  which  an  alternating  current  of  low 
amperage,  but  high  voltage,  is  transformed  into  an  alternating  current 


,  Google 


Kjellin  1 ,000-HoRSEPowEn  Electric  Furnhce.   Top  and  Bottom  Views. 

Tliu  lowvr  shDwa  Uie  muton  uuil  Kvarliig  by  wbicli  (hf  luniace  la  tipped  for  pouring. 


.y  Google 


FBOGBES8  IN   ELECTBOMETALLUBQT — EBB8HAW.  226 

of  large  intensitj  but  low  pressure  in  the  secondary  coil  of  the  appa- 
ratus.    The  metal  is  contained  within  an  annular  ring  built  up  of 
refractory      blocks 
round  the  primary 

coil  of  the  furnace,  i 

and  by  varying  the 
current  in  the  pri- 
mary, the  heat  de- 
Teloped  in  the  sec- 
ondary can  be  r^u- 
lated  aa  desired. 
The  advantages  of 
the  Kjellin  furnace 
are  the  development 
of  the  heat  just 
where  it  is  wanted, 
i.  e.,  entirely  within 
the  metal,  and  con- 
sequent small  wear 
and  tear  upon  the 
structure  and  walls 
of  the  furnace,  and 
secondly,  the  ab- 
sence of  impurities 
picked  up  from  the 
electrodes  used  in 
all  other  methods 
of  applying  electric 
heat.  The  Kjellin 
process  and  furnace  are 
worked  successfully  at  G; 
in  Sweden,  at  Gurtmel 
Switzerland,  at  Krupp' 
works  in  Germany,  at  1 
steel  works  in  Eng- 
land, and  also  at  the 
Araya  steel  works 
in  Spain,  while 
i  n  America  a 
furnace  patented  by 
but  worked  upon  the 
principle  has  been  op 
with  successful  results  at 
Philadelphia. 
Three  electric-furnace  methods  for  the  production  of  iron  and  liteel 


236  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  IWI. 

<lirect  from  the  ore  have  been  tried  upon  a  small  Industrial  scale  in 
Italy,  France,  and  Canada. 

The  first  of  these — the  Stassano — has  not  achieved  success,  although 
large  sums  of  money  were  expended  upon  the  trials  at  Rome  and 
Darfo  in  Northern  Italy.  An  arc  furnace  of  the  rotary  type  was 
employed,  and  the  ore  was  ground  and  briquetted  with  the  lime  and 
coke,  before  charging  into  the  furnace.  The  costs  of  grinding  and 
briquetting  all  the  raw  materials,  and  the  difficulty  of  maintaining  a 
durable  lining  to  the  furnace,  were  the  principal  causes  of  failure. 

The  Keller  furnace  and  process  for  the  production  of  gray,  mot- 
tled, and  white  pig  iron  from  the  ore  has  been  operated  at  Livet  in 
France  for  several  years,  with  moderate  success.  The  furnaces  are 
of  1,000 -horsepower  and  308-horsepower  capacity,  of  the  two-shaft 
type,  with  large  carbon-block  electrodes  slung  in  chains  in  the  center 
of  each  shaft.  The  heat  is  obtained  by  combined  arc  and  resistance 
beating.  A  canal  connects  the  hearths  of  the  two  shafts,  and  when 
filled  with  molten  iron  this  canal  serves  as  the  electrical  connecting 
link  between  the  two  portions  of  the  furnace.  The  ore  is  crushed 
roughly,  to  a  size  of  2  inches,  and  is  charged  with  the  lime  and  coke 
into  each  shaft  of  the  furnace.  The  electric  power  required  per  short 
ton  of  pig  iron  produced  at  liivet  averages  2,300  kilowatt  hours,  and 
it  is  estimated  that  with  power  at  $10  per  electrical  horsepower  year 
a  ton  of  pig  iron  could  be  produced  by  the  Keller  furnace  and  process 
for  $11.60,  A  furnace  designed  to  produce  20  tons  of  gray  iron 
castings  per  twenty-four  hours  has  been  erected  at  Livet,  but  I  am 
not  aware  whether  it  is  yet  in  work. 

The  third  process  and  furnace  are  that  of  Heroult,  and  the  most 
important  trials  have  been  conducted  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Canada, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Canadian  government.  The  furnace  is  a 
single-shaft  furnace  of  most  simple  type.  The  smelting  of  the  ore  is 
carried  out  by  combined  arc  and  resistance  heating,  the  raw  materials 
being  charged  without  grinding  into  the  shaft  of  the  furnace,  ia 
which  hangs  the  heavy  carbon-block  electrode,  while  the  sole  plate 
primes  the  other  electrode.  The  experiments  with  this  furnace  at 
Sault  Ste.  Marie  proved  that  magnetite  and  titaniferous  iron  sand 
could  be  smelted  without  difficulty  and  that  charcoal  could  be  substi- 
tuted for  coke,  without  briquetting.  The  electric  power  required  per 
ton  of  iron  was  1,541  kilowatt  hours,  or  less  than  at  Livet,  but  later 
trials  of  the  same  furnace  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie  have  shown  that  the 
larger  power  consumption  is  the  more  correct.  The  furnace  has  now 
been  taken  over  by  the  Lake  Superior  Company  financing  the  devel- 
opment of  this  new  industrial  center,  and  64  tons  of  nickel  pig  have 
been  produced  in  it  from  the  roasted  pyrrhotite  ore  of  the  district. 
This  attempt  to  found  a  new  iron  and  steel  center  in  Canada  may 


.y  Google 


Near  View  of  the  Top  of  a  Kjellin  Electric  Furnace  of  1 ,000  Hoasepower. 


Stassano  1 .000- Horsepower  Electric  Furnace,  Fixed  Type. 


Google 


Pouring  a  1 ,000- Horse  power  Stassano  Revolvmo  Furnace. 


..Google 


PBOGKESS  IN  ELECTBO-METALLUBGT — KERSHAW.  327 

have  most  important  results  upon  the  development  of  comitries  which 
have  iron-ore  deposits,  but  no  coal  with  which  to  smelt  the  native  ores. 

Lead. — Several  attempts  to  introduce  electrolytic  or  electro-thermal 
methods  for  the  refining  of  lead  have  been  made  in  America,  and 
one  such  process  was  worked  for  some  time  upon  a  large  scale  at 
Niagara  Falls,  but  the  company  financing  this  venture  ultimately 
ended  in  liquidation.  At  the  present  time  the  Betts  refining  process, 
in  which  lead  bullion  qr  raw  lead  is  used  as  anode  material,  in  a  bath 
of  lead  fiuo-silicate,  is  in  operation  at  Trail,  British  Columbia,  and  at 
Newcastle,  England.  The  plant  at  Trail  was  enlarged  in  1906,  and 
consists  of  340  vats,  each  7  feet  in  length  by  30  inches  wide.  When 
charged,  each  vat  contains  20  anodes  and  21  cathodes,  and  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  plant  is  stated  to  be  90  tons  of  refined  lead  per  day. 
The  separation  of  the  lead  from  the  copper,  bismuth,  and  cadmium 
contained  as  impurities  in  the  raw  lead,  is  reported  to  be  almost 
perfect.  Betts  has  recently  proposed  to  introduce  electro-thermal 
methods  for  smelting  the  lead  ores,  but  these  proposals  do  not  appear 
to  have  yet  been  submitted  to  practical  trial. 

Nickel. — Nickel  is  produced  by  electrolytic  or  wet  methods,  by 
three  companies,  and  at  Sault  St.  Marie,  Canada,  experimental  trials 
have  recently  been  carried  out  which  show  that  ferronickel  can  be 
successfully  extracted  from  the  ores  of  the  district  by  the  Heroult 
electric  smelting  furnace.  A  permanent  installation  of  the  Heronlt 
furnace  at  this  place  is  therefore  possible.  As  regards  the  electrolytic 
methods  of  extraction,  the  Hoepfner  process  is  in  use  by  the  AUege- 
meine  Elektrometalhii^sche  Gesellschaft  of  Papenburg,  Grermany. 
The  process  depends  upon  the  electrolysis  of  mixed  solutions  of  cop- 
per, calcium,  and  nickel  chlorides,  these  being  obtained  by  leaching 
the  roasted  nickel  ore  with  a  solution  of  calcium  and  cupric  chlorides. 

In  America,  the  Orford  Copper  Company  have  recently  com- 
menced to  produce  electrolytic  nickel,  using  as  anode  material  for 
Uie  vats  slabs  of  nickel  sulphide.  These  are  obtained  by  operation 
of  the  "  tops  and  bottoms  "  process  for  separating  nickel  and  copper 
sulphides.  The  electrolyte  is  nickel-chloride  solution,  while  thin 
sheets  of  pure  nickel  are  used  as  cathodes.  The  electro-deposited 
nickel  teats  99.5  per  cent 

A  third  electrolytic  process  in  use  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie  is  stated  to 
be  the  Hybinette  process  {United  States  patent  No.  805969  of  1905). 
The  electrolyte  in  this  process  is  a  dilute  solution  of  nickel  sulphate, 
to  which  a  small  quantity  of  boric  or  phosphoric  acid  has  been  added. 
The  anodes  are  made  from  a  ferronickel-copper  alloy.  The  cathodes 
are  thin  sheets  of  copper  inclosed  in  porous  bags,  and  held  in  wooden 
frames  to  prevent  buckling.  The  flow  of  fresh  electrolyte  is  directed 
into  the  bags  which  contain  the  cathodes,  and  by  maintaining  a  higher 

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238  ANNUAL  BBPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  19ffl. 

level  of  liquid  in  these,  the  drift  of  copper  ions,  dissolved  at  the 
anode,  toward  the  cathode  compartment  is  stopped,  and  only  pare 
nickel  is  deposited  at  the  cathode.  The  electrolyte  becomes  continu- 
ously richer  in  copper  and  iron,  and  is  regenerated  by  passing  over 
slabs  of  nickel  or  of  a  nickel-copper  alloy.  The  copper  is  deposited 
and  the  nickel  takes  its  place,  while  the  iron  is  removed  at  a  later 
stage  by  oxidation.  The  solution  then  contains  only  nickel  sulphate, 
and  is  ready  for  use  again  in  the  vats. 

Siloxicon. — This  is  the  name  given  to  an  electric-furnace  product 
made  by  Acbeson  at  Niagara  Falls,  by  heating  carbon  and  silicon  in 
a  fine  state  of  subdivision  and  well  mixed,  to  a  temperature  slightly 
below  that  required  to  produce  carborundum.  The  product  is  a 
highly  refractory  material,  and  a  company  has  been  floated  in  the 
United  States  for  the  manufacture  of  siloxicon  crucibles,  muffles, 
bricks,  etc.  The  chief  difficulty  in  the  manufacture  of  siloxicon  is 
the  regulation  of  the  temperature,  since  if  this  be  raised  too  high 
(above  1,700°  C.)  the  oxygen  escapes  and  carborundum  is  produced. 

Silicon, — F,  J.  Tone  has  produced  this  metal  in  large  amount  at 
Niagara  Falls  by  heating  sand  with  carbon  in  an  electric  furnace  of 
the  resistance  type.  It  is  essential  that  the  raw  materials  be  finely 
ground  and  well  mixed,  and  that  the  temperature  be  carefully  regu- 
lated to  prevent  formation  of  carbides.  The  metallic  silicon  must  be 
drawn  off  as  formed,  the  process  being  continuous,  and  the  metal 
obtained  bright  and  crystalline.  Tone  states  that  the  metal  may  be 
used  as  a  deoxidizer  in  the  iron  and  steel  industry  and  as  a  substitute 
for  aluminium  in  the  "  thermit "  mixture ;  but  the  demand  for  silicon 
for  these  and  other  purposes  does  not  appear  to  have  developed,  and 
the  difficulty  at  present  is  to  find  a  market  for  the  product. 

Sodium.— Th.G  production  of  this  metal  by  the  electrolysis  of  the 
fused  hydrate  has  grown  in  recent  years  into  an  important  industi?, 
and  the  older  chemical  method  of  manufacture  has  now  been  quite 
supplanted  by  the  electrolytic  method.  The  Castner  cell  and  process 
are  generally  employed.  Installations  of  this  cell  are  now  working  in 
England,  America,  France,  and  Germany.  The  manufacture  of  me- 
tallic sodium  in  England  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Castner-Kellner  Alkali 
Company.  The  plant  has  recently  been  transferred  from  Weston 
Point  to  Wallsend-on-Tyne,  where  a  new  works  has  been  erected,  the 
power  required  being  purchased  from  liie  Newcastle  and  District 
Electric  Supply  Company  at  a  very  low  rate. 

Ashcroft  has  patented  a  cell  and  process  recently  by  which  sodium 
chloride  can  be  substituted  for  the  hydrate  in  this  manufacture.  This 
process  is  about  to  be  tried  upon  an  industrial  scale  in  Norway. 
Should  the  attempt  succeed,  the  cost  of  metallic  sodium,  which  has 

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Tank  House  a 


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SmrthionLin  R«Mn.  1 


Double  Electric  Furnace,  Works  of  Keller,  Leleux  et  Cie.,  Livet. 

The  metal  Ismelled  in  an  upi'er  [umnce  and  iKinred  luloa  luwutone,  Id  wbktitbe 


I  Lion  li  Hnlshed. 


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PBOQBESS  IN  BLECTBO-UETALLUBOT — KEBSHAW.  239 

tiready  been  reduced  from  4s.  to  Is.  8d.  per  kilogram  by  the  improve- 
ments in  the  Castner  electrolytic  process,  will  be  still  further  reduced. 

The  sodium  produced  by  the  electrolytic  method  is  largely  em- 
ployed for  the  manufacture  of  sodium  cyanide,  and  of  sodium  perox- 
ide. "  Oxone  "  is  the  trade  name  given  to  fused  sodium  peroxide, 
and  this  product  is  being  advertised  and  sold  in  America  for  the 
generation  of  pure  oxygen. 

Tin. — Electrolytic  or  electro-thermal  methods  have  not  been  ap- 
plied with  any  success  to  the  extraction  or  refining  of  tin,  but  in  a 
branch  industry — namely, "  tin  stripping  " — they  have  become  of  con- 
siderable value  and  importance. 

In  the  manufacture  of  cans,  boxes,  and  vessels  of  all  kinds  from 
tin  plate  an  immense  amount  of  waste  occurs  with  the  cuttings,  and 
the  recovery  of  the  tin  from  these  has  been  carried  out  for  some  years 
by  electrolysis.  The  process  usually  employed  was  first  applied  indus- 
trially by  Goldschmidt  at  Essen  in  Germany,  and  consists  in  the  use 
of  the  scrap  and  cuttings  as  anode  material  in  a  bath  of  sodium  hy- 
drate. Stannic-chloride  solution  has  also  been  used  as  electrolyte  in 
the  Bergsoe  process  at  Copenhagen.  In  the  former  case,  only  the 
tin  is  dissolved  at  the  anode ;  in  the  latter  case  the  iron  is  also  attacked, 
and  care  is  therefore  required  to  prevent  the  solution  of  tin-chloride 
from  becoming  supersaturated  with  the  iron  salt.  The  chief  develop- 
ment of  the  electrolytic  tin-stripping  industry  has  occurred  in  Ger- 
many, but  similar  factories  have  also  been  erected  and  carried  on  in 
Denmark,  Austria,  England,  and  America.  The  chief  difficulty  in 
working  the  process  has  been  to  maintain  an  adequate  supply  of  tin 
scrap  and  cuttings,  and  some  of  the  works  have  had  to  close  down 
from  this  cause.  Purely  chemical  methods  of  stripping  by  means  of 
chlorine  gas  are  also  now  coming  into  favor. 

This  will  still  further  accentuate  the  difficulty  of  supplies,  since 
the  electrolytic  alkali  and  bleach  works  will  enter  the  market  as  pur- 
chasers of  the  tin  scrap  and  cuttings.  By  this  method  of  stripping, 
stannic  chloride  is  produced,  and  not  metallic  tin.  The  manufacture 
of  "  tin  salts  "  has  already  been  taken  up  by  some  of  the  electrolytic 
alkali  works  in  Europe  and  America. 

ZtTic. — The  attempts  to  apply  electrolytic  and  electro-thermal 
methods  in  the  zinc  industry  have  met  with  only  partial  success,  and 
the  greater  proportion  of  the  zinc  found  in  commerce  is  still  produced 
by  the  old  metallurgical  method  of  distillation. 

The  coating  of  iron  articles  with  a  protective  deposit  of  zinc  is, 
however,  carried  on  in  a  large  number  of  works  by  the  electrolytic  or 
wet  method,  a  solution  of  zinc  sulphate  being  generally  employed  as 
electrolyte,  with  lead  anodes.  "  Electro-galvanizing,"  as  it  is  called, 
is  then  an  important  branch  industry. 


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380  AS'SUAL,  BEFOBT  BMnHBONIAN  IITBTITTTTION,  1907. 

As  regards  the  eztraction  of  zinc  from  its  ores,  the  Hoepfner  pro- 
cess is  in  operation  at  Winnington  in  Cheshire  and  at  Hruschau  in 
Austria.  By  this  process,  zinc  chloride  is  obtained  from  the  waste 
liquors  of  the  ammonia-soda  process,  and  is  electrolyzed  in  order  to 
obtain  metallic  zinc  and  chlorine  gas. 

A  zinc-ore  chlorination  process,  patented  by  Swinburne  and  Ash- 
croft,  is  operated  at  Weston  Point,  England,  by  the  Castner  Kellner 
Alkali  Company.  Zinc-sulphide  ores  are  treated  with  hot  chlorine 
gas,  and  the  corresponding  chlorides  are  obtained,  but  the  zinc  chlo- 
ride is  sold  as  such,  and  is  not  subjected  to  electrolysis  as  described  in 
the  patents  covering  this  process. 

Electro-thermal  methods  of  treating  raw  zinc  and  zinc  ores  are 
being  experimented  with  by  de  Lavel  and  by  Ferraris,  in  Sweden  and 
Italy,  "fhe  de  Lavel  furnace  has  already  produced  some  hundreds  of 
tons  of  pure  zinc  from  spelter,  but  T  understand  that  it  has  not  yet 
been  applied  with  success  to  the  reduction  of  the  ore.  At  Monte- 
Poni  in  Italy,  Ferraris  is  carying  out  similar  trials  with  an  electric 
furnace,  and  has  estimated  the  cost  of  the  process  at  40  lire  per  ton 
of  calamine.  In  a  recent  letter  he  stated,  however,  that  the  method 
has  not  yet  reached  the  industrial  stage  of  its  development 


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SinlthiDnon  R*port.  190T.— 


H6HOULT  Electric  Tipping  Furnace. 
ho  lower  view  bIiowb  tbe  pouriDK  of  the  charge. 


,  Google 


,  Google 


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emlthaonlin  Raport,  190T.— SmI 


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EECENT  PROGRESS  IN  COLOR  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


B7  Thouas  W.  Smtllie,  F.  R.  P.  S. 


For  nearly  a  hundred  years  some  of  the  ablest  photographic  chem- 
ists have  labored  to  produce  photographs  in  color. 

iSeebeck  in  1810  obtained  some  results  with  silver  chloride.  Sir 
John  Herschel  in  1840  found  that  chloride  of  silver  on  paper  after 
exposure  to  white  light  until  it  was  colored  violet,  and  then  exposed 
to  the  solar  spectrum,  reproduced  approximately  the  natural  colors. 

In  the  period  from  1847  to  1855  E.  Becquerel  obtained  results  so 
remarkable  with  chlorides  on  a  silver  plate  as  to  attract  the  attention 
of  the  whole  scientific  world, 

Niepce  de  St.  Victor  in  1851  took  up  the  work  very  earnestly,  pro- 
ducing on  silver  plates  treated  with  hypochlorite  of  soda  not  ofAj 
the  solar  spectrum,  but  the  various  colors  of  flowers,  fabrics,  gems, 
peacock  feathers,  etc. 

Hunt,  Poitvin,  Zencker,  M.  de  St.  Florient,  Kopp,  Maxwell,  and 
others  also  labored  in  this  field. 

M.  Carey  Lea  about  1882  began  experimenting  with  the  subchloride 
of  silver  and  obtained  beautiful  results,  but,  like  all  others  up  to  that 
date,  he  was  unable  to  make  the  colors  permanent. 

In  1869  M.  Ducofi  do  Hauron  published  his  heliochrome  process. 
In  this  process  three  negatives  are  made,  each  one  through  a  different 
color  screen  {the  screens  used  were  violet,  green,  and  orange) ;  these 
negatives  were  then  printed  on  bichromatized  gelatin  films,  colored 
red,  blue,  and  yellow ;  the  surplus  color  was  then  washed  out  and  the 
films  superposed. 

M.  Charles  Cros  invented  a  similar  process  about  the  same  time. 

The  underlying  principle  of  Ducos  du  Hauron's  and  Cros's  proc- 
esses, and  indeed  of  all  color-screen  photography,  may  be  given  as 
follows : 

If  we  divide  the  visible  spectrum  into  three  approximately  equal 
parts  we  get  three  groups  of  colors,  the  principal  tints  of  which  are 
orange-red,  green,  and  violet.  Each  one  of  these  groups  is  comple- 
mentary to  the  other  two,  and  the  three  contain  all  the  simple  rays 


282  AJSHtJAI/  BEPORT  BMITHBONIAN  IH8TIT0TION,  1907. 

which  make  up  white  light,  and  therefore  light  of  any  other  color. 
If  these  three  colors  are  combined,  their  relative  intensities  being  kept 
the  same,  they  will  produce  white  light.  If  they  are  used  as  filters, 
however,  and  interposed  successively  in  the  path  of  a  beam  of  li^t, 
white  or  colored,  they  will  absorb  it  completely.  But  if  each  screen 
is  interposed  singly  in  the  path  of  a  beam  of  light,  it  wil!  transmit  all 
simple  radiations  belonging  to  the  group  of  which  it  is  the  represen- 
tative, and  absorb  all  those  of  the  other  two  groups.  Thus  if  the  eye 
were  placed  in  the  path  of  a  beam  of  light,  and  filters  of  the  three 
fundamental  colors  interposed  one  by  one,  the  eye  would  receive  three 
distinct  sensations  of  color  corresponding  in  each  ease  to  the  portion 
of  the  original  beam  transmitted  by  the  screen  in  question.  The  prob- 
lem to  be  solved  is  to  find  a  means  of  registering  these  three  distinct 
sensations  so  that  they  can  be  combined  and  transmitted  simultane- 
ously, giving  the  sensation  of  the  original  beam.  Ducos  du  Hauron 
and  Croi  accomplished  this  by  making  three  negatives  each  with  a 
different  filter,  and  therefore  each  containing  the  record  of  the  radia- 
tions belonging  to  its  particular  group  in  the  object  photographed. 
To  combine  these  three  records,  each  negative  was  printed  on  a  sen- 
sitized film  and  the  resulting  print  dyed  the  color  complementary  to 
the  color  of  the  screen  with  which  its  negative  was  made.  Thus  the 
film  made  with  the  negative  taken  with  the  orange  screen  was  dyed 
blue,  the  film  from  the  negative  taken  with  the  violet  screen  dyed 
yellow,  i:iid  the  film  from  the  negative  taken  with  the  green  screen 
dyed  red.  These  films  were  then  developed  by  washing,  which  re- 
moved all  the  emulsion  covered  by  the  dark  parts  of  the  negative, 
that  is,  the  parts  affected  by  the  light  transmitted  through  the  screen 
in  the  original  exposure.  By  superposing  the  three  films  made  in 
this  way  and  looking  through  them  the  object  was  seen  reproduced  in 
its  original  colors, 

F.  E.  Ives  has  produced  beautiful  results  with  superposed  films,  but 
hia  most  valuable  work  in  color  photography  has  been  in  the  direc- 
tion of  positives  on  glass  for  the  photo-chromoscope,  and  for  lantern 
projections, 

M,  Lippmann  in  1891-92  succeeded  in  making  the  first  permanent 
direct  photograph  in  color  (afterwards  improved  by  Lumiere).  Tho 
details  of  this  beautiful  process  were  published  in  a  previous  Smith- 
sonian report  (1901). 

Diffraction -grating  color  photography  was  invented  by  Prof.  R.  W. 
Wood  in  1899  and  published  in  the  Philoscphical  Magazine,  from 
which  the  following  extract  is  taken : 

ir  n  dlllractloD  grating  of  moderate  disperslou  and  a  lens  be  placed  In  tlie 
path  of  a  beam  of  light  coming  from  a  linear  source,  and  the  eye  be  placed  In 


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PBOGSES8  in   COLOR  PHOTOGRAPHY BMILLIB.  288 

tny  one  of  tbe  epectrs  formed  to  the  right  and  left  of  tbe  central  Image,  tbe 
entire  snrface  of  tbe  grating  will  appear  illuminated  witb  liglit  of  a  color  de- 
pending on  the  part  of  tbe  spectrum  In  wlilch  the  eye  Is  placed.  If  one  part  of 
the  grating  has  a  different  spacing  from  tbe  rest,  tbe  spectrum  formed  bj  tUs 
part  will  be  placed  relatlveir  to  tlie  first,  and  If  tbe  eye  be  placed  in  the  OTer- 
lapplng  part  of  tbe  two  spectra,  tbe  corresponding  [Htrtlons  of  the  grating  will 
appear  lllumineted  Id  tlllTerent  colors.  This  principle  I  made  use  of  in  the 
derelopment  of  a  new  metbod  for  producing  photographs  In  natural  color,  I 
have  eliminated  the  nee  of  pigments  and  colored  screens  entirely  In  the  finished 
(ilctnre.  the  photograph  being  notblng  more  or  less  tban  a  dlDractlon  grating  of 
Tariable  spacing,  the  width  between  the  lines  In  tbe  dmerent  parts  of  the 
picture  being  such  as  to  cause  them  to  appear  Illuminated  in  their  proper  colors 
when  viewed  lu  the  manner  described. 

Take  three  diffraction  gratings  of  such  spacing  that  tbe  deviation  of  tlie  red 
of  the  first  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  green  of  the  second,  and  tbe  blue  of  the 
third  (tbe  red,  green,  and  blue  In  question  being  of  tbe  tints  of  tbe  primary 
colors  of  tlie  Young-Helmboltz  theory  of  color  vision).  If  these  three  gratings 
be  mounted  side  by  side  in  front  of  a  lens,  their  spectra  will  overlap,  and  an 
eye  placed  In  the  proper  position  will  see  the  first  grating  red,  the  second  green, 
and  the  tblrd  blue.  If  the  first  and  second  be  made  to  oTerlap,  this  portion  will 
send  both  red  and  green  light  to  tbe  eye,  and  will  In  consequence  appear  yellow. 
If  all  three  be  made  to  overlap  In  any  place,  this  place  will  send  red.  green,  and 
blue  light  to  the  eye,  and  will  api>eBr  white. 

Now  if  three  negatives  are  taken  through  red,  green,  and  blue  screens  In  the 
usual  manner,  and  from  these  positives  are  made  on  albumen  lantern  slides, 
and  the  positives  when  dry  are  flowed  witb  bicbromated  gelatin,  and  dried  In 
sabdued  light,  and  tbe  diffraction  g^tlngs  of  proper  spacing  ruled  or  photo- 
Eraphed  on  glass  are  placed  over  these  positives  and  exposed  to  the  sun  or 
electric  light  for  thirty  seconds,  on  washing  these  plates  in  warm  water  dif- 
fraction gratings  of  great  brilliancy  are  formed  directly  on  the  surface  of  tbe 
flUn.  Three  sheets  of  thin  glass  senaltlzed  with  the  bicbromated  gelatin  are 
Iben  placed  under  tbe  three  positives  and  prints  taken  from  them.  The  por- 
tions of  each  [flate  on  which  the  light  has  acted  bears  tbe  impression  of  tbe 
(^rrespoudlng  dllTractlon  grating,  strongly  or  feebly  Impressed  according  to 
the  density  of  the  different  parts  of  the  positives.  These  three  plates  when 
I'uperposed  and  placed  In  front  of  a  lens,  and  Illuminated  by  a  narrow  source 
nf  light,  appear  as  a  correctly  colored  picture  when  viewed  with  tbe  eye  placed 
Id  tbe  proi>er  position.  Perfect  registration  of  the  different  parts  of  the  pic- 
ture could  not  be  obtained  In  this  way.  however,  but  If  successive  exposure  of 
tile  aame  chrome-gelatin  plate  under  the  i>osItives  be  made,  reglstratlrai  being 
secured  by  marks  on  the  plates,  the  desired  result  will  be  obtained.  On  wash- 
ing this  plate  In  wHrm  water  and  drying.  It  becomes  the  finished  colored  photo- 
graph. Where  the  reds  occur  In  the  original,  the  spacing  of  the  first  grating 
Is  present:  where  the  yellows  occur,  the  spacing  of  twth  tbe  first  and  second 
ate  to  be  found  superposed:  where  the  blues  occur  are  the  lines  of  the  third 
Riathig,  while  In  tbe  white  parts  of  the  picture  all  three  spaclngs  are  present. 

Two  new  methods  of  producing  photographs  in  color  have  been  an- 
nounced the  present  year,  the  Autochrome  and  the  Warner  Powrie 
processes,  and  although  they  accomplish  their  ends  by  indirect 
methods,  they  are  both  thoroughly  practicable. 


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284  ANNUAL  BEPOBT   SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTIOB,  1901. 

THE   AUTOCHBOME   PROCEfla. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  Messrs.  A.  and  L.  Lumiere  for  this  process, 
which  gives  such  beautiful  results. 

The  process  is  based  on  the  same  priDciple  applied  in  Cros's  and 
Ducos  du  Hauron's  methods,  but  instead  of  using  three  different 
screens,  three  negatives,  and  three  superimposed  dyed  positives,  one 
single  plate  serves  for  all  these — screen,  negative,  and  positive. 

This  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  a  mosaic  of  starch  granules  of 
the  three  fundamental  colors. 

The  starch  is  sifted  through  very  fine  sieves,  and  the  part  taken 
which  has  grains  of  a  diameter  of  from  10  to  12  microns.  These  uni- 
form grains  are  divided  into  three  portions  and  dyed  part  orange- 
red,  part  green,  and  part  violet.  They  are  then  mixed  so  that  the 
resulting  powder  has  a  grayish  color  and  does  not  show  the  tint  of 
any  of  its  component  parts.  This  powder  is  then  spread  out  on  glass 
plates  which  have  been  covered  with  a  coat  of  gelatine.  The  single 
layer  of  spherical  grains  thus  obtained  is  flattened  out  by  pressure  so 
that  the  edges  of  the  grains  touch  as  far  as  possible,  the  small  inter- 
stices which  would  allow  the  passage  of  white  light  filled  by  very 
fine  particles  of  carbon,  and  the  screen  thus  formed  covered  by  a 
thin  coat  of  waterproof  varnish  for  insulation  and  protection. 
Finally  on  top  of  this  is  applied  the  photographic  emulsion,  which 
of  course  must  be  panchromatic;  that  is,  sensitive  to  all  the  light 
rays  of  the  spectrum.  In  actual  practice,  it  has  been  impossible  to 
get  an  emulsion  that  is  not  slightly  more  sensitive  to  the  violet  end 
of  the  spectrum,,  so  that  in  exposing  the  plates  a  yellow  screen  of  a 
carefully  chosen  shade  must  be  placed  before  the  objective  to  counter- 
act this  oversensitiveness. 

The  plate  thus  prepared  is  exposed  in  an  ordinary  camera  with  the 
glass  side  toward  the  lens.  The  light  rays  therefore  have  to  pass 
through  the  polychrome  screen  before  they  strike  the  sensitive  emul- 
sion, so  that  they  affect  the  emulsion  only  behind  the  granules  which 
transmit  their  particular  color.  Thus  rays  coming  from  a  greeu 
portion  of  the  object  photographed  would  attack  the  silver  salt  only 
behind  the  green  granules,  leaving  it  untouched  behind  the  red  and 
violet.  In  developing  after  this  exposure,  the  affected  silver  salt  is 
reduced  and  obscures  these  granules,  leaving  the  red  and  violet  gran- 
ules uncovered  and  transparent.  As  a  result  the  plate,  viewed  as  a 
transparency,  after  this  first  development  shows  instead  of  green  in 
a  green  portion  of  the  object  the  complementary  tint,  carmine  red, 
formed  by  the  combination  of  the  unobscured  red  and  violet  granules. 
If  the  plate  were  fixed  here,  this  is  the  result  we  should  obtain.  In- 
stead of  fixing,  however,  the  plate  is  immersed  in  a  bath  of  acid  per- 
manganate, which  dissolves  the  reduced  silver,  but  does  not  affect 


PBOOSES8  IN   COLOB  PHOTOGBAPHY — BMILLIE.  285 

the  silver  salt,  which  is  still  unreduced  behind  the  granules  that  were 
impervious  because  of  their  color  to  the  light  rays  which  impinged 
DpcHi  them  in  the  original  exposure.  The  green  granules  have  now 
become  transparent  because  of  the  solution  of  the  reduced  silver  which 
covered  them.  After  this  immersion  the  plate  is  exposed  to  white 
ligjit  for  a  short  time  and  again  developed.  This  time  the  red  and 
violet  are  covered  by  an  opaque  layer  of  reduced  silver  from  the 
second  exposure  and  development 

Thus  by  this  double  exposure  and  inversion  we  get  the  true  colors 
of  the  object  from  the  unobscured  granules,  and  not  only  this,  but  the 
effect  on  the  eye  is  ooe  of  continuous  and  homogeneous  color,  as  the 
granules  are  so  small  that  rays  of  light  from  contiguous  grains  reach 
the  eye  confused  together. 

The  process  may  be  stopped  at  this  point  and  the  plate  used  as  it 
comes  from  the  second  development,  after  being  dried  and  varnished 
for  protection.  The  plates  are  generally  subjected  to  a  process  of 
reenforcement,  however,  which  strengthens  the  colors  and  makes  them 
more  brilliant  If  this  reenforcement  is  carried  through,  the  plates 
have  to  be  "  fixed  "  after  the  second  development.  This  fixing  weak- 
ens the  tone  of  the  colors  so  that  the  reenforcement  has  also  this  loss 
to  make  up.  If  the  plates  are  not  reenforced,  this  fixing  should  be 
omitted  on  account  of  the  consequent  weakening. 

The  illustration  accompanying  this  article  was  made  with  the 
ordinary  commercial  Auotchrome  plate,  and  reproduced  by  the  half- 
tone process. 

THE  WABIfEB-POWItlE  COLOR  PROCESS. 

Ita  Ducos  du  Hauron  in  his  patent  of  the  year  1868  outlined  a  proc- 
ess of  preparing  a  three-colored  screen  consisting  of  bands  of  three 
primary  colors  in  juxtaposition,  which  screen  was  to  be  placed  before 
the  sensitive  plate  when  making  the  exposure.  The  full  importance 
of  Ducos  Du  Hauron's  suggestion  was  not  recognized  until  Joly  in 
England  and  MacDonough  in  America,  witliin  a  very  short  time  of 
each  other,  proceeded  to  apply  it  in  practice.  The  Joly  screens  were 
ruled  with  aqueous  colored  inks  upon  a  glass  support  coated  with  a 
thin  layer  of  gelatine,  and,  although  of  the  somewhat  coarse  ruling  of 
two  hundred  bands  per  inch,  were  capable  of  producing  results  of  con- 
siderable delicacy.  The  difficulty,  however,  both  with  the  Joly  and  the 
MacDonough  screens,  lay  not  in  the  use,  though  this  suffered  from  cer- 
tain limitations,  but  in  tiieir  manufacture.  The  mechanical  operation 
of  filling  a  glass  plate  with  three  series  of  lines  of  different  colors 
without  gaps  or  overlap  was  a  technical  problem  which,  in  the  way 
in  which  it  was  approached  by  both  concerns  manufacturing  the 
iicreens,  proved  impossible  of  realization  on  a  commercial  scale. 

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286  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

The  following  description,  however,  shows  that  Miss  Warner  and 
Mr.  Powrie  have  solved  this  problem  in  a  very  ingenious  way: 

The  surface  of  a  plate  of  ordinary  glass  is  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
coated  with  a  weak  solution  of  gelatin,  albumen,  a  mixture  of  the 
two,  or  of  any  suitable  colloid  body  containing  a  proportion  of 
alkaline  bichromate.  The  mixture  is  very  similar  to  the  bichro- 
matised  fish  glue  employed  by  photo-engravers.  This  coating  having 
dried,  the  plate  is  exposed  under  a  screen  ruled  with  opaque  lines 
which  are  double  the  width  of  the  transparent  spaces  between  them. 
The  spaces  correspond,  as  we  shall  see,  to  the  exact  width  of  the 
green  and  red  bands  in  the  manufactured  screen.  Those  portions 
of  the  sensitized  coating  which  are  protected  by  the  lines  of  the 
screen  are  not  affected  by  the  exposure  to  light,  but  the  portions 
underneath  the  spaces  in  the  screen  are  rendered  insoluble  on  ex- 
posure. "  Development "  takes  place  in  warm  water,  the  mixture 
of  glue  and  albumen  dissolves  in  the  unaffected  parts,  and  there 
remains  on  the  plate  an  enormous  number  of  transparent  lines  in 
relief  separated  by  depressions  which  are  bare  glass.  The  plates 
are  then  immersed  in  a  solution  of  a  green  dye  which  penetrates  the 
colloid  bands,  and  forms  a  screen  of  microscopic  green  lines.  The 
plate  is  then  placed  in  a  bath  of  alum  or  tannic  acid,  which  fixes 
the  color  and  enables  the  bands  to  attain  sufficient  intensity.  Emerg- 
ing from  this  bath,  the  plate  is  washed  and  recoated  with  a  sensitive 
mixture  arid  again  exposed  under  the  same  screen,  but  with  an  adjust- 
ment of  the  carrier  in  which  it  rests  to  such  an  extent  that  the  green 
lines  just  produced  are  protected  by  the  double-width  lines  of  the 
negative.  Between  the  portion  of  each  band  left  uncovered  and  those 
stained  green  there  is  thus  formed  a  narrow  region  which  is  equally 
protected  by  the  opaque  bands  of  the  negative.  On  exposure  being 
completed,  the  plate  is  passed  as  before  into  warm  water  to  develop 
the  image,  and  it  is  then  seen  that  a  screen  has  been  formed  with  a 
series  of  green  lines  and  of  transparent  lines  in  relief  separated  by 
intervals  narrower  than  the  lines  in  relief. 

The  plate  is  then  plunged  into  a  red  dye  bath  and  fixed  and  mor- 
danted as  before.  Examined  by  transmitted  light,  the  screen  then 
presents  a  yellow  color,  due  to  the  mixture  of  the  red  and  green  rays 
of  the  two  lines  which  are  printed  at  this  stage.  It  has  now  to  re- 
ceive a  third  coating  of  bichromated  mixture,  and  is  then  exposed 
through  the  back  without  the  interposition  of  any  negative.  The 
light  thus  reaches  the  sensitive  film  through  all  portions  of  the 
screen  not  occupied  by  green  and  red  lines.  As  soon  as  exposure 
is  completed  it  is  again  developed  in  warm  water  and  transferred 
to  a  blue  dye  bath,  which  stains  only  those  portions  other  than  the 
red  and  green,  and  forms  with  them  a  continuous  series  of  colors 
over  the  whole  of  the  screen.     As  a  result,  the  screen  examined  under 


IN   COLOR  PHOTOGRAPHY — SUHXIE.  287 

a  microscope  shows  a  series  of  fine  red  and  green  lines  separated  by 
narrower  blue  lines,  and  to  the  naked  eye  examining  it  by  trans- 
mitted tight  appears  gray,  due  to  the  mixture  of  red,  green,  and  blue. 
From  a  practical  point  of  view,  this  method,  which  condsts  essen- 
tially in  leaving  between  the  red  and  green  lines  a  space  which  can 
be  filled  up  with  the  blue,  offers  several  advantages: 

(1)  It  removes  the  diflSculty  of  registration  after  the  exposure  of 
the  screen. 

(2)  It  avoids  all  possibility  of  white  interspaces  and  of  overlap- 
ping of  two  bands  of  different  colors;  and 

(3)  As  blue  is  the  color  which  appears  most  intense  in  the  screen, 
it  is  an  advantage  that  the  blue  lines  should  be  slightly  narrower,  and 
thus  less  visible. 

The  screen  is  coated  with  a  suitable  varnish,  and  is  then  ready  to 
receive  the  panchromatic  emulsion. 

All  operations  are  conducted  by  a  machine  which  brings  the  sen- 
sitive plate  in  contact  with  the  screen  negative,  and  automatically 
adjusts  exposure  to  variations  in  the  temperature  and  humidity  of  the 
air.  Although  the  method  is  used  by  the  originators  of  the  Warner- 
Powrie  process  for  securing  screen  plates  in  lines,  yet  it  is  equally 
applicable  to  the  making  of  a  screen  plate  of  any  form  whatever, 
whether  of  regular  geometrical  pattern  or  of  irregular  grain. 

It  will  be  seen  that  by  the  use  of  these  plates  a  negative  in  the 
complementary  colors  may  be  made  by  simply  developing  and  fixing. 
This  negative  is  available  for  making  positives  on  glass  to  any 
umnber,  or  the  picture  may  be  developed  and  the  negative  image  dis- 
solved out,  and  the  remaining  bromide  of  silver  exposed  to  light  and 
again  developed,  and  the  result  will  be  a  positive  on  glass  in  the 
correct  colors  of  the  original  subject. 


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THE  STRUCTURE  OF  LIPPMAKN  HELIOCHROMES." 


SonTTa^A  ~^men  \j  Cajal. 

lippmaim's  heliochromes,  as  is  well  known,  were  fonnded  on  purely 
theoretical  reasoning. '  They  are  interesting  as  a  proof  of  the  actual 
existence  of  light  waves.  For  this  reason  photomicrographs  of  sec- 
tions of  the  same  are  valuable,  as  proving  how  far  the  plate  can 
register  them. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  possible  registration  of  these  waves  by 
a  photographic  plate  was  first  pointed  out  by  Zenker,  and  the  results 
have  therefore  been  universally  called  Zenker's  laminae.  The  point 
is  that,  though  theory  says  that  these  laminte  should  exist,  do  they 
actually  occur?  Or,  in  other  words,  can  one  actually  see  them  under 
the  microscope  ?  Obviously  this  is  a  difficult  problem  to  solve,  for  we 
are  close  on  the  limits  of  microscopic  resolution.  Taking  the  case  of 
green  rays,  their  wave-length  is  0.512  fi,  a  dimension  which  must  be 
reduced  to  one-half,  as  the  laminte  are  half  a  wave  length  apart.  For 
the  spectral  green,  then,  we  have  to  resolve  an  interval  of  0.237  ^ 
(thousandths  of  a  millimeter),  which,  according  to  AbbS's  formula 

for  central  white  light,  8=-  requires  a  numerical  aperture  of  over 
1.40,  which  is  the  practical  limit  yet  attained  with  the  Zeiss  apo- 
ehromats.* 
It  is  true  that  with  oblique  lighting  we  can  increase  the  resolving 

power,  &=  n—   but,  as  Neuhauss  has  shown,  this  gives  rise  to  diffraction 

phenomena,  which  obliterate  the  true  lines,  and  may  even  cause 
reversal,  as  has  been  experienced  by  Senior  and  others.  In  spite  of 
the  difficulties,  however,  Neuhauss  and  Valenta  alone  have  succeeded 
in  obtaining  excellent  photomicrographs.'  Senior's  results,"*  as 
pointed  out  by  Keuhauss,  are  far  too  thick,  and  are  really  diffraction 

'Reprinted,  by  permlsBlon,  from  the  color  photograpliy  supplement  of  the 
British  Journal  of  Pbotography,  for  August  2,  September  6,  and  October  4,  1907, 

^Tlie  objectlTe  of  N.  A.  l.SO  wltb  monobromonapIitbailDe  immersion  can  not 
be  used,  as  one  dare  not  imbed  Zenker's  Inminre  in  tbia  solution. 

'  When  tbls  was  wrlttai  (Jane,  1906),  the  autbor  says  he  was  unaware  that 
I)r.  Hans  Iiehmann  had  also  obtained  photomicrographs  of  sections  of  Llppmann 
bellochromes.  (See  "B.  J.,"  November  30,  1906,  p.  946.)  Dr.  W.  Scheffer  has 
■lio  obtained  photomlcrograpba  of  Lippmann  plates. — Bos.,  "  B.  J." 

'"Photography,"  January  3,  1902. 


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S40  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SHITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1901. 

stripes.  Hitherto  only  spectral  rays  of  great«r  wave  length  have  been 
attempted;  mixed  colors  have  not  been  attempted,  nor  have  white 
and  gray,  to  which  most  natural  colors  owe  their  luminosity,  been 
attempted. 

The  examination  of  these  points  appeared  extremely  interesting, 
as  it  seemed  possible  to  account  for  special  phenomena,  which  mathe- 
matical calculations  can  not  explain.  Thus  the  disappearance  of 
white,  but  not  colored,  portions  through  overexposure,  the  general 
tendency  toward  red  or  dirtj  yellow,  the  appearance  of  white  with 
excessive  intensification,  the  general  shift  of  the  colors  toward  the 
more  refrangible  end  of  the  spectrum  when  the  pictures  are  rubbed, 
the  frequent  want  of  the  complementary  colors  by  transmitted  light, 
the  appearance  of  black  or  violet  on  rubbing  the  white,  the  extinction 
of  the  colors,  except  white  and  black,  in  varnishing,  and  so  on. 

EXPERIMENTAL  METHODS. 

The  methods  employed  by  the  author  are  briefly  as  follows: 

1.  The  plate  is  soaked  in  water  and  the  film  scraped  or  stripped 
off  with  the  edge  of  a  freshly  broken  piece  of  glass.  If  the  film  is 
not  very  thin  this  always  takes  place  from  the  glass  or  in  that  part 
of  the  film  which  contains  no  lamina.  The  author  also  uses  collodion- 
ized  glass. 

2.  The  stripped  film  is  immersed  in  alcohol  and  water,  then  in 
absolute  alcohol,  and  finally  for  a  few  minutes  in  celloidine. 

8.  Fine  sections  are  cut  at  right  angles  to  the  film  and  laid  in  water 
to  swell. 

Sometimes  the  water  is  replaced  with  glycerine,  and  the  film  stained 
with  an  aniline  dye  insoluble  in  water.  After  some  experience  one 
may  use  a  still  simpler  plan,  and  that  is  to  hack  the  damp  film  along 
and  across  with  a  sharp  scalpel,  to  then  cover  the  cut  places  with  a 
cover  glass,  and  examine  in  this  way,  when  one  or  more  pieces  showing 
the  laminee  will  be  easily  seen. 

THE    ORAIN    OF  PLATES. 

Lippmsnn  and  others  who  work  the  process  contend  that  the  trans- 
parent emulsion  in  albumen  or  gelatine  has  no  grain,  or  only  such 
that  as  regards  the  wave  length  of  light  it  can  be  neglected.  Neu- 
hauss,  however,  proved  the  existence  of  a  grcin  almost  invisible  before 
exposure,  but  which  after  development  varied  between  0.1  and  0.3  fi. 
The  author  considers  this  far  too  high  an  estimate,  as  it  would  be 
hardly  possible  with  such  a  grain  to  register  the  half-wave  length  of 
violet  light  (JA=0.171  ;i).  From  various  experiments  he  believes  that 
he  is  not  far  out  in  putting  the  size  of  the  grain  at  0,02  to  0.05  /i.« 

'He  spealcB  bere  of  the  emulsion  which  will  register  all  colors  up  to  violet 
Tbat  wbtcb  will  only  record  i«a  and  yellow  baa  a  mucb  coarser  praln. 


IJPPMANN   HELIOCHBOMES — CAJAL.  241 

The  grain  is  spherical,  of  homogeneous  appearance,  and  of  a  color 
depending  upon  the  duration  of  exposure,  the  hjgrometric  stat«  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  the  developer.  Generally,  the  grain  of  the  less 
expoeed  parts  is  bluish  gray ;  at  the  correctly  exposed  places  it  is  of 
a  light  chestnut-brown  color ;  when  overexposed,  fine  greenish  yellow 
•r  pale  ocher-colored  grains  occur.  Strongly  solarized  parts  are 
always  a  clear  bright  yellow.  It  may  be  as  well  to  point  out  that  these 
colors  are  not  dependent  on  the  wave  length  of  the  light,  but  on  the 
duration  of  the  action  of  the  latter ;  and  they  only  appear  on  the  in- 
tensified plates;  the  action  of  the  mercury  chloride  is  not  only  to 
enlarge  the  grain,  but  to  give  it  a  uniform  character  and  opacity  and 
a  more  or  less  gray  tone.  The  color  of  the  grain  alters  also  in  rainy 
weather. 

Hitherto  the  grain  of  the  developed  plate  has  been  debit  with,  but, 
as  Neuhauss  pointed  out,  a  grain  can  be  seen  before  exposure,  but  with 
extreme  difficulty.  The  author  was  most  successful  with  a  film  deeply 
stained  with  cyanine,  oblique  monochromatic  illumination,  and  a 
Zeiss  objective  of  N.  A.  1.40.  The  spotless  white  and  transparent 
emulsion  wiU  keep  for  several  days  unchanged  by  the  direct  action 
of  lig^t,  a  phenomenon  which  proves  that  the  grain  can  not  suffer 
reduction  or  blackening  except  with  the  help  of  some  photographic 
reducer," 

THE  STBUCTDBE  OF  THE  PLATE  IN  PTIHE  SPECTRAL  COLORS. 

An  examination  of  the  sections  through  a  pure  or  almost  pure 
spectrum  color  shows  different  zones;  first  a  laminated  zone  and  then 
(below)  an  unlaminated  zone.  The  structure  depends  on  the  thick- 
ness of  the  plate,  the  transparency  of  the  emulsion,  and  the  duration 
of  exposure.  Moderately  thickly  coated  plates  show  the  structure  for 
about  one-third  or  somewhat  less  of  the  total  thickness  of  the  gelatine, 
and  the  following  parts  may  be  seen:  The  limiting  zone,  which  lies 
between  the  free  surface  and  the  first  lamina,  the  Zenker  lamina,  and 
finally  the  intervals  or  spaces. 

The  limiting  zone  in  the  blue  and  violet  is  very  difficult  to  detect 
because  it  is  so  thin ;  in  the  red  and  orange,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
comparatively  distinct  as  a  very  fine  stripe  which  is  almost  free  from 
grain  formation,  but  the  nearer  one  comes  to  the  Zenker  stripes  the 
more  distinct  the  grain.  Even  in  the  red  the  examination  of  this  zone 
is  not  easy — sections  immersed  in  water  have  a  refractive  index  so 
near  that  of  water  that  even  by   oblique    illumination  it  is  almost 

■  This  was  first  observed  by  LUppo-Cramer  and  also  by  Neuhauss  In  1903. 
tberefore  one  can  do  away  with  the  useless  operation  of  fixing  and  the  cooae- 
qnent  reduction  of  tbe  Interrals  between  the  lamlnie.  Lehmann  also  does  not 
Bx  Oie  platee.  ,-.  , 

IbyL.OOgIC 


242  ANKtJAI.  BBPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

impossible  to  see  it.  This  is  probably  the  reason  why  Neuhauss  ex- 
pressed doubts  as  to  its  existence.  The  author  was  enabled  to  see  it 
by  treating  the  film  with  an  aniline  dye,  such  as  aniline  blue,  which 
is  insoluble  in  water  or  by  coating  it  with  colored  varnish.  Under 
these  conditions,  thanks  to  the  colored  film,  it  can  be  plainly  seen 
(fig.  1,  p.  246).  Its  thickness  in  the  swollen  plates  is  about  half  an 
interval,  but  varies  considerably,  which  may  be  caused  by  unequal 
expansion  of  the  gelatine,  and  also  to  the  varying  thickness  of  the 
first  lamina. 

These  observations  confirm,  at  least  in  principle,  the  often-observed 
fact,  that  the  surface  of  the  gelatine  forms  the  first  interval,  and  that 
the  reflecting  surface  of  the  mercury  is  thus  in  immediate  contact  with 
the  gelatine  during  exposure," 

As  the  limiting  film  is  only  a  fraction  of  a  wave-length  thick,  it 
is  easy  to  understand  why  the  light  reflected  from  the  surface  inter- 
feres with  that  from  the  laminae,  and  why  a  prism  is  necessary  or 
the  heliochrome  must  be  placed  in  a  cell  filled  with  benzole  or  xylol 
to  eliminate  this  surface  reflection. 

The  Zenker  lamince  consist,  as  required  by  theory,  of  a  metallic 
precipitate  which  is  thicker  in  the  middle  than  the  sides.  It  must 
not  be  overlooked  that  in  the  dry  plate  the  laminte  are  very  close 
together,  and  that  they  have  great  density  and  considerable  reflective 
power.  In  the  unintensified  plates  the  color  of  the  grains  is  bright 
brownish  yellow,  in  the  intensified  gray  or  coffee  brown. 

The  number  of  the  laminae  differs  considerably.  In  many  cases 
it  varies,  as  pointed  out  by  Neuhauss,  between  four  and  six,  and 
depends  on  the  intensity  of  the  light,  the  duration  of  the  exposure, 
and  the  transparency  of  the  gelatine.  Generally,  the  author  thinks 
that  there  are  more  in  brilliant  pure  colors,  as  in  the  solar  spectrum, 
than  in  the  mixed  colors  of  natural  objects.  He  has  some  spectra 
showing  thirteen  and  more  laminae,  which  reach  to  the  glass  and  show 
the  colors  from  both  sides.  The  same  effect  has  been  met  with  in  some 
histological  heliochromes.''  There  are  exceptions,  and  as  a  rule  the 
number  of  lamina  is  only  five,  six,  or  eight. 

The  thickness  of  the  lamina;  is  everywhere  the  same,  as  is  also  that 
of  the  intervals.  Their  intensity  and  the  sharpness  of  their  edges 
decrease  the  farther  they  are  from  the  surface  of  the  plate.     This 

"  This  fact  Is  oppoeet]  to  Rotb^'s  assumption  that  the  lamlnte  are  due  to  the 
light  reflected  from  a  fllin  of  air  between  the  mercury  and  the  gelatine  ('  Compt- 
Rend.,'  1904,  pp.  5«>-567).  If  thla  was  so  the  reflection  of  the  Incident  ligM 
would  take  place  from  a  substance  with  lower  refractive  Index  than  that  of 
gelatine,  therefore  there  must  be  formed  a  maximum  and  not  a  minimum  on 
the  surface  of  the  gelatine.  This  la  never  the  case  with  correctly  exposed  un- 
Intenelfled  plates. 

^ProfeRKor  Cnjal  uses  this  process  for  obtaining  hellochromes  of  hlUological 
il  imtljologlcul  HwlloHB. — Eds,  "  B.  J,"  ,--.  . 

,  KlbyGOOglC 


UPPMANN    HELIOCHROH&8 CAJAL.  248 

fact,  as  will  be  seen  later,  is  very  important.  Figs.  2  and  8  show 
that  the  first  lamina  is  the  most  distinct,  and,  as  a  rule,  more  sharply 
defined  on  the  edge.  Then  follows  the  first  interval,  which  is  the 
purest  and  most  colorless — that  is,  the  freest  from  silver — of  all; 
then  the  second  lamina,  dense  and  sharply  defined ;  then  the  second 
interval,  which  is  almost  as  clean  as  the  first.  Behind  these  the  con- 
trasts between  the  laminee  and  intervals  are  less  distinct  as  the  inter- 
vals become  filled  with  precipitate,  till  the  final  region  is  reached,  in 
which  the  lamince  disappear,  as  does  also  the  silver  precipitate 
{%ld). 

As  will  be  seen  later,  the  relative  intensity  of  the  first  laminse  varies 
according  to  the  duration  of  exposure  and  the  degree  of  intensifica- 
tion. In  normal  plates  the  two  first  laminae  are  practically  the  same 
intensity  and  thickness;  in  overexposed  plates  the  first  lamina,  in 
consequence  of  photo-chemical  fatigue,  is  weaker  or  disappears  alto- 
gether.    In  this  case  the  second  or  third  are  the  strongest. 

The  film  without  laminte  varies  considerably  as  regards  thickness. 
In  very  thin  plates  it  is  almost  or  entirely  wanting.  In  moderately 
thick  plates,  as  in  figs.  1  and  2,  it  may  be  two-thirds  to  one-half  of 
the  total  film.  As  a  rule  it  is  without  silver  grains,  though  here  and 
there  some  may  be  seen  which  possibly  correspond  to  oversensitive 
bromide  of  silver.  If  the  exposure  is  too  long,  or  the  plate  is  developed 
toomuch,thisregionisfilled  with  a  fine  yellowish  or  light  brown  col- 
ored precipitate  of  coarse  particles.  This  very  frequently  happens 
in  the  pure  red  or  yellow.  The  appearance  of  the  section  through  the 
other  colors  is,  independent  of  the  function  of  the  wave  length,  prac- 
tically the  same.  Fig.  2  shows  a  section  through  the  blue  at  K  0.475  n. 
The  extraordinary  thinness  of  the  limiting  zone  and  the  comparatively 
great  fineness  of  the  laminse  will  be  noticed.  In  many  sections  the 
author  thinks  that  there  are  less  laminte  in  the  blue  and  violet  than 
in  the  more  refrangible  colors.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  follow  these 
fine  laminffi,  and  it  may  be  merely  a  case  of  coincidence  (figs.  2 
and  12). 

THE  ANA1.T8IS  OP  WHITE  AND  GRAY. 

These  are  two  most  important  colors,  and  from  a  careful  consid- 
eration of  all  the  literature  on  the  subject  and  the  study  of  many 
sections  the  author  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  t?i£  formation  of  pure 
white  is  produced  hy  intenaification  of  the  images. 

Without  intensification — that  is,  without  the  artifical  production 
of  coarse  grain— it  is  not  possible  to  obtain  pure  whites,  for  these 
require  a  closely  compacted,  opaque  film  with  metallic  luster.  As 
will  be  seen  from  fig.  5,  the  whites  consist  of  three  regions,  the  mirror 
zone,  the  laminated  zone,  and  that  which  is  characterized  by  diffuse 
reflection  the  rear  zone.  ^  . 

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244  AMMUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAH   XNSTITUTXON,  190T. 

It  is  characteristic  for  white  or  gray,  or  all  colors  containing  an 
.  admixture  of  white,  that  the  limiting  zone  disappears.  In  its  place, 
and  in  place  of  the  first  lamina,  there  appears  a.  new  dense  dark  film 
of  great  metallic  reflective  power,  5a  and  6a.  This  lamina,  sharply 
defined  on  both  sides,  contains  large  spherical  metallic  grains  packed 
close  together,  and  of  a  dark  brown  color.  The  general  rule  is  that 
the  more  brilliant  the  white  the  more  opaque  and  compacted  is  this 
region,  which,  if  the  plat«  is  not  intensified,  is  only  a  bright  trans- 
parent yellow  or  light  brown,  with  distinct  spaces  between  the  grains. 

This  observation  is  important,  for  it  proves  that  to  obtain  whites 
there  must  be  (1)  a  metallic  reflecting  precipitate  in  the  limiting 
zone,  and  (2)  complete  opacity  of  the  first  lamina,  which  combines 
with  the  limiting  zone  to  form  a  morphological  unit.  The  result 
is  that  nearly  the  whole  of  the  incident  light  is  reflected,  and  the  few 
rays  which  do  get  through  into  the  deeper  parts  of  the  plate  can  not 
produce  interference.  Behind  the  mirror  zone  there  is  a  very  fine 
interval,  and  a  series  of  very  dark,  extremely  thin,  closely  compacted 
stripes  (fig.  5b).  These  stripes  are  never  wanting,  even  if  the  white 
of  the  object  is  very  pure.  If  the  white  is  mixed  with  pink,  cream, 
or  bright  blue,  they  are  more  numerous  than  in  neutral  gray.  It  is 
very  significant  that  the  distance  between  these  laminae  is  extremely 
small — about  the  same  as  for  violet  and  blue;  sometimes  a  difference 
in  thickness  and  separation  can  be  seen,  as  though  they  were  caused 
by  light  of  differing  wave  lengths.  They  are  so  fine  that  it  is  difficult 
to  see  them  in  a  plate  that  is  not  swollen  in  water. 

The  author  does  not  consider  that  these  phenomena  are  contrary 
to  theory.  The  thickness  of  the  mirror  zone  on  the  surface  of  the 
gelatine  is  probably  due  to  the  combined  action  of  the  ultra-violet 
rays.  The  grain  of  the  emulsion  is  too  coarse  to  give  regular  periodic 
laminie,  hut  only  diffuse  deposit.  On  the  other  hand,  the  blue  and 
violet  of  greater  wave  lengths  are  registered,  if  only  partly,  whilst, 
the  comparatively  coarse  stripes  which  appear  between  the  fine  ones 
are  perhaps  the  maxima  for  the  long  waves  green,  red,  and  yellow 
for  which  the  chromatic  sensitizing  is  least" 

The  preponderance  of  violet  in  the  image  of  white  depends  prob- 
ably on  the  rapidity  of  development.  Then  appears  a  phenomenon 
similar  to  that  which  is  observed  when  a  plate  exposed  for  only  a 
short  time  is  exposed  again  for  a  much  longer  time.     On  development 

'  If  the  mirror  zone  Is  formed  more  easily  In  slow  ptatos.  tbis  la  dn»  to  the 
fact,  already  mentloaed,  tliat  these  plates  are  specialty  sensitive  to  the  shorter 
waves.  The  unequal  behavior  of  the  plate  with  the  green,  red,  or  orange,  which, 
unfortunately,  frequently  bappeos,  Is  due  to  the  addition  of  the  snme  quantity 
of  erythroBlne,  cyanine,  and  glycine  red  to  the  emulsion.  The  whites  are  then 
frequently  not  pure,  but  tinged  with  red  or  yellow. 


..Google 


UFPMANN    HBLIOCHBOUES CAJAL.  346 

only  the  looger-expoeed  picture  is  seen.  Perhaps,  also,  the  greater 
attraction  of  the  violet  maxima  for  the  developer  comes  into  play, 
Mid  the  places  corresponding  to  red  and  yellow  scarcely  act.  There 
appears,  then,  the  well-knuwu  action  of  contrast,  which  is  frequently 
observed  on  ordinary  plates,  namely,  an  extremely  bright  margin 
round  a  vigorously  developed  place. 

From  this  it  would  appear  as  though  the  formation  of  white  on 
those  parts  of  the  plate  affected  by  light  of  every  wave  length  is  not 
due  to  the  admixture  and  fusion  of  the  reflective  action  of  many 
different  laminee,  as  assumed  by  Lippmann,  but  exclusively  to  the 
reflective  powers  of  a  dense,  opaque,  dark  surface  film,  on  the  opacity 
of  which  the  brilliancy  of  the  color  depends.  Consequently,  neither 
the  fine  laminw  within  the  plate  nor  any  interference  phenomena 
(since  the  density  of  the  mirror  zone  makes  this  impossible)  have 
anything  to  do  with  the  appearance  of  white. 

That  the  author  is  correct  is  proved  by  the  following  phenomena: 

1.  If  the  white  places  are  rubbed,  their  brilliancy  decreases  with- 
out color  appearing;  only  when  the  mirror  zone  is  completely  re- 
moved does  white  disappear  and  blue  or  a  more  or  less  dark  gray  of 
violet  or  bluish  tinge  appear.  In  the  first  place  there  always  appears 
a  greenish  blue  tone,  the  formation  of  which,  as  shown  by  micro- 
graphic  examination  of  the  rubbed  parts,  mnst  be  ascribed  to  the 
mirror  zone  becoming  thinner.  As  soon  as  this  zone  is  removed  there 
appears  a  dirty  indefinite  violet,  which  persists  till  the  plate  becomes 
quite  transparent.  This  last  fact  ])roves  that  the  whites  are  caused 
by  the  action  of  the  violet  rays. 

2.  Oblique  illumination  of  Lippmann  heliochromes  produces,  as  is 
well  known,  a  shift  of  the  colors  toward  the  more  refrangible  part 
of  the  spectrum.  Orange-red  becomes  yellow,  green,  blue,  and  so  on, 
and  this  shift  is  the  more  distinct  the  greater  the  angle  of  incidence. 
This  change  of  the  picture  in  oblique  light  depends  on  the  laminated 
structure  of  the  gelatine,  and  is  easily  explained  by  the  increase  of 
path,  which  the  waves  of  shorter  wave  length  thai)  double  the  inter- 
vals must  traverse.  Inclination  of  the  plate  to  the  incident  light 
produces  no  change  in  white,  a  certain  proof  that  this  color  does  not 
depend  on  laminar  formation. 

3.  Neither  varnishing  the  picture,  .nor  slight  swelling,  nor  testing 
in  a  benzole  tank  have  any  influence  on  pure  white,  which  is  thus 
sharply  differentiated  from  other  colors.  This  is  also  an  indirect 
proof  of  the  absence  of  the  limiting  zone  above  the  mirror  zone. 
Impure  whites  or  grays  will  naturally  alter  in  tint  under  a  prism  or 
oblique  incident  light. 

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246  ANKUAL  BEPOBT  BMITHSONI&N   INSIITUTIOIT,  1907. 

EXPLANATION  OF  THE  FIOTTBSS. 

Fig.  1.-  Section  through  pure  or  almost  pure  red.  Swollen  in  water 
and  examination  with  a  Zeiss  apochromat, 
N.  A.  1.40,0  2  mm.  focus.  Central  white  light, 
a  the  limiting  zone,  h  first  Zenker  lamina,  c 
second  interval,  d  deeper  lying  laminse,  with 
indefinite  edges,  e  unlaminated  zone. 

Fig.  2.  Section  through  the  blue,  in  the 
reproduction  the  deeper  lying  laminse  are 
badly  drawn.  Conditions  of  examination  as 
in  fig.  1. 

Fig.  3.  Section  through  the  red  in  dry — 
that  is,  in  gelatine  not  swollen  in  water. 
*^*'       Fi    t  '  Examination  in  Canada  balsam.    Central 

monochromatic  light. 

Fig.  4.  Section  through,  greenish  yellow. 
Same  conditions  as  in  fig.  3.  The  limiting 
zone  and  the  grains  in  the  individual  lamine 
can  not  be  seen. 

Fig.  5.  Section  through  pure  brilliant  white. 
Swollen  gelatine,  a  opaque  mirror  zone,  b  the 
fine  stripes  lying  under  the  mirror  zone. 

Fig,  6.  Section  through  yellowish  white,  a 
mirror  zone,  c  fine  stripes,  d  laminie  corre- 
Fio.  2.  sponding  to  the  yellow, 

NFigs.  7,  8,  and  9.  The  action  of  intensifica- 
tion on  the  color. 
Fig.  7  shows  the  unint«nsified  color,  the 
stripes  are  too  dark  in  the  reproduction. 
Fig.  8.    The  same  color  intensified  once  in 
F«..  3.  F.O.  4.         ^  sublimate  bath. 

Fig.  9.  After  two  intensifications.    It  will  be  observed  how  the 
scarcely  visible  grain  in  fig, 
7  becomes  thick  and  dark  in 
fig.  9. 

Fig.  10.  Red.  The  thick- 
ness of  the  first  laminae  was 
reduced  by  friction,  so  that 
blue  and  green  stripes  appear. 
Fig.  11.  Section  through 
bright  green,  which  by  over- 
exposure and  overdevelop- 
ment has  become  whit«;  h  fw.  b.  .  Pia.  «. 
mirror  zone,  c  fine  stripes  belong  to  the  white;  the  other  laminse  be- 
long to  the  green.                                                    ^  GooqIc 


LIPPMANN   HEUOCHBOMES CAJAU  347 

Fig.  12.  Section  through  overexposed  blue.    The  paleness  of  the 
laminie  e  and  the  absence  of  the  mirror  zone  Tvill  be 
noticed. 

Fig.  13.  Section  through  overexposed  orange. 
The  first  lamina  /  is  wanting,  and  the  second  is 
also  rather  pale. 

Fig.  14.  Section  through  bright  blue  mixed  with 
white;  a  mirror  zone,  h  fine  secondary  lamince. 

Fig.  15.  Section  through  bright  lemon  yellow. 
The  first  laminee  represent  the  phase  of  conversion 
into  the  mirror  zone. 

Fig,  16.  Section  through  underexposed  and  over- 
developed green,  which  corresponds  to  the  shadow 
side  of  an  orange.  The  fineness  and  transparency 
of  the  laminfe,  which  are  somewhat  too  dark  in 
the  reproduction,  will  be  noted. 

Fig.   IT.  Section   through   the   blue   in   a   plate 
exposed     without     a     mercury 


COLORS    MIXED   WITH    WHrTE. 

Compound  tones,  such  a 
gray,  pink,  cream,  light  blue,  a  -| 
etc.,  formed  by  admixture  of  a 
principal  color  with  white,  oc- 
cur very  frequently,  and  the  ar- 
tistic value  of  the  reproduction 
depends  to  a  great  extent  on  the 
correctness  of  the  tonality  of  the 
latter.  One  may  assume  a  priori  that  the  com- 
pound colors  possess  a  better  mirror  zone,  which 
gives  the  white,  and  secondly  laminae  with  inter- 
vals corresponding  to  the  principal  color.  This 
actually  is  the  case,  and  proof  is  afforded  in  the 
section  of  a  yellowish  white  (fig.  6).  The  surface 
of  the  plate  shows  the  thin  transparent  mirror 
zone.  Close  behind  is  a  fine  pale  stripe  (c),  which 
perhaps  belongs  to  the  violet  or  blue,  and  then  two 
or  three  thick  lines  separated  from  one  another 
by  wide  intervals  which  correspond  to  the  laminte 
of  the  yellow. 

Irregularities  in  the  intervals  between  the  lami- 
nae are  frequently  observed  with  compound  colors; 
sometimes  they  are  due  to  illusion  and  to  unequal 
absorption  of  water.    In  those  cases  in  which  the  water  has  act«d  for 
41780—08 ^20 


248  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

B  long  time  and  the  finer  lines  are  nearer  to  the  surface,  the  difierent 
thickness  and  distance  of  the  laminse  must  be  ascribed  to  the  registra- 
tion of  different  waves.  Neither  with  compound  colors  nor  pure 
white  are  all  spectmin  waves  to  be  distinguished. 

Bluish,  reddish,  and  greenish  white  have  a  similar  structure;  all 
these  colors  show  with  the  mirror  zone  a  laminar  system  and  their 
optical  effect  is  added  to  the  reflection  from  the  mirror  zone. 

For  the  chromatic  interference,  as  with  pure  colors,  only  the  two 
first — or,  as  noted  above,  in  the  case  of  a  fine  secondary  strip  (fig. 
lie)  the  three  first  laminae — are  used.  The  color  thus  formed  is 
weakened  by  the  somewhat  disturbing  reflection  of  white  from  the 
mirror  zone.  That  the  surface  film,  in  spite  of  its  paucity  in  precipi- 
tate, causes  weakening  of  the  color  is  proved  by  rubbing  or  scraping 
the  plate,  for  then  the  whitish  tinge  disappears  and  the  dominant 
color  appears  much  more  strongly,  and  if  the  scraping  is  continued 
it  is  shifted  toward  the  more  refrangible  end. 

After  the  author's  views  as  above  had  been  published,  he  heard 
of  Lehmann's  work  on  the  same  subject,  but  the  results  of  the  two 
workers  are  not  in  agreement. 

According  to  Lehmann,  white  is  formed  not,  as  assumed  by  Lipp- 
mann,  by  the  confusion  of  the  incident  light  of  various  vibrations 
from  the  laminte,  but  by  reflection  from  two  laminee  correspond- 
ing to  complementary  colors.  As  proof  of  this  assumption,  Leh- 
mann advances  (1)  the  possibility  of  obtaining  photo-micrographs 
under  special  experimental  conditions  of  the  registration  of  two  syn- 
chronous waves;  (2)  the  spectroscopic  examination  of  the  light  re- 
flected from  the  whites  of  a  picture  placed  in  a  benzole  tank.  In 
the  latter  case  he  observed  that  the  whites  of  the  picture  did  not,  as 
the  whites  in  nature,  emit  a  continuous  spectrum,  but  a  discontinu- 
ous one,  or  a  continuous  spectrum  with  two  or  three  distinct  maxima 
preponderating.  From  this  Lehmann  concludes,  in  agreement  aLso 
with  Pfaundler,"  that  the  plates  do  not  possess  the  power  of  regis- 
tering simultaneously  a  greater  number  of  waves  of  varying  vibra- 
tion, but  only  two  or  three,  and  he  explains  the  formation  of  white 
and  gray  by  the  well-known  property  of  the  retina  of  synthesizing  to 
white  when  two  complementary  colors  act  on  the  rods. 

In  principle  this  coincides  with  the  author's  conclusions  as  to  the 
formation  of  two  kinds  of  lamins;  but  the  question  does  not  appear 
to  the  author  to  be  experimentally  proved,  for,  as  will  be  seen  later, 
the  deeper  lying  laminee  do  not,  or  only  in  rare  cases,  help  to  produce 
the  colors. 

Lehmann's  conclusions  have  caused  the  author  to  repeat  his  experi- 
ments, and  he  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  brttlant  whites  are  due 


"  Drude's  ADualen,  1004.    See  alBo  " 


LIPPICANN  HEUOOHBOUEB CAJAL.  249 

entirely  to  the  first  mirror  zone  and  not  to  laminse.  The  following 
are  also  advanced  in  favor  of  the  author's  views,  and  much  against 
Lehmann's: 

a.  If  the  whites  are  rubbed  with  a  pad  dipped  in  alcohol  till  the 
mirror  zone  disappears,  there  appears  first  blue  violet,  although  the 
opacity  of  the  metallic  particles  is  appreciably  reduced  when  exam- 
ined by  transmitted  light.  If  the  picture  is  still  further  rubbed  till 
quite  transparent,  the  white  never  appears  when  it  is  put  in  the 
benzole  tank.    The  colors  behave  quite  differently  as  they  reappear. 

6,  If  a  very  thin  plate  is  used  so  as  to  prevent  the  formation  of 
the  unlaminated  zone,  all  the  colors  will  be  visible  when  the  plate 
is  looked  at  from  the  back,  but  white  is  never  seen. 

e.  If  a  plate  is  left,  without  varnishing,  exposed  to  the  air  for 
some  months,  the  whites  are  the  first  to  disappear,  probably  on  ac- 
count of  oxidization.  This  rapid  alteration  can  be  explained  by  the 
fact  that  the  mirror  zone,  as  already  pointed  out,  lies  absolutely  on 
the  surface  of  the  gelatin. 

d.  Everything  which  attacks  the  surface  of  the  gelatin  of  the 
developed  plate,  such  as  washing,  friction,  deposition  of  mercury 
oxide  on  the  sensitive  film,  etc.,  prevents  the  appearance  of  the 
whites,  whether  the  plate  is  examined  in  air  or  benzole. 

e.  In  underexposed  plates,  if  no  color  of  the  longer  wave  lengths 
green,  yellow,  and  red  has  acted,  nothing  but  a  brilliant  white  is 
obtained  on  intensification,  especially  if  slow-acting  plates  are  used. 
On  the  assumption  that  two  complementary  colors,  for  instance,  red 
and  green  or  yellow  and  violet-,  have  been  registered,  this  formation 
of  white  is  incomprehensible. 

/.  Whites  also  appear  on  plates  which  have  been  exposed  without 
the  mercury  mirror,  and  in  which  the  lamince  are  extremely  thin. 
The  white  obtained  by  intensification  Ls  as  brilliant  as  in  pictures 
obtained  under  the  ordinary  conditions. 

g.  "White  is  also  obtained  by  the  intensification  of  pictures  taken  on 
nonorthocbromatized  plates. 

h.  The  examination  of  white  in  oblique  light,  that  is,  under  the 
glass  prism,  shows,  as  already  mentioned,  not  the  least  qualitative 
change,  whilst  all  other  colors  are  shifted  toward  the  greenish  blue. 
It  should  also  be  noted  that  whilst  red,  in  passing  into  blue-green, 
misses  the  orange-red,  yellow,  and  bright  green,  the  blue  only  slightly 
shifts  toward  the  violet.  The  result,  which  can  be  easily  explained 
mathematically,  is  not  in  favor  of  Lehmann's  theory.  If  the  white 
is  actually  formed  by  the  action  of  two  reflecting  laminse  belonging 
to  two  complementary  colors,  as,  for  instance,  red  and  green,  it  is 
not  obvious  why,  in  the  shift  of  the  red  into  blue-green  and  the  green 
into  dark  blue,  that  is  in  the  shift  into  two  colors  which  are  no  longer 


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250  AMNUAL  BEPORT  BMITHBONIAK  INSTITUTION,  1901. 

complementaries,  the  white  does  not  shift  into  a  more  or  less  distinct 
blue,  and  therefore  disappear  as  white. 

i.  Later  experiments  on  thin  sections  have  proved  that  the  fine 
lines  at  equal  distances  which  belcmg  to  the  whites  do  not  as  a  rule 
exceed  three,  and  that,  apart  from  the  transparent  intervals  behind 
the  mirror  zone,  the  spaces  between  the  laminffi  are  filled  with  a 
diffuse  precipitate. '  Under  these  conditions  the  interference  action 
of  such  laminte  must  be  nil,  even  if  the  incident  light  reaches  them. 

k.  Finally,  spectroscopic  examination  of  the  pure  whites  shows  a 
continuous  image  without  gaps,  which  is  more  or  less  similar  to  the 
continuous  spectrum  from  a  white  object.  What  is  the  difference, 
asks  the  author,  between  his  and  Lehmann's  spectral  examination! 

The  author  thinks  that  Letunann  did  not  test  pure  brilliant  whites, 
as  obtained  by  intensification  on  slow,  fine-grained  plates,  but  the 
half-white  with  a  bluish  or  violet  tinge,  which  usually  appears  in 
fast  plates  without  intensification.*  This  pseudo-white,  when  exam- 
ined in  the  benzole  tank,  appears  somewhat  better,  but  can  never  be 
compared  with  the  white  obtained  by  Lippmann,  Xeuhauss,  and  the 
author  under  the  stated  conditions — that  is,  treatment  with  sublimate 
and  an  amidol  developer  after  weak  development.  This  assump- 
tion appears  to  be  all  the  more  likely  as  the  author's  spectroscopic 
examination  of  the  dirty  gray  on  quick  plates  without  intensification, 
as  in  Kranseder's  plates,  made  according  to  Lehmann's  formula,' 
shows  that  the  spectrum  actually  does  possess  maxima. 

The  author  was  never  able  to  obtain  satisfactory  colors  before  he 
learned  how  to  intensify,  but  since  then  he  has  obtained  whites,  in 
all  sorts  of  subjects,  which  are  purer  and  more  vigorous  than  in  the 
best  black  and  white  photograph. 

ANALT6I8  OF  THE  ORAT  AND  DARK  PARTS. 

The  dark  tones,  or  those  mixed  with  black,  are  dependent,  accord- 
ing to  theory,  on  the  fineness  and  transparency  of  the  laminee.  If, 
for  instance,  we  examine  a  dark  green,  as  in  fig.  16,  we  shall  see  that 
the  mirror  is  quite  absent,  and  that  in  its  place  is  a  colorless  plane. 
Noteworthy  also  is  the  small  number  of  laminee,  only  four  or  five,' 
and  especially  their  extraordinary  transparency  and  light  yellow 
color.  In  many  cases  the  laminte  appear  to  consist  of  a  single  row 
of  yellowish  grains.  The  intervals  are  clean,  comparatively  large, 
and  quite  free  from  precipitate.     Under  such  conditions  it  is  obvious 

"  Aa  a  matter  of  fact  Lehmann  states  In  Wb  book  that  he  never  IntensfOes. 

*The  author's  experiments  with  Lehmann's  plates  with  the  special  Biter  have 
Kiven  excellent  results  as  regards  speed  and  color  rendering.  All  attempts  to 
obtain  a  good  white  were  failures.  Further,  the  colors  are  aomewhat  dsad- 
looklng. 

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UPPMANN  HELIOCHEOMES — CAJAL.  351 

that  the  plate  will  reflect  only  a  small  part  of  the  incident  light  and 
also  allow  the  dark  background  of  the  asphalt  on  the  back  of  the 
plate  to  shine  through.  Naturally,  the  color  will  be  much  darker 
the  paler  the  laminee.  Dark  colors  also  appear  very  stable  when  the 
plate  is  rubbed,  a  fact  which  is  easily  understood  when  one  bears  in 
mind  the  extraordinary  transparency  of  the  laminte  which  take  part 
in  the  interference. 

BRILLI&NCr  AND  PDBITT  OF  THE  INTERFEBENCE  COLORS. 

Everyone  who  has  worked  at  all  with  the  Lippmann  process  will 
have  observed  the  great  differences  in  the  purity  and  brilliancy  of  the 
colors.  Some  very  transparent  plates  reproduce  the  whole  of  the 
spectrum  in  brillant  pure  tones;  other  emulsions  give  all  the  colors, 
but  dead  and  impure;  others  again  as  though  covered  with  a.  gray 
or  white  fog.  Some  fairly  sensitive  plates,  which  give  otherwise 
good  colors,  convert  the  white  into  gray,  violet,  or  cream;  others 
again  give  certain  colors,  usually  red,  orange,  and  yellow,  fairly  well, 
but  are  totally  wanting  in  green,  blue,  and  violet, 

In  order  to  understand  these  phenomena  one  must  bear  in  mind, 
that  Zenker's  exact  theory  is  only  carried  out  under  defective  condi- 
tions, due  chiefly  to  the  special  nature  of  the  photochemical  actions. 
The  laminte  are  not  absolutely  smooth  and  sharply  defined,  nor  are 
they  everywhere  of  equal  thickness,  also  they  do  not  possess  that  uni- 
form perfect  transparency  which  theory  requires,  so  that  all  may  take 
part  in  the  interference  of  the  incident  white  light. 

The  brilliancy  and  intensity  of  the  interference  colors  depends,  at 
least  so  it  is  generally  assumed,  on  the  perfection  of  the  lamellar 
structure  of  the  plate,  and  the  purity  and  brilliancy  of  the  colors  is 
greater  the  greater  the  number  of  the  reflecting  laminte.  Broadly 
this  view  is  correct,  but  theory  does  not  coincide  with  practice.  The 
author  states  that  many  of  his  pictures  of  great  brilliancy  and  truth 
possess  only  three  or  four  especially  brilliant  and  correct  reflecting 
laminie,  whilst  others  with  ten  or  twelve  regular  distinct  laminse 
gave  less  bright  pictures.  The  brilliancy  of  the  colors  thus  depends 
not  on  the  quantity,  but  the  quality  of  the  laminee  and  intervals. 

From  some  hundreds  of  very  careful  observations  the  author  comes 
to  the  conclusion  that  in  most  cases  the  color  is  due  to  the  reflection 
and  interference  of  light  from  the  two  uppermost  laminw.  The 
deeper-lying  ones  have  very  little  to  do  with  the  formation  of  the 
colors;  in  the  first  place  because  they  receive  but  little  light,  and 
therefore  can  only  reflect  little;  secondly,  because  they  have  not 
sharp  limits  and  are  not  separated  by  perfectly  colorless  intervals,  so 
that  the  light  can  not  be  properly  analyzed,  but  only  diffused;  and 


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262  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1901. 

thirdly,  because  by  development  aod  intensification  the  two  upper 
films  far  surpass  the  others  in  reflective  power. 

The  most  important  experiments  which  support  these  views  are 
simple  and  easy  to  interpret. 

1.  As  already  noted,  and  as  Neuhauss  states,  rubbing  the  dry  plate 
with  a  pad  dipped  in  absolute  alcohol  causes  the  colors  to  shift  to- 
ward the  violet.  The  red  becomes  orange-red,  then  yellow,  then 
green,  and  finally  blue  and  violet,  and  these  colors  persist  for  an  un- 
limited time  in  the  dry  plate,  or  if  it  is  immersed  in  a  benzole  tank. 
This  is  explained  by  the  erosion  of  the  first  lamina.  If  the  friction 
is  continued  the  violet  disappears  and  the  original  color  appears. 
This  will  occur  once  or  twice,  but  it  is  then  so  dark  and  dead  that  its 
action  on  the  tint  of  the  underlying  part  of  the  plate  is  almost  nil. 
Friction  beyond  the  fourth  lamina  produces  complete  disappearance 
of  the  original  color.  Friction  is  therefore  an  excellent  method  of 
studying  the  functionnl  action  of  individual  zones. 

The  above  phenomena  are  quite  clear  on  the  assumption  that  only 
the  first  two  laminse,  or  perhaps  also  the  third  after  intensification, 
take  part  in  the  formation  of  the  color.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  rubbing 
with  alcohol  very  slowly  reduces  the  thickness  of  the  first  lamina,  so 
that  the  distance  between  its  surface  and  that  of  the  second  lamina  is 
reduced,  and  therefore  it  has  all  values  between  the  half  wave  length 
of  the  original  color  and  violet.  If  the  first  lamina  is  completely 
removed  the  surface  of  the  gelatin  is  formed  by  any  plane  which  is 
parallel  to  the  first  lamina.  In  this  case  the  distance  between  the  two 
reflecting  planes,  that  of  the  surface  of  the  plate  and  the  second  lam- 
inn,  already  smaller  than  the  half  wave  length  of  the  violet,  and  there- 
fore no  color  can  be  produced.  Lf  the  third  lamina  is  not  sharply  de- 
fined and  does  not  possess  sufficient  reflective  power,  color  definitely 
disappears.  In  certain  cases,  however,  the  third  and  even  the  fourth 
lamina  are  effective,  and  then  we  have  the  original  color,  but  very 
dark  and  dead.  Thus  the  color  of  an  orange,  after  it  has  disappeared 
through  removal  of  the  first  lamina,  appears,  through  interference 
between  the  second  and  third  films,  brownish  or  dark  orange,  when 
examined  in  the  benzole  tank. 

2.  The  correctness  of  these  views  is  shown  by  an  examination  of 
thin  sections  obtained  by  hacking  the  gelatin  crisscross  fashion  with 
a  scalpel.  Treated  thus,  a  red  which  had  shifted  into  green  showed 
that  the  first  lamina  only  had  become  thinner;  the  appearance  of  the 
blue  was  coincident  with  its  almost  complete  disappearance,  and  the 
reappearance  of  the  red,  assuming  that  the  second  and  third  lamina; 
were  not  damaged,  took  place  when  the  friction  was  continued  to  the 
second  interval,  Tlie  original  color  finally  disappeared  with  the 
destruction  of  the  second  lamina. 

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LIPPMANN   HEUOCHROMES CAJAL.  25S 

3.  As  already  stated,  the  brilliancy  of  the  color  is  independent  of 
the  thickness  of  the  plate  and  number  of  the  lamina.  Very  brilliant 
colors  are  seen  in  quite  thin  plates  of  4  to  5  pr.  thickness. 

This  refers  mosUy  to  colored  objects,  in  which  there  are  usually 
compound  colors.  With  spectra  photo-micrographs  of  anatomical 
preparations  or,  briefly,  when  pure  or  almost  pure  waves  act  on  the 
plate,  the  deep  lying  lamina  are  almost  as  well  formed  as  the  surface 
ones.  Naturally  in  such  cases  friction  only  destroys  the  colors  with 
the  fourth  or  fifth  lamina. 

ANALYSIS  OF  WHITE  PLATES  CAD8EO  BV  EXCESSIVE  INTENSIFICATION, 

The  above  results  of  the  author's  researches  on  the  whites  elucidate 
a  phenomenon  which  is  often  observed  before  or  after  fixation,  when 
a  plate  is  intensified  with  perchloride  and  amidol,  plus  sulphite. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  grains  become  larger,  and,  there- 
fore, closer  together.  Consequently,  the  reflective  power,  particu- 
larly of  the  first  lamina,  which  is  most  easily  attacked  by  the  reagents, 
is  increased. 

So  long  as  the  grains  of  the  first  metallic  film  possess  a  certain 
transparency  the  color  does  not  markedly  alter,  as  part  of  the  inci- 
dent light  reaches  the  second  lamina  and  is  reflected  back.  If,  how- 
ever, as  is  generally  the  case  with  a  second  intensification,  the  first 
film  loses  its  transparency  almost  entirely,  tlien  the  ratio  of  reflect- 
ive power  of  the  first  two  films  is  altered,  as  that  of  the  first  pre- 
ponderates. The  result  of  this  is  that  the  color  presents  a  dirty  white 
appearance,  and  the  want  of  transparency  is  greater  the  thicker 
the  grains  of  the  first  lamina  become.  With  great  intensification  the 
colors  completely  disappear,  especially  in  the  fully  exposed  parts,  and 
the  picture  appears  as  though  covered  with  a  milky  fog. 

Figs.  7,  8,  and  9  show  the  appearance  of  a  section  throu^  almost 
pure  green  before  and  after  intensification.  Before  intensification  the 
laminse  are  pale  and  fine-grained,  and  the  metallic  precipitate  is 
absolutely  wanting  on  the  surface  {fig.  7).  Therefore  tlie  light  can 
penetrate  to  the  second  and  third  film,  and  their  analytical  and 
reflective  actions  are  added  together.  It  is  quite  different  in  fig.  9, 
which  is  a  section  through  the  same  color  after  two  intensifications. 
jVII  films,  especially  the  first,  act  like  a  white-producing  mirror — that 
is  to  say,  they  contain  extraordinarily  coarse  grains  and  have  lost 
the  best  part  of  their  transparency.  Moreover,  it  can  be  seen  that 
each  film  has  become  distinctly  thicker.  The  limiting  zone  has  given 
way  to  the  mirrror  zone.  Fig,  8  shows  the  same  color  with  one  inten- 
sification. 

The  practical  result  of  these  researches  leads  one  to  formulate  the 
rule  that  Lippmann  photochromes  should  be  intensified  once  to  give 


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864  ANNUAI.  BBPOBT  SUITH80NIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

good  whites,  but  should  never  be  intensified  twice,  as  otherwise  the 
first  lamina  will  be  converted  into  an  opaque  mirrorlike  film,  and 
therefore  the  chromatic  interference  which  is  specially  produced  by 
the  second  lamina  can  not  longer  take  place. 

ANALTBIS   OF   OVXREXFOSBD   PLATES. 

Even  by  mere  examination  an  overexposed  picture  shows  a  luster- 
less  white,  grayish  or  pinky,  and  more  or  less  pure,  but  hard-silhou- 
etted colors.  Microscopic  analysis  explains  this  plienomenon,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  frequent  defects  in  working  Lippmann's  process. 

The  laminae  of  such  plates  consist  of  a  thin  yellowish  and  extraor- 
dinarily pale  precipitate,  which  allows  more  light  to  pass  to  the 
underlying  films  than  usual.  The  intervals  also  are  more  or  less 
strongly  acted  upon;  they  show  a  delicate,  light  gray  grain  forma- 
tion, so  that  the  contrast  between  the  laminse  and  intervals  is  con- 
siderably decreased  (fig.  13).  Finally,  the  first  lamina  is  completely 
wanting  or  reduced  to  a  pale  indefinite  stripe  (figs.  12  and  13).  This 
paleness  is  more  or  less  seen  in  the  second  lamina.  The  phenomenon 
naturally  depends  on  the  fatigue  of  the  surface  region  of  the  sensi- 
tive film,  which  is  so  strongly  solarized  that  it  can  not  be  reduced  to  a 
dark  color. 

Whites  show  in  overexposed  plates  a  very  pale  and  transparent 
mirror  film,  which  with  considerable  solarization  may  even  be  totally 
absent.  The  pale,  small,  yellowish  and  almost  invisible  grains  possess 
no  reflective  power.  Behind  the  mirror  zone  are  various  fine  stripes 
without  contrast,  and  an  extended  region  of  irregular  and  compara- 
tively vigorous  reduction  which  extends  to  the  glass. 

CHANGE  OF  COLOR  BY  OVERDEVELOPMENT  INTENSITICATION. 

The  least  overstepping  of  the  correct  exposure  leads,  as  will  be  seen 
lat«r,  to  falsification  of  the  colors  and  loss  of  the  whites.  Red  and 
orange  are  exceptions,  the  two  colors  which  from  their  poor  photo- 
chemical action  rather  gain  than  lose  with  moderate  overexposure. 

The  color  value  of  the  picture  is  also  changed  by  overdevelop- 
ment or  intensification,  even  if  the  plates  are  correctly  or  slightly 
underexposed.  If  the  damage  is  not  too  great  it  can  be  equalized  by 
cementing  under  a  prism  with  Canada  balsam,  as  then  the  gelatin 
loses  a  little  water,  and  therefore  the  lamina  get  nearer  one  another. 
If  the  fault  exceeds  certain  limits,  the  colors  are  so  falsi&ed  that 
neither  in  moderately  oblique  light  nor  in  a  benzole  tank  will  the 
picture  give  the  true  colors. 

Microscopic  analysis  shows  that  such  color  changes  are  to  be 
ascribed  to  a  thickening  of  the  first  lamina,  which  then  reaches  the 
surface  of  the  gelatin.    Since  by  this  thickening  the  difference  in 


LIPPMAMN   HBLIOCHBOMES — CAJAL.  256 

the  path  of  the  rays  reflected  from  the  surface  and  from  the  interior 
of  the  plate  is  enlarged,  the  same  wave  length,  even  with  normal,  or 
almost  normal,  illumination,  which  produce  the  laminae,  will  not  pre- 
dominate, as  will  light  of  a  greater  wave  length. 

One  of  the  most  unpleasant  and  most  frequent  occurrences  in  Lipp- 
mann^s  process  is  the  transition  of  the  blue  and  violet  into  white. 
This  change  is  due,  not  to  a  narrowing  of  the  intervals,  but  only  and 
alone  to  their  lessened  transparency,  and  especially  that  of  the  flrst, 
which  then  acts  as  an  opaque  screen.  It  is  thus  quite  immaterial  that 
the  lamiiue  and  the  deeper-lying  ones  are  sharply  defined,  or  that 
the  top  one  remains  intact,  the  waves  of  light  can  not  actually  pene- 
trate to  the  lower  lamine,  and  therefore  can  not  produce  interference. 
In  plates  examined  without  a  prism  and  without  the  benzole  tank, 
this  trouble  often  appears  if  the  blue  shows  well,  because  the  limiting 
zone,  as  is  easily  seen,  is  the  more  troublesome  the  shorter  the  wave 
length  of  the  light. 

If  the  tank  does  not  remedy  this  fault,  one  can  reduce  the  plate 
so  as  to  enable  the  light  to  penetrate  into  the  depths  of  the  film.  As  a 
preventive  the  use  of  light  screens  has  been  suggested  to  reduce  the 
energetic  action  of  the  shorter  spectral  waves.  Such  screens  have 
been  used  by  all  experimenters,  and  especially  by  Neuhauss  and  Leh- 
mann,  with  good  results.  The  author  uses  a  weak  solution  of  aniline 
yellow  with  some  erythrosine  in  collodion  on  the  back  of  the  plate; 
the  use  of  the  screen,  which  is  rather  expensive,  is  thus  avoided.  Also 
a  screen  absorbs  a  great  deal  of  light,  and  if  not  of  first-rate  quality 
detracts  from  the  purity  of  the  pictures. 

FAlimCATION  OP  THE  COLORS  THROUGH  DAMPNESS  OF  THE  PLATES. 

Similar  falsifications  of  the  colors  appear  in  the  use  of  too  dry 
plates  in  damp  weather.  The  correctly  obtained  and  fixed  laminee 
become  considerably  farther  apart  by  absorption  of  atmospheric 
moisture,  and  the  oft-noted  fault  of  a  shift  of  the  colors  toward 
the  red  is  seen,  and  green  becomes  yellow,  and  yellow  orange  or  red, 
and  so  on.  In  order  to  obviate  this  fault  the  plate  should  be  brought 
into  hygrometric  equilibrium  with  the  air.  A  somewhat  dangerous 
remedy  is  reducing  the  grain  of  the  laminje  with  a  reducer." 

"The  reducers  and  eapeclnlly  dilute  potaaslum  cyaatde  solution,  when  care- 
fully used,  restore  tbe  colors  ot  overdeveloped  or  damp  plates.  But  not  only  do 
the  whites  suffer  severely,  but  after  some  time  the  gralu  bleaches  very  much, 
and  the  pictnre  becomes  worse.  The  author  has  therefore  entirely  given  up 
the  use  of  reducers.  Only  In  tndlvldnal  cases  does  be  use  it  locally  to  restore 
the  bluea  and  violets.  This  retouching  Is  done  on  the  wet  plate  with  a  One 
bmab  dipped  in  weak  potassium  cyanide  solution. 


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256  ANNUAL  REPOET  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

The  reverse  phenomenon  appears  when  the  plates  are  placed  in  the 
benzole  tank  or  mounted  with  a  prism.  The  change  of  color  thus  in- 
duced is  toward  the  more  refrangible  end  of  the  spectrum,  and  some- 
times produces  the  shift  of  more  than  half  a  tone.  For  instance,  the 
red  becomes  orange  red,  and  orange  yellowish.  Blue  and  violet,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  scarcely  modified,  or,  rather  gain,  in  power  and 
purity. 

This  well-known  phenomraon  is  based  according  to  the  author 
on  the  giving  up  of  water  by  the  gelatine  to  the  benzole  or  to  the 
Canada  balsam,  so  that  naturally  the  distance  between  the  laminse  is 
decreased.  In  order  to  get  over  this  difficulty  development  should  be 
rather  longer,  so  that  the  colors  shift  toward  the  red,  or,  still  better, 
the  plate  should  be  warmed  before  exposure,  and  just  before  placing 
in  the  mercury  slide,  in  a  drying  cupboard  at  86°  F. 

FALSIFICATIONS  OF  THE  COLOR  TONES  IN  THE  DARKBK  FABT8  OF  TH£  PLATE. 

With  underexposed  plates  or  in  places  which  correspond  to  the 
shadows  of  a  colored  object,  the  pitcture  shows,  instead  of  the  true 
color  rendering,  another  color,  and,  as  a  rule,  it  is  the  opposite  to 
the  phenomena  observed  with  overexposed  plates,  the  shift  being  to- 
ward the  more  refrangible  end  of  the  spectrum. 

Thus  the  shadows  of  a  head  in  sunlight  are  brownish-green  or 
greenish-yellow,  instead  of  the  delicate  rosy  tint.  An  orange  which 
is  correctly  reproduced  on  the  illuminated  side  shows  pure  green  in 
the  shadows  (fig.  16). 

These  and  other  imperfections  of  dark  or  only  briefiy  exposed 
objects  can  be  ascribed,  according  to  the  author's  researches,  chi^y  to 
fixation,  the  action  of  hypo  or  cyanide.  Keeping  to  the  example  of 
the  orange,  the  plate  was,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  affected  in  the  bright 
and  dark  parts  by  rays  of  different  intensity,  reflections  from  neigh- 
boring objects  being  excluded,  but  in  the  strongly  exposed  parts  there 
were  formed  numerous  dense  laminee,  while  in  the  shadows  these 
were  fine  and  pale;  in  many  cases  there  were  only  formed  a  small 
series  of  yellowish  grains. 

The  cause  of  this  phenomenon,  which  had  already  been  observed 
by  O.  Cramer,  is  that  in  fixation  there  is  more  silver  bromide  dis- 
solved out  in  the  shadows  the  weaker  the  action  of  light,  and  there- 
fore thin  laminie  in  the  dark  parts  approach  one  another  during 
drying;  while  in  the  brightly  lit  parts,  which  are  therefore  poorer 
in  silver  bromide,  they  scarcely  alter  their  relative  positions. 

From  this  fact  we  may  deduce  the  practical  lesson  that  Lippmann 
plates  should  not  be  fixed,  because  the  disappearance  of  the  silver 
bromide  causes  a  general  reduction  of  the  intervals  and  a  consequent 
falsification  of  the  colors. 

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LTPPHANN   HEU0CHR0MB8 — CAJAL.  S57 

According  to  the  author's  views  complete  fixation  of  the  pictures, 
even  when  all  other  operations,  such  as  exposure,  development,  inten- 
sification, etc,  have  proceeded  normally,  causes  with  normal,  or 
almost  normal,  illumination  at  least,  a  slight  shift  in  the  direction 
of  the  more  refrangible  end  of  the  spectrum,  a  fault  which  can  not 
be  remedied,  as  mounting  under  a  prism  would  only  slightly  increase 
the  shift;  and  if  this  failure  has  been  less  frequently  observed  than 
the  opposite  one  (that  is,  too  great  a  distance  between  the  larainie),  it 
is  due  to  vigorous  intensification,  which  compensates,  to  a  certain 
extent,  the  contraction  of  the  intervals  between  the  laminse,  actually 
by  thickening  the  first  one. 

It  is  obvious  from  the  researches  that  the  most  frequent  imperfec- 
tions of  Lippmann  heliochromes  is  due  to  the  alm«>t  unavoidable 
changes  of  the  normal  distance  between  the  laminse,  a  change  caused 
by  the  mechanism  of  the  photographic  operations.  Under  certain 
conditions — complete  fixation,  too  short  exposure,  too  short  develop- 
ment, etc. — the  laminte  are  too  near  one  another,  and  the  colors  shift 
toward  the  blue.  In  other  and  much  less  frequently  occurring 
failures  the  laminie  become  thicker,  the  reflecting  surfaces  are  farther 
separated  from  one  another,  and  the  colors  are  then  shifted  toward 
the  red. 

ANAIiTBIS  OF  FICTDBES  WITH  MATT  FAINT  COLORB. 

Many  emulsions,  in  spite  of  great  transparency,  show  a  tendency 
to  give  only  matt  colors,  and  actually  do  not  give  white.  A  micro- 
scopical examination  of  such  plates  proves  that  the  cause  of  this 
phenomenon  is  due  to  too  little  contrast  between  the  laminse  and  the 
intervals.  The  former  are  formed  in  sufficient  number,  but  from  their 
yellowish  or  bright  greenish-gray  color  are  not  sufficiently  differen- 
tiated from  the  more  or  less  gray  intervals.  The  mirror  zone  which 
reproduces  the  white  is  very  pale  and  transparent,  and  possesses  no 
reflective  power. 

In  order  to  obviate  this  very  frequent  fault,  which  unfortunately 
occurs  with  every  third  or  fourth  emulsion,  the  author  has  made 
many  experiments  and  obtained  successful  results  by  alteration  of 
the  developer.  To  increase  the  contrasts  between  the  laminse  and  the 
intervals  the  following  should  be  used : 

Potass,  bromide,  10  per  cent  boI 20 

AmmoDla 1-1. 6 

Pyro,  1  percent  sol 16 

Water  „ ._ 250 

and  the  general  rule  is:  Reduction  phenomena  appear  very  quickly 
in  the  intervals  with  an  excess  of  ammonia,  while  the  opacity  of  the 
lamime  is  increased  by  an  excess  of  bromide  and  pyro ;  but  the  lamina; 
ought  not;  to  be  so  opaque  as  to  prevent  the  intensifying  action  of 
the  deeper  lying  ones.  t^TOOL^IC 


268  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

LAHINf  IN  FLAXES  EXPOSED  WITHOUT  A  MERCCRT  MIBROR. 

The  earlier  experiments  of  Krone  and  the  more  recent  ones  of 
Roth€  have  proved  the  possibility  of  obtaining  interference  colors 
with  Lippmaim's  plates  without  using  a  mercurjr  mirror.  The 
pictures  thus  made  have  only  a  faint  brilliance,  and  require,  more- 
over, much  longer  exposures.  This  is  obvious,  as  the  stationary  waves 
are  formed  by  interference  between  the  incident  light  and  the  few 
light  waves  which  are  reflected  from  the  surface  between  the  gelatin 
and  the  air.  The  author  has  repeated  the  interesting  experiment  and 
obtained  comparatively  good  results  of  the  shorter  wave  lengths, 
violet  to  green;  far  less  satisfactory,  however,  were  the  reproduc- 
tions of  the  red,  orange,  and  yellow.  Examination  of  sections  shows 
in  all  cases  the  presence  of  correct  laminse,  which  are  few  in  number, 
however,  and  are  separated  by  intervals  which  are  not  free  from 
precipitate.  Fig.  17  shows  the  section  through  the  blue  of  such 
a  result.  The  laminse,  only  three  or  four  in  all,  are  composed  of 
very  fine  graina  The  second  lamina  is  the  best  and  darkest.  In 
the  limiting  zone  there  is  no  precipitate,  and  this  proves  therefore 
that,  as  with  the  mercury  mirror,  the  surface  of  the  gelatin  is 
identical  with  the  first  opposite  phase  plane. 

The  whites  obtained  in  this  way  are  also  the  same  as  those  obtained 
with  Lippmann's  method;  behind  the  dense  thin  mirror  zone  there 
are  some  fine  laminte,  which,  deeper  down,  degenerate  into  an  irreg- 
ular gray  deposit. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

From  his  long  and  comprehensive  researches  on  the  structure  of 
the  Lippmann  heliochromes  the  author  comes  to  the  following  con- 
clusions : 

1.  As  already  recognized  by  Neuhauss,  the  spectrum  colors  are 
produced  by  a  series  of  metallic  lamince,  separated  from  one  another 
by  colorless  intervals.  These  films  occupy  a  third  or  a  half  of  the 
thickness  of  the  gelatin.  Near  the  free  surface  they  are  sharply 
defined  and  distinctly  separate  one  from  the  other,  the  deeper  they 
are  the  more  diffuse  and  indistinct  they  become. 

2.  Between  the  first  laminte  and  the  surface  there  is  generally  a 
clear  zone,  which  corresponds  to  the  first  opposite  phase  or  null  point. 
Frequently  through  intensification  this  contracts  considerably,  or 
completely  disappears. 

3.  The  colors  of  natural  objects  give  pictures,  the  structure  of 
which  agrees  generally  with  that  of  the  spectral  colors. 

4.  The  production  of  white  is  due  to  the  formation  of  a  dense 
metallic  lamina,  the  mirror  zone,  with  great  reflective  power,  aad 
composed  of  an  opaque  dark  closely  tompaoted  precipitate.     Then 


LIPPMANN   HEUOCHBOMES CAJAL.  259 

there  are  some  fine  closely  conti^ous  stripes,  which  probably  corre- 
spond to  the  short  waves  of  the  visible  spectrum. 

5.  The  colors  mixed  with  white  show  with  their  own  laminae  a 
thin  surface  film,  filled  with  a  metallic  precipitate,  the  mirror  zone. 

6.  In  certain  cases  colors  mixed  with  white  show  two  kinds  of 
Uminse,  large  stripes  far  removed  from  one  another,  which  belong 
to  the  long  waves  of  the  predominant  color,  'and  one  of  two  fine  pale 
films  corresponding  to  the  shorter  wave  lengths. 

T.  The  interference  phenomena,  through  which  the  colors  are 
produced  in  Lippmann  heliochromes,  can  be  ascribed  actually  to  the 
action  of  the  rays  reflected  from  the  first  and  second  laminse.  The 
others  have  only  a  faint,  but,  to  a  certain  extent,  an  intensifying 
action.  Pure  spectral  colors  are  an  exception  in  their  formation ;  if 
the  metallic  precipitate  is  quite  transparent,  the  deeper  lying  tones 
may  also  act. 

8.  The  good  rendering  of  the  colors  is  principally  caused  by  the 
correct  limiting  and  perfect  transparency  of  the  upper  lamince,  as 
well  as  the  normal  value  of  the  intervals.  All  causes,  such  as  long 
exposure,  overdevelopment,  incorrect  intensification,  etc.,  which 
upset  the  ratio  of  the  two  first  lamina  as  regards  intensity  and 
thickness,  or  such  things  as  fixation  and  damp,  which  affect  the  size 
of  the  intervals,  alter  the  true  colors  and  cause  false  tonalties. 
From  this  it  is  obvious  that  the  greatest  difficulties  of  the  Lippmann 
process  are  as  follows:  a,  the  distance  of  the  individual  lamime  pro- 
duced in  the  plate  by  the  colored  light  during  the  exposure  must  be 
strictly  kept,  in  spite  of  the  contracting  action  of  fixation  and  the 
expanding  action  of  intensification;  b,  too  little  transparency  and 
too  great  thickness  of  the  first  lamina  must  be  avoided,  although  a 
certain  opacity  is  esential  for  the  correct  reproduction  of  the  bright 
tones.  By  careful,  clean  work  the  perfect  balance  of  these  two 
opposite  requirements  must  be  fulfilled  by  workers  in  interferential 
photography. 


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BRONZE  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA  BEFORE  THE  ARRIVAL 
OF  EUROPEANS.- 


By  AOBIEN  OK  MORTTLLKT. 

Honorary  Fretident  of  the  Boci^t^  Pr4historique  de  Frumce. 


Long  before  the  discovery  of  the  New  World  the  Indians  living 
along  the  Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  from  Chile  to  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
already  knew  how  to  extract  and  work  various  metals. 

For  a  long  time  we  have  been  sure  of  the  presence  among  these  met- 
als of  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  but  we  have  been  much  less  cotain 
with  regard  to  the  use  of  bronze. 

In  spite  of  oft-repeated  assertions,  we  have  until  recently  con- 
tinued to  entertain  doubts  as  to  the  use  of  an  actual  alloy  of  copper 
and  tin  in  South  America  before  the  European  conquest.  These 
doubts,  inspired  by  a  very  reasonable  conservatism,  were  founded 
principally  on  the  lack  of  exact  data  in  regard  to  the  composition  of 
the  metal  from  which  the  objects  collected  by  archteologists  were 
made  and  on  the  want  of  positive  evidence  as  to  the  existence  in  those 
regions  of  very  rich  tin-bearing  deposits,  which  are  to-day  actively 
exploited.  Only  through  chemical  analyses,  with  their  guaranties  of 
accuracy,  could  a  definite  settlement  of  the  question  be  reached. 

It  is  the  results  of  some  analyses  of  this  sort,  recently  made  and 
partly  unpublished,  that  I  present  here.  These  analyses,  fifty  in  num- 
ber and  dealing  with  specimens  as  different  in  thgir  nature  as  in  their 
origin,  furnish  us  with  decisive  proofs  regarding  an  important  part 
of  the  South  American  continent. 

A  first  series  (Nos.  1  to  26)  was  intrusted  to  MM.  Morin  frferes,  as- 
sayers  of  the  Bank  of  France.  It  includes  objects  collected  along 
the  course  of  the  Mission  of  Cr6qui-Montfort  and  Sfin^chal  de  la 

°  TronslatloD,  by  permlBBloa,  of  paper  preseoted  at  tbe  Premier  GoDgrea  Pr6- 
blitoiique  de  Fraace,  Sesalon  de  Perlgueux,  lOOS. 


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262  ANNUAL  BEPOET  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

Grange,  from  the  following  localities:  First,  the  ancient  ruins  of 
Tiahuanaco  near  Lake  Titicaca,  north  of  the  high  Bolivian  plateau ; 
se<»nd,  from  very  old  cemeteries  which  have  been  explored,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Yura,  between  Uyuni  and  Potosi;  third,  from  the  Re- 
public of  Ecuador;  and  fourth  from  several  localities  north  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  between  Salta  and  the  Bolivian  frontier.  In  a 
second  series  (Nos.  27  to  48)  have  been  grouped  twenty-four  analyses 
taken  fiom  the  interesting  work  of  Juan  B.  Ambrosetti  upon  bronze 
in  the  Calchaqui  region.  These  analyses  were  made  by  Messrs.  Juan 
J.  J.  Kyle,  chemist  of  the  mint  of  Buenos  Aires,  Eduardo  Suarez, 
and  Herrero  Ducloux.  They  relate  entirely  to  objects  discovered  in 
the  valleys  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  Cordillera,  northwest  of  the 
Argentine  Republic  (provinces  of  San  Juan,  of  La  Rioja,  of  Cata- 
marca,  of  Salta,  and  of  Jujuy). 

NATDRB    OF    THE    OBJECTS    ANALYZED. 


A.  Bolts  in  the  form  of  a  double  T,  used  to  bind  the  stones  in  the 
walls  of  the  tumulus  of  Acapana,  Tiahuanaco.     (Fig.  1.) 

B.  Knives  with  perpendicular  tangs  in  the  center  of  their  blades. 
(Fig.  2.) 

C.  Circular  pieces  made  of  thin  sheets  of  metal  and  pierced  with 
holes  for  suspension. 

D.  Pins  with  large,  flat  heads.     (Fig.  3.) 

E.  Flat,  thin  axes,  with  slight  shoulders.     (Fig.  4.) 

F.  Heavy,  thick  axes,  with  prominent  lateral  shoulders,  in  the 
shape  of  a  *T.     (Fig.  5.) 

G.  Bells  shaped  like  the  flattened  body  of  a  cone. 
H.  Metal  rods  with  one  end  sharpened. 

I.  Small,  heavy,  molded  sphere,  with  a  stationary  ring  on  the 
inside. 

J.  Open  bracelet  of  a  strip  of  metal. 

K.  Axe  with  large  thick  tang  pierced  with  a  hole.     (Fig.  6.) 

L.  Molded,  circular  pieces,  one  face  decorated  with  designs  in 
relief  and  the  other  furnished  with  two  suspension  rings. 

M.  Small  disk  with  appendage  pierced  with  a  hole  for  suspension. 


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IN    BOUTH    AMERICA DE    HOBIILLET. 

Obfecta  Analyzed. 


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An  examination  of  the  composition  of  the  different  objects  ana- 
lyzed shows,  first,  out  of  forty-eight,  six  of  copper,  forty-one  of 
bronze,  and  one  of  brass.  Of  the  coppei  pieces  three  were  nearly 
pure,  for  they  contained  more  than  99  per  cent  of  copper,  with 
only  a  few  tenths  of  a  per  cent  of  lead  and  iron.  These  were  a 
chisel  (No.  13),  a  large  ax  with  shoulders  (No.  14)  from  Argentina, 
41781)— 08 21 


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264  ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONLIN   INSTITUTION,  19OT. 

and  B  heavy  ax  with  a  tang  (No.  13)  from  Ecuador,  of  hard  and 
sonorous  copper  quite  remarkable  in  its  quality.  The  two  bolts  from 
Tiahuanaco  (Nos.  1  and  2)  were  the  only  Bolivian  copper  pieces 
analyzed. 

Like  all  products  of  a  primitive  metallurgy,  the  bronze  objects  con- 
tain, besides -copper  and  tin,  certain  other  metals,  but  in  a  very  small 
proportion. 

The  majority  of  the  analyses  showed  lead  (from  0.07  to  1.80).  In 
only  two  specimens  was  found  more  than  1  per  cent 

Zinc  was  also  discovered  in  several  disks  from  Argentina  {from 
0.81  to  1.65). 

Antimony  was  encountered  in  very  small  quantities,  but  quite  uni- 
formly in  all  the  Bolivian  bronzes  (generally  0,06,  rarely  up  to  0,17), 
while  it  was  totally  lacking  in  those  from  Argentina. 

Bismuth  was  found  in  several  of  the  Argentine  bronzes  (from 
0.23  to  0.82). 

Two  Argentine  disks  contained  nickel  (0.78  and  2.04). 

Silver  was  just  as  scarce.  A  disk  from  the  Calchaqui  re^on 
showed  0.22;  two  others  merely  traces. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  analyses  of  nearly  all  the  bronzes  gave  iron 
in  proportions  varying  from  0.08  to  1.79;  but,  of  thirty- four  pieces, 
thirty-one  contained  less  than  1  per  cent.  It  is  perfectly  evident 
that  the  iron,  as  well  as  the  other  accessory  metals  just  considered, 
was  not  introduced  into  the  composition  of  these  bronzes  intention- 
ally. They  were  probably  found  naturally  either  in  the  copper  and 
tin  ores  used  in  the  manufacture,  or  in  the  attle  around  these  ores. 

As  to  the  essential  constituents  of  these  bronzes,  copper  and  tin, 
their  proportions  are  very  variable.  The  specimens  from  Tiahuanaco 
contained  from  5.8S  to  7.70  per  cent  of  tin,  while  those  from  Tura 
from  2.10  to  10.72  per  cent.  In  the  bronzes  from  the  Argentine 
Republic  the  variance  was  even  greater — from  1.57  to  16.53.  Alto- 
gether, of  forty-one  pieces,  only  four  were  found  containing  more 
than  10  per  cent  of  tin,  the  normal  proportion  in  bronze.  The  mix- 
ture of  these  two  metals  was  certainly  intentional.  It  furnishes  us 
with  irrefutable  evidence  that  the  tribes  living  in  the  mineral-bearing 
regions  of  the  Bolivian  and  Argentine  Andes  before  the  advent  of 
Europeans  were  familiar  with  tin,  which  they  knew  how  to  extract 
and  alloy  with  copper.  But  the  unequal  proportions  of  tin  shown 
in  their  bronzes  demonstrates  that  they  possessed  only  quite  rudi- 
mentary ideas  on  the  metallurgy  of  this  latter  metal. 

We  have  seen  by  the  impurities  brought  to  light  in  the  analyses 
that  the  refining  of  metals  was  very  imperfect.  Likewise  the  com- 
bination of  their  constituents  seems  to  have  been  rather  empirical- 
It  has  been  shown,  for  example,  that  it  is  not  in  the  objects  in  which  a 


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BBONZB  IN  SOUTH  AMEBICA — DE   HOBTILLET.  266 

lirge  proportion  of  tin  would  have  been  particularly  useful  that 
the  greatst  percentage  occurs.  Thus,  among  the  bronzes  from 
Tiahuanaco,  the  metal  of  a  knife  {Ko,  3)  contains  only  5.83  per  cent 
of  tin,  while  that  of  a  pin  (No.  6)  has  7.70  per  cent.  From  Yura, 
a  utensil,  a  very  thin  cutting  ax  (No.  7),  had  in  Its  composition  only 
2.10  per  cent,  while  two  objects  purely  for  decorative  purposes,  a 
pin  (No.  9)  and  a  plate  (No.  10),  contained  up  to  9.30  and  10.72 
per  cent.  The  contrary  would  be  indisputably  more  logical.  It  is 
important  to  note  that  the  three  pieces  came  from  the  same  region 
snd  belong  to  the  same  period. 

More  curious  still  are  the  observations  on  this  subject  which  can 
be  made  from  the  Argentine  bronze  analyses.  A  knife  (No,  18) 
revealed  only  3.65  per  cent  of  tin ;  but  13.69  per  cent  was  found  in  a 
bracelet  (No.  26).  The  bells,  which  should  have  an  alloy  rich  in 
tin,  contained  only  a  comparatively  small  amount — 6  per  cent  in 
two  specimens  (Nos.  21  and  31),  and  as  little  as  3.92  in  another 
(No.  19).  The  only  piece  of  actual  white  bronze,  or  bell  metal, 
was  a  decorative  object  (No.  48)  whose  proportion  of  tin  was  16.53 
per  cent.  As  for  the  rest  of  them,  in  one  and  the  same  category  of 
objects,  the  quantity  of  tin  still  varied  considerably. 

In  regard  to  the  big  axes  with  lateral  shoulders  (fig.  5),  of  which 
four  examples  were  analyzed,  two  of  them  twice,  what  do  we  find ! 
First,  a  specimen  of  pure  copper  with  no  trace  of  tin  (No.  14),  and 
the  others  (Nos.  29,  30,  and  28)  with  3.34  or  4.40,  5.73,  6.06  or  7.38 
per  cent  respectively.  It  is  the  same  in  connection  with  the  orna- 
mented disks  attributed  to  the  Catchaqui  peoples.  We  have  a  number 
of  analyses  of  their  metals.  Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  excep- 
tional specimen  containing  16.53  per  cent  of  tin,  discussed  above  (No, 
48),  it  is  seen  that  the  rest,  sixteen  in  number  (Nos.  32  to  47),  possess 
tin  in  quantities  ranging  in  progressive  order  from  1.57  to  8.67  per 
cent    The  average  is  3.60. 

There  has  also  been  mentioned  a  brass  object  concerning  which 
something  should  be  said.  The  appearance  of  this  piece  is  unique. 
Its  pale  yellow  color  and  the  absence  of  all  traces  of  oxidation  caused 
it  to  be  taken  at  first  glance  for  a  small  plate  of  gold.  The  analysis 
showed  that  it  was  merely  a  sheet  of  brass,  probably  not  of  ancient 
origin.  The  metal  composing  it  contains  in  round  figures  sixty  parts 
of  copper  and  forty  of  zinc,  very  nearly  the  composition  of  brass  from 
which  present  bronzes  of  very  inferior  quality  are  made.  By  chemical 
analysis  we  are  thus  able  in  certain  cases  to  tell  whether  these  ob- 
jects are,  as  regards  their  age,  of  a  period  before  or  after  the  conquest. 
Analysis  likewise  furnishes  us  with  valuable  evidence  as  to  the  au- 
thenticity or  nonauthenticity  of  certain  pieces,  just  as  in  the  experi- 

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ANNUAL  BEPOKT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  IWVJ. 


ment  undertaken  by  Ambrosetti.    Four  specimens  of  metals  from  ob- 
jects that  were  not  genuine  furnished  the  following  results: 


OOPPM. 

- 

"■■ 

i^. 

ii:E 

1.S0 

*- 

i.n 

These  alloys,  very  different  from  those  known  to  the  ancient  inhabi- 
tants of  the  country,  bring  to  mind  the  composition  of  the  brasses  and 
inferior  bronzes  from  which  are  manufactured  many  objects  of  mod- 
ern industry. 


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SOME    OPPORTUNITIES    FOR    ASTRONOMICAL    WORK 
WITH  INEXPENSIVE  APPARATUS." 


By  Prof.  Geoboi  E.  Haix, 

Director  of  ihe  Mount  Wilton  Solar  Ohtervatory  of  the  Carnegie  IniHtution 

of    Washington, 


I  have  sometimes  heard  it  said  that  the  great  cost  of  modem  ob- 
servatories tends  to  discourage  workers  with  small  instruments — 
observers  who  are  no  less  interested  in  the  pui-suit  of  astronomical 
research  than  the  astronomers  in  the  large  institutions.  It  seems  to 
me  that  if  there  is  any  serious  discouragement,  due  to  this  cause,  of 
men  who  are  engaged  in  original  research  with  small  telescopes  and 
inexpensive  apparatus,  it  is  a  question  whether  large  observatories 
should  be  established.  At  any  period  in  the  progress  of  observa- 
tional  astronomy  there  are  two  most  important  subjects  for  considera- 
tion. One  relates  to  the  accomplishment  of  a  great  amount  of  routine 
observation  and  the  discussion  of  results,  and  the  other  relates  to  the 
introduction  of  new  ideas  and  to  the  beginnings  of  the  new  methods 
which  will  make  the  astronomy  of  the  future.  I  think  we  will  all 
admit  that  the  introduction  of  new  ideas  is  quite  as  important  as  the 
prosecution  of  routine  research,  and  that  if  any  cause  whatsoever 
tends  to  discourage  the  men  from  whom  the  new  ideas  might  be  likely 
to  proceed,  that  cause  of  discouragement  should  be  set  aside  if  pos- 
sible. And  therefore  I  say,  with  all  seriousness,  that  it  is  a  fair 
question  whether  large  observatories,  with  powerful  instrumental 
equipment,  should  be  established  if  they  tend  to  keep  back  the  man 
vho  is  pursuing  the  subject  with  less  expensive  appliances,  and  is 
introducing,  through  his  careful  consideration  of  the  possibilities  of 
research,  the  new  methods  which  in  the  process  of  time  will  take  the 
place  of  the  old  ones.  I  think  it  can  be  shown,  however,  that  the 
large  observatories  should  be  a  help  rather  than  a  hindrance,  at  least 
by  suggesting  new  possibilities  of  research,  in  which  most  valuable 
results  can  be  obtained  by  simple  means. 

*  Stenograplilc  report  of  a  lecture  delivered  at  the  Royal  ABtronomtcal  So- 
cletf.  London,  June  26,  1907.  Reprinted,  by  permlaslon,  from  tbe  Uontbly 
Notices  of  tile  Royal  Astronomical  Society  November,  18OT. 


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368  ASKUAI.  BEFOBT  8HITHBONLUT   INSTITUTION,  IWI. 

I  am  tallring  to>iiight,  in  purpose  at  least,  to  the  amateur ;  but  my 
definition  of  the  amateur  is  perhaps  a  broader  one  than  is  geDerally 
accepted.  According  to  my  view,  the  amateur  is  the  man  who  worl^ 
in  astronomy  because  he  can  not  help  it,  because  he  would  rather  do 
such  work  than  anything  else  in  the  world,  and  who  therefore  cares 
little  for  hampering  traditions  or  for  difficulties  of  any  kind.  The 
"  amateur,"  then,  is  the  person  to  whom  I  wish  to  address  my  remarks, 
whether  he  he  connected  with  a  small  observatory  in  the  capacity  of 
professional  astronomer,  or  working  by  himself  with  very  simple  in- 
strumental means.  But  in  speaking  to  the  amateur  I  do  not  wish  to 
deal  with  work  that  shall  be  satisfactory  merely  from  the  standpoint 
of  instruction  or  amusement.  That  is  not  my  purpose.  If  it  is  possi- 
ble to  carry  on  research  by  simple  means  that  shall  really  be  impor- 
tant and  useful,  it  is  my  hope  to  point  out  some  such  possibilities.  But 
I  do  not  wish  to  speak  of  any  work  except  that  of  the  first  class,  nor 
to  recommend  that  any  investigations  should  be  undertaken  with  sim- 
ple instruments  that  are  not  quite  as  important  as  other  investigations 
which  can  be  better  undertaken  with  more  expensive  instruments. 

The  problem  then  becomes  one  of  this  character — to  determine  the 
relative  advantages  of  large  and  small  telescopes  for  different  classes 
of  research,  and  the  pocsibility  of  constructing  really  powerful  instru- 
ments at  moderate  expense.  I  can  not  pretend  to  discuss  all  phases  of 
this  large  problem ;  I  shall  mention  only  a  few  of  them,  and  approach 
it  from  a  single  direction.  But  before  taking  up  the  details  of  this 
discussion,  perhaps  I  may  be  permitted  to  say  that  the  conception  that 
is  sometimes  formed  of  the  newer  observatories,  the  idea  that  vast 
sums  of  money  are  expended,  perhaps  without  the  fullest  sense  of 
economy,  is  not  always  well  founded.  For  I  am  quite  sure  that  if  you 
would  visit  us  (to  take  a  single  concrete  case)  in  California,  you 
would  agree  that  we  have  considered  the  economical  side  of  the  ques- 
tion,  that  we  have  perhaps  in  some  instances  gone  almost  too  far  in 
our  desire  to  save  money  for  instruments  of  research,  and  to  economize 
in  certain  directions  where  money  can  be  saved.  For  example,  you 
would  find  that  our  offices,  our  buildings,  are  of  the  simplest  and  least 
expensive  character,  while  our  instruments  and  machinery  are  as 
effective  as  we  can  make  them.  The  great  expense  of  such  an  observa- 
tory as  the  Solar  Observatory  on  Mount  Wilson  does  not  depend  in 
large  degree  on  the  cost  of  the  instruments  used  for  investigations  of 
the  sun,  but  in  surmounting  the  difficulties  encountered  in  utilizing  a 
mountain  site,  deprived  of  the  ordinary  means  of  transportation,  and 
in  the  construction  of  large  equatorial  reflecting  telescopes  for  stellar 
work,  which  can  not  be  built  cheaply  if  they  are  to  be  really  efficient. 

I  wish  now  to  come  to  the  question  before  us,  and  to  illustrate 
some  of  the  advantages  and  some  of  the  disadvantages  of  large  and 
small  instruments.    Perhaps  you  will  permit  me,  In  showing  the 


ASTBONOMICAL  APPABATUS — HALE.  269 

first  slide  on  the  screen,  to  say  that  I  have  some  right  to  undertake 
a  discussion  of  this  sort,  because  I  have  viewed  the  subject  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  man  using  email  and  inezpen^ve  apparatus. 
In  my  first  spectroscopic  work,  which  was  done  in  a  room  in  my 
father's  house,  the  instruments  were  of  the  simplest  character,  and 
largely  of  my  own  construction.  Later,  a  small  building  was  con- 
structed for  a  concave  grating  of  10  feet  focal  length,  and  the  ap- 
paratus, although  powerful,  was  not  expensive.  Subsequently  a 
tower  and  dome  were  added,  and  a  12-inch  telescope  was  erected  for 
photographic  work  upon  the  sun.  After  the  preliminary  experi- 
ments had  been  completed,  and  the  spectroheliograph  had  begun  to 
take  form,  the  possibility  that  its  results  could  be  greatly  improved 
throu^  the  use  of  a  larger  telescope  suggested  itself,  and  for  this 
reason  I  made  many  efforts  to  acquire  a  large  instrument  for  these 
solar  investigations.  The  result,  through  the  generosity  of  Mr. 
Yerkes,  was  the  40-inch  Yerkes  telescope,  which  proved  to  be  very 
useful  for  the  extension  of  the  spectroheliograph  work.  The  next 
slide  shows  the  instrument,  which  you  will  see  is  a  large  and  expen- 
sive machine.  The  question,  then,  ccsnes  right  down  to  this  point : 
What  are  the  advantages  of  such  a  telescope  compared  with,  let 
OS  say,  a  6- inch  equatorial  or  possibly  a  4-inch  equatorial!  Is  it 
possible  with  a  6-inch  equatorial  to  do  work  comparable  in  impor- 
tance with  the  work  that  can  be  done  with  a  40-inch  equatorial ! 

The  next  slide  will  show  that  there  was  an  advantage  in  passing 
from  the  Kenwood  12-inch  to  the  Yerkes  40-inch,  at  least  for  the 
photography  of  the  sun.  Very  minute  details  of  the  flocculi  were 
brought  out  which  had  not  previously  been  known.  But  it  may 
easily  be  shown  that  the  advantages  of  the  40-iDch  telescope  for 
most  classes  of  solar  work  are  due  more  particularly  to  its  great 
focal  length  than  to  its  large  aperture." 

Iifit  us  take  another  illustration.  Here  we  have  a  picture  of  the 
moon  made  by  Professor  Ritchey  with  the  12-inch  Kenwood  telescope. 
Ton  will  notice  that  near  the  terminator  is  the  crater  Theophilus, 
which  you  will  see  again  in  the  next  slide  as  photographed  with  the 
40-inch  telescope.  This  photograph  taken  by  Professor  Ritchey  is 
probably  as  good  a  photograph  of  the  moon's  surface  as  has  yet  been 
made,  and  in  this  case  the  advantage  of  the  40-inch  telescope  is  ap- 
parent.^ But  if  we  take  another  case,  as  illustrated  in  the  next  slide, 
it  becomes  obvious  enough  that  for  certain  classes  of  work  the  Yerkes 
telescope  is  not  well  suited.    Here  is  a  picture  made  with  the  40-inch 

'So  far  as  resolTlng  power  1b  concerned,  an  aperture  of  8  Incbes  would  be 
snfBclent  to  permit  tbe  smallest  known  details  of  the  tloccull  to  be  phott^rapbed. 

^Here,  again,  tbe  fnll  Tlsual  reeoWtng  power  Is  not  utilized,  but  tbe  great 
aperture  Ib  of  advantage  In  permitting  tbe  large  Image  to  be  pbotograpbed  with 
veiT  short  exposnrea^ 

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370  ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  IWW. 

of  the  Andromeda  Nebula.  You  see  how  little  it  shows,  since  a  long- 
focus  telescope,  unless  of  very  great  aperture,  is  not  well  adapted  for 
the  photography  of  faint  nebulie.  When  we  compare  this  picture 
with  the  next  one,  made  by  Professor  Ritchey  with  the  2-foot  re- 
flector (of  8  feet  focal  length),  we  appreciate  immediately  that  the 
40-inch,  in  spite  of  its  great  advantages  for  certain  classes  of  work, 
is  wholly  unadapted  for  other  investigations.  As  you  know,  a  re- 
fractor of  much  smaller  aperture  and  of  shorter  focal  length  would 
also  give  a  photograph  of  the  Andromeda  Nebula  far  superior  to 
anything  that  could  be  taken  with  the  40-inch. 

If  we  look  at  the  next  slide,  which  shows  Professor  Barnard's 
10-inch  Bruce  telescope  when  it  was  mounted  on  Mount  Wilson, 
where  he  was  using  it  to  photograph  the  Milky  Way,  you  will  see  an 
instrument  that  is  very  small  and  inexpensive  as  compared  with  the 
Yerkes  telescope.  It  has  a  10-inch  Brashear  lens  of  50  inches  focal 
length  and  certain  smaller  cameras  attached  to  th'e  side  of  the  tube. 
With  such  an  instrument  as  this,  superb  photographs  of  the  Milky 
Way,  like  the  one  illustrated  in  the  next  slide,  can  be  taken,  which  are 
indispensable  for  investigations  on  the  distribution  of  stars  in  this 
part  of  the  heavens.  Excellent  work  can  also  be  done  with  a  much 
smaller  lens,  provided  with  a  very  simple  mounting."  A  fine  iostance 
of  systematic  work  with  a  portrait  lens'is  afforded  by  Mr.  Franklin- 
Adams's  photographic  map  of  the  northern  and  southern  heavens. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  recall  the  fact  that  the  40-inch  could  not 
do  this  work  at  all.  If  we  attempted  to  photograph  the  Milky  Way 
with  it,  we  might  get  a  very  small  region  on  a  very  great  scale,  but  to 
give  us  any  notion  as  to  the  general  distribution  of  stars  in  the  Milky 
Way  the  40-inch  would  be  a  total  failure.  However,  if  it  were  a 
question  of  studying  some  star  cluster  like  the  one  shown  in  this 
slide,  which  would  occupy  a  very  small  region  indeed  of  the  Milky 
Way,  the  40-inch  would  enable  us  to  pick  out  the  separate  stars,  to 
study  their  individual  phenomena,  their  changes  in  light  and  position, 
while  such  work  could  not  be  done  on  photographs  taken  with  a  por- 
trait lens. 

I  have  shown  these  miscellaneous  illustrations  for  the  purpose 
of  emphasizing,  what  is  perfectly  well  known  to  aU  of  you,  that 
each  instrument  has  its  pirticular  fields  of  work,  in  which  it  can 
accomplish,  or  permit  to  be  accomplished,  various  investigations 
which  are  not  within  the  reach  of  other  kinds  of  telescopes.  But 
I  now    wish  to  discuss  the  question    somewhat  more  specifically, 

o  Professor  Barnard  has  illustrated  In  the  Astrophyslcal  Journal  some  of  tbe 
admirable  results  he  has  himself  obtained  with  a  cheap  "  lantern  lens  "  belong- 
ing to  an  ordlnaiT  stereoptlcon.  A  photograph  obtained  by  him  with  this  teni 
Is  reproduced  In  plate  I. 


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SmMuniui  Rap 


Star  Closteh  Messier  11  and  the  Surrounding  Milky  Way. 

Fbologniphcd  on  Mount  WJlaim  wlih  a  KnisU  ^l^■roo|>Ii^■oa  K-ut  by  l'n>[L*8or  Bamnnl. 


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ASTRONOMICAL  APPABATliS — HALE.  271 

and  in  doing  so  I  shall  conSne  myself  almost  entirely  to  observa- 
tions of  the  sun,  although  one  might  attack  the  subject  from  many 
other  directions.  The  first  point  is  this :  Suppose,  one  has  a  small 
telescope  of  4  inches  or  6  inches  aperture  and  wishes  to  observe 
the  sun  with  it;  and  let  us  assume  at  the  outset  that  he  has  no  attach- 
ments whatever  in  the  form  of  spectroscopes,  but  that  he  wishes 
simply  to  make  direct  observations  of  the  sun.  Is  there  work  for 
such  an  instrument  at  the  present  time?  If  you  will  examine  the 
literature  of  the  subject  you  may  perhaps  be  surprised  to  find  that 
many  years  have  elapsed  since  very  careful  and  extensive  investiga- 
tions have  been  made  similar  to  those  of  Langley,  which  may  be 
ahnost  forgotten  by  many  astronomers,  but  certainly  are  not  for- 
gotten by  those  of  us  who  follow  the  sun  and  are  accustomed  to  the 
appearance  of  the  spots  when  the  definition  is  good.  The  next  slide 
shows  the  well-known  drawing  of  Langley's  typical  sun  spot.  (See 
plate  II,)  You  will  remember,  if  you  have  systematically  observed  the 
sun,  that  every  time  the  conditions  become  extremely  good,  the  struc- 
ture of  sun  spots  more  and  more  closely  resembles  this  drawing.  This 
is  a  typical  drawing;  it  does  not  represent  any  particular  spot;  it 
brings  together  observations  of  various  spots ;  but  in  general  the  details 
of  a  sun  spot  look  very  much  indeed  like  that  drawing  when  the  defi- 
nition is  good  enough  to  show  them  properly.  This  subject  has  been 
greatly  neglected  for  a  long  time,  and  it  would  well  repay  observers 
with  large  or  small  instruments  to  observe  sun  spots,  and  to  study 
many  of  the  details  of  their  structure  which  still  remain  obscure  and 
difficult  to  understand."  Of  course  the  question  of  the  resolving 
power  of  the  instrument  must  then  be  considered.  A  4-inch  telescope, 
capable  of  separating  objects  one  second  of  arc  apart,  would  not  do 
for  the  very  finest  details  in  a  sun  spot.  According  to  Langley,  the 
penumbral  filaments  sometimes  exhibit  structure  considerably  smaller 
than  such  a  telescope  would  show ;  but  a  10-inch  or  12-inch  telescope 
would  show  everything  that  has  ever  been  recorded  in  a  sun  spot, 
and  there  are  many  instruments  of  that  size  available  for  such 
observations.*  Even  a  much  smaller  telescope,  if  carefully  and  sys- 
tematically used,  would  contribute  largely  to  our  knowledge  of  sim 

■For  example.  It  would  be  of  greet  Interest  to  study  tbe  structure  of  tbe 
umbra,  aa  Eieen  through  a  minute  ptn  hole  In  tbe  focal  plane  of  a  poBtttve  eye- 
piece, as  Dawes  did  many  years  ago. 

>It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  phutograpby  Is  still  behind  visual  observations 
Id  revealing  the  minute  structure  of  Bun  spots.  It  can  hardly  be  doubted,  bow- 
BTer,  that  If  only  the  umbra  and  penumbra  were  permitted  to  fall  on  the  plate, 
and  the  exposure  properly  regulated,  new  and  valuable  rRSults  would  be  ob- 
tained. The  amateur  will  readily  find  manr  opportimltles  for  work  la  this 
SelO. 


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272  ANNUAL  HEPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

spots  and  of  the  structure  of  the  solar  surface.  I  might  enlarge  upon 
this  subject,  but  time  is  hardly  sufficient  to  permit  me  to  do  so. 

Now  let  us  consider  the  case  of  the  prominences.  If  we  have 
available  a  small  spectroscope  like  that  admirable  little  instrumeat 
designed  by  Evershed,  or  the  one  made  by  Thorp,"  or  a  still  simpler 
home-made  instrument,  and  attach  such  a  spectroscope  to  a  4-inch  or 
6-inch  telescope,  we  have  an  almost  ideal  equipment  for  the  observa- 
tion of  the  solar  prominences.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  an  instrument 
like  the  40-inch  is  wholly  unsuited  for  work  of  this  kind.  You  will 
easily  see  why.  If  you  wish  to  observe  the  entire  prominence,  its 
image  in  the  focal  plane  of  the  40-inoh  telescope  is  usually  so  large 
that  the  slit  can  not  be  opened  wide  enough  to  include  the  prominence 
without  admitting  too  much  light  of  the  sky.  Therefore,  for  a  study 
of  the  general  characteristics  of  prominences,  the  small  instrument 
has  a  great  advantage  over  the  large  one.  It  was  practically  out  of 
the  question  with  the  40-inch  for  us  to  do  systematic  visual  work  on 
prominences.  When  the  conditions  were  peculiarly  fine  we  could 
study  the  structure  of  certain  prominences,  and  I  never  saw  anything 
more  remarkable  than  such  details  when  they  came  out  under  the 
best  seeing.  But  with  the  spectroscope  available,  and  under  ordinary 
atmospheric  conditions,  we  could  not  make  records  of  the  general 
form-  and  distribution  of  prominences  that  would  compare  in  value 
with  the  records  obtainable  with  small  telescopes. 

It  has  remained  for  certain  amateurs  here  in  England  very  recently 
to  show  that  objects  upon  the  surface  of  the  sun  which  escaped  many 
of  the  earlier  solar  observers  can  be  observed  at  any  time  when  the 
conditions  are  favorable  with  a  very  small  instrument  indeed.  For 
example,  Mr.  Buss  and  Captain  Daunt,  and,  I  believe,  some  others, 
have  been  observing  the  sun  with  such  instruments,  and  have  been 
able  to  see  upon  the  disk  dark  regions  in  which  the  D,  line  is 
strengthened,  which  I  think  have  never  been  recorded  before  in  a 
systematic  way.  Observations  of  the  dark  D,  line  upon  the  face  of 
the  sun  were  formerly  mentioned  as  unusual  and  rather  remarkable 
phenomena,  and  certainly,  so  far  as  I  have  ever  seen  in  the  literature 
of  the  subject,  the  dark  hydrogen  flocculi  were  never  recognized  upon 
the  sun  by  the  earlier  spectroscopists ;  but  they  are  seen,  at  times 
at  least,  by  those  gentlemen  to  whom  I  have  referred.  This  I  can 
make  quite  certain  from  my  own  knowledge,  because  on  one  occasion, 
when  Mr.  Buss  had  described  one  of  the  very  peculiar  dark  hydrogen 
Socculi — flocculi  of  this  type  appear  very  much  darker  than  the  ordi- 
nary ones  photographed  daily  with  the  spectroheliograph — I  looked 

■>  I  wlab  to  call  speclsl  atteotlon  to  the  solar  Bpectroscopes  and  other  Inex- 
pensive Instruments  made  by  Mr.  Tbomas  Thorp,  at  .Mancbeeter.  One  of  tbee^ 
B  polarizing  helioscope,  bas  done  excellent  service  on  Mount  Wilson, 


A8TB0N0HICAL  APPABATUB — HALE.  278 

up  oar  photographs  of  that  date,  and  there  was  the  image  recorded 
by  the  spectroheli<^aph  precisely  as  it  had  been  described.  So  that 
if  I  had  previously  been  a  little  doubtful  as  to  the  possibility  of  see- 
ing these  objects  with  such  an  equipment,  I  gave  up  all  doubt  after 
having  made  that  comparison.^  One  might  say  that  it  would  hardly 
be  practicable  to  observe  such  phenomena  in  any  satisfactory  way 
with  a  large  telescope.  A  small  one  is  very  much  more  advantageous 
for  work  of  this  kind.  As  soon  as  possible  we  are  going  to  set  up  a 
small  equatorial  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  these  objects  and  compar- 
ing them  with  our  photographs,  after  having  derived  the  knowledge 
of  the  possibility  of  observing  them  from  the  work  done  by  these 
men  in  England.  But  we  will  not  undertake  systematic  work  in  this 
field,  as  I  hope  the  valuable  observations  now  in  progress  here  will 
be  continued.  Ho  records  are  made  with  the  spectroheliograph  of 
the  D,  ima^  of  the  sun  at  present.  We  have  tried  experiments,  but 
so  far  they  have  not  been  successful.  We  ought  to  be  able  to  photo- 
graph the  sun  through  the  D,  line,  but  we  have  not  done  it  yet.  The 
only  existing  records  are  those  made  by  the  members  of  the  British 
Astronomical  Association.  These  observations  should  be  made  in 
conjunction  with  other  solar  observations,  as  in  fact  is  being  done  at 
the  present  time.  The  characteristics  of  the  hydrogen  lines  are  being 
observed  at  the  same  time  that  these  Dj  images  are  being  recorded, 
so  that  any  relationship  between  the  two  may  be  discovered.  I  can 
not  dwell  upon  this  very  interesting  subject.  There  is  a  great  oppor- 
tunity here  for  further  work  of  high  importance. 

I  must  now  pass  to  the  question  of  sun-spot  spectra.  I  need  hardly 
tell  those  who  are  present  that  observations  of  sun-spot  spectra  made 
visually  are  sometimes  more  valuable  than  those  which  can  be  made 
by  photographic  methods.  Take,  for  example,  the  lines  in  the  green 
region  of  the  spectrum.  This  photograph  will  suffice  to  show  them. 
Here  is  the  h  group  in  the  spectrum  of  a  sun  spot  and  also  in  the 
spectrum  of  the  photosphere.  We  see  in  the  spot  a  large  number  of 
fine  lines,  long  ago  observed  by  Young  and  Maunder,  and  now  being 
studied  with  great  care.  Most  of  these  fine  lines  shown  by  a  powerful 
instrument  photographically  can  be  seen  visually  with  a  small  spectro- 
scope attached  to  a  6-inch  or  probably  a  4-inch  telescope,  and  many 
other  phenomena  which  can  not  be  photographed  at  all  can  be  seen 
with  a  similar  equipment."  There  is  a  certain  advantage  in  observing 
such  spectra  with  a  larger  telescope,  provided  that  the  spot  under  con- 

<■  Aa  I  understand  the  matter,  only  tbe  more  conspicuous  dark  floccull  can  be 
observed  Tlanally. 

'  Since  ttie  lecture  was  given  mucli  ttetter  pbotograplis  ol  spot  spectra  have 
been  made  witli  the  30-root  spectrograph  and  "  tower "  telescope  on  Mount 
Wilson.  It  still  remains  true,  however,  tbat  visual  observers  of  spot  spectra 
can  obtain  various  Important  reeuita  not  yet  within  the  reach  of  pliotographr. 


374  ANHUAL  KEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

edderation  is  a  small  one.  But  if  the  spot  is  a  fairly  large  one  (and 
hitherto  no  one  has  had  time  to  observe  the  spectra  of  small  spots  sys- 
tematically), I  think  there  is  no  advantage  whatever  in  having  a  large 
telescope  to  form  the  image  of  the  sun  on  the  slit  of  the  spectroscope ; 
it  is  merely  a  question  of  having  an  image  of  moderate  dimensitnas 
upon  the  slit,  and  after  that  the  spectroscope  does  the  work.  So  thmt, 
so  far  as  the  larger  spots  are  concerned,  a  small  telescope  is  quite  as 
satisfactory  as  a  large  one  for  visual  work  on  their  spectra. 

I  will  return  in  a  moment  to  the  question  of  the  relative  advantages 
of  the  photographic  and  the  visual  methods  of  observing  spot  spectra; 
but  I  want  to  point  out  in  passing  that  the  40- inch- telescope  has  cer- 
tain very  definite  advantages  for  work  on  the  sun.  If  one  wishes  to 
observe  the  spectrum  of  the  chromosphere,  for  example,  the  advan- 
tages of  great  focal  length  immediately  become  apparent.  The  width 
of  the  spectroscope  slit  is  essentially  constant ;  the  chromospheric  arc 
must  have  a  certain  linear  width  on  the  slit  in  order  to  permit  the 
■  base  of  the  chromosphere  to  be  observed;  and  consequently  the  spec- 
trum of  the  chromosphere,  as  seen  with  the  40-inch  telescope,  is  a  re- 
markable sight,  showing  thousands  of  lines  which  do  not  come  out 
with  a  small  focal  image  of  the  sun. 

Here  we  have,  then,  an  illustration  of  the  advantages  for  certain 
purposes  of  considerable  focal  length.  I  think  it  is  not  so  much  a 
question  of  the  telescope's  aperture  here,  because  we  must  not  forget, 
in  thinking  of  the  optics  of  this  question,  that  the  brightness  of  the 
spectrum  (for  constant  purity)  is  quite  independent  of  the  linear  or 
the  angular  aperture  of  the  object-glass  that  forms  the  image  of  the 
sun  on  the  slit  of  the  spectroscope."  Perhaps  it  is  well  to  bear  in 
mind  that  the  brightest  solar  spectrum  one  can  get  is  obtained  with- 
out any  telescope  whatever  to  form  an  image  on  the  slit,  but  merely 
with  a  collimator  of  suitable  angular  aperture.  But  a  large  solar 
image  is  frequently  advantageous,  and  an  equatorial  telescope  of  great 
focal  length  is  necessarily  an  expensive  instrument.  The  aperture 
in  the  case  just  mentioned  is  less  important  than  the  focal  length;  but 
even  if  the  aperture  were  only  6  inches  and  the  focal  length  un- 
changed, the  tube  must  still  be  64  feet  long,  and  the  mounting  would 
cost  no  less  than  the  mounting  of  the  Yerkes  telescope.  So  if  we 
wish  to  have  an  instrument  of  great  focal  length,  and  yet  keep  down 

"  When  the  focal  leugtli  f>t  the  collimator  Is  Hmlted  (ns  is  usual);  tbe  case  in 
a  spectroscope  attached  to  an  equatorlai  telescope),  an  increase  Id  the  angular 
aperture  of  the  telescope  permits  the  linear  aperture  of  the  spectroscope,  and 
consequently  tbe  resolving  |)ower  and  the  brightness  of  the  spectrum,  to  be 
Increased  up  to  a  limit  fixed  by  the  size  of  the  eratlng  available.  With  a  c«elo- 
Btat  telescope,  however,  the  same  conditions  do  not  obtain,  since  tl>e  apertore 
of  tbe  spectroscope  can  be  Increased  by  merely  locrea^g  the  focal  leugtb  of  tbe 
collimator. 

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ABTBONOMICAL  APPAHATUS — HALE.  275 

the  expense  to  a  reasonable  figure,  we  must  use  a  telescope  of  a  differ- 
ent type.  There  are  many  other  reasons  why  we  should  wish  to  use  a 
fixed  telescope  for  certain  kinds  of  solar  work,  although  I  should  be 
the  last  to  admit  that  the  40-inch  telescope  is  not  an  almost  perfectly 
satisfactory  machine  of  its  kind.  It  has,  as  we  have  seen,  inconveni- 
ences and  disadvantages  for  some  classes  of  work,  but  in  other  fielda 
its  superior  qualities  become  more  and  more  striking  day  after  day 
as  the  observer  learns  to  appreciate  them.  I  only  wish  we  could  afford 
to  have  such  a  telescope  (or  even  a  much  smaller  equatorial  refractor) 
on  Mount  Wilson,  as  it  would  be  of  great  service  for  many  purposes. 
Now  let  us  consider  some  of  the  possibilities  of  the  fixed  telescope ; 
and  let  me  show,  for  purposes  of  comparison,  a  picture  on  the  screen 
of  the  Snow  telescope  .which  is  now  employed  at  Mount  Wilson 
(plate  III).  Here  is  a  cflelostat,  with  mirror  30  inches  in  diameter. 
After  passing  to  a  second  mirror  the  light  is  reflected  to  a  concave 
mirror  of  60  feet  focal  length  (plate  iv),  which  sends  it  back  and 
forms  a  large  image  of  the  sun  within  a  laboratory.  This  is  a  very 
simple  instrument  indeed.  The  first  coelostat  we  set  up  on  Mount 
Wilson  was  a  small  one  used  by  the  Yerkes  Observatory  party  at  the 
eclipse  of  1900,  and  it  was  not  originally  arranged  for  work  of  this 
kind;  so  we  simply  built  a  wooden  support  for  a  second  mirror,  and 
with  the  aid  of  a  6-inch  objective  of  60  feet  focal  length  we  made  a 
telescope  which  served  admirably  for  our  solar  work  until  this  one 
was  put  up  on  the  mountain. 

The  next  photograph  shows  the  spectograph  used  with  the  Snow 
telescope.  It  is  of  the  Littrow  or  autocollimating  type,  with  slit 
and  plate  holder  at  one  end  of  a  long  tube  and  lens  and  grating  at 
the  other.  Light  from  the  solar  image,  after  passing  through  the 
dit,  falls  on  the  lens  18  feet  (its  focal  length)  distant.  The  rays, 
thus  rendered  parallel,  then  strike  the  grating  and  are  returned  to 
the  lens,  which  forms  an  image  of  the  spectrum  on  the  photographic 
plate,  just  above  the  slit  (the  grating  being  tipped  back  a  little). 
Such  an  outfit  (fixed  telescope  and  spectrograph)  is  an  extremely  sim- 
ple thing  to  build  in  inexpensive  form.  Coelostats,  for  example,  are 
common  nowadays  for  eclipse  work.  One  might  have  a  coelostat  with 
a  mirror  only  6  inches  in  diameter  and  a  second  mirror  about  4  inches 
in  diameter,  and  then  perhaps  a  telescope  lens  of  4  inches  aperture 
and  40  feet  focal  length.  Such  an  instrument  as  that,  which  could  be 
built  very  cheaply  indeed,  would  give  a  large  solar  image,  adapted 
for  many  kinds  of  solar  work. 

Let  me  show  you  in  the  next  slide  how  we  build  our  spectrographs 
in  actual  practice.  This  is  the  most  powerful  spectrograph  in  use 
in  the  laboratories  of  the  Solar  Observatory.  Here  is  a  little  slit 
I  bought  from  Hilger,  the  last  time  I  was  in  London,  for  a  few  shil- 
lings.   All  other  parts  of  the  spectrograph,  except  a  lens  and  grating, 


276  ANNUAL  EEPOBT  BMTTHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

are  of  wood,  built  in  a  few  hours  by  a  carpenter.'  The  wooden  sap- 
port  for  slit  and  plate  holder  stand  on  a  concrete  pier,  and  close  an 
opening  through  a  partition  which  forms  one  end  of  a  narrow  dark 
room.  Eighteen  feet  from  the  slit,  within  the  dark  room,  is  another 
concrete  pier.  A  sliding  wooden  support,  carrying  a  lens,  And  a 
simple  wooden  mounting  for  the  grating,  stand  on  this  pier,  and  com- 
plete the  spectrograph.  (A  similar  spectrograph,  suitable  for  use  in 
an  open  room,  is  illustrated  in  plate  v.)  Owing  to  the  scarcity  of 
gratings,  we  are  fortunate  in  being  able  to  use  one  loaned  by  Professor 
Ames,  of  Johns  Hopkins  University.  If  we  Iiad  no  reflecting  grating, 
we  could  buy  a  replica  very  cheaply  from  Thorp,  or  Wallace,  or 
Ives,^  which  would  give  quite  as  good  photographs  as  we  obtain  now 
(though  the  exposures  would  be  longer,  because  of  the  smaller  aper- 
ture). They  might  even  be  better,  because  our  photograptu  of 
spot  spectra  (made  with  the  similar  spectrograph  of  the  Snow  tele- 
scope) are  not  what  they  ought  to  be,  or  what  I  hope  they  will  sub- 
sequently become.'  They  would  not  stand  comparison  for  a  moment, 
so  far  as  perfection  of  definition  is  concerned,  with  those  magnificent 
photographs  of  the  solar  spectrum  made  by  Mr.  Higgs  in  the  center 
of  Liverpool,  under  conditions  which  would  ordinarily  be  called 
very  bad  even  for  a  crowded  city,  with  tram  cars  constantly  passing 
in  front  of  the  house.  With  a  spectrograph  of  his  own  construction 
(except  the  grating),  Hi^^  made  the  finest  photographs  of  the 
solar  spectrum  ever  produced;  superior,  as  Rowland  would  have  said, 
to  the  best  photographs  made  by  himself  at  the  Johns  Hopkins 
University.  It  is  obvious  that  something  other  than  an  expensive 
instrument  is  required  to  make  a  good  photograph.  Mr.  Higgs  has 
the  ability,  which  others  may  acquire,  to  obtain  superb  definition 
and  exquisite  photographs  with  very  simple  apparatus  indeed. 

With  a  spectrograph  of  1  inch  aperture  and  10  feet  focal  length, 
used  with  a  fixed  telescope  of  4  inches  aperture  and  40  feet  focal 
length,  one  would  be  in  a  position  to  make  good  photographs  of  the 
spectra  of  sun  spots. 

What,  then,  are  the  relative  advantages  of  visual  and  of  photo- 
graphic work  ?  The  next  slide  shows  some  photographs.  The  upper 
one  is  the  spectrum  of  the  sun  and  the  lower  one  is  that  of  a  spot. 
These  photographs  are  better  than  visual  observations  for  the  deter- 
mination of  the  wave  lengths  of  unknown  lines  in  spot  spectra,  simply 

"Except  the  plate  bolier,  wblcb  1b  of  a  staodard  make. 

^Ab  these  replicas  are  not  reflecting  gratings,  the  autocolllmating  qMctro- 
graph  might  In  this  case  give  way  to  one  In  which  a  separate  camera  lens  Is 
used.  With  theangular  aperture  bere  coosidered,  well-made  simple  lenses  would 
obviously  serve  perfectly  well  for  collimator  and  camera,  the  pbotOKrapblc  plate 
being  set  at  the  angle  required  to  bring  a  Bufflcloit  range  of  ■pectrum  Into  tocDH. 

"  See  footnote  on  p.  273. 

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Slit  and  Plate-Holder  End  of  Simple  Wooden  Spectrograph  of  Littrow  on 
AuTO-CoLLi MATING  Type  (18  Feet  focal  LENaTw),  Used  in  the  Spectro- 
scopic Laboratory  on  Mount  Wilson. 


The  tar  for  cutUog  off  reflecllons  Iiom  the  \eaa  la  tt 


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A8TB0N0M1CAL  APPABATUS — HAI^E.  277 

becanse  you  can  measure  the  position  of  a  line  on  the  photograph  to 
much  better  advantage  than  you  can  do  it  visually  at  the  telescope. 
They  are  also  better  for  the  detennination  of  the  relative  intensities 
of  the  lines,  especially  the  fainter  ones.  But  when  you  have  said  that, 
you  have  said  almost  everything  that  can  be  said  for  the  photographs, 
and  you  have  left,  out  of  account  many  of  the  very  important  advan- 
tages of  visual  observation.  These  photographs  represent  the  inte- 
grated spot  spectrum,  as  it  were.  Even  with  a  large  image  of  the 
spot  on  the  slit  of  the  spectrograph  (and  you  realize  here  that  the 
principal  point  of  our  great  focal  length  is  to  have  a  large  image  of 
the  spot  OD  the  slit),  we  can  not  as  yet  satisfactorily  record  minute 
differences  in  the  spectrum  corresponding  to  small  details  in  the 
spot.  If  we  wish  te  study  these  very  important  differences  in  the 
spot,  we  must  do  so,  at  present  at  any  rate,  by  visual  means.  For 
example,  Mr.  Ifewall,  your  president,  told  me  the  other  day  that  he 
had  found  the  spectnim  of  the  outer  edge  of  the  penumbra  of  a  spot 
to  have  the  same  characteristic  strengthening  of  the  lines  that  is 
observed  in  the  umbra,  which  is  a  very  difficult  thing  to  explain  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  hypothesis  I  have  been  favoring  of  late,  viz, 
that  the  principal  cause  of  the  change  of  the  relative  intensities  of 
lines  in  a  spot  is  reduced  temperature  of  the  vapors  in  the  umbra. 
I  knew  nothing  about  that ;  I  had  not  been  observing  the  spot  spec- 
trum visualjy  for  many  years,  and  in  our  photographs  this  phenom- 
enon is  not  recorded.  You  see,  then,  in  such  a  case  the  decided  advan- 
tege  of  visual  observations.  I  might  go  on  to  speak  of  other  advan- 
tages. For  example,  suppose  there  were  a  sudden  change  in  the 
spectrum  due  to  an  eruption;  the  chances  that  one  would  get  a 
photograph  just  at  that  time  are  small,  wheteas  visual  observations 
necessarily  occupy  a  considerable  period  of  time,  during  which  erup- 
tions might  be  detected.'  Even  a  few  results  might  be  of  extreme 
importance,  and  would  probably  be  wholly  missed  in  the  photographs. 
Again,  the  extension  of  certain  lines  outside  of  the  spot  upon  the 
photosphere  is  not  recorded  at  all  in  our  photogr  i.phs,  because  of  the 
method  we  usually  employ  of  excluding  from  the  plate  all  light 
except  that  which  comes  from  the  umbra,  and  i  erhaps  part  of  the 
penumbra.  We  ordinarily  get  no  trace  of  these  extensions,  but  per- 
haps the  conclusions  drawn  from  the  stud;~  of  such  phenomena  may 
have  much  to  do  witii  the  final  views  as  to  ihe  nature  of  the  spots 
themselves. 

To  mention  only  one  other  thing,  the  reversals  of  spot  lines  which 
have  been  seen  by  some  observers  have  not  been  photographed  with 

■  It  Is,  of  course,  desirable  to  take  pbotographs  as  often  as  possible,  since  a 
photographic  record  of  a  marked  change  In  the  epectrum.  If  fortunatelj  ob- 
tained, mny  be  much  more  valuable  than  the  results  of  a  few  visual  obaervatlons 
made  bastUy. 

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378  ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

our  present  apparatus.  Whether  the;  can  be  photographed  in  the 
future  remains  to  be  seen."  But  you  will  certainly  agree  that  the 
visual  observer  has  a  superb  opportunity,  which  the  photographic 
observer  can  not  by  any  possibility  take  away  from  him. 

I  now  wish  to  speak  rather  more  particularly  of  another  phenome- 
non mentioned  here  the  other  night,  which  is  peculiarly  adapted  for 
investigation  with  a  small  solar  image.  I  refer  to  the  differences  be- 
tween the  spectrum  of  the  center  of  the  sun  and  the  speetrum  of  the 
sun's  disk  near  the  limb,  as  shown  in  the  next  photograph.  Here  is 
the  spectrum  of  the  center  of  the  sun,  and  here  is  the  spectrum  of 
the  sun  at  a  point  a  short  distance  inside  of  the  limb.  You  will  see 
at  once  the  remarkable  changes  that  take  place.  The  broad  Hi  and  K^ 
lines  (or  bands)  are  greatly  reduced  in  width ;  and  the  same  thing  oc- 
curs, I  think,  in  the  case  of  all  lines  that  are  accompanied  by  wings. 
In  this  region  of  the  ultra-violet  many  of  these  lines  have  wings, 
which  are  lost  or  greatly  reduced  near  the  edge  of  the  sun.  This 
causes  a  remarkable  change  in  the  appearance  of  the  spectrum.  Sev- 
eral other  curious  things  occur.  Not  only  do  these  wings  change  in 
intensity  very  much,  but  the  central  part  of  the  line,  which  seems  to 
be  sharply  distinguished  from  the  wings,  undergoes  a  decided  change 
of  intensity  also,  so  that  we  find  from  a  preliminary  examination  of 
the  plates  that  the  lines  that  are  strengthened  in  sun  spots  are  gener- 
ally strengthened  near  the  edge  of  the  sun,  while  the  lines  that  are 
weakened  in  sun  spots  are  generally  weakened  near  the  edge  of  the  sun. 
This  is  true,  I  think,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases.  Again,  we  find 
another  curious  thing:  Almost  all  of  tlie  lines  derived  from  points 
near  the  sun's  limb  are  shifted  toward  the  red  in  the  spectrum  with 
reference  to  lines  from  the  center  of  the  disk.  But  there  are  some 
striking  exceptions,  and  one  of  them  is  most  significant :  The  lines  in 
this  fluting  of  cyanogen  are  not  appreciably  displaced.  As  we  know 
from  laboratory  experiments  that  flutings  are  not  displaced  by  pres- 
sure, whereas  lines  are  thus  displaced,  we  seem  to  have  an  interesting 
confirmation  of  the  conclusion  previously  reached  by  Halm  from  his 
visual  observations  of  two  lines  in  the  red — that  the  displacement  of 
these  lines  is  to  be  ascribed  to  pressure." 

<■  Some  of  these  "  reversals,"  since  pbotographed  on  Mount  Wllaoo.  have 
turned  out  to  be  Zeeman  doublets  <or  doublets  showing  the  same  polarisation 
phenomena).  Tbus  it  seems  possible  that  these  double  lines  are  produced  b;  an 
Intense  magnetic  field  in  spots.  If  so,  an  important  new  field  of  researcb  will 
be  open  to  vlBual  observers  having  telescopes  of  moderate  size. 

'This  conclusion  la  further  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  lines  of  a  given  ele- 
m«ait,  which  exhibit  unequal  displacements  at  a  certain  pressure  In  the  labora- 
tOTf,  In  general  show  corresponding  displacements  near  the  sun's  limb.  It 
remains  to  be  seen,  however,  whether  some  other  hypothesis  amj  not  be  equally 
capable  of  accounting  for  the  observed  phenomena. 


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ABTBONOHICAL  APPABATUS — HALE.  279 

This  inTestigation  is  a  many-sided  one,  with  applications  to  both 
solar  and  stellar  phenomena.  There  is  room  here  for  many  Investi- 
^tors,  who  can  obtain  results  quite  equal,  and  very  likely  superior, 
in  value  to  any  we  can  get  at  Mount  Wilson.  A  large  image  of  the 
sun  is  not  required,  because  the  effect  is  very  appreciable  at  a  distance 
of  2  or  3  millimeters  from  the  limb  on  our  eiT-inch  image.  It  is  also 
a  matter  of  no  importance  whether  the  definition  of  the  solar  image 
be  good  or  only  fair.  The  one  essential  point  is  that  the  spectrograph 
be  fairly  powerful,  and  this  is  a  very  simple  thing  to  realize  at  mod- 
erate expense.  I  hope  to  see  this  subject  taken  up  by  several  observers, 
who  will  determine  the  shifts  and  the  relative  intensities  of  the  Fraun- 
hofer  lines,  seek  for  evidence  of  periodic  changes,  and  work  out  an 
explanation  of  these  remarkable  phenomena  which  will  harmonize 
with  some  explanation  of  the  relative  intensities  of  the  seme  lines  in 
sun  spots  and  in  the  spectra  of  stars. 


^ 


I  may  now  touch  upon  another  field  of  solar  research,  and  consider 
the  possibility  of  doing  useful  new  work  with  the  spectroheiiograph, 
which  is  by  no  means  so  expensive  and  formidable  an  instrument  as 
one  might  suppose.  The  slide  shows  the  first  spectroheiiograph  used 
on  Mount  Wilson,  before  we  built  the  permanent  one  now  employed ; 
and  since  the  fact  that  we  did  substitute  a  permanent  instrument 
for  the  temporary  one  might  lead  to  the  inference  that  the  former 
did  not  give  good  results,  I  may  add  that  the  photographs  made 
with  the  wooden  instrument  are  even  better  than  the  later  ones. 
They  show  only  narrow  zones  of  the  solar  surface,  but  for  sharpness 
they  have  never  been  surpassed."  In  the  illustration  the  spectroheiio- 
graph is  partly  hidden  under  this  spectrograph,  and  you  can  only 
get  a  rough  notion  of  it.  There  is  a  rectangular  wooden  platform 
here  mounted  on  a  pier. 

■  In  (he  5-foot  Bpectrobellof^Rph  now  employed,  the  dispersion  Is  ^ent  enough 
for  photography  with  ttie  hydrogen  as  well  an  the  calcium  lines.  For  this  reaaoQ 
the  exposures  are  longer,  and  the  deOnltlon  somewhat  lees  perfect,  though  quite 
satisfactory  for  practical  purposeB. 

41780—08 ^22  DigmzedbyGOOgle 


280  ANNUAL  BBPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INBTTTUTION,  19ffl. 

At  each  corner  of  the  platform  was  screwed  a  small  cast-iron  block, 
in  which  a  V-ahaped  groove  had  been  planed.  In  each  groove  'was 
a  steel  ball.  A  moving  platform,  also  built  of  wood,  carried  the 
optical  parts  of  the  spectroheliograph  and  rested  on  these  balls,  so 
that  it  could  be  moved  across  the  image  of  the  sun  (formed  by  a 
ccelostat  telescope).  The  motion  was  produced  by  a  small  electric 
motor,  belted  with  a  piece  of  fish  line  to  this  large  wooden  pulley, 
which  drove  a  screw  passing  through  a  lead  nut  fastened  to  the 
movable  platform.  The  screw  was  cut  on  a  foot  lathe  and  the  nut 
cast  on  it.  This  simple  mechanism  provided  the  means  of  producing 
a  slow  uniform  motion  of  this  upper  platform  across  the  image  of 
the  sun.  The  arrangement  of  the  optical  parts  was  precisely  the  same 
as  in  the  Rumford  spectroheliograph. 

Looking  at  the  instrument  in  plan,  we  have  a  slit  here  (a)  through 
which  the  light  passes.  A  very  simple  slit  will  do.  This  was  an  old 
one;  I  think  it  came  from  a  portion  of  the  old  Kenwood  spectrohelio- 
graph. The  light  passed  through  this  slit  and  fell  on  a  coUimating 
lens  (b),  which  may  be  an  ordinary  uncorrected  lens  if  the  focal 
length  is  sufficient.  We  happened  to  have  some  achromatics  which 
we  used,  but  they  were  no  better  than  a  simple  lens  would  be.  The 
parallel  rays  fell  on  a  plane  mirror  here  (c),  and  were  reflected  to 
these  prisms  {d,  d).  We  used  two  prisms,  but  one  will  do  perfectly 
well,  unless  hydrogen  as  well  as  calcium  flocculi  are  to  be  photo- 
graphed. These  prisms  had  been  discarded;  they  were  ori^naily 
made  for  the  Bruce  spectrograph,  but  they  were  so  poor  that  they 
could  not  be  advantageously  used  for  stellar  spectra,  so  we  borrowed 
them  from  the  Yerkes  Observatory  and  put  them  in  here.  The  two 
prisms,  with  the  mirror,  gave  a  total  deviation  of  180°.  The  light 
then  passed  through  the  camera  lens  (e) — here,  also,  a  simple  lens  will 
serve  very,  well — which  formed  an  image  of  the  spectrum  on  a 
second  slit  (f),  close  to  the  fixed  photographic  plate  (17).  By  set- 
ting this  slit  on  the  H^  line  of  calcium,  and  moving  the  instrument 
slowly  across  the  solar  image  with  the  motor,  excellent  photographs 
of  the  calcium  flocculi  were  obtained. 

The  next  slide  shows  some  photographs  taken  with  the  permanent 
instrument.  Such  photographs  as  these,  made  with  the  calcium  and 
hydrogen  lines,  open  up  for  investigation  a  large  field,  which  anyone 
can  enter  with  just  such  an  equipment  as  I  have  described — a  very 
simple  instrument,  with  small  prisms  and  lenses,  and  built  almost 
entirely  of  wood. 

I  will  show  you  in  the  next  photograph  some  pictures  obtained 
with  the  wooden  instrument.  You  will  notice  that  in  this  case  the 
motion  was  not  absolutely  uniform;  you  can  detect  the  slight  irregu- 
larity of  motion,  but  it  did  not  affect  the  usefulness  of  the  negatives. 
This  is  a  direct  photograph  of  the  sun ;  this  is  made  with  the  H,  line 


si  I 


,  Google 


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ASTRONOMICAL  APPARATUS — HALE.  281 

of  calcium,  and  this  is  the  same  region  as  photographed  with  the  H, 
line  of  calcium.  If  somebody  would  go  to  work  with  such  an  instni- 
tnent  and  let  us  know  exactly  what  such  photographs  as  these  mean, 
they  would  at  least  confer  a  very  great  favor  upon  me,  because  hither- 
to I  have  been  unable  to  determine  with  certainty  the  relative  parts 
played  by  the  continuous  spectrum  of  the  faculee  and  the  light  of  the 
H,  line  of  calcium  in  producing  the  photographs.  That  question  is 
still  open,  and  many  investigations  will  be  required  to  settle  it  beyond 
doubt." 

In  this  H,  photograph  we  probably  have  a  picture  of  the  calcium 
vapor  at  a  higher  level  than  the  level  represented  by  the  H^  plates. 
You  see,  for  example,  this  bridge  of  calcium  vapor  across  the  spot, 
which  is  not  shown  by  H,.  Many  investigations  of  great  interest 
could  be  carried  on  with  such  a  spectroheliograph  as  I  have  de- 
scribed. I  wish  I  had  time  to  go  into  them;  there  is  only  one  I  may 
mention,  and  that  is  the  comparison  of  the  calcium  and  the  hydrogen 
images.  Mr.  Butler  has  asked  me  to  explain  to-night  a  point  which 
I  unfortunately  failed  to  make  clear  in  my  talk  here  at  the  last 
meeting  of  the  society.  In  speaking  of  the  relative  level  of  the  cal- 
cium and  hydrogen  flocculi,  I  said  we  found  that  the  dark  hydrogen 
flocculi  are  shifted  somewhat  toward  the  limb  of  the  sun  as  com- 
pared with  the  corresponding  bright  calcium  flocculi.  The  natural 
conclusion  to  which  I  came  was  that  the  hydrogen  absorption  shown 
in  this  photograph  is  produced  at  a  somewhat  higher  level,  amounting 
to  something  like  1,500  miles,  than  the  calcium  radiation  which  gives 
us  this  photograph.  Mr.  Butler  pointed  out  to  me  that  the  photo- 
graphs of  the  flash  spectrum  show  the  calcium  vapor  to  rise  to  a 
hi^er  level  than  the  hydrogen  gas,  and  that  the  difference  is  about 
1,500  miles.  There  is  no  question  about  the  validity  of  this  result,  and 
the  point  is  to  show  that  it  is  compatible  with  my  conclusion.  I  think 
the  reason  is  simple  enough,  and  lies  in  this  fact:  The  flocculi  photo- 
graphed with  the  H,  line  do  not  represent  the  highest  calcium  vapor, 
but  a  level  considerably  below  that;  whereas  the  absorption  phe- 
nomena known  as  hydrogen  flocculi  apparently  represent  the  upper 
hydrogen  in  the  chromosphere,  or  in  some  cases  the  prominences 
themselves.  The  average  level  of  the  hydrogen  absorption  seems  to  be 
about  1,500  miles  higher  than  the  region  from  which  the  H,  light  of 
calcium  proceeds.     If,  as  occasionally  happens,  the  highest  calcium 

•Two  photographa  taken  with  (be  wooden  spectrobellograph  are  reproduced 
In  plate  vi.  They  are  not  the  ones  rererred  to  In  the  lecture.  Since  the  above 
via  written,  pbotographa  of  vortices  In  the  solar  atmosphere  have  been  niade  on 
Hount  Wilson  with  the  apectrohellograpb,  using  the  Ha  line  of  hydrogen.  A 
dtople  wooden  epectrohellograph  would  safflce  to  give  good  photographs  of  these 
Tordcefl,  which  are  thus  op&k  to  luveatlgation  by  amateurs  with  limited  egulp- 


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282  AKSUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTtON,  1907. 

vapor  in  the  chromosphere  is  recorded  photographically,  it  acts  as 
hydn^n  does,  and  gives  dark  absorption  phenomena,  due  to  the  hi^i 
level  H,  line,  and  not  to  be  confused  with  the  bright  calcium  floccuU 
due  to  H,. 

I  see  that  I  must  rapidly  draw  to  a  close.  I  might  mention  various 
other  methods  of  employing  spectroheliographs,  and  if  anyone  present 
should  be  interested  at  some  future  time  to  take  them  up  I  ^11  be 
delighted  to  discuss  them  in  detail.  I  may  remark  in  passing  that  with 
a  Littrow  spectrograph,  or  any  long  focus  spectrograph,  and  a  fixed 
aolar  image,  one  can  undertake  other  work  of  various  kinds,  such  as  a 
determination  of  the  solar  rotation,  along  some  such  plan  as  Duner  or 
Halm  followed,  but  using  different  lines  in  the  spectrum,  and  bene- 
fiting from  the  advantages  of  photographic  methods.  In  all  such 
work,  cooperation  with  other  investigators  is  greatly  to  be  desired,  be- 
cause it  might  otherwise  frequently  happen  that  two  men  would  be 
doing  the  same  thing,  whereas  it  would  be  just  as  easy  for  them  to 
supplement  each  other's  work  instead  of  duplicating  it 

One  other  phase  of  the  subject  which  I  should  like  to  have  time  to 
discuss,  but  can  not,  is  that  of  stellar  spectroscopy.  You  will  see  that 
for  stellar  spectroscopy  a  large  telescope  in  general  does  have  an  ad- 
vantage. The  more  light  one  can  collect  and  concentrate  in  a  stellar 
image  the  more  dispersion  can  be  employed  in  the  spectroscope,  and 
the  users  of  large  apertures  therefore  do  have  an  advantage  in  stellar 
spectroscopic  work.  But  the  fact  remains  that  small  instruments  can 
be  used  to  very  great  effect  in  this  field  also,  provided  that  one  intel- 
ligently plans  his  investigations;  I  know  of  no  better  example  of 
this  than  one  which  I  am  permitted,  by  the  kindness  of  Father  Sid- 
greaves,  to  illustrate.  Here  is  a  photograph  of  the  spectrum  of 
oCeti,  made  with  a  refractor  of  4  inches  aperture,  with  a  prism  of 
22|°  aitgle  placed  over  the  object  glass.  The  focal  length  of  the  tele- 
scope is  4  feet. 

The  slide  shows  the  spectrum  of  Omicron  Ceti  on  the  29th  Novem- 
ber, 1905,  and  on  the  1st  December,  1906,  and  brings  out  with  great 
clearness  the  remarkable  changes  which  occurred  during  that  period. 
If  this  spectrum  had  been  photographed  with  such  an  instrument, 
let  us  say,  as  the  Bruce  spectrograph  of  the  Yerkes  Observatory 
attached  to  the  40-inch  telescope,  there  would  have  been  some  advan- 
tages, but  there  would  also  have  been  some  disadvantages,  because 
the  entire  region  covered  by  the  photographs  made  with  that  instru- 
ment (when  three  prisms  are  used)  is  a  limited  one  here  in  the  blue. 
All  of  these  remarkable  flutings  in  the  less  refrangible  region  would 
not  have  appeared  in  the  photographs,  and  nothing  would  have  been 
known,  if  one  had  been  confined  with  such  an  instrument  to  a  short 
region  of  the  spectrum,  about  the  very  interesting  changes  shown 

L.,,,.,dbyG00glc 


ASTBONOMICAL  AFPABATUS — HALE.  288 

in  this  particular  case.  The  next  slide  shows  another  photograph 
taken  by  Father  Sidgreaves,  in  this  case  with  a  somewhat  different 
instrumental  arrangement — a  direct  vision  prism  at  the  focus  of  a 
15-inch  equatorial.  But  you  will  see  tble  great  range  of  spectrum 
included  on  the  plate,  and  remember  again  that  almost  all  the  spec- 
trum, except  a  very  small  region,  would  be  missing  on  photographs 
taken  with  such  instruments  as  the  Bruce  or  Mills  spectrographs,  or 
other  three-prism  instruments  employed  for  the  investigation  of 
stellar  motions  in  the  line  of  sight.  You  will  notice  the  remark- 
ably interesting  and  important  fact  that  the  He  line  of  hydrogen 
is  absent  from  the  picture,  probably,  as  Mr.  Newall  suggested,  cut 
out  by  the  absorption  of  the  H  line  of  calcium — the  broad  H,  band ; 
perhaps  in  another  star  lying  nearer  to  us  than  the  star  which  gives 
the  bright  lines  of  hydrogen.  This  serves  to  illustrate  the  great  im- 
portance of  the  work  that  can  be  done  with  an  instrument  of  very 
small  size  indeed,  even  in  this  Beld  of  stellar  spectroscopy,  which 
seems  peculiarly  to  belong  to  telescopes  of  large  aperture.  As  I  said 
before,  in  general  the  investigator  with  a  telescope  of  targe  aperture 
does  have  an  advantage  in  stellar  spectroscopic  work ;  but  there  are 
various  investigations  of  this  sort — and  of  the  kind  Professor  Picker- 
ing has  taken  up  in  his  very  extensive  surveys  of  the  whole  sky  with 
objective  prisms — which  are  of  extreme  importance,  and  which  can 
not  be  carried  out  with  large  refractors  of  great  focal  length. 

I  might  go  on  to  speak  of  the  possibilities  of  work  on  variable  stars, 
but  they  are  familiar  to  most  of  you.  The  observation  of  many  wide 
double  stars,  my  friend  Bumham  tells  me,  has  been  neglected  since 
the  time  of  Herschel,  because  the  large  instruments,  and  even  the 
small  ones,  have  been  devoted  to  closer  objects,  so  that  in  revising  his 
great  catalogue  Bumham  had  to  measure  with  the  40-inch  a  great 
many  wide  doubles  which  had  not  been  looked  at  perhaps  since 
Herschel  discovered  them  more  than  a  century  before.  Important 
double-star  work  is  always  open  to  men  with  small  instruments,  if  a 
micrometer  is  available. 

Then  I  might  go  on  to  the  case  where  a  man  has  no  telescope  at  all, 
and  still  wants  to  make  contributions  to  astrophysics.  I  do  not  now 
speak  of  such  splendid  work  as  Anderson  did  when  he  discovered 
Nova  Persei  with  the  naked  eye ;  but  if  one  were  convinced  that  the 
overcast  sky  of  London  would  never  open  again,  he  could  still  work 
in  his  laboratory  and  make  important  contributions  by  identifying 
lines  and  bands  in  spot  spectra,  as  Professor  Fowler  has  been  doing  of 
late,  or  by  researches  in  a  score  of  other  Selds. 

I  wiU  close  with  a  few  practical  suggestions.  One  reference  to  the 
matter  of  atmosphere.  Perhaps  some  of  us  feel  that  if  we  could  only 
ascend  into  the  upper  regions  we  could  get  results  very  much  better 


384  ANNUAIi  KEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

who  work  in  London  and  what  they  have  done,  we  must  recognize 
the  fact  that  even  here  the  conditions  are  not  so  bad  as  we  sometimes 
imagine.  I  have  often  been  strongly  impressed  (since  my  work  in 
Chicago)  with  the  belief  that  a  smoky  atmosphere  has  some  advan- 
tages in  astronomical  work,  for  it  seems  that  the  seeing  is  frequently 
Improved  in  solar  observations  when  the  sky  is  smoky.  Here  is  a 
fine  chance  to  test  that  question,  and  I  think  it  has  been  tested  at 
Greenwich,  and  that  some  of  the  photographs  taken  there  (both 
solar  and  stellar)  prove  that  London  smoke  does  not  prevent  excel- 
lent definition.  I  examined  rather  carefully  some  plates  there  yes- 
terday, and  the  star  images  are  surprisingly  good  in  many  instances. 
It  seems  to  me  that  definition  by  ni^t  as  well  as  by  day  at  Green- 
wich must  be  of  an  order  much  higher  than  one  might  suppose  when 
one  thinks  of  Greenwich  as  being  within  the  boundaries  of  London.^ 
But  it  is  perfectly  possible  to  get  good  results  anywhere,  provided 
sufficient  care  is  taken.  One  must  consider,  for  example,  the  best 
time  of  day  for  solar  work.  It  usually  happens  that  the  best  defini- 
tion of  the  sun  occurs  in  the  early  morning  and  the  late  afternoon. 
Mr.  Newall  tells  me  that  this  is  as  true  at  Cambridge  as  it  is  at  Mount 
Wilson.  This  is  worth  looking  into  if  one  takes  up  work  on  the  sun. 
Further,  one  must  have  a  definite  plan  of  work.  This  is  of  prime 
importance.  Devote  your  entire  attention  to  a  single  investigation, 
involving,  if  possible,  two  or  three  parallel  series  of  observations,  so 
devised  as  to  throw  light  on  one  another.  Frequently  the  value  of  a 
given  series  of  observations  may  be  enormously  enhanced  if  other 
observations  are  available  to  aid  in  their  interpretation.  For  exam- 
ple, in  studying  the  spectra  of  sun  spots,  the  character  of  the  spots, 
their  motions,  and  changes  of  form,  and  the  distribution  of  the 
flocculi  in  their  neighborhood,  may  be  vital  factors  in  interpreting 
the  spectroscopic  phenomena.  Then,  again,  there  is  the  great  possi- 
bility that  new  methods  and  new  instruments  can  be  applied.  Up 
to  the  present  time  I  think  the  interferometers  of  Michelson  or  of 
P6rot  and  Fabry  have  never  been  systematically  employed  for  work 
on  the  sun.  That  admirable  method  which  Fabry  is  using  in  the  de- 
termination of  absolute  wave  lengths  would  perhaps  be  very  useful 
indeed  if  applied  to  the  measurement  of  the  displacement  of  solar 
lines  at  the  center  and  at  the  limb.  I  also  believe  that  the  echelon 
spectroscope  has  never  been  used  for  the  observation  of  the  narrow 
bright  lines  in  the  chromosphere.  Furthermore,  we  are  always  con. 
fronted  by  the  possibility  of  perfecting  our  optical  apparatus.  I  have 
been  trying  for  years  to  get  good  prisms  of  large  size,  but  can  not  get 
homogenous  glass,  and  therefore  it  now  seems  necessary  to  attack  the 

■  While  revising  tbis  for  republication  I  leani  witb  great  pleasure  of  the  dia- 
cover;  at  Greenwich  of  on  eighth  satellite  of  Jupiter. — Q.  E.  H. 


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ASTBONOMtCAI.  APPABATUS HALE.  286 

problem  of  fluid  prisms.  If  some  one  could  take  that  question  up  and 
show  us  how  to  make  very  large  prisms  that  would  be  essentially  per- 
fect, they  would  accomplish  a  great  advance.  Lord  Bayleigh  told  me 
the  other  day  how  he  made  some  large  fluid  prisms  that  gave  nearly 
theoretical  resolution.  By  an  extension  of  the  same  methods  it  seems 
likely  that  still  larger  prisms,  suitable  for  the  exacting  requirements 
of  photographic  work,  could  be  obtain^. 

And  so  I  might  go  on  pointing  out  opportunities  of  various  kinds, 
but  I  should  tire  you  if  I  ventured  to  do  so.  We  must  not  forget, 
however,  that  the  possibility  always  exists  of  getting  some  entirely 
new  method  that  will  be  quite  as  important  as  any  application  of 
the  interferometer,  or  the  echelon,  or  other  instruments  to  which  I 
have  called  attention. 

I  hope  I  have  shown  that  it  is  possible  not  merely  to  do  work  of  an 
inferior  quality,  but  to  do  work  of  the  first  quality,  with  small  or 
inexpensive  instruments ;  work  that  can  not  be  duplicated  or  will  not 
be  duplicated  with  large  instruments ;  in  other  words,  that  there  is  a 
splendid  field  for  any  man  who  wishes  to  accomplish  results,  wherever 
he  may  be  situated,  and  however  simple  his  means  of  research  may  be. 
I  feel  so  strongly  on  this  subject  that  I  hope  the  suggestions  I  have 
made  will  not  be  entirely  without  effect.  We  need  the  ideas  of  men 
from  all  parts  of  the  world ;  we  need  the  contributions  they  can  make ; 
and  we  need  them  even  more  than  we  need  larger  instrumental  means 
than  we  now  possess. 


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THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCIENCE  AS  ILLUSTRATED  BY  THE 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  METEOROLOGY.* 


7  Cleveland  Abbe. 


The  ultimate  goal  of  scientific  research  is  not  the  collection  of  facts 
furnished  by  explorations  and  surveys,  not  even  the  exact  data  fur- 
nished by  the  most  laborious  measurements  as  in  astronomy,  geodesy, 
chemistry,  and  physics.  Neither  is  it  the  framing  of  a  few  generali-  ■ 
zations  and  inductions,  such  as  the  general  idea  of  evolution ;  nor  is  it 
the  establishment  of  some  isolated  fundamental  laws,  such  as  the 
attraction  of  gravitation,  the  conservation  of  energy,  the  mechanical 
equivalent  of  heat,  the  atomic  weights  and  their  periodic  law.  Re- 
search aims  to  go  deeper  than  all  this  and  show  how  these  laws  and 
phenomena  result  necessarily  from  a  few  simple  premises — not  pre- 
mises in  the  sense  of  assumption,  but  axioms  that  are  just  as  truly 
the  basis  of  the  physical  universe  as  Euclid's  axioms  are  the  basis  of 
geometry.  These  premises  or  axioms,  so  far  as  we  can  at  present  see, 
almost  certainly  belong  to  the  realm  of  what  we  call  mechanics,  or 
the  laws  of  force  and  matter;  it  may  be  the  mechanics  of  molecules, 
atoms,  and  ions,  or  it  may  be  the  mechanics  of  solids,  fluids,  or  gases; 
that  is  to  say,  it  may  be  the  mechanics  of  individual  molecules, 
or  that  of  masses  of  molecules.  .Moreover,  these  questions  of  me- 
chanics always  involve  some  mathematical  study — some  graphical, 
numerical,  geometrical,  or  analytical  method ;  in  every  case  the  prog- 
ress of  exact  science  must  wait  on  the  progress  of  pure  mathematics. 

Owing  to  the  numerous  relations  between  the  study  of  the  atmos- 
phere and  every  other  branch  of  science,  meteorology  has  been  from 
time  to  time  classed  as  a  part  of  chemistry,  physics,  geology,  and 
geography,  but  is  now  assuming  an  independence  that  justifies  its 
recognition  as  a  distinct  subject;  this  fact  requires  us  to  explain  dis- 
tinctly of  what  meteorology  consists.  It  is  not  a  mere  description  of 
Rtmospheric  phenomena,  neither  is  it  a  system  of  maps  and  predic- 
tions; it  is  not  a  popular  climatology,  nor  merely  a  mathematical 

■  Annaal  preeldeDtlal  address  before  tbe  Pbtlosophlcal  Society  of  Wiisliiugton, 
December  8,  tBOG. 


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388  ANNUAL,  BEPORT  8MrTHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

study  of  the  motions  of  the  atmosphere.  We  must  define  it  as  exn- 
bracing  the  broadest  coDceivable  study  of  the  atmosphere  from  any 
and  every  point  of  view ;  if  we  subdivide  it  according  to  the  difficulty 
of  the  subject  and  the  extent  of  our  ignorance,  beginning  with  the 
simplest  and  passing  on  to  the  more  difficult  portions,  we  may  sub- 
divide it  into  descriptive  climatology,  optical  and  acoustic  phen<Mn- 
ena,  thermal  or  thermodynamic  phenoilnena,  hydrodynanUc  or  me- 
chanical phenomena.  The  two  latter  classes  of  phenomena  consti- 
tute the  subject-matter  of  the  mechanics  of  the  atmosphere  and 
include  all  that  relates  to  temperature,  pressure,  winds,  cloud,  fo^, 
dew,  rain,  snow,  hail,  and  the  daily  predictions  of  storms  and 
weather.  It  is  in  the  study  of  these  phenomena  that  the  progress 
of  our  science  has  been  most  conspicuous  during  the  past  century ; 
the  problems  already  partially  solved  involve  so  much  of  the  most 
profound  modem  physics  and  mathematics  that  one  can  not  refuse 
to  meteorology  a  notable  place  among  the  most  difficult  branches  of 
'science.  Fundamentally,  meteorology  is  the  mechanics  of  the  earth's 
atmosphere;  all  its  other  aspects  are  of  minor  importance  to  this  and 
it  is  our  progress  in  this  line  of  research  that  should  especially  claim 
our  attention. 

A  general  historical  survey  of  the  methods  by  which  we  have 
arrived  at  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  of  nature  will  show 
that  meteorology  has  passed  through  the  various  stages  of  develop- 
ment that  have  been  common  to  all  the  sciences,  and  that  in  its  pres- 
ent stage  of  vigorous  growth  it  already  stands  among  those  that  have 
progressed  the  furthest.  The  methods  of  advancing  our  knowledge 
of  nature  have  been  the  same  in  all  ages,  among  all  nations,  and  in 
almost  all  individual  cases.  One  individual,  or  one  nation,  or  one 
age  may  differ  from  another  in  its  predilections  for  special  methods, 
but  in  general  we  6nd  everywhere  analogous  methods  of  thought  and 
work,  and  they  even  succeed  each  other  in  the  same  order.  Begin- 
ning with  explorations  and  crude  observations,  man  passes  on  to 
generalizations  and  inductions.  If  possible  he  frames  speculations 
or  working  hypotheses  as  to  the  ultimate  cause  or  the  rationale  of  any 
phenomenon,  and  then  tests  his  tentative  deductions  by  experimenta- 
tion until  the  working  hypothesis  has  been  so  modified  as  to  represent 
some  general  law.  The  association  of  several  such  laws  leads  to  the 
building  up  of  elaborate  deductive  theories,  not  speculations  in  the 
popular  sense  of  the  word,  but  well-established  qrstems,  or  methods 
of  argumentation,  that  represent  a  rational  and  more  or  less  profound 
knowledge  of  nature.  Such  "  theories "  are  well  exemplified  by 
Gauss's  "  Theoria  Motus  "  or  Rayleigh's  "  Theory  of  Sound." 

If  at  some  epoch  a  man  or  a  nation  is  unable  to  apply  any  one  of 
the  above-mentioned  methods  of  study,  then  the  real  tmowledge  of 
nature  stops  at  that  point,  and  man  waits  until  the  deTelopmeut  of 


DEVELOPMENT  OP   METEOBOLOOy — ABBE.  2oS 

his  powers  enables  him  to  take  the  next  step  in  the  line  of  research. 
But  it  has  many  times  occurred  that  meanwhile  men  have  spent  cen- 
turies floundering  about  aimlessly  in  the  bogs  of  ignorance,  follow- 
ing some  imaginary  light  like  the  will-o'-the-wisp.  If  dermatic 
authority  has  sometimes  hindered  the  progress  of  knowledge,  still 
more  has  man's  inherent  conser\"atism,  by  reason  of  which  he  adheres 
to  the  teachings  of  antiquity,  the  practice  of  his  parents,  and  the  wor- 
ship of  his  ancestors.  Such  conservatism  may  build  up  a  family  or  a 
nation;  it  may  insure  the  entailment  of  estates  and  the  power  of 
tyrants,  but  it  is  a  perversion  of  the  commandment  "  Honor  thy 
father  and  thy  mother  "  to  doggedly  insist  that  what  is  good  enough 
for  the  parent  is  good  enough  for  the  children.  The  love  of  truth 
requires  us  not  only  to  hold  fast  that  which  is  good,  but  to  discard 
that  which  is  false.  The  path  of  progress  in  meteorology  is  strewn 
with  the  wrecks  of  popular  errors. 

NATIONAL    METEOROLOGICAL   OROANIZATtONS. 

Devotion  to  any  science  brings  with  it  the  formation  of  special 
organizations  for  its  promotion,  not  only  private  academies,  observa- 
tories, and  universities,  but  national  or  state  institutions;  and  mete- 
orology has  had  its  share  of  these.  Of  course,  these  organizations 
are  not  always  mainly  and  directly  for  the  benefit  of  knowledge  and 
science,  but  more  frequently  for  the  material  benefit  of  the  people. 
In  America,  Henry  and  Manry;  in  England,  Glaisher  and  Fitzroy; 
in  France,  Le  Verrier;  in  Holland,  Buys  Ballot;  in  Austria,  Fritsch, 
were  the  6rst  to  start  organized  national  efforts  to  make  what  little 
we  know  of  the  atmosphere  available  to  the  practical  needs  of  man- 
kind. Our  sister  sciences,  astronomy,  cliemistry,  and  biology,  have 
given  us  examples  of  the  general  principle  that  neither  the  people 
nor  their  rulers  will  support  scientific  research  as  such,  unless  and 
except  in  so  far  as  the  research  directly  benefits  or  promises  to  benefit 
them.  Popular  appreciation  of  science  is  expressed  by  the  ques- 
tion, "  What  good  will  it  do  us?  "  This  is  the  inevitable  outcome 
of  the  strenuous  struggle  for  existence.  "  Knowledge  is  power," 
says  one;  "Knowledge  is  money,"  says  another;  "Knowledge  is 
fame  and  position,"  says  a  third.  Only  the  few  enthusiastic  indi- 
viduals pursue  knowledge  for  her  own  sake.  The  majority  of  the 
people  and  even  of  university  students  necessarily  take  the  so-called 
"  practical  view  "  of  the  subject.  Appropriations  of  public  money 
are  made  in  order  to  obtain  results  that  are  of  value  to  the  business 
interests  of  the  whole  nation.  It  remains  for  the  adminbtrative 
chiefs  to  decide  how  much  of  the  time  and  money  at  tbeir  disposal 
can  profitably  be  spent  on  research  and  how  much  on  daily  routine 
work;  therefore  the  scientific  and  national  orgaaizations  hare  had 

,,,      Google 


290  ANNUAL  EBPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

quite  various  experiences.  It  is  within  bounds  to  say  that  the  mete- 
orological offices  of  France  and  Germany  began  with  the  feeling  tliat 
we  know  little  of  meteorology  and  must  make  great  additions  to  ouz- 
knowledge  before  attempting  practical  forecasts;  hence  in  France, 
under  Le  Verrier,  several  years  of  experience  were  acquired  before 
that  work  began.  The  Grerman  office,  under  Dove  and  Von  Bezold, 
has  thus  far  restricted  itself  to  climatology  and  general  theoretical 
studies,  wisely  leaving  it  to  the  new  office,  just  now  started,  under 
BSmstein,  to  attempt  predictions  for  the  benefit  of  the  public.  The 
British  office,  under  Fitzroy,  stimulated  by  Glaisher's  maps  of  1851, 
began  boldly  with  predictions,  but  was  obliged  to  modify  its  plan 
until  further  study  had  shown  how  to  make  these  more  acceptable. 
The  American  office  has  had  a  happier  history,  for  which  we  must 
thank  the  long-continued  preparatory  studies  and  weather  maps  of 
Redfield,  Coffin,  Loomis,  and  Espy,  which  continued  for  forty  years 
from  1820  to  1860,  so  that  we  really  did  know  something  about  the 
behavior  of  our  special  American  atmosphere.  But  especially  must 
we  thank  the  cautious  policy  of  Prof.  Joseph  Henry  and  the  prelimi- 
nary daily  telegraph  maps  of  the  Smithsonian,  from  1854  to  1861. 
In  1870  Gen.  Albert  J.  Myer,  favored  by  an  extensive  system  of 
telegraph  lines,  was  really  justified  in  attempting  to  undertake  storm 
warnings  based  on  the  daily  weather  map.  Not  only  has  our 
own  Weather  Bureau  realized  all  that  was  hoped  for  it  by  its  early 
projectors,  but  Prof.  Willis  L.  Moore  as  Chief  has  now  assured  it  a 
certain  degree  of  perpetuity  by  adopting  certain  principles  that 
insure  steady  progress  for  all  future  time,  namely,  that  behind  every 
high  art  there  stands  a  higher  science;  that  complete  success  in 
weather  forecasts  demands  an  equally  complete  knowledge  of  the 
sciences  involved  in  the  motions  of  the  atmosphere;  that  satisfactory 
progress  in  predictions  can  only  be  based  on  corresponding  progress 
in  our  knowledge  of  the  physics  that  underlies  theoretical  meteor- 
ology. 

But  you  will  say  that  these  are  only  the  ordinary  axioms  of  the 
modern  civilized  world.  True,  and  it  is  the  recognition  of  such 
axioms  that  marks  the  domination  of  the  human  intellect.  The  opera- 
tions of  the  atmosphere  are  so  obscure  that  multitudes  doubt  whether 
we  shall  ever  understand  it  and  continue  to  rely  on  the  old-fashioned 
signs  and  the  annual  almanacs.  Meanwhile  meteorologists  throughout 
the  world  are  seeking  to  gain  knowledge  and  light  from  every  source ; 
everywhere  kites  and  balloons,  mountain  stations  and  cloud  observa- 
tions are  being  utilized  as  means  of  studying  the  upper  atmosphere, 
while  on  the  other  hand  each  national  weather  bureau  is  extending  its 
field  of  observation  horizontally,  so  as  to  secure  a  broader  weather 
"""■  The  insight  we  get  by  the  help  of  mechanics,  the  help  we  can 
'rom  mathematical  physics,  the  suggestions  that  Me  eet  from 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   METEOBOLOGY — ABBE.  291 

coBinical  physics,  the  new  ideas  that  we  get  from  the  laboratory  study 
of  chemistry,  electricity,  hydrodynamics,  and  radiation,  the  broaden- 
ing of  our  field  of  observation  by  the  use  of  wireless  telegraphy,  all 
conspire  toward  the  better  establishment  of  our  science  and  conse- 
quently the  perfecting  of  the  daily  predictions. 

ELEMENTART   METEOROLOGY. 

In  every  branch  of  human  activity  we  begin  with  the  simplest  ideas 
and  easiest  actions,  and  then  progress  to  the  most  complex  combina- 
tions and  most  difficult  constructions,  eventually  arriving  at  abstrac- 
tions of  whose  essence  we  know  nothing,  but  whose  effects  are  observ- 
able and  measurable.  This  statement  applies  to  all  branches  of 
science,  and  meteorology  is  no  exception.  We  begin  with  the  direct 
tesimony  of  the  senses,  then  we  recognize  the  abstract  idea  that  force 
must  pervade  nature  and  must  be  the  foundation  of  all  the  phenomena 
that  we  have  apprehended  by  means  of  our  five  senses. 

The  simplest  atmospheric  phenomena  were  first  observed,  and  these 
stimulated  the  earliest  philosophers  of  classical  antiquity.  Until 
most  recent  times  meteorology  was  not  advanced  by  the  work  of  pro- 
fessional meteorologists  so  much  as  by  occasional  contributions  from 
those  whom  we  ordinarily  speak  of  as  astronomers,  geographers, 
physicists,  chemists,  but  who  in  earlier  times  were  known  as  philoso- 
phers. 

To  the  astronomers  we  owe  certain  fundatmental  facts,  namely, 
that  the  earth  is  a  sphere,  that  it  rotates  on  its  axis  and  revolves  about 
the  sun  and  that  its  axis  is  inclined  to  the  ecliptic.  To  establish  these 
few  simple  points  required  two  thousand  years — from  the  days  of 
Eratosthenes,  bom  276  B.  C,  at  Alexandria,  down  to  the  time  of 
Copernicus,  who  died  in  1543,  and  of  Galileo,  who  died  in  1642. 

To  the  students  of  optics  we  owe  the  explanation  of  the  twilight, 
first  correctly  given  by  the  Arab,  Alhazen,  who  lived  in  Spain  in  the 
eleventh  century,  but  who  may  have  drawn  much  of  his  knowledge 
from  earlier  Alexandrian  Greek  manuscripts  that  are  now  unknown. 
But  even  he  knew  nothing  of  the  ultimate  cause  of  the  refractive 
power  of  the  atmosphere ;  he  attributed  it  to  the  transparency  of  the 
air  rather  than  to  its  density ;  whereas  Kleomedes,  A.  D.  50,  seemed 
to  understand  that  it  is  the  density  of  the  medium  that  principally 
determines  the  amount  of  refraction. 

The  rainbow  and  its  supplementary  bows  and  halos  in  general  were 
observed  more  or  less  accurately  in  the  earliest  ages  and  are  mentioned 
by  Aristotle,  who  knew  that  they  depended  in  some  way  upon  the 
position  of  the  sun.  The  first  steps  in  the  proper  explanation  of  the 
rainbow  were  taken  by  Vitellio,  who  began  by  observing  carefully  the 
rainbows  formed  in  the  spray  of  the  waterfall  at  Viterbo ;  his  work 

ii.;,Gooylc 


292  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  IWl. 

on  Optics  was  written  about  1250,  but  first  published  by  Kiaier  in 
1572.  The  complete  explanation  had  to  wait  for  the  development  of 
theories  of  the  nature  of  light  by  Newton,  Huyghens,  Young,  and 
Fresnel;  in  fact,  only  within  the  lives  of  the  present  generation  have 
Airy,  Mascart,  Pemter,  and  Tanakadate  perfected  our  knowledge  of 
halos  and  rainbows. 

Mirage  and  the  twinkling  of  the  stars  we're  also  observed  and  fairly 
well  described  by  the  early  writers  in  Greece,  Italy,  and  Arabia. 
Pernter  quotes  authorities  to  show  that  the  mirage  in  the  desert,  the 
"  Serab,"  by  which  the  traveler  is  deceived  into  thinking  that  he  be- 
holds a  distant  lake  of  water,  is  referred  to  in  many  old  Turkish  and 
Arab  documents  and  even  in  the  book  of  Isaiah.  The  explanation 
given  by  the  Arabs  was  to  the  effect  that  the  deceptive  lake  of  water 
is  due  to  water  vapor  or  fog  floating  over  the  desert;  this  error  con- 
tinued until  Kepler  discovered  the  phenomenon  of  total  reflection  of 
light,  which  had  been  independently  discovered  by  Newton  and  given 
in  lectures  as  early  as  1673,  though  his  "  Optics "  was  not  printed 
until  1704. 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  atmosphere  was  scarcely  suspected 
or  suggested  by  any  of  the  ancient  writers,  and  we  must  come  down 
to  the  days  of  Priestley,  Scheele,  and  Lavoisier  to  find  anything 
known  on  this  subject. 

The  idea  that  air  has  physical  properties,  such  as  mass  or  weight, 
and  that  it  could  offer  material  resistance  to  bodies  passing  throu^ 
it,  was  often  expressed,  but  the  properties  were  not  satisfactorily  ob- 
served and  measured  until  the  days  of  Galileo  in  Italy  and  Stevin  in 
Holland.  Galileo,  having  a  pump  for  compression,  was  able  to  show 
that  air  is  a  compressible  gas;  but  having  no  means  of  pumping  the 
air  out  of  a  receiver,  he  was  unable  to  entertain  the  idea  of  a  vacuum, 
and  in  fact  explained  the  rise  of  water  in  a  pump  as  due  to  the  horror 
of  a  vacuum,  until  his  pupil,  Torricelli,  presented  the  idea  of  the 
elastic  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

Other  mechanical  properties  of  the  gases  of  the  atmosphere,  such 
as  inertia,  centrifugal  force,  expansion  with  heat,  density,  elastic  re- 
sistance, and  viscosity,  were  entirely  unknown  to  the  ancients,  and 
were  first  clearly  set  forth  by  Galileo,  Torricelli,  Stevin,  Descartes, 
Huyghens,  Hook,  Boyle,  and  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 

SOCIETIES  FOR  RESEAHCH  IN  METBOROLOOT. 

The  association  of  men  into  academies  or  some  equivalent  organiza- 
tions dfltes  back  to  the  remotest  history.  The  wise  men  or  learned 
priests  and  philosophers  of  Persia,  As.syria,  and  Egypt  were  organ- 
ized in  companies  connected  with  temples  of  worship  and  as  official 
astrologers  in  connection  with  the  astronomical  obserTatorie&  The 
L,M_  ■   Goo^^lc 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   METEOROLOGY — ABBE.  298 

library  and  museum  at  Alexandria,  Egypt,  founded  by  the  Ptolemies, 
Soter  and  Pbiladelphus,  250  B.  C,  became  the  center  of  the  most 
famous  school  of  science  of  all  antiquity,  and  developed  into  a  true 
university,  which  lasted  until  overthrown  by  the  Arab  Mohammedans. 
To  it  we  owe  Eratosthenes,  Euclid,  Diophantus,  Ptolemy,  Synesius, 
and  many  other  mathematicians  and  astronomers.  The  observatory 
of  Ulugh  Bey  end  Tamerlane  at  Samarkand  was  for  twenty  years, 
1430  to  1449,  a  center  for  the  revival  of  Arabic  science,  while  at  the 
same  time  in  western  Europe  a  revival  of  knowledge  was  going  on 
that  led  Rudolf  II  to  establish  at  Prague  an  academy  that  was  distin- 
guished by  the  presence  of  Tycho  Brahe  and  Kepler.  The  modem 
academy  of  science,  considered  as  a  voluntary  association  of  individ- 
uals for  the  promotion  of  knowledge,  began  with  numerous  establish- 
ments in  Italy  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  meteorology 
owes  almost  as  much  to  the  three  hundred  years  of  activity  of  the 
Academia  del  Lincei,  founded  in  1603,  as  it  does  to  the  ten  years  of 
the  Academia  del  Citnento. 

With  the  invention  of  the  thermometer  by  Galileo,  the  air  pump 
by  Otto  von  Guericke,  and  the  barometer  by  Torricelli  begins  the 
modem  period  of  meteorology,  when  accurate  experiments  and  ob- 
servations began  to  be  possible.  We  thus  pass  from  the  first  crude 
stages  of  observation  and  fancy  to  the  days  when  every  hypothesis 
was  tested  by  observation — to  the  days  when  academies  of  science 
became  prominent  and  when  the  motto  of  the  Academia  del  Cimento 
at  Florence,  "  Provando  6  reprovando,"  became  the  watchword  of 
science.  This  Academy  of  Experimentation  devoted  itself  to  the 
fundamental  problems  of  physics;  it  existed  only  between  the  19th 
of  June,  1657,  and  the  14th  of  July,  1667 ;  the  latter  is  the  date  of 
dedication  of  its  unique  published  volume,  "  Saggi,"  or  Reports  on 
the  Experiments  made  by  the  academy — a  volume  justly  looked  upon 
as  the  foundation  stone  of  modern  experimental  physics.  This  vol- 
ume was  written  in  the  Italian,  or  popular,  language  for  every  one 
to  read  easily,  and  was  intended  to  be  the  authoritative  expression 
of  the  conclusions  arrived  at  by  nine  of  the  ablest  Italian  thinkers. 
The  academy  did  indeed  keep  a  diary  showing  everything  that  was 
said  and  done  by  each  person  in  its  daily  convocations,  but  the 
"Saggi"  contains  no  reference  to  these  individuals;  it  makes  public 
only  tiiat  upon  which  all  could  agree.  Galileo,  who  died  1642,  Jan- 
uary 8  (n.  s.)i  had  been  dead  twenty-five  years,  but  the  spirit  that 
pervades  this  volume  so  perfectly  represents  that  which  had  ani- 
mated Galileo  during  his  life  that,  without  mentioning  his  name, 
these  nine  students  of  his  reaffirmed  and  expanded  all  that  he  had 
contended  for;  so  that  it  has  been  well  said  that  the  "  Saggi "  reads 
as  though  the  spirit  of  Galileo  had  risen  from  his  grave.  The  vol- 
ume was  soon  translated  into  Latin  and  English,  and  pec^ps  iabo 


394  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

other  languagee,  and  exerted  a  profound  influence  upon  the  science 
of  its  day. 

Although  meteorological  stations  were  established  in  1657  in  Italy, 
yet  academies  and  societies  of  persons  interested  in  the  special  de- 
velopment of  meteorology  began  later  with  the  formation  of  the 
Meteorological  Society  of  the  Palatinate,  at  Mannheim,  in  1780,  fol- 
lowed by  the  meteorological  societies  of  France  and  England  about 
1850;  Mauritius,  1860  j  Austria,  1864;  Italy,  1865;  ScoUand,  1874; 
Germany,  1883;  New  England,  1884,  and  Japan,  1885.  Of  course  all 
the  general  scientific  societies  throughout  the  world  have  always  in- 
cluded meteorology  in  some  special  section  devoted  to  that  and  cog- 
nate subjects. 

The  progress  made  since  the  formation  of  the  Mannheim  Society 
has  been  entirely  in  the  direction  of  the  line  of  work  that  this  society 
laid  out,  namely,  the  collecting  of  data  from  all  parts  of  the  world  for 
the  purpose  of  compiling  synoptic  daily  weather  maps  for  the  study 
of  the  atmosphere  as  a  whole.  It  is  an  instructive  illustration  of  the 
slowness  with  which  mankind  progresses  to  recall  that  at  the  close  of 
the  work  of  the  Mannheim  Society  in  1795  twelve  large  folio  volumes 
of  observations  had  been  printed,  and  much  had  been  written  about 
the  relations  between  the  weather  in  the  different  parts  of  Europe, 
but,  so  far  as  we  know,  without  the  actual  preparation  of  a  single 
weather  map,  although  all  its  data  were  compiled  and  published  for 
that  very  purpose.  It  was  a  famous  physicist,  Prof,  H.  W.  Brandes, 
of  Halle,  the  eminent  author  of  a  work  on  "  The  equilibrium  and  mo- 
tion of  solid  and  fluid  bodies,"  who,  in  two  dissertations,  "  Beitrage," 
or  "  Contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  the  weather,"  and  "  Repen- 
tinis,"  "A  physical  dissertation  on  the  sudden  variations  observed  in 
atmospheric  pressure,"  Leipzig,  1820,  finally  drew  from  these  ponder- 
ous volumes  the  data  for  a  series  of  maps  showing  the  circulation  of 
winds  around  areas  of  low  pressure,  and  thus  opened  the  way  for  the 
study  of  the  mechanical  problems  involved  in  storms.  It  must  be 
confessed,  however,  that  his  work  did  not  greatly  affect  the  trend  of 
thought  in  those  days;  it  was  too  early  for  Germany  to  be  able  to  take 
advantage  of  his  teachings.  Nevertheless,  as  the  principal  editor  of 
the  most  famous  encyclopedia  of  physics,  he  filled  the  first  few  vol- 
umes of  Gehler's  Physikalisches  Worterbuch  with  the  most  advanced 
knowledge  of  his  day.  The  sixth  volume  of  that  work,  published  at 
Leipzig  in  1837,  contains  an  article  on  meteorology  written  by  Muncke 
after  the  death  of  Brandes,  in  1834;  therein  Muncke  relates  of  him- 
self and  Brandes  that  in  1820  they  had  developed  a  plan  (that  had  to 
be  given  up  on  account  of  wars  between  Italy  and  Spain)  for  the  pub- 
lication of  a  general  European  journal  of  meteorology,  in  which 
Muncke  should  devote  himself  to  the  southwestern  half  of  Europe, 
but  Braudes  to  the  northeastern  half.    Twenty-four  princinal  ^- 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   MBTEOBOLOGY ABBE.  295 

tions  were  selected,  between  Sebastopol  and  Lisbon,  Cbristiania  and 
St.  Petersburg,  for  which  they  were  to  publish  monthly  tables  of  the 
individual  daily  readings  of  all  meteorological  elements,  and  to  which 
they  proposed  to  add  even-  notice  that  could  be  obtained  relative  to 
the  weather  on  those  same  dates  for  Xorth  America,  East  Indies,  and 
other  distant  parts  of  the  globe.  Muncke  remarks  that  this  plan  was 
rather  gigantic,  but  it  responded  to  the  recognized  fact  that  science 
waR  co%'ering  a  broader  field  and  that  international  works  such  as 
those  on  the  measurements  of  degrees,  observations  of  gravity,  and 
voyages  of  discovery  were  already  recognized  as  necessary.  In  fact, 
only  in  this  way  can  meteorology'  attain  to  a  solid  basis,  and  it  is 
necessary  that  the  scientific  public  should  be  able  to  compare  observa- 
tions made  at  widely  distant  places;  for  the  works  above  mentioned 
by  Brandes  had  already  shown  that  the  causes  upon  which  depend 
the  existence  of  the  storms  in  western  Europe  must  be  sought  for  over 
the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Muncke  concludes  by  saying:  '•  Time  will  show 
'whether  the  nations  of  Europe  already  so  intimately  related  to  each 
other  will  by  mutual  business  arrangements  support  such  a  meteor- 
olc^cal  union  to  the  furthering  of  the  general  peace  of  the  continent." 
Since  the  days  of  the  Palatine  Society  and  its  active  secretary.  Hem- 
mer,  there  never  has  been  any  doubt  that  a  union  of  all  the  nations 
of  the  globe  must  be  effected  before  we  shall  be  able  to  do  justice  to 
the  fundamental  problems  of  meteorology  and  climatology.  To  this 
society  and  to  Hemmer  and  Brandes,  Germany  owes  her  right  to  the 
claim  of  having  taken  the  first  steps  toward  the  study  of  dynamic 
meteorology. 

Simultaneously  with  Brandes,  but  undoubtedly  quite  independent 
of  his  work,  the  leaders  of  .\merican  meteorology — RedBeld  in  New 
York  and  Espy  in  Philadelphia — began  a  life-long  series  of  studies, 
at  first  on  the  geometrical  and  afterwards  on  the  kinetic  relations  of 
winds  to  storms,  and  of  storms  as  a  whole  to  the  adjacent  atmosphere. 
The  United  States  Army  Medical  Corps,  the  United  States  Land 
Office,  the  regents  of  the  University  of  New  York  and  several  States 
organized  systems  of  reports  to  which  the  Smithsonian  eventually 
succeeded. 

These  organizations  were  primarily  for  the  study  of  climate,  but  in 
1842  Espy  was  appointed  "  Meteorologist  to  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment "  and  with  that  date  began  our  national  organization  of  co- 
operation with  him  and  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  the  study  of 
American  storms.  Between  the  theoretical  cyclonologists  and  those 
who  adhered  more  closely  to  the  records  of  observations  active  dis- 
cuasion  continued  from  1820  until  1870,  and  prepared  all  thoughtful 
minds  to  receive  the  more  correct  views  of  the  next  generation  of  stu- 
dents based  on  the  study  of  daily  weather  maps. 


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396  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  8MITH80MUN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

THE  CONBTITtrTION  AND  PB0PBBTIE8  OF  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 

To  the  chemists  and  physicists  meteorologists  owe  a  long  series  of 
researches  on  the  constitution  and  properties  of  the  atmospheric  gases. 
This  work  may  be  said  to  have  begun  with  Bojle  next  after  the  less 
important  work  of  European  alchemists.  Galileo  had  shown  that  the 
air  has  weight  Otto  von  Guericke  had  so  constructed  his  first  air 
pump  (as  shown  by  the  pictures,  although  he  himself  does  not  say 
so  in  words),  that  the  heavy  air  should  flow  down  and  out  of  the 
vessels  from  which  he  would  pump  it  as  he  pumped  water.  But  it  is 
to  Boyle  that  we  owe  the  idea  that  there  is  an  elastic  spring  in  the  air, 
and  also  that  the  air  is  a  complex  combination  of  several  different 
vapors,  such  as  those  that  produce  rust  and  those  that  are  exhaled 
from  the  earth,  the  water,  vegetables,  and  animals.  Indeed,  the 
springiness  of  the  air  excited  his  suspicion  that  tliere  might  be  some 
vital  substance  diffused  through  the  atmosphere.  The  experiments 
that  he  proposed  to  have  made — that  he  in  fact  began,  and  that  were 
carried  out  by  his  contemporary,  John  Mayow — bore  on  respiration, 
oxidation,  and  evaporation  as  the  sources  of  new  kinds  of  air. 

Boyle  was  the  first  to  suggest  that  the  atmosphere  consisted  of 
air,  properly  so  called,  and  water  in  a  state  of  expansion,  together 
with  other  gases  that  emanate  from  the  earth  and  exert  an  injurious 
infiuence  on  the  health.  De  Saussure  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
to  measure  the  absolute  quantity  of  aqueous  vapor  in  a  given  volume 
of  ntmoE^ihere,  In  1760  Lord  Cavendish  showed  that  the  vapor 
evaporating  fr«n  water  in  n  vacuum  had  a  definite  elastic  pressure, 
which  he  measured  at  several  different  temperatures. 

The  temperature  of  the  dew  point  seems  to  have  been  first  ob- 
served by  Le  Roy  (1750).  Dalton  (1800),  and  Daniel  (1820).  The 
psychrometer.  or  wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometer,  is  genorHlly  ascribed 
to  August  (1823),  but  the  wet  bulb  was  used  long  before  by  Beaume: 
it  was  August  who  gave  us  an  acceptable,  rational  theory  of  .its 
action,  while  at  the  same  time,  and  quite  independently.  Ivory  in 
1822,  Espy  in  1829.  Belli  in  1830.  and  Apjohn  in  1834."  introduced 
modifications,  all  of  which  are  now  combined  in  Ferrel's,  Grassman's. 
and  other  theories  and  tables  for  the  whirled  psychrometer.  The 
relative  humidity  was  first  observed  by  means  of  a  catgut  hygrom- 
eter by  Brander  (1650),  but  the  hair  hygrometer  of  De  Saussure 
(1780)  and  his  persistent  researches  to  improve  it  were  the  fifst 
steps  in  modern  hygrometry. 

The  discovery  of  carbonic-acid  gas,  or  fixed  air,  is  generally  at- 
tributed to  Joseph  Black,  of  Edinburgh,  who,  however,  had  several 
predecessors  less  widely  known.  In  1762  he  discovered  that  this 
gns  is  the  same  as  choke  damp,  or  fixed  air.  According  to  Ramsey, 
Black  showed  that  the  common  air  of  the  atmosphere  contains  a 


DEVELOPMENT  OP   METEOBOLOGY — ABBE.  297 

small  amount  of  fixed  air.  The  next  step  in  the  separation  of  the 
gases  in  our  atmospheric  mixture  was  due  to  Rutherford,  a  pupil 
of  Black,  who  in  1772  announced  the  discovery  of  nitrogen  as  the 
residual  gas  after  the  combustion  of  carbon  and  the  absorption  of 
the  resulting  fixed  air.  The  discovery  of  oxygen  was  made  inde- 
pendently and  nearly  simultaneously  by  Priestley  and  Scheele;  but 
Priestley  published  his  results  in  1775,  a  year  before  Scheele.  The 
recognition  of  oxygen  as  an  independent  gaseous  element  and  the 
establishment  of  our  modern  view  of  the  air  as  a  simple  mixture  is 
due  to  Lavoisier,  who  published  several  memoirs  on  the  subject  in 
1777  and  1778,  while  Cavendisli  was  carrying  on  a  parallel  system  of 
experiments  in  England,  experiments  that  he  began  in  1777,  but 
published  oidy  some  years  later. 

With  the  discovery  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen  in  the  atmosphere 
and  the  measurement  of  the  exact  ratios  of  these  and  various  so- 
called  impurities,  the  chemistry  of  the  atmosphere  halted  until,  in 
1882,  Lord  Gayleigh  began  n  research  on  the  relative  densities  of 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  other  gases,  concluding  in  1893  by  the  state- 
ment that  nitrogen  obtained  from  the  atmosphere  was  somewhat 
denser  than  nitrogen  prepared  from  ammonia,  and  that  the  difference, 
though  slight,  was  so  far  beyond  all  question  that  it  demanded  an  ex- 
planation. This  explanation  was  announced  in  a  preliminary  way  in 
August,  1894,  but  was  received  with  such  incredulity  that  one  chem- 
ist sarcastically  inquired  "  whether  the  nanie  of  the  new  gas  had  also 
been  discovered."  But  the  matter  was  brou^t  to  a  clear  demon- 
stration by  diffusing  the  mixed  gases  slowly  through  a  long  train 
of  tobacco  pipes  of  the  variety  known  as  the  "  church-warden  pipe," 
which  is  made  of  a  very  fine  clay  through  which  diffusion  proceeds 
very  slowly.  Thus  argon  was  discovered.  Of  course  yofl  will  recog- 
nize the  fact  that  this  last  step  in  the  analysis  of  atmospheric  air 
is  not  a  chemical  but  a  physical  process,  illustrating  the  general 
statement  that  no  one  branch  of  science  can  endure  or  progress 
without  the  assistance  of  correlated  friendly  branches. 

The  discovery  of  argon  paved  the  way  to  new  ideas  in  regard  to 
the  structure  of  the  molecules  of  gases,  ideas  that  threaten  entirely 
to  undermine  some  portions  of  the  old  kinetic  theory  of  gases. 
Since  the  discovery  of  argon,  chemists  and  physicists,  working  long 
different  lines,  have,  as  you  know,  devised  methods  of  producing 
extremely  low  temperatures ;  so  that  atmospheric  air,  and  even  hydro- 
gen, have  been  liquefied,  and  by  the  help  of  these  extremely  cold 
liquids  other  gaseous  constituents  have  been  discovered  in  the  atmos- 
phere. First,  helium  was  discovered  by  its  lines  in  the  solar  spec- 
trum; then  it  was  evolved  from  a  rare  mineral,  named  cleavite,  and 
finally  it  was  shown  to  be  present  in  our  atmosphere.  Then  a  large 
mass  of  air  was  cooled  down  to  its  boiling  point,  and  in  the  residue 


398  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  BHITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  19(n. 

kTypton  was  diacovered.  Finally  arg(m  was  also  cooled  down  to  its 
boiling  point  and  neon  was  discovered.  The  separation  of  neon 
from  helium  requires  the  very  low  temperature  of  boiling  hydrogen, 
or  20.5°  on  the  ab^iolute  scale.  Although  these  new  gases  occur  in 
our  lower  atmosphere  only  in  very  minute  quantities,  yet  there  is 
some  i-eason  to  believe  that  eventually  they  will  play  an  important 
part  in  explaining  some  of  the  electrical  phenomena  that  are  at 
present  quite  mysterious.  It  has  been  independently  suggested  by 
Huggins  and  Schuster  that  the  brilliant  green  line  in  the  spectrum 
of  kryi>ton  is  probably  identical  with  the  green  line  in  the  spectrum 
of  the  terrestrial  aurora  borealis,  showing  that  krypton  may  exist 
in  our  upper  atmosphere  or  in  the  adjoining  celestial  space, 

But  we  have  not  finished  with  the  gases  of  our  atmosphere,  for  in 
1898  Madame  Curie  announced  the  isolation  of  two  new  substances, 
polonium  and  radium.  These  furnish  an  emanation,  which  consists 
of  gaseous  particles,  among  which  is  helium,  which  latter  also 
emanates  from  the  element  thorium.  Numerous  other  substances  are 
now  known  to  send  out  such  emanations,  each  of  which  resembles 
Home  of  the  inert  gases  of  the  atmosphere.  It  seems  probable  that 
these  emanations  represent  the  degeneration  of  molecules  of  the  com- 
plex elements  into  simpler  molecules  or  even  into  elementary  matter. 
if  such  there  be,  thus  leading  to  a  great  expansion  of  our  ideas  as  to 
molecular  structure.  As  these  emanations  are  also  accompanied  by  an 
ionization  of  one  or  more  of  the  atmospheric  gases,  it  results  that  the 
electrical  properties  of  our  atmosphere  depend  in  some  way  upon 
them.  In  general,  therefore,  this  brilliant  chapter  in  the  history  of 
research  is  another  illustration  of  the  dependence  of  meteorology' 
upon  the  progress  that  is  being  made  in  every  other  branch  of  science. 
So  we  hav&  now  to  face  a  new  problem  in  evolution.  Laplace  taught 
the  evolution  of  the  solar  system  from  a  gaseous  nebula;  Huxley 
taught  the  evolution  of  higher  forms  of  life  from  elementary  struc- 
tures; who  will  now  teach  us  the  evolution  of  the  gaseous  molecula-s  of 
the  atmosphere  and  the  solid  elements  of  the  earth,  from  the  initial 
atoms,  corpuscles,  or  electrons? 

MECHANICS  OF  THK   ATMOSPHERE. 

Dynamic  meteorology  deals  essentially  with  the  study  of  the  be- 
havior of  a  true  gas,  dilatable  with  heat  and  compressible  with  pres- 
sure, but  mixed  with  small  and  variable  percentages  of  vapors  that 
condense  to  liquids  or  solids  at  ordinary  low  temperatures.  The 
problems  of  modem  meteorology  therefore  He  in  the  field  of  aero- 
dynamics and  thermodynamics,  and  can  only  be  solved  in  proportion 
nfi  our  knowledge  of  experimental  physics  shall  be  extended.  But  the 
liroper  treatment  of  these  problems  also  involves  the  application  of 

,_,  I  by  Google 


DBVBLOPMBHT  OF   METBOROLOGY — ABBE.  999 

difficult  braDches  of  mathematics  and  analytic  mechanics,  and  these 
subjects  hare  not  yet  been  developed  to  an  extent  sufficient  to  handle 
any  but  the  simplest  of  the  problems  of  nature. 

Aa  we  read  the  scientific  literature  of  the  eighteenth  century  we 
find  Euler.  in  his  "  Mechanics"  (17!t6).  developing  the  fundamental 
f  ormiilie  for  the  movements  of  dry  gases  and  ideal  liquids,  after  he  had 
proceeded  as  far  as  he  could  with  the  mechanics  of  rigid  bodies.  In 
hiH  prize  essay  of  1746  D'Alembert  developed  a  theory  of  the  winds. 
We  pass  then  to  the  great  French  mathematicians,  Lagrange,  Poisson, 
and  Laplace,  and  the  Engli^  mathematicians,  Green  and  Stokes,  to 
all  of  whom  we  owe  investigations  of  the  laws  of  motions  of  fluids 
under  two  essentially  different  conditions,  namely,  when  a  velocity 
potential  exists  and  when  it  does  not  exist.  In  1851-1855  appeared 
the  memoir  of  Stokes  on  viscosity  and  in  1857  the  famous  memoir  of 
Helmholtz  on  vortex  motions,  each  of  which  removed  difficulties 
that  had  hitherto  obstructed  our  progress.  The  works  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Thomson,  now  Lord  Kelvin,  on  thermodynamics  and  on  circu- 
latory motion,  and  the  persistent  researches  of  Bjerknes,  father  and 
son,  ill  the  application  of  vector  analysis,  have  clarified  our  ideas 
and  represent  our  present  highest  attainments  in  this  branch  of 
mechanics.  Just  as  meteorologists  have  hitherto  been  dependent 
upon  physicists  for  the  apparatus  with  which  to  observe,  and  upon 
the  mathematical  physicists  for  the  explanation  of  the  optical  and 
thermal,  the  acoustic  and  the  electric  phenomena  of  the  atmosphere. 
so  now  they  are  coming  to  be  more  and  more  dependent  upon  the 
higher  mathematicians  to  resolve  the  analytical  difficulties  inherent  in 
the  complex  problems  of  fluid  motion. 

It  is  very  rarely  that  the  meteorologist  arrives  at  a  phenomenon 
deductively  and  then  examines  the  records  of  observation  to  see  if  it 
actually  exists.  Ferrel  did  this  in  a  few  cases;  but  usually  we  have 
proceeded  by  slow  inductive  methods.  For  instance,  the  Phcenician 
voyagers  and  the  Greeks  who  penetrated  into  India  knew  of  the 
existence  of  the  southwest  monsoon,  but  a  complete  knowledge  of  its 
origin  and  nature  has  required  centuries  of  ob.servation  and  the  labors 
of  men  of  great  talent  in  mechanics.  Fifty  years  ago  it  was  assumed 
in  a  general  way  that  the  heated  air  over  the  interior  of  Asia,  by 
expanding  and  overflowing,  gave  rise  to  an  indraft  corresponding  to 
the  southwest  monsoon;  but  it  remained  for  Ferrel,  about  1880,  to 
show  that  it  was  not  merely  a  heated  interior,  but  a  heated  high 
plateau  that  was  necessary  to  produce  this  great  current ;  and  it  was 
not  until  1890  that  Sir  John  Eliot  showed  that  this  monsoon  current 
is  by  no  means  a  simple  disturbance  of  the  northeast  trade  winds  that 
are  appropriate  to  the  latitudes  of  India,  but  that  we  have  to  go  much 
farther  south,  far  across  the  equator,  and  see  that  the  whole  southeast 
trade-wind  system  of  the  southern  Indian  Ocean  is  perverted  from 


800  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

its  course.  Instead  of  rising  in  the  torrid  zone  and  turning  back 
upon  itself  to  Antarctic  regions,  the  southeast  trade  rushes  across  the 
equator,  skirts  the  coasts  of  Africa,  Arabia,  India,  Siam,  and  China, 
whirls  around  the  great  desert  plateau  of  Tibet,  producing  the  area 
of  low  pressure  that  is  central  over  that  region  in  the  hot  months, 
and  finally  is  tost  in  Kamchatka.  Of  course  this  transfer  of  a  great 
mass  of  air  from  the  southern  to  the  northern  hemisphere  during  our 
summer  must  be  followed  eventually  by  the  return  of  an  equivalent 
mass  to  the  southern  hemisphere;  but  we  have  not  yet  discovered 
how,  or  when,  or  where  that  return  is  effected.  Therein  lies  the 
secret  of  much  of  our  so-called  periodic  or  quasi-periodic  and  secular 
weather  changes  which  depend  on  the  internal  mechanism  of  our 
atmosphere,  not  on  solar  or  cosmic  influences. 

Finally,  we  now  go  one  step  further  and  note  the  fact  that  we  may 
divide  the  surface  of  our  globe  into  two  hemispheres,  known  as  the 
continental  and  the  oceanic.  The  former  has  its  pole  on  the  Green- 
wich meridian  at  about  30°  north,  including  nearly  all  of  Europe, 
Asia,  Africa,  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  both  the  Americas,  being 
obout  three-fourths  land.  The  other  has  its  center  about  40°  south, 
includes  the  greater  part  of  the  Pacific,  Indian,  and  Antarctic  regions, 
and  is  four-fifths  oceanic.  The  sun's  heat  pours  upon  the  conti- 
nental hemisphere  with  especial  fervency  in  May,  June,  and  July, 
and  upon  the  oceanic  hemisphere  in  November,  December,  and  Jan- 
uary. The  circulation  of  the  air,  both  horizontal  and  vertical,  the 
distribution  of  temperature,  moisture  and  pressure,  the  resulting 
winds  and  rains  over  the  continental  hemisphere  in  its  summer  have 
but  slight  analogy  with  the  corresponding  phenomena  over  the 
oceanic  hemisphere  in  its  summer,  because  of  the  differences  in  the 
action  of  insolation  upon  land,  water,  and  snow  or  ice.  We  are 
no  longer  justified  in  treating  the  whole  atmosphere  as  though  it  were 
resting  upon  a  globe  of  uniform  surface  and  subject  to  slight  per- 
turbations by  reason  of  ocean  currents  and  small  continents.  We 
have  to  consider  the  insolation  of  the  continental  hemisphere  and 
that  of  the  oceanic  hemisphere  as  two  disturbing  forces  of  equal 
magnitude,  acting  on  the  air  above  these  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause 
these  halves  of  the  earth's  atmosphere  to  react  on  each  other  in  a 
series  of  movements  or  perturbations  most  delightful  to  contemplate 
and  most  inspiring  to  the  mathematical  expert,  who  quickly  acquires 
a  grim  determination  to  solve  the  problems  that  are  presented.  This 
interaction  of  the  continental  and  oceanic  hemispheres  is  responsible 
for  the  fact  that  what  happens  in  India  in  its  summer  by  reason  of 
the  special  character  of  its  monsoon  is  not  only  related  to  what  hap- 
pens in  Africa  and  Siam,  but  even  to  what  happens  in  Australia  and 
America.  A  most  interesting  evidence  of  the  recognition  of  this 
principle  will  be  found  in  the  fact  that  Mr.  Gilbert  ,T.  WaUcer,  the 


DETBLOPMENT  OF   METEOBOLOOT — ABBE.  301 

meteorologist  of  the  Indian  service,  in  his  annual  forecast  of  the 
Indian  monsoons,  makes  a  statement  of  the  conditions  affecting  the 
monsoon  rainfall  in  which  he  includes  the  precedent  conditions  over 
Australia,  South  America,  and  Siberia;  he  sQiows  that  the  Asiatic 
and  equatorial  regions,  taken  by  themselves,  do  not  suffice  to  deter- 
mine the  future  character  of  the  monsoon. 

A  corresponding  indication  of  the  broadening  of  our  field  of  view 
is  found  in  the  fact  that  onr  own  Weather  Bureau  has  lately  begun 
to  receive  telegrams  as  to  the  barometric  pressure  prevailing  in  the 
interior  of  Asia,  more  especially  in  Siberia,  under  the  conviction  that 
the  oscillations  that  take  place  in  that  region  give  some  indication  of 
what  will  subsequently  occur  in  our  own  territory.  These  ideas  de- 
veloped at  once  from  our  experience  during  the  first  year  of  our  fore- 
cast werk  in  1871,  and  led  promptly  to  the  establishment  of  our 
"  Bulletin  of  International  Simultaneous  Meteorological  Observa- 
tions "  with  its  daily  charts  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  undertaken 
by  Gfen,  A.  J.  Myer  in  1873,  in  accordance  with  our  idea  that  the 
atmosphere  must  be  studied  as  a  unit.  His  published  bulletin  of  in- 
ternational observations  gives  us  a  daily  map  of  the  whole  northern 
hemisphere  from  1875  to  1884,  after  which  only  monthly  maps  were 
published.  But  the  daily  manuscripts  have  continued  to  be  compiled 
lip  to  the  present  time,  although  on  a  somewhat  different  plan.  These 
afford  valuable  material  for  working  out  the  relation  between  at- 
mospheric movements  on  a  large  scale.  The-first  steps  in  such  gen- 
eralizations were  taken  by  Professor  Garriott.  to  whOm  are  due  the 
conclusions  given  in  1891  in  "  Weather  Bureau  Bulletin  A,  Summary 
of  International  Meteorological  Observations." 

Hext  we  come  to  a  series  of  charts  published  by  Hildebrandsson 
about  1895,  showing  the  simultaneous  departures  in  pressure  at  many 
stations  over  the  whole  globe.  These  tables  and  charts  show  that  an 
excess  or  a  defect  of  pressure  may  be  observed  simultaneously  over  a 
very  large  part  of  the  globe,  perhaps  one-half  or  even  three-quarters 
of  its  surface,  while  in  other  months  the  conditions  will  be  nearly 
reversed.  Inasmuch  as  he  took  monthly  averages,  he  was  not  able  to 
show  the  progressive  movements  of  these  areas  of  high  and  low  pres- 
sure, if,  indeed,  they  do  move,  as  is  fair  to  presume  and  as  he  would 
probably  have  discovered  if  he  could  have  compiled  daily  or  pentadic 
instead  of  monthly  maps. 

Hitherto  our  observations  have  been  largely  confined  to  the  earth's 
surface  and  to  stations  near  sea  level;  but  we  must  go  higher  in  the 
atmosphere.  The  importance  of  mountain  stations  and  of  balloon 
work  was  recognized  a  century  ago,  as  shown  by  the  establishment  of 
several  mountain  observatories  and  by  the  early  balloon  voyages  of 
Barral  and  Bixio  and  their  successors.  The  numerous  voyages  by 
Glaisber  added  greatly  to  our  knowledge,  but  the  systematic  wo^, 

o 


802  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

with  both  balloons  and  kites  since  1893  has  constituted  &  brilliant 
epoch  in  our  study  of  the  atmosphere.  Although  the  kite  had  fre- 
quently been  used  by  Franklin  and  other  electricians  during  the 
previous  forty  years,  yet  its  use  to  carry  thermometers  to  great 
heights  dates  only  from  Alexander  Wilson,  of  Glasgow,  1780.  A 
century  later  it  was  employed  in  England  to  study  the  upper  winds  by 
E.  D.  Archibald.  The  invention  of  the  Hargrave  or  box  kite  and  the 
improvements  introduced  in  every  detail  by  Professor  Marvin,  and 
to  a  less  extent  by  others,  have  converted  the  kite  into  a  most  impor- 
tant meteorological  apparatus.  Meanwhile  the  use  of  a  small  balloon 
carrying  only  self-recording  instruments  has  been  perfected  by  Teis- 
serenc  de  Bort,  of  Paris,  and  Assmann,  of  Berlin,  until  it  largely  re- 
places the  manned  balloon ;  and  as  it  can  ascend  to  greater  heights,  it 
becomes  our  most  powerful  apparatus  for  exploring  the  upper  atmos- 
phere. At  present  the  limiting  height  attained  by  kites  is  about 
•20,000  feet  and  by  sounding  balloons,  so  called,  25,000  meters,  al- 
though these  limits  are  only  attainable  under  the  most  favorable  cir> 
cumstances.  The  persistent  use  of  kites  at  Mr.  Rotch's  observatory 
at  Blue  Hill  and  the  development  of  the  mathematical  theory  of  the 
kite  by  Professor  Marvin  stimulated  all  European  observers  to  under- 
take the  same  line  of  research,  each  in  his  own  country,  Mr.  Rotch 
has  also  been  successful  in  securing  the  cooperation  of  Teisserenc  de 
Bort  for  special  kite  explorations  over  the  ocean.  With  characteristic 
energ>-.  Assmann  has  been  able  to  send  up  either  a  kite  or  balloon,  or 
both,  every  day—first  at  Berlin,  1899-1902,  and  afterwards  at  his  new 
observatory  at  Lindenberg;  so  that  we  have  a  continuous  history  of 
the  temperature  of  the  air  above  Berlin  for  several  years,  up  to  the 
highest  points  attained  by  kites  and  balloons. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  United  States,  the  Chief  of  the  Weather 
Bureau,  after  authorizing  Professor  Marvin  to  develop  the  kite,  the 
reel,  and  the  meteorograph,  established  seventeen  kite  stations  north 
of  a  line  joining  Washington  and  Topeka,  as  a  southern  limit,  with 
the  intention  of  I'ecetving  the  reports  by  telegraph  and  compiling  a 
daily  map  of  the  conditions  in  the  upper  atmosphere.  The  work  at 
these  stations  extended  from  April  to  November,  1898.  The  average 
results  as  to  vertical  gradients  of  temperature,  humidity,  and  wind 
were  compiled  by  Doctor  Frankenfield  (see  Weather  Bureau  Bulletin 
F),  but  the  preparation  iind  study  of  a  daily  map  of  the  upper  atmos- 
phere analgous  to  the  maps  that  we  are  accustomed  to  use  at  the  sea 
level  required  a  new  line  of  thought  for  wliich  the  world  was  not  quite 
prepared  at  that  time.  To  this  problem  Prof,  C.  A,  Bjerknes,  of 
Stockholm,  has  paid  especial  attention,  and  his  ideas  have  been  em- 
bodied in  a  memoir  prepared  by  his  pupil,  J.  W.  Sandstrom  (pub- 
lished by  the  American  Philosophical  Society  in  1904),  elucidating 
the  first  steps  proper  to  be  taken  in  the  reduction  of  the  observations 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   METEOBOLOGY — ABBE.  308 

■with  balloons  or  kites  to  any  given  level  in  the  atmosphere.  These 
authors  make  the  point  that  as  the  surface  of  the  ocean  is  an  equipo- 
tential  surface,  therefore  observations  reduced  from  it  upward  to 
some  other  equipotential  surface  of  gravity  possess  simpler  relations 
to  each  other  than  when  reduced  to  a  uniform  height  above  sea  level. 
With  the  help  of  the  Carnegie  Institution.  Bjerknes  and  Sandstrom 
are  now  still  further  developing  and  improving  their  meth'id  with 
the  assurance  of  throwing  new  light  upon  atmospheric  motions. 

Even  when  we  study  the  motions  of  gases  on  a  small  scale  in  our 
laboratories,  we  have  the  greatest  difficulty  in  understanding  the  proc- 
esses that  go  on  right  before  our  eyes:  stiil  more  is  this  the  case  with 
those  that  go  on  in  the  atmosphere.  The  smooth  flow  of  air,  like  that 
of  water,  made  visible  by  some  fine  flouting  particles,  suddenly 
changes  without  apparent  cause  into  a  series  of  whirls  and  vortices, 
and  then  from  whirls  back  to  a  steady,  smooth  flow.  A  vortex  ring 
of  air  traverses  a  large  room  to  a  distance  far  greater  than  a  fine 
straight  jet  can  do,  as  though  its  large  front  surface  experienced  less 
resistance  than  that  of  a  small  jet. 

Under  hydrodynamics  proper  I  may  mention  the  names  of  Chree, 
Bigelow,  Bjerknes,  J.  J.  Thomson,  Ekholm,  Margules,  Wien,  Shaw, 
and  Rayleigh;  also  the  discussion  between  Airy,  Ferrel,  Wien,  and 
Kelvin  as  to  the  tides  in  the  atmosphere,  resting  on  the  interpretation 
of  a  certain  formula  in  the  memoirs  of  Laplace,  a  subject  that  was 
finally  elucidated  by  Doctor  Ling,  of  Coliunbia  Universi^ty.  Not  only 
do  we  owe  the  mathematical  theory  of  heat  to  Fourier  and  I'oisson, 
but  especially  to  the  former  a  posthumous  memoir  on  the  motions  of 
fluids  in  which  the  internal-  motions  and  the  distribution  of  heat  are 
mutually  interdependent.  This  memoir  is  but  a  fragment,  establish- 
ing certain  differential  equations,  the  solution  of  whicli  is  rarely  pos- 
sible when  the  boundary  conditions  are  given;  so  that  in  general  we 
must  at  present  rely  upon  partial  solutions  and  suggestions  derived 
from  experiments  or  observation.  To  IJayleigh  and  Stokes  wc  owe  a 
number  of  memoirs  on  fluid  resistances,  including  the  fii-st  solutions  of 
problems  involving  viscosity  or  internal  friction  of  fluids.  To  Prof. 
Joseph  Reynolds  we  owe  some  beautiful  experiments  showing  how 
the  motion  of  a  fluid  changes  from  a  laminar  flow  to  a  vortical  flow 
whenever  the  excess  of  internal  energy  amounts  to  a  very  small  limit, 
and  vice  versa. 

To  Willy  Wien,  a  pupil  of  Helmholtz,  we  owe  the  development  of 
problems  relating  to  vortex  and  wave  motions  in  the  earth's  atmos- 
phere. To  Professor  Pockels,  another  pupil,  we  owe  a  very  ingenious 
memoir  on  the  influence  of  mountain  slopes  in  forcing  moist  air  to 
ascend  and  form  clouds  and  rain.  It  is  the  presence  of  aqueous  vapor 
in  our  air  and  the  consequent  thermodynamic  complications  that 
necessitates  a  combination  of  hydrodynamics  with  thermodynamics 


304  ANNUAL  BEPORT   SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

and  leads  to  still  more  complex  mathematical  problems,  whose  solu- 
tioD  is  absolutely  necessary  if  we  would  understand  the  formation  of 
clouds  and  rain.  In  this  branch  of  study  we  have  an  instructive 
memoir  by  Brillouin,  in  which  he  is  able  to  explain  in  a  general  way 
the  formation  of  many  types  of  clouds  or  layers  of  clouds  as  due  to 
the  mixture  of  masses  of  air  hliving  different  degrees  of  temperature 
and  moisture.  The  appearances  of  the  clouds  have  been  most  care- 
fully observed  and  recorded  for  two  centuries,  but  the  ability  to  leam 
what  they  can  teach  us  has  only  become  possible  within  the  past  thirty 
years. 

The  first  step  in  the  Application  of  thermodynamics  to  meteorology 
was  undoubtedly  taken  by  Espy  in  1822,  when  he  stated  that  the 
cooling  due  to  the  expansion  of  air  ascending  into  regions  of  lower 
pressure  caused  the  formation  of  clouds  and  the  lower  temperature  of 
the  air  of  the  upper  strata.  However  it  was  soon  found  that  the  cool- 
ing is  not  due  to  the  expansion  as  such,  but  to  the  work  done  by  ex- 
pansion against  atmospheric  pressure.  This  general  explanation  was 
accepted  by  French  physicists  in  1839,  but  was  given  greater  precision 
by  Sir  William  Thomson  in  1864,  and  Peslin  in  1869;  it  was  satisfac- 
tory to  American,  English,  and  French  students,  but  seems  not  to 
have  been  accepted  in  Germany  until  Professor  Hann  wrote  an  ex- 
planatory article  in  the  Zeitschrift  of  the  Austrian  Meteorological 
Society  for  1874,  showing  how  the  laws  of  thermodynamics  apply  to 
the  atmosphere.  This  pnper  was  followed  by  much  more  elaborate 
studies  and  a  series  of  valuable  publications  by  others,  so  that  it  is 
now  easy  to  apply  our  knowledge  of  thermodynamics  to  the  atmos- 
phere. A  most  helpful  memoir  along  this  line  was  that  by  Hertz,  in 
which  he  gave  a  very  simple  diagram  (knOwn  everywhere  as  the 
Hertzian  diagram  of  adiabatics  for  the  atmosphere)  for  determining 
what  the  condition  of  moist  air  must  be  on  attaining  a  given  height 
in  the  atmosphere.  Assuming  that  it  retains  its  original  amount  of 
heat  during  the  whole  time,  his  diagram  shows  very  clearly  the  results 
of  the  ascent  of  ordinarj-  clear  air  up  to  a  level  at  which  cloud  forma- 
tion begins ;  then  to  the  level  at  which  the  precipitation  is  in  the  shape 
of  frozen  water  drops,  or  hail,  and  above  that  to  the  region  in  which 
precipitation  must  be  in  the  shape  of  icy  spiculee,  or  snow.  These 
four  stages  of  cooling,  viz,  the  dry  stage,  cloudy  stage,  ice  stage,  and 
snow  stage,  characterize  nearly  all  the  important  phenomena  of  the 
weather. 

In  his  further  applications  of  thermodynamics  Professor  von  Be- 
zold  has  clarified  our  ideas  by  introducing  a  series  of  diagrams  after 
the  manner  first  taught  by  Clapeyron.  Assuming  that  a  unit  mass  of 
air  mixed  with  a  given  quantity  of  moisture  rises  or  falls  adiabatic- 
ally,  his  diagrams  then  show  its  condition  at  any  mcoaent  by  means 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   METEOR0IXH3Y — ABBE.  805 

of  curves  analogous  to  those  used  by  the  steam  engineer  when  he 
wishes  to  ascertain  the  condition  of  the  steam  in  his  cylinder  and  the 
amount  of  work  being  done  by  it.  Von  Bezold  also  shows  how  to 
treat  any  changes  in  the  air  that  are  not  adiabatic,  although  so  nearly 
so  that  they  can  be  called  pseudo-adiabatic.  Lately  a  student  of 
von  Bezold,  Doctor  Neuhoff,  has  published  a  modification  of  Hertz's 
diagram,  together  with  elaborate  tables,  by  means  of  which  most  prob- 
lems in  the  formation  of  cloud,  rain,  and  hail  or  snow  may  be  very 
easily  solved,  and  with  as  much  accuracy  as  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge  allows.  A  still  more  extensive  work  along  this  line  has  been 
published  by  my  colleague,  Professor  Bigelow,  in  his  Weather  Bureau 
Report  on  International  Cloud  Observations.  He  has  not  only  dis- 
cussed all  the  observations  of  clouds  made  in  connection  with  the 
International  Programme  during  the  year  1896-97,  but  has  added  to 
this  a  memoir  that  is  quite  unique  in  meteorology,  including  a  com- 
plete system  of  fundamental  constants,  formulae,  and  reduction  tables. 
I  need  only  add  that  my  colleague's  work  on  the  hydrodynamics  and 
thermodynamics  of  terrestrial  meteorology  as  contained  in  this  vol- 
ume will  undoubtedly  be  recognized  as  perfectly  sound.  By  collect- 
ing all  important  formulte  and  numerical  constants  into  one  system 
of  tables  with  uniform  notation,  he  has  simplified  the  work  of  young 
students  and  rendered  it  convenient  for  anyone  to  rapidly  survey 
the  increasing  literature  of  the  subject.  I  especially  commend  his 
chapters  10  and  11  to  experts  in  mathematical  physics.  He  has  ar- 
ranged his  numerical  tables  so  as  to  make  them  as  convenient  for  the 
solution  of  his  problems  as  are  the  diagrams  of  Hertz  and  Xeuhoff. 

TBB  WiTERSPOUT  OP  ADGU8T.  1896. 

Nothing  will  more  brilliantly  illustrate  the  success  with  which  our 
colleague  has  attacked  atmospheric  problems  than  his  latest  memoir, 
which  is  now  being  published  in  the  Monthly  Weather  Review  on 
"  The  Waterspout  of  August,  1896,"  about  which  I  will  say  a  few 
words.  The  lantern  slide  pictures  that  I  am  about  to  throw  upon  the 
screen  are  esact  reproductions,  without  retouching,  of  photographs 
of  this  spout,  which  occurred  on  Wednesday,  August  19, 1896,  in  Vine- 
yard Sound,  Massachusetts.  It  was  fortunately  photographed  or  ac- 
curately observed  from  at  least  six  different  points  south,  southwest, 
west,  and  northwest  of  the  spout  itself,  the  principal  views  being  those 
taken  at  Cottage  City,  on  Marthas  Vineyard,  which  was  about  55 
miles  southwest  of  the  track  of  the  spout.  Fortunately  a  small 
schooner  was  passing  along  between  Cottage  City  and  the  spout,  and 
as  the  views  always  include  this  vessel  its  movement  became  the 
means  of  measuring  the  exact  intervals  of  time.  In  order  to  derive 
the  best  results  fiom  these  photogi-aphs.  Professor  Bigelow  personiilly 

.,Gooylc 


306  ANNUAL   REPORT  aMITHSONlAN    INSTITUTION,  1901. 

visited  the  location  and  made  sufficient  measurements  to  enable  him 
to  convert  the  apparent  distances  given  by  the  photographs  into  an- 
gles and  linear  distances ;  so  that  we  are  able  to  chart  the  position  of 
the  schooner  and  the  waterspout  from  time  to  time  during  the  twenty- 
five  minutes  embraced  by  the  photographs.  Three  spouts  were  seen 
in  succession,  though  it  is  probable  that  there  was  only  one  general 
whirl  in  the  atmosphere,  moving  slowly  southeastward  while  the 
spout  cloud  appeared  and  disappeared.  No  photographs  of  its  first 
appearance  were  obtained,  but  those  of  the  second  and  third  appear- 
ances are  published  as  half  tones  in  the  Monthly  Weather  Review 
for  ISMMJ  and  are  numbei-ed  as  follows: 
Second  ai)pearanfi' : 

A,  l.Oi  p.  m.,  by  Chamberlin  at  Cottage  City. 
U,  1.03  p.  ni.,  by  Coolidge  at  Co'tage  City. 

C,  1.08  p.  ni.,  by  Hallet  at  Cottage  City. 

D,  l.Iii  p.  m.,  by  Dodge  at  Vineyard  Haven. 

E,  1.14  p.  m.,  by  Ward  at  Falmouth  Heights. 

F,  1.17  p.  m.,  by  Coolidge  at  Cottage  City. 

G,  1.17  p.  m.,  by  Coolidge  at  Cottage  City. 
Third  appearance; 

A,  1.20  p.  m,,  by  Chamberlin  at  Cottage  City. 

B,  1.24  p.  m..  by  Chamberlin  at  Cottage  City. 

C,  1.27  p.  m.,  by  Coolidge  at  Cottage  City, 

By  reducing  the  measurements  made  on  the  photographs  to  linear 
dimensions  Professor  Bigelow  arrives  at  the  following  figures,  which 
will  interest  you,  because  they  are  certainly  the  first  that  have  ever 
been  determined  accurately  for  any  waterspout: 

The  diameter  of  the  waterspout  at  sea  level  was  240  feet ;  its  smallest 
diameter  midway  between  this  and  the  cloud,  144  feet ;  at  its  summit, 
or  the  lower  surface  of  the  cloud,  the  diameter  was  840  feet.  The 
approximate  length  of  the  tube,  or  height  from  the  ocean  to  the  lower 
surface  of  the  cloud,  S.fiOO  feet.  Tlie  height  of  the  top  of  the  cloud 
above  its  own  base  was  12,400  feet,  and  its  total  height  above  the  ocean 
level  was  16,000  feet.  The  spray,  or  cascade  of  drops  forming  a 
cloudy  or  smoky  appearance  at  the  base  of  the  spout,  was  720  feet  in 
diameter,  and  the  height  of  the  summit  of  this  cascade  was  420  feet. 

As  a  small  vessel  is  visible  in  the  middle  of  some  of  these  pictures, 
I  will  add  that  the  distance  from  the  photographic  camera  at  Cottage 
City  to  the  watei'spout  was  5.75  miles,  but  the  distance  to  the  schooner 
was  only  2  miles;  the  movement  of  the  waterspout  from  the  north- 
west to  the  southeast  was  at  the  rate  of  about  1.10  miles  per  hour:  the 
rate  of  the  schooner  was  1.7  miles  per  hour.  The  wind  was  very  light 
at  the  time,  as  stated  by  several  observers  and  as  shown  by  the 
smoothness  of  the  water.  Meteorological  observations  are  rather 
scanty,  but  from  the  best  information  at  hand  Professor  Bigelow 


DEVELOPMENT   OP    METEOROLOGY ABBE.  807 

finds  the  average  temperature  of  the  air  at  sea  level  at  the  place  of  t!ie 
spout  was  67.5°  F.,  or  the  maximum  for  the  day,  and  the  thermo- 
graph for  Nantucket  also  shows  that  the  spout  occurred  at  the  time 
of  maximum  temperature.  On  the  other  hand,  the  temperature  at 
the  land  stations  fell  rather  rapidly  to  56.5°  at  Vineyard  Haven  and 
59.0°  at  Woods  Hole,  so  that  the  effective  temperature  within  the 
anticyclonic  wind  that  prevailed  around  the  outside  of  the  cloud, 
or  at  a  distance  from  the  spout,  was  about  58".  Tho  barometric 
pressure  in  this  outside  region  was  about  30,10  inches,  but  it  must  have 
been  about  30.05  near  the  waterspout.  The  relative  humidity  was 
low  at  the  meteorological  station.  The  lower  strata  of  the  atmos- 
phere were  drier  than  on  any  other  day  of  the  month,  and  after 
several  trial  computations  Professor  Bigelow  accepts  a  relative 
humidity  of  64  per  cent  as  prevailing  in  general  near  the  surface  of 
the  water  at  the  time  the  waterspout  was  formed.  These  are  the 
meteorological  data  at  sea  level  beneath  the  cloud  which  surmounted 
the  waterspout.  This  cloud  was  a  large  cumulo-nimbus,  with  its 
flat  base  about  3,600  feet  above  sea  level,  as  just  stated  in  connection 
with  the  length  of  tlie  tube.  With  these  meteorological  data  and  the 
thermodynamic  equations.  Professor  Bigelow  computes  the  condi- 
tions in  the  air  ascending  in  a  rapid  whirl  within  the  center  of  thf 
tube. 

The  preceding  dimensions,  computed  trigonometrically,  have  been 
quoted  as  measured  from  the  photographs,  but  the  figures  deduced 
from  thermodynamic  theory  and  Professor  Bigelow's  tables  are  as 
follows;  The  height  of  the  base  of  the  cloud,  or  the  dry  stage  of 
the  ascending  air,  should  be  3,537  feet,  or  63  feet  less  than  the  3,600 
measured  on  the  photograph.  The  cloud  stage  extends  thence  up- 
ward for  5,669  feet,  or  to  a  total  height  of  9,206  feet.  Here  the 
freezing  or  hail  stage  begins,  which  is  a  comparatively  thin  layer 
of  only  243  feet,  and  therefore  ceases  at  a  total  height  of  9,449  feet. 
Above  this  all  precipitation  is  in  the  shape  of  snow,  or  minute 
crystals,  certainly  not  hail  or  frozen  water  drops,  and  the  thickness 
of  this  layer,  6,765  feet,  brings  us  to  the  top  of  the  cloud,  at  16,^14 
feet,  or  about  5,000  meters  above  sea  level.  The  agreement  of  these 
thermodynamic  computations  with  trigonometrical  measurements  is 
quite  satisfactory. 

Now  the  motion  of  the  air  depends  essentially  upon  the  change  of 
pressure,  or  the  gradient.  An  abnormal  horizontal  gradient  will 
prodilce  horizontal  motion  or  whirlings,  but  a  vertical  gradient  will 
produce  rising  or  falling  motion  of  the  air.  Only  a  short  distance 
from  the  waterspout,  over  the  island  of  Nantucket  proper,  the  verti- 
cal gradient  corresponded  to  a  fall  of  0,098  inch  for  each  ascent  of 
a  hundred  feet,  whereas  the  temperature  and  moisture  conditions  over 
the  water  near  the  spout  give  a  vertical  gradient  of  0*101  inifh  ,per 


308  AMNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

hundred  feet.  This  small  difference  of  0.003  inch  per  hundred  feet 
corresponds  to  a  total  difference  of  0.11  inch  between  sea  level  and 
the  cloud  base  3,600  feet  above.  It  is  this  difference  of  pressure  that 
is  the  effective  gradient  for  vertical  movement,  causing  the  air  at 
the  outer  boundaries  to  slowly  descend  while  the  air  within  the  tube 
rapidly  ascends. 

The  main  part  of  Professor  Bigelow's  memoir  is  devoted  to  ex- 
plaining numerically  each  step  in  the  fonnation  of  the  spout  and 
its  linear  and  vertical  motions  over  Vineyard  Sound.  From  this 
special  study  he  is  led  to  investigate  the  whole  question  of  the  con- 
dition attending  any  overturning  that  may  occur  in  the  atmosphere. 
If  a  layer  of  cold  air  be  spread  over  a  layer  of  warm  air,  resting 
quietly  upon  it  with  the  help  of  an  intervening  diaphragm,  and  the 
latter  be  removed,  we  all  know  that  the  cold  air  must  descend  and 
the  warm  air  rise — a  process  of  overturning  such  as  is  occurring 
every  day  in  the  atmosphere.  The  mechanical  conditions  or  mechani- 
cal theory  of  this  upsetting  were  recently  worked  out  by  Margules, 
and  his  views,  with  some  important  modifications,  are  developed -by 
Professor  Bigelow  in  such  a  way  that  a  certain  conclusion  is  inevi- 
tably readied.  This  overturning  takes  place  not  merely  in  a  small 
way,  as  in  thunderstorms,  but  on  the  grandest  scale  in  tropical  hur- 
ricanes. Now  the  question  has  been  discussed  pro  and  con  for  a 
hundred  years  as  to  whence  comes  the  energy  involved  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  rapid  rotary  winds  of  hurricanes.  Espy  maintained 
that  in  thunderstorms  this  energy  was  derived  from  gradients  due 
to  the  condensation  of  aqueous  vapor  and  the  evolution  of  heat  in 
the  clouds.  I  thought  it  due  also  largely  to  the  sun's  heat  acting 
on  the  top  of  the  cloud.  Professor  Bigelow  shows  that  while  these 
are  true  causes,  yet  for  hurricanes  they  are  entirely  insufficient,  and 
that  'the  energy  of  these  great  storms  is  mainly  derived  from  the 
gradients  produced  by  the  overturning  of  layers  of  cold  air  flowing 
from  northern  latitudes  over  the  warm  air  that  is  flowing  from 
southern  latitudes;  by  the  descent  of  this  cold  air  to  the  ground  the 
force  of  gravity  gives  it  great  velocity  and  momentum.  In  other 
words,  we  must  not  look  upon  a  great  storm  as  a  symmetric  cyclone 
with  a  center  of  warm  rising  air  and  an  inflowing  pericyclone  of 
cold  air,  as  was  taught  by  former  meteorologists,  but  we  must  face 
the  problem  of  a  simple  overturning  in  the  lower  strata  of  the 
atmosphere  below  the  level  of  the  general  west  wind  that  is  flowing 
a  few  miles  above  us.  The  ideal  cyclone  and  anticyclone  probably 
do  not  exist  in  the  atmosphere.  This  conclusion  gives  precision  to 
an  idea  that  Ferrel  fully  acquiesced  in,  namely,  that  the  atmosphere 
has  no  simple  circulation,  cyclonic  or  anticyclonic,  but  is  a  complex 
mass  of  interlacings  of  currents ;  so  that  the  progress  made  by  him- 

.,Gooylc 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  METEOHOLOGY — ABBE.  309 

self  in  studying  ideal  types  must  sooner  or  later  be  replaced  by 
researches  that  adhere  more  closely  to  the  actual  phenomena  of 
nature. 

CONCLD8ION. 

The  resolution  of  problems  bearing  on  the  mechanics  of  the  earth's 
atmosphere  is  stimulating  the  efforts  of  the  world's  best  men,  and 
illustrates  the  stage  to  which  meteorology  has  attained  in  its  progress 
toward  being  an  exact  science.  Some  portions  of  meteorology  are 
already  as  exact  as  our  knowledge  of  chemistry,  optics,  physics,  or 
astronomy  can  make  them;  other  parts  are  still  in  an  unsatisfactory 
condition,  which,  of  course,  is  also  true  of  every  branch  of  knowledge. 
We  must  congratulate  our  colleague,  Professor  Bigelow,  on  the  con- 
tributions that  he  has  made  along  lines  of  research  that  will  help  the 
next  generation  of  students  to  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  laws 
that  will  eventually  become  the  basis  of  satisfactory  long-range  fore- 
casts. It  will  always  redound  to  the  credit  of  the  Weather  Bureau  to 
have  encouraged  and  published  such  work  as  his  in  this  difficult  field. 

Equally  creditable  to  America  is  the  conception  and  establishment 
by  the  Chief  of  the  Weather  Bureau  of  a  special  research  observatory 
at  Mount  Weather,  where  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  meteor- 
ology the  researcher  has  been  separated  from  the  observer,  and  a  spe- 
cial institution  provided  for  him.  This  seems  like  the  realization  of 
an  idea  contained  in  a  paragraph  in  my  address  at  Indianapolis  in 
1890:  "Why  found  new  colleges  and  universities  to  teach  what  is 
already  taught  elsewhere?  •Exploration  is  the  order  of  the  day.  Give 
us  first  the  means  to  increase  knowledge,  to  explore  nature  and  to 
bring  out  new  truths.  Let  us  perfect  knowledge  before  we  diffuse 
it  among  mankind,  so  that  what  we  teach  may  with  every  coming 
year  be  nearer  and  nearer  the  eternal  truth  of  God's  creation." 

This  exht«1:ation  is  as  applicable  to-day  as  then.  Meteorology  is 
not  yet  properly  recognized  in  our  colleges,  nor  as  a  postgraduate 
course  in  our  universities.  The  science  has  progressed,  but  the  uni- 
versities have  not  kept  up  with  it.  Laboratories  have  been  provided 
for  chemistry,  physics,  psychology,  wonderful  observatories  for  as- 
tronomy, and  elaborate  establishments  for  mechanical  engineering,  but 
a  laboratory  for  the  experimental  study  of  the  motions  of  the  atmos- 
phere has  not  yet  been  provided,  although  the  men  who  could  con- 
duct it  are  ready  and  anxious  to  begin  the  great  work  that  they  see 
before  them. 


.y  Google 


,  Google 


GEOLOGY  OF  THE  INNER  EARTH.— IGNEOUS  ORES." 


'.  Gbkooby,  D.  S...  K.  R.  8. 


THE   WEOLOOICAL   BOCIETl'   OF   lAJUDOS. 

1907!  This  is  the  centenary  year  of  the  Geological  Society  of 
Ixindon;  next  month  the  British  geolo^sts  will  celebrate  the  event, 
and  their  pleasure  will  be  enhanced  by  the  sympathetic  presence  of  a 
distinguished  company  of  foreign  geologists. 

With  a  just  feeling  of  satisfaction  may  we  celebrate  this  event;  for 
to  the  Geological  Society  of  London  is  due  the  conversion  of  geology 
from  a  fanciful  speculation  into  an  ordered  science.  Yet  so  quietly 
has  this  society  done  its  work  that  the  debt  due  it  is  inadequately  real- 
ized. When  we  consider  what  the  world  owes  to  geologj'  in  respect 
of  its  economic  guidance,  the  intellectual  stimulus  of  its  conceptions, 
the  reverence  it  inspires  for  the  venerable  and  majestic  universe,  its 
liberating  influence  from  dogma,  we  may  rightly  regard  the  work  of 
the  Geological  Society  as  one  of  the  most  Valuable  British  contribu- 
tions to  intellectual  progress  during  the  nineteenth  century. 

A  hundred  j-ears  ago  the  spirit  of  the  eighteenth  century  still  con- 
trolled much  of  the  then  orthodox  geologj'.  Jameson's  "  Elements  of 
Geognos}',"  of  which  the  preface  is  dated  January  15, 1808.  taught,  as 
the  certain  conclusions  of  geology,  doctrines  that  had  been  reached  by 
applying  prejudiced  speculation  to  imaginary  facts.  It  was  a  manual 
of  pure  a  priori.  AVernerian  geology.  The  author  claimed  that  to 
Werner  "  we  owe  almost  everything  that  is  truly  valuable  in  this  im- 
portant branch  of  knowledge,"  and  that  it  was  Werner  "who  had 
discovered  the  general  structure  of  the  crust  of  the  globe  and  pointed 
out  the  true  mode  of  examining  and  ascertaining  those  great  relations 
which  it  is  one  of  the  principal  objects  of  geognosy  to  investigate." 

But  Jameson's  book  was  the  death  song  of  Wemerian  geology  in 
British  science.  A  new  geology  was  developing,  and  the  Geological 
Society  of  London  ushered  in  its  birth.  No  more  should  observations 
be  made  through  the  distorting  medium  of  preconceived  fancies!  No 
more  should  geology  be  inspired  by  that  heedless  spirit  which  cares 
not  to  distinguish  between  fancy  and  fact !    With  youthful  vigor  the 

'Address  to  Ihe  Geological  Section,  BrltlRh  Aesoclation  for  tlie  AdTancenieiit 
(rf  Bctence,  by  Prof.  J.  W.  Gregory.  D.  Sc.,  F.  R.  8.,  president  of  tbe  section. 
Seventy- seventh  annuiil  Kenernl  meeting,  beld  at  Leicester.  August  1,  1907.       . 
41780—08 24  311  '^^ ''-' 


812  ANNUAL  KEPOBT  BMITH80NIAH   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

new  geologj-  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  search  for  cosmogo- 
nies and  such  like  fancy  foods,  and  the  Geological  Society  of  London 
should  be  nourished  on  unadulterated  facts. 

The  time  was  ripe  for  the  change.  No  less  h  j>erson  tlian  (iioethe. 
once  an  enthusiastic  votary  of  geology,  was  now,  in  his  play  of 
"  Faust,"  holding  up  its  teachers  to  ridicule.  The  theories  "  evolved 
from  the  inner  consciousness  "  of  continental  Neptunists  and  Pluto- 
iiifits  were  to  Goethe  excellent  subjects  for  caricature.  It  was  then  the 
Englishman,  Greenough,  founded  a  society  to  turn  geology  from  the 
pursuit  of  fleeting  fancies  and  lead  her  to  the  study  of  sober  but 
enduring  facts.  The  members  of  this  society  were  to  abandon  the 
quest  of  scientific  chimeras ;  they  were  to  leave  to  later  generations  the 
attempt  to  solve  the  universe  as  a  whole. 

The  Geological  Society  has  owed  its  influence  to  its  bold,  original 
purpose.  It  was  not  founded  as  a  drifting  social  union  of  men  with 
a  common  interest  in  a  single  science.  Its  object  was  to  apply  to  geol- 
ogy one  particular  mode  of  research.  It  adopted  as  its  motto  Jhis  fine 
passage  from  Bacon: 

"  If  any  man  makes  it  his  delight  and  care — ^not  so  much  to  cling  to 
and  use  past  discoveries,  as  to  penetrate  to  what  is  beyond  them — not 
to  conquer  Nature  by  talk,  but  by  toil — in  short,  not  to  have  elegant 
and  plausible  theories,  but  to  gain  sure  and  demonstrable  knowledge : 
let  such  men  (if  it  shall  seem  to  them  right),  as  true  children  of 
knowledge,  unite  themselves  with  us." 

The  methods  of  the  society  were  as  practical  as  its  ideals.  London, 
with  characteristic  unconventionality  and  ori^nality,  has  used  its 
scientific  societies  as  its  university  for  post-graduate  teaching.  In- 
formally the  Geological  Society  enrolled  every  British  master  of 
geology  on  its  staff  of  unpaid  professors,  then  set  each  of  them  to 
teach  the  branch  of  geology  which  he  knew  best.  And  these  profes- 
sors were  no  carpet  knights;  they  were  knights  errant  who  derived 
their  Imowledge,  not  from  books  alone,  but  from  their  wanderings 
over  hills  and  dales,  in  mines  and  quarries,  by  ice-polished  rocks  and 
water-worn  valleys.  At  its  meetings  the  leaders  of  the  society  an- 
nounced what  they  had  discovered,  gave  sure  and  demonstrable  proofs 
of  their  discoveries,  and  showed  in  what  direction  the  geological 
forces  should  be  directed  for  the  conquest  of  Nature.  The  goodly 
fellowship  of  the  Geological  Society  has  always  encamped  on  the 
ever- advancing  frontier  of  geological  knowledge,  where  the  well-sur- 
veyed tracks  pass  out  into  the  bright,  alluring  realms  of  the  unknown. 

The  actual  founders  of  the  Geological  Society  were  apparently  men 
of  less  showy  intellect  than  the  great  "Werner,  whose  teaching  had 
intoxicated  many  of  the  most  gifted  of  his  enthusiastic  pupils.  They 
were  men,  like  Homer  and  Greenough.  who  had  a  practical  insight 
that  enabled  them  to  give  a  permanent  help  to  the  progress  ojf  science. 


OEO£X)GY  OF   THE  INNEB  EARTH — OflEQOJtY.  813 

They  had  that  suiw^me  gift,  the  potfer  to  see  things  as  thej  are. 
It  would  not  be  fair  to  claim  for  them  that  they  were  the  originators 
ot  accurate  methods  in  geology ;  such  methods  had  been  used  before 
their  day — by  William  Smith  in  England,  by  Lehman  in  Germany, 
and  by  Desmarest  in  France.  But  these  men,  acting  singly,  had  not 
been  able  to  save  geology  from  the  eighteenth-century  spirit  of  ad- 
venturous speculation,  nor  had  they  lifted  from  geology  the  burden 
at  those  quaint  ti)e(»i«s  -that  made  this  science  the  butt  of  Voltaire's 
luminous  ridicule. 

The  great  achieremwit  of  the  Geolc^ical  Society  has  been  this:  As 
a  corporate  body  it  has  been  able  to  ^nead  its  influence  very  widely ; 
its  clear-sighted  pursuit  of  a  practical  ideal  has  been  adopted  in  other 
countries ;  its  resolute  rejection  of  the  temptation  to  wander  in  dream- 
land has  affected  geological  students  all  over  the  world.  In  this  way 
has  been  laid  a  broad  foujidation  of  positive  knowledge  upon  which 
modem  geology  has  be«i  built. 

The  fine  self-restraint  which  induced  the  founders  of  the  Geological 
Society  to  restrict  its  work  for  a  while  to  observing  the  surface  of  the 
earth  has  had  its  reward.  The  methods  this  .society  was  founded  to 
employ  have  been  so  widely  used  that  we  now  have  geological  maps 
of  a  wider  area  than  was  known  to  geographers  of  a  century  ago. 
The  general  distribution  of  all  the  rocks  on  the  earth's  surface  has 
been  discovered;  most  settled  countries  have  been  surveyed  in  some 
detail :  the  main  outlines  of  the  history  of  life  on  the  earth  have  been 
written  and  carried  back  almost  as  far  ss  paleontologists  are  likely 
to  go.  ThM«  are  doubtless  fossiliferous  areas  still  undiscovered  in 
the  "  back  -blocks  "  of  the  world ;  but,  though  negative  predictions  are 
proverbially  reckless,  it  seems  probable  that  paleontology  will  not 
carry  geolo^oal  history  materially  farther  back.  Fossils  have  been 
discovered  in  the  pre-Cambrian  rocks ;  the  best  known  is  the  fauna 
described  by  Walcott  from  Montana ;  but  his  Beltina,  the  oldest  well- 
characterized  fossil,  is  still  of  PaleoEoic  type.  It  may  be  that  the 
poverty  of  carbonate  of  lime,  which  is  so  characteristic  a  feature  of 
most  CamtH-ian  and  [H^-Cambrian  sediments,  indicates  that  the  bulk 
of  the  contempM^ry  organiians  had  chitinous  shells  or  were  soft- 
bodied.  Paleontology  begins  with  the  appearance  of  hard-bodied 
organisms;  it  can  only  reveal  to  us  the  dawn  of  skeletons,  not  the 
dawn  of  life.  We  are  dependent  for  knowledge  of  the  climate  and 
geography  of  EoEoic  time  on  the  evidence  c^  the  sediments,  of  which 
there  are  great  -thicknesses  beneath  the  fossiliferous  rocks  in  most 
parts  of  the  world." 

'  Sncb  are  tbe  Algonblaii  sediroentR  repEeBcnted  by  Uie  Huronlan  and  Algon- 
klatis  of  America,  ttie  Algonklans  of  Scaodlnavla.  tbe  Karelian  of  Flalaud,  the 
Brlovarlan  of  Northwest  France,  tbe  Heatbcotlan  of  Anstralia.  the  Transvaal 
and  ewazlland  ^atraai  of  South  Africa,  tbe  Dbarwar  and  Bljawnr.  i^atemsiof 
India,  the  Itacolumnfte  series  of  Brazil,  etc.  '   "  '         viOO'^K 


814  ANNUAL   REPORT   SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION,  1907. 

THE  OIOLOGT  OF  THE  INNEB  EABTH. 

Now  that  this  geological  survey  of  the  earth  is  in  rapid  progress; 
while  the  history  of  life  has  been  written  at  least  in  outline ;  the  chief 
fossils,  minerals,  and  rocks  have  been  described  and  generously  en- 
-dowed  with  names;  and  the  manifold  activity  of  water  and  air  in 
'  molding  the  surface  is  duly  appreciated,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find 
I  that  the  center  of  geological  interest  is  shifting  to  the  deeper  regions 
,  of  the  earth's  crust  and  to  the  problems  of  applied  geology.  The 
secrets  of  these  deeper .  regions  are  both  of  scientific  and  economic 
interest.  They  are  of  scientific  importance,  for  it  is  now  generally 
recognized  that  the  main  plan  of  the  earth's  geography  and  the 
essential  characters  of  the  successive  geological  systems  are  the 
result  of  internal  movements.  The  relative  importance  of  those 
restless  external  agents  that  we  can  watch,  denuding  here  and  de- 
positing there,  has  been  exaggerated;  probably  they  do  little  more 
than  soften  the  outlines  due  to  the  silent  beavings  produced  by  the 
colossal  energies  of  the  inner  earth. 

The  study  of  the  deeper  layers  of  the  crust  is  of  economic  interest, 
for,  with  keener  competition  between  increasing  populations  and  with 
the  exhaustion  of  the  most  easily  used  resources  of  field  and  mine, 
thei-e  is  growing  need  for  the  better  utilization  of  soils  and  waters  and 
for  the  pursuit  of  deeper  deposits  of  ore. 

If  a  shaft  be  sunk  at  any  point  on  the  earth's  surface  a  formation 
of  4xchean  schists  and  gneisses  would  probably  always  be  reached ; 
and,  working  backward,  geological  methods  always  fail  at  last — in 
primeval,  Archean  darkness.  The  Archean  rooks  still  hide  from  us 
the  earlier  period  of  the  earth's  history,  including  that  of  all  rocks 
which  now  lie  beneath  them.  But  already  there  are  indications  that 
the  mystery  of  the  "  beyond  "  is  not  so  impenetrable  as  it  seemed. 

1.  The  nebular  and  meteorittc  hypotheses. — The  eighteenth  century 
explained  the  history  of  the  earth  by  the  nebular  hypothesis  of  La- 
place. Geologists  respectfully  adopted  this  idea  from  the  astrono- 
mers; they  accepted  it  as  one  of  those  essential  facts  of  the  universe 
with  which  geological  philosophy  must  harmonize.  The  resulting 
theorj'  represented  the  earth  as  originally  a  glowing  cloud  of  incan- 
descent gas,  which  slowly  cooled,  until  an  irregidar  crust  of  rock 
formed  around  a  gaseous  or  molten  core;  as  the  surface  grew  cooler, 
the  depressions  in  the  crust  were  filled  with  water  from  the  condens- 
ing vapor,  forming  oceans  which  became  habitable  as  the  temperature 
further  fell.  The  whole  earth  was  thought  to  have  had  a  long  period 
with  a  universal  tropical  climate,  under  which  coral  reefs  grew  where 
flow  our  polar  seas,  and  palms  flourished  on  what  are  now  the  Arctic 
shores.  Still  further  cooling  had  established  our  climatic  zones;  and 
it  was  predicted  that  in  time  the  polar  cold  would  creep  outward. 


GEOLOGY   OF   THE  INNEB  UAKXH — GEEGOBY.  316 

driving  all  living  beings  txiward  the  equator,  until  at  length  the  whole 
earth,  like  the  moon,  would  become  lifeless  through  cold,  as  it  had 
ODce  been  uninhabitable  through  heat.  This  theory  has  permanently 
impressed  itself  on  geological  terminology ;  and  its  corollaries,  secular 
refrigeration  and  the  contortion  of  the  shrinking  crust,  once  domi- 
nated discussions  concerning  climatic  history  and  the  formation  of 
mountain  chains.  This  nebular  hypothesis,  however,  we  are  now  told, 
is  mathematically  improbable,  or  even  impossible ;  and  it  is  only  con- 
sistent with  the  facts  of  geology  on  the  assumption  that,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  age  of  the  world,  the  whole  of  geological  time  is  so  insig- 
nificant that  the  secular  refrigeration  during  it  is  quite  inappreciable ; 
hence  geology  can  no  more  confirm  or  correct  the  theory  that  a  stock- 
breeder could  refute  evolution  by  failing  to  breed  kangaroos  into  cows 
in  a  single  lifetime. 

-  The  theory  of  the  gaseous  nebula  has  been  probably  of  more 
hindrance  than  help  to  geolo^sts;  its  successors,  the  meteoritic 
hypothesis  of  Lockyer  and  the  planetismal  theory  of  Chamberlin,  are 
of  far  more  practical  use  to  us,  and  they  give  a  history  of  the  world 
consistent  with  the  actual  records  of  geology.  According  to  Sir 
Norman  Lockyer's  meteoritic  hypothesis,  nebulte  comets  and  many 
so-called  stars  consist  of  swarms  of  meteorites  which,  though  nor- 
mally cold  and  dark,  are  heated  by  repeated  collisions,  and  so  become 
luminous.  They  may  even  be  volatilized  into  glowing  meteoric 
vapor;  but  in  time  this  heat  is  dissipated,  and  the  force  of  gravity 
condenses  a  meteoritic  swarm  into  a  single  globe.  Some  of  the 
swarms  are,  says  Lockyer, "'  truly  members  of  the  solar  system,"  and 
some  of  them  travel  around  the  sun  in  nearly  circular  orbits,  like 
planets.  They  may  be  regarded  as  infinitesimal  planets,  and  so 
Chamberlin  calls  them  planetismals. 

The  planetismal  theory  is  a  development  of  the  meteoritic  theory, 
and  presents  it  in  an  especially  attractive  guise.  It  regards  meteorites 
as  very  sparsely  distributed  through  space,  and  gravity  as  powerless 
to  collect  them  into  dense  groups.  So  it  assigns  the  parentage  of  the 
solar  system  to  a  spiral,  nebula  composed  of  planetismals,  and  the 
planets  as  formed  from  knots  in  the  nebula,  where  many  planetismals 
had  been  concentrated  near  the  intersections  of  their  orbits.  These 
groups  of  meteorites,  already  as  solid  as  a  swarm  of  bees,  were  then 
packed  closer  by  the  influence  of  gravity,  and  the  contracting  mass 
was  heated  by  the  pressure,  even  above  the  normal  melting  point  of 
the  material,  which  was  kept  rigid  by  the  weight  of  the  overlying 
layers. 

This  theory  has  the  recommendation  of  being  consistent  with  the 
history  of  the  earth  as  interpreted  by  geology.  For  whereas  the 
nebular  hypothesis  represents  the  earth  as  having  been  originally 
intensely  hot,  and  having  persistently  cooled,  yet  geological  recc^ij^. 


316  ANNUAL   BfiPOBT   SUITHSONIAN    INSTITUTIOH,   1901. 

show  that  an  extensive  low-iev«i  glacitttioH  oeocpred  ia  CambriaD 
times  in  low  latitudes  in  South  Au^ralia;  "  iiideed,  it  seems  probB:ble 
that,  in  spite  of  many  great  local  variations,  the  average  climate  of  the 
whole  world  has  remained  fairly  constant  throughout  geological  time. 
Whereas  it  has  often  been  represented,  in  accordance  with  the  nebular 
theory,  that  volcanic  action  has  steadily  waned,  owing  to  the  lowering 
of  the  earth's  internal  fires  and  the  constant  thickening  of  its  crust, 
yet  epochs  of  intense  volcanic  action  have  recurred  throughout  the 
world's  historj',  separated  by  periods  of  comparative  quiescence. 
\Vhereas  it  has  been  assumed,  as  a  corollary  to  the  nebular  theory, 
that  the  force  which  uplifted  mountain  chains  was  tlie  crumpling  of 
the  crust  owing  to  the  contraction  of  the  internal  mass,  yet  observation 
reveals  that  the  crust  has  been  corrugated,  and  fold  mountains  formed 
by  contraction  to  an  extent  far  greater  than  secular  cooling  can 
explain, 

"2.  Th€  matermls  of  the  inner  earth. — This  planetismal  hypothesis 
is  not  only  consistent  with  geological  records,  but  also  with  the  known 
facts  as  to  the  internal  composition  of  the  earth  and  the  structure  of 
extra-terrestrial  bodies  as  revealed  by  meteorites.  Meteorites  are  of 
two  main  kinds — the  meteoric  irons,  which  consist  of  nickel  iron,  and 
stony  meteorites,  which  are  composed  of  basic  minerals.  Some  of  the 
stony  meteorites  have  been  shattered  into  feult  breccias,  showing  that 
they  are  fragments  of  larger  bodies  which  were  subject  to  internal 
movements,  like  those  that  have  formed  crush  conglomerates  in  the 
crust  of  the  earth.  Those  stony  meteorites,  therefore,  both  in  com- 
position and  Ktructure  resemble  the  rocks  in  the  comparatively  shallow 
fracture  zone  of  the  earth's  crust.  The  nickel-iron  meteorites,  on  the 
other  hand,  represent  the  barysphere  beneath  the  cnist. 

The  earth  appears  to  consist  of  material  similar  to  that  of  the  two 
types  of  meteorites ;  but  whether  the  proportions  of  the  two  materials 
in  the  earth  represent  their  proportions  in  other  bodies  and  in  meteoric 
swarms  is  problematical.  There  appear  to  be  no  satisfactory  data  for 
an  estimate  of  the  relative  abundance  in  space  of  the  iron  and  stony 
meteoric  material.  Stony  meteorites  have  been  seen  to  fall  far  more 
frequently  than  iron  meteorites;  but  the  largest  known  meteorites 
are  of  the  nickel-iron  group,  although  this  material,  in  moist  climates, 
very  soon  decays.  The  most  reliable  indication  as  to  the  relative 
amounts  of  the  stony  and  nickel-iron  meteorites  is  given  by  a  com- 
parison of  the  weight  of  the  two  types  of  material  in  meteorites  of 
which  the  fall  was  seen.  According  to  Mr;  Fletcher's  list  of  the 
meteorites  in  the  British  Museum  up  to  1904,  the  collection  included 
319  specimens  of  which  the  fall  is  recorded:  of  them  305  specimens 
were  stony  meteorites  of  an  average  weight  of  3.63  ponnds,  9  were  iron 

'>Ab  sbown  by  tbe  work  of  Profemor  Hondiia,  of  Adelaide^ 

,_,  I  by  Google 


GEOLOGY   OF   THE   INKER   EABTH QBEGOBY.  317 

meteorites  of  an  average  weight  of  2.S1  pounds,  and  5  were  sidei;olites 
(or  meteorites  containing  a  large  proportion  of  both  silicates  and 
nickel-iron)  of  an  average  weight  of  54  pounds."  Therefore,  accord- 
ing to  this  test  the  stony  materials  would  appear  to  bo  the  more 
abundant.  But  if  all  known  meteorites  are  considered,  the  iron  group 
far  outweighs  the  other;  for  the  iron  meteorites  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum collection  weighed  11,873  pounds,  as  against  a  total  weight  of 
only  865  pounds  of  stony  meteorites.  The  available  evidence  suggests 
that  the  stony  meteorites  fall  the  more  frequently  on  the  earth,  but 
the  meteoric  irons  come  in  such  large  masses  that  they  outbalance  the 
showers  of  the  smaller  stones. 

We  might  have  expected  help  from  another  source  in  examining 
what  Hl's  below  the  Archean  rocks.  Can  not  the  relative  proportions 
of  the  stony  and  metallic  constituents  in  the  earth  help  us  ?  Unfor- 
tunately, this  proportion  is  as  uncertain  as  that  of  stony  and  iron 
raeteoritic  material.  The  best-established  fact  about  the  interior  of 
the  earth  is  that  its  materials  are  much  heavier  than  those  of  its 
crust.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  earth  as  a  whole  is  about  5,67;  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  materials  of  the  crust  may  be  taken  as  about 
2,5,  while  that  of  the  heavier  basic  rocks  is  only  about  3.0.  Hence 
the  earth  as  a  whole  weighs  about  twice  as  much  as  it  would  if  it 
were  built  of  materials  having  the  same  density  as  those  which  form 
the  crust. 

Two  explanations  of  the  greater  internal  weight  of  the  earth  have 
been  given.  According  to  one,  the  earth  is  composed  throughout 
of  the  same  material,  and  the  internal  mass  is  only  heavier  because 
it  is  compressed  by  the  weight  of  the  overlying  crust.  Laplace  esti- 
mated that  the  material  would  gradually  increase  in  density  from  the 
surface  to  the  center,  where  its  specific  gravity  would  be  10.74,  and 
the  calculations  of  Schlichter  show  that  condensation  due  to  com- 
pression may  be  adequate  to  account  for  the  greater  internal  weight. 

According  to  the  alternative  or  segregation  theory,  the  difference 
in  density  is  explained  as  due  to  a  difference  in  composition ;  the 
interior  of  the  earth  is  thought  to  be  heavier  owing  to  the  concentra- 
tion of  metals  within  it.  The  probability  of  this  metallic  interior 
has  been  advanced  from  several  lines  of  evidence;  and  the  assumed 
metallic  mass  has  received  from  Posepny  the  name  of  the  "  bary- 
sphei-e."  or  heavy  sphere.  According  to  Uiis  view  the  earth  is  essen- 
tially a  huge  ball  of  iron,  which,  like  modern  projectiles,  is  hardened 
with  nickel ;  and  it  is  covered  by  a  stony  crust,  the  materials  of  which 
were  primarily  separated  from  the  metallic  mass,  like  the  slag  formed 
on  a  bill  of  solidifying  iron  in  a  puddling  furnace. 

"  The  welgbta  are  given  in  pounds  avoirdupola.  For  the  calculation  I  au 
Indebted  to  Mr.  W.  B.  WiBeman.  of  the  Geological  Department  of  Glasgow 
(Jnlverelty.  /--  i 


818  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION,   IMT, 

It  ^as  been  objected  that  the  weight  of  the  earth  is  not  great 
enough  for  much  of  it  to  be  composed  of  metallic  iron  or  of  meteor- 
itic  material.  The  specific  gravity  of  iron  under  the  pressure  at  the 
earth's  surface  is  about  7.7,  and  it  would  be  even  greater  when  com- 
pressed in  the  interior.  But  the  barysphere  is  doubtless  impregnated 
with  much  stony  material  that  would  lessen  its  weight.  An  estimate 
by  Farrington  (1897)  of  the  average  specific  gravity  of  the  meteor- 
ites of  which  the  fall  had  been  recorded  is  only  3.69.  According  to 
the  Rev.  E.  Hill  (1885),  the  mean  specific  gravity  of  all  the  meteor- 
ites in  the  British  Museum  was  4.5 ;  and,  though  Mr.  Hill  duly  con- 
sidered the  effect  of  compression,  he  concluded  that  "  the  density  of 
the  earth  is  perfectly  consistent  with  its  being  an  aggregation  of 
meteoric  materials."  Moreover,  within  the  metallic  barysphere  there 
may  be  a  core  of  lighter  material ;  for  earthquake  waves  travel  more 
plowly  in  the  central  core  of  the  earth  than  in  the  intermediate  zone, 
or  are  even  suppressed  altogether  there;  hence  the  center  of  the  earth 
may  be  occupied  by  matter  less  compact  than  that  of  the  shell  around 
it;  and,  according  to  Oldham's  calculations,  the  light  central  corps  oc- 
cupies two-fifths  of  the  diameter  of  the  earth. 

The  evidence  of  density  alone,  therefore,  gives  no  convincing  evi- 
dence of  the  nature  of  the  earth's  interior;  and  geologists  have  been 
left  with  no  conclusive  reason  for  choosing  betweeti  the  condensation 
and  segregation  theories.  Radio-activity  has,  however,  unexpectedly 
come  to  our  aid,  and  has  disclosed  a  further  striking  resemblance 
between  the  internal  mass  of  the  earth  and  the  iron  meteorites.  It 
has  supplied  direct  evidence  about  the  constituents  of  the  earth  at 
depths  which  have  hitherto  been  far  beyond  the  range  of  observation. 
Mr,  Strutt  has  shown  that  radium  is  probably  limited  within  the 
earth  to  the  depth  of  45  miles,  that  the  deeper-lying  material  is  free 
from  radium,  and  that  this  substance  is  not  found  in  iron  meteorites. 

The  agreement  in  radio-active  properties  between  the  iron  meteor- 
ites and  the  interior  of  the  earth  is  an  additional  and  weighty  argu- 
ment in  favor  of  the  view  that  the  earth  is  largely  composed  of  nickel 
iron, 

3.  Physical  conditions  and  teinperatures. — The  physical  condition 
in  which  the  material  exists  is  now  of  secondary  interest.  The  old 
controversy  as  to  whether  the  earth  has  a  molten  interior  inclosed 
within  a  solid  shell  has  loi^t  its  importance,  because  it  has  become 
a  mere  matter  of  definition  of  terms.  The  facts  which  led  geologists 
to  believe  that  the  interior  of  the  earth  is  fluid  are  consistent  with 
those  which  prove  that  the  earth  is  more  rigid  than  a  globe  of  steel. 
For  under  the  immense  pressure  within  the  earth  the  materials  can 
transmit  vibrations  and  resist  compression  like  a  solid ;  but  they  can 
change  their  shape  as  easily  as  a  fluid.  They  are  fluid  just  as  lead  is 
when  it  is  forced  to  flow  from  a  hydraulic  press.    Not  only  are  geolo- 


Goo'^lc 


OEOLOGT   OP  THB  ISSEB.  EABTH GEEOOBY.  819 

gists  now  justified  in  their  belief  that  the  deeper  layers  of  the  earth's 
crost  are  in  a  state  of  fluxion,  but,  according  to  Arrhenius  (1900), 
the  earth  is  solid  only  to  the  depth  of  25  miles,  below  which  is  a 
liquid  zone  extending  to  the  depth  of  190  miles;  and  below  that  level, 
be  tells  us,  "  the  temperature  must,  without  doubt,  exceed  the  critical 
temperature  of  all  known  substances,  and  at  this  depth  the  liquid 
magma  passes  gradually  to  a  gaseoijs  magma."  This  distinguished 
physicist  gives  a  description  of  the  eartli's  interior  which  reminds 
us  of  the  views  of  the  early  geologists.  Arrhenius's  theory  rests, 
however,  on  the  existence  within  the  earth  of  exalted  temperatures^ 
and  this  assumption  a  geologist  may  now  hesitate  to  accept  with  less 
risk  of  getting  into  disgrace  than  he  would  have  run  a  few  years  ago. 
It  is  improbable  that  the  rapid  increase  of  heat  with  depth  which  is 
observed  near  the  surface  should  continue  below  the  lithosphere ;  for, 
if  the  earth  consists'in  the  main  of  iron,  even  although  it  be  arranged 
as  a  mesh  containing  silicates  in  the  interspaces,  the  heat  conductivity 
might  be  sufficient  to  keep  the  whole  metallic  sphere  at  a  nearly  equal 
temperature.  Here,  again,  Mr.  Strutt's  work  on  radio-activity  is  in 
full  agreement  with  the  requirements  of  geologists,  for  he  estimates 
that  below  a  crust  45  mile^  thick  the  earth  has  a  uniform  temperature 
of  only  1,500°  C.  Whether  the  further  conclusion  that  this  heat  is 
due  to  the  action  of  the  radium  in  the  crust  be  established  or  not,  it 
is  gratifying  to  hear  a  physicist  arguing  in  favor  of  a  moderate  and 
uniform  internal  temperature. 

All  that  the  actual  observations  prove  and  that  geological  theories 
require  is  that  the  material  within  the  earth  be  intensely  hot,  and 
that  it  lie  under  such  overwhelming  pressure  that  it  would  asTeadily 
change  its  form  and  as  quickly  fill  up  an  accessible  cavity  as  any 
liquid  would  do.  Whether  such  a  condition  is  to  be  described  as 
solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous  is  of  little  concern  to  geologists. 

THE   DEEP-8&ATXD  CON^K>L  OVER  THE   EARTh's   SUBFACE. 

The  modern  view  of  the  structure  of  the  earth  adds  greatly  to  the 
interest  of  its  study,  for  it  recognizes  the  world  as  an  individual 
entity  of  which  both  the  geological  structure  and  the  history  have  to 
be  considered  as  a  whole.  Once  the  earth  was  regarded  as  a  mere 
lifeless,  inert  mass  which  has  been  spun  by  the  force  of  gravity,  that 
hurls  it  on  its  course  into  the  shape  of  a  simple  oblate  spheroid. 
Corresponding  with  this  astronomical  teaching  as  to  the  shape  of  the 
world  was  the  geological  doctrine  that  all  its  topography  is  the  work 
of  local  geographical  agents,  whose  control  over  the  surface  of  the 
earth  is  as  absolute  as  that  of  the  sculptor's  chisel  over  a  block  of 
marble. 


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SSJO  ANNUAI,  KBPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

BoCh  tiieae  concepticme  are  no«  <mly  of  historic  interest  The 
irregular  indiTidual  shape  of  the  eanth  is  e:fpressed  by  its  description 
as  a  geoid.  The  processes  which  have  produced  its  varying  shape 
have  also  controlled  its  geological  history  and  evolution,  for  they 
cause  disturbances  of  the  crust,  which  affect  the  whole  earth  simul- 
taneously; and  so  the  geographical  agents  are  given  similar  work 
and  powers  at  the  same  time  in  different  places. 

Hence  there  is  a  remarkable  world-wide  uniformity  in  the  general 
characters  of  the  sedimentary  deposits  of  each  of  the  geological 
systems.  The  last  pre-Cambrian  system  includes  thick  masses  of  fel- 
spathic  sandstones  alike  in  the  Torridonian  of  Scotland,  the  sparag- 
mite  of  Scandinavia,  the  Keweenawan  sandstones  of  the  United 
States,  and  perhaps  also  the  quartzites  of  the  Rand.  The  Cambrian 
has  its  graywackes  and  coarse  slates  and  its  numerous  phosphatic 
limestones,  the  Ordovician  its  prevalent  shales  and  slates;  the  Silu- 
rian its  episodal  limestones  and  shales.  The  Devonian  has  its  wide 
areas  of  Old  Red  sandstones  as  a  continental  type,  while  its  marine 
representatives, show  the  prevalence  of  coarse  grits  and  sandstones 
in  the  lower  series,  of  limestones  and  slates  in  the  middle  series,  and 
the  recurrence  of  sandstones  in  the  upper  series;  and  this  sequence 
occurs  alike  in  Northwestern  Europe,  in  America,  and  Australia. 
The  Carboniferous  contains  the  first  regional  beds  of  thick  limestone 
and  the  first  important  Coal  Measures.  The  Trias  is  as  characterized 
by  rocks  indicating  arid  continental  conditions  in  America  and  Aus- 
tralia and  South  Africa,  as  Professor  Watts  has  shown  then  pre- 
vailed in  the  neighborhood  of  I-eicester.  In  the  Mesozoic  era  we 
owe  to  Suess  the  demonstration  of  the  world-wide  influence  of  those 
marine  encroachments  or  "transgressions"  whereby  the  great  conti- 
nents of  the  Trias  were  gradually  submerged  by  the  rising  sea. 

Speaking  generally,  there  is  a  remarkable  lithological  resemblance 
between  contemporary  formations  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  This 
fact  had  been  often  remarked,  but  was  usually  dismissed  as  due  to 
a  number  of  local  isolated  coincidences  of  no  special  significance. 
But  the  coincidences  are  too  numerous  and  too  striking  to  be  thus 
lightly  dismissed.  They  are  among  the  indications  that  the  main 
earth  changes  have  been  due  to  world-wide  causes,  which  led  to  the 
predominance  of  the  same  types  of  sedimentary  rocks  during  the  same 
period  in  many  regions  of  the  worid. 

The  conditions  that  govern  the  geological  evolution  and  general 
geography  of  the  earth  are  probably  due  to  the  interaction  between 
the  earth's  crust  and  the  contracting  interior;  they  may  take  place 
lis  slow  changes  in  the  form  of  the  earth,  causing  the  slow  rising  or 
lowering  of  the  sea  surface,  or  the  slow  uplift  or  depression  of  regions 
of  the  earth's  crust;  or  they  may  give  rise  to  periods  of  violent  vol- 
canic action  in  many  parts  of  the  earth,  between  which  may  be  long 


OEOLOOy  OF  TUB  INNBfi  EABTH QBBOOBY.  331 

popiods'  df  quiescence-.  The  geographicil  effects  of  changes  in  the 
earChV  quivering  mass  atfecC  distant  regions  at  the  same  time.  There- 
fore the  landmarks  of  physical  geology  will  probably  be  found  to  give 
more  precise  evidence  as  to  geological  synchronism  than  those  of 
paleimtology,  on  which  we  have  hitherto  had  to  rely. 

PLOTOMtSTS   AND  OBE    PORHATION. 

Belief  in  the  earth's  internal  fires  was  most  faithfully  held 
amongst  geologists  by  the  Plutonists  of  the  eighteenth  century 
and  repudiated  with  equal  thoroughness  by  the  Neptunists,  who 
refused  to  concede  that  volcanic  action  was  due  to  deep-seated 
cosmic  causes.  Thus  Jameson  in  1807  stoutly  maintained  that  vol- 
canoes were  superficial  phenomena  due  to  the  combustion  of  beds 
of  coal  beneath  fusible  rocks,  such  as  basalt,  and  that  the  explo- 
sions were  due  to  the  sudden  expansion  of  sea  water  into  steam 
by  contact  with  the  burning  coal.  Volcanoes,  according  to  this 
view,  were  correctly  described  as  burning  mountains,  giving  forth 
fire,  flame,  and  smoke.  The  extreme  Neptunist  and  Plutonist 
schools  have  long  since  been  extinct,  but  the  controversy  is  not  quite 
closed.  The  battlefield  is  now  practically  restricted  to  economic 
geology,  and  the  issue  is  the  origin  of  some  important  ores. 

Ore  deposits  present  so  many  perplexing  features  that  deep-seated 
igneous  agencies  were  naturally  invoked  to  explain  them,  and  some  of 
the  most  thoroughgoing  champions  of  the  igneous  origin  of  ores 
make  claims  that  remind  us  of  the  eighteenth-centurj-  Plutonists. 
The  question  is  to  some  extent  a  matter  of  terms.  Many  of  the  ores 
which  Vogt,  for  example,  describes  as  of  igneous  origin  he  attributes, 
not  to  the  direct  consolidation  of  material  from  a  molten  state,  but  to 
eruptive  after  actions  due  to  the  hot  solutions  and  heated  gases  given 
off  front  cooling  igneous  rocks.  Igneors  rocks  probably  play  a 
notable  part  in  the  genesis  of  most  primary  ore  deposits;  for  the 
entrance  of  the  hot  ore-bearing  solutions  is  rendered  possible  by  the 
heat  of  the  igneous  intrusions,  as  Professor  Kemp  has  well  shown  in 
his  paper  on  "  The  Role  of  Igneous  Hocks  in  the  Formation  of  Metal- 
lic Veins."  Professor  Kemp  limits  the  term  "  igneous  "  to  materials 
formed  by  the  direct  consolidation  of  molten  material ;  and  this  de- 
cision seems  to  me  to  be  most  convenient.  For  example,  the  quartzite 
that  is  so  often  found  beneath  a  bed  of  basalt  is  due  to  liot  alkaline 
water  from  the  lava  cementing  the  loose  grains  of  sand ;  the  process 
is  an  eniptive  after  action,  but  it  would  be  unusual  to  call  such  a 
quartzite  an  igneous  rock. 

1.  IgneouH  ores. — That  there  are  ores  which  are  the  products  of 
direct  igneous  origin  is  now  almost  universally  admitted.  The 
mineral  magnetite  is  a  most  valuable  source  of  iron,  and  it  is  a 

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832  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAIJ   INSTIIUTIQN,  1907. 

constituent  of  most  basic  igneous  rocks.  If  iron  were  a  high-priced 
metal,  such  as  tin  or  copper,  of  which  ores  containing  1  or  3  per  cent 
are  profitably  worked,  then  basalt  would  be  an  ore  of  igneous  origin. 
Under  present  commercial  conditions,  however,  basalt  can  not  b« 
regarded  as  an  iron  ore.  But  if  the  magnetite  in  a  basic  rock  had 
been  segregated  into  clots  or  masses  large  enough  and  pure  enough  to 
pay  for  mining,  then  they  would  be  iron  ores  formed  by  igneous 
action.  There  are  cases  of  such  segregations  large  enough  to  be 
mined.  The  most  famous  is  Taberg,  a  mountain  in  Smaland,  near 
the  southern  end  of  Lake  AVetter,  in  Sweden.  It  is  a  locality  of 
historic  interest;  a  view  of  it,  as  a  mountain  of  iron,  was  published 
by  Peter  Ascanius  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  "  in  1755,  and 
Sefstrdm  discovered  the  element  vanadium  in  its  ore  in  1830. 

Taberg  consists  of  an  intrusive  mass  of  rock  composed  of  magnetite, 
olivine,  labradorite,  and  pj'roxene.  Many  theories  of  its  formation 
have  been  advanced.  The  view  generally  adopted  is  that  of 
Tornebohm,  who  described  the  rock  as  a  variety  of  hyperite  in 
which  there  has  been  a  central  segregation  of  magnetite  to  such  an 
extent  that  siome  of  it  contains  31  per  cent  of  iron.  Tornebohm 
claims  to  have  traced  a  gradual  passage  from  normal  hyperite  to  a 
variety  poor  in  feldspar,  then  to  one  without  feldspar,  and  finally  to 
a  granular  intergrowth  of  magnetite  and  olivine.  This  Taberg  ore 
was  mined  and  smelted  for  iron  in  the  eighteenth  century,  when 
transport  was  more  costly  and  commercial  competition  less  keen  than 
it  is  to-day.  The  ore  has  been  worked  at  intervals  as  late  as  1870; 
and  as  the  hill  is  estimated  to  contain  100  million  tons  of  ore  above 
fhe  level  of  the  adjacent  railway,  it  is  not  surprising  that  efforts  are 
being  again  made  to  utilize  the  deposit,  in  spite  of  its  low  grade  and 
high  percentage  of  titanium.  The  Taberg  hyperite  has  almost 
reached  the  line  which  divides  magnetite-bearing  rocks  from  useful 
iron  ores.  Its  igneous  origin,  however,  has  not  been  universally 
accepted.  The  theory  has  been  rejected  by  so  eminent  an  authority 
as  Posepny,  according  to  whom  the  ore  occurs  in  solid  veins  as  well 
as  in  grains;  and  he  holds  that,  like  other  Scandinavian  iron  ores,  it 
was  due  to  secondary  deposition.  During  a  visit  to  the  mountain  I 
failed  to  see  any  secondary  veins,  except  of  insignificant  value.  The 
microscopic  sections  of  the  ore  show  that  it  is  a  granular  aggregate  of 
olivine,  generally  with  labradorite  and  pyroxene.  Hence  I  have  no 
hesitation  in  accepting  the  view  of  fhe  Swedish  geologists  and  regard 
Taberg  as  a  magmntic  segregation,  Posepny  "  has  in  this  case  carried 
his  Nepfunist  theory  of  the  genesis  of  ores  too  far. 

"  Vol.  XLIX,  pp.  30-34,  pi.  n. 

'  F.  Posepny.  "  The  G^ieslB  of  Ore  Deposits."    TraDS.  Amec  Inst.  Mln.  Eae.. 


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GEOLOGY  OF  THE  INNBB  EABTB QBEQOBT.  328 

At  Routivaara,  in  Swedish  Lapland,  there  is  a  still  larger  maas  of 
magnetite,  which  is  claimed,  in  accordance  with  the  descriptions  of 
Petersson  and  Sjogren,  to  be  due  to  segregation  from  the  magma  of 
the  surrounding  gabbro.  This  mass  of  magnetite  is  of  colossal  size, 
but  it  is  of  no  present  economic  value  owing  to  its  high  percentage 
of  titanium  and  its  remote  position. 

An  igneous  origin  is  claimed  by  Professor  Hogbom  for  some  small 
masses  of  titaniferous  magnetite  in  the  island  of  Alno,  opposite 
Sundsvall,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sweden.  This  case  is  of  interest, 
as  the  surrounding  rock  is  not  basic;  it  is  a  nepheline  syenite,  con- 
taining only  2  per  cent  of  magnetite,  which,  however,  has  been  con- 
centrated in  places,  until  some  specimens  (according  to  an  analysis 
quoted  by  Professor  Hogbom)  contain  as  much  as  64  per  cent  of 
magnetite,  9  per  cent  of  ferrous  oxide,  and  12  per  cent  of  titanic  oxide. 

The  Alno  magnetites,  again,  are  of  no  practical  value,  as  they  are 
too  low  in  grade  and  too  refractory  in  nature,  I  understand  that 
about  500  tons  of  the  material  have  been  smelted,  but  with  unprofit- 
able results,  and  the  rest  of  the  material  quarried  has  been  left  on  the 
shore.  We  may  therefore  accept  the  iron-bearing  masses  of  Alno  and 
Routivaara,  as  well  as  that  at  Taberg,  as  due  to  magmatic  segregation, 
without  having  conceded  much  as  to  the  igneous  formation  of  ores. 
The  process  in  this  case  has  formed  rocks,  rich  in  titaniferous 
magnetite,  from  which  iron  could  be  obtained,  biit  rocks  which  no 
ironmaster  is  at  present  willing  to  buy  as  iron  ore.  Whether  a  basic 
igneous  rock  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  iron  ore.  or  as  only  useful  for 
road  metal,  depends  on  cost  of  treatment.  The  definition  of  the  term 
"  ore  "  is  very  elastic.  Petrographers  speak  of  the  minute  grains  of 
magnetite  or  chromite  in  a  rock  as  its  ores;  but  that  is  a  special 
use  of  the  term  "  ore"  Usually  ore  means  a  material  which  can  be 
profitably  worked  as  a  source  of  metals  under  existing  or  practicable 
industrial  conditions."  According  to  this  definition,  the  Swedish 
deposits  of  titaniferous  magnetite  are  at  present  doubtfully  within 
the  category  of  iron  ores. 

The  famous  iron  mines  of  middle  Sweden  at  Dannemorra,  Norr- 
l»erg,  Griingesberg,  and  Persberg  occur  imder  different  geological 
conditions ;  they  work  lenticles  or  bands  of  ores  in  metamorphic  rocks, 
of  which  some  are  altered  sediments;  and  the  view  has  therefore  been 
held  by  de  Launay  and  Vogt  that  the  ores  also  are  altered  sediments. 

That  ores  are  formed  by  igneous  segregation  of  sufficient  si»e  and 
purity  to  be  of  economic  importance  is  a  theory  which  rests  on  two 

» The  Oxford  Dictionary  adopts  a  still  more  restricted  deflnltlon ;  according 
to  it  an  ore  is  "a  native  mloeral  containing  a  precious  or  nsefiit  metal  in 
SQCh  quantity  and  in  sucb  cbemlcal  combination   as  to  make  Its  extraction 


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8S4  ANNUAL  REPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSXITUTION,  t9(n. 

chief  cases— the  nickel  ores  of  SudbiUT  in  Cuwda  and  the  iron  ores 
of  Swedi^  Lapland. 

2.  The  Sudbvry  nickel  ores. — The  nickel  ores  of  Sudbury  are  the 
moat  important  historically.  They  have  been  rep>eatedly  claimed  as 
of  direct  igneous  origin  by  Bell  (1891),  Von  FouUon  (1892),  Vogt 
(1893),  Barlow  (1903),  and  by  other  geologists ;  and  his  view  was 
advocated  before  the  association  at  the  Jdiannesburg  meeting  by 
Professor  Coleman.  The  theory  was  stoutly  opposed  by  Posepny  in 
1893,  and  Professor  Beck  in  1901  deswibed  some  of  the  brecciated 
ore,  and  showed  that  its  metallic  minerals  are  sharply  separated  fr<Hn 
the  barren  rock.  He  held  that  such  ore  must  have  been  formed,  not 
only  after  the  consolidation  of  the  rock,  but  even  after  or  during  its 
sul^equeht  raetamorphian.  The  views  of  Posepny  and  Beck  seem  to 
have  been  established  by  additional  microscopic  stiidy  of  the  ores 
by  C.  W.  Dickson  (1903).  He  bas  shown  that  the  sulphides  are 
separated  from  the  barren  rock  by  sharp  boundaries,  and  without  any 
indication  of  a  passage  between  them;  that  the  fragments  of  ore  in 
the  rock  have  shprt  comers,  whereas,  had  they  grown  in  a  molten 
magma,  the  angles  would  have  been  rounded  and  the  faces  corroded. 
Most  of  the  ore,  moreover,  occurs  as  a  cement  filling  interspaces 
between  broken  fragments  of  barren  rock  and  along  planes  of  shear- 
ing. The  Sudbury  ores,  therefiwe,  appear  to  h/ive  been  deposited 
from  solution  during  or  after  the  brecciation  of  the  rocks  in  which 
they  occur,  and  long  after  their  first  consolidation.  If  Dickson's 
facts  be  right,  the  Sudbury  ores  are  necessarily  aqueous  and  not 
igneous  in  origin. 

3.  Scandinavian  iron  ore*. — The  other  important  mining  field  of 
which  the  ores  are  claimed  as  of  igneous  origin  is  Swedish  Lapland. 
Its  ores  are  rich  and  the  ore  bodies  colossal.  One  mine,  Ivininavaara, 
yielded  over  one  and  a  half  miUon  tons  of  ore  in  1906,  and  according 
to  a  recent  agreement  with  the  SwedLsh  Government  the  annual  out- 
put of  ore  from  that  mine  may  be  raised  to  three  million  tons  by  1918. 

The  chief  mining  fields  of  Lapland,  although  situated  to  the  north 
of  the  Arctic  Circle,  have  long  been  known,  for  some  of  them  contain 
veins  of  copper  which  were  worked,  for  example,  at  Svappavaara  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  The  iron  ores,  however,  could  not  be  used 
until  a  railway  had  been  laid  through  the  swamps  of  Lapland  to  carr>' 
the  ores  cheaply  to  the  coast.  In  18(12  an  ill-fated  English  company 
began  a  railway  to  the  Gellivara  mines,  and  thirty  years  later  this  was 
completed  across  Scandinavia,  from  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Botlinia 
at  Lulea  to  an  ice- free  port  at  Narvik,  on  the  Norwegian  coast. 

This  railway,  the  most  northern  in  the  world,  passes  the  two  great 
mining  fields  of  Gellivara  and  Kiruna.  The  mining  field  of  Eiruna 
is  the  larger  and  at  present  of  the  greater  geolo^cal  interest,  as  its 
structure  is  simpler  and  its  rocks  less  altered. 

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GEOLOGY   OF   THE   INNEB   EARTH GEEQOBY.  325 

The  ore  body  at  Kiruna  outna-ops  along  the  aiKst  of  a  ridge  2  miles 
long,  and  it  is  continued  beneath  Lake  Luossajarvi  to  the  smaller  but 
still  immense  ore  body  of  Luossavaura.  At  Kiruna  the  ore  rises  to 
the  height  of  816  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  lake,  and  it  varies  in 
thickness  from  80  to  500  feet,  with  »n  average  thickness  of  about 
230  feet.  According  to  the  report  by  Prof.  Walfrid  Petersson," 
submitted  this  year  to  the  Swedish  Parliament,  Kirunavaara  contains 
200  million  tons  of  ore  above  lake  level,  and  Luossavaara  another 
ii-i4  million  tons.  The  ore  is  high  ^ade.  According  to  Lundbohm 
60  per  cent  of  the  trial  pits  showed  a  yield  varying  from  67  to  71  per 
cent  of  iron,  and  21  per  cent  of  them  showed  a  yield  of  from  60  to  67 
per  cent  of  iron.  The  average  of  nineteen  analyses  published  in 
Professor  Petersson's  recent  report  gives  the  contents  of  iron  as  64.15 
per  cent.  Unlike  the  Taberg  and  Routivaara  ores,  the  percentage 
of  titanium  is  very  low ;  thus  in  nineteen  analyses  given  by  Petersson 
the  average  of  titanic  acid  is  only  0.23  per  cent,  and  it  varies  in  the 
specimens  from  0.04  to  0.8  per  cent. 

The  ore  lies  between  two  series  of  acid  rocks,  which  have  been  very 
differently  interpreted,  but  will  no  doubt  be  fully  explained  by  the 
researches  now  in  progress  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Limdbohm. 
The  rocks  were  Srst  called  halleSinta,  as  by  Fredholm,  and  regarded 
'  as  of  sedimentary  origin.  They  are  now  accepted  as  an  igneous  series, 
associated  with  some  conglomerates,  slates,  and  quartzites.  The  ore 
body  itself  is  bounded  on  both  sides  by  porphyrites,  of  which  that  on 
the  lower  or  western  side  is  more  basic  than  that  overlying  the  ore  to 
the  east.  The  basic  western  porphyrite  is  in  contact  with  a  soda- 
augite  syenite  of  which  the  relations  are  still  uncertain.  Interbedded 
with  the  overlying  eastern  porphyrite  are  rocks  that  appear  to  be 
volcanic  tuffs,  and  both  in  the  tuffs  and  in  the  upper  porphyrite  are 
fragments  of  the  Kiruna  ore. 

Three  main  theories  of  the  genesis  of  the  Kiruna  ores  have  been 
proposed.  Their  sedimentary  origin  was  urged  on  the  ground  that 
they  occur  regularly  interstratified  in  a  series  of  altered  sediments, 
and  that  the  ores,  therefore,  are  also  sedimentary.  This  view  may  be 
promptly  dismissed,  since  the  adjacent  rocks  are  igneous. 

The  second  theory  has  been  advanced  independently  by  Professor  De 
Launay  and  Dr.  Helge  Backstriim.  According  to  them  the  porphy- 
rites above  and  below  the  iron  ores  are  lava  flows,  and  the  ore  was 
a  superficial  formation  deposited  in  an  interval  between  the  volcanic 
eruptions.  According  to  De  Launay  the  iron  was  raised  to  the  surface 
as  emanations  of  iron  chloride  and  iron  sulphide ;  the  iron  was  depos- 
ited as  oxide,  and  most  of  it  subsequently  reduced  to  magnetite  during 
the  metamorphiam  of  the  district. 


«  Blhang  tni  RIkd.  Prot.,  1907.  1  Saml.,  1  AM..  S4  HiiH.  Xo.  107,  pp.  213,  217. 


.ogle 


826  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  IBffl. 

The  third  theory — that  the  ores  are  of  direct  igneous  origin— bus 
been  maintained  by  Lofstrand,  Hogborn,  and  Stutzer.  According  to 
them  the  ores  are  segregations  of  magnetite  from  the  acid  igneous 
rocks  in  which  they  occur.  The  segregation  theory  has  been  opposed, 
timongst  others,  by  De  Launay  and  Vogt.  Thus,  De  Launay  main- 
tains that  the  segregation  would  have  been  impossible  in  such  fluid 
lavas  as  the  Kiruna  porphyrites,  and  is  improbable,  since  there  is  no 
transition  between  the  ore  and  the  barren  rock. 

The  segregation  theory  has  serious  difficulties,  and  is  faced  by  sev- 
eral obvious  improbabilities.  The  ore  occurs  as  a  band  nearly  forty 
times  as  long  as  it  is  broad.  It  has  the  aspect,  therefore,  of  a  bed  or 
a  lode.  The  ore  has  not  the  granular,  crystalline  structure  of  an  igne- 
ous rock  like  the  hyperite  of  Taberg,  but  the  aspect  of  a  material 
deposited  from  solution  or  formed  metasomatically.  It  is  almost  free 
from  titanium,  the  undesirable  constituent  so  abundant  in  the  ores  of 
Taberg  and  Koutivaara. 

The  igneous  thoorj-  can  not,  however,  be  lightly  dismissed,  as  it  is 
suppoi-ted  by  the  high  authority  of  Professor  Hogbom,  and  therefore 
demands  careful  consideration. 

It  has  been  advanced  in  two  main  forms,  the  one  considering  the 
ore  to  have  been  deposited  at  the  time  when  the  igneous  rocks  were 
consolidating,  the  other  considering  it  was  deposited  at  a  later  period. 
.Vccording  to  Professor  Hogbom,  the  ore  was  syngenetic,  being  a  true 
magmatic  segregation  from  a  syenite.  But.  according  to  Doctor 
Stutzer  (1906),  the  segregation  was  later  than  the  consolidation  of  the 
syenite.  He  describes  the  lode  as  an  intrusive  banded  dyke,  of  wliich 
the  chief  constituents  are  magnetic  and  apatite;  and  the  injection 
of  this  dyke  pneumatolytically  affected  the  rocks  beside  it,  producing 
an  intermediate  zone  impregnated  with  ore,  which  he  compares  to 
contact  deposits." 

In  spite  of  the  higli  authority  of  Professor  Hogbom,  I  am  bound  to 
confess  fliat  the  Kiruna  ores  do  not  impress  me  as  of  igneous  forma- 
tion, Tlieir  bed-like  form,  microscopic  structure,  and  poverty  in 
titanium  are  features  in  which  they  differ  from  those  admittedly  due 
to  direct  magmatic  segregation.  The  microscopic  sections  that  I  have 
examined  suggest  that  both  the  magnetite  and  apatite  were  deposited 
from  solution  and  later  than  the  consolidation  of  the  underlying 

"In  n  later  paper,  o/  which  only  a.  short  abstract  lias  been  Insued,  Doctiir 
Stutzer,  bon-ever,  explains  that '"  the  Intrusion  of  the  ore  dyke  was  at  relatively 
the  same  time  as  the  formation  of  the  syenite,  aud  that  the  ores  were  formed 
by  magmatic  separations  in  siUi,  or  as  percgrlnatlni;  magmatic  separations  (mag:- 
matlc  veins  and  bedded  streams)."  He  adds  that  "  pneumatol^sls  plays  no 
Inconsiderable  rOIe  In  the  formation  of  these  veins.''  Doctor  Stutzer's  position 
may  be  siinimarlz^Ml  as  refcnnllng  the  orea  as  collected  by  segr^atlon,  but  depos- 
ited in  their  present  position  by  eniiitlve  after  actions.  • 

i.dbyGoOgle 


GEOLOGY  OF  THE  INNEB  EABTH GBEGOBY.  827 

porphyrite,  which  the  ore  in  part  replaces.  An  examination  of  the 
field  evidence  supports  the  conclusions  of  De  Launay  and  Backstrom 
as  to  the  ore  being  a  bedded  deposit  overlying  a  lava  flow,  but  en- 
larged by  secondary  deposition. . 

FDTDRB   8DPPLT  OF    IRON    OB£S. 

This  conclusion  is  perhaps  economically  disappointing.  The  pos- 
sible existence  of  such  vast  segregations  of  iron  in  the  acid 
igneous  rocks  has  an  important  economic  bearing.  There  is  only 
too  good  reason  to  fear  that  the  chief  iron  ores  are  compara- 
tively limited  in  depth;  for  most  of  them  have  been  formed  by 
water  containing  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid  in  solution,  which  has 
percolated  downward  from  the  surface.  Ores  thus  formed  are  there- 
fore restricted  to  the  comparatively  limited  depths  to  which  water 
can  carry  down  these  gases.  On  the  theory,  however,  that  these  ores 
are  primary  segregations  from  deep-seated  igneous  rocks  there  need 
be  no  limit  to  their  depth.  They  would  rather  tend  to  increase  in 
size  downward,  while  maintaining,  or  even  improving,  in  the  richness 
of  their  metallic  contents.  For  these  bodies  may  be  regarded  as  frag- 
ments of  the  metallic  barysphere  which  have  broken  away  from  it  and 
revolve  around  it  like  satellites  floating  in  the  rocky  crust.  On  this 
conception  these  ore  bodies  would  be  of  as  great  interest  to  the  student 
of  the  earth's  structure  as  their  existence  would  be  reassuring  to  the 
ironmaster,  haunted  as  he  is  by  constant  predictions  of  an  iron  famine 
at  no  distant  date.  It  is  no  doubt  true  that  many  of  the  richest,  most 
accessible,  most  cheaply  mined,  and  most  easily  smelted  iron  ores  have 
been  exhausted.  The  black-band  ironstone  and  the  clay  iron  ores  of 
the  coal  fields,  which  gave  the  British  iron  industry  its  early  su- 
premacy, now  yield  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  ores  smelted  in  our 
furnaces.  The  Mesozoic  beds  of  the  English  Midlands  and  of  York- 
shire still  supply  large  quantities  of  ore.  Nevertheless  the  British 
iron  industry  is  becoming  increasingly  dependent  on  foreign  ores. 
So  it  would  be  pleasant  to  find  that  the  Scandinavian  iron  mines  are 
not  subject  to  the  usual  limits  in  depth.  I  fear  the  typical  iron  de- 
posits of  middle  Sweden  and  of  Gellivara  will  follow  the  general  rule; 
but  Kiruna  may  be  an  exception,  and  its  ores  may  continue  far  down- 
ward along  the  surface  of  its  sheet  of  porphyrite.  The  uncertainty 
in  this  case  lies  in  the  extent  of  the  subsequent  enrichment  and  en- 
largement of  the  bed;  if  most  of  the  ore  is  due  to  secondary  deposi- 
lion,  then  it  may  be  restricted  to  the  comparatively  shallow  depths  at 
which  this  process  can  act;  and  though  that  limit  will  be  of  no  prac- 
tical effect  for  a  century  or  more  to  come,  the  ore  deposit  may  be 
shallow  as  compared  with  gold  mines. 


.y  Google 


828  ANNUAIi  BEPOBI  8UITHS0NTAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

The  geological  evidence  may  convince  us  that  all  the  economically 
important  iron  ores  are  limited  to  shallower  depths  than  lodes  of  gold, 
copper,  and  tin ;  but  this  conclusion  shall  not  enroll  me  among  the 
pessimists  as  to  the  future  of  the  iron  supply.  Twenty  years  ago  a 
paper  on  the  gold  supplies  of  the  world  was  read  to  the  association 
at  the  request  of  the  Section  of  Economics.  About  the  time  that  the 
report  was  issued  there  were  sixty-eight  mining  companies  with  a 
nominal  capital  of  £73,000,000  at  work  upon  the  Rand.  Nevertheless, 
the  author,  accepting  the  view  that  "  the  future  of  South  African 
gold  mining  depends  upon  quartz  veins,"  concluded :  "  There  is  as 
yet  no  evidence  that  the  yield  will  be  sufficient  in  amount  to  materially 
influence  the  world's  production.  As  regards  India,  the  prospect  is 
still  less  hopeful," 

That  quotation  may  be  excused,  as  it  is  not  only  a  warning  of  the 
danger  of  negative  predictions,  but  of  the  unfortunate  consequences 
that  happen  when  geologists  are  unduly  influenced  in  geological  ques- 
tions by  the  opinions  of  those  who  are  not  geologists.  In  economic 
geology,  as  in  theoretical  geology,  we  should  have  greater  confidence 
in  the  value  of  geological  evidence.  Negative  predictions  are  espe- 
cially rash  in  regard  to  iron,  it  being  the  most  abundant  ajid  widely 
distributed  of  all  the  metals.  The  geologist  who  knows  the  amount 
of  iron  in  most  basic  rocks  finds  it  difficult  to  realize  the  possibility 
of  an  iron  famine;  he  can  hardly  picture  to  himself  some  future  iron- 
master complaining  of  "  iron,  iron  everywhere,  and  not  a  ton  to  smelt." 
There  are  reserves  of  low-grade  and  refractory  materials  which  the 
fastidious  ironmaster  can  not  now  use,  since  competition  restricts  him 
to  ores  of  exceptional  richness  and  purity.  When  the  latter  fail,  an 
unlimited  quantity  could  be  made  available  by  concentration  proc- 
esses. The  vast  quantities  of  iron  ores  suitable  for  present  methods 
of  smelting  in  Australia,  Africa,  and  India  show  that  the  practical 
question  is  that  of  supplies  to  existing  iron>working  localities,  and 
not  of  the  universal  failure  of  iron  ores. 

MINING   GEOLOGY    AND  EDUCATION. 

The  genesis  of  ores  and  the  extent  of  future  ore  supplies  are  inti- 
mately connected  questions,  and  the  recognition  of  this  fact  has  led 
to  the  remarkable  growth  of  interest  in  economic  geology.  This 
wider  appreciation  of  the  practical  value  of  academic  geology  should, 
I  venture  to  urge,  be  recognized  among  teachers  by  giving  a  more 
honored  place  to  economic  geology. 

It  was  inevitable  that  until  the  principles  of  geology  had  been 
firmly  established,  the  detailed  study  of  their  application  should  have 
been  postponed.  Now,  however,  last  century's  work  on  academic 
geology  enables  the  difficult  problems  connected  with  the  genesis  of 


QEOLOGT   OP  THE  INNEE  EARTH — GBEGOBY.  829 

metalliferous  ores  to  be  investigated  with  illuminating  and  practically 
useful  results. 

British  interest  in  mining  education  has  therefore  been  revived.  Its 
history  has  been  sadly  fitful.  Lyell,"  in  1832,  deplored  the  superiority 
of  the  Continent  in  this  respect,  as  "  the  art  of  mining  has  long  been 
taught  in  France,  Germany,  and  Hungary  in  scientific  institutions 
ei>tablished  for  that  purpose,"  whereas,  he  continues  (quoting  from 
the  prospectus  of  a  school  of  mines  in  Cornwall,  issued  in  1825), 
"  our  miners  have  been  left  to  themselves,  almost  without  the  assist- 
ance of  scientific  works  in  the  English  language,  and  without  any 
'  school  of  mines/  to  blunder  their  own  way  into  a  certain  degree  of 
practical  skilL  The  inconvenience  of  this  want  of  system  in  a  country 
where  so  much  capital  is  expended,  and  often  wasted,  in  mining  ad- 
ventures, has  been  well  exposed  by  an  eminent  practical  miner." 

Though  the  chief  British  school  of  mines  made  a  laffe  start,  the 
brilliant  originality  of  its  professors  soon  carried  it  into  the  front 
rank ;  but  in  an  evil  day  for  the  mining  school  it  was  united  with  a 
normal  school  for  the  training  of  teachers,  now  the  Royal  College  of 
Science,  and  that  school  by  its  great  success  overwhelmed  its  older 
ally.  Those  interested  in  economic  geology  therefore  welcome  the 
recent  decision  to  separate  the  technical  from  the  educational  and 
other  courses,  while  leaving  the  schools  of  mines  and  science  suf- 
ficiently connected  for  successful  cooperation.  This  policy  should 
give  such  opportunities  for  the  teaching  of  mining  research  that  we 
may  not  always  have  to  confess,  as  at  present,  that  British  contribu- 
tions to  mining  geology  do  not  rank  as  high  as  those  made  to  other 
branches  of  our  science. 

Regrets  are  sometimes  expressed,  and  perhaps  still  more  often  felt, 
at  the  tendency  in  scientific  teaching  to  become  more  technical ;  but  I, 
for  one,  do  not  fear  evil  from  any  such  change.  It  is  possible  that 
the  educational  conflict  of  the  future  will  be  between  academic  science 
and  technical  science,  on  grounds  in  some  respects  analogous  to  those 
between  classics  and  science  during  the  last  century.  The  advocates 
of  the  educational  value  of  technical  science  are  not  inspired  by  mere 
impatience  with  the  apparently  useless,  for  they  accept  the  principle 
that  the  essence  of  education  is  method,  not  matter.  Therefore,  they 
claim  that  the  methods  and  principles  of  science  can  be  better  taught 
by  subjects  which  are  being  used  on  a  large  scale  in  modern  industries 
than  by  subjects  of  which  the  interest  is  still  purely  theoretical. 
Those  who  fear  that  academic  science  will  be  neglected  if  technical 
science  be  used  in  education  may  be  encouraged  by  the  brilliant  revival 
of  classical  research  since  classics  lost  its  educational  monopoly. 
Academic  science  is  even  less  likely  to  be  neglected.     It  will  always 


»C.  Lyell,  "PrlnclpleB  of  Geology,"  Vol.  I,  2d  ed.   (1832). 


lOgk- 


880  ANNUAL  HEPOBT  BMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

have  its  fascination  for  those  intellectual  hermits — shall  I  not  say 
those  saints  of  science! — who  prefer  to  work  for  love  of  knowledge, 
free  from  the  worrying  intrusion  of  the  mixed  problems  and  fickle 
conditions  of  the  industrial  world ;  and  the  greater  the  progress  of 
applied  science  the  more  urgent  will  be  its  demands  for  help  from 
pure  science,  and,  as  a  necessary  consequence,  the  wider  will  be  the 
appreciation  and  the  more  generous  the  endowment  of  scientific  re- 
search. 

Technical  education  must  be  as  rigorous  as  that  in  academic  educa- 
tion, and  its  connection  with  the  fundamental  principles  must  be  as 
intimate.  When  so  taught,  economic  problems  provide  at  least  as 
good  a  mental  training  as  those  branches  of  science  which  are  purely 
theoretical.  If  the  new  Imperial  College  of  Science  and  Technology 
carry  on  the  mission  for  which  the  Geological  Society  was  founded  a 
century  ago,  if  it  inspire  its  students  to  have  their  delight  in  using 
past  discoveries  on  the  open  surface  of  the  earth,  so  that  they  may 
penetrate  to  what  is  within,  then  they  will  gain  that  sure  knowledge 
of  the  formation  and  distribution  of  ores  which  is  of  ever-growing 
jtational  importance. 


.y  Google 


.y  Google 


,Goclgle 


THE  SALTON  SEA. 


By  F.  H.  Newell, 
Director  V.  8,  ReclamaHon  Service. 


GENERAL  STATEMENT. 


The  Salton  Sea  and  its  apparently  miraculous  growth  has  given 
rise  to  almost  innumerable  popular  articles  and  discussions,  many 
of  which  are  founded  upon  misapprehension  of  the  facts.  The 
fiillacies  of  statement  and  of  conclusion,  both  as  to  the  origin 
of  the  Salton  Sea  and  as  to  its  beneficial  effect  upon  the  gen- 
eral climate  of  southwestern  United  States,  are  both  interesting  and 
amusing.  The  phenomena  connected  with  its  rapid  increase  in  size 
have  attracted  wide  attention  and  most  astonishing  tales  have  been 
told  of  the  sea  and  of  its  benefits  to  surrounding  areas.  At  the  same 
time  a  full  knowled^  of  the  changes  which  have  been  and  are  taking 
place  is  highly  instructive. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  sea  is  not  a  sea  at  alt,  as  shown  in 
PL  I,  but  an  accumulation  of  waste  water  in  the  bottom  of  a  depres- 
sion below  sea  level.  Relatively  to  a  real  sea  it  is  a  mere  puddle  or 
"  duck  pond  "  in  a  vast  extent  of  arid  desert,  which  at  one  time  was 
the  floor  for  a  large  body  of  fresh  water.  It  is  not  a  new  thing  but  a 
revival  in  historic  times  of  what  has  probably  occurred  frequently 
in  geolo^c  history.  The  widely  advertised  effect  upon  the  climate 
of  the  expanded  Salton  Sea  is  practically  negligible.  The  wonderful 
results  attributed  to  the  sea  in  increasing  the  rainfall  in  the  South- 
western States  and  Territories  is  a  case  of  "  placing  the  cart  before 
the  horse,"  that  is  to  say,  the  apparent  increase  in  rainfall  throughout 
the  West  is  more  likely  to  have  been  an  indirect  cause  of  the  increase 
in  area  of  the  Salton  Sea  than  the  reverse. 


LOCATION. 


The  so-called  Salton  Sea  or  Cahuilla  Lake  of  Dr.  W.  P.  Blake 
is  a  body  of  highly  saline  water  in  what  has  been  until  recently 
San  Diego  County,  now  Imperial  County,  California.  This  county 
is  adjacent  to  the  Mexican  border  lying  immediately  west  of  the 


«)Oglc 


8S2  AJTHtJAL  BEPOBT  BMITHB0NIA17   JNSTITtrTION,  1907. 

Colorado  River.  A  great,  if  not  the  greater,  part  of  the  county  is 
below  sea  level,  and  the  Salton  Sea  consists  of  the  waste  or  seepage 
water  which  has  found  its  way  to  the  lowest  point  in  the  broad  extent 
of  depressed  desert  lands. 

In  former  geologic  times  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  California  ex- 
tended about  150  miles  farther  north  than  it  does  at  present.  Through 
causes  to  be  later  described  the  head  of  the  gulf  was  cut  off,  leaving  a 
depression  filled  with  water  but  disconnected  from  the  gulf  by  a 
broad  area  of  low  land.  This  water  gradually  diminished  through 
evaporation  until  when  the  country  was  first  discovered  by  the  white 
man  there  was  little  if  any  of  the  water  left  in  the  deepest  part  of  the 
basin,  about  300  feet  below  sea  level.  This  small  remnant  of  water 
by  reason  of  concentration  by  evaporation  is  extremely  salt,  so  much 
Ko  that  a  salt  factory  was  established  in  its  margin. 

Its  original  outline  when  discovered  by  white  men  is  not  accurately 
known,  as  the  shores  have  such  a  gentle  slope  that  with  the  covering 
of  salt  upon  the  margin  it  was  difficult  from  a  distance  to  determine 
where  the  water  ended  and  the  comparatively  dry  land  began.  It  is 
possible  that  in  some  years  the  water  may  have  entirely  disappeared, 
leaving  broad  flat  plains  of  white  salt  resembling  in  the  distance  the 
waves  of  an  inland  lake. 

FECULIAB   OEOGBAPHT. 

The  peculiar  geographic  conditions  are  determined  largely  by 
the  fact  that  the  Colorado  Kiver  of  the  west,  draining  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  arid  regions  of  the  United  States,  flowed  not 
directly  into  the  ancient  head  of  the  gulf  but  entered  this  body 
of  water  at  a  point  about  100  miles  below  the  head.  The  ex- 
tremely muddy  river,  carrying  the  washings  from  the  mountains 
and  plateaus  of  the  north,  deposited  its  load  of  sediment  on  reach- 
the  salt  water  afid  spread  this  out  in  a  broad  alluvial  fan,  ultimately 
filling  that  portion  of  the  gulf,  cutting  off  the  head  and  leaving  it 
as  a  detached  body  of  water. 

The  Colorado  Eiver,  flowing  out  upon  the  broad  delta  of  mud, 
wandered  in  many  channels  at  different  times,  occasionally  turn- 
ing northward  into  the  cut-off  portion  of  the  gulf  and  again 
turning  southward  into  what  is  now  the  head  of  the  present  Gulf 
of  California.  There  are  thus  left  innumerable  ancient  channels, 
some  of  them  intersecting  and  all  of  them  with  very  low  banks  over 
which  the  water  pours  in  broad  sheets  in  time  of  flood. 

The  channel  of  the  Colorado  River,  as  known  in  historical  times, 
and  its  proper  channel  as  far  as  political  divisions  are  concerned 
has  a  nearly  southerly  course,  extending  from  about  the  location  of 
the  town  of  Yuma  to  a  point  near  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  California. 


Goo'^lc 


THE  SALTON  SEA — NEWELL.  888 

But  this  channel  is  by  no  means  fixed  by  nature.  The  river  reserves 
the  right  in  time  of  flood  to  wander  where  it  pleases  and  to  spill 
over  its  banks.  During  the  process  of  spilling  it  builds  up  its  banks 
and  tends  to  raise  the  entire  countiy  by  the  deposit  of  the  mud. 
As  the  Qood  recedes  the  waters  generally  return  to  the  former  chan- 
nels and  close,  by  deposits  of  mud,  the  outlets  which  have  been  made 
during  the  Bood  season. 

tmaTABLE   CONDITIONS   OP  THE   COLORADO   RIVEB. 

The  river  may  be  considered  to  be  in  unstable  equilibrium.  There 
is  to  the  west  and  northwest  a  large  extent  of  land  which  is  lower 
than  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  when  the  stream  occasionally  gets  out 
of  its  normal  channel  and  finds  one  or  more  of  its  old  channels  run- 
ning off  toward  the  north  or  northwest,  its  waters  ultimately  con- 
verge toward  the  depression  in  which  is  now  located  the  body  of 
water  we  know  as  the  Salton  Sea.  Thus,  although  nature  has  ar- 
ranged that  the  river  shall  return  usually  to  the  channel  it  has  been 
occupying  for  many  hundreds  of  years,  yet  occasionally  it  is  permitted 
to  wander  at  will  and  to  discharge  some  of  its  surplus  waters  north- 
erly into  the  ancient  lake  bed. 

With  these  conditions  of  imstable  equilibrium,  as  above  noted, 
it  requires  only  a  very  little  interference  from  man  to  induce  the 
river  to  leave  its  ancient  channel  and  to  wander  away  into  some  of 
the  courses  pursued  in  its  youth.  This  interference  has  taken  place, 
and  as  a  result  we  have  the  rapid  increase  in  accumulation  of  waste 
waters  in  the  sink  or  depression,  this  increase  being  particularly 
noticeable  during  the  years  1906  and  1907. 

CONTINITAL  DANQERS   OF  OVXR7LOW. 

If  man  will  keep  out  of  this  ancient  basin  in  which  the  waters 
of  the  Colorado  River  have  gathered  from  time  to  time,  little 
may  be  written.  If  we  go  into  this  depression  below  sea  level 
and  interfere  with  natural  conditions,  or,  as  we  say,  "  develop 
the  country,"  we  are  brought  face  to  face  with  the  great  forces 
of  the  river  and  the  uncertainty  as  to  whether  it  will  desire  to 
continue  in  the  channel  in  which  we  happened  to  have  found  it. 
The  river  may  take  a  notion  at  any  time  to  resume  some  one  of  its 
former  channels  and  to  fill  with  water  the  basin  lying  below  sea  level, 
and  which  has  always  been  subject  to  its  play.  It  holds  over  the  set- 
tler and  tiller  of  the  soil,  or  town  builder,  the  threat  that,  unless  con- 
tinually watched  or  checked,  it  may  prefer  to  flow  not  southerly  into 
the  Gulf  of  California  but  to  turn  abruptly  to  the  north  and  swell  the 
waters  of  the  Salton  Sea. 


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884  ANNUAL  BEPOET  SMITHBONIAN   INSTITUTIOK,  1907. 

These  old  channels,  some  of  them  intertwining  and  scarcely  distin- 
guishable upon  the  surface,  have  not  all  been  traced  out,  but  a  few  of 
them  are  so  well  marked  as  to  have  received  a  distinct  name  and  are 
shown  upon  the  map.  The  most  northerly  of  these,  the  one  lying 
immediately  south  of  the  international  boundary,  is  known  as  the 
Alamo.  South  of  thb  the  next  decided  channel  or  series  of  channels 
is  called  the  Fadrones,  and  still  south  of  these  is  a  channel  known  as 
the  Pescadero,  this  latter  extending  westerly  to  an  open  body  of  water 
known  as  Volcano  Lake,  from  the  fact  that  it  is  surrounded  by  a  num- 
ber of  very  remarkable  small  mud  volcanoes. 

Extending  northerly  from  Volcano  Lake  are  channels,  leading 
through  New  River,  paralleling  in  places  the  Alamo  and  ending  in 
the  Salton  Sea.  Leading  southerly  from  Volcano  Lake  and  from  the 
channels  of  the  Pescadero  is  a  broad  stream  known  as  Hardy's  Colo- 
rado, one  of  the  largest  of  the  ancient  beds  of  the  great  river,  which 
joins  the  latter  shortly  before  it  enters  the  Gulf  of  California. 

HisTonr  or  recent  overflow. 

To  understand  the  cause  of  the  recent  rapid  increase  in  the 
Salton  Sea  it  is  necessary  to  go  back  a  little  into  the  history  of 
the  development  of  the  desert  land  lying  south  of  the  Salton  Sea. 
This  land  has  been  known  for  some  decades  and  has  had  a  reputa- 
tion of  extreme  aridity.  Certain  adventurous  men,  more  far- 
sighted  than  others,  however,  saw  the  possibilities  of  agricultural  de- 
velopment, and  after  much  negotiation  finally  formed  a  company 
which,  through  a  subsidiary  corporation  formed  under  the  Mexican 
law,  succeeded  in  perfecting  plans  for  diverting  some  of  the  water  of 
the  Colorado  River.  This  was  done  by  a  cut  in  the  west  bank  of 
the  river  in  the  United  States  near  the  international  boundary.  The 
ditch  or  canal  thus  made  carried  water  south  across  the  line  into 
Mexico,  and  then  into  the  head  of  one  of  the  ancient  channels  of  the 
Alamo  River.  This  company  is  known  as  the  California  Development 
Company  of  New  Jersey.  Its  subsidiary  Mexican  corporation  is 
known  as  La  Sociedad  de  Yrrigacion  y  Terranos  de  la  Baja  Cali- 
fornia (Sociedad  Anonima). 

Finally  the  water  is  diverted  back  into  the  United  States  and  is 
there  disposed  of  to  numerous  corporations  of  irrigators  for  the  pur- 
pose of  receiving  and  distributing  the  water  to  the  cultivators  of  the 
soil.  PI.  II  shows  the  timber  head  gates  at  what  is  known  as  Sharp's 
heading,  upon  which  depends  the  water  supply  of  the  lands  of  Im- 
perial Valley. 

The  project  of  reclamation  of  the  desert  was  an  ambitious  one  and 
with  the  capital  available  was,  to  say  the  least,  hazardous.  In  fact, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  the  original  promoters  of  the  enterprise  rea- 
lized the  great  expenditure  which  would  be  necessary  to  make  this  a 


Gooylc 


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THE  SAIiTOH   SEA KBWELL.  886 

permaDent  success.  However,  there  is  much  to  he  commended  in  the 
vigor  and  energy  with  which  the  difficulties  were  met  and  the 
otstacles  overcome  for  the  time  being.  Water  was  actually  led  from 
the  Colorado  Kiver  around  the  sand  hills  which  lie  along  the  inter- 
national boundary  and  then  distributed  to  the  canals  of  the  irrigators 
covering  the  desert  land  below  sea  level  and  stretching  northerly  from 
the  Mexican  boundary  nearly  to  the  Salton  Sea. 

The  very  boldness  of  the  undertaking  and  the  novelty  of  the  situa- 
tion added  to  the  popular  interest,  which  was  stimulated  by  advertis- 
ing. Thousands  of  settlers  came  in  and  took  up  the  land  under  the 
homestead  or  desert  land  acts;  the  water  was  applied  to  the  fields  and 
thousands  of  acres  were  brought  under  irrigation.  The  success  at- 
tained was  from  the  first  notable  and  the  failures  were  overlooked  in 
the  general  prosperity  resulting  from  the  rapid  increase  in  popula- 
tion. 

THE  CCT  IN  THE  BANK  OF  THE  DIVER. 

Under  the  original  plans  water  was  to  be  taken  out  into  the 
United  States,  conducted  in  a  canal  nearly  parallel  to  the  course 
of  the  river,  but  slightly  diverging  from  it,  until  the  canal 
reached  one  of  the  many  natural  slou^s  or  depressions  which 
led  into  the  Alamo  channel.  A  second  heading  was  made  im- 
mediately below  the  international  boundary,  so  that  water  could 
be  taken  into  the  canal  either  in  United  States  soil  or  in  Mexico. 
The  rapid  development  of  the  country  and  increasing  demand  for 
water  and  the  difficulties  of  keeping  open  the  original  heading, 
due  to  the  accumulation  of  sediment,  finally  forced  the  owners  of 
the'canal  to  look  about  for  some  quicker  way  of  getting  the  needed 
supply  to  the  agricultural  lands. 

About  the  time  that  the  greatest  need  of  water  was  felt  in  the  valley 
the  California  Development  Company  appears  to  have  reached  its 
limits  as  regards  funds,  and  with  the  pressure  from  the  farmers  for 
more  water,  it  became  necessary  to  make  a  hazardous  move.  It  was 
finally  determined,  much  against  the  advice  of  the  engineers,  to  cut 
into  the  hank  of  the  river  and  make  what  is  known  as  heading  No.  3, 
about  4  miles  below  headings  No.  1  and  No.  2.  This  latter  heading 
afforded  a  short,  quick  descent  from  the  river  to  the  Alamo  channel. 

Accordingly,  in  October,  1904,  what  is  known  as  heading  No.  3, 
this  being  40  to  50  feet  wide  and  6  to  8  feet  deep,  was  cut  in  the  mud 
hank  of  the  river  and  a  small  amount  of  water  was  allowed  to  flow 
down,  relieving  the  needs  of  the  farmers.  The  California  Develop- 
ment Company  did  not  have  approved  plans  or  funds  available  to 
build  head  works  in  this  opening,  and  it  was  assumed  that,  with 
ordinary  care  and  watching,  the  channel  could  he  kept  open  just 
sufficient  to  allow  the  needed  amount  of  water  to  pass  out  from  the 
west  bank.  ,_-ib.GoOQlc 


886  AKNUAL  BBPOBT  SHITHSOKUN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

With  the  next  rise  in  the  river,  however,  the  fears  of  the  engineers 
were  fulfilled.  Following  a  capricious  mood,  the  river  concluded  to 
go  down  the  easy  channel  toward  the  Alamo  and  sent  from  day  to 
day  an  ever-increasing  flood,  rapidly  eroding  the  channel.  This  con- 
tinued until,  in  the  spring  of  1905,  the  entire  river  was  passing  by 
an  abrupt  turn  to  the  westward  down  the  Alamo  channel,  spread- 
ing out  over  the  low  ground,  and  ultimately  converging  toward  Vol- 
cano Lake,  or  northerly  into  the  New  River  and  the  Salton  Sea. 

The  old  channel  of  the  river,  where  it  formed  a  part  of  the  inter- 
national boundary  and  at  points  below,  soon  became  completely  dry 
and  rapidly  assumed  the  ordinary  appearance  of  the  alluvial  desert. 
Willows  quickly  sprung  up,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  under 
the  influence  of  the  winds  and  rapidly  growing  vegetation,  the  chan- 
nel would  have  disappeared  as  a  conspicuous  feature. 

CDTTING  OP   NEW   CHANNEL. 

The  water  entering  through  heading  No.  3  filled  to  overflow- 
ing the  natural  bed  of  the  Alamo.  It  swept  out  across  the  desert, 
diverging  and  converging,  forming  many  streams,  and  in  places 
covering  the  nearly  level  ground  with  a  ^eet  of  water  wbidi  ex- 
tended as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach.  All  of  the  soil  of  this 
country  had  been  deposited  by  the  wind  or  by  the  river  in  its  previous 
excursions,  and  hence  consisted  of  extremely  soft  layers  of  sandy 
silt  or  fine  mud.  As  the  water  progressed  toward  the  depression 
filled  by  the  Salton  Sea  it  tended  to  gather  into  narrow  streams. 
Gaining  velocity  with  increase  of  slope,  these  began  quickly  to  estab- 
lish for  themselves  definite  beds  by  scouring  out  the  soft  material.  At 
first  slight  falls  or  riffles  were  formed.  Later  these  progressed  back- 
ward, deepening  as  the  water  scoured  out  the  chamiel  which  had 
formed  in  the  soft  earth. 

Converging  from  broad  sheets,  water  poured  over  the  edges  of  the 
rapidly  eroding  silt  and  in  some  places,  as  shown  in  PI,  IV,  formed 
waterfalls  comparable  almost  to  Niagara  in  their  size  and  in  their 
apparent  height,  when  compared  with  the  broad  level  plain.  These 
falls  in  some  places  in  the  softer  beds  progressed  backward  at  the 
rate  of  about  a  mile  in  three  days.  Occasionally  the  water  would 
strike  a  harder  layer  and  the  rate  of  progress  would  be  slower.  As 
these  falls  retreated  backward,  forming  a  definite  channel  for  the 
waters,  the  broad  expanse  was  suddenly  drawn  down,  and  what  was 
to  the  eye  a  wide  lake  became  in  a  few  hours  a  mud  flat,  traversed 
by  a  deep,  narrow  gorge,  a  thousand  feet  or  less  in  width,  filled 
by  a  foaming  torrent. 

Sometimes  the  water  coming  from  Colorado  River  overflowed  the 
fields  of  the  farmers  and  the  grain  or  alfalfa  was  overtopped  by  the 


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£  Submerged  Towns  of 


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THE  SALTON   BEA — NEWELL.  887 

muddy  flood.  The  waters  converging  to  form  the  channel  as  above 
described  would  dig  throuf^  the  fields  these  narrow,  deep  gorges, 
as  shown  in  PI.  Ill,  and  forever  destroy  what  had  been  a  prosperous 
home.  In  a  few  cases,  where  small  towns  had  been  built,  such  as 
Calexico  and  Mexicala,  the  inhabitants  gathered  together  and  with 
strenuous  exertions,  working  day  and  night,  attempted  by  means  of 
low  dikes  to  hold  back  the  flood  and  direct  its  course.  A  view  looking 
over  one  of  the  dikes  is  given  in  PI.  IV.  In  the  case  of  Mexicala 
the  converging  torrents,  forming  a  deep  channel,  began  to  progress  in 
their  cutting  toward  the  town.  Attempts  were  made  by  means  of 
heavy  explosives  to  change  the  direction  of  the  back  cutting  and  turn 
it  away  from  the  settled  country.  All  this,  however,  was  without 
effect,  and  the  wide,  deep  channel  turned  abruptly  toward  the  town, 
cutting  a  chasm,  as  shown  by  PI.  V,  into  which  toppled,  in  succession, 
houses  and  barns,  the  railroad  station  and  a  large  part  of  the  railroad 
track. 

It  soon  became  apparent  that  the  danger  of  this  back  cutting  was 
not  confined  alone  to  the  destruction  of  agricultural  lands  and  of 
houses  and  fields;  but  that  if  it  continued  it  would  ultimately  involve 
the  heads  of  the  canals  leading  water  out  to  the  remaining  agricul- 
tural lands.  When  once  the  heads  of  these  canals  were  cut  off  by  the 
retreat  of  the  channel  it  would  be  impossible  to  keep  an  adequate 
supply  for  the  valley.  In  other  words,  once  these  headings  were  de- 
stroyed, although  there  would  be  a  flood  rushing  down  to  Salton  Sea 
through  deep,  steep-sided  walls  of  earth,  as  shown  in  PI.  VI,  yet  there 
would  not  be  any  water  available  on  the  surface  for  the  crops  or  for 
the  ordinary  uses  and  necessities  of  man  and  beast.  More  than  this, 
it  was  readily  appreciated  that  the  back  cutting,  continuing  to  the 
Colorado  River,  would  in  time  lower  the  bed  of  that  stream,  and  allow 
it  to  deepen  at  Yuma  to  a  point  where  it  would  no  longer  be  possible 
to  divert  water  by  gravity  for  irrigation  in  the  vicinity  of  that  town. 
Then  continuing  upstream,  it  would  imperil  the  safety  of  the  great 
dam  being  built  by  the  Government  across  the  Colorado  River.  The 
situation  became  very  serious  and  alarm  was  felt  for  the  future,  not 
merely  of  the  lands  under  cultivation  in  Imperial  Valley,  but  of  Uiose 
along  the  Colorado  River  in  California  and  Arizona. 

BIBE  OF  THE  SALTON  SEA. 

The  rapid  influx  of  the  entire  volume  of  the  Colorado  River 
was  quickly  noticeable  in  the  steady  rise  of  the  Salton  Sea,  which, 
swollen  by  the  muddy  torrent,  gradually  engulfed  the  works  of  the 
New  Liverpool  Salt  Company  and  creeping  up  on  the  ranches  near 
Mecca,  threatened  to  submerge  the  main  line  of  the  Southern  Pacific 
Railroad. 


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838 


ANNUAL  REPORT  8MITHS0NIAK  INSTITUTION,  1907. 


The  bottom  of  the  sink  in  November,  1904,  just  after  the  cut  was 
made,  stood  273.5  feet  below  mean  sea  level.  The  rise  during  Novem- 
ber and  December  of  that  year  was  0.8  feet  During  1905  it  was  21.9 
feet.  In  1906  the  water  continued  to  rise  and  increased  in  depth  by 
49,8  feet ;  but  in  1907  the  closing  of  the  break  in  February  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  decline,  beginning  in  March,  the  net  fait  being,  however, 
only  0.18  feet.  The  level  on  January  1,  1908,  was  201.18  feet  below 
mean  tide. 

The  following  table  gives  the  amount  of  rise  and  fall  by  months, 
together  with  the  altitude  of  the  water  surface  at  the  end  of  each 
year,  the  principal  data  being  obtained  from  the  report  of  W.  B. 
Ctapp,  printed  on  page  33  of  Water  Supply  and  Irrigation  Paper 
No.  213  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey: 

Rise  and  fall  of  the  Balton  Sea,  tn  feet. 


UoDth. 

,»,. 

■». 

■m 

1907. 

ISOB. 

i.t 

s« 

-o.« 

■1 

-0 

70 

30 

« 
IB 
SO 

70 

» 

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-am 

A 

— o» 

Z^:':::::::::::":.::.:.:::. : i : 

^^  r ::"::: 

MoTTOibcr— — 

^ 

il.B 

IS 

-a 

The  area  of  the  Salton  Sea  at  various  elevations  is  shown  in  the 
following  table  prepared  by  W.  B.  Clapp,  of  the  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey ; 

Area  of  the  Balton  Sea. 


teft. 

Area.  Id 

Dllterence. 
Id  square 
mllH. 

STZ 

levn.  Id 
t«t. 

Aiea.  Ill 

DHTersDce. 

270 

2« 

ta 

170 

687 

a 

MO 

272 

27 

ISO 

OSE 

48 

M9 

29 

ISO 

sw 

338 

780 

S2 

230 

ate 

3S 

130 

■X 

H 

301 

830 

M 

210 

198 

S8 

110 

802 

00 

200 

MS 

3ft 

100 

OD! 

800 

M6 

G3e 

180 

S4S 

42 

• 

1,788 

Uoog  Ic 


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THE  BALTON   SEA — NEWELL.  839 

In  its  course  from  New  Orleans  to  Los  Angeles  the  Southern 
Pacific  ^stem,  passing  through  southern  Arizona,  reaches  the  Colo- 
rado River  at  Yuma,  which  it  crosses  on  a  bridge  leading  north. 
It  then  swings  westwards  and,  climbing  over  a  low  ridge,  descends 
into  the  depression  occupied  in  part  by  the  Salton  Sea.  When 
it  reaches  a  point  about  250  feet  below  sea  level,  it  begins  to  climb 
out  northwesterly  through  the  passes  which  lead  to  the  valleys  in 
which  are  situated  the  prosperous  towns  of  southern  California. 

The  Salton  Sea  had  only  a  few  feet  to  rise  before  it  seriously 
interfered  with  traffic  on  the  Southern  Pacific.  The  wind  driving 
the  waters  toward  the  railroad  imperiled  the  track,  and  it  became 
necessary  to  rebuild  it  rapidly  at  a  higher  elevation.  This  was  done 
several  times  in  succession,  and  temporary  track  after  temporary 
track  was  laid  down  out  of  immediate  reach  of  the  waters  in  the 
hope  that  the  floods  would  subside.  Popular  attention  was  drawn  to 
this  increase  in  water  in  the  sea,  and  without  seeking  the  cause 
many  statements  were  printed  to  the  effect  that  the  ocean  had  broken 
through  a  crack  or  fissure  in  the  earth  and  was  coming  up  through 
the  bottom  of  Salton  Sea.  The  very  simple  explanation  of  the  flow 
of  the  Colorado  River  into  the  lake  was  not  accepted  by  the  seekers 
for  the  miraculous  and  many  profound  theories  were  promulgated, 
de^ng  the  laws  of  geology  or  of  nature  in  general. 

The  Southern  Pacific  officials,  however,  were  well  aware  of  the 
cause  of  the  difficulty  under  which  they  were  laboring,  and  finally, 
finding  that  the  California  Development  Company  were  unable  to 
control  the  floods,  they,  by  an  agreement  dated  June  20,  1905,  vir- 
tually took  possession  of  the  company,  loaning  it  sufficient  money  to 
begin  the  attempt  to  close  the  break.  They  also  rebuilt  40  miles  of 
track  on  the  200-foot  contour  below  sea  level  and  for  possible  future 
use  graded  another  line  on  the  150-foot  contour  below  sea  level. 

CLOSniO   THE  BBEAK   TS   TH£   COLOBADO   RIVEB. 

The  history  of  the  attempts  to  close  the  break  are  exceedingly 
interesting  from  an  engineering  standpoint  and  the  successive  failures 
are  highly  instructive  to  one  concerned  with  the  control  of  alluvial 
f^reams.  An  excellent  description  is  given  by  Mr.  C.  E.  Grunsky 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  for 
December,  1907. 

In  all,  seven  or  eight  distinct  attempts  were  made  with  almost  as 
many  failures.  In  each  case  success  was  nearly  attained,  but  through 
fcome  inadequate  preparation  or  sudden  rise  of  the  river  the  works 
were  swept  away.  It  seemed  as  though  the  river  were  taking  a  ma- 
licious delight  in  thwarting  the  efforts  of  the  engineers.  At  first  it 
was  assumed  that  the  expenditure  of  a  small  amount  of  money  would 


840  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

be  sufficient  to  close  the  break.  The  throwing  back  of  the  river 
into  its  original  channel  was  looked  Qpon  as  merely  an  ordinary 
effort  in  engineering  work.  When,  however,  attempt  after  attempt 
failed  and  larger  and  larger  expenditures  were  made  until  over  a 
million  dollars  were  involved,  the  Southern  Pacific  officials  began  to 
awake  to  the  fact  that  they  had  a  difficult  problem  on  hand  and 
one  which  required  far  better  equipment  and  preparation  than  had 
been  before  provided.  Finally  the  supreme  effort  was  made,  and  on 
November  6,  1906,  the  break  was  closed  and  the  river  forced  to 
resume  its  normal  channel  to  the  gulf. 

This  condition  continued  for  just  about  a  month  when,  on  Decem- 
ber 7,  1906,  the  river  in  a  sudden  rise  forced  its  way  under  the  dikes, 
in  a  few  hours  swept  away  a  portion  of  the  protecting  works, 
passed  around  the  rock  dam,  and  again  found  its  way  to  the  Salton 
Sea.  Then  came  popular  despair.  A  million  dollars  had  been  ex- 
pended and  there  seemed  no  way  of  putting  the  river  back  again  in 
place  without  having  available  an  equipment  and  a  sum  of  money 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  people  most  immediately  interested.  Ap- 
peals were  made  to  the  governor  of  California  and  by  the  governor 
of  California  to  the  President  of  the  United  States.  These  were  given 
prompt  attention.  President  Roosevelt  took  the  matter  up  at  once 
and  hastened  to  investigate,  finding  that  the  only  man  who  could 
handle  the  situation,  who  had  the  equipment,  the  money,  and  the 
facilities  was  Mr.  E.  H.  Harriman,  the  president  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  Company,  who  at  the  same  time  controlled  the  destinies  of  the 
California  Development  Company. 

At  first,  in  the  pressure  of  large  affairs,  Mr.  Harriman  overlooked 
the  fact  that  he  was  virtually  the  controller  of  the  destiny  of  the  Cali- 
fornia Development  Company,  and  through  this  of  the  fortunes  of  a 
large  community.  He  hesitated  to  advance  more  money  and  wired  to 
the  President  to  this  effect.  Mr.  Roosevelt,  in  his  telegram  of  Decem- 
ber 20  to  Mr.  Harriman,  stated  that — 

This  le  a  matter  of  sucb  vital  importance  tbat  I  wish  to  repeat  that  there  to 
not  tbe  sllgbteat  excuse  for  the  Development  Company  waiting  an  hour  for  the 
action  of  the  Government.  It  la  its  duty  to  meet  the  present  danger  Immediately 
and  then  tbe  Oovemment  will  tafae  up  with  it,  as  It  has  already  taken  np  with 
Mexico,  the  question  of  providing  in  permanent  shape  against  the  recurrence  of 
the  danger. 

Mr.  Harriman's  reply  on  the  same  day  stated  that — 

You  seem  to  be  under  the  Impression  that  the  Callfomta  Development  Com- 
pany is  a  Southern  Pacific  enterprise.  Tills  Is  erroneous.  It  has  nothing  to  do 
with  this  work  or  the  opening  of  the  canal.  We  are  not  Interested  in  Its  stock 
and  In  no  way  control  it  We  have  loaned  it  some  money  to  assist  Its  dealing 
with  tbe  situation.  What  the  Southern  Pacific  Company  has  done  was  for  the 
protection  of  settlers  as  well  as  of  its  tracbs,  but  we  have  determined  to  move 
the  tracks  to  higher  ground  anyway.    However,  In  view  of  yoai^m 


THE  SALTON   SEA — NBWBLL.  841 

glvlog:  anthorltr  to  tbe  Southern  Pacific  offices  In  the  West  to  proceed  at  once 
wltb  efforts  to  close  the  break,  trustliig  that  the  Oovenunent  as  soon  as  yon 
can  secure  the  necessary  CongresBlonal  action  will  assist  us  with  the  burden 

The  President,  in  rep]y,  said: 

I  am  delighted  to  receive  yonr  telegram.  Hare  at  tmce  directed  the  Reclama- 
tion Serylce  to  get  Into  touch  with  you  so  that  as  soon  as  Congress  reassembles 
I  can  recommend  legislation  which  will  provide  against  a  repetition  of  this  dis- 
aster and  malce  provision  for  sn  eqaltable  distribution  of  the  burden. 

As  a  result  of  these  telegrams,  received  in  rapid  succession,  Mr. 
Harritnan  concluded  again  to  make  an  effort,  and  on  January  12, 
1907,  the  President,  in  accordance  with  his  promise,  laid  the  whole 
matter  before  Congress.  The  final  effort  was  successful  and  before  the 
time  of  the  spring  flood  of  1907  the  river  had  once  more  been  restored 
to  its  proper  channel.  During  the  summer  a  series  of  dikes  were  built, 
intended  to  prevent  any  possibility  of  a  recurrence  of  the  danger  in 
that  part  of  the  river. 

DuncDi/rr  op  clobuke. 

To  one  who  is  accustomed  to  the  surroundings  of  the  ordinary 
river,  the  problem  of  turning  back  tJi6  Colorado  Eiver  into  its 
former  channel  may  not  appear  to  bo  a  very  difficult  matter.  But, 
to  explain  the  reason  of  the  failures  in  rapid  succession,  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  river  at  this  point  flows  over  deposits 
of  silt  and  fine  sand  whose  character  is  such  that  under  a  swift 
current  they  are  torn  up  and  carried  away  with  wonderful  rapidity. 
Whenever  the  channel  in  any  notable  degree  was  confined,  the  water 
at  once  began  burrowing  and  cutting  so  that  in  some  cases  it  is 
claimed  that  wooden  piles  over  70  feet  long  were  cut  out  by  the  river 
faster  than  they  could  be  driven. 

It  was  a  simple  matter  to  bring  the  work  of  closure  or  diversion 
to  a  point  where  it  seemed  as  though  the  river  could  be  quickly  turned, 
but  the  constriction  of  the  channel  due  to  any  structure  resulted  in 
increasing  the  speed  of  the  water  and  in  adding  to  its  consequent 
erosive  force  to  an  extent  such  that  in  a  few  hours  enormous  gaps  were 
created. 

Added  to  the  unfavorable  character  of  the  bed  and  banks  was  the 
fact  that  the  river  seldom  remained  quiet  for  any  considerable  length 
of  time.  It  was  subject  to  short  violent  floods,  especially  from  its 
tributary,  the  Gila.  These  occurring  at  a  time  when  the  work  was  in 
a  critical  condition  quickly  rendered  useless  the  efforts  of  the  con- 
structors. 

The  method  finally  adopted  for  turning  the  stream  was  one  whose 
success  depended  upon  having  at  hand  a  large  railroad  equipment 
and  an  enormous  amount  of  material  which  could  be  quickly  trans- 
ported. 

Digilized  by  Google 


842  AKKUAL   HEPOBT    BHITHSONUN    INSTITUTION,   19ff7, 

The  closure  completed  in  December,  1906,  and  the  closure  made  the 
following  spring  were  essentially  similar  in  plan.  Piles  were  driven 
across  the  break,  as  shown  on  PI.  VII,  and  upon  these  parallel  lines 
of  railroad  were  constructed.  Two  and  in  some  cases  three  parallel 
tracks  were  thus  provided,  so  that  trains  could  be  rapidly  operated 
and  run  out  over  the  break,  crossing  it  and  having  ample  switching 
facilities  on  the  far  side. 

When  all  was  in  readiness  train  load  after  train  load  of  large 
stones  were  run  out  over  the  gap  and  dumped  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
the  effort  being  to  put  in  rock  faster  than  the  river  could  wash  it 
away.  A  large  amount  of  material  was  washed  down  the  stream 
for  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet  or  more  and  the  bottom  of  the  channel  in 
which  the  large  stone  sank  was  rapidly  cut.  By  carefully  watching, 
however,  and  sounding  so  that  the  holes  as  they  formed  could  be 
detected  and  filled,  it  was  found  possible  to  build  up  a  broad  low  heap 
of  large  stone  immediately  under  the  railroad  trestle. 

The  chief  difficulty  was  to  secure  a  sufficient  supply  of  stone  fast 
enough  to  fill  the  gaps  as  washed  out  In  some  cases  it  is  stated  that 
trains  of  flat  cars  loaded  with  stone  were  brought  from  a  distance  of 
400  miles.  They  came  from  quarries  located  not  only  on  the  Southern 
Pacific  but  also  on  the  Santa  Fe  and  San  Pedro  railroads.  In  fact, 
it  is  stated  that  even  high-grade  cut  stone  en  route  for  building  was 
requisitioned  and  diverted  to  fill  theneed. 

The  stones  used  were  as  large  as  could  be  handled  or  pushed  from 
the  flat  cars  by  a  gang  of  men  or  by  as  many  men  as  could  get  around 
a  stone.  In  some  cases  the  pieces  were  so  lai^  that  it. was  neces- 
sary to  break  them  by  what  are  called  "  pop-shots  "  of  dynamite  laid 
upon  the  stone  while  it  rested  on  the  cars.  In  this  way  the  stones 
were  broken  and  then  could  be  readily  thrown  overboard  by  hand. 

The  scene  at  the  closure  of  the  break  was  exciting;  train  after  train 
with  heavy  locomotives  came  to  the  place  and  the  stones  large  and 
small  were  pushed  off  by  hundreds  of  workmen  as  rapidly  as  the  cars 
could  be  placed.  While  waiting  to  get  out  upon  the  trestle  the  larger 
stones  were  broken  by  the  "  pop-shots,"  The  noise  sounded  like  artil- 
lery in  action.  Added  to  the  roar  of  the  waters  were  the  whistle  sig- 
nals, the  orders  to  the  men,  and  the  bustle  of  an  army  working  day 
and  night  to  keep  ahead  of  the  rapid  cutting  of  the  stream. 

As  the  rock  heap  rose  gradually,  it  checked  the  river,  causing  it 
also  to  rise  higher  and  higher  and  to  cascade  over  the  pile  of  stone. 
Riffles  were  caused  and  an  undercutting  of  the  lower  slope  or  of  the 
rock  heap  allowed  it  to  settle  and  the  stones  to  roll  downstream.  All 
of  this  undercutting  and  settling  had  to  be  made  up  and  overcome  by 
the  rapid  dumping  of  other  large  stones. 

It  was  necessary  to  raise  the  river  bodily  about  11  ^t.  As  the 
water  rose  and  became  ponded  on  the  upper  side  of  the  rock  heap, 


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THE  SALTON  SEA — NEWBLL.  848 

train  load  after  train  load  of  small  stone  and  gravel  from  the  nearby 
hills  were  dumped  to  fill  the  spaces  between  the  large  rocks. 

Finally,  after  days  and  nights  of  struggle,  the  water  was  raised 
to  a  point  where  it  be^;an  to  flow  down  its  former  channel  and  less 
and  less  to  pass  over  the  top  of  the  rock  heap.  Then  finer  material 
was  added  and  rapidly  piled  up  on  the  accumulated  rock  mass.  The 
lower  side  of  this  loose  rock  dam  is  shown  in  PL  VIII.  On  the  far 
side  beyond  the  rock  dam  and  the  railroad  trestle  is  the  river,  as 
indicated  by  the  steamboat  lying  alongside  of  the  track. 

At  first  a  large  amount  of  water  passed  through  the  rock  heap  and 
steps  were  taken  as  rapidly  as  possible  to  close  the  openings  by  dump- 
ing sand  and  gravel,  finishing  this  work  by  hydraulicking  silt  or  mud 
over  the  area,  and  washing  this  in  with  a  hose.  By  thus  piling  up 
finer  and  finer  material  and  distributing  it,  the  seepage  or  percolation 
through  the  rock  mass  was  quickly  checked  and  the  barrier  became 
eflfective. 

The  next  step  after  having  turned  the  water  back  into  the  main 
■  channel  was  to  perfect  the  great  dam  of  loose  rock  and  gravel,  cover- 
ing it  up  with  a  mass  of  earth  and  protecting  this  in  turn  by  gravel, 
so  that  the  burrowing  animals  could  not  make  holes  through  the  bank 
and  thus  afford  opportunities  for  the  water  from  the  floods  to  under- 
mine the  finished  work. 

As  DOW  completed,  there  extends  from  the  head  works  in  the 
United  States  along  the  river,  between  it  and  the  canal,  a  double 
row  of  dikes,  the  outer  one  being  occupied  by  a  railroad.  These 
extend  in  an  unbroken  line  for  a  dozen  miles  near  the  river  and 
shut  it  off  from  the  lowlands  to  the  west  The  river  side  of  this 
dike  is  protected  by  a  thick  layer  of  gravel,  and  the  railroad  affords 
immediate  access  to  all  parts,  so  that  if  menaced  by  the  cutting  of 
the  banks  it  will  be  possible  to  bring  men  and  materials  to  check 
the  floods  from  encroachment  upon  the  dike  itself. 

Secondary  dikes  or  cross  levees  run  from  the  main  structure  to 
certain  subsidiary  works,  so  that  if  the  outer  main  dike  is  broken  or 
water  flows  through,  this  will  be  ponded  for  a  while  at  least  against 
the  inner  line  of  defense,  thus  affording  time  to  assemble  the  neces- 
sary equipment  to  fight  another  intrusion. 

The  water  needed  for  the  irrigation  of  lands  in  the  Imperial 
Valley  comes  through  the  permanent  head  works  in  the  United 
States,  follows  down  behind  the  dikes  in  the  channel  dug  for  the 
purpose  and  then  passes  down  the  bed  of  the  Alamo,  enlarged  during 
1906  and  1906.  It  continues  to  a  point  where  it  is  diverted  into  the 
canals  of  the  settlers  as  before  described. 

The  immediate  danger  of  any  further  breaks  appears  to  be  done 
away  with,  although  there  are  rumors  from  time  to  time  that  water 


41780-{)6 X 


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844  ANNUAL   BEPOBT   SMTTHBONIAN    INSTITUTION,   1901. 

18  breaking  over  the  dikes  at  the  head  of  the  Paradones  and  following 
this  channel  is  making  its  way  into  Volcano  Lake,  whence  some  of 
the  stream  turns  north  into  the  Salton  Sea.  It  is  presumed,  however, 
that  only  enough  water  wiU  be  taken  directly  from  the  Colorado 
Biver  to  irrigate  the  land  of  the  farmers  and  that  no  water  will  come 
to  the  Salton  Sea  except  that  which  escapes  by  seepage  from  the  culti- 
vated areas  of  Imperial  Valley. 

BVAFCmATION   FROM   THE   OAUIOK   SEA. 

Assuming  that  the  direct  flow  of  the  Colorado  River  can  be 
checked  and  that  no  water  comes  indirectly  through  Volcano  Lake, 
it  is  possible  to  use  the  Salton  Sea  as  a  great  evaporating  pan 
for  the  measurement  of  the  amount  of  evaporation  in  this  arid 
region.  A  knowledge  of  this  factor  is  very  valuable  in  establish- 
ing data  upon  which  to  place  estimates  of  the  amount  of  water 
which  may  be  lost  from  reservoirs  and  other  hydraulic  works.  The 
Weather  Bureau  is  therefore  attempting  to  utilize  the  Salton  Sea 
for  tiiis  purpose,  and  with  a  knowledge  of  the  amount  of  water  which 
is  passing  into  the  sea  and  by  making  corresponding  deduction  is  not- 
ing from  day  to  day  the  net  evaporation  or  loss  of  water  from  the  sur- 
face. Very  delicate  observations  are  being  made  of  the  humidity, 
rainfall,  temperature,  and  other  factors  which  influence  the  amount 
of  evaporation. 

jaiTURE   HISTORY. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  area  of  the  sea  wiU  rapidly  contract  and 
that  its  waters  will  fall  by  loss  through  evaporation  at  a  rat«  of 
5,  6,  7,  or  more  feet  per  year.  The  precise  rate  as  above  stated - 
is  one  of  the  things  on  which  more  definite  information  is  needed  and 
one  which  will  require  careful  observation  and  study  to  eliminate  the 
conditions  which  disturb  accurate  measurements. 

For  many  years,  however,  the  sea  will  probably  be  a  taadmaifc  of 
great  interest  to  the  overland  traveler,  and  while  it  has  no  discerni- 
ble influence  upon  the  climate  in  general,  it  will  serve  to  ameliorate 
the  condition  of  overland  travel  through  the  desert  After  the  long 
hot  ride,  it  is  very  refreshing  to  skirt  the  shore  of  the  Salton  Sea 
(PI.  IX)  and  glide  along  in  the  train  beside  the  little  sandy  beaches 
or  across  the  arms  of  the  sea  spanned  by  railroad  bridges. 

The  water  near  the  inlet  has  been  relatively  sweet,  and  fish  from  the 
Colorado  River  have  come  down  as  far  as  the  lake.  The  great  body 
of  water,  however,  is  distinctly  saline  or  brackish  and,  as  evapora- 
tion proceeds,  will  become  more  and  more  salty.  It  is  a  matter  of 
conjecture,  however,  as  to  whether  the  sea  will  ever  within  the  life- 
time of  anyone  now  living  return  to  its  former  small  dimenaons  or 
will  afford  again  a  field  fw  the  manufacture  of  salt, 

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THE  OALTON   6BA — NEWELL.  846 

The  amount  of  seepage  which  will  come  from  the  cultivated  fields 
can  at  present  only  be  guessed,  although  with  very  careful  culti- 
vation this  could  be  at  a  minimum.  With  careless  use  of  the  water, 
however,  or  with  attempts  to  wash  alkali  out  of  the  soil  there  will 
undoubtedly  be  a  considerable  amount  of  water  wasted  and  this  ma; 
find  its  way  to  the  sea  by  surface  channels  or  by  slow  percolation 
through  many  strata. 

In  riding  along  the  present  seashore  it  is  possible  to  discern  with 
favorable  light  the  ancient  sea  beaches  at  higher  levels  which  mark 
the  various  stages  at  wlucE'the  water  has  stood  in  past  geologic 
times.  Some  of  these  beaches  are  very  plainly  marked  and  in  many 
localities  sea  shells  are  found  in  great  abundance.  The  soil  below 
the  ocean  level  is  of  the  character  that  might  be  expected  in  the  bed 
of  an  ancient  lake.  Some  of  it  is  sandy  and  loamy  and  of  excellent 
quality  for  cultivation.  In  other  places,  however,  there  are  vast 
expanses  of  clays,  some  of  these  highly  charged  with  alkali  and  the 
stiff  adobe  is  not  easily  subdued  for  agriculture.  With  patience, 
skill,  and  some  capital  it  has  been  found  possible  to  produce  good 
crops  on  most  of  this  land,  and,  in  spite  of  the  high  temperature 
resulting  from  low  altitude  and  low  latitude,  modem  civilization  is 
developing  and  a  high  degree  of  cultivation  is  attained.  The  future 
of  the  valley  as  a  whole  will  always  be  a  matter  of  deep  interest 
because  of  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome  by  the  inhabitants  and  the 
constant  guard  which  they,  like  the  people  of  Holland,  must  main- 
tain against  the  attacks  of  a  tireless  antagonist,  seeking  at  the  most 
unexpected  times  to  effect  an  entry  into  their  homes. 


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INLAND  WATERWAYS.' 


By  Oeobse  Q.  Csibholu. 


With  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  subject  of  national  character- 
istics, there  is  probably  no  subject  on  which  it  is  easier  and  more 
tempting  to  generalize  rashly  than  that  of  transport.  And  yet  the 
subject  is  extremely  complex.  A  very  great  variety  of  conditions 
have  to  be  taken  into  account  in  determining  what  is  really  the  most 
advantageous  mode  of  carriage  for  any  class  of  goods.  In  the  present 
paper  it  is  my  duty  to  bring  into  relief  the  considerations  of  a  geo- 
graphical character  that  affect  the  problem.  But  that  does  not  imply 
that  other  than  geographical  considerations  are  to  be  left  out  of 
account.  In  no  geographical  investigation  whatever  is  it  possible 
to  proceed  without  any  regard  to  considerations  which  must  be 
deemed  nongeographical.  Even  in  the  surveying  of  a  country  for 
mapping  some  nongeographical  facts  are  always  tacitly,  if  not  ex- 
pressly, assumed  as  determining  the  selection  of  the  superficial 
features  that  are  to  be  laid  down.  Nongeographical  considerations 
are  still  more  obvious  in  determining  the  degree  of  importance 
belonging  to  certain  facts  of  local  distribution.  It  is  solely,  for  exam- 
ple, on  nongeographical  grounds  that  a  high  degree  of  prominence 
must  always  be  given  in  geography  to  the  study  of  climate.  The 
nature  of  the  nongec^aphical  considerations  that  have  to  be  borne 
in  mind  in  special  investigations  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  subject. 
The  subject  of  the  distribution  of  plants  cannot  be  handled  without 
regard  to  facts  which  belong  to  the  sphere  of  the  botanist,  that  of 
animal  distribution  without  the  knowledge  that  belongs  to  the 
zoologist. 

Id  considering  this  subject,  therefore,  even  from  a  geographical 
point  of  view,  it  is  necessary  to  begin  by  pointing  out  the  more 
important  facts  of  a  nongeographical  character  that  have  to  be 
taken  into  account  in  dealing  with  the  geography  of  the  subject, 
that  is  to  say,  in  showing  or  endeavoring  to  show  how  far  the  utility 
of  inland  waterways  is  affected  by  local  conditions  and  place  rela- 

■  Paper  read  before  tbe  Royal  Oeograplilcai  Society,  February  25,  1907.  Be- 
printed,  by  permlssIOD,  from  the  Qeographlcal  Journal,  July,  1907. 


,G(_W^lc 


848  ANNUAI.  BEPOBT  8UITHSONIAH  INBTITnTION,  1907. 

tions.  It  is  a  group  of  facts  that  cannot  be  called  geographical  that 
must  determioe  what  local  cooditions  and  what  place  relations  are  of 
most  importance  with  reference  to  the  question. 

Now,  it  is  fortimate  that  we  are  in  a  positicm  to  recognize  one  im- 
portant circumstance  that  greatly  simplifies  the  discussion.  In  this 
country,  and  in  all  advanced  conmiercial  countries,  the  question  is 
always  discussed,  at  least  avowedly,  as  one  of  economy.  It  Is  not  so 
everywhere,  nor  has  it  always  been  so  in  our  own  country.  In  the 
part  of  the  Yangtse  River  where  the  rapids  occur,  the  substitution  of 
river  steamers  or  a  railway  for  native  junks  is  resisted  by  many 
Chinese  on  the  ground  that  the  numerous  Chinese  trackers  who  get 
a  meager  living  by  doing  some  of  the  hardest  work  in  which  human 
beings  can  engage  would  thereby  be  deprived  of  that  living.  I  think 
I  remember  to  have  read  that  a  similar  objection  to  new  means  of 
transport  caused  the  boatmen  of  Loch  Lomond  to  break  up  the  first 
steamboat  that  was  launched  on  that  lake.  But  we  have  now  got 
beyond  that  stage.  Such  considerations  are  no  longer  taken  into 
account  in  the  discussion  of  rival  modes  of  carriage.  The  question 
is  one  of  economy  and  economy  only. 

But  great  difficulties  remain.  Economy  in  transport  is  not  deter- 
mined by  the  mere  difference  in  the  money  cost  of  conveying  goods, 
say,  from  one  town  to  another.  The  economy  to  be  considered  with 
reference  to  transport  is  that  of  carrying  goods  from  the  place  of 
origin  to  the  place  of  consumption — the  carriage  of  coal,  for  instance, 
from  the  mines  to  our  hearths,  or  of  wheat  from  the  wheat  fields  to 
our  tables  in  the  form  of  loaves,  for  the  place  where  the  loaf  is  to  be 
eaten  has  an  important  influence  in  determining  where  the  wheat  is 
to  be  ground  into  flour. 

Those  who  think  only  of  carriage  from  one  point  to  another  are 
much  impressed  with  such  figures  as  these.  On  an  ordinary  good 
wagon  road  a  single  horsepower  will  draw  about  3,000  pounds  at  the 
rate  of  2  miles  an  hour,  on  a  railway  about  30,000  pounds  at  the  same 
rate,  on  water  as  much  as  200,000  pounds.  When  it  is  considered, 
moreover,  that  the  ratio  of  the  paying  load  to  the  dead  weight  is 
higher  in  ships  and  boats  than  in  road  and  railway  wagons,  the  ad- 
vantage in  favor  of  waterways  seems  overwhelming.  Yet  these  fig- 
ures are  far  from  settling  the  question.  First,  there  is  the  consider- 
ation of  time.  In  most  cases  a  speed  of  2  miles  an  hour  is  not  to  be 
thought  of.  Quickness  of  transport  is  becoming  every  day  more  im- 
portant. It  is  obvious  that  with  rapid  means  of  transport  a  given 
amount  of  capital  is  more  frequently  turned  over  in  any  business,  and 
manifestly,  too,  this  must  be  a  more  important  consideration  the 
greater  the  value  that  is  locked  up  in  the  goods  carried.  Now,  by 
water  transport,  even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  it  is  now- 
adays more  costly  to  develop  a  high  speed  than  it  is  by  land,  and  there 


IKLAND  WATEBWATS — CHI8H0LM.  S49 

are  very  few  inland  waterways  that  offer  those  favorable  conditions. 
Still,  speed  is  not  equally  important  in  all  cases.  The  greater  the 
bulk  of  the  goods  in  proportion  to  their  value,  the  heavier  will  be  as 
a  rule  the  relative  cc^  of  carriage,  the  more  important,  therefore,  a 
money  saving  in  transport  charges,  and  the  less  urgency  to  that  ex- 
lent  for  economizing  merely  in  time. 

But,  further,  even  in  considering  different  methods  of  transport 
between  two  points  on  which  a  waterway  is  available,  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  great  economies  in  transport  are  secured  by  carrying 
goods  in  great  quantities.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  British  shippers 
keep  building  larger  and  larger  numbers  of  large  ships  and  increasing 
the  size  of  those  ships,  and  Americans  keep  building  more  and  more 
powerful  locomotives  for  the  hauling  of  long  trains  composed  of  huge 
steel  wagons  built  as  light  as  possible  in  proportion  to  the  load  they 
carry.  On  this  ground  the  utility  of  a  waterway  must  depend  very 
greatly  on  its  capacity. 

Again,  only  a  comparatively  small  quantity  of  goods  can  be  con- 
veyed direct  by  one  means  of  transport  from  the  point  of  origin 
to  the  place  of  consumption  or  utilization.  They  have  mostly  to  be 
transferred  from  one  vehicle  to  another.  This  necessarily  involves 
cost  The  cost  varies  greatly  with  the  nature  of  the  commodities 
handled,  but  in  all  cases  it  makes  it  important  to  avoid  this  handling 
as  much  as  possible.  In  a  report  advocating  a  great  scheme,  which 
I  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to  again  in  this  paper,  it  is  stated  that 
"  a  ton  of  coal  is  carried  the  thousand  miles  from  Buffalo  to  Duluth 
for  about  the  cost  of  shoveling  it  from  the  sidewalk  into  the  cellar ;"  " 
and  though  I  would  not  be  understood  to  hint  that  when  coal  is  han- 
dled on  a  large  scale,  the  cost  of  handling  approaches  the  cost  of 
finally  putting  it  in  the  cellar,  still  this  statement  is  a  significant 
reminder  of  the  importance  of  this  element  in  the  cost  of  carriage. 
The  advantage  to  Grermany  of  being  able  to  communicate  by  rail 
without  break  of  bulk  with  all  surrounding  countries  except  Russia 
(where  there  is  a  different  railway  gauge)  can  be  abundantly  illus- 
trated from  the  commercial  statistics  of  that  country.  It  was  to 
secure  this  advantage  that  great  railways  were  built  across  and  partly 
throu^  the  Alps,  and  the  numerous  trains  to  be  seen  even  in  central 
Italy  (how  far  south  I  can  not  say  from  my  own  observation)  contain- 
ing wagons  that  have  come,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  inscriptions 
on  them,  both  from  Austria  across  the  Brenner  and  from  the  Rhine 
valley  through  the  St.  Gothard,  are  a  speaking  illustration  of  the 
same  thing.  The  St  Gothard  tunnel  had  a  very  speedy  effect  in  de- 
veloping a  trade,  even  in  heavy  iron  goods,  between  Gtermany  and 
Italy,  and  German  coal  has  been  carried  into  Italy  as  far  as  Milan, 

BTbiB  Is  no  exaggeration.  Tbe  average  freight  for  hard  coal  from  BoIEkIo  to 
Duluth  In  1904  was  about  la.  6(1.  per  long  ton;  In  190C,  abont  Is.  lOd.       oqIc 


860  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INBTITUTION,  1907. 

though  whether  that  trade  is  still  carried  on  I  am  unable  to  say. 
Through  the  courtesy  of  the  Intercontinental  Railway  Company  and 
of  Mr.  Ernest  de  Rodakowski,  author  of  "  The  Channel  Ferry,"  an 
extremely  interesting  and  instructive  work  written  to  advocate  carry- 
ing on  trade  without  break  of  bulk  between  this  country  and  the  con- 
tinent by  a  method  not  open  to  the  objections  urged  against  the  pro- 
posed Channel  tunnel,  I  am  able  to  illustrate  this  important  point  by 
some  lantern  slides  which,  I  think,  will  speak  largely  for  themselves. 

The  first  shows  how  the  trade  in  imported  meat  is  carried  on  be- 
tween Southampton  and  London.  The  meat,  on  being  taken  out  of 
the  importing  ship,  is  transferred,  not  to  railway  trucks,  but  to  lorries 
or  road  wagons  mounted  on  the  trucks.  Each  truck  is  capable  of  car- 
rying 10  tons,  but  as  the  pair  of  lorries  has  a  wei^t  of  between  3  and 
4  tons,  it  is  clear  that  there  must  thus  be  a  considerable  addition  to  the 
dead  weight  hauled,  even  though  the  trucks  are  reduced  to  a  simple 
platform  mounted  on  wheels,  and  on  the  return  journey  to  Southamp- 
ton the  whole  train  is  dead  weight,  as  no  suitable  freight  for  the  carts 
'  can  be  found.  Yet  the  mere  saving  in  handling  has  caused  this  mode 
of  transport  to  be  carried  on  with  satisfactory  results  to  the  company 
for  about  seventeen  years. 

My  second  illut^tration  is  one  of  a  channel  ferryboat,  such  as  was 
familiar  to  me  in  my  boyhood  in  the  early  sixties  as  plying  between 
Granton  and  Burntisland  under  the  name  of  **  leviathans."  The 
width  of  the  crossing  effected  by  those  boats  was  only  5  miles,  but 
since  then  the  same  method  of  transport  has  been  adopted  for  cross- 
ings up  to  96  miles  (the  widest  being  from  Ludington  to  Milwau- 
kee, on  Lake  Michigan).  The  present  view  shows  the  Solano  on  the 
passage  from  Oakland  to  San  Francisco,  a  boat  which  carries  on  its 
four  rail  tracks  twenty-seven  passenger  cars  or  forty-two  goods 
wagons  of  the  ordinary  large  American  type. 

The  third  illustration  shows  the  method  by  which  the  tnu^  are 
landed  on  the  Wamemiinde-Gjedser  route  between  Germany  and 
Denmark,  opened  on  October  1,  1903,  with  reference  to  which  I  am 
able  to  give  some  particulars  of  direct  significance  regarding  the 
subject  now  in  hand.  Li  the  first  place,  I  am  informed  that  the 
wagon  marked  "  Breslau  "  actually  came  from  Breslau,  a  distance  of 
some  350  miles  from  Wamemunde,  375  miles  h'om  Gjedser,  and  480 
miles  from  Copenhagen,  for  which  it  was  not  improbably  destined. 
Now,  if  it  was  for  Copenhagen,  that  was  a  journey  on  which  an  all- 
water  route  was  available,  first  by  means  of  a  river  accommodating 
boats  of  400  tons  burden  to  Stettin  (805  miles),  and  then  by  seagoing 
vessels.  Yet  the  rail  route  was  preferred.  On  one  occasion  on  which 
Mr.  E.  de  Rodakowski  accompanied  the  train,  only  six  minutes 
elapsed  between  the  arrival  at  Wameiniinde  and  the  departure  of  the 
steamer.  The  goods  carried  on  that  occasion  wen.  chiefly  an^ 
Di.nzPdbyGoogre 


HTLAND  WATBfiWAYS — CHIBHOLM.  851 

iron,  and  I  am  informed  by  the  London  agent  of  the  Intercontinental 
Hailway  Company  that  in  the  first  nine  months  after  tiie  opening  of 
this  route  14,000  trucks  and  60,000  passengers  were  conveyed  by  it; 
and  since  train  ferries  were  first  opened  for  traffic  in  Denmark,  many 
new  industries  have  been  developed  to  a  considerable  extent,  and 
heavy  machinery,  glassware,  etc.,  which  in  former  years  were  im- 
ported into  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  from  England,  are  now 
being  sent  from  Ciermany  on  the  ferry  steamers. 

It  is  the  balance  of  advantage  determined  by  the  two  considerations 
mentioned,  the  economy  of  carriage  on  a  large  scale  and  that  arising 
jFrom  1i»6  conveyance  of  goods  as  directly  as  possible  from  the  place  of 
origin  to  their  destination,  that  determines  in  many  cases  the  mode  of 
transport.  It  is  the  advantage  of  transport  on  a  large  scale  that  causes 
from  40  to  70  per  cent  of  the  pepper,  50  to  60  per  cent  of  the  rubber, 
and  large  proportions  of  a  great  many  other  articles  imported  into 
this  country  to  be  reexported  as  they  arrive,  that  cauaes  raw  cotton 
(Egyptian)  to  be  always  one  of  the  leading  exports  from  this  coun- 
try to  the  United  States,  and  causes  Belfast  to  export  directly  to  for- 
eign countries  (or  rather  to  one  foreign  country)  a  greater  value  of 
raw  cotton  than  all  British  and  Irish  goods  (including  ships)  put 
together.  On  the  other  hand,  to  illustrate  the  advantage  of  carrying 
goods  as  directly  as  possible  from  the  place  of  origin  to  their  des- 
tination, I  may  mention  as  a  typical  case  that  of  a  paper  mill  which 
I  remember  to  have  existed  near  an  east  coast  fishing  station,  not  im- 
portant enough  to  be  entered  in  the  tables  of  British  ports,  which 
got  all  its  supplies  of  China  clay  and  esparto  in  small  schooners  en- 
tering the  fishing  harbor  after  voyages  lasting  for  weeks  from  Corn- 
wall and  Algeria,  respectively.  The  goods  were  thus  brought  within 
carting  distance  of  a  mill  which  could  use  the  entire  cargo.  To  take 
a  case  more  immediately  cognate  to  the  subject  under  consideration, 
the  same  reason  explains  why  so  much  English  coal  for  domestic 
use  is  carried  long  distances  by  rail  in  comparatively  small  wagons. 
It  is  in  that  way,  and  probably  in  that  way  only,  that  convenient  lots 
of  the  different  qualities  of  coal  required  can  be  brought  direct  from 
the  mines  within  easy  carting  distance  of  everybody's  coal  cellar. 

Now  let  us  apply  these  general  considerations  on  the  subject  of 
transport  to  inland  waterways  and  the  geographical  conditions  affect- 
ing their  utility. 

It  will  now  be  manifest  that  inland  waterways  are  likely  to  be  most 
effective  in  securing  traffic — 

1.  The  greater  their  capacity. 

2.  The  greater  the  distance  for  which  they  permit  of  that  economy 
in  transport  which  is  due  to  easier  haulage  or  propulsion. 


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862  ANNUAI.  EEPOBT  SMITHBONIAH   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

8.  The  more  direct  they  are  between  any  two  points  between  which 
there  is  a  competing  means  of  transport. 

4.  The  more  favorable  they  are  to  rapid  haulage  or  propulsion,  a 
condition  which,  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  it  is  well  to  discriminate, 
even  though  the  advantage  under  this  head  is  almost  inevitably  asso- 
ciated with  high  capacity. 

5.  The  freer  they  are  from  such  differences  in  level  as  necessitate 
the  use  of  locks  or  other  lifting  and  lowering  contrivances,  this  being 
important,  not  merely  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  time  in  locking  or 
otherwise  changing  the  level,  but  in  consequence  of  the  additional 
expense,  which  varies  with  circumstances,  being  in  many  cases  en- 
hanced by  the  necessity  of  supplying  locking  wattr  artificially,  or 
by  the  impracticability  of  making  locks  of  large  capacity. 

6.  The  smaller  the  impediments  to  navigation  due  to  rapidity  of 
current,  or  the  occurrence  of  low  or  excessively  high  water,  or  ice. 

7.  The  greater  the  amount  of  conmiodities,  at  once  heavy  and  bulky 
in  proportion  to  their  value,  procurable  at  some  point  or  points  on  or 
near  the  waterway  and  consumed  at  other  points  similarly  situated. 

8.  The  less  the  expense  involved  in  the  handling  of  commodities, 
including  any  expenses  arising  from  damage  or  the  risk  of  damage  to 
the  commodities.  All  kinds  of  coal  suffer  more  or  less  in  the  severe 
handling  involved  in  the  use  of  waterways,  but  the  softer  kinds,  of 
course,  suffer  most.  While  there  is  an  enormous  trade  in  coal  on  the 
Great  Lakes  of  North  America,  coke,  it  is  said,  will  not  bear  this  mode 
of  transport  at  all  on  account  of  the  damage  involved.  Earthenware 
and  glass  may  be  conveyed  undamaged  in  spite  of  the  rou^  hand- 
lings to  which  they  are  exposed  in  water  transport,  but  the  extra  care 
required  in  packing  adds  to  the  expense,  and  even  then  the  risk  adds 
to  the  insurance. 

9.  The  smaller  the  opportunity  there  is  for  railway  or  other  com- 
petition. Railway  competition  is  particularly  formidable,  not  only 
because  "  the  hard  smooth  road  "  (to  adopt  the  description  which 
Professor  Jevons  applied  to  a  railway)  allows  of  far  quicker  trans- 
port than  can  be  effected  by  any  other  means,  but  also  because  rail- 
ways with  their  numerous  interramifications  offer  the  possibility  of 
transport  without  break  of  bulk  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  any 
system  of  inland  waterways  can  approach. 

If  time  permitted,  illustrations  might  be  given  of  the  special  im- 
portance of  several  of  these  factors  in  promoting  the  use  of  inland 
waterways;  but  time  does  not  permit,  and  I  will  only  say  that  it 
seems  to  me,  from  the  examination  I  have  given  to  the  subject,  that 
if  any  one  of  the  nine  can  be  singled  out  as  the  most  decisive  in 
furthering  inland  water  traffic,  it  is  the  seventh — the  existence  of 

Digilized  by  Google 


IKLAND   WATERWAYS — CHI8HOLM.  358 

great  quantities  of  bulky  produce  to  be  taken  up  and  delivered  at 
individual  points  on  the  same  or  a  connected  waterway.  And  yet, 
singularly  enough,  by  far  the  most  important  article  of  commerce 
on  the  most  magnificent  system  of  inland  waterways  in  the  world  is 
one  of  great  value  and  small  bulk.  I  refer  to  the  rubber  trade  of  the 
Amazon,  which,  it  may  be  remarked,  is  a  water  trade  solely  because 
there  is  too  little  opportunity  in  that  region  for  trade  in  bulkier 
commodities  to  justify  the  introduction  of  railway  competition. 

In  order  to  realize  the  possibilities  of  inland  water  traffic  it  will  he 
well  to  examine  in  the  light  of  the  foregoing  considerations  what  has 
actually  been  done  under  some  specially  favorable  conditions.  For 
this  purpose  I  am  able,  through  the  courte^  of  Messrs.  Longmans, 
Green  &  Co.,  to  show  a  map  of  the  German  waterways,"  which  to  a 
large  extent  speaks  for  itself.  It  may  be  added  that  the  improve- 
ments sanctioned  by  the  act  of  April  1,  1905,  are  intended  to  pro- 
vide waterways  on  all  the  sections  indicated  west  of  the  Oder  for 
barges  of  600  tons,  on  those  east  of  the  Oder  for  barges  of  400  tons. 

Of  all  the  waterways  shown  on  this  map  there  is  probably  none 
more  worthy  of  study  than  the  Ehine.  It  has  peculiar  advantages 
under  all  the  heads  mentioned  except  the  last,  and  there  is  something 
to  be  said  on  the  last  head  also,  that  is,  with  regard  to  the  nature  of 
the  competition  it  encounters.  It  is  (1)  capacious  enough  to  be  regu- 
larly ascended  by  fairly  large  seagoing  steamers  as  high  as  Cologne, 
by  smaller  seagoing  vessels  as  high  as  Remagen,  about  midway  be- 
tween Cologne  and  Coblenz,  and  occasionally  as  high  as  Oberlahn- 
stein,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Lahn  above  Coblenz,  where  they  go  to 
load  with  mineral  water.  Since  the  improvements  in  the  gorge  at 
Bingen  were  completed  in  1899,  barges  of  more  than  2,000  tons  have 
been  known  to  reach  Mannheim,  and  those  of  800  tons  can  reach 
Strassburg.  (2)  The  distance  of  Mannheim  from  Rotterdam  by 
water  is  351  miles.  The  river  in  a  large  part  of  this  stretch  is  (3) 
remarkably  free  from  windings.  The  river  distance  is  only  41  miles, 
about  13  per  cent,  greater  than  that  by  rail.  (4)  Powerful  steamers 
can  be  used  for  carriage  or  haulage.  (5)  There  are  no  locks  as  high 
as  Strassburg,  the  present  limit  of  Rhine  navigation.  There  is  only 
one  to  Frankfort-on-Main.  {6)  Below  Strassburg  the  rapidity  of 
the  current  of  the  Rhine  offers  no  serious  hindrance  to  navigation,  ex- 
cept perhaps  in  the  narrowest  part  of  the  channel  at  the  gorge  of 
Bingen,  though  it  is  everywhere  sufficient  to  make  a  marked  differ- 

B  Wltb  regard  to  the  Freacb  and  Belgian  waterways  sbown  In  this  map,  it 
sboaid  be  stated  that  those  drawn  in  thick  lines  are  those  with  a  minimum 
depth  of  2  meters,  and  that  not  all  of  these  are  naTlgated  by  barges  ot  as  much 
88  400  tons. 


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864  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 


Pra.  1. — Inlanil  waterwaja  ot  acrnany. 


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INIiAHD   WATEBWAYS CHISHOLM.  366 

ence  between  the  rate  of  upstream  and  downstream  navigation."  The 
geographical  conditions  also  tend  to  reduce  the  interruptions  to  navi- 
gation,  from  irregularity  of  flow  and  from  ice.  The  fact  that  the 
upper  Rhine  is  partly  glacier-fed  and  lake-regulated  tends  to  limit 
the  variations  of  high  and  low  water,  and  the  westerly  situation  of 
the  river  is  against  its  freezing.  According  to  an  official  publication, 
the  navigation  of  this  river  "  is,  on  the  average,  annually  interrupted 
by  high  water  for  8  days,  by  ice  17  days,  by  low  water  17  days;  in  all, 
accordingly,  42  days."*  (7)  At  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  is  Rotter- 
dam, a  world  port,  and  accordingly  a  great  collecting  point  for  all 
kinds  of  commodities,  bulky  and  other.  On  the  banks  of  the  river 
within  Germany,  up  to  and  including  Strassburg,  there  are  ten  com- 
munes with  a  population  exceeding  S0,000,  five  of  these  with  one 
above  100,000,  and  to  these  may  be  added  Frankfort,  all  great  con- 
suming centers  at  least  for  imported  grain.  Further,  the  river 
actually  divides,  below  the  point  to  which  seagoing  steamers  regu- 
larly ascend,  the  most  productive  coal  field  on  the  mainland  of  Eu- 
rope, and  this  fact  creates  a  demand  for  enormous  quantities  of  im- 
ported ores.  (8)  Among  the  commodities  grain  is  one  that  notori- 
ously can  be  handled  with  peculiar  facility,  and  ores,  too,  are  com- 
paratively inexpensive  to  handle.  The  German  coal  is,  indeed,  more 
likely  to  be  damaged  by  handling  than  the  harder  English  coal,  but 
this  is  not  enough  to  invalidate  the  overwhelming  advantages  of  the 
Rhine  for  a  trade  in  coal  of  local  origin. 

These  considerations  may  serve  to  prepare  one  for  the  figures  ^ven 
below,  stating  in  thbusands  of  metric  tons  (each  2,205  pounds)  the 
total  traffic  on  the  Rhine  at  Emmerich,  close  to  the  Dutch  frontier,  at 
the  adjacent  harbors  which  serve  as  the  outlets  of  the  Ruhr  coal  field, 
and  at  Mannheim,  the  terminal  point  of  navigation  for  the  larger 
craft. 

'Some  details  may  be  of  Interest  Tbe  average  speed  ot  a  train  of  four 
barges,  carrying  In  all  at>ont  4,000  tooB,  Is  given  at  3  to  3|  miles  npatream  and 
0  to  11  miles  down.  When  the  necessary  night  rests  are  allowed  for,  the  voyage 
from  Rotterdam  to  Mannheim  Is  made  In  summer  In  from  8  to  9  days,  tn  winter 
In  from  10  to  11  days;  that  from  Mannheim  to  Rotterdam,  In  either  case,  In 
abont  S  days.  Express  goods  steamers,  stopping  at  Intermediate  stations,  as- 
cend from  Rotterdam  to  Cologne  (190  miles)  In  about  36  hours  ^  6.6  miles  an 
hoar,  and  deecead  on  the  return  voyage  In  about  19  hours  =  93  miles  an  hour. 
On  the  rare  occasions  on  which  a  long  voyage  Is  made  without  stoppages,  a  speed 
of  63  miles  an  hour  may  be  attained  between  Cologne  and  Mannheim  (161 
miles ) ,  and  one  of  1S.7  miles  an  boor  between  Mannheim  and  Cologne.  Nasse,  In 
"  Die  Schiffabrt  der  deutscben  StrSme,"  berausgegeben  vom  Tereln  fUr  Social- 
polltlk  (Leipzig,  1903).  vol.  »,  pp.  142-143. 

'  JasmuDd,  "  Die  Arbelten  der  Rbelnstrom-Bauverwaltung  vos  1861  bis  1900," 
p.  54 ;  quoted  by  Nasse  In  the  work  Just  cited,  voL  3,  p.  138. 


.y  Google 


AITNUAL  KEPOET  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 


T<wr. 

BrnDMrteh. 

Bubrort.  Dalgborc, 
BQdHocbWd. 

Haanhdm. 

PuMdnp. 

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Arrtvednp. 

UM 

I.BBO 

0.03a 

>.OiS 
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8.11B 

T.IM 

1.006 

SUB 

8,017 

it.at 

For  the  sake  of  comparison,  it  may  be  mentioQed  that  the  total 
quantity  carried  by  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal  in  1905  was  4,250,000 
tons. 

And  now  let  us  see  how  these  totals  were  made  up.  In  1905  the 
quantity  of  iron  and  other  ores  that  passed  upstream  at  Emmerich 
was  5,352,000  tons;  that  of  wheat  and  other  grains  of  the  temperate 
zone,  3,250,000  tons— in  all  8,602,000  tons,  leaving  only  3,930,000  for 
all  other  commodities.  Coal  made  up  more  than  half  the  quantity 
that  passed  down.  At  Buhrort,  etc.,  coal  made  up  5,940,000  tons  of 
the  6,172,000  tons  sent  up  and  3,492,000  out  of  the  4,125,000  tons  sent 
downstream.  At  Mannheim  coal  and  grain  together  constituted 
nearly  two-thirds  of  the  total  quantity  received.  The  quantity  of 
goods  sen*  downstream  was  comparatively  small — 660,000  tons,  of 
which  salt  formed  the  most  important  item. 

It  is  instructive,  also,  to  note  some  of  the  commodities  carried  by 
water  in  smaller  amount,  and  for  that  purpose  I  have  selected  four  of 
the  raw  materials  according  to  the  classification  of  the  official  report 
on  the  inland  waterways  of  Germany.  In  this  case  I  have  taken  the 
Rhine  and  the  Elbe  together  as  the  water  avenues  to  the  chief  manu> 
facturing  districts  of  the  empire. 


with  the  percentage  imported  bv  ioater  of  the  total  import. 

SdS: 

Total. 

vss. 

<0.1 
TO.2 

leG.i 
i«a.s 
iro.8 

The  only  one  of  the  four  of  which  a  large  proportion  is  carried  up 
by  water  is  flax  and  hemp,  and  this  may  be  accounted  for  in  two 
ways — first,  by  the  fact  that  this  is  much  the  least  valuable  of  the 
four  in  proportion  to  its  bulk;  and,  second,  that  the  Elbe,  by  whida 
the  bulk  of  the  import  takes  place,  carries  this  commodity  such  a  long 
distance  on  the  way  to  the  i^ef  seats  of  manufacture  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  the  adjoining  districts  of  Silesia, 
and  the  Austrian  province  of  Bohemia.  ^         . 

DigilizedbyLTOOgle 


QTL&ND  VATBBWATS — 0HI8HOLH.  867 

The  water  traffic  of  BerliQ  is  also  instructiye.  At  last  census  the 
population  of  Berlin  was  upward  of  2,000,000.  The  city  is  connected 
by  waterways  with  the  ports  of  Hamburg  and  Stettin,  and  upstream 
with  the  river  port  of  Kosel,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Prussian  coal  field, 
which  ranks  next  in  importance  to  that  of  the  Ruhr  basin.  The  Ham- 
burg route  has  been  navigable  since  1894  for  vessels  of  600  tons  bur- 
den, and  on  that  route  there  are  only  three  locks.  The  waterway  up 
to  Koael  has  been  available  since  1897,  in  ordinary  states  of  the  river 
Oder,  for  barges  of  400  tons.  Owing  to  the  comparatively  small 
depth  of  the  Finow  canal,  at  present  4^  feet,  and  the  number  of  locks 
upon  it,  17,  the  Stettin  route  is  the  least  commodious  of  the  three. 
In  1905  the  total  quantity  of  goods,  including  floated  timber,  deliv- 
ered at  Berlin  by  water,  was  7,364,000  tons;  and  it  is  noteworthy  that 
the  total  quantity  dispatched  was  less  than  one-eleventh  of  that,  even 
though  the  shippers  must  obviously  have  every  inducement  to  take 
return  freight  at  the  lowest  possible  rate.  Of  the  goods  delivered, 
those  entered  under  two  headings:  (1)  Bricks,  tiles,  pipes,  and  other 
articles  of  baked  clay,  and  (2)  earth,  loam,  sand,  limestone,  and  chalk, 
made  up  more  than  57  per  cent  of  the  total.  These  commodities  are 
almost  entirely  of  local  origin.  The  third  commodity  in  respect  of 
percentage  is  coal,  and  the  addition  of  it  brings  up  the  total  propor- 
tion belonging  to  the  first  three  commodities  to  nearly  73  per  cent 
The  coal  is  partly  Silesian,  partly  English,  but  in  spite  of  the  advan- 
tages afforded  by  the  Oder,  in  1901  only  about  35  per  cent  of  the 
Upper  Silesian  coal  sold  in  Berlin  and  its  suburbs  arrived  by  water." 
Id  recent  years  the  quantity  of  English  coal  reaching  Berlin  by 
Stettin  and  the  Finow  canal  has  been  greater  than  that  arriving  by 
water  from  Silesia,  in  spite  of  the  inferiority,  and  consequently  greats- 
expense,  of  the  Finow  route;  one  important  difference  in  favor  of 
the  Stettin-Finow  traffic  being  that  the  English  coal  necessarily 
arrives  at  the  waterway  in  bulk,  and  has  not  to  be  brought  down  to 
it  like  the  Silesian  coal  from  the  several  mines.  The  coal  brought  to 
Berlin  from  Upper  Silesia  is  chiefly  for  use  in  the  lai^  works  along- 
side the  waterways.  Fen:  the  reason  already  indicated,  domestic  coal 
comes  mainly  by  rail.  The  same  reason  that  keeps  down  the  propor- 
tion of  coal  using  the  waterway  from  Silesia  to  Berlin  causes  the 
great  bulk  of  the  Westphalian  coal  that  comes  to  Hamburg  to  go  by 
raiL  Even  the  opening  of  the  Dortmund-Ems  Canal,  which  was  con- 
structed expressly  for  the  purpose  of  providing  a  water  outlet  for  the 
ooal  of  the  Ruhr  basin,  has  done  little  to  develop  that  trade.  The 
total  quantity  of  goods  carried  down  tJiat  waterway  to  the  port  at  its 

•'Die  StSrnDgen  Im  dentacbeD  WtrtecbaftBleben  wUlireDd  der  Jabre,  1900  ff.,' 
2ter  Band,  Hontan  and  EUeenlndnstrle  (Ldpslg:  Doncker  ft  Hnmblot,  190$), 
P.  W7.  r-  I 

D,a,i,z.:ibyGoogle 


868  AKNUAL  BBPOBT  SUTTHBONIAN   INSTIIDTION,  IWI. 

mouth  (Emden)  in  1904  was  just  under  190,000  tons,  of  which  97j0O0 
tons  was  coal;  in  1905,  224,000  tons  carried  down,  of  which  68,000 
tons  was  coal.  Upstream  from  Emden  there  passed,  in  1905,  475,000 
tons,  of  which  258,000  tons  consisted  of  iron  ores. 

Those  who  advocate  the  improvement  of  existing  waterways  and 
the  construction  of  new  ones  very  often  lay  great  stress  on  their  value 
as  a  means  of  carrying  local  agricultural  produce  and  manufactured 
goods  specially  for  export.  It  will,  therefore,  be  worth  while  to 
consider  what  is  achieved  by  the  German  waterways  under  these 
heads.  For  the  consideration  of  the  efficiency  of  waterways  as  car- 
riers of  agricultural  produce,  Germany  affords  no  better  subject  of 
study  than  the  great  consuming  center  of  Berlin.  Elaborate  tables  " 
drawn  up  in  a  work  already  quoted,  written  in  the  interest  of  the 
German  waterways,  enable  us  to  make  comparisons  on  this  head.  The 
raw  agricultural  products  most  largely  carried  by  water  to  Berlin  are 
the  chief  bread  grains  of  Germany,  rye  and  wheat,  and,  on  the  average 
of  the  years  1896-1899,  about  69  per  cent  of  these  were  received 
by  water,  and  about  31  per  cent  accordingly  by  rail.  But  nearly 
all  this  was  foreign  grain  collected  at  the  seaports.  A  different  tale 
is  told  by  the  figures  relating  to  potatoes.  In  1899  the  proportion 
conveyed  to  Berlin  by  water  was  less  than  2  per  cent.  In  fact,  an 
examination  of  the  data  regarding  the  trade  in  agricultural  products 
generally  bears  out  the  truth  of  the  general  statement  made  in  the 
work  just  cited,*  that  "  the  raising  of  agricultural  products  always 
presupposes  a  relatively  extensive  area  of  production,  and  is  thus  a 
decentralized  industry,  on  which  account,  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases,  it  is  only  the  railways  that  come  into  consideration  with  refer- 
ence to  their  transport" 

Of  manufactured  articles  carried  by  waterways,  the  only  one  of 
importance  as  regards  quantity,  except  on  the  Elbe,  on  whose  banks 
there  are  large  centralized  industries  concerned  in  the  refining  of 
sugar  and  the  manufacture  of  fertilizers,  are  iron  and  iron  wares. 
Now,  in  1905,  of  the  raw  and  scrap  iron  conveyed  to  the  seaports  or 
across  the  German  frontier,  only  about  25  per  cent  was  carried  by 
water,  75  per  cent  by  rail,  and  all  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  quan- 
tity carried  by  water  went  by  the  Rhine,  that  carried  by  the  Dort- 
mund-Ems Canal  being  utterly  insignificant.  Of  the  iron  and  steel 
manufactures  of  all  kinds  similarly  carried,  the  share  of  the  water- 
ways was  about  40  per  cent,  that  of  the  railways  60  per  cent,  and  in 
this  case  again  the  share  of  the  Rhine  made  up  the  great  bulk  (more 
than  95  per  cent)  of  the  total  water-borne  traffic  That  of  the  Dort- 
mund-Ems Canal  was  little  more  than  2  per  cent. 

<■ '  Die  ScMffabrt  der  deutschra  gtrOme,'  voL  1,  pp.  185  and  2SS-2a. 
>Vol.l.  p.  VS2. 


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INLAND   WATEBWAYS CHISHOLM.  359 

So  far  we  have  considered  only  the  really  effective  waterways  of 
Germany,  but  some  of  the  minor  ones  are  also  worthy  of  attention. 
For  example,  there  is  the  celebrated  Ludwig's  Canal,  a  waterway  5 
feet  deep,  connecting,  with  the  aid  of  other  waterways,  the  Rhine  and 
the  Danube.  What  does  it  do?  It  carries  on  a  trifling  and  dwin- 
dling amount  of  traffic,  chiefly  centered,  as  is  natural,  at  Nuremberg, 
where,  in  1905,  the  total  quantity  of  goods  received  and  dispatched 
by  it  in  both  directions  was  much  under  50,000  tons.  At  Kelheim 
this  canal  passed  into  the  Danube  4,037  tons  of  goods,  chiefly  timber; 
from  the  Danube  toward  the  Main,  676  tons.  Then  there  is  the  Ruhr, 
which  flows  through  the  great  German  coal  field  to  the  Rhine,  and 
can  take  barges  of  105  tons — that  is  much  larger  than  the  great 
majority  of  English  waterways.  In  this  case  it  is  worth  while  not- 
ing what  it  once  did,  as  well  as  what  it  now  does.  In  1860  it  carried 
in  all  900,000  tons  of  goods,  of  which  coal  made  up  868,000  tons.  In 
1905  it  carried  1,431  tons  of  stone  downstream,  and  nothing  up. 

The  result  was  due  to  railway  competition,  which  comes  under  the 
ninth  of  the  geographical  considerations  above  enumerated  as  affect- 
■  ing  the  utility  of  waterways.  And  now  it  may  be  remembered  that 
this  is  a  subject  on  which,  I  have  intimated,  something  remained  to  . 
be  said  in  connection  with  the  traffic  on  the  Rhine.  That  traflic  is 
carried  on  against  a  good  deal  of  railway  competition.  In  the  nar- 
rower part  of  the  Rhine  valley  there  is  a  double  line  of  railway  on 
either  bank  of  the  river,  and  there  are  more  railways  running  in  the 
same  direction  higher  up.  But  the  competition  is  not  equal,  I  mean 
Dot  based  solely  on  the  merits  of  the  two  methods  of  transport.  For, 
in  the  first  place,  the  German  state  railways  are  admittedly  not 
worked  on  the  principle  of  offering  the  most  effective  opposition  pos- 
sible to  the  waterways;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  states  adjoining 
the  Rhine  have  spent  some  £8,000,000  in  bringing  the  navigation  of 
the  river  to  its  present  condition,  and  have  handed  over  the  river  to 
the  shippers  free  of  toll.  And  yet  even  under  these  conditions  some 
of  the  shipping  companies  in  a  recent  period  had  very  bad  times.  In 
1902  eight  out  of  nineteen  companies  paid  no  dividend.  In  1903  four 
paid  none.  Under  the  recent  act  for  the  improvement  of  the  waters 
it  is  declared  that  when  those  improvements  are  carried  out,  or  rather 
when  the  Rhine-Weser  Canal  or  a  section  of  it  has  been  brought  into 
operation,  all  those  rivers  on  which  the  state  has  spent  money  in  the 
interest  of  the  navigation  shall  be  subjected  to  such  tolls  as  shall 
serve  to  pay  a  suitable  rate  of  interest  on  the  outlay  and  something 
toward  the  amortization  of  that  outlay.  This  enactment  has  caused 
many  of  those  who  ins'ist  most  stoutly  on  the  advantages  of  water 
transport  to  cry  out  with  dismay  that  the  rivers  will  not  be  able  to 
stand  such  a  burden.    "  For  the  human  soul,"  says  George  Eliot,  "  ia 

41780-08 27  ,^  ibyGoOgIc 


860  ANNUAL  BEPOET  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

hospitable,  and  will  entertain  conflicting  sentiments  and  contradic- 
tory opinions  with  much  impartiality." 

Let  us  now  turn  to  America.  The  experience  of  that  part  of  the 
world  is  not  without  instruction  for  us,  even  though  the  conditions 
under  which  most  of  the  inland  water  traffic  is  there  carried  on  are 
even  more  unlike  those  in  our  country  than  the  conditions  in  Ger- 
many. The  bulk  of  that  traffic  is  the  traffic  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and 
so  far  as  that  is  confined  to  the  Great  Lakes  it  corresponds,  not  to  our 
inland  water  traffic,  but  to  our  coasting  trade.  By  far  the  greater 
proportion  of  it  is  so  restricted.  But  the  Great  Lakes  also  form  part 
of  two  waterways  from  the  interior  to  the  seaboard,  one  Canadian 
and  the  other  belonging  to  the  United  States,  The  Canadian  is  of 
course  that  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  leading  to  Montreal,  and  has  peculiar 
advantages  for  carrying  on  an  export  trade  in  grain.  Since  the  com- 
pletion, in  1899,  of  the  improvements  on  the  St.  Lawrence  there  has 
been  a  minimum  depth  of  14  feet  on  the  entire  waterway.  At  the 
head  of  the  route  are  the  enormous  grain — above  all  wheat— collecting 
points  of  Fort  William  in  Canada  and  Duluth  and  Chicago  in  the 
United  States,  But  as  against  these  advantages  it  has  to  be  remem- 
bered that  the  route  is  closed  by  ice  for  about  five  months  or  more  every 
year.  In  spite  of  this  drawback  the  waterway  carries  on  an  average 
much  more  than  half  the  grain  carried  eastward  to  Montreal.  In 
the  thirteen  years,  18!)3  to  1905,  the  water-borne  proportion  varied 
from  S3  to  a  little  more  than  47  per  cent,  this  minimum  having  been 
the  hrait  of  a  regular  decline  in  the  proportion  of  grain  so  carried 
from  1895  to  1901.  By  1905  the  proportion  of  water-borne  grain  had 
risen  again  to  nearly  72  per  cent,  but  in  this  we  may  probably  see  the 
effect  of  the  abolition,  in  1903,  of  tolls  on  all  grain  carried  through 
twth  the  Welland  and  the  St,  Lawrence  canals,  though  a  toll  of  10 
cents  (say  .'id.)  a  ton  is  still  levied  on  all  grain  that  passes  through  the 
St.  Lawrence  canals  only.  The  meaning  of  this  discrimination  ob- 
viously is  that  on  the  heavy  long  hauls  the  railway  is  able  to  offer 
very  effective  competition  even  with  this  advantageous  waterway. 

The  success  of  this  waterway  has  long  ago  inspired  the  Canadians 
with  the  idea  of  taking  advantage  of  the  geographical  conditions  to 
create  a  more  effective  waterway,  offering  the  recommendations  both 
of  a  shorter  route  and  greater  depth.  This  project  is  what  is  known 
as  the  Ottawa  and  Georgian  Bay  scheme.  The  promoters  of  this 
scheme  urge  that  by  deepening  in  places  the  river  Ottawa,  by  utiliz- 
ing Lake  Xipissing  and  its  outlet  the  French  river  leading  to  Lake 
Huron,  and  by  constructing  the  necessary  canal  connections,  a  water- 
way running  nearly  due  west  from  Montreal  would  be  substituted 
for  that  which  first  ascends  a  long  distance  to  the  .southwest  and  then 
turns  northward.  In  that  way  a  saving  of  about  340  miles  in  the 
voyage  to  and  from  the  higher  lakes  would  be  saved.    FurtJher,  of 


INLAKD  WATERWAYS — CHI6H0LM.  861 

the  total  length  of  425  miles  on  this  new  route  307  miles  would  be 
made  up  of  river  and  lake  navigation  needing  no  improvement  to 
admit  of  its  being  navigated  by  vessels  of  20  feet  draft.  A  committee 
of  the  Dominion  Parliament  has  recommended  the  carrying  out  of 
the  scheme  and  the  adoption  of  a  depth  of  22  feet  for  the  whole  route. 
One  drawback,  however,  is  unavoidable  on  this  proposed  route.  In 
coDsequence  of  its  northerly  situation,  there  would  be  only  a  very  short 
season  after  harvest  in  which  it  would  be  free  from  ice. 

The  United  States  waterway  which  continues  to  the  seaboard  the 
navigation  of  the  Great  Lakes  is  the  Erie  Canal  with  the  Hudson 
Siver.  This  has  the  advantage  of  being  connected  with  a  much 
more  important  seaport  than  the  St.  Lawrence  route,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  much  inferior  as 
a  waterway.  It  has  at  present  a 
depth  of  only  7  feet,  and  the 
maximum  size  of  the  barges 
which  make  use  of  it  is  only 
about  250  tons.  In  this  case,  ac- 
cordingly, we  find  that  the  rail- 
ways are  able  to  compete  with 
the  waterway  much  more  effect- 
ively than  in  Canada,  even 
though  the  canal  is  maintained 
by  the  State  entirely  free  from 
tolls.  On  this  head,  however, 
one  instructive  difference  may  be 
noted  between  the  practice  in 
Germany  and  that  both  of  Can- 
ada and  the  United  States.  In 
these  two  countries  the  railways 
thrfl  compete  with  the  waterways 
are  all  private  undertakings, 
and  do  all  they  can  to  compete 
with  their  rivals  in  the  most  effective  manner.  The  result  is  that 
of  the  total  amount  of  grain  carried  to  New  York  in  1905  about 
93J  per  cent  was  transported  by  rail  as  against  some  6J  per  cent 
by  water.  In  recent  years,  the  actual  quantity  of  goods  of  all 
kinds  carried  by  the  Erie  Canal  has  greatly  diminished— from  a 
maximum  of  4.6  million  tons  in  1880  to  less  than  2  millions  in 
1901.  And  this  was  mainly  made  up  of  local  traffic.  The  amount 
carried  by  the  canal  to  tide  water  in  that  year  was  considerably 
less  than  one  million  tons.  In  1880  all  the  canals  of  the  State  of 
New  York  carried  rather  more  than  25  per  cent  of  the  total  traffic 
of  the  State,  in  1904  less  than  5  per  cent.  In  order  to  restore,  if  pos- 
sible, the  efficiency  of  the  waterways,  the  State  is  now  spending  about 


Fia,  2. — Inland  waterwB^s  of  lIllnolB. 


862  AKNUAL  HEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  IWI. 

£21,000,000  in  making  a  canal  with  branches  with  a  depth  of  12  feet, 
and  capable  of  accommodating  barges  of  1,000  tons,  on  the  routes 
shown  on  the  accompanying  map. 

Of  the  natural  inland  waterways  of  the  United  States,  in  addition 
to  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Mississippi  offers  advantages  for  traffic  of  a 
kind  to  which  not  merely  our  own  country,  but  the  whole  continent  of 
Europe,  can  offer  no  parallel.  Yet  it  is  a  very  striking  fact  that  even 
on  these  the  ordinary  steamer  traffic  has  shown  a  great  decline.  No 
general  statistics  have,  I  believe,  been  collected  since  1889,  but  the 
Tenth  and  Eleventh  censuses  of  the  United  States  allow  of  a  com- 
parison being  made  between  the  total  traffic  of  1880  and  that  of  1889, 
between  which  years  the  total  amount  of  traffic  carried  on  steamers  in 
the  Mississippi  valley  generally  sank  from  13.6  to  10.3,  that  on  the 


Ohio  from  9.2  to  3.8  millions  of  tons.  In  1901  the  total  quantity  of 
goods  received  at  New  Orleans  from  the  interior  was  less  than  5  per 
cent  of  that  received  by  all  routes."  Still,  from  the  Mississippi  and 
Ohio  we  can  obtain  illustrations  of  the  kind  of  traffic  in  which  good 
waterways  are  even  now  successful.  St.  Louis  is  a  great  collecting 
point  for  grain.  In  1903  more  than  80  per  cent  of  the  wheat  and 
about  40  per  cent  of  the  maize  dispatched  thence  for  export  to  New 
Orleans  went  by  river,  and  !)y  this  route  rates  for  wheat  on  through 
bills  of  lading  to  Liverpool  are  only  about  two-thirds  of  tliose  by 
way  of  New  York.*  Yet  the  facts,  even  of  this  trade,  give  ns  a  hint 
also  of  what  waterways  fail  to  do,  for  only  about  one-seventh  of -the 
wheat  and  one-thirteenth  of  the  maize  exported  in  that  year  from 
New  Orleans  came  to  the  port  by  water. 

0  See  the  data  In  the  Foreign  Office  Report,  Annua  I  Series,  No.  2752,  pp.  4,  5. 
*  Foreign  Office  Keiwrt,  AoDnal  Series,  No.  3202,  pp.  48,  W. 


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INLAND  WATERWAYS CHISHOLM.  SbS 

But  the  grain  trade  of  the  Mississippi  is  largely,  and  the  still 
greater  coal  trade  of  the  Ohio-Mississippi  nlmost  wholly,  carried  on 
in  a  peculiar  maimer  possible  only  in  very  wide,  though  not  neces- 
sarily very  deep,  rivers.  It  is  by  means  of  what  are  called  tow 
barges — that  is,  a  number  of  barges  firmly  lashed  together  and  pushed 
onward  by  means  of  a  stem-wheel  steamer.  The  coal  is  all  brought 
from  the  Ohio  and  its  feeders,  the  Monongahela  and  the  Great  Kana- 
wha, the  first  of  which  is  one  of  the  two  head  streams  of  the  Ohio 
which  meet  at  Pittsburg,  while  the  other  joins  the  main  stream  in 
West  Virginia.  At  Pittsburg  tows  of  barges  drawing  8  feet  are  made 
up,  carrying  from  10,000  to  15,000  tons  of  coal.  They  may  have  to 
wait  for  a  sufficient  depth  of  water  before  proceeding  on  their  way 
to  Cincinnati  and  Louisville.  At  Louisville  two  or  three  Pittsburg 
tows  may  be  made  into  one,  carrying  from  35,000  to  40,000  tons.  Even 
one  of  70,000  tons  is  on  record.  One  carrying  40,000  tons.  Professor 
Johnson  tells  us,  is  about  10  acres  in  extent."  At  the  same  ratio,  one 
of  70,000  tons  would  extend  over  17J  acres — say  140  by  600  yards. 

It  is  boasted  that  this  is  the  cheapest  mode  gf  inland  carriage  in  the 
world,  and  yet  even  this  traffic,  which  increased  enormously  between 
■  1880  and  1889,  would  appear  to  be  now  declining  in  the  aggregate, 
and  is  certainly  not  keeping  pace  with  the  enormous  progress  of  the 
American  coal  trade  generally.  In  1889  the  total  amount  of  freight 
carried  on  the  Ohio  was  officially  returned  at  above  16,000,000  tons, 
of  which  tow-barge  traffic  made  up  considerably  more  than  12,000,000 
tons.  In  a  consular  report  for  1905,  the  total  traffic  of  all  kinds  was 
estimated  at  11,000,000  tons,*  and  the  figures  in  the  official  returns  for 
the  coal  trade  of  the  Great  Kanawha  in  recent  years  are  at  least  not 
progressive.'  This,  no  doubt,  is  the  cause  of  the  demand  made  by 
those  interested  in  the  Ohio  navigation  for  the  improvement  of  that 
river  by  the  Government  of  the. United  States,  so  as  to  afford  a  mini- 
mum depth  of  9  feet  at  low  water,  a  demand  to  which  the  Government 
has  so  far  acceded  as  to  obtain  from  Congress  appropriations  for  a 
survey  of  the  entire  river  for  that  purpose. 

But  a  still  greater  project  is  now  being  agitated,  one,  namely,  for 
the  creation  of  an  uninterrupted  waterway  of  14  feet  in  depth  from 
Chicago  to  New  Orleans,  so  as  to  allow  of  loaded  seagoing  vessels  pass- 
ing from  one  port  to  the  other.  An  association,  known  as  the  Lakes- 
to-the-Gulf  Deep  Waterway  Association,  has  been  formed  to  carry  out 
this  scheme,  and  I  am  informed  by  its  secretary  that  its  total  cost 
is  estimated  at  about  £14,500,000.     Part  of  the  proposed  waterway 

B  Emory  U.  Johnson,  "Ocean  and  Inland  Water  Transportatloo "  (London: 
Appleton.  1^),  p.  364. 

"  For.  Off.  Hep.,  Ann.  Ser.,  No.  3622,  p.  36. 

0  Se«  tbe  Annuut  Report  of  the  Cblef  of  Engineers  of  the  War  Department 
of  the  United  States  for  1906,  vol.  fl,  part  2,  pp.  1SS6,  1887.  Cixiolc 


864  ANNUAL  HEPOKT  SMITH80NIAN   INSTITUTION,  IWI. 

would  be  formed  by  the  Chicago  Sanitary  and  Ship  Canal,  connecting 
Chicago  with  the  Des  Plaines  River,  a  canal  with  a  minimum  depth 
of  14  feet,  begun  in  1892,  and  now  approaching  completion.  This 
canal  the  trustees  of  the  sanitary  district  of  Chicago  propose  to  hand 
over  to  the  General  Government  on  condition  that  it  completes  the 
projected  waterway ;  but  when  one  considers  that  the  42  miles  of  this 
canal,  when  completed,  will  have  cost  about  £11,500,000,  the  total 
estimate  above  given  must  surely  be  rather  sanguine. 

Such  a  project  as  this  may  at  least  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the 
enthusiasm  which  inland  waterways  inspire  in  the  minds  of  some 
people,  but  is  not  fitted  to  afford  any  guidance  in  the  study  of  English 
waterways,  and  to  these  it  is  now  time  to  devote  attention.  With 
reference  to  the  special  subject  of  this  inquiry,  namely,  the  influence 
of  geographical  conditions  on  rail  and  water  transport,  there  are  few 
countries,  if  any,  in  which  the  facts  are  more  worthy  of  study  than 
our  own,  seeing  that  in  this  country  the  two  means  of  transport  have 
been  left  to  fight  it  out  between  themselves,  with  little  interference 
on  the  part  of  the  State.  It  has  been  the  general  rule  in  other  coun- 
tries, as  in  Germany  and  the  United  States,  for  the  State  to  intervene 
on  behalf  of  the  waterways.  In  this  country  the  only  way  in  which 
the  State  can  be  said  to  prejudice  the  railways  in  the  contest  is  in 
insisting,  in  the  case  of  those  canals  which  have  become  railway  prop- 
erty, that  the  canals  shall  be  maintained  whether  the  railway  can 
work  them  at  a  profit  or  not,  and  that  the  owning  companies  shall, 
at  the  demand  of  traders,  quote  rates  subject  to  State  regulation.  I 
would  not  be  understood  to  assert  that  this  is  undue  interference  on 
the  part  of  the  State.  I  merely  mention  it  as  at  least  a  fact  that 
should  be  recognized. 

And  here  I  may  point  out  that  the  existence  of  railway-owned  and 
railway-controlled  canals  in  this  country  introduces  another  geo- 
graphical consideration,  although  only  of  a  secondary  order,  by 
which  I  mean  one  not  originally  given  or  mainly  determined  by 
nature.  Once  established,  however,  the  nature  of  the  ownership  may 
have  geographical  effects,  and  it  is  at  least  incumbent  on  us  to  inquire 
whether  it  has  such  or  not.  For  that  reason  several  canal  maps  have 
been  drawn  up  in  which  the  distinction  of  ownership  or  control  is 
indicated,  and  one  of  these  I  am  now  able  to  show  through  the 
courtesy  of  Messrs.  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.  On  this  map,  it  should 
be  noticed,  tlie  canals  are  distinguished,  not  as  railway  owned  and 
independent,  but  as  railway  controlled  and  independent;  for  this 
makes  an  important  difference,  inasmuch  as  the  Birmingham  Canal 
Navigation  belongs  to  an  independent  company.  This,  however,  is 
a  mere  divideud-receiving  company,  the  dividend  being  guaranteed 

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INLAND  WATERWAYS CHISHOLM. 


no,  i— English  watecnari, 


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S66  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITTTTIOH,  1907. 

by  the  London  and  Northwestern  Railway  Company,  which  under 
an  old  agreement  with  the  canal  company  controls  the  navigation. 

This  map  also,  following  the  well-known  map  of  Mr.  Lionel  Wells, 
makes  an  attempt  to  distinguish  the  canals  in  respect  of  their  capacity, 
and  it  will  be  noticed  what  a  large  proportion  of  them  are  small 
waterways  of  less  than  4  feet  in  depth,  many  being  not  merely  shallow 
but  narrow  and  capable  of  being  used  only  by  what  are  known  as 
narrow  boats." 

Further,  on  this  map  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  indicate  the 
effect  of  inequalities  of  level  on  inland  navigation.  In  one  respect 
the  most  satisfactory  maps  that  have  been  published,  so  far  as  I 
know,  giving  indications  under  this  head,  are  the  large  maps  showing 
the  waterways  of  England  and  Wales,  of  Ireland,  and  the  Scottish 
midlands,  respectively,  attached  to  the  paper  "  On  Waterways  in 
Great  Britain,"  read  in  November,  1905,  by  Mr.  J,  A.  Saner,  M.  Inst 
C.  E.,  to  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  of  which  the  author  was 
good  enough  to  favor  me  with  a  copy.  These  maps  show  the  water- 
ways in  relation  to  the  physical  features  as  indicated  by  contour 
lines  and  intervening  coloring.  It  is  to  be  regretted,  however,  that 
they  do  not  give  the  number  of  locks  on  the  different  waterways, 
which  the  scale  of  the  maps  would  have  made  comparatively  easy.  Of 
the  difficulties  presented  by  English  canals  the  best  idea  may  perhaps 
be  obtained  from  the  sections  published  in  Mr.  E.  A.  Pratt's  '*  British 
Canals."  On  the  map  now  shown  the  number  of  the  locks  on  different 
canals  and  waterways,  or  sometimes  on  sections  of  canals,  has  been 
given  in  figures,  but  the  map  is  on  rather  n  small  scale  for  that  to  be 
done  quite  satisfactorily.  It  will,  however,  at  least  serve  to  keep  us 
in  mind  of  the  fact  that  in  this  respect  English  wa.terways  mostly 
suffer  from  great  drawbacks. 

It  may  be  worth  while  to  examine  some  of  the  more  important 
canals  separately  with  reference  to  this  point.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
there  are  three  waterways  connecting  South  Lancashire  with  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  and,  accordingly,  crossing  the  Pennine  chain; 
two  of  them  independent  canals,  the  third  railway  owned.  The  most 
important  of  these  is  the  Leeds  and  Liverpool  Canal,  the  northern- 
most of  the  three,  which,  it  will  be  observed,  has  fifty-one  locks  on  the 
one  side,  forty-four  on  the  other.  It  has.  however,  the  easiest  route 
of  the  three,  going  through  the  important  feature  which  Mr.  Mac- 
kinder  has  well  called  the  Aire  gap,  at  the  height  of  only  477  feet 
above  sea  level.  The  Rochdale  Canal,  the  next  to  the  south,  rises 
above  500  feet,  and  the  Huddersfield  Canal  reaches  its  summit,  666 

"The  work  affording  the  most  complete  informatlOD  about  Englleh  waterways 
nnder  thia  and  oil  other  beads  connecteiJ  with  their  use  la  Bradshaw'e  "  Canals 
and  Navigable  Itivere  of  Eugland  aud  Wales,"  by  U.  R.  de  Sails  (Loudon,  1904). 


■■iGoot^lc 


INLAND   WATERWAYS CHtSHOLM.  867 

feet,  in  the  Stanedge  tunnel  3  miles  long.    In  the  Harecastle  tunnel, 

4  miles  northwest  of  Stoke,  the  Trent  and  Mersey  Canal  attains  a 
height  of  460  feet.  Birmingham  is  connected  with  the  Thames  by  a 
waterway  which  starts  at  380  feet  above  sea  level,  sinks  to  180  feet  in 
the  valley  of  the  Avon,  and  rises  again  to  390  feet  where  it  passes 
through  the  Chilterns;  and  with  the  Severn  by  one  starting  at  426 
feet  above  sea  level,  and  making  a  rapid  descent  of  about  250  feet  in 

5  miles  after  passing  through  the  Tardebigge  tunnel. 

It  has  also  to  be  noted  that,  in  addition  to  railway  competition, 
the  inland  waterways  of  this  country  have  to  encounter  that  of  the 
coasting  trade,  and  when  all  the  drawbacks  of  English  waterways 
are  considered,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that,  in  proportion  to  their 
capacity  as  regards  volume  and  speed,  the  work  done  by  them  com- 
pares very  favorably  with  that  done  by  the  waterways  of  other  coun- 
tries  witli  which  it  is  reasonable  to  make  a  comparison.  In  the 
absence  of  ton-mile  statistics  no  satisfactory  comparison  can  indeed 
be  made  under  this  head;  still,  it  may  be  not  altogether  useless  to 
mention  that  the  tonnage  carried  by  the  waterways  of  England  and 
Wales,  according  to  the  returns  for  1898,"  was  larger  than  that  car-  ■ 
ried  by  the  waterways  of  France,  Belgium,  Germany,  or  Russia,  for 
the  nearest  year  for  which  I  happen  to  have  the  data  (in  no  case 
more  than  three  years  from  1898).  England  and  Wales,  moreover, 
have  no  waterway  like  the  Ruhr,  capable  of  carrying  165-ton  boats 
and  passing  through  a  coal  Held,  yet  carrying  next  to  nothing.  The 
113,000  tons  carried  in  1898  by  the  Kennet  and  Avon  Canal  and 
river  Avon  (railway  controlled,  be  it  observed)  compares  very  favor- 
ably with  the  small  traffic  of  the  Danube-Main  or  Ludwig's  canal. 

The  first  question,  therefore,  to  ask  is,  How  is  it  that  our  poor 
water^'ays  accomplish  so  much?  and  unquestionably  the  answer  is. 
Because  this  country  has  such  large  quantities  of  bulky  goods  origi- 
nating or  collected  nt  some  point  on  a  waterway  and  requiring  to  be 
transported  to  some  other  point  on  the  same  or  a  connected  waterway. 

We  may  next  ask  how  this  traffic  is  divided  between  the  indepen- 
dent and  rail  way -con  trolled  waterways.  In  making  this  comparison, 
I  leave  out  the  sea-borne  traffic  of  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal,  which 
is  obviously  not  on  the  same  footing  as  ordinary  inland  water  traffic, 
and  I  omit  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal  proper  in  stating  the  total 
length  of  the  canals.  On  tijis  basis  we  find  that  the  2,016  miles  of 
independent  canals  carrried  in  1898,  in  round  numbers,  22.5  million 
tons,  the  1,118  miles  of  railway-controlled  canals  roughly  13,5  mil- 
lions. These  figures  would  seem  to  tell  rather  in  favor  of  railway 
control,  but,  of  course,  it  would  be  absurd  to  draw  such  a  conclusion. 

o  Returns  In  Respect  of  Canals  and  Navigations  In  tbe  United  Kingdom  for 
1898.     tCd.  10],  1899. 


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868  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

Such  general  comparisons  throw  no  light  whatever  on  the  question. 
It  will  be  more  profitable  to  look  at  the  facts  relating  to  some  of  the 
individual  navigations. 

That  which  carried  by  far  the  greatest  amount  in  that  year  was 
the  Birmingham  Canal  Navigation,  a  miserable  narrow-boat  system 
of  waterways  which  wind  about  and  rise  and  fall  in  South  Stafford- 
shire and  the  neighboring  parts  of  adjoining  counties.  But  it  is 
their  situation  that  explains  their  preeminence,  the  large  towns  and 
the  mines  and  quarries  of  this  district  supplying  and  requiring  large 
quantities  of  bulky  produce,  such  as  is  indicated  in  the  following 
table,  one  column  of  which  is  taken  from  the  returns  already  cited 
and  the  second  kindly  supplied  to  me  by  the  clerk  to  the  Navigation : 


Thousands  of  to 

H»  carried  by  the  Birminghan 

Canal  Narioatioa. 

!««. 

.«». 

CoeL 

1.340 

139 

3. rat 

GcnerBl 

Lion  an 

8,«2T 

The  "  general  merchandise,"  I  am  informed,  is  broadly  composed 
of  grain,  timber,  and  manufactured  goods  generally. 

The  waterway  ranking  next  after  the  Birmingham  Canal  Naviga- 
tion in  respect  of  the  volume  of  its  traffic  is  the  Aire  and  Calder 
Navigation.  Here  we  have  a  much  better  waterway,  throughout 
above  6  feet  in  depth,  with  much  fewer  locks,  and,  moreover,  with 
large  quantities  of  one  bulk  commodity  (coal)  to  collect  at  or  near 
its  upper  terminals,  Leeds  and  Wakefield,  and  discharge  into  ships 
at  its  lower  end,  Goole.  This  trade  has  also  been  greatly  promoted 
by  the  ingenious  contrivances  for  dealing  with  this  commodity 
devised  by  the  engineer  to  the  canal,  Mr.  W.  H.  Bartholomew, 
M.  Inst.  C.  E.  The  coal  is  carried  in  so-called  compartment  boats, 
i-eally  segments  of  a  boat,  each  carrying  35  tons  of  coal,  and  formed 
into  a  train  which  is  preceded  by  an  empty  segment  shaped  like  the 
prow  of  a  boat,  all  drawn  by  a  tug.  On  the  arrival  of  the  train  at 
Goole  each  compartment  is  hoisted  up  in  order  that  its  contents  may 
be  tipped  into  the  hold  of  a  ship,  and  on  the  return  of  the  train  the 
separate  compartments  are  hauled  out  of  the  water  on  rails  to  be 
taken  to  the  collieries  for  refilling. 


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INLAND  WATERWAYS CHISHOLM.  869 

Time  fails  us  for  the  examination  of  other  important  English 
waterways,  but  attention  may  be  drawn  to  two  railway-controlled 
canals  which  carry  a  great  deal  of  traffic,  though  not  with  such  satis- 
factory results  as  the  Birmingham  Canal  Navigation.  One  of  these 
is  the  St.  Helens,  or  Sankey  Brook,  Canal,"  belon^ng  to  the  London 
and  Northwestern  Railway  Company.  It  is  more  than  6  feet  deep, 
and  runs  from  the  great  chemical  and  glass  manufacturing  town  of 
St.  Helens  to  the  Mersey.  In  1898  it  carried  above  380,000  tons  of 
river  sand,  chemicals,  limestone,  sugar,  and  other  pi-oduce,  but  at  a 
loss  to  the  company  of  £S35.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive  what  motive 
the  company  could  have  for  carrying  all  this  at  a  loss,  if  in  any  way 
it  could  contrive  to  carry  it  at  a  profit.  The  other  is  a  very  remark- 
able and  instructive  case  in  more  ways  than  one.  It  is  that  of  the 
Swansea  Canal,'  which  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  Tawe,  and  in  16J 
miles  ascends  333  feet  by  means  of  36  locks.  In  spite  of  these  adverse 
circumstances,  th?  canal  carried  in  1898  192,000  tons  at  a  small  profit 
to  the  railway  company.  The  explanation  is  found,  however,  in  the 
account  of  it  given  in  the  Returns  for  1898,  where  the  canal  is  de- 
scribed as  "  passing  through  or  alongside  the  various  works — copper, 
silver  nickel,  tin  plate,  and  other  works,  also  collieries,  quarries,  etc." 
But  the  instructiveness  of  this  example  does  not  end  here.  In  1898 
the  goods  stated  to  have  been  carried  by  this  canal  in  order  of  impor- 
tance were  coal,  ores,  and  pitwood.  The  manager  of  the  Great  West- 
em  Railway  Company  has  been  good  enough  to  inform  me  that  in 
1905  the  total  tonnage  carried  by  this  canal  was  only  123,000  tons, 
and  that  the  decrease  in  traffic  was  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that,  conse- 
quent upon  the  provision  of  rail  access  to  a  large  colliery  company's 
works,  that  company's  output,  which  formerly  passed  by  the  canal, 
was  now  all  carried  by  the  Midland  Railway,  and  that  it  was  under- 
stood that  the  colliery  company  had  disposed  of  its  water-carrying 
plant.  The  coal  at  present  carried  by  the  canal  amounts  to  less  than 
6,000  tons  per  annum,  and  I  am  assured  that,  as  might  be  expected, 
practically  the  whole  o£  the  canal  traffic  arises  at,  or  is  destined  for, 
places  in  the  vicinity  of  the  canal.  Now  the  traffic  is  carried  on  at  a 
loss,  and  in  this  case  it  is  still  more  difficult  to  conceive  what  induce- 
ment the  company  has  to  suffer  that  loss  if  it  can  prevent  it. 

There  can  be  no  question,  however,  that  in  some  cases  it  must  be  the 
interest  of  the  railways  to  check  the  development  of  canal  traffic.  If 
the  facilitating  of  traffic  on  a  canal  belonging  to  a  railway  would  tend 

°  Tbis  Is  tbe  canal  sbown  on  our  map  by  five  large  dote  to  the  onrth  of  tbe 
Mersey. 

i  Tbls  canal.  liindvert«ntly  sliowu  on  tbe  map  by  ii  oontlauouB  lastend  of  a 
dotted  line,  is  tbe  western  of  tbe  two  canals  converging  on  Swansea. 


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370  ANNUAL   REPORT   SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION,   1901, 

to  divert  traffic  to  other  canals  instead'of  the  railway,  it  is  in  accord- 
ance with  ordinary  business  human  nature  that  the  railway  should  be 
unwilling  to  grant  such  facilities,  and  it  is  largely  on  this  account 
that  the  principal  schemes  for  canal  improvement  in  this  country 
hinge  upon  the  Birmingham  Canal  Navigation.  That,  of  course,  is 
not  the  sole  reason.  The  concentration  of  a  mining  and  industrial 
population  on  the  area  served  by  that  canal  affords  one  of  the  impor- 
tant conditions  favoring  through  traffic  by  water  to  the  coast.  In 
the  paper  already  referred  to  M.  Saner  has  propounded  a  scheme  for 
connecting  this  area  with  the  ports  of  Liverpool,  Hull,  London,  and 
Bristol  by  canals  capable  of  being  navigated  by  lighters  of  250  tons 
carrying  capacity.  But  suppose,  as  Mr.  Vernon-Harcourt  suggested 
in  his  criticism  of  that  scheme,  a  beginning  were  made  with  a  project 
of  more  modest  dimensions,  "  the  actual  enlargement  of  the  most 
promising  canal,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  Worcester  and  Birming- 
ham Canal,"  let  us  consider,  in  the  light  of  what  has  been  set  forth, 
what  would  be  the  prospects  of  trafiic  on  that  improved  waterway 
to  the  sea.  The  Birmingham  area,  it  may  be  admitted,  is  more  prom- 
ising for  canal  traffic  than  Berlin.  It  is  rather  to  be  compared  with 
a  portion  of  the  area  of  the  Ruhr  coal  field.  Still,  the  waterway  thus 
provided  would  be  no  Rhine,  It  would  not  even  be  equal  to  the 
Dortmund-Ems  Canal,  the  disappointing  results  of  which  we  have 
already  seen.  When  all  the  circumstances  are  considered,  the  prob- 
ability is,  it  seems  to  me,  that  nearly  all  the  commodities  enumerated 
above  as  making  up  the  water  traffic  of  the  Black  Country  would  still 
continue  to  form  merely  local  traffic.  Not  improbably  there  would 
be  some  development  in  the  carriage  of  iron  manufactures  to  Bristol, 
a  development  hindered,  as  compared  with  the  Dortmund-Ems  route, 
by  the  inferiority  of  the  waterway,  but  relatively  favored  through  the 
superiority  of  the  seaports  with  which  Birmingham  would  be  con- 
nected. In  return  there  would  not  improbably  be  a  certain  trade  in 
ores,  how  great  it  would  be  difficult  to  estimate,  but  so  far  as  it  went 
it  would  no  doubt  be  a  gain  to  the  district.  From  the  experience  of 
Berlin  and  Germany  generally,  we  may  take  it  as  settled  that  the 
improved  waterway  would  do  little  to  promote  the  trade  in  English 
agricultural  produce.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would  help  to  increase 
the  competition  of  foreign  and  colonial  produce  of  that  kind  with 
that  of  home  production.  Those,  therefore,  who  advocate  the  spend- 
ing of  public  money  on  canals  ought  to  consider  whether  this  trade, 
among  others,  is  one  that  it  is  desirable  to  promote  by  special  boun- 
ties, such  as  an  unremunerative  state-built  canal  would  constitute. 


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THE  PRESENT  POSITION  OF  PALEOZOIC  BOTANY.- 


By  D.  H.  Scott,  F.  R.  S^ 

Lately  Honorary  Keeper  of  the  JodrcU   Laboralory,  Royal   Botanic   Oantent, 

Eew. 


Since  the  general  acceptance  of  the  doctrine  of  evolution,  the 
determination  of  the  course  of  descent  has  become  the  ultimate 
object  of  the  scientific  systematist;  the  problem  is  an  historical  one 
and  the  most  authentic  documents  are  the  remains  of  the  ancient 
organisms  preserved  in  the  rocks.  Remote  and  even  unattainable 
as  a  full  solution  of  the  problem  must  be,  we  may  confidently  hope, 
in  tracing  something  of  the  past  history  of  plants,  to  throw  new 
light  on  their  relationships. 

There  is  probably  no  branch  of  botany  which  has  made  more 
rapid  advances  of  late  years  than  the  study  of  fossil  plants,  and  it 
is  especially  the  investigation  of  the  more  ancient  floras  which  is 
now  leading  to  new  i-esults  of  far-reaching  significance.  The  object 
of  the  present  article  is  to  give  a  sketch  of  our  knowledge  of  Paleo- 
zoic plants  and  their  affinities,  as  affected  by  recent  discoveries. 

a  Abridged  and  condensed,  wttta  tbe  consent  of  the  author,  from  FrogreBBUB 
Ret  Botanlcte,  vol.  1,  pE.  1,  pp.  138-217,  37  flguree;  Leldea,  1907,  Gustav 
Fischer. 

Tbe  discoTerlee  amoni^  Pnleozolc  plnnt  fossils  have  been  so  rapid  during 
the  last  decade,  and  the  light  thrown  od  the  nature  of  the  ancient  extinct  types, 
their  mutual  relations,  and  their  part  In  the  systematic  evolution  of  tbe  great 
groups  of  living  plantK.  lins  biwn  so  lnii>ortant.  as  well  as  brilliant,  as  to  excite 
the  Interest  of  students  In  nil  branches  of  botany  In  all  countries.  In  the  par- 
tial reformation  of  Paleozoic  botany,  and  In  the  task  of  working  out  the  pliy- 
logeny  of  our  lower  gymnosperms.  in  particular,  the  distinguished  author  has 
played  the  lending  rOle  among  living  investigators. 

To  meet  the  call  for  Information  on  the  part  of  American  readers  this  very 
able,  comprehensive,  authoritative,  and  fairly  conservative  article  Is  printed 
as  fully  as  space  will  permit,  even  including  as  much  as  possible  of  the  technical 
matter,  since  these  widely  scattered  data  have  nowhere  been  assembled  In  our 
American  literature. 

For  references  to  the  many  papers  cited,  and  for  additional  11  lustrations, 
the  render  Is  referred  to  the  original  article  and  to  Mr.  Arber's  bibliography  In 
the  Frogressus  Rel  Botanlcie. 

871 

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372  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

Our  subject  covers  the  botany  of  the  whole  Paleozoic  epoch  from 
the  oldest  rocks  in  which  plant  remains  have  been  found  up  to  the 
close  of  the  Permian  formation.  Our  knowledge,  however,  of  the 
different  periods  embraced  within  this  immense  range  of  time  is  so 
imequal  that  no  general  description  of  Paleozoic  vegetation  can  bo 
attempted.  In  the  Silurian,  for  example,  vegetable  fossils  are  so 
scanty  that  the  data  are  altogether  inadequate  to  give  any  idea  of  the 
flora  of  that  formation.  The  Devonian  is  far  richer  and  of  great 
botanical  interest,  but  its  flora  urgently  needs  a  critical  revision  in 
the  light  of  modern  knowledge-  It  is  only  when  we  come  to  the 
Carboniferous  that  the  evidence  becomes  abundant  and  satisfactory, 
and  it  is  from  this  formation  that  our  conception  of  Paleozoic  floras 
has  been  essentially  derived. 

In  considering  the  plant  world  at  such  a  remote  epoch  we  are  pre- 
pared to  find  that  the  limits  and  relative  development  of  the  various 
classes  were  very  different  from  those  to  which  we  are  accustomed  in 
the  recent  flora.  There  is  no  evidence  that  the  Angiosi>erms,  now 
the  dominant  class  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  existed  in  Paleozoic 
times;  on  the  contrary,  their  first  traces  only  appear  far  on  in  the 
Mesozoic  epoch.  Although  their  history  may  probably  extend  much 
further  back  than  is  shown  by  our  present  records,  there  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  their  evolution,  as  a  distinct  phylum,  had  begun  in 
Paleozoic  times.  On  the  other  hand  Gymnosperms,  and  more  primi- 
tive seed  plants  allied  to  Gymnosperms,  were  immensely  abundant, 
though  belonging,  with  few  exceptions,  to  families  now  extinct.  The 
Pteridophyta,  while  not  so  predominant  as  has  commonly  been  sup- 
posed, played  an  important  part,  and  some  of  their  families  attained 
a  development  far  exceeding  anything  that  their  recent  allies  can 
show.  As  regards  the  lower  classes  of  plants,  while  we  have  scarcely 
any  knowledge  of  Paleozoic  Bryophyta,  there  is  evidence  that  Bac- 
teria were  present  and  that  Fungi  were  abundant,  though  the  re- 
mains of  the  latter  have  not  as  yet  proved  of  any  great  botanical 
interest.  The  Algee  are  somewhat  better  known,  but  here  also  well- 
characterized  specimens  are  few. 

The  land  vegetation  of  the  Paleozoic  period,  from  the  Devonian 
onward,  was  in  part  Pteridophytic  and  in  part  Spermophytic.  In 
the  light  of  our  present  knowledge  it  appears  probable  that  in  the 
Carboniferous,  at  all  events,  the  latter  element  was  predominant,  and 
possibly  this  may  already  have  been  the  case  even  in  Devonian  times. 
The  conception  of  the  Paleozoic  age  as  the  reign  of  the  Cryptogams, 
current  from  the  time  of  its  author  Brongniart  down  to  our  own  day, 
has  lost  its  validity,  owing  to  the  increasing  evidence  for  the  seed- 
bearing  character  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  forms  hitherto  classed 

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PRESENT  POSITION   OF  PALEOZOIC   BOTANY — SCOTT.  873 

as  Cryptogaraic.  The  Spermophyta  of  the  Paleozoic  period  consisted 
on  the  one  hand  of  well-characterized  Gymnosperms,  and  on  the  other 
of  a  great  assemblage  of  fern-like  forms,  resembling  the  contemporary 
Gymnosperms  as  regards  their  seeds,  but  separated  from  them  by 
the  primitive  character  of  their  general  organization;  they  may  be 
treated  as  a  distinct  class — the  Pteridospermese.  In  addition  to  Gym- 
nosperms and  Pteridosperms,  the  ranks  of  Paleozoic  "  seed-bearing 
plants  "  were  further  recruited  from  a  different  source,  the  Lycopo- 
diales,  some  members  of  which,  as  recent  investigation  has  shown,  had 
made  a  great  advance  in  the  Spermophytic  direction,  producing 
organs  closely  analogous  with  true  seeds. 

The  division  of  vascular  plants  into  Spermophyta  and  Pterido- 
ph3'ta,  though  sanctioned  by  botanical  usage,  ceases  to  afford  a  natural 
line  of  cleavage  when  we  are  concerned  with  Paleozoic  vegetation, 
A  large  proportion  of  the  seed  plants  of  that  period  were,  until 
recently,  classed  as  Ferns,  and  though  their  position  has  changed 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  affinity  between  (he  Pteridosperms,  as 
we  now  call  them,  and  the  Ferns  was  far  closer  than  that  between 
the  Ferns  and  any  other  known  group  of  Pteridophyta.  Further, 
the  Lycopods  above  referred  to,  which  were  reproduced  by  means  of 
seed-like  organs,  were  in  all  other  respects  as  true  Lycopods  as  any 
of  their  purely  Cryptogamic  allies. 

Hence  we  have  to  seek  some  other  line  of  separation,  if  we  wish, 
on  grounds  of  convenience,  to  group  the  Paleozoic  Vasculares  under 
two  main  divisions. 

As  a  provisional  scheme,  we  may  adopt  Professor  Jeffrey's  pro- 
posed division  of  the  vascular  plants  into  Lycopsida  and  Fteropsida, 
Ihe  former  including  Sphenophyllales  (as  here  limited,  a  wholly  Pale- 
ozoic class)  Equisetales  and  Lycopodiales,  while  the  latter  embrace 
the  Filicales  and  the  whole  of  the  Flowering  Plants. 

The  characters  on  which  Professor  Jeffrey  mainly  relied  as  dis- 
tinguishing his  two  main  groups  are  three:  The  Lycopsida  are  typ- 
ically microphyllous,  the  Pteropsida  megaphyllous ;  tlie  Lycopsida  are 
"  cladosiphonic,"  the  Pteropsida  "  phyllosiphonic,"  i.  e.,  the  hollow 
vascular  cylinder  (when  present)  is  interrupted  in  the  former  only 
by  the  exit  of  branches,  forming  ramular  gaps,  in  the  latter  by  the 
exit  of  leaf  traces,  forming  foliar  gaps;  lastly,  the  Lycopsida  are 
characteristically  strobiloid  as  regards  their  fructification,  while  in 
the  Pteropsida  strobili,  or  cones,  appear  only  in  the  higher  members 
of  the  division  (Phanerogamia).  These  characters  are  by  no  means 
constant,  and  are  open  to  much  criticism ;  the  general  grouping  has, 
however,  sufficient  claims  to  be  a  natural  one  to  afford  at  any  rate 
a  basis  for  the  discussion  of  affinities. 

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874  ANNUAL   BEPORT   SUITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION,   lOffl. 

We  may  graft  on  Professor  Jeffrey's  arrangement  a  proposal  of 
Professor  Lignier's  to  associate  the  Sphenophyllales  and  Equisetalea 
in  the  subdivision  Articulatse.  So  far,  then,  as  concerns  the  groups 
which  we  have  to  consider  in  this  article  our  provisional  classifica- 
tion may  take  the  following  form : 


Lycopsida 

Pteropsida 


SphenophylI.l«.K    j.^__l^j^ 

Equisetales.  I 

Psilotales. 

Lycopodiales. 

Filicales. 

Pteridospermese. )-,  ,    . 

^  ISpermophvta. 

Oymnospermete,  I   '^  " 


The  Psilotales,  though  without  authentic  Paleozoic  representatives, 
are  included  in  the  list  because  it  is  necessary  to  discuss  their  affinities 
in  the  light  of  paleontological  data. 

The  composition  of  the  Vasculares  in  Paleozoic  times  was  thus 
widely  different  from  what  w©  find  in  the  recent  Flora,  not  only  as 
to  the  groups  represented  but  also  as  to  their  relative  importance. 
The  Pteridophytes  and  the  lower  Seed  Plants  then  had  the  field  to 
themselves,  and  shared  among  them  all  the  leading  roles  in  the  vege- 
table world,  filling  a  place  which  has  since,  for  the  most  part,  been 
taken  over  by  families  of  more  modern  origin.  Groups  of  plants 
which  now  play  a  subordinate  part,  or  have  disappeared  altogether, 
were  then  richly  represented,  and  in  many  cases  showed  a  far  higher 
and  more  varied  organization  than  is  found  among  their  nearest 
allies  in  later  times. 

In  discussing  the  affinities  of  Paleozoic  vascular  plants  there  are 
certain  advantages  in  beginning  with  the  Sphenophyllales,  an  order 
which,  though  not  extensive,  is  important  from  its  synthetic  charac- 
ter, and  probably  represents  an  extremely  ancient  stock. 

A.  LycoPSroA. 

I.  Sphenopiiti 


The  extinct  order  Sphenophyllales  ranges  from  the  Middle  De- 
vonian to  the  Permian,  or  perhaps  to  the  base  of  the  Triassic.  It 
contains  but  two  genera,  Sphenopkyllum  and  Cheirostrobns,  each  of 
which  represents  a  distinct  family,  the  genus  Cheirostrobus  being 
known  only  by  its  remarkable  cones.  The  species  of  Sphenophyllum 
were  herbaceous,  probably  climbing  plants,  with  slender  ribbed  ar- 
ticulated steins,  having  a  triquetrous  solid  axis  of  centripetal  primary 


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PBESENT  POSITION   OP  PALEOZOIC   BOTANY — SCOTT. 


875 


wood  from  the  angles  of  which  the  leaf  traces  arise.  A  secondary 
or  exogenous  wood  was  also  developed;  in  the  coal-measure  species 
the  tracheides  are  provided  with  multiseriate  pits.  The  leaves,  borne 
in  verticils  at  the  nodes,  are  typically  cuneate,  with  dichotomous 
nerves,  but  may  be  divided  into  numerous  linear  segments;  they  are 
usually  six  in  number  and  not  alternating  in  the  verticils  as  in  the 
ICquisetales.  The  sporangia  are  varied  in  grouping,  and  are  borne 
on  the  lobes  of  more  or  less  modified  fertile  leaves.  {Fig.  1.)  The 
nervate  sporangiophores  are  sometimes  peltate,  and  the  sporangia 
(one  to  four  in  number)  are  usually  borne  on  the  ventral  lobes, 
though  in  one  species  they  are  also  present  on  the  dorsal.  The  cur- 
rent statement  that  they  are  heterosporous  ap- 
pears to  be  erroneous. 

The  Cheiroe'.robus  cone,  from  the  Lower  Car- 
boniferous, is  of  great  complexity,  and  is  in  fact 
the  most  elaborate  Pteridophytic  fructification 
known  to  us.  A  stout  axis  with  a  polyarch 
stele  of  primary  wood  containing  no  pith, 
bears  numerous  verticils  of  highly  compound 
sporophylls.  (Fig.  2  )  Each  sporophyll  con- 
sists of  six  segments,  of  which  three  are  dorsal, 
sterile,  bract-like  organs,  the  remaining  three 
constituting  ventral  peltate  sporangiophores, 
each  of  which  bears  four  sporangia. 

Intimately  related  to  the  Sphenophyllales,  if 
not  referable  to  the  same  class,  is  Pstudobornia, 
described  by  Nathorst  from  the  Arctic  Upper 
Devonian  and  made  the  foundation  of  the  order 
Pseudobomiales.  The  main  stems,  which  are 
believed  to  have  been  creeping,  are  of  consider- 
able size,  reaching  about  10  mm.  in  diameter  in 
their  present  flattened  condition.  The  stem  was 
articulated  and  branched,  and  on  the  smaller  branches  the  whorled 
leaves  are  found  in  position.  Several  are  borne  in  a  verticil,  the 
number  being  most  probably  four;  each  leaf  is  of  a  highly  com- 
pound form;  seated  on  a  short  petiole,  it  divides  by  repeated  dich- 
otomy into  several  leaflets,  which  are  themselves  deeply  pinnati- 
fied,  with  numerous  fine  segments.  The  fructification  is  in  the  form 
of  long,  lax  spikes,  bearing  whorled  sporophylls,  resembling  reduced 
vegetative  leaves.  A  sporangium  appears  to  have  been  borne  on 
the  lower  part  of  the  sporophyll,  but  there  is  no  information  as  to 
its  mode  of  insertion.  Indications  of  probable  megaspores  were  ob- 
served. Unfortunately  the  type  is  at  present  known  only  in  the 
form  of  impressions. 


10.  1. — Bphenophiilltim 
mafut.  Part  o(  forked 
BporopbyU  In  aurface 
Tteir.  Ehowlns  a  group 
of  four  Bgiorangla  In- 
aerted  below  a  blfurca- 
tloD.     Atter  KlditoD. 


41780—08 28 


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376  ANNUAL  REPOHT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 


The  Paleozoic  Equisetales,  often  made  into  a  class  of  their  own, 
under  the  name  Calamariales  or  Calamariacese,  were  one  of  the  domi- 
nant groups  of  plants  at  that  period,  attaining  the  stature  of  large 
trees,  which  appear  to  have  formed  an  important  constituent  of  the 
Carboniferous  forests.  Hence  their  organization  was  in  various  re- 
spects on  a  higher  level  than  that  of  their  recent  survivors,  repre- 
sented bj  the  genus  Equisetum;  at  the   same  time,  allowing  for  these 


Vta.  2. — Chclrostrobus  Petiycvreml*.  Diagram  of  cone,  tbe  upper  part  Id  IrBDBverae,  tbe 
lower  Id  mdlnl  seplloo.  In  tbe  tronaverse  Becllon,  sti  sporopb^lls.  eaoh  showing  Ibree 
Eegmeots.  are  repreaeDled.  Bp.  a.,  section  Id  plane  of  sterile  segmenU;  S;>.  h..  section 
in  plane  of  sporanglopIiareB ;  *(,  lamlnEe  at  sCcrllE  aeemcntB ;  /,  lamlnffi  of  Bporanglo- 
pborcs ;  sm,  sporangia:  r,  t>,,  vaecular  bundles  suppljlng  aporopb;  I  Is :  At,  axis;  cv, 
stele.  The  loDgltudlan]  section  showB  tbe  sporanglophores  and  sterile  aegmenta  Id  tbeir 
relation  as  ventral  and  dorsal  lobes  of  tbe  sporopbflls;  lettering  as  before. 

adaptive  differences,  the  structure  of  the  Calamariacese  had  very 
much  in  common  with  that  of  our  familiar  EquisetaceEe. 

Even  in  habit  there  seems  to  have  been  a  considerable  resemblance 
to  recent  forms.  The  leaves  were  always  in  whorls,  and  usually  of 
simple  form  and  comparatively  small  size,  though  not  so  reduced  as 
in  EqiiisetuTn  itself.  In  the  oldest  known  Calamarian,  however,  the 
Devonian  and  Lower  Carboniferous  genus  Archwocalamitea,  the 
leaves  were  often  dichotomously  compound,  thus  showing  an  inter- 


PHBBENT  POSITION   OF   PALEOZOIC   BOTANY — SCOTT.  877 

esting  analogy  with  the  foliage  of  Pseudobomia  and  the  Sphenophyl- 
lales.  The  leafy  branches  have  been  divided  among  the  genera  Annu- 
laria.  Aster  op  hyllites  and  Calamocladua. 

The  anatomical  structure  of  all  parts  of  the  plant  is  now  known 
in  a  number  of  instances,  but  the  correlation  of  the  various  organs  in 
their  different  states  of  preservation  still  presents  great  difficulties. 

The  anatomy  of  the  stem  in  its  young  condition  is  closely  similar  to 
that  of  a  recent  Equisetum  and  thus  deviates  widely  from  the  Spheno- 
phyllaceous  type.    The  usually  fistular  pith  is  surrounded  by  a  ring 
of  collateral  bundles,  each,  as  a  rule,  accompanied  by   its  carinal 
canal,  in  which  the  disorganized  remains  of  the  spiral  tracheides  can 
be  detected.     Thus  the  development  of 
the  wood  was  in  these  cases  wholly  cen- 
trifugal.   A  certain  amount  of  centripe- 
tal xylem  is,  however,  present  in  one 
species,   Calamitea   pettycurenais.,   from 
the  Lower  Carboniferous  of  Scotland, 
lying  on  the  medullary  side  of  the  cari- 
nal canals.     In  all  except  the  youngest 
twigs  a   zone   of  secondary   wood   and 
bast,  often  of  great  thickness,  has  been 
formed  by  means  of  a  normal  cambium, 
the  cells  of  which,  together  with  those 
of  the  phloem,  can  be  observed  in  favor- 
able   cases.     In    Calamitea    itself    (the 

ArMrop/iya  of  Goepiwrt)  the  secondary  j.^^  z.—caiamo»ia<:hv»-  KiBgram 
wood  is  of  a  simple  structure  compar-  of  c™e  in  radiai  Buction.  o*, 
able  to  that  of  the  less  differentiated 
Coniferous  woods,  but  usually  with 
more  or  less  scalariform  pitting  on  the 
tracheides.  Calamodtudron,  from  the 
Upper,  and  Arthrodendron  from  the 
Lower  Coal-Measures  are  characterized 

by  the  complex  structure  of  the  principal  medullary  rays,  which 
contain  much  fibrous  tissue  in  addition  to  the  usual  ray-parenchyma. 
In  their  vascular  anatomy,  the  Eouisetales  show  a  marked  advance 
on  the  Sphenophyllales;  in  this  respect  they  reach  the  level  of  the 
simpler  Gymnosperms  or  Dicotyledons — an  interesting  example  of 
parallel  development. 

The  fructifications  of  the  Calamariaceee  are  of  several  different 
types,  nearly  all  of  which  show  an  evident  relation  to  the  well-known 
strobilus  of  Equisetum  though  usually  of  more  complex  organization. 
They  represent  several  genera  described  as  Calamostachys  (the  most 
common;  see  fig.  3),  Pal<eostackya,  C'ingularia,  Potkocitea,  and  Eqtiin- 
etites.    The  cones  of  these  types  show  considerable  variation  in  the 


Bl 

:ls,  which  bet 

rs  aucccsBlve  vcr- 

nd  peltate 

»porang1ophorei 

1    («P); 

nRln 

)n    tho 

pli 

(e  wl 

Kb  one 

another 

their   up- 

lu 

TD«<I 

tIpB    ar 

e    only 

■hown    la 

878  ANNUAL  BEPOHT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

number  and  position  of  the  bracts  and  sporangiophores,  some  of  the 
latter  being  apparently  in  distinct  verticils,  alternating  with  those  of 
the  bracts.  The  anatomical  characters  seem,  however,  to  show  an 
original  relation  of  these  sporangiophores  as  ventral  lobes  of  the 
bracts.  In  several  of  the  types  spores  of  two  kinds  are  observed. 
Potkocitea,  the  cone  of  Archwocalamitea,  has  only  scattered  bracts, 
while  the  cone  of  Equisetit^s  Hemingwayi  is  in  its  superficial  char- 
acters distinctly  Equisefaceous. 

The  general  morphological  agreement  between  the  Equis^tales  and 
Sphenophjilales  is  manifest,  as  shown  by  the  articulated  stems  with 
constant  verticillate  arrangement  of  the  appendages.  Archaocala- 
mites,  the  oldest  of  the  known  Equisetales,  distinctly  approaches  the 
Sphenophyllales  in  the  superposition  of  the  verticils  and  in  the 
dichotomously  divided  leaves.  In  many  Calamariacese  the  individ- 
ual leaves  resemble  the  leaves*  or  leaf-segments  of  the  plurifoliate 
Sphenophyllums  so  closely  that  the  external  characters  scarcely  allow 
of  a  distinction  between  the  two  groups. 

These,  however,  are  only  outward  resemblances.  The  anatomical 
study  of  the  mode  of  origin  of  the  leaf  bundles  and  of  the  structural 
changes  attending  an  increase  in  the  number  of  the  leaves  affords 
grounds  for  believing  that  the  numerous  leaves  of  a  Calamite,  like 
those  in  certain  forms  of  Sphenophyllum,  represent  the  segments  of 
a  smaller  original  number.  The  agreement  in  the  vegetative  organs 
of  the  two  classes  appears  on  the  whole  sufficiently  close  to  be  indica- 
tive of  real  affinity.  The  difference  in  the  structure  of  the  stele  is 
undoubtedly  great,  but  there  are  some  indications  of  intermediate 
forms. 

When  we  come  to  the  fructifications  the  agreement  is  more  strik- 
ing. The  detailed  structure  of  the  sporangia  is  very  similar  through- 
out the  two  groups,  and  the  resemblance  extends  to  the  sporangio- 
phores, which  in  the  case  of  Cheirostrobus,  in  particular,  are  prac- 
tically identical  with  those  of  Calamostachys;  in  the  bisporangiate 
Sphenophyllales  the  agreement  is  still  evident,  though  it  is  naturally 
diminished  in  the  Spkenophyllum  Dawsoni  type,  where  the  sporan- 
giophore  has  only  a  single  sporangium  to  carry. 

Throughout  the  Sphenophyllales  the  sporangiophores  appear  as 
ventral  lobes  of  the  sporophyll,  while  in  one  species  the  dorsal  lobes 
are  also  enlisted  for  the  same  service.  There  is  anatomical  evidene* 
that  in  Calamostachys  and  Palceostachya  the  sporangiophores  are  the 
more  or  less  displaced  ventral  appendages  of  the  bracts  nest  below 
them  on  the  axis.  The  Equiaetum  type  of  strobilus  (already  repre- 
sented in  the  Paleozoic  flora)  appears  to  present  difficulties,  but  they 
are  not  insuperable.  In  Sphenophyllum  fertile  both  dorsal  and  ven- 
tral lobes  of  the  sporophyll  are  fertile,  and  if  the  same  displacement 


.y  Google 


PRESENT  POSITIOH   OP   PALEOZOIC   BOTANY — SCOTT.  379 

took  place  under  these  conditions  as  we  actually  Bnd  in  Calamos- 
tachya  there  would  be  a  near  approach  to  the  Equisetum  arrangement. 
Taking  all  the  characters,  vegetative  and  reproductive,  into  account, 
the  aSinity  of  the  Equi  seta  leg  with  the  wholly  Paleozoic  group 
Sphenophy Hales  may  be  regarded  as  established.  Archwocalamitea, 
though  it  shows  some  approach  to  the  Sphenophyllales,  is  none  the 
less  a  manifest  Calamarian,  while  in  Ckeirostrobus  tlie  Spheno- 
phyllaceous  characters  as  evidently  predominate.  Pseudobomia  is 
probably,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  best  kept  in  a  dis- 
tinct class,  as  Nathorst  propose:^  though  perhaps  it  has  the  strongest 
claims  of  any  known  genus  to  be  called  a  Protocalamarian. 

III.  Psiu)tale:s. 

It  is  not  my  purpose,  under  the  above  heading,  to  discuss  the 
highly  doubtful  fossils,  such  as  Psilophyton  and  Gomphostrohua, 
which  have  sometimes  been  referred  to  the  Psilotacese,  but  rather  to 
consider  the  affinities  of  the  recent  group  in  the  light  of  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  Paleozoic  Sphenophyllales.  The  two  points  on  which 
the  question  turns  are  the  anatomy  of  the  stem  and  the  morphology 
of  the  sporophyll.  As  regards  the  anatomy,  PsUoivm  presents  a 
nearer  analogy  with  the  Sphenophyllales  than  any  other  recent  plant, 
the  resemblance  being  most  marked  in  those  branches  where  the  stele 
is  triarch  and  the  xylem  extends  to  the  center.  The  discovery  by 
Boodle  that,  at  the  base  of  the  aerial  stem  and  in  adjoining  parts  of 
the  rhizome  of  Psilotum,  a  well-marked  formation  of  secondary  wood 
may  take  place  in  old  plants,  strengthens  the  anatomical  analogy  in 
a  striking  manner. 

Still  closer  is  the  anatomical  resemblance  in  the  reproductive 
organs.  For  example,  in  Tmesipterig  (the  less  reduced  of  the  two 
genera  of  Psilotacete)  the  development  and  ventral  position  of  the 
pedicellate  ^nangium  and  the  anatomical  relation  of  the  latter  to 
the  subtending  sporophyll  correspond  exactly  to  the  conditions  in 
the  Sphenophyllales.  The  repeated  dichotomy  of  the  sporophylls, 
discovered  by  Professor  Thomas,  which  is  so  frequent  as  clearly  to 
fall  under  the  head  of  normal  variations,  certainly  appear  to  be 
fatal  to  the  idea  of  any  near  affinity  between  Psilotales  and  the 
Lycopods,  while  it  strongly  supports  a  relationship  t?  the  Spheno- 
phyllales rather  than  to  any  other  group.  This  relationshp  also 
explains  the  normally  forked  sporophyll  of  Psilotum,  and  Tmesip- 
teris;  it  may  well  represent  the  dichotomous  form  of  leaf  so 
common  in  Spkenophyllum.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  on  the 
whole  of  the  evidence  there  is  a  good  case  for  the  Sphenophylla- 
ceous  affinities  of  the  PsilotaceK.  The  arguments  on  which  the 
comparison  of  this  group  with  the  Ophioglossese  have  been  based 
apply  with  far  greater  force  to  the  Sphenophyllales,  and  are  sup- 


880  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

ported  by  additional  characters  sufficient  to  indicate  reai  relationship 
rather  than  mere  analogy. 

Professor  Thomas  considers  that  we  are  justified  in  including  the 
Psilotaceee  in  the  class  Sphenophyllales,  and  in  this  he  is  followed 
by  Professor  Bower  in  his  latest  works.  If  we  were  compelled  to 
choose  between  Sphenophyllales  and  Lycopodiales,  I  should  certainly 
incline  to  the  former  alternative,  as  expressing  the  nearer  affinity, 
but  the  differences  between  Psilotacese  and  the  Paleozoic  plants  which 
have  hitherto  constituted  the  class  Sphenophyllales  seem  to  me  too 
great  to  render  a  union  under  the  same  name  desirable.  The  most 
obvious  difference,  of  course,  is  the  phyllotaxis,  spiral  or  at  least 
scattered  in  the  Psilotacete  but  verticillate  in  the  Sphenophyllales. 
From  the  great  constancy  of  this  character  throughout  the  groups 
included  under  Articulate  I  am  inclined  to  attach  considerable  im- 
portance to  it.  Further,  on  present  evidence,  the  mode  of  branching 
seems  also  to  mark  a  distinction  between  Psilotacese  and  the  Spheno- 
phyllales, dichotomy  of  the  stem  occurring  in  the  former,  but  not, 
so  far  as  we  know,  in  the  latter.  For  these  reasons  I  prefer  to  treat 
FailotvTn  and  T-meatpterig  as  forming  a  class  of  their  own,  the  Psilo- 
tales,  having  most  in  common  with  the  Sphenophyllales,  though  not 
wholly  without  the  Lycopodiaceous  affinities  which  have  hitherto 
been  attributed  to  them. 

IV.    TiTCOFODIALES. 

As  is  well  known,  the  Lycopods  of  the  Paleozoic  period  formed 
one  of  the  dominant  groups  of  plants,  as  shown  by  the  great  number 
both  of  species  and  individuals,  the  lofty  arboreal  habit  of  most  of 
them,  and  the  high  organization  which  they  attained.  'UTiile  the 
best  known  representatives,  the  Lepidodendrea?,  were  trees,  reaching 
a  height  of  30  meters  or  more,  there  is  evidence  for  the  contemporary 
existence  of  small  herbaceous  plants,  resembling  the  Club  mosses  of 
the  recent  flora.  The  extensive  genus  Lepidodendron^  which  we  may 
take  as  typical  of  the  class,  ranges  from  the  Devonian  to  the  Permian. 
The  species  were  trees,  with  a  tall  upright  shaft  bearing  numerous 
dichotomons  branches  forming  a  dense  crown,  and  clothed  with 
numerous  long  and  narrow  simple  leaves,  ranged  in  a  complex  spiral 
or  verticillttte  phyllotaxis.  When  the  leaves  were  shed,  their  bases 
remained  on  the  stem,  and  the  sculpturing  which  they  present  affords 
the  e.xternal  characters  by  which  the  "  species  "  are  commonly  dis- 
tinguished. The  markings  on  the  leaf  cushion  and  scar  are  de- 
scribed in  all  the  text-books  and  need  not  detain  us  here.  In  habit 
the  Sigillarias  must  have  been  i>eculiar,  for  the  stem  appears  to  have 
branched  but  sparingly,  or  even,  in  some  cases,  not  at  all,  the  long 
upright  tnmk  terminating,  like  a  Xanthorrhwa,  in  a  sheaf  of  long, 
grass-like  leaves.    The  leaves  were  usually  arranged  Id  conspicuous 


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PRESENT  POSITION   OP  PALEOZOIC   BOTANY — SCOTT.  381 

vertical  series,  marked,  in  a  large  section  of  the  genus,  by  the  presence 
of  prominent  ribs. 

Anatomically,  the  stem  of  the  liepidodendreae  is  in  all  cases  mono- 
stelic,  with  centripetal  primary  wood,  which  may  extend  to  the  cen- 
ter, or  form  a  ring  inclosing  a  medulla,  ^Vhile  in  Lepidodendron, 
Bothrodendron,  and  some  species  of  SigiUaria  the  primary  wood  is 
continuous,  in  other  Sig^llarise  (S.  meiuirdi  and  S.  spinulosa)  the 
xylem  ring  is  broken  up,  more  or  less  completely,  into  distinct 
bundles.  These  bundles,  however,  never  pass  out  into  the  leaves, 
but  in  all  cases  the  single,  usually  collateral  leaf  trace  is  detached 
from  the  stele  without  giving  rise  to  any  leaf  gap. 

In  most  species  there  was  a  considerable  development  of  centrif- 
ugal secondary  wood,  consisting  of  tracheides  and  medullary  rays, 
Tvith  a  marked  radial  arrangement  of  the  elements.  In  a  few  species 
(e.  g.,  Lepidodendron  Harcourtii,  the  first  fossil  Lycopod  discovered 
with  structure  preserved)  no  secondary  wood  has  yet  been  observed. 
Almost  without  exception  both  primary  and  .secondary  tracheides 
are  of  the  scalariform  type.  Although  the  presence  of  primary 
phloem  can  be  recognized  with  certainty,  some  doubts  have  been  ex- 
pressed as  to  the  production  of  secondary  phloem  by  the  cambium. 
In  certain  cases  {Lepidopkloios  fuliginoau8  and  Lepidodendron 
ohovatum)  the  secondary  xylem  may  be  largely,  or  even  wholly, 
parenchymatous.  In  all  cases,  even  where  secondary  vascular  tissues 
have  not  been  observed,  there  was  an  extensive  formation  of  periderm, 
chiefly  in  the  form  of  a  phelloderm  probably  produced  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  generative  layer. 

The  leaves  show  marked  xerophytic  adaptations;  the  vascular 
bundle  was  surrounded  by  a  sheath  of  tracheal  transfusion  tissue, 
and  the  stomata  were  commonly  sheltered  in  two  deep  grooves  on 
the  lower  surface  of  the  leaf.  In  the  curious  genus  or  subgenus 
Sigillariopais  the  leaf  is  traversed  through  most  of  its  length  by  two 
vascular  bundles,  a  unique  case  among  Lycopods.  According  to  Re- 
nault, the  French  species  of  this  genus  is  further  remarkable  for  the 
occurrence  of  pitted,  as  distinguished  from  Scalariform  tracheides. 

An  interesting  feature  in  the  leaves  of  the  Paleozoic  Lycopods 
is  the  very  general  presence  of  a  ligiile,  situated,  like  that  of  the 
recent  Ligulatfe,  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf  base  and  usually 
seated  in  a  deep  pit. 

Our  knowledge  of  Stigmaria,  which  represents  the  subterranean 
parts  of  the  Lepidodendrea;,  is  still  very  imperfect,  although  fossils 
of  this  nature  are  among  the  very  commonest  Carboniferous  speci- 
mens, both  as  casts  and  petrifications.  The  difficulty  is  that  it  is 
still  impossible  to  refer  the  various  specimens  of  Stigmaria  to  the 
species,  or  even  the  genus  to  which  they  belonged.  Stigmaria  has 
been  found  in  connection  with  the  stms  both  of  Sis^iUma^aaA 


883  ANNUAL  REPORT   SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

Lepidodendron.  The  morphology  of  Stigmaria  has  been  much  dis- 
puted ;  so  far  as  the  main  axis  is  concerned  the  best  analogy,  thou^ 
a-  somewhat  remote  one,  appears  to  be  with  the  rhizophores  of  Selagi- 
nella;  the  rootlets,  which  have  a  totally  different  structure,  agree  so 
nearly  with  the  roots  of  some  recent  Lycopods  {Isoetea  and  Selagi- 
neJla)  that  there  seems  little  doubt  as  to  their  homologies,  though 
their  peculiar  arrangement  has  led  some  authors  to  interpret  them 
as  modified  leaves. 

The   Lepidodendreie   are   a   well -characterized   group,   as   to   the 
affinities  of  which  there  can  be  no  doubt,  even  apart  from  the  evi- 
dence of  fructification.     The  primary  anatomy  is  of  simple  Lyco- 
podiaceous  type,  comparable  to  that  of  the  aerial  stem  of  Sef-aginella 
spinosa  or  a  large  stem  of  PsUotum — the  higher  anatomical  organi- 
zation is  chiefly  expres,sed  in  the  general  occurrence  of  secondary 
growth.     Except  for  the  very  different  arrangement  of  the  foliar 
traces  there  is  a  certain  resemblance 
between   the  sfelar  structure  of  a 
Lepidodendron  and  that  of  Ckei- 
rostrohua  among  the  Sphenophyl- 
lales.    Otherwise  there  is  little  in 
the    vegetative    characters    which 
throws  any  new  light  on  the  affini- 
ties of  the  class. 

The  fructifications  of  theLepido- 
dendrese  are  grouped  under  several 
generic  names.     In  Lepidoatrobus, 
Fia.  4.—Lepidostrobu>.    DiHersm  of  hei-   the  most  extensive  and  oldest  es- 
eroBporouB  cone.  Id  radial  section,    ar.    tablished  of  these  genera,  the  or- 
alis: sph,  sporophrlla;  »m,  apomngla,  ■      ,■         ■  ^^  n      .u    i      i 
B«Bted  Bingiy  on  tbe  upper  Burface  of   ganizatiou  IS  essentially  that  of  a 

each  aporophjU ;  Iff,  llgules.    The  micro-  LvcopodiacCOUS     COne.         (Fig.      4.) 

sporangia.  In  upper  part  ot  cone,  con-  ^  .  ,  ,.  ,    ,. 

tain  numerous  microspores,  while  the  The  axis,  resembling  a  vegetative 

megaaporangiB  below  are  ahown  con-  twiff  in  Structure,  bears  numerous 

talnlng  (our  megaapores  each.  ■       ii  j  i.    ii  l 

spirally  arranged  sporophylls,  each 
of  which  has  a  single  large  sporangium  on  its  upper  surface,  at- 
tached almost  throughout  its  whole  length.  The  sporophyll  has 
an  upturned  lamina,  between  which  and  the  end  of  the  sporangium 
a  ligule  is  situated,  showing  that  the  whole  of  the  long  horizontal 
pedicel  on  which  the  sporangium  is  seated  corresponds  to  the  base 
of  the  vegetative  leaf.  The  sporangium,  often  of  very  large  dimen- 
sions compared  with  that  of  a  recent  Lycopod,  commonly  has  a 
palisade-like  outer  wall.  It  is  almost  certain  that  all  Lepidostrobi 
were  heterosporous,  the  microsporangia  and  megasporangia  being 
sometimes  produced  on  separate  cones,  sometimes  on  different  parts 
of  the  same  cone,  as  in  recent  SelagineUce.  The  microspores  are 
"Tj  small,  while  the  megaspores  are  of  relatively  gi$at  size,  often 


PRESENT  POSITION   OP  PALEOZOIC   BOTANY — SCOTT.  383 

1  or  even  2  mm.  in  diameter.  Both  are  t«trahedra]  in  form.  At  a 
point  corresponding  to  the  apex  of  the  tetrahedron  the  megaspore,  in 
most  cases,  opened  by  flaps,  often  highly  developed,  forming  a  pas- 
sage, through  which,  presumably,  fertilization  was  effected.  The 
prothallus  within  the  megaspore  of  Lepidoatrobus  is  occasionally 
found  preserved,  and  the  archegonia  have  even  been  recognized. 
The  cones  of  Sigillaria  {Sigillariostrohus)  also  are  heterosporous. 

In  the  cones  known  as  Spencerites  the  large  sporangium  is  attached 
to  the  bract  or  sporophyll  only  at  its  distal  end  by  a  narrow 
enervate  neck.  The  spores  are  furnished  with  a  very  diaracteristio 
wing,  which  probably  aided  in  dispersal. 

The  most  interesting,  however,  of  the  Paleozoic  Lycopodineous 
fructifications  are  those  which  show  a  near  approach  to  the  produc- 
tion of  seeds.  At  present  two  gen- 
era are  known  in  which  the  mega-  "" 
sporangium  assumed  a  seed-like 
character — Lepidocarpon  and  Mi- 
adesmia.  In  Lepidocarpon  the  an- 
atomy and  morphology  of  the 
niegasporangiate  cone,  in  its  young 
condition,  are  in  all  respects  those 
of  an  ordinary  Lepidostrobvs. 
The  megasporangia  are  attached, 
in  the  usual  manner,  to  the  upper 
surface  of  the  sporophylls,  which 
are  provided  with  ligules,  as  in 
Lepidoatrobus.  The  palisade  struc- 
ture of  the  sporangial  wall  is  also 

the  same  as  in  that  genus.  In  Fio.  S.— Lepidocarpon  Lomart.  Diagram- 
each     megasporangiuni,    however,       ™""=  ■ection  or  Bccd-iiice  organ  cut  lo 

,  °     ,*^  ^  '  '         plane  tangential  lo  the  parent  alrot-" 

only  a  single  megaspore  came  to  «ph,  aporophjii;  «.  6,  vaauLar  bundi 

perfection,    filling    practically    the  integument;  m,  micropylar  crevice; 

,      ,  ..         ,.,  -  wall    ot    aporangium  r    a,     Inaertloi 

whole    cavity,    like    an    embryosac;  gporanglum    oa    aporophyU;    mo,    1 

its    three    sister    cells    can    often    be  ■"■"■■«   "'  megBapore  or  embryo-aac 

J   .      .    J    -  i_   _,■  I-..  prothallua  fllllng  megaapore. 

detected  in  an  abortive  condition. 

At  maturity  the  megasporangium  was  inclosed  in  an  integument  (fig. 
5),  springing  from  the  upper  surface  of  the  sporophyll,  and  forming 
a  complete  investment  to  the  sporangium,  except  for  a  narrow  crevice 
along  the  top,  comparable  to  a  micropyle,  but  of  great  length,  corre- 
sponding to  the  radial  elongation  of  the  sporangium.  Within  the  one 
functional  megaspore  a  prothallus  was  developed,  which  is  sometimes 
excellently  preserved,  and  was  already  present  in  the  earlier  stage  of 
the  megasporangium  before  the  integument  had  been  formed.  The 
sporophyll,  with  its  integumented  megasporangium,  was  shed  entire, 
and  appears  to  have  been  indehiscent.    The  analogies  with  true  aeed^, 


884  ANNUAL  REPORT   BMtTHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

in  the  integument,  the  single  megaspore,  and  the  indehiscent  char- 
acter  are  evident ;  we  are  unfortunately  without  any  evidence  as  to 
the  stage  at  which  fertilization  took  place.  The  fossil  has  long  been 
known,  but  was  formerly  confused  with  the  Gyranospermous  seed 
Cardiocarpon,  with  which,  of  course,  it  has  nothing  to  do,  Micro- 
sporangiate  cones,  probably  belonging  to  Leptdocarpon,  are  indistin- 
guishable from  the  cones  of  a  small  Lepidostrobus,  except  that  there 
are  indications  of  an  incomplete  integument  around  the  microspo- 
rangium. 

In  Miadesmia,  the  other  genus  of  quasi-spermophytic  Lycopods, 
the  sporophyll'  bears  a  ligule  exactly  like  that  of  the  vegetative  leaf, 
and  the  lamina  is  fringed  in  the  same  way  at  the  margins.  The 
megasporangium  is  attached,  at  the  proximal  end,  to  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  sporophyll,  and  contains  a  single  megaspore,  filling  its 
cavity.  Externally  the  megasporangium  is  inclosed  in  an  integu- 
ment, springing  from  the  upper  surface  of  the  sporophyll,  and  leav- 
ing only  a  narrow  micropylar  opening  at  the  distal  end,  not  at  the 
top  as  in  Leptdocarpon.  The  integument  bears  long  tentacles, 
directed  forward,  which  may  have  played  some  part  in  guiding  the 
wind-borne  microspores  to  the  micropyle. 

There  is  thus  a  general  analogy  with  Leptdocarpon,  as  regards  the 
essential  seed-like  features,  but  the  structure  is  quite  different  in  de- 
tail. Of  the  two  the  Miadesmia  fructification  is  perhaps  the  more 
advanced,  for  the  sporangial  wall  is  less  developed  than  in  Lepido- 
carpon,  an  indication  that  the  protective  function  had  been  more 
completely  taken  over  by  the  integument.  Microsporophylls,  prob- 
ably referable  to  the  same  plant,  have  been  found.  They  agree  with 
the  megasporophylls  as  regards  the  insertion  of  the  sporangium,  but 
no  integument  is  developed. 

It  is  renijirkable  that  seed-like  organs  should  have  been  found  in 
two  genera  of  Paleozoic  Lycopods  so  different  as  Leptdocarpon  and 
Miadesmia,  in  each  of  which  the  character  must,  no  doubt,  have  arisen 
independently.  We  can  only  conjecture  that  the  circumstances  of  the 
time  may  have  been  peculiarly  favorable  to  the  adoption  of  the 
seed  habit.  The  early  development  of  the  prothallus,  in  the  case  of 
Lepidocarpon,  makes  it  very  probable  that  pollination,  if  not  fertil- 
ization, took  place  on  the  parent  plant,  but  we  have  no  direct  evidence 
on  the  subject.  One  striking  difference  from  a  typical  seed  is  the  fact 
that  in  both  genera  the  whole  sporophyll  was  shed  with  the  mega- 
sporangium, and  formed  part  of  its  investment.  Analogies  with  the 
achenes  and  nuts  of  Angiosi>enns  are  too  remote  to  be  of  service,  and 
we  must  admit  that  in  these  Paleozoic  Lycopods  the  participation  of 
the  sporophyll  marks  a  low  grade  of  seed  evolution.  In  fact  it  is 
evident  that  in  every  respect  the  seed-like  organs  in  question,  even  if 
they  were  functionally  seeds,  still  stand  very  near  the  Cryptogamic 


PRESENT  POSITION   OP   PALEOZOIC  BOTANY — SCOTT.  886 

type.  In  this  they  differ  strikingly  from  the  seeds  of  the  Pteropsida 
series,  which  even  in  the  earliest  known  examples  are  already  highly 
differentiated  organs,  with  little  trace  of  their  Cryptogamic  origin. 

Though  there  appears  to  be  no  sufficient  evidence  of  any  relation 
between  the  "  seed-bearing  "  Lycopods  and  tlie  higher  plants,  these 
curious  fructifications  are  of  great  interest,  for  it  is  only  in  Lepido- 
carpon  and  Miadesmia,  and,  in  a  different  way,  in  certain  species  of 
Selaginella  at  the  present  day,  that  we  are  able,  as  it  were,  to  observe 
a  seed  in  statu  nascendi. 

As  regards  the  relation  of  Paleozoic  to  recent  Lycopods,  it  seems 
most  probable  that  the  latter  were  derived,  for  the  most  part,  from 
forms  (perhaps  such  as  Lycopodites)  which  have  always  been  herba- 
ceous, rather  than  that  they  are  the  reduced  descendents  of  arborescent 
liepidodendrese.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  Triassic  genus 
Pleuromeia  may  represent  a  link  between  the  latter  group  and  the 
recent  Isoetea,  which,  of  all  the  living  Lycopods,  appears  to  have  most 
in  common  with  the  Lepidodendreie, 

THE  SY8TEUATIC  POSITION  OF  LVCOPBtDA. 

We  have  now  to  consider  whether  the  classes  grouped  together  in 
the  Lycopsida  really  form  a  natural  association,  more  nearly  related 
among  themselves  than  to  outlying  families  of  plants.  So  far  as  the 
Sphenophyllales  and  Equisetales  are  concerned,  the  aSinities  are  clear 
and  undoubted.  We  have  also  found  reason  to  believe  that,  in  a  differ- 
ent direction,  the  Sphenophyllales  show  an  affinity  with  the  recent 
Psilotales.  It  is  unfortunate  that  we  have  as  yet  no  certain  knowledge 
of  the  geological  history  of  the  Psilotales  themselves;  it  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  they  sprang  from  the  Sphenophyllales  as  actually 
known  to  us,  but  rather  that  the  two  groups  had  a  common  origin. 
The  same  remark  applies  to  the  Equisetales,  which,  though  nearer  to 
the  Sphenophyllaceous  type,  can  not  have  been  derived  from  any  of 
the  specialized  forms  of  which  alone  the  remains  have  come  down  to 
us.  The  Sphenophyllales  as  represented  in  the  Carboniferous  Flora 
are  best  regarded  as  the  last,  highly  modified,  members  of  an  ancient 
synthetic  stock  which  in  still  earlier  times  appears  to  have  had  genetic 
relations  to  various  other  Pteridophytic  phyla.  The  Devonian  Paeu- 
dobomia,  though  at  present  placed  in  a  class  of  its  own,  may  well  have 
belonged  to  the  same  main  stock  with  the  Sphenophyllales. 

The  most  difficult  question  is  that  of  the  relation  of  the  Lyco- 
podiales  to  this  phylum.  Anatomically  an  affinity  seems  indicated, 
for  the  simpler  protostelic  Lycopods  agree  very  nearly  with  the 
Sphenophyllaceous  type  of  stem  structure  as  represented  in  Cheiroa- 
trobna.  The  verticillate  arrangement  of  the  appendages  and  their 
vascular   strands  scarcely   causes  any   difficulty,   for  it   frequently 


386  ANNUAL  REPOET  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

occurs  among  Lycopods,  though  probably  not  in  the  form  of  super- 
posed whork.  In  the  prev&iling  simple  structure,  both  of  the  leaf 
and  of  the  reproductive  apparatus,  the  Lycopodiales  differ  widely 
from  the  Sphenophyllales.  In  these  characters  as  well  as  in  other 
respects  the  Lycopods  constitute  a  wonderfully  homogeneous  group, 
so  neatly  rounded  off  as  to  give  little  hold  for  any  hypothetical  link 
with  other  classes  of  plants.  Sigillariopgis,  with  its  double  foliar 
bundle,  departs  in  some  degree  from  the  typical  simplicity  of  struc- 
ture, but  there  is  not  the  slightest  reason  for  regarding  this  pecul- 
iarity as  an  ancestral  character. 

In  certain  respects  the  Psilotales  tend  to  connect  Sphenophyllales 
with  Lycopods,  for  while  anatomy  and  morphology  alike  indicate  a 
nearer  affinity  with  the  former,  some  relation  to  the  latter  may  no 
doubt  be  traced  in  the  anatomy  and  habit.  In  spite  of  this,  the  Ly- 
copodiales  remain  a  very  isolated  class,  and  though  some  connection 
with  the  ancient  phylum  represented  by  the  Sphenophyllales  appears 
probable,  the  common  stock  must  lie  very  far  back.  Whether  the 
simple  relation  between  sporangium  and  sporophyll  which  character- 
izes the  Lycopod  series  is  native  or  acquired,  may  be  left  an  open 
question.  The  analogy  of  the  Psilotales  rather  suggests  the  latter 
alternative,  and  all  comparative  morphology  teaches  how  often  pro- 
gress consists  in  simpliS cation. 

On  the  other  hand,  while  not  agreeing  with  Professor  Lignier  as 
to  the  isolation  of  the  Sphenophyllales  from  the  Psilotales  and  their 
close  affinity  with  the  Filicales,  I  admit  that  a  relation  between  the 
Sphenophyllales  and  primitive  Filicinese  may  be  conceded  as  prob- 
able. Though  the  main  divisions  Lycopsida  and  Pteropsida  have 
been  adopted  here  as  convenient  associations,  I  am  inclined  to  extend 
the  synthetic  view  of  the  Sphenophyllales  so  far  as  to  admit  that 
they  retained  some  characters,  such  as  the  venation  of  the  leaves, 
common  to  the  Filicinean  phylum. 

B,  Pteropstda. 

V.    FlLICALEB. 

There  is  no  part  of  fossil  botany  in  which  there  have  been  such 
revolutionary  dianges  within  a  very  short  period  as  in  the  question 
of  the  position  of  Paleozoic  Ferns.  Till  within  the  last  three  years 
the  Ferns  were  universally  regarded  as  forming  one  of  the  dominant 
classes  of  Paleozoic  plants — in  fact,  the  most  dominant  of  all — and 
this  estimate  of  their  importance  will  be  found  in  all  the  text-books. 
According  to  the  computations  of  sysfematists  the  Ferns  constituted 
almost  exactly  one-half  of  the  known  Carboniferous  flora.  The 
position  has  now  so  completely  changed  that  Professor  Zeiller,  than 
-horn  there  is  no  higher  authority,  wrote,  in  August,  1905.  that  the 


PRESENT  POSITION   OF  PALEOZOIC  BOTANY — SCOTT.  387 

Ferns  of  the  Paleozoic  period,  though  "  they  were  probably  not 
entirely  absent,  occupied  an  altogether  subordinate  rank." 

The  ground  for  the  radical  change  of  view  which  Professor 
Zeiller's  words  indicate  is,  of  course,  to  be  found  in  the  recognition 
of  the  Pteridosperms,  a  class  of  seed-bearing  plants,  to  which,  as  it 
now  appears,  the  great  majority  of  the  supposed  Paleozoic  Ferns 
belonged.  Professor  Zeiller  further  points  out  that  the  reduction  in 
the  number  of  true  Ferns  becomes  more  marked  the  earlier  the  period 
to  whicJi  we  go  back;  the  Westphalian  Flora  is  already  less  rich  in 
true  Ferns  than  the  Stephanian,  and  one  may  almost  raise  the  ques- 
tion whether,  in  the  epochs  of  the  Culm  and  the  Devonian,  Ferns 
really  existed.  Mr.  Kidston,  writing  a  few  months  later,  finds  no 
evidence  of  "  true  Ferns  "  below  the  Middle  Coal  Measures,  and  comes 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  Cycadofilices  (Pteridosperms)  "  long  ante- 
dated the  advent  of  true  Ferns."  It  may  he  pointed  out,  however, 
that  under  the  name  "  true  Ferns  "  Mr.  Kidston  does  not  include  the 
Botryopteridese,  which,  as  he  himself  recognizes,  are  certainly  rep- 
resented in  Lower  Carboniferous  rocks.  This  family,  in  fact,  has 
come  to  occupy  an  important  position,  for  in  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge  it  represents  the  best-attested  group  of  Paleozoic  Ferns. 
Almost  all  the  well-known  and  striking  genera  of  Fern-like  fronds 
have  now  come  under  suspicion,  and  cannot  be  accepted  as  affording 
in  themselves  any  evidence  for  the  existence  of  Ferns,  as  distingushed 
from  Fern-like  Spermophyta.  The  presence  of  seeds  has  been  actu- 
ally demonstrated  in  members  of  the  genera  Spfienopteria,  Neuro-pte- 
rie,  Anmmiies,  and  Pecopteris;  the  evidence  is  almost  equally  con- 
vincing in  the  case  of  Aleihopteris;  in  numerous  other  genera,  such 
as  Eremopteria,  Odontopteris,  Linopteris,  and  Lonckopteris,  all  the 
indications  are  in  favor  of  seeds  having  been  borne,  though  at  present 
there  may  not  be  much  beyond  association  to  guide  us.  It  is  highly 
probable  that  some  of  these  form  genera  are  purely  artificial  associa- 
tions, which  include  Ferns  as  well  as  Fern-like  seed  plants ;  in  Pecop- 
teris  especially,  while  one  species,  P.  Plvckeneti,  undoubtedly  bore 
seeds,  as  Grand  'Eury  has  shown,  many  others  show  the  well-known 
fructifications  commonly  regarded  as  those  of  Marattiaceous  Ferns. 
Even  in  the  latter  cases,  however,  the  question  is  not  free  from 
difficulty,  for  recent  work  has  proved  that  some  of  the  supposed 
Marattiaceous  fructifications  were  in  reality  the  microsporangia  of 
Pteridosperms. 

[>BIMOPn.ICES. 

The  family  Botryopteridese  on  present  evidence  appears  to  havp 
been  representative  of  a  comparatively  simple  type  of  Filicinere,  of 
great  antiquity.  "WTiether  we  call  them  "  true  Ferns  "  or  not  is  im- 
material ;  they  certainly  do  not  belong  to  any  of  the  existing  families, 
though  they  show  relations  to  them  in  various  directions.  )^k' 


888  ANNUAL  KEPORT  SMTTUSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

In  the  genus  BotryopterU,  type  of  the  Botryopteridese,  the  st«n 
(probably  a  rhizome)  has  a  remarkably  simple  structure,  the  stele 
consisting  of  a  solid  strand  of  tracheides  surrounded  by  phloem. 
The  relatively  large  petioles,  borne  in  a  spiral  order  on  the  stem, 
contain  a  single  bundle,  with  a  characteristic  w-like  transverse  sec- 
tion. The  stem  also  bore  numerous  diarch  adventitious  roots,  an 
indication  of  its  rhizome  nature. 

In  all  respects  the  characters  of  the  vegetative  organs  were  those 
of  a  simple  type  of  Fern,  comparable,  as  Renault  at  once  recognized, 
to  the  recent  Hymenophyllacete.     The  fructifications  confirm  the  Fili- 
cinean  affinities  of  the  genus,  but  at  the  same  time  show  it  to  be  very 
different  from  any  Fern  now  living.     The  sporangia,  densely  grouped 
in  tufts  on  the  naked  rachis  of  a  modified  frond,  are  of  large  size 
(1.5-2  mm.  in  length)  and  are  characterized  by  the  broad  annulus, 
forming  a  longitudinal  band  many  cells  in  width,  running  the  whole 
length  of  the  sporangium  on  one  side.     No 
very  close  analogy  for  this  structure  is  to  be 
found  among  recent  Ferns,  though  the  areola 
of   the   OsmundacGous   sporangium   may   be 
regarded   as  a  shortened  multiseriate  annu- 
lus.    In  Zygopteria  we  have  a  much  more 
advanced  type.     The  stele  has  in  some  spe- 
cies a  stellate  contour,  the  prominences  cor- 
responding to  the  insertion  of  the  leaf  traces; 
Fio  9 —zuaopieria  f]/nna(o    ^^^  wood  Is  of  "complcx  structurc,  the  larger 
A.  Group  of  gporangiH  In   elements    forming   a    broad    external    zone, 
C'r™,™",.  r„Z„l    "hile  the  interior  is  occupied  b,  a  system  of 
section,  enlarged.     After    smaller  tracheides  intermingled  with  paren- 
"""  *■  chyma.     In  this  respect  there  is  a  striking 

agreement  with  the  structure  of  some  HymenophyllaceK  (e.  g.,  Tri- 
ckomanea  radtcans  and  7'.  reniforme),  an  agreement  which  is  much 
emphasized  by  the  fact  that  in  several  species  of  Zygopteria  the 
branching  was  axillary,  exactly  as  in  the  recent  family.  In  Zygop- 
ieris  comigata,  however,  the  branching  was  more  of  the  nature  of  a 
dichotomy.  The  well-known  double-anchor  form  of  the  petiolar  bun- 
dle is  characteristic  of  the  genus.  It  is  rare  to  find  any  traces  of 
the  lamina  in  petrified  specimens,  but  a  large  bipinnate  frond  with 
flabelliform  leaflets  has  been  referred  on  good  grounds,  to  the  genus, 
under  the  name  of  Zyr/opteriH  pinnata.  The  sporangia  (fig.  6)  are 
borne  on  a  special  fertile  frond ;  they  are  characterized  by  the  fact 
that  the  broad,  multiseriate  annulus  is  present  on  both  sides  of  the 
pyriform  sporangium. 

The  genus  Corynepteria  includes  fronds  of  Sphenopteroid  habit 
bearing  sporangia  grouped  in  circular  sori,  recalling  the  synangia  of 


0 


,  Google 


PRESENT  POSITION   OF   PALEOZOIC  BOTANY — SCOTT.  tt89 

certain  Marattiaceee ;  but  each  sporangium  has  a  tnultiseriate  annulus 
closely  resembling  that  of  Zygopterie. 

Other  genera  which  on  the  characters  of  stem  structure  may  be 
referred  to  the  Botryopteridete  are  Anachoropteris,  Asterochl(Bna, 
and  Tubicaulia.  The  earliest  of  these  {AsterochloEna)  dates  from  the 
Upper  Devonian. 

The  new  genus,  Botrychioxylon,  has  the  elements  of  its  outer  zone 
radially  arranged,  constituting,  to  all  appearance,  a  secondary  tissue, 
just  as  is  the  case  in  Botryckium,  among  recent  Ferns.  Anatomically 
Botrychioxylon  shows  a  relation  to  Zygopte.ris,  like  that  of  Botry- 
chium  to  Ophioglossum.  On  the  characters  of  the  sporophylls  and 
sporangia  the  nearest  comparison  of  Botrychioxylon  appears  to 
lie  with  the  Osmundacese  and  Ophioglossacea;,  while  the  anatomy  and 
mode  of  branching  of  Zygopteris  shows  the  closest  analogies  with  the 
Hymen ophyllacea;.     The  group  has  been  considered  as  a  synthetic 


Pin.  7. — Pteridothoia 

one,  not  improbably  representing  the  stock  from  which  some  at  least 
of  the  families  of  recent  Ferns  were  derived.  Mr.  Arber  regards  the 
Botryopteridea!  as  but  one  important  family  of  the  ancient  race  of 
Ferns  to  which  he  gives  the  general  name  of  Primofilices,  and  con- 
siders it  more  than  probable  that  this  race  gave  rise  to  the  Leptospo- 
rangiatse.  The  relation  of  the  Botryopteridere,  or  rather  of  the  Pri- 
mofilices in  general,  to  the  Pteridosperms  is  an  important  question  to 
which  we  shall  return  below. 

Other  types  which  we  may  safely  assign  provisionally  to  the  group 
Primofilices  incUidc  Stauropteris  and  certain  petrified  sporangia 
which  possess  an  annulus  or  other  characters  indicating  Filicinean 
affinity,  and  which  I  have  therefore  designated  Pteridotheca.  The 
sporangia  of  Pteridotkeea  M'illiamsoni  are  borne  in  sori  on  the  in- 
curved margins  of  a  much-divided  leaf,  apparently  of  Sphenopteroid 
form.  They  are  sessile,  with  a  multicellular  base,  and  ellipsoidal  or 
nearly  spherical  in  form,  though  their  sides  are  often  Battened  by 


ogle 


390  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

mutual  pressure.  The  wall,  as  preserved,  is  usually  one  cell  thick  and 
is  provided  with  a  conspicuous  annulus,  extending  partly  round  the 
sporangium,  and,  when  cut  lengthways,  strongly  recalling  the  fa- 
miliar Polypodiaceous  annulus.  (Fig,  7.)  Transverse  sections,  how- 
ever, show  that  the  annulus  is  really  two  cells  in  width.  The  spores, 
often  well  preserved,  are  numerous,  and  of  one  kind  only,  so  far  as 
observed.  No  clear  case  of  a  uniseriate  annulus  in  Fern  sporangia 
of  Paleozoic  age  has  yet  been  demonstrated. 

The  fortunate  discovery  of  the  germination  of  spores,  with  the 
development  of  a  prothallus  and  rhtzoids  within  the  sporangium 
of  Stauropteris  Oldkamia,  is  good  evidence  that  the  latter,  at  any 
rate,  was  a  true  Fern.  Another  similar  though  larger  sporangium 
containing  germinating  spores  is  probably  also  referable  to  Staurop- 
teris. 

The  probability  is  in  favor  of  an  affinity  between  the  genus  Stau- 
ropteris and  the  Botryopteridefe,  though  the  sporangial  characters 
scarcely  admit  of  a  definite  reference  to  that  family.  The  discovery 
of  the  germinating  spores  just  mentioned  much  strengthens  the  con- 
clusion that  the  Botryopteridete  and  allied  Paleozoic  plants  were 
really  members  of  an  ancient  race  of  Ferns. 

PALEOZOIC  UABATTIACE.E. 

No  conclusion  in  Paleobotany  has  met  with  more  general  accept- 
ance than  that  of  the  prevalence  of  Marattiaceous  Ferns  in  the  Car- 
boniferous Flora.  The  evidence  is  well  known,  and  needs  only  the 
briefest  recapitulation  here.  A  number  of  fructifications,  such  as 
Ptychocarpus,  Scolecopteris,  Asterotheca,  Hawlea,  etc.  (see  fig.  8). 
agreeing  closely  with  the  synangia  of  recent  Marattiacete,  have  been 
found  in  situ  on  fronds  of  the  Pecopteria  type.  In  some  cases  the 
minute  structure  of  the  fructifications  can  be  studied  in  petrified 
specimerts,  and  entirely  confirms  the  inference  drawn  from  external 
characters.  It  would  be  difficult,  in  fact,  to  find  clearer  evidence  of 
affinity  between  a  recent  and  a  fossil  group  of  plants  than  is  afforded 
by  these  synangia.  But  this  is  not  all.  A  number  of  petrified  steins, 
constituting  the  genus  Psaronius,  are  known,  in  which  the  anatomy 
has  been  fully  investigated,  and  proves  to  agree  more  nearly  with  the 
structure  of  Marattiace^  than  with  that  of  any  other  group  of  plants. 
The  anatomical  agreement  holds  gocJ  in  spite  of  a  considerable  dif- 
ference in  habit,  the  fossil  stems  (known  as  Caulopteria,  Megapky- 
ton,  etc.,  when  preserved  as  casts)  having  attained  arboreal  stature. 
Recent  investigation  by  Rudolf,  of  the  structure  of  the  Psaronii, 
with  special  reference  to  their  relation  to  Marattiaceie,  further  con- 
firms their  affinity.  From  the  evidence  of  comparative  structure  and 
nssociatinn  it  appears  certain  that  the  Psaromns  stems  bore  the  foli- 
age of  Pecopteris,  of  the  same  nature  as  the  leaves  on  which  the 

Gooylc 


PBESENT  POSITION   OP  PAIUEOZOIC   BOTANY — SCOTT. 


891 


various  synangic  fructifications  above  mentioned  have  been  found. 
Thus  we  have  to  do  with  a  group  of  plants  showing  affinity  with 
!Marattiaceae,  alike  in  their  anatomical  structure  and  in  the  characters 
of  their  reproductive  organs.  The  conclusion  appears  to  be  unas- 
sailable, and  yet  in  view  of  Mr.  Kidston's  discovery  that  a  typical 
Crossotheca  was  bom  on  the  fronds  of  Sphenopteria  Boninghavsii, 
showing   this   fructifi-  ^ 

cation,  which  would 
previously  have  been 
classed  as  Marattiace- 
ous,  to  have  constituted 
the  pollen-bearing  ap- 
paratus of  a  Spermo-  , 
pbyte,  and  of  the  fact 
that  the  Crossothecas, 
as  a  group,  involving 
several  species  of  Pe- 
copteris,  will  no  doubt 
prove  to  have  been  of 
the  same  nature,  we 
can  not,  in  the  pres- 
ent state  of  our  knowl- 
edge, feel  sure  where 
the  encroachments  of 
the  Pteridosperms  will 
stop.  Considering  the 
anatomical  evidence, 
however,  it  seems  im- 
possible to  doubt  that 
Paleozoic  Marattia- 
cese  actually  existed, 
for  the  Psaronius  type 
of  stem  is  altogether 
Fern-like  in  structure 
and  presents  none  of 
those  anatomical  fea- 
tures by  which  the 
Cycadofilices  were  rec- 
ognized, long  before  the  evidence  of  fructification  led  to  the  founda- 
tion of  the  class  Pteridospermew. 

For  the  present,  therefore,  we  must  continue  to  accept  the  existence 

of  a  certain  number  of  Marattiaceous  Ferns,  especially  in  the  later 

Carboniferous  and  Permian  periods,  though  we  may  not  always  be 

able  to  distinguish  their  fructiiScations  from  the  pollen-bearing  organs 

41780—08 28  i    ib.GoOglc 


— Oronp   of  FructlS  cations   of   Fern 


r  Pterldo- 


B,  1,  2,  Reiutultla  (afflaltles  doublful).  C,  1.  2, 
lulotheca  {doubtful).  D.  Bluriella.  Id  sectloi 
bundle:  b,  d,  annaluB;  c,  balrs  (c(.  Corvnepteriaj, 
E,  OHaocorpla  (cf.  OlelchenlaceE.  F,  C'raiiotlieca 
(J  frucIIBcatlon  of  L^sinodendreie).  G,  Sen/ter 
bergia  irt.  ScbIzacac«K) ,  it.  Haalea  (Matattli 
moubT).  J,  1,  2,  TJnatopterU  {afflnlllea  doubtful). 
After  Tar  loll  B  autbore. 


892  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

of  Fem-Iike  seed  plants.  Whether  this  surprising  similarity  is 
merely  a  case  of  "  parallelism  of  development,"  as  Mr.  Arber  suggests, 
or  is  indicative  of  affinity,  must  be  left  an  open  question.  A  direct 
affinity  seems  improbable,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  Corynep- 
teria  we  appear  to  have  the  sporangia  of  BotryopterideEe  grouped  ill 
synangia  like  those  of  Maratttaceie,  and  it  is  possible  that  in 
Sturiella  (fig.  8,  D)  we  may  have  another  case  of  the  same  kind.  It 
is  therefore  a  not  improbable  conjecture  that  Marattiacea;  and  Pterido- 
gpermefe  may  owe  their  synangic  fructifications  to  common  descent 
from  a  primitive  group  of  Filicales  in  which  the  character  had  al- 
ready appeared. 

From  what  has  been  said  above,  it  will  be  evident  that  our  knowl- 
edge of  Paleozoic  Ferns  is  now  in  a  transitional  and  somewhat  un- 
satisfactory condition.  The  old  ideas  of  their  predominance  have 
gone,  never,  probably,  to  return.  There  is  no  longer  any  presumption 
that  a  Fern-like  frond  really  belonged  to  a  Fern ;  even  where  some 
of  the  reproductive  characters  seem  to  point  the  same  way,  the  infer- 
ence, as  we  see  in  the  case  of  Croasotheca,  may  be  quite  fallacious.  We 
now  have  to  seek  laboriously  for  evidence,  which  formerly  seemed  to 
lie  open  to  us  on  all  hands.  I  believe,  however,  that  such  careful  in- 
vestigation will  result  in  the  resuscitation  of  the  Paleozoic  Ferns  as 
a  considerable,  thou^  not  as  a  dominant  group.  The  petrified  mate- 
rial, on  which  we  now  have  chiefly  to  rely,  indicates  the  presence  of 
true  Ferns,"  not  only  in  the  Upper  but  in  the  Lower  Carboniferous, 
and  if  this  is  so  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  they  extended  back 
as  far  as  any  Vascular  Plants.  Eventually  we  may  hbpe  to  be  able 
to  recognize  them  in  the  form  of  impressions,  though  now  it  is  only  in 
rare  cases  that  we  can  distinguish  such  specimens  with  certainty  from 
the  foliage  of  Fern-like  Spermophyta. 

At  present  our  knowledge  of  the  Paleozoic  Ferns  centers  in  the 
group  Botryopterideffi,  the  type-family  of  that  ancient  Filicinean 
stock,  which  has  now  come  to  be  of  supreme  interest  in  the  geological 
history  of  Vascular  Plants. 

VI.   PrfSIDOBPEBUBA. 

In  reviewing  the  attenuated  ranks  ot  the  Paleozoic  Ferns,  it  has 
often  been  necessary  to  refer  to  the  contemporary  Fern-like  Sperm- 
ophyta which  have  so  largely  displaced  them.  We  have  now  to  con- 
sider, as  briefly  as  may  be,  the  evidence  we  possess  as  to  the  nature 
and  extent  of  the  Pteridosperme»  and  the  justification  of  their  exist- 
ence as  a  distinct  class  of  plants.    I  do  not  propose  to  trace  historically 

"  I  use  this  phraee,  not  In  the  limited  senae  In  whicb  Mr.  Kldston  employs  tt, 
but  to  include  all  Cryptt^amlc  Flllcalee  as  dlstlnsulslied  from  Fem-Iike  seed 


.y  Google 


PRESENT  POSITION   OP  PALEOZOIC  BOTANY — SCOTT.  398 

the  growth  of  our  knowledge,  but  rather  to  attempt  a  concise  state- 
ment of  the  present  position  of  the  question.  I  will  begin  with  the 
Lyginodendrese,  the  type  member  of  which,  Lyginodendron  Old- 
hamium,  has  now  been  investigated  in  all  its  parts. 

LTO  IN  ODEHDBEjE. 

The  stem  of  Lyginodendron  Oldhamium  presents  a  structure  in 
Tvhich,  at  first  sight,  Cycadean  characters  appear  to  predominate. 
(PI.  I.)  There  is  a  pith  of  considerable  size  surrounded  by  a  zone 
of  wood  and  bast,  with  a  layer  of  cambium,  sometimes  perfectly  pre- 
served, between  the  two;  the  greater  part  of  both  wood  and  phloem 
shows  a  regular  radial  seriation  of  the  elements,  and  is  clearly  of 
secondary  origin,  the  structure  resembling  that  of  the  corresponding 
tissues  in  a  recent  Cycad.  Around  the  pith,  however,  several  distinct 
strands  of  primary  wood  are  evident,  a  character  not  met  with  in  the 
vegetative  stem  of  Cycads. 

The  primary  xylem-strands  belong  to  the  leaf-trace  system  of  the 
plant;  they  pass  out  through  the  zone  of  secondary  wood  info  the 
pericycle,  which  they  traverse  for  some  distance,  here,  of  course, 
assuming  the  character  of  complete  collateral  bundles.  During  its 
passage  through  the  pericycle  each  leaf  trace  divides  into  two.  The 
leaf-trace  bundles  of  Lyginodendron  have  precisely  the  structure  of 
the  foliar  bundles  of  recent  Cycads,  for  their  xylem  is  of  the  mesarch 
type,  the  centripetal  portion  exceeding  the  centrifugal  in  amount. 
The  occurrence  of  this  structure  in  the  stem  of  Lyginodendron  sug- 
gested a  search  for  mesarch  bundles  in  axial  organs  of  Cycadacea;, 
and  they  were  found  to  occur  in  the  peduncles  of  the  cones  of  Stan- 
geria  and  some  other  genera.  It  may  be  pointed  out  that  the  tra- 
cheides  of  Lyginodendron,  like  those  of  almost  all  Pteridosperms 
investigated,  are  characterized  by  mulfiseriate  bordered  pits.  On 
pi.  I  is  shown  the  general  structure  of  the  stem,  which  need  not  be 
described  in  further  detail. 

In  its  usual  mature  condition  the  structure  is  thus,  on  the  whole,  of 
a  Cycadean  type;  in  the  fortunate  cases,  however,  where  a  young 
stem,  before  secondary  growth  had  begun,  has  come  under  observa- 
tion, the  resemblance  to  the  stem  of  an  Osmundaceous  Fern  is  very 
striking. 

When  we  come  to  the  foliage  we  find  that  Fern  characters  alto- 
gether predominate.  The  petioles  have  often  been  found  in  connec- 
tion with  the  stem,  on  which  they  are  usually  arranged  in  a  2/5 
phyllotaxis.  The  foliar  bundles,  on  entering  the  petiole,  become 
more  or  less  fused,  and  assume  a  concentric  structure,  wliich  they 
maintain  throughout  the  rachis,  becoming  collateral  again  in  the 
leaflets.    The  highly  compound  foliage  has  long  been  recognized  as 

xwie 


894  ANNUAL.  BEPOBT  SUITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

identical  with  that  of  Sphenopteria  BSninghaum,  a  fact  which  Mr. 
Kidston  has  recently  demonstrated  bj  a  detailed  comparison.  The 
main  rachis  forked  at  some  little  distance  from  the  base,  a  character 
which  is  shown  in  structural  specimens  as  well  as  in  impressions. 

The  branching  of  the  stem  appears  to  have  been  axillary.    The 
adventitious  roots,  commonly  found  in  connection  with  the  stem,  had 
when  young  a  somewhat  Marattiaceous  character,  but  on  undergoing 
secondary  growth  assumed  the  structure  of  the  roots  of  Gymnosperms. 
Thus  the  vegetative  organs  of  the  plant  present  a  manifest  com- 
bination of  Filicean  and  Gymnospermous  characters  indicating  affini- 
ties in  both  directions.     The  convenient  name  Cycadofilices,  intro- 
duced by  Potonie  in  1897  for  plants  in  this  intermediate  position,  has 
been  generally  adopted.     Both  the  stem  and  leaves  of  Lyginodendron 
Oldhamium  are  studded  with  multicellular  outgrowths,  like  blunt 
spines,  which  in  certain 
cases  assume  the  charac- 
ter of  capitate  multicel- 
lular     glands.      These 
glands  enabled  Profes- 
sor Oliver  first  to  iden- 
tify the  seed  of  Lygino- 
dendron. 

The    seed,    Lagenoa- 

toma    Lomaxi    (pi.    i). 

is  inclosed  in  an  outer 

envelope      o  r      cupule. 

which    bears    numerous 

Fla.  0.~Reataratlon  of  (be  seed  of  Lygtnodendroti,  from      Capitate    glands    identi- 

a  model  bj   Mr.  H.  E.  Smedley.     The  s««d  Is  «ur-      cal  in  structure  and  form 

tounaed   by  the  open  cupure,   studded  wllh  capitate  .,,      ,,  ,, 

gianda.  With  those  ou  the  vege- 

tative organs  of  Lygin- 
odeiuiron  Oldhamium.  The  vascular  bundle  of  the  pedicel  has  the 
same  structure  as  that  of  a  small  rachis  of  Lyginodendrony  while  the 
smaller  bundles  which  traverse  the  cupule  agree  with  those  in  the 
lamina  of  the  vegetative  leaflets. 

The  cupule  of  the  seed  Lyginodendron  was  a  deeply  lobed  envelope 
which  we  have  compared  to  the  husk  of  a  hazel  nut.  (See  pi.  i  and 
fig.  9.)  It  overtopped  the  seed,  and  inclosed  it  in  the  young  condi- 
tion. The  pedicel  bearing  the  seed  is  traversed  by  a  concentric  vas- 
cular bundle,  which,  before  entering  the  chalaza,  gives  off  numerous 
branches  into  the  cupule. 

The  seed  itself  is  orthotropous  and  generally  of  Cycadean  orgam- 
zation;  it  shows  complete  radial  symmetry.  It  possesses  a  single  in- 
tegument, adherent  to  the  nucellus  except  in  the  apical  region.  The 
i^ingle  chalazal  bundle  breaks  up  into  about  nine  strands,  which  trav- 


Laqenostoma  Lomaxi.  the  Seed  of  Lycinodendron  Oi-dhamiuw,  in 
Longitudinal  Section,  Jnclosed  in  the  Loose  Cupule,  Bearing 
Cahtate  Glands,    x  About  16. 


.y  Google 


,  Google 


PBESENT  POSITION  OP  PALEOZOIC  BOTANY — SCOTT.  895 

erse  the  inner  layers  of  the  integument.  The  upper  free  part  of  the 
latter  has  a  complex  chambered  structure;  there  are  usually  nine 
chambers,  each  of  which  receives  one  of  the  integumental  bundles. 
The  outer  layer  of  the>  integument  has  a  columnar  structure.  The 
free  apex  of  the  nucellus  is  prolonged  upward  through  the  micropyle, 
protruding  somewhat  beyond  it,  as  an  open  tube.  (Fig.  10.)  As  in 
recent  Cycads  and  in  (Hnkgo,  the  apex  of  the  nucellus  contains  tlie 
pollen  chamber,  which  here  has  a  peculiar  form,  for  the  middle  of  the 
chanrber  is  occupied  by  a  solid  column  of  tissue,  reducing  the  actual 
cavity  to  an  annular  channel  in  which  the  pollen  grains  are  found. 
(See  pi.  I  and  6g.  10.)  Within  the  body  of  the  nucellus  is  the  mem- 
brane of  the  megaspore  or  embryo  saa    The  seed  was  thus  of  eom- 


Pin.  10. — Lagm<i»tama  Lomari.  Apri  of  seed  in  median  longitudinal  aecllon  llirougb 
micropjle.  o(,  outer  port  o(  t**ta ;  r,  palliiade  Inyer ;  it.  Inner  part  of  te»U :  s,  cavltj 
between  testa  and  nucellua ;  o,  orlflce  of  poIleD-chamber,  po;  ec,  central  colnma ;  pir, 
pollen-gralng  1  pi,  Dacellni;  tug,  megaapore.     x  about  60,    After  Oliver, 

plex  organization  and  shows  that  Lyginodendron,  in  spite  of  its  sur- 
viving Fern-like  characters,  had  definitely  attained  the  rank  of  a 
typical  Spermophyte, 

The  structure  of  the  pedicel  indicates  that  the  seed  was  borne  on  a 
foliar  organ.  The  evidence  of  other  species  leaves  no  doubt  that  the 
sporophylls  were  modified  fronds  or  pinnee  of  compound  form,  chiefly 
differing  from  the  sterile  foliage  in  the  suppression  of  the  laminae  of 
the  leaflets. 

The  stellate  lobed  indusia  or  cupules  belonging  to  Galymmatotfieca 
Strangeri,  a  species  closely  allied  to  Sphenopteris  Honingkauati,  is 
shown  in  fig.  11,  drawn  from  Stur's  original  specimen.  Another 
related  type,  Lagenostoma  Sinclairi  (fig.  12),  representing  both 
seeds  and  cupule,  has  been  described  by  Arber. 

D,:ri:p:lbyG00gle 


396  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901, 

Lastly,  M.  Grand'Eury  has  observed  six-lobcd  cupules,  in  some 
cases  stili  containing  the  seeds,  situated  at  the  extremity  of  long, 
slender  pedicels,  identical  with  the  ultimate  ramifications  of  the 
rachis  of  the  associated  SphenopferU  Dubuiasonis,  another  ally  of 
Lyg  in  odendron. 

The  pinnules  bearing  the  male  organs  of  Lyginodendron  occur  on 
the  same  fronds  which  bear  the  ordinary  vegetative  leaflets,  so  that 
Mr.  Kidston  was  able  to  demonstrate  direct  organic  connection  with 


the  foliage  of  Lyginodendron  Ohihamium.  The  fertile  lobes  are 
pedicellate,  oval  in  form,  and  each  of  them  bears  from  6  to  8  lanceo- 
late, sharply- pointed  microrsporangia,  described  by  the  author  as 
bilocular.  When  young  the  microsporangia  are  bent  inward,  with 
their  apices  meeting  at  the  center,  but  at  maturity  they  sprea<l  out- 
ward, appearing  like  a  fringe  hanging  from  the  margin  of  the  pin- 
nule, though  in  reality  attached  to  its  lower  surface.  In  all  respects 
the  fructification  agrees  with  Crosgotheca  (see  fig.  8,  F)  and  it  is 
named  Cron^othcca  Flduinghansii  by  ilr.  Kidston.    Though  the  speed- 


PRESENT  POSITION   OF  PALEOZOIC  BOTANY — SCOTT.  397 

mens  are  not  in  the  petrified  condition,  it  was  found  possible  to  isolate 
the  microspores,  vrhich  are  still  contained  in  the  sporangia. 

It  is  a  point  of  great  interest  that  the  male  fructification  of  Lygino- 
dendron  should  have  been  borne  on  the  same  frond  which  elsewhere 
shows  the  usual  vegetative  characters.  In  this  respect  Lytjinoden- 
dron  was  at  a  lower  stage  of  differentiation  than  many  Ferns,  and 
far  below  the  level  of  any  seed  plants  previously  known. 

About  a  year  before  Mr,  Kidston's  discovery,  Miss  M.  Benson  had 
described  a  synangic  fructification,  with  structure  preserved,  which 
she  named  Telangium,  Scotti,  and  was  inclined  to  refer  to  Lygtno- 
dendron.  In  this  fructification,  from  4  to  8  mm.  long,  pointed  spo- 
rangia are  partially  united  to  form  ^nangia,  much  like  some  of  those 
attributed  to  Marattiacete.  The  best  evidence  for  reference  to  Lygino- 
dendron  was  afforded  by  the  spores,  which  agree  very  nearly  with 


the  pollen  grains  found  within  the  pollen  chamber  of  species  of 
Lagenoatoma.  From  observations  of  my  own  I  think  it  probable 
that  Miss  Benson's  Telangium  may  turn  out  to  have  been  a  Crosso- 
theca  and  that  the  bilocular  sporangia  observed  by  Mr.  Kidston  may 
be  an  indication  of  synangic  structure. 

In  any  case  it  appears  that  the  reproductive  organs  of  Lyginoden- 
dron  present  the  same  combination  of  characters  which  is  shown  so 
clearly  in  the  vegetative  structure.  While  the  highly  organized  seed 
strongly  indicates  Cycadean  affinities,  the  microsporangiate  fructifi- 
cation is  entirely  Fern-like  in  its  nature. 

Before  leaving  the  LyginodendrcEe,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that 
Ileterangium  (with  the  foliage  of  Spheiiopteris  elegana  and  other 
species),  though  its  fructification  is  not  yet  known,  is  clearly  shown 
by  its  anatomical  structure  to  belong  to  the  same  family  with  Lygirw 


Gooylc 


898  ANNUAL  EEPOBT  SHITHSONUN   mSTrTUTION,  1907. 

dendron.  Anatomically  it  stands  at  a  lower  level  than  that  genus, 
for  its  vascular  cylinder  is  without  a  pith,  constituting  a  protostele 
analogous  to  that  occurring  in  most  species  of  the  recent  Fem-genus 
Oleichenia. 

HEP  BOPTBBIPC^ 

In  the  well-known  species  NeuTopterU  heterophylla  (pL  n),  bodies 
of  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  small  hazelnut  were  found  by  Air. 
Kidston,  in  material  from  the  Middle  Coal  Measures,  attached  to  a 
rachis  bearing  the  characteristic  pinnules  (fig.  13).  Unfortunately 
there  is  no  preservation  of  structure  in  this  case,  but  the  external 
characters  afford  sufficient 
evidence  of  the  seed  nature 
of  the  organ.  Beyond  the 
fact  that  the  seed  was  one  of 
those  with  radial  symmetry 
and  that  it  had  a  fibrous 
envelope,  there  are  no  de- 
tails to  record.  The  point 
of  chief  interest  is  the  fact 
that  these  large  seeds  were 
borne  on  a  frond  so  little 
modified  as  to  show  the  or- 
dinary vegetative  form  of 
pinnule,  another  indication 
of  the  absence,  in  this  group, 
of  differentiated  sporophylls. 
According  to  Mr.  Kidston, 
the  seeds  fall  under  the 
genus  Rhahdocarpus  of 
Goppert  and  Berger. 
Fio.   13.— yewropios*  htterophvija.    Seed,  at-       Mr.  Kidston  Was  thus  the 

tachrf  to  a  bmncb  ot  the  racbla  bearlDg  two     e i.   i_    _i j" »        _ 

characteristic  pinnule.,  x  2.  After  KIditon.  °^  ***  obscrVC  direct  con- 
tinuity between  the  seed 
and  the  frond  in  a  Fern-like  Paleozoic  plant.  The  family  of  the 
Neuropterideie,  of  which  the  plant  in  question  is  a  representative, 
is  well  known  from  a  structural  point  of  view.  As  Renault  dem- 
onstrated in  1883,  the  petrified  petioles  named  Myeloxylon  by 
Brongniart  belonged  to  the  fronds  of  Neuropterh  and  AUthopterit, 
while  Weber  showed  that  Myeloxylon  petioles  were  borne  on  Medrd- 
losa  stems.  Thus  we  have  a  fairly  complete  knowledge  of  the  anat- 
omy in  certain  members  of  the  family.  The  stems  of  Medullosa^  as 
has  long  been  known,  have  a  complex  structure,  the  vascular  system 
being  of  the  "  polystelic "  type,  with  secondary  formation  of  wood 
and  bast  around  each  stele.  This  structure  finds  its  simplest  ex- 
iressioii  in  the  British  species  MeduUoea  anglica  of  Lower  Coal- 


NiUftOPTERia  Hi 


.y  Google 


,  Google 


PRESENT  POSITION   OF   PALEOZOIC   BOTANY — SCOTT.  899 

JVfeasure  age.  (See  pi.  ii.)  The  leaf  bases,  with  typical  Myel- 
oxylon  structure,  are  attached  to  the  st«m.  The  steles  are  three  in 
number,  each  with  a  solid  axis  of  primary  wood,  surrounded  by  sec- 
ondary wood  and  phloem.  (PI.  II.)  The  leaf-trace  bundles,  given 
off  from  the  outer  surface  of  the  steles,  are  concentric  in  the  lower 
part  of  their  course,  but  soon  break  up  into  a  number  of  collateral 
strands,  with  external  protoxylem.  A.  large  number  of  these  col- 
lateral bundles  enter  the  petioles,  which  thus  have  a  very  Cycadean 
type  of  structure,  chiefly  difl'ering  from  those  of  recent  Cycads 
in  the  fact  that  the  wood  of  the  bundles  is,  as  a  rule,  wholly 
centripetal,  while  in  the  living  family  the  foliar  bundles  are  mesarch. 
The  triarch  adventitious  roots,  which  spring  from  the  stem  between 
the  leaf  bases,  also  bear  a  considerable  resemblance  to  those  of  Cycads. 

The  leaf  of  Medullosa  anglica,  as  shown  by  the  characters  of  the 
rachis  and  leafletii  in-the  petrified  specimens,  was  that  of  an  Ale- 
thopteris,  probably  identical  with  the  species  A.  lonchiiica,  which 
is  common,  in  the  form  of  impressions,  at  similar  horizons.  There 
is  a  considerable  probability  that  the  Trigonocarpum  originally  de- 
scribed by  Hooker  and  Binney  in  1854  and  referred  by  Williamson 
to  T.  olivcEjorme  (but  apparently  identical  with  Trigonocarpum  Park- 
insoni  Brongniart),  was  the  seed  of  Medullom  anglica.  The  petrified 
specimens  of  tlie  seed  are  invariably  associated  with  the  rachis  and 
other  organs  of  the  Medullosa:^  and  there  are  certain  points  of  struc- 
tural agreement  which  confirm  the  probability  of  the  attribution. 

The  seed  is  a  large,  ovate  one,  40-50  mm.  long;  quite  half  the 
length,  however,  is  occupied  by  the  micropylar  tube,  the  most  re- 
markable feature  of  the  seed.  The  testa  consists  of  two  layers — 
the  outer  sarcotesta,  of  delicate,  partly  lacunar  tissue,  bounded  ex- 
ternally by  a  sharply  differentiated  hypoderma  and  epidermis,  and 
the  inner,  ribbed,  sclerotesta,  consisting  of  dense,  thick-walled  tissue. 
The  nucellus  appears  to  have  been  free,  from  the  chalaza  upward, 
and  terminates  at  the  apex  in  a  pollen  chamber,  provided  with  a 
distinct  beak,  as  in  the  seed  of  Cordaitea.  The  vascular  system  of 
the  seed  was  double,  the  outer  system  of  bundles  traversing  the  sar- 
cotesta, while  the  inner  formed  a  complex  tracheal  network  in  the 
nucellus.  The  membrane  of  the  megaspore  is  evident,  but  the  pro- 
thallus  has  not  yet  been  found  preserved.  The  structure  of  the  seed 
as  a  whole  presents  marked  analogies  with  that  of  recent  Cycadean 
seeds,  the  differences  depending  chiefly  on  the  free  nucellus,  while 
in  the  Cycads  it  is  adherent  to  the  inner  layer  of  the  integument. 

The  attribution  of  the  Trigonocarpum  just  described  to  Alethopteria 
is  further  rendered  highly  probable  by  Mr.  Kidston's  discovery  of 
the  seed  of  NeuTopteria  heteropfiyUa,  and  I-  have  little  doubt  that 
it  is  correct,  though  the  direct  proof  of  actual  continuity  has  not 

ikGoo^^lc 


400  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1801. 

SO  far  been  obtained.  In  certain  specimens  of  Stephanoapermumy 
which  has  some  points  of  resemblance  to  Triganoearpon,  the  preser- 
vation is  so  complete  as  to  show  the  pollen  grains  contained  in  the 
pollen  chamber  of  the  seed;  the  cell  group,  probably  representing 
the  antheridium,  is  clearly  seen  in  the  pollen  grains. 

Regarding  the  anatomy  of  the  MeduUosese  (a  family  name  pro- 
visionally taken  as  synonymous  with  Neuropterideee) ,  it  may  be 
noted  that  the  structure  of  the  Permian  species  is  much  more  com- 
plex. The  elaboration  consists  essentially  in  the  differentiation  of 
a  central  and  a  peripheral  system  of  steles,  the  peripheral  system 
sometimes  forming  a  continuous,  or  nearly  continuous,  ring.  As 
the  secondary  growth  of  the  external  steles  was  in  some  forms 
much  greater  on  the  outer  than  on  the  inner  side,  a  certain  resem- 
blance to  the  stems  of  Cycadacese  with  medullary  bundles  is  notice- 
able, accentuated  in  the  largest  stems  of  M.  atellata  by  the  appear- 
ance of  extrafascicular  zones  of  wood  and  bast  inclosing  the  whole 
stelar  system.  Some  authors,  notably  Mr.  Worsdell,  have  laid  great 
stress  on  these  resemblances,  which  lead  them  to  place  the  Medul- 
losese  on  the  line  of  descent  of  the  Cycads.  Personally,  I  have  been 
unable  to  convince  myself  that  the  stem  of  the  Cycadacese  admits 
of  an  interpretation  on  "  polystelic  "  lines,  though  on  other  grounds 
the  affinity  suggested  has  much  ift  its  favor. 

While  we  have  in  the  Permian  Medulloseai  striking  examples  of  the 
extreme  complexity  which  this  type  of  stem  was  capable  of  assuming, 
Sutcliijia  insignisj  a  plant  recently  discovered  in  the  Lower  Coal 
Mea.sui'es  of  Lancashire,  carries  us  back  to  a  type  of  structure  prob- 
ably more  primitive  than  had  previously  been  known  in  this  family. 
The  stem  has  a  central  stelft  of  great  size,  without  pith,  the  solid 
centripetal  wood  consisting  of  pitted  tracheides  interspersed  with 
bands  of  parenchyma.  From  the  principal  stele,  large  vascular 
strands,  the  meristeles  or  subsidiary  steles,  are  detached,  which  divide 
up  and  fuse  with  one  another,  ultimately  giving  rise  to  the  leaf-trace 
bundles,  a  large  number  of  which  enter  the  leaf  bases.  The  petiolar 
bundles  are  concentric,  resembling  those  of  Seward's  Rachiopteria 
WilUanisoni,  which  was  no  doubt  the  petiole  of  another  species  of 
Sutcliffia.  In  the  specimen  investigated,  secondary  growth  in  thick- 
ness was  only  just  beginning.  In  habit  and  various  structural  details 
the  plant  agrees  with  a  MeduUosa ;  it  shows  a  near  approach  to  mono* 
stelic  structure,  for  the  single  central  cylinder  forms  a  dominant 
feature  in  the  vascular  system,  while  the  meristeles  effect  the  tran- 
sition to  the  leaf  traces.  The  concentric  bundles  constitute  a  more 
Fern-like  character  than  is  known  elsewhere  among  the  Medullosefe. 
The  plant  is  of  considerable  interest,  as  indicating  the  probable 
derivation  of  the  Medullosean  stem  from  a  simple  protostelic  type, 
such  as  occurs  in  Tlctfranghim  among  the  Lyginodendreee. 


PRESENT  POSITION   OP  PALEOZOIC   BOTANY — SCOTT.  401 

As  regards  habit,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Medulloseae  were 
plants  of  very  large  size.  Petioles  of  Medullosa  nearly  15  cm.  in 
diameter  are  known,  and  tho^e  of  Suteliffia  approached  the  same 
dimensions.  The  repeatedly  pinnate  leaves,  with  the  habit  of  a  huge 
Osmunda  (as  in  Neuropteris)  or  Angiopteri»  (as  iu  Alethopteris) , 
■were  borne  on  stems  probably  resembling  those  of  Tree  Ferns;  in  a 
Jifedullosa  from  Saxony  the  decorticated  stem  measures  48  by  46  cm. 
in  diameter.  The  specimens  of  Medulloaa  anglica  show  that  the  stem 
■was  completely  clothed  by  the  decurrent  bases  of  the  leaves. 

M.  Grand'Eury's  extensive  observations  on  the  association  be- 
tween fronds  and  seeds  of  definite  species,  not  only  in  AlethopUris 
and  Neuropteria,  but  in  Odontopteris,  Linopteris,  Lonchopterit,  etc., 
have  convinced  him  that  the  Neuropteridete  generally  were  seed- 
bearing  plants  of  Cycadean  affinities.  There  can  be  no  question  that 
nil  the  existing  evidence  points  in  this  direction,  while  throughout  the 
■whole  of  the  family  there  is  practically  an  entire  absence  of  any 
counten'ailing  evidence  on  the  Fern  side. 

We  havfe  as  yet  scarcely  any  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  male 
organs  in  this  family.  In  1887  Mr.  KidHton  described  a  form  of 
fructification  in  Neuropteris  keterophiiUa,  the  same  species  in  which 
he  afterwards  discovered  the  seed.  The  specimen  shows  a  forked 
rachis,  bearing  the  normal  vegetative  pinnules  below,  while  the 
branches  terminate  in  four-lobed  bodies,  which  may  be  interpreted 
either  as  groups  of  sporangia  or  as  cupules.  As  there  is  no  reason  to 
suspect  the  presence  of  cupules  in  the  Neuropteridea?,  the  former 
view  is  perhaps  the  more  probable,  in  which  case  the  specimen  would 
no  doubt  represent  the  microsporangiate  fructification;  in  no  in- 
stance, as  yet,  are  the  indications  perfectly  satisfactory.' 

In  the  Neuropteridea',  as  in  the  Lyginodendrete,  we  are  dealing 
with  plants  of  which  the  anatomical  structure  is  known,  at  least  in 
certain  representatives.  We  are  therefore  able  to  point  to  definite 
structural  characters,  quite  apart  from  the  habit,  which  indicate 
affinity  with  the  Ferns,  as  we  have  already  shown  in  the  case  of  the 
Liyginodendrese.  In  the  anatomy  of  the  Neuropteridese  with  the 
Medullosa  type  of  stem,  the  most  Fern-like  feature  is  the  vascular 
system,  which,  in  its  primary  "  polystelic  "  arrangement  is  essentially 
Filicinean,  and  was  compared  by  Weber  and  Sterzel  with  that  of 
Psaronixts.  ■  This  character,  it  is  true,  becomes  ilisguised  as  secondary 
growth  proceeds,  but  the  original  ground  plan  of  the  structure  is  of 
immistakable  significance.  The  leaves,  apart  from  the  habit  and 
venation,  are  on  the  whole  of  Cycadean  structure  and  not,  in  them- 
selves, much  more  Fern-like  than  those  of  the  recent  Staugeria.  In 
the  new  genus  SutcU^a  the  anatomy  of  the  stem,  peculiar  as  it  is, 
can  only  be  compared  with  that  of  a  protostelic  Fern,  while  the  con- 

"""  "   "--i^^ 


402  ANNUAL.  BEPOBT  SUITHBONIAN   INSTITUTION,  lOtR. 

discovery  of  the  Sutcliffia  type  of  structure  renders  it  probable  that 
dialystely  arose  within  the  family  Medulloseie,  and  tends  to  separate 
the  latter  further  from  the  Lower  Carboniferous  Cladoxylew;  in  this 
carious  group  there  is  the  same  combination  of  dialystely  with  sec- 
ondary growth  which  we  find  in  MeduUosese,  but  the  arrangement 
of  the  steles,  and  the  nature  of  the  tracbeides,  not  to  mention  other 
characters,  are  quite  different,  and  it  seems  most  probable  that  the 
two  families  represent  parallel  lines  of  development  The  Clado- 
xyleie  have  been  compared  with  Botryopteridese,  especially  Antero- 
thUrna,  and  an  affinity  in  this  direction  appears  highly  probable. 
There  is  nothing,  as  yet,  to  indicate  the  particular  group  of  primitive 
Ferns  from  which  the  MeduUoseie  themselves  may  have  sprung,  but 
on  anatomical  grounds  it  seems  not  unlikely  that  they  and  the 
Lyginoden<lreiv  may  have  bad  a  common  origin  from  simple  pro- 
tostelic  forms. 


There  are  at  least  two  cases  in  which  seeds  have  been  found  in 
actual  connection  with  Paleozoic  Fern-like  fronds,  where  we  have 
as  yet  no  clue  to  the  interna)  structure. 

The  first  of  these  cases  was  described  by  Mr.  David  White  in  1904, 
in  a  plant  named  by  him  Aneimitefi  fertilU,  from  a  Millstone  Grit 
(Pottsville)  horizon  in  West  Virginia.  The  frond  b  a  highly  com- 
pound one,  of  the  form  familiar  under  the  designation  Adiantites, 
a  generic  name  which  has  been  discarded  on  technical  grounds  of 
nomenclature.  The  fructification  is  borne  on  the  apices  of  branched, 
terminal  extensions  of  the  peripheral  pinnte,  the  cuneate  pinnules 
being  greatly  reduced  on  the  adjacent  sterile  portions  of  the  frond. 
The  small  seeds  are  rhomboidal  in  form,  lenticular  in  cross-section, 
and  winged;  it  thus  appears  that  they  were  of  the  platyspermic 
(bilaterally  symmetrical)  type.  The  author  points  out  that  the 
discovery  of  Pteridospermic  characters  in  Anetmitea  throws  serious 
suspicion  on  the  sterile  frond  genus  Eremopteris  among  others.  My 
friends.  Mr.  Arber  and  Prof.  F.  W.  Oliver,  inform  me  that  they  have 
found  strong  evidence  for  the  occurrence  of  seeds,  comparable  to 
those  of  Aneimites,  in  a  species  of  Eremopteris. 

A  few  months  later,  M.  Grand'Eury  (in  April,  1905)  made  his 
striking  discovery  of  the  seeds  of  Pecopterh  Pluckenetl,  from  the 
Upper  Coal  Measures  of  St.  £tienne.  In  twenty  specimens  he  found 
the  seeds  attached  by  hundreds  to  the  fronds;  they  may  occur  on  the 
ordinary,  unmodified  foliage,  but  where  they  are  numerous  the  lamina 
is  somewhat  reduced.  The  small  oval  seeds  (named  CarpoUthes 
granulatvs  by  Grand'Eury  nearly  thirty  years  earlier)  are  attached 
to  the  ends  of  the  principal  veins,  and  are  provided  with  a  border  or 
wing :  their  form  is  so  similar  to  that  of  Samarop^s  that  they  oiay 


..Google 


PRESENT  POSITION   OP  PALEOZOIC   BOTANY — BCOTT.  408 

easily  be  confounded,  in  the  detached  condition,  with  this  Cordaitaan 
seed.  The  resemblance  of  the  seeds  of  Pecopteria  Pluckeneti,  Anei- 
mites,  and  (I  believe)  Eremopteria  to  those  of  the  Cordaiteee  is  a 
striking  fact,  showing  that  the  bilateral  or  radial  ^mmetry  of  the 
seed  is  of  no  value  as  a  means  of  distinction  between  this  Oymno- 
spermous  family  and  the  Pteridosperms, 

Ko  paleobotanical  discovery  would  be  more  interesting  at  the  pres- 
ent time  than  that  of  the  anatomical  structure  of  Pecopteris  Plucke- 
neti. The  species  is  not  typical  of  its  genus,  and  was  placed  by 
Sterzel  in  a  distinct  genus,  Dicksoniites,  on  account  of  his  discovery 
of  bodies  which  he  interpreted  as  sori,  and  compared  to  those  of 
Dicksonia;  their  nature  is  not  yet  clearly  understood. 

SrSTEMATIO  POSrttON  OF  THE  PTEUDOSl'ERUE/S. 

The  name  Cycadofilices  designated  a  group,  only  known  at  the  tiihe 
by  its  vegetative  characters,  which  hovered  in  the  gap  between  Fili- 
cinese  and  Cycadophyta  without  showing  any  decided  leanings  to 
either  side.  The  class  name  Pteridospermeee  represents  a  more  ad- 
vanced stage  in  our  knowledge,  and  indicates  plants  which  we  know 
to  have  been  already  definitely  Spermophytic,  though  retaining  many 
marks  of  a  Filicinean  origin.  This  consideration  appears  sufficient 
to  justify  the  institution  of  the  new  class. 

The  question  remains,  whether  the  Pteridosperms  should  be  in- 
cluded under  Gymnosperms  or  kept  apart,  at  least  for  the  present,  as 
a  subkingdom  of  their  own.  Many  botanists  will  doubtless  follow 
Professor  2^iller  in  choosing  the  former  altemativa  Personally,  I 
incline  to  the  latter,  for  reasons  which  I  will  now  state.  The  ques- 
tion, it  may  be  said  at  once,  is  largely  one  of  convenience,  for  there 
can  be  no  doubt  of  the  Gymnospermous  affinities  of  the  group  under 
discussion.  So  far  as  the  seed  is  concerned,  the  Pteridosperms  were 
Gymnosperms,  on  the  same  level  with  the  Cordaiteie.  The  only  eon- 
-  stant  peculiarity  of  the  seed  is  a  negative  one,  the  absence  of  an  em- 
bryo, and  this  is  common  to  the  Cordaitete,  which  in  all  other  respects 
were  as  highly  organized  as  recent  Gymnosperms. 

If  the  Pteridospermete  are  to  be  kept  distinct  it  must  be  on  other 
grounds.    The  chief  characters  are  the  following: 

1.  The  fact  that  the  seeds  were  borne  on  fronds  hut  little  modified, 
as  compared  with  the  vegetative  foliage.  This  appears  to  have  been 
the  case  in  every  Pteridosperm  where  we  have  any  evidence  on  the 
subject,  and  affords  an  important  character,  thou^  a  female  Cycas 
no  doubt  only  differs  in  degree. 

2.  The  male  organs.  Like  the  female,  they  appear  to  have  been 
borne  on  ordinary  fronds,  and,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  one  case 

,  ii.;,Gooylc 


404  ANNUAL  REPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

where  they  have  been  investigated,  scarcely  differed  from  the  spo- 
rangia of  certain  Ferns.  Here,  so  far  as  the  evidence  extends,  there 
is  a  wide  difference  from  any  known  Gymnosperms  and  a  near  ap- 
proach to  the  Filicinese. 

3.  The  anatomical  structure.  There  is  probably  no  constant  dis- 
tinctive character  in  the  structure  either  of  stem  or  leaf.  The  anatomy 
of  the  st«m  in  Lygtnodendron  does  not  differ  esentially  from  that  in 
PoToxylon,  which  appears  to  find  its  nearest  allies  in  the  Cordaiteie, 
while  other  plants,  such  as  Pitys  antiqua  and  Dadoxylon  Spenceri, 
which  likewise  possess  primary  centripetal  wood  in  the  stem,  prob- 
ably also  belong  to  the  latter  group.  It  would  not  always  be  possible 
to  tell  from  the  structure  of  the  stem  alone  whether  a  given  plant 
belonged  to  the  Pteridospermese  or  the  Cordaitete.  So,  too,  with  the 
leaf.  The  anatomy  of  the  petiole  and  lamina  in  Medullosa  is  essen- 
tially that  of  a  Cycadophyte,  while  in  Lyginodendron  it  is  that  of  a 
Fern.  Taking  the  sum  of  anatomical  characters,  however,  the  Pteri- 
dosperms,  so  far  as  we  know  them,  are  much  more  Fern-like  than  any 
typical  Gymnosperra.  We  might  frame  a  provisional  diagnosis  of 
llie  Pteridospermese  as  follows:  Male  and  female  sporophylls  little 
differentiated  from  the  vegetative  foliage ;  no  cones  formed.  Anat- 
omy of  either  stem,  or  leaf,  or  both,  of  a  Filicinean  type,  as  was  also 
the  habit. 

The  chief  practical  reason  for  keeping  the  Pteridosperms  apart 
from  the  Gymnosperms  is  their  manifestly  more  primitive  character, 
shown  in  one  respect  or  another  throughout  the  group.  Even  in  the 
seed,  the  most  advanced  of  their  organs,  possible  primitive  indications 
are  not  wanting.  In  Physostoma,  with  its  integument  breaking  up 
into  a  ring  of  free  tentacles  taking  the  place  of  the  micropylar  tube, 
we  have  a  unique  form  of  seed  investment.  The  characters  of  the 
male  fructification,  if  we  may  take  Croasotheca  as  a  fair  example, 
appear  to  have  been  frankly  Cryptogamic,  and  the  same  applies  to 
the  anatomy  of  such  plants  as  Sutdiifia  and  tleterangium,,  genera 
which  show  such  evident  relations  to  Medullosa  and  Lyginodendron, 
i-espectively,  that  we  can  not  doubt  their  being  Pteridosperms.  It 
seems  to  me  desirable  to  give  full  weight  to  primitive  characters  such 
as  these  and  to  keep  the  Pteridosperms  distinct,  rather  than  to  merge 
them  in  the  Gymnosperms,  a  group  which  has  departed  so  much  fur- 
ther from  Cryptogamic  traditions.  At  the  same  time  I  fully  recog- 
nize that  this  is  a  matter  of  expediency  rather  than  of  principle,  for 
further  research  will  undoubtedly  tend  to  fill  up  the  gap  between  the 
two  classes. 

A  more  fundamental  question  is  that  of  the  relation  of  the  Pterido- 
spermese to  the  Cryptogams.  All  the  characters  in  which  the  Pteri- 
dosperms show  Cryptogamic  ajlinities,  whether  in  anatomical  struc- 
ture, in  the  morphology  of  the  sporophyll,  or  in  the  nature  of  the  male 


PRESENT  POSITION   OF   PXLEOZOIC   BOTANY — SCOTT.  405 

fructification,  point  clearly  to  their  derivation  from  ancestors 
belonging  to  a  Filicinean  stock.  They  have  been  described  as 
"  Kems  which  have  become  Spermophytes,"  and  the  phrase  is  ap- 
propriate. When,  however,  we  come  to  inquire  into  the  characters 
of  the  Filicinean  group  from  which  the  Pteridosperms  arose,  we  find 
that  our  data  are  insufficient.  They  are  themselves,  in  all  probability, 
as  ancient  as  any  land  plants  known  to  us,  and  their  actual  origin 
lies  further  back  than  our  records  at  present  extend.  Considering 
that  some  of  the  Pteridosperms  show  a  decidedly  simple  anatomical 
structure  (as  in  Beterangium),  we  may  assume  that  they  were  de- 
rived from  plants  of  a  simple  type  of  organization.  It  would  be  rash 
in  the  extreme  to  identify  any  of  the  known  "  Primofilices  "  with 
the  ancestors  of  the  Pteridosperms;  they  are  not  nearly  old  enough 
geologically,  and  our  knowledge  is  much  too  narrow  to  enable  us  to 
determine  how  far  they  may  have  retained  the  characters  of  the 
orig;inal  common  stock.  The  utmost  we  can  venture  to  say  is,  that 
these  simpler  Paleozoic  Ferns,  the  Botryopteridew  and  their  allies, 
probably  stand  nearer  the  Cryptogamic  progenitors  of  the  seed 
plants  than  any  other  group  of  which  the  record  has  come  down 
to  us. 

Where  we  find  among  the  Pteridosperms  characters  resembling 
those  of  more  advanced  Filicinean  types,  they  are  probably  to  be 
attributed  to  parallel  development  rather  than  to  inheritance.  The 
"  polystely  "  of  Medulloaa,  for  example,  if,  as  there  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve, it  arose  within  the  Pteridospermic  family  Medulloseaj,  was  not 
a  directly  inherited  Filicinean  character,  but  rather  a  new  develop- 
ment on  Filicinean  lines. 

We  may  sum  up  the  position  of  the  question  as  to  the  derivation 
of  the  Pteridosperms  in  the  statement  that  all  the  evidence  points  to 
their  having  sprung  from  the  same  stock  with  the  Ferns.  The  an- 
tiquity of  the  Ferns,  and  especially  of  the  comparatively  simple 
types  represented  by  the  Botryopteridese  and  related  forms,  appears 
sufficiently  established  to  afford  an  historical  basis  for  this  conclusion. 

VII,  The  Gyunospeeme*. 

There  is  little  of  novelty  to  record  in  our  knowledge  of  the  Paleozoic 
Gymnosperms,  as  distinguished  from  the  more  primitive  class  Pter- 
idospermete.  AVith  regard  to  the  Cordaitese,  the  most  important 
group,  the  position  remains  very  much  as  Renault  left  it.  Marvelous 
as  was  the  reconstruction  of  this  family  at  the  hands  of  Grand'Eury 
and  Renault,  our  knowledge  urgently  needs  widening,  and  new  data 
are  to  be  eagerly  sought.  In  the  case  of  the  Paleozoic  Cycads  and 
Conifers  our  records  are  scanty,  and  the  time  has  not  yet  come  for  a 
general  treatment  of  this  part  of  our  subject.  ^  , 

^  Dpiiz^byGoOgle 


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THE  ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS  AND  ESTABLISHMENTS 
OF  GREAT  BRITAIN,  BELGIUM,  AND  THE  NETHER- 
LA-NDS." 


by    GUSTAVB   1»ISEL, 

Director  of  the  Laboratory  of  Qeneral  Embryology  at  Ibc  School  of  Hauleg 
Eludes.  Professor  of  Zoology  in  the  Secondary   Courses  at   the  Sorbonne, 


The  zoological  gardens  now  existing  in  the  world,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  that  at  Schonbmnn,  are  all  derived  in  some  manner  from  our 
-Jardin  des  Plantes.  Tliey  were  not  established  until  a  long  time 
afterwards,  since  the  oldest  of  them,  that  of  London,  was  not  opened 
until  1828,  but  they  have  all  taken  it  for  a  model  as  regards  their 
aviaries,  cages,  and  inclosures,  as  well  as  in  their  museums  and  their 
laboratories.  A  proof  of  this  is  very  explicitly  given  by  Mr.  Henry 
Scherren,  in  his  book  "The  Zoological  Society  of  London,  A  Sketch 
of  its  Foundation  and  Development"  (1896,  p.  19),  and  by  Mr. 
Stanley  Flower,  in  his  report  of  a  tour  of  which  I  shall  si>eak  further 
on.  This  origin  is  at  once  evident  by  comparing  the  drawings  given 
by  Mr.  Scherren  of  the  animal  quarters  in  the  London  garden  of 
1850  with  those  which  still  exist,  unchanged,  unfortunately,  in  the 
menagerie  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes. 

Though  these  foreign  gardens  were  originally  inspired  by  our 
old  national  institution,  they  have  increased  in  size  and  during  re- 
cent years  have  renewed  the  greater  part  of  their  old  structures. 
For  this  purpose  the  directors  or  superintendents  of  some  of  thene 
gardens  have  visited  the  principal  countries  of  Europe  in  order  to 
note  and  profit  by  the  progress  attained  by  other  similar  establish- 
ments. 

In  making  this  tour  of  inspection  I  did  not  confine  my  visits  and 
studies  to  zoological  gardens  alone.     I  was  charged  to  give  attention 

0  Translated  and  abridged  from  the  "  Rapport  eur  une  mission  scientlflque 
dans  lea  Jardlns  et  ^tabllaaemente  soologlqnes  publics  et  prlv^  du  RoyBume- 
Unl.  de  la  Belglque  et  dee  Paya-Bas,"  par  M.  Gustave  Loisel.  Extralt  des  Nou- 
velles  Archives  dea  Missions  Sclentlflquee,  t.  liv.    Paris,  1807. 

41780—08 30  A07 


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408  ANNUAL  HBPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

also  to  other  establishments,  public  or  private,  where  wild  animals 
were  reared  either  for  the  purposes  of  acclimation,  of  general  zoology 
or  of  animal  biolt^y.  I  was  therefore  led  to  travel  over  England,  Scot- 
land, the  Isle  of  Man,  Ireland,  Belgium,  and  tho*  fiTetherlands,  re- 
ceiving everywhere  the  warmest  welcome,  not  only  from  the  scientists 
whose  laboratories  or  experiment  stations  I  visited,  but  also  from 
the  presidents  or  secretaries  of  societies,  from  the  directors  or  super- 
intendents of  zoological  gardens  and  from  the  great  proprietors  who 
opened  for  me  their  parks. 

THE  ZOOLOGICAL  GARDEN    AT   LONDON. 

The  Zoological  Garden  of  London  belongs  to  the  Zoological  Society 
of  London,  founded  in  1826  for  the  purpose  of  "  the  advancement  of 
zoology  and  for  the  introduction  into  England  of  new  and  curious 
animals."  The  society  performs  this  double  function  first  by  main- 
taining the  garden  which  we  are  about  to  describe,  then  by  publish- 
ing Proceedings  (two  volumes  per  year).  Transactions  (id.),  the 
Zoological  Record,  a  Guide  to  the  Garden,  and  illustrated  postal 
cards  of  the  animals,  finally  by  holding  monthly  meetings  at  which 
the  fellows,  the  corresponding  members  and  even  strangers  may 
present  communications.  These  communications  are  submitted  to  a 
committee  of  publication  which  considers  them  carefully ;  thus,  among 
132  offered  in  1905  only  86  were  published  in  full,  84  in  the  Pro- 
ceedings, 2  in  the  Transactions;  the  others  were  merely  announced 
by  title  or  by  a  concise  abstract. 

The  society  comprises  at  present  3,702  active  members,  200  corre- 
sponding members,  and  25  foreign  members.  It  is  administered  by 
a  council  of  21  members,  elected  annually,  among  which  are  a  presi- 
dent (the  Duke  of  Bedford  in  1906),  six  vice-preadents,  a  secretary, 
and  a  treasurer.  The  secretary  (Dr.  P.  Chalmers  Mitchell,  F.  R.  S.. 
at  present)  is  the  executive  officer. 

The  council  meets  regularly  every  two  weeks  from  January  to  the 
end  of  June  and  once  a  month  during  the  remainder  of  the  year;  it 
publishes  each  year  a  report  for  the  general  sessioUj  at  which  all 
members  of  the  society  may  attend. 

The  total  receipts  of  the  society  amounted,  in  1905,  to  £30,421 
6s.  9d.  Among  the  details  of  these  receipts  I  will  mention  the  fol- 
lowing: 

£  ■.    d. 

AdmtBBioDS  to  tbe  garden. 17,468      6    4 

Riding  receipts  (elephants  and  camels) 470    19    3 

Sales  of  living  anlmalB 428    11     8 

Sales  of  guides  and  postal  cardsi 884     14     3 

Rent  from  restaurant 1,000      0    0 

pecelpts  from  lavatorlea ,.,..„.. 72      8    1 


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ZOOLOGICAL  QABDEMg — LOIBEL.  409 

The  Zoological  Garden  is  administered,  under  the  general  direction 
of  the  secretary,  by  a  scientific  staff  comprising  a  superintendent, 
Mr.  R.  J.  Pocock;  a  prosector,  Mr.  F.  E.  Beddard,  F.  R.  S.,  specially 
charged  with  the  conduct  of  the  laboratory  of  comparative  anatomy 
(prosectorium)  attached  to  the  garden ;  a  pathologist,  Mr.  C  G.  Selig- 
mann,  also  attached  to  the  prosectorium.     •     *     • 

The  ordinary  expenditures  of  the  garden  amounted,  in  1905,  to 
£22,435  15s.  8d.,  the  principal  objects  being  as  follows: 

£  B.     d. 

Kent,  rates,  taxes,  etc -_ 1,485     9    14 

Salaries  4,356      8    10 

Peaslons __ __ -   ...      260      0      0 

ProvlsloDB  <tacludlDg  wages  of  storekeeper) 3,008      6      2 

Coat  and  carriage  of  HDlmalB __„  1,124    11      8 

Menagerie  espenses  1,080      2    10 

Elxpenses  of  the  prosectorium 863      4      « 

Maintenance  of  buildings,  etc 3.901      1    11 

Garden  expenses _--  1,280      4      0 

Bouse  and  office  expenses 322    13      1 

The  garden  is  situated  in  a  portion  of  Regent's  Park,  occupying  a 
space  of  31  acres,  for  which  the  society  pays  an  annual  rental  to  the 
Crown.  It  is  open  to  the  public  every  week  day  from  9  a.  m,  until 
sunset;  on  Sundays  and  holidays  only  members  and  persons  provided 
with  special  tickets  are  admitted. 

It  is  divided  by  a  canal  (Regent's  Canal)  and  a  public  road  (Outer 
Circle)  into  three  parts — the  north  garden,  the  middle  garden,  and 
the  south  garden,  connected  with  each  other  by  two  bridges  and  a 
tunnel.  On  December  31,  1905,  there  were,  in  these  three  gardens, 
2,913  vertebrate  animals: 

Mammals 680 

Birds 1.554 

Reptiles  560 

Flslies 110 

InvertetirateB,  variable  cumber. 
.    Of  these  860  were  acquired  by  gift,  286  by  purchase,  286  were  bom, 
1,097  wei^  received  on  deposit,  and  202  obtained  by  exchange. 

During  1905,  514  animals  died  in  the  garden,  296  being  mammals 
and  218  birds. 

The  animals  are  distributed  in  a  most  irregular  manner,  as  is 
usual  in  all  gardens  of  this  character.  This  is  doubtless  due  to  the 
necessities  of  the  case.  In  the  following  enumeration  I  shall,  how- 
ever, follow  the  usual  zoological  classification: 

MammaU, — The  garden  contains  a  fine  collection  of  monkeys 
and  lemurs  arranged  so  as  to  present  examples  of  all  the  great  natural 
groups.  They  are  placed  in  three  structures,  each  designed  for  a 
different  purpose.    •    *    * 


.y  Google 


410  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMTTHSOMUN   INSTITUTION,  lOffl. 

The  monkey  house  is  a  large  edifice  covered  with  glass,  with  numer- 
ous lateral  windows  opening  upon  flower  beds.  This  house  has  along 
the  sides  separate  cages  for  those  species  that  can  not  dwell  peace- 
ably together  and,  in  the  center,  a  series  of  large  cages  common  to 
several  species.    Id  this  bouse  are  found  most  of  the  monkeys.     ( See 

pi.  I.) 

The  new  ape  house  was  recently  constructed  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  the  anthropoids  at  a  cost  of  £4,000.  It  contains  four  large 
cages  wholly  separated  by  plate  glass  from  the  wide  corridor  where 
the  visitors  are  admitted.  This  arrangement  was  intended  to  pre- 
serve the  apes  from  any  contact  with  the  public,  to  prevent  their 
being  stuffed  with  bread  or  other  food,  and  also  to  preserve  a  uni- 
form temperature  in  the  cages.  I  consider  it,  however,  an  inferior 
style  of  installation  and  think  that  it  might  be  well  to  replace  it, 
and  this  opinion  is  shared  by  the  present  secretary  of  the  counciL 
At  the  time  of  my  visit  this  house  contained  six  young  chimpanzees 
and  three  orang-outangs.  There  were  also  in  outside  cages  where 
the  apes  remain  until  evening,  a  young  chimpanzee  and  three  gib- 
bons. (See  pi.  I.)  The  lemurs  are  installed  for  the  most  part  in 
a  house  which  they  share  with  the  edentates.  They  thrive  there 
very  well  and  not  infrequently  breed;  I  even  noted  two  hybrids 
from  a  crossing  between  Lemur  xanthomystaa  and  L.  ru^frons. 

The  carnivorBE  occupy  eleven  separate  structures.  The  principal 
one  is  the  lion  house,  constructed  in  187C  at  a  cost  of  £11,000.  The 
body  of  this  house  is  of  red  brick,  TO  meters  long  and  21  meters  wide; 
it  has  a  wide  corridor  upon  which  wide  windows  open  on  the  south 
side,  while  on  the  north  side  are  fourteen  large  cages,  each  of  which 
has  two  interior  compartments,  the  latter  being  large  dark  dens 
which  ought  to  be  removed  so  as  to  give  free  access  to  the  exterior 
cages."  Behind  these  dens  there  is  first  a  long  service  gallery,  then 
four  great  grilled  cages  projecting  without  the  building  in  which 
the  animals  may  enjoy  the  outside  air.    •    •    •     (See  pi.  i.) 

The  pinnipeds  are  represented  in  the  garden  by  sea  lions  and  seals, 
which  live  together  in  a  very  fine  large  inclosure  constructed  in  1905 
(the  sea-lions  pond).  This  inclosure  is  occupied  almost  entirely  by 
a  large  pond  1.80  meters  in  depth  near  the  shelf  from  which  the  ani- 
mals dive,  and  surrounded  by  shores  either  grassy  or  rocky.  In  the 
middle  of  the  pond  are  three  little  islets  and  at  its  western  end  a  large 
structure  of  rockwork  in  which  are  sleeping  caverns  for  the  animals. 
With  these  animals,  giving  a  little  animation  to  the  scene,  are  a 
dozen  penguins,  which  have  bred  here  during  the  present  year.    *    •    • 

■■  I  learn  recently  from  the  secretary  to  tbe  conncl)  tbat  tbere  are  now  being 
Inntalled  above  the  service  gallery  a  certain  number  of  bridges  bj  which  the 
animals  may  have  free  access  to  the  exterior  cages.  ^ 

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Monkey  House,  London  Zoologicau  Garden. 


tHTEitioR  OF  House  for  Anthro<^>id  apes,  London  Zooloqical  Garden. 


OPEN-Ain  Cage  for  Lions,  London  Zoological  Garden. 

Digilized  by  Google 


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ZOOLOGICAI.  OABDENS — LOISEL.  411 

The  proboscidians  are  represented  hy  four  Indian  elephants  and 
one  African  elephant  Their  house  has  a  broad  public  corridor  from 
■which  open  eight  large  stalls.  Without  are  two  large  paddocks  with 
deep  pools.  In  the  same  house  are  found  a  two-homed  Indian  rhi- 
noceros, an  enormous  single-horned  Indian  rhinoceros,  and  a  very 
young  African  rhinoceros.  Another  young  Indian  rhinoceros  is  in 
the  Prince  of  Wales  collection. 

The  tapir  house,  heated  in  winter,  comprises  a  paddock  and  an 
interior  stable  provided  with  a  large  tank.  It  contains  the  two  spe- 
cies of  tapirs — Indian  and  Brazilian.  Near  this  is  a  fine  series  of 
specimens  of  the  zebra,  including  all  the  existing  species,  various 
species  of  wild  asses,  a  Prjevalski's  horse  and  a  remarkable  hybrid 
between  Burchell's  zebra  and  a  mare,  obtained  from  the  Transvaal  in 
1902. 

The  swine  family,  such  as  the  wart  hogs,  the  red  river  hogs,  the 
babiroussas,  the  peccarys,  etc.,  are  in  a  building  that  will  no  doubt 
soon  be  replaced  by  one  better  adapted  to  the  needs  of  these  animals. 
The  female  hippopotamus  exhibited  here  was  born  in  the  garden  in 
1872 ;  she  is  placed  in  a  warmed  stall  which  communicates  with  a  tank 
nearly  3  meters  deep  and  with  an  outer  paddock  which  has  another 
still  deeper  tank. 

The  giraffes,  very  delicate  animals,  requiring  special  care,  are 
represented  by  a  female  of  Giraffa  camelopardalis  imported  from 
southwestern  Africa,  and  by  a  young  pair  of  G.  c.  Antiquorum  from 
the  Egyptian  Soudan.  These  animals  are  placed  in  three  large  stalls, 
having  the  ground  covered  with  fine  sand,  without  litter  (except  for 
bedding),  heated  during  winter  to  10°  C,  and  communicating  with 
large  inclosures  open  to  them  only  in  summer.     •     •     • 

Birdx. — The  Passeres  or  perching  birds  are  represented  by  a  large 
number  of  tropical  species  distributed  in  four  aviaries. 

The  western  aviary,  57  meters  long,  dating  from  1851,  but  recon- 
structed in  1903,  has  fifteen  separate  compartments  and  a  large  cen- 
tral cage;  each  compartment  has  a  retiring  cage  covered  with  glass 
which  can  be  closed  and  heated  in  winter ;  in  front  of  this  is  a  little 
garden  plat,  part  of  which,  covered  with  sand,  has  a  little  circular 
bathing  pool,  while  the  remainder,  covered  with  grass,  has  three  or 
four  shrubs  of  various  species. 

The  eastern  aviary  comprises  a  long  row  of  cages  which  were 
repaired  and  improved  last  year  and  which  can  now  be  heated  by  a 
well-devised  hot-water  system.  They  serve  as  a  j)ermanent  resi- 
dence for  a  large  number  of  tropical  birds  and  as  winter  quarters  for 
certain  others  placed  during  summer  in  other  cages. 

The  birds  of  paradise  and  the  humming  birds  are  represented  only 
by  Paradisea  apoda,  P,  minor,  and  Cicinnurua  regiua,  which  are  placed 

ikGoo^^lc 


412  ANNUAL  BBPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  iWl. 

in  the  insect  house.  Other  tropical  insular  birds  are  lodged  in  the 
parrot  house.  By  the  generosity  of  Mr,  C-  Czarnikow  the  Zoological 
Society  has  this  year  commenced  the  construction  of  a  new  aviary, 
which  will  be  used  exclusively  for  the  shelter  of  delicate  species. 

The  parrots  are  represented  by  a  fine  series  of  specimens  that  is 
doubtless  the  best  collection  of  those  birds  to  be  found  in  any  zoolog- 
ical garden.  The  house  assigned  to  them  was  reconstructed  in  1905; 
it  comprises  a  central  building  with  isolated  cages  and  a  series  of 
large  compartments  with  sandy  bottom,  some  inclosed  and  some  in 
the  open  air. 

This  house  does  not  contain,  however,  all  the  parrots  that  the  gar- 
den possesses.  Some  years  ago  it  was  found  by  trial  that  a  number 
of  individuals  do  better  in  the  open  air  than  in  closed  cages,  and  these 
are  now  kept  in  the  canal  bank  aviary.  This  building,  which  is  25 
meters  long  by  12  wide  and  10-12  high,  faces  the  canal;  the  south- 
east side  is  protected  by  a  steep  slope  down  which  a  stream  runs  from 
an  artificial  grotto ;  the  three  other  sides  are  sheltered  by  large  trees. 
Besides  this  a  number  of  shelters  against  wind  and  rain  are  placed 
along  the  aviarj'.  Artificial  nests,  where  many  species  breed  each 
year,  are  provided.  The  raptores  or  predatory  birds  are  placed  in 
five  different  aviaries.     *     •     * 

The  aquatic  birds  (web-footed  and  wading  birds)  are  scattered 
throughout  the  garden  in  at  least  fifteen  different  places.  Certain 
species  of  geese,  swans,  and  ducks  are  placed  in  localities  so  arranged 
that  they  breed  regularly.  The  pelicans  are  usually  represented  by 
three  diiferent  species;  the  penguins  have  been  placed  as  I  have  al- 
ready mentioned,  with  their  natural  associates  the  seals ;  other  diving 
birds,  the  cormorants  and  kingfishers  are  placed  in  a  house  specially 
constructed  so  as  to  afford  the  public  an  opportunity  of  seeing  how 
these  birds  pursue  their  living  prey  under  water  (the  diving  birds' 
house).  A  certain  number  of  palmipeds  and  small  waders  live  to- 
gether in  one  of  the  best  aviaries  of  the  garden  (the  waders'  aviary) 
in  part  of  which  bushes  and  rushes  have  been  plante<l.  while  the  rest 
is  occupied  by  a  small  pond  with  shores  of  sand,  gravel,  or  mud. 

The  greater  part  of  the  wading  birds  are  kept,  however,  in  two 
large  aviaries  called  the  great  aviary  and  the  southern  aviary.  The 
latter,  which  dates  from  1!)0.5,  contains  rockwork  so  arranged  as  to 
atford  a  shelter  to  the  birds  and  permit  them  to  set  on  their  e^gs. 
The  other,  reconstructed  in  1003.  contains  a  number  of  shrubs  and 
trees  which  give  almost  natural  conditions  to  the  birds  that  occupy  it. 

The  most  interesting  gallinaceous  birds  in  the  garden  are  doubtless 
the  brush-turkeys,  which  live  in  a  large  inclosure  covered  with  wire, 
where  they  nest  regularly  every  year.    There  is  a  fine  collection  of 

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ZOOLOGICAL  QAHDENS LOISEL.  418 

pheasants  in  the  northern  pheasantry,  the  western  phe&santries,  and 
the  eastern  pheasantry, 

Reptiles  and  batracAians. — These  animals  are  not  as  well  rep- 
resented as  the  mammals  and  birds.  The  snakes,  among  which  are 
some  fine  pythons  and  boas,  the  lizards,  and  some  batrachians  are 
placed  in  a  house  whose  temperature  is  kept  throughout  the  year  at 
24°  C.  The  tortoises  are  in  a  neighboring  building.  These  two 
structures  have  nothing  especially  remarkable  as  regards  installation ; 
they  are  covered  with  glass  and  contain  a  profusion  of  hot-house 
plants  which  gives  them  a  most  agreeable  appearance.  A  number  of 
chameleons  are  kept  in  the  insect  house. 

Fisheg. — -The  fishes  are  still  fewer  in  number  than  the  reptiles 
and  batrachians,  but  they  are  represented  by  some  forms  that  are  very 
interesting  from  a  zoological  point  of  view. 

Invertebrates. — These  are  represented  by  land  crabs  shown  in  the 
reptile  house,  by  some  insects,  \nyriapods,  and  large,  tropical  spiders 
in  the  insect  house.  This  house,  which  was  completely  rebuilt  in 
1903,  occupies  an  area  of  about  60  square  meters.  Its  interior  is  like  a 
conservatory.  In  the  center  are  the  cages  for  the  birds  of  paradise 
before  mentioned.  Around  the  walls  are  placed  gla.ss  cases  in  which 
may  be  seen  orthoptera  and  a  certain  number  of  lepidoptera  in  the 
state  of  eggs,  cocoons,  or  butterflies. 

BRISTOL   ZOOLOOICAI.  (lARDEN. 

The  zoological  garden  at  Bristol  belongs  to  the  Bristol  and  West  of 
England  Zoological  Society,  a  limited  corporation  founded  in  1835. 
This  society,  whose  only  object  is  the  maintenance  of  its  zoological 
garden,  was  composed,  in  1905,  of  695  members,  from  which  is 
elected  an  administrative  council.  This  council  is  composed  of  a 
treasurer,  who  is  the  executive  officer  (Dr.  "A.  J.  Harrison),  a  sec- 
retary (Maj,  G.  F.  Rumsey),  and  twenty-four  members,  who  form 
committees  on  the  menagerie,  the  gardens,  entertainments,  and 
finances.  The  council  meets  regularly  every  three  months  and  pub- 
lishes each  year  a  report  that  is  discussed  at  a  general  session. 

In  1905  the  total  receipts  of  the  society  amounted  to  £7,223  9s.  2d. 
Among  the  items  are  the  following: 

E  a.  d. 

AdlnisBlou  feeH  and  (entertain  men  Is .1.312  2  6 

Subscriptions ■_ _.^      T27  13  0 

Restaurant 1.735  17  8 

Sale  of  living  animals 28  4  0 

Sale  of  resldne  from  provlelons  (ekloa,  bones,  etc.) 54  3  4 

The  garden  is  administered  (under  the  general  direction  of  the 
treasurer)  by  a  superintendent,  Capt.  E.  W.  B.  Villiers,  who  has 


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414  ANNUAL  REPORT   SMITHSONIAN   IHBTITUTION,  19(0. 

under  his  orders  twenty  employees,  of  which  there  are  one  head  keeper 
and  six  underkeepers  of  animals.  The  total  expenses  of  the  garden 
in  1905  were  £6,118,  among  which  are  the  following: 

£  s.      d. 

Salaries  and  wages 1,023      4      0 

Pood  aad  litter  for  aolmals - 5i9    18      7 

ParcbaseB  of  aalmals 70    10      0 

Repairs    806    19       1 

Expenses  of  gardealng 388    H     10 


The  zoological  garden  of  Bristol,  or  Clifton  Zoo,  as  it  is  called  in 
England,  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  plateau  of  Clifton,  northwest 
of  the  city,  in  a  retired  and  sheltered  locality,  occupying  an  area 
of  12  acres.    It  is  open  every  week  day  from  9  a.  m.  until  sunset 

Immediately  on  entering  this  garden  one  is  struck  with  its  fresh, 
park-like  aspect,  everything  being  well  kept  and  pleasing.  Indeed, 
it  combines,  as  one  may  say,  the  best  effects  of  a  menagerie  and  a 
botanic  garden.     There  are  to  be  seen  beds  covered  with  geraniums, 

FtjMiMrfniii miwiJHuTTiiw^^— g^i  III  ■iirfciififci.jinnit...^ii.t9"°| 
*— : "C-  C  -C  r  "^z — — *J 
'ii|/lJ  n:^'&l 


Fio.  1. — General  plan  of  llcD  bouie.  Bristol  Zoological  Oardeo, 

fuchsias,  yuccas,  agaves,  fan  palms,  etc,  clumps  of  rhododendrons  of 
various  selected  species,  and  a  great  number  of  ferns  which  together 
certainly  form  one  of  the  6nest  collections  in  England. 

In  the  center  of  the  garden  are  spacious  lawns  where  wild  geese 
of  many  varieties  wander  at  liberty,  and  a  little  farther  toward  the 
south  is  a  fine  lake  with  wooded  islets  which  affords  a  home  for 
waterfowl.  Throughout  the  place  clumps  of  indigenous  or  exotic 
trees  tastefully  surround  the  animal  houses,  which  are  themselves 
sometimes  covered  with  ivy,  wistarias,  or  wild  grapevines.  Here  and 
there  statues  and  ornamental  vases  add  still  more  to  the  charm  of  the 
landscape.  Besides,  the  trees  and  shrubs  have  been  so  chosen  that 
the  garden  must  appear  in  winter  almost  as  bright  as  when  I  saw  it 
during  the  month  of  August.  There  are  in  fact  pines,  cedars,  arau- 
carias,  sequoias,  and  live  oaks,  mingled  with  ailantuses,  sumacs, 
birches,  elms,  beeches,  walnut  trees,  oaks,  thorn  trees,  and  especially 
holly  trees,  of  which  I  was  able  to  count  twenty  different  species  or 


ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS— LOISBL.  415 

varieties.  These  varieties,  which  differ  from  each  other  in  the  colora- 
tion of  the  leaves  or  the  fruit,  were  produced  in  this  very  garden 
either  by  predetermined  selection  or  by  the  culture  of  accidental 
sports  discovered  in  wild  or  cultivated  plants. 

The  Clifton  Zoo  contained  at  the  time  of  my  visit  107  mammals, 
about  the  same  number  of  birds,  and  a  dozen  reptiles. 

The  great  Felidee,  represented  by  eleven  lions,  three  tigers,  one 
leopard,  and  two  pumas,  were  placed  in  two  large  houses,  which  were 
found  immediately  to  the  left  of  the  northern  gate.  The  first  of 
these  houses,  the  new  carnivora  house,  constructed  five  or  six  years 
ago,  presents  in  front  a  series  of  fine  large  exterior  cages  freely  open 
to  the  air  both  and  above  and  upon  three  sides  (pi.  ii).  These  cages, 
ornamented  with  colored  glazed  bricks,  communicate  with  the  cages 
within  the  house,  which  is  lighted  from  above  and  has  its  wails  like- 


FiQ,  2.— TraDSTeree  aecHon  or  lloo  hoUHe,  Bristol  Zoological  Garden. 

wise  faced  with  colored  glazed  brick,  imparting  an  aspect  of  bright- 
ness and  cleanliness  that  I  did  not  often  find  elsewhere. 

The  second  house  for  large  Felidw  is  a  reconstruction  (not  yet 
finished  in  August,  1906)  of  the  old  lion  house,  which  dated  from  the 
inception  of  the  garden,  and  in  which  were  exhibited  the  lioness 
Victoria,  who  gave  birth  to  sixteen  cubs  in  six  litters  (one,  two,  three, 
five,  three,  and  two  young) ,  the  lioness  Lady  to  four,  and  the  lioness 
Flo  to  six.  In  spite  of  these  results,  the  administrative  council 
resolved,  in  view  of  the  age  of  the  building,  to  reconstruct  it,  or 
rather  to  enlarge  it,  following  the  same  general  plan  as  that  of  the 
preceding  building.  But  the  council  asked  the  architect  to  preserve 
in  its  primitive  state  the  old  facade,  which  had  been  covered  with 
verdure  by  time.  It  is  doubtless  to  this  circumstance  that  is  due 
the  plan  which  I  shown  on  figs.  1  and  2,  and  which  seems  to  me  ought 
at  the  present  time  to  serve  as  a  model  for  structures  of  this  kind. 


416  ANNUAL  REPOET  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

The  monkey  house,  a  little  farther  away,  contained  when  I  visited 
it  some  twenty  specimens,  and  is  constructed  on  the  same  principle 
of  allowing  the  animals  at  all  times  access  to  a  large  exterior  cage 
where  the  air  can  freely  circulate  on  all  four  sides.  However,  a  young 
male  chimpanzee  was  placed  in  a  glazed  cage  in  the  parrot  bouse, 
and  is  rarely  taken  out  into  the  garden. 

The  aviaries  presented  nothing  especially  worthy  of  note.  A  cer- 
tain number  of  birds  are  allowed  complete  liberty;  for  example,  a 
pair  of  American  geese  (Bemicla  jnagellanica)  nest  every  year  in 
one  of  the  thickets  of  the  garden.  I  also  noted  two  Benin  owls  {Bubo 
lacteus),  magnificent,  rare  birds,  that  come  from  one  of  the  hottest 
regions  of  the  globe,  and  which  nevertheless  have  for  six  years  done 
very  well  here  In  a  small  cage  without  artificial  heat  and  expired 
freely  to  the  southwest  wind. 

In  the  reptile  house,  near  that  for  the  parrots,  was  a  pair  of  boa 
constrictors,  the  female  of  which  brought  forth  in  July,  1898,  a  litter 
of  twenty-six  young  and  since  that  time  has  borne  three  other  Utters 
of  thirty-five,  thirty-one,  and  fifty.  Some  of  these  have  died;  the 
garden  has  sold  the  others,  keeping  only  a  young  female  to  replace 
the  mother,  who  died  last  year.     •     •     • 

ZOOLOGICAL   GARDEN    AT    MANCHESTER. 

The  Zoological  Garden  at  Manchester  (Bellevue  Gardens)  is  a 
private  enterprise,  originating  as  far  back  as  1829.  At  that  time  a 
certain  John  Jennison  installed  at  Stockport,  10  kilometers  from  Man- 
chester, a  little  menagerie  which  he  exhibited  to  the  public  for  an  ad- 
mission fee-  Some  years  afterward  he  abandoned  this  first  establish- 
ment to  buy  southeast  of  Manchester  some  80  acres  of  land,  where  he 
reinstalled  his  enlarged  menagerie  and  added  a  large  number  of  at- 
tractions, which  his  sons,  the  present  proprietors  of  the  garden,  have 
since  further  developed. 

Bellevue  Gardens  can  hardly  be  compared  with  the  zoological 
gardens  of  London,  Dublin,  and  Bristol.  They  form  indeed  a  vast, 
permanent  fair  ground,  open  every  day  to  the  public  from  9  a,  m.  to 
11  p.  m.,  visited  on  holidays  by  35.000  to  45,000  persons."  An  enu- 
meration of  its  principal  attractions  will  give  a  feeble  idea  of  the 
activity  that  prevails.  I  found  there  indeed  numerous  bars  and  res- 
taurants, large  ball  rooms  and  dancing  platforms,  a  museum,  a  mov- 
ing-picture exhibit,  a  "  jungle  "  shooting  range,  riding  horses,  pleasure 
boats  and  mechanical  velocipedes,  a  maze,  a  tennis  court,  a  ground 
for  athletic  exercises,  a  very  curious  panorama  representing  the  city 
of  Delhi,  an  immense  wooden  structure  arranged  in  the  form  of  an 
amphitheater  on  the  bank  of  a  broad  water  course  representing  the 
Jumna,  an  affluent  of  the  Ganges,  on  which  plies  a  little  steamer  for 

"The  adiDiaslonB  number  about  1,000,000  i>er^;e^|QQn|^. 


Exterior  Cages  foh  the  Lion  House,  Bristol  Zoological  Garden. 


Aquatic  Pond  at  Woburn  Abbey. 

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ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS — LOISEL.  417 

the  accommodation  of  visiton;;  an  artificial  lake  8  acres  in  extent 
and  on  which  are  likewise  two  steamers  and  numerous  pleasure  boats; 
kitchen  gardens  and  pleasure  gardens,  nurseries,  a  toboggan  slide, 
conservatories,  etc. 

In  the  midst  of  such  diverse  attractions  as  these  are  found  the  200 
cages,  yards,  or  pools  of  the  menagerie  in  which  are  daily  fed  nearly 
1,000  animals. (250  mammals,  600  birds,  and  CO  reptiles),  some  of 
which  merit  our  attention. 

The  monkey  house  in  particular  is  perhaps  the  finest  one  now  ex- 
isting in  the  gardens  of  Europe.  It  is  a  large  structure  of  Moorish 
style,  widely  lighted  and  ventilated  from  above  and  from  the  whole 
of  the  western  side,  but  not  heated  throughout  during  winter.  It 
contains  first  a  large  central  cage,  27  meters  long  by  5,50  meters  wide, 
in  which  there  are  some  fifty  monkeys,  principally  baboons  and 
macaques.  As  a  peculiarity  of  this  cage  I  noted  the  presence  of 
various  playthings  which  seemed  to  me  very  useful  for  satisfying  the 
need  for  movement  and  intellectual  activity  of  the  animals;  there 
were  rattles,  bells,  rocking  horses,  trapezes,  balancing  poles,  hang- 
ing ropes,  a  large  wheel  and  turntables,  a  pigeon  house  and  a  well 
with  a  pump,  by  means  of  which  the  monkeys  could  draw  water  for 
themselves,  a  dumb  waiter  by  means  of  which  they  could  draw  up 
seeds  and  other  dainties;  finally  a  little  house  with  open  doors  and 
windows,  which  was  the  only  place  heated  during  the  winter, 

This  central  cage  is  surrounded  by  a  broad  public  corridor,  in  which 
are  hanging  baskets  or  pedestals  for  green  plants  or  flowers;  along 
each  side  of  the  building  is  a  series  of  cages  communicating  with 
out-door  cages.  Two  of  these  lateral  cages  thrown  together  form  an 
apartment  for  a  young  Kooloo-Kamba  chimpanzee;  one  of  these 
cages  has  a  warmed  retiring  cage,  in  the  form  of  a  long  box,  in  which 
the  animal  generally  passes  the  night;  the  other  chamber,  containing 
a  certain  number  of  playthings  with  which  he  occupies  most  of  his 
time,  communicates  with  the  corresponding  exterior  cage. 

There  are  still  other  installations  for  the  monkeys  (of  which  a  new 
species  of  chimpanzee  and  a  hamadryas  baboon  have  bred)  situated 
not  far  ftxim  this  large  house.  I  again  noted  here  the  increasing 
tendency  to  place  the  animals  in  the  cold  open  air; "  a  treatment  not 

"I  received,  nt  tbe  end  of  last  Jonuary,  a  letter  from  Mr.  Jennlson  Haying 
tbnt  his  cblrapftuzees  continued  In  very  good  healtb,  and  tbat  they  atUI,  at  that 
time,  pnssed  a  part  of  tbelr  life  In  the  open  air.  He  Informed  me  at  the  same 
time  that  he  wflFi  about  to  add  to  the  great  monkey  palace  an  opea-air  cnge 
having  the  dlmeuslous  of  8  by  S  by  D  meters.  Besides,  all  tbe  windows  on  the 
west  side  of  the  iialace  have  been  taken  out,  so  as  to  permit  the  exterior  air 
to  have  free  access  to  the  very  Interior  of  the  bouse.  Mr.  Jennlson  adds,  "  In- 
deed we  have  remarked  that  not  one  of  our  monkeys  that  live  in  the  open  has 
ever  suffered  from  paralysis  of  the  lower  limbs,  which  Is  fatal  to  bo  many  ot 
our  other  monkeys."  ib  GoOqIc 


418  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   IH8T1TUII0B,  1907. 

confined  to  monkeys  alone.  The  house  in  which  the  elephants  are 
kept  (these  animals  being  utilized  in  the  garden,  especially  as  per- 
formers, in  the  great  pantomimes  with  fireworks  which  are  exhibited 
on  holidays  in  the  panorama  of  Delhi),  also  that  for  the  rhinoceroses 
and  hippopotami,  is  never  heated  during  the  winter,  and  the  reser- 
voir from  which  spring  water  is  drawn  for  the  bath  of  these  animals 
is  oft«n  covered  with  ice,  yet  this  does  not  appear  to  have  any  bad 
effect  upon  their  health.  Then,  too,  the  pumas  have  been  living  for 
some  years  in  cages  where  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  in  winter, 
and  the  spotted  hyenas  that  fell  sick  in  warmed  houses  recovered  their 
health  when  they  were  given  this  new,  open-air  treatment. 

However,  as  a  survival  of  ancient  errors,  the  house  for  the  Pelida, 
where  I  noticed  among  other  animals  a  beautiful  tigress,  bom  here 
in  May,  1900,  is  constantly  heated  to  20°  to  22°  C.  Still,  I  note  that 
the  cages  in  this  house  are  large  and  well  ventilated.  They  are  also 
decorated  with  fine  mural  paintings.  The  lionesses  have  bred  here 
occasionally. 

The  cage  for  large  nonpoisonous  snakes  is  heated  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  27°  to  32°  C,  but  this  is,  unless  proof  to  the  contrary  is  forth- 
timing,  a  necessity  justified  by  the  good  results  obtained.  This  cage 
communicates  freely  with  a  small  conservatory  kept  very  humid 
and  hajping  a  luxuriant  vegetation ;  it  is  itself  a  spacious  hothouse, 
23.8  meters  long  by  3  meters  wide  and  3.65  meters  high  (pi.  in)  ;  its 
floor,  of  wood,  raised  about  1  meter  above  the  ground,  and  pierced 
by  ventilating  flues  protected  by  grillage,  covers  over  a  sort  of  cellar 
in  which  are  the  conduits  for  heat  and  water;  the  latter  are  sur- 
rounded by  small  hot-air  pipes  so  that  they  constantly  deliver  tepid 
water  to  the  large  basins  frequented  by  the  pythons.  ^Vhen  I  saw 
them,  the  snakes  did  not  present  at  all  the  torpid  aspect  that  is  usu- 
ally seen  in  such  collections.  When  I  entered  their  cage  to  photo- 
graph them  the  keeper  seized  some  of  them  to  place  them  as  I  wished 
and  it  was  really  curious  and  somewhat  terrifying  to  me,  who  was  not 
accustomed  to  it,  to  hear  their  repeated  hissing  and  to  see  with  what 
vivacity  they  ran  along  the  ground,  climbed  the  tree  or  swam  about 
in  their  basin.  There  were  there  a  few  small  nonvenomous  snakes 
and  about  thirty  hmas  and  pythons,  some  of  which  were  20  feet  long. 
They  eat  every  three  weeks,  winter  and  summer,  or  rather  at  such 
periods  there  are  offered  to  them  kids,  sucking  pigs,  rabbits,  guinea 
pigs,  chickens,  etc  Many  of  them  copulate,  and  sometimes  eggs  are 
laid  whidi,  however,  have  not  as  yet  been  hatched,  although  the 
females  set  upon  them  constantly;  thus,  in  April,  1904,  a  large  python 
remained  for  two  months  coiled  about  a  nest  of  fifty  eggs  without  any 
result. 


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ZOOLOGICAL  GABDBNS — LOKBL.  419 

This  snake  cage  was  also  proTided  with  trunks  of  trees,  and  it 
was  further  ornamented  by  flowers  and  green  plants  upon  which  were 
climbing  green  and  gray  lizards  or  chameleons  from  northern  Africa. 
and  among  them  there  flew  about  cardinals  with  their  red  heads.  If 
I  add  that  numerous  globes  of  electric  light  illuminate  it  until  11 
p.  m.,  when  the  snakes,  nocturnal  animals,  are  in  full  activity ;  if  I  say 
further  that  the  visiting  public  finds  itself  in  a  hothouse  where  is 
cultivated  a  part  of  the  Mediterranean  flora,  I  would  give  but  a  feeble 
idea  t>f  this  beautiful  installation,  which  I  did  not  find  equaled  in 
other  gardens. 

There  are  still  other  installations  of  animals  at  Manchester,  which 
repay  a  visit  I  will  mention  a  basin  for  sea  lions  that  communicates 
with  a  large  covered  fish  pond  having  seats  about  it  like  an  amphi- 
theater. Here  the  public  may  witness  the  droll  evolutions  of  three 
California  sea  lions  that  climb  stairways,  jump  off  an  elevated  plat- 
form, jiuup  over  perch6s  or  through  hoops,  hold  on  to  trapezes,  etc 

PKIVATE  MENAQESIEB  ANO  FREBEHVEB  OF  WILD  ANIHAL£. 

A  very  large  number  of  English  and  Scotch  proprietors  like  to  keep 
wild  animals  near  their  homes.  Some  of  them,  such  as  Sir  CI.  Alex- 
ander, at  Faygate  Wood,  Horsham,  Sussex,  and  Sir  Robert  Lead- 
hatter,  at  Hazlemere  (Bucks),  have  veritable  menifgeries,  with  lions, 
pumas,  leopards,  hyenas,  or  wolves;  others  prefer  aviary  birds,  such 
is  Sir  D,  Seth-Smith,  who  possesses  about  200  foreign  birds.  Most 
of  the  other  large  proprietors  raise  in  their  parks  deer,  gazelles, 
moufflons,  goats,  and  exotic  sheep,  as  well  as  cranes,  flamingoes,  rheas, 
cassowaries,  eagles,  and  owls. 

Many  of  these  parks  are  vast  expanses  of  meadow  or  wood,  taken 
from  the  old  forests  and  inclosed  by  walls  or  fosses  at  the  time  of  the 
Korman  conquest.  In  a  certain  number  of  them  openings  have  been 
made  in  such  a  manner  that  the  deer  of  the  neighborhood  can  easily 
enter,  but  can  not  return. 

In  Whitaker's  Almanac  for  1892  there  are  enumerated  395  of  these 
parks,  inclosing  68,331  head  of  fallow  deer  and  5,477  of  red  deer,  in 
England  alone,  without  counting  those  of  Scotland  and  Ireland.  I 
could  not  think  of  visiting  them  all,  but  some  of  them  deserved  atten-  ■ 
tion,  either  because  of  their  special  interest  or  of  the  importance  of 
their  collections. 

Preserves  for  wild  cattle. — I  thought  best  to  first  seek  those  antique 
parks  where  still  live  some  herds  of  wild  cattle,  descendants,  if  wo 
may  believe  Sir  Walter  Scott  (who  appears  to  have  been  mistaken), 
of  those  Tauri  aUvestres  or  aurochs,  which  were,  as  he  says  in  one  of 
his  p 


..Google 


420  ANNUAL,  BEPOBT  SMITHSONUN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

Of  these  parks,  tiiat  of  dulling^iam,  which  belongs  to  Earl  Tanker- 
ville,  and  which,  situated  to  the  south  of  Berwick-on-Tweed,  was  cm 
my  route  to  Scotland,  seemed  the  most  important  and  the  most  inter- 
esting to  visit,  were  it  only  on  account  of  its  magnificent  castle  and 
the  collections  which  it  contains. 

The  park,  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall  built  in  1220,  has  an  area  of 
1,200  acres;  its  upper  part,  in  which  the  fallow  deer,  red  deer,  and 
wild  cattle  live,  is  composed  of  sandy  flats,  ravines,  and  wooded  hills, 
to  which  the  animals  usually  retire  during  the  day ;  its  lower  part, 
separated  from  the  other  by  a  fence,  has  large  grassy  plains,  where 
the  animals  pasture  during  the  night,  the  gates  being  left  open  after 
the  forage  has  been  gathered.  During  the  winter  there  are  left  on 
these  meadows  bundles  of  hay  which  the  animals  seek  out  and  eat, 

The  wild  cattle  of  Chillingham  have,  at  birth,  a  pure  white  pelage, 
which  afterwards  becomes  creamy  white;  but  the  muzzle,  hoofs,  and 
ends  of  the  horns  are  black ;  the  ears  are  reddish  brown  and  the  hair 
on  their  interior  is  brown.  The  eyes  have  long  lashes,  which  gives 
to  their  gaze  a  depth  and  peculiar  character.  The  forms  of  their 
bodies  are  harmonious,  their  backs  are  horizontal,  and  their  shoulders 
are  broad.  The  skin  is  thin  and  the  weight  of  the  skeleton  light  in 
proportion  to  the  total  weight  of  the  body. 

These  animals  lie  down  for  the  greater  part  of  the  day,  not  usually 
descending  to  their  pastures  until  ni^t.  Tbey  are  active  in  their 
movements  and  in  speed  of  running  can  rival  a  horse.  They  are  ex- 
tremely strong,  and  one  of  these  cattle  imprisoned  in  a  small  inclosure 
has  been  known  to  jump  out  over  a  gate  2  meters  high  without  break- 
ing it. 

The  Chillin^am  herd  is  now  composed  of  about  60  head;  this  has 
been  the  constant  average  for  a  number  of  years.  There  are  30  to  40 
cows,  15  to  20  bulls,  and  7  or  8  calves.  They  live  all  together,  moving 
from  place  to  place  under  the  conmiand,  as  it  appears,  of  a  leader  bull. 
^VTien  this  animal  reaches  a  certain  age,  an  average  of  8  years,  he  has 
to  defend  himself  against  the  younger  bulls,  who  wish  to  dethrone 
him ;  violent  combats  then  take  place,  and  the  conquered,  who  is  gen- 
erally the  old  one,  is  chased  from  the  herd,  in  which  he  is  never  seen 
to  regain  his  place;  he  remains  solitary  and,  as  in  that  state  he  is 
extremely  dangerous,  he  is  killed. 

^\^len  the  bulls  are  too  numerous  an  attempt  is  made  to  capture 
some  of  them  by  placing  food  in  a  small  inclosure;  when  they  have 
entered  they  are  lasooed  and  castrated;  when  these  oxen  are  again 
given  their  liberty  they  rejoin  the  herd,  where  they  are  always  well 
received. 

The  cows  begin  to  calve  at  about  3  years  of  age  and  live,  on  the 
average,  about  14  years.  They  abandon  the  herd  for  a  time  to  give 
birth  to  their  young  and  to  suckle  them,  keeping  charge  of  them  until 


ZOOLOGICAL  GABDENS — LOISEL.  421 

they  are  2  years  old.  It  sometimes  happens  that  young  calves  are 
abandoned  and  trampled  on  when  the  herd  becomes  frightened  and 
runs  away;  some  of  them  die,  others  are  found  wandering  in  the 
woods,  and  can  then  be  easily  caught  by  band,  but  it  is  useless  to 
capture  them  for  preservation,  as  they  become  too  dangerous. 

From  1875  to  1886  there  were  made  at  Chillingham  crosses  between 
the  wild  cows  and  domesticated  short-horn  bulls.  The  hybrids  thus 
obtained  had  a  pelt  of  the  wild  type,  but  the  black  color  of  the  nose 
was  replaced  by  a  flesh  color  or  marbled  tint,  and  the  brown  hairs  of 
the  ears  were  more  developed.  These  individuals  were  still  of  the 
^ild  type;  they  had  the  muscular  vigor,  the  lightness  of  bones,  and 
the  fine  carriage  due  to  the  special  development  of  the  shoulders.  On 
the  other  hand,  their  meat  was  superior  to  that  of  thejChillingham 
oxen,  their  weight  was  heavier,  and  their  development  more  rapid. 

It  should  be  noted  that  these  hybrids  have  never  had  any  contact 
with  the  wild  herd,  so  that  the  race  of  the  Chillingham  cattle  has 
always  remained  absolutely  pure. 

When  I  left  Glasgow  to  return  to  England  I  also  found  upon  my 
route  another  preserve  of  wild  cattle,  the  park  of  Cadzow,  situated 
13  miles  from  Glasgow,  near  Hamilton.  This  park,  which  belongs 
to  the  Duke  of  Hamilton,  is  a  little  larger  than  that  of  Chillingham, 
but  the  stone  wall  that  surrounds  it  on  all  sides  dates  only  from  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  It  has  an  extent  of  1,471 
apres,  of  which  921  are  pasture  land,  23  in  river  and  527  in  forest, 
where  one  may  see  magnificent  oaks  centuries  old.  This  wood  is 
the  remains  of  an  old  forest  that  extended  on  the  east  as  far  as  the 
North  Sea,  the  park  at  Chillingham  representing  its  eastern  ex- 
tremity.    The  park  at  Cadzow  has  no  ponds,  marshes,  nor  hills. 

The  cattle  of  Cadzow  have,  like  those  of  Chillingham,  a  white 
pelage  with  a  black  muzzle;  but  their  ears  and  fore  feet  are  some- 
times also  black.  One  of  these  cattle  was  exhibited  for  a  few  days 
at  the  London  2Soological  Garden. 

The  bulls  have  a  very  broad  forehead  and  a  long  face,  the  shoulders 
and  fore  part  of  the  body  are  heavy,  the  neck  arched,  the  flanks  and 
posterior  part  of  the  body  light;  their  height  at  the  shoulder  is 
1.62  m.  The  cows  are  smaller  than  the  bulls,  but  they  have  the 
same  general  form;  it  is  to  be  noted  only  that  their  rather  narrow 
nose  enlarges  as  it  approaches  the  muzzle. 

Cows  from  the  Cadzow  park  have  also  been  crossed  several  times, 
first  with  the  Chillingham  bulls  and  then  with  bulls  from  Wales. 

These  cattle  are  not  allowed  to  run  throughout  the  whole  extent  of 
the  park;  they  are  confined  in  three  large  plains  of  180  acres,  one  of 
which  had  20  adult  cows,  the  second  10  cows  and  5  heifers,  the  third 
8  adult  and  5  young  bulls.  During  the  summer  these  animals  re- 
main night  and  day  in  the  fields;  in  the  winter  some  of  tiiem  sMk, 


422  ANNUAL  EEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

shelter  in  sheds  built  for  them,  but  others  merely  pass  the  ni^t 
under  the  trees. 

The  cows  have  their  first  young  at  3  years;  when  calving  tbey 
always  isolate  themselves  from  the  herd  and  keep  their  calves  bidden 
for  several  days,  during  which  time  they  are  very  dangerous.  The 
calves  are  weaned  at  the  age  of  6  months. 

The  cows  are  killed  when  they  reach  the  age  of  10  years  and  the 
bulls  according  to  circumstances.  The  bulls  sometimes  fight  with 
each  other.  The  herd  also  sometimes  turns  upon  some  individual  and 
kills  it  or  at  least  forces  it  to  keep  away;  aft«r  a  while  such  a  one 
sometimes  succeeds  in  regaining  his  place  in  the  herd. 

Park  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  at  Wobum  Abbey. — The  chateau 
of  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  situated  to  the  southeast  of  the  city  of  Bed- 
ford, is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  an  interior  park  in  which  I 
noticed  an  inclosure  where  young  ostriches  were  living  and  a  large 
pond  devoted  exclusively  to  the  raising  of  goldfish.  This  pond  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  horizontal  grillage  1  meter  broad  to  prevent  the  aquatic 
and  struthious  birds  from  interfering  with  the  fish ;  they  catch  their 
feet  in  the  network  of  the  grillage  and  hasten  to  abandon  such  an 
uncomfortable  place. 

The  western  front  of  the  chateau  looks  out  upon  the  large  park, 
which  covers  a  surface  of  2^7  acres,  extending  around  the  grounds 
above  mentioned.  It  comprises  an  undulating  plain  (1,464  acres), 
woods,  heaths,  and  50  acres  of  water  distributed  in  twelve  large 
ponds  and  many  small  ones. 

I  arrived  at  Wobum  unexpectedly.  Her  Grace  the  Duchess  had 
not  been  able  to  group  the  animals  in  the  park  as  she  had  intended 
to  do  for  me;  the  time  that  I  could  afford  for  my  visit  was  only 
sufficient  for  a  rapid  survey  of  a  portion  of  the  park,  during  a  drive 
behind  two  beautiful  horses,  and  yet  the  spectacle  was  such  as  but 
few  persons  have  ever  been  permitted  to  behold. 

Leaving  the  chateau  by  the  great  north  door,  we  immediately  en- 
tered a  vast,  grassy  plain  upon  which  we  saw  great  herds  of  rumi- 
nants which  fled  at  our  approach.  I  recognized  there  bands  of  deer 
of  several  species,  llamas,  zebus,  yaks,  etc 

Proceeding  in  a  northerly  direction,  we  perceived,  lying  down  in 
a  valley,  a  herd  of  red  deer  at  rest,  in  which  I  was  able  to  count  150 
to  160  head. 

A  little  farther  we  came  upon  flocks  of  ostriches,  emus,  and  rheas, 
and  reached  the  region  where  certain  species  are  confined  in  grassy 
paddocks  of  considerable  extent  and  almost  all  provided  with  shel- 
ters. I  found  there  some  30  Cape  elands  {Taurotragus  oryx)  in  an 
inclosure  of  44  acres ;  then  some  specimens  of  Cervua  duvaucelii  and 
Cervua  eldii;  banded  gnus,  camels,  moufflons,  and  argali  sheep.  In 
of  one  of  the  inclosures  a  great  bustard  was-sitting  on  her 


ZOOLOGICAL  GABDENS — L0I8EL.  428 

Directing  then  our  course  toward  the  east,  we  found  in  complete 
liberty  herds  of  white  deer,  white-tailed  gnus,  wapiti  deer,  then  a 
herd  of  bison,  of  Russian  aurochs,  a  dozen  hanguls  {Cervita  cashmi- 
Tianu8)y  and  some  40  wild  ducks  that  breed  here  regularly,  every  year. 

After  3  or  4  miles  there  were  on  our  left  other  inclosures  in  which 
^ere  tapirs,  girafifes,  some  15  Prjevalsky  horses,  8  Grevy  and  Bur- 
chell  zebras,  onagers,  hemiones,  and  kiangs  in  an  inclosure  of  11  acres; 
then  we  came  to  a  sandy  plain  covered  with  ferns  in  which  bands  of 
kangaroos  of  several  species  were  jumping  about,  fleeing  at  our  ap- 
proach. 

The  Prjevalsky  horses  came  from  a  herd  of  26  young  ones,  imported 
for  the  Srst  time  alive  into  Europe  by  C.  Hagenbeck.  At  the  in- 
stance of  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  Hagenbeck  sent,  in  1900,  an  expedi- 
tion to  the  mountains  of  Ektala,  near  Kobdo,  in  western  Mongolia. 
Some  50  colts  but  a  few  days  old  were  easily  captured  by  the  lasso; 
they  were  nursed  by  Mongolian  mares,  then  sent  to  Europe,  where 
only  26  arrived  alive. 

We  then  traversed  an  undergrowth  where  we  found  still  more 
herds  of  CervidcE,  for  the  most  part  Cervus  porcinua.  A  little  far- 
ther in  a  grassy  plain  I  perceived  a  band  of  wapitis  {Cervus  xan- 
thopygu8)y  imported  from  Manchuria  by  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  and 
which  have  bred  in  the  park. 

Then,  returning  to  the  chateau,  we  passed  not  far  from  a  lai^ 
pond  in  which  I  admired  many  species  of  cranes,  among  which  were 
some  magnificent  blue  cranes,  flamingoes,  ibis,  barnacle  geese,  with 
innumerable  flocks  of  other  geese,  ducks,  and  swans.  (See  pi,  ii, 
from  a  photograph  furnished  by  the  Duchess  of  Bedford.) 

The  last  printed  list  of  the  animals  of  the  park  at  Woburn  Abbey, 
made  in  1905,  and  including  mammals  only,  comprised  a  total  of  783 
Cervidee,  89  antelopes,  23  wild  goats,  41  wild  sheep,  47  Bovidce^  and 
25  Equida,  all  exotic  species.  These  figures  are  probably  less  than 
the  actual  number,  for  it  is  almost  impossible  to  enumerate  with  pre- 
cision herds  of  such  animals  as  Cervtia  pordmcs,  that  live  in  the 
wooded  portions  of  the  park.  Besides,  at  the  time  of  my  visit  to 
Woburn  that  number  had  been  considerably  exceeded  by  reason  of 
the  numerous  births  that  occur  there  every  year. 

As  to  the  birds,  the  number  of  individuals  living  freely  in  the  park 
must  be  quite  as  great  as  that  of  the  mammals,  judging  from  the 
aspect  which  a  view  of  the  ponds  presented.  An  approximate  list  of 
the  birds  made  at  the  end  of  November,  1906,  which  was  kindly  sent 
me  by  the  Duchess  of  Bedford,  gives  a  total  of  91  swans  (comprising 
7  species  or  distinct  varieties),  324  geese  {18  species  or  varieties),  60 
sheldrakes,  (5  species  or  varieties),  81  rheas  (3  species  or  varieties),  3 
ostriches,  8  emus,  3  pelicans,  66  cranes  (10  species  or  varieties),  8 
41780-08 31  Go(>^lc 


424 


ANNUAL  BEPOBT  BMITH80NIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 


flamingoes,  10  bustards,  7  ibises,  and  6  guinea  fowls.  There  should 
be  added  to  this  list  a  large  number  of  pheasants,  partridges,  exotic 
pigeons,  and  especially  flocks  of  ducks  (21  species  or  varieties)  that  it 
was  impossible  to  count. 

The  above  description  may  perhaps  ^ve  some  idea  of  the  extensin 
experiment  in  acclimation  commenced  by  the  Duke  of  Bedford  fif- 
teen years  ago,  and  which  could  not  have  been  carried  on  in  any 
zoological  garden.  This  experiment  is  still  going  on,  and  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  it  may  be  continued  for  a  l<mg  time.  It  has,  however, 
been  in  operation  long  enough  to  enable  us  to  draw  certain  con- 
clusi6ns.  Considering  the  results  obtained  with  the  animals  intro- 
duced at  Wobum,  we  may  group  them  under  four  heads,  as  follows: 

SPECIES  NOW  INCBEABINO. 


Name  of  apeclei. 


Born.    Novem- 


Wbere  conflned.  t 


Ofnui  daphiu  barfiarui  Benn 

e.  rf.  maraJOg 

C.  {FtmOaxU)  tOa  Temm.  li  Scbt, 

S.  maniieluirieat  Sv 

C.  iPKad.)taemnuimjth 

C.  (Ptevd. )  Aoriutorwn  Bw 

C.  unte)i<tr  Bechrt 


»l  (ISM) 
i6(19M) 
ZT(ISM) 


In  a  laige  gimvr  f  Dclomre. 

Id  the  great  park.    Very  resMant. 


Sajthunu  davidianiu  A.  M.  Z 


MoKfiut  tnoKhtfeniM  L. .  ■ 


Orvuliu  muTiljac  Zlm 


Boidaplau  tragocanuSui  Fall... 


»S<I8B3) 
24  (18M) 
26(189*) 
19  (ISM) 


12  11996) 
33  I  ISM) 
S(1901) 


tbrlre 

DtdbadlTlnpark.    Placed  Id  onod. 
thiived  HI  that  thej  conld  not  be 


In  park  In  ramnier,  In  [arloauR 

with  shelter  In  winter. 
Id  the  park,  with  shelter. 

In  the  great  park. 

In  B  large  gnny  inclosuiT.    Qom 

bar,  and  loaUeln  winter. 
Ingreatpark.   ThetrcoatiaUilcket 


aln  parenthetli,  year  of  linpoitatloQ.    ft  In  parentbesli.  namber  ae 


Imported  American  gray  squirrels 
ber  some  hundreds. 


have  multiplied  «Dd  now  num- 


ZOOLOGICAL  GABDBNS — LOISEL. 
SPECIES  THAT  APPEAR  TO  BE  STATIOI^AItY. 


Kudo  at  ipccien. 


Oenrvt  co»/linfrliinu»  Flic  . . 


C.tita(nir.) 

C.  hlppdapAiu  typtcut  Cov 

Odtvoitciu  moinnw  Lloht 

Onnorfiata  taarinut  Bar 

Ocit  mu$inumScb 

J'oepliaffttB  gnmnifnt  L 

B<n{Biion)  bmuuiuL 

Cameiiu  bartriannt  L,,,---.,... 
£7iiTi>  ImrcAtUf  cAoiHnanl  Imj.. 


Atinui  kiang  Moot  . 


14  (ISH) 

15  (IBM) 
4  (1899) 
2  (1900) 

11  118B6) 
6  (lOOO) 
A  (1897) 

19  (IfflM) 

13  <I89(>) 

4(1900) 
8(1898) 
b  (IS95) 

4  (1901) 

5  (1894) 
1  (1908) 
1  (IMS) 
4  (1905) 

14  (1901) 


lo  well  OD  gnu;  better  on 


In  gnmr  tnelosoie.  with  abelter. 


la  large  gnmj  inclonire. 
In  grest  psrk.  vhere  the; 

longer  be  counted. 
Id  luge  gruar  Inclomn. 

Do. 
la  grekt  park  In  siunroeT 
clonue  tn  wlnler. 
Do. 
In  luge  gnMj  ludonm 


SPECIES  NOW  DECR  EASING . 


C.  baeManui 

C.  lainbar  uttitolOT  (tot.) 

Hipp^plmi metuaxntit  Q,  AG.. 

C.  mfrcdieclut 

fimwctu  eMa  Ootb 

Dama  maopatamiie  Btoo 

Oannoehirta  gna  Xlm 


Qlraffa  catiulopariialit  L . . 


PtlTogalt  ptnMBala  dr. . . 


Balmat<inurvf.benrU{yi%t W  (1894) 


24  (1896) 
Tfi  (1893) 
37  (1S9«) 
8  a899) 
10(1899) 
Vt  (1894) 

2  (18W) 
48  (18H) 

3  (190^ 
4(1896) 

19  (1901) 


W(189S) 
6(1896) 
6  (1906) 


n  gTHj  inclosaie. 


In  grsHy  tnclogurc,  with  ibelCeT. 
Onl]*  feToalea  imported. 
Id  grusy  Inclrwure,  with  shelter. 
Six  died  In  winter,  refudng  to  eat 

hay  and  cereBta. 
In  a  grassy  court  In  lummer,  in  a 

warm  Ktable  In  winter. 

In  luge  Inclomire,  wllh  shelter. 
In  great  park.    Mortality  partly  due 

to  want  of  food  In  winter. 
In  great  park.    Now  beInK  attacked 


SPECIES  THAT  ARE  EXTINCT. 


Kanrtftr  tarandit*  1. .. 


as  (1894) 

9  [18BT) 
4(lBtB) 

1 

Do  not  thrive  on  grass.    Dl 
though  moae  woa  giien  tt 

In  great  park,  where  they 


ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTirUTION,  1907, 
8FBGIEB  THAT  ABK  EXTINCT— CoDtinued^ 


NBmeaofopectei. 

Tidu»l.im- 

poned. 

■„„. 

l>er,J90S. 

Where  confined,  elc 

Jfao.™.  .p.  ™-.  (BrotW.) 

6  (WW) 

17  (18M) 
!S(1OT7) 
98 

4  (IBM) 

13(19BS) 

*(1886) 
S(18»6) 
2(189fl) 
14(18B5) 
5(1£M) 
5(1SS6) 
6(IB») 

7  (IBM) 
17(1817) 

8  (1900) 

18  (WW) 
15  (1901) 

5  (18»S) 

J 

coia. 

'        -/^ 

OneUTednB«lj4reMi. 

(nWMO 

laarockr  paddock. 

The  foregoing  tables  show  in  a  general  way  that  the  Cervida  im- 
ported from  America  have  given  the  least  satisfactory  results. 

All  the  species  that  are  noted  as  being  kept  in  inclosures  with 
shelters  are  fed  during  the  entire  year  with  grass,  wheat,  and  other 
cereals;  during  the  winter  there  is  added  to  their  ration  of  hay, 
clover,  acorns,  hazel-nuts,  and  branches  for  the  bark  on  them. 

The  greatest  mortality  is  due  to  cold  and  dampness,  affecting  espe- 
cially the  young,  or  to  the  development  of  parasites  in  the  lungs  or 
stomach.  It  should,  however,  be  noted  that  the  axis  deer,  the  sambars, 
the  swamp  deer  of  India,  Duvaucel's  deer  and  the  pig  deer  appear  to 
be  able  to  resist  parasitic  maladies;  they  are  the  species  that  have 
thriven  best  at  Wobum  Abbey. 

In  brief,  the  vast  experiment  in  acclimation  which  the  Duke  of 
Bedford  has  carried  on  at  Wobum  Abbey  since  1892  has  extended  to 
1,600  exotic  mammals  and  their  descendants  belon^ng  to  100  differ- 
ent species;  and  besides  this  he  has  had  representatives  of  80  species 
and  varieties  of  foreign  birds  of  which  it  is  impossible  to  give  the 
exact  number  of  individuals. 

If  we  add,  further,  that  the  Duke  of  Bedford  preserves  and  suc- 
ceeds in  propagating  species  about  to  become  extinct  in  their  native 
countries,  such  as  the  elands,  that  have  since  1895  brought  forth  94 
young,  the  American  bison,  that  have  produced  29,  and  Father 


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ZOOLOGICAL  OAHDBNS— LOISEL.  427 

David's  deer  (Elaphurm  davidianus) ,  that  produced  38,  and  finally, 
if  we  note  that  these  numerous  births  enable  the  Duke  to  enrich  each 
year  the  collections  of  the  zoological  gardens  of  England,  and  even 
that  of  our  Jardin  des  Plantes,  we  may  say  with  perfect  truth  that 
not  only  does  acclimation  but  zoology  proper  owe  much  to  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  and  to  the  Duchess  of  Bed- 
ford, who  also  interests  herself  with  intelligence  and  activity  In  the 
^ork  going  on  at  Woburn. 

Tring  Park. — The  origin  of  the  zoological  collections  at  Tring 
Park  goes  back  some  thirty  years  at  the  time  of  the  youth  of  Sir 
Lionel  Walter  Rothschild,  eldest  son  of  the  great  English  banker. 
When  quite  a  child  Lionel  Walter  loved  to  collect  butterflies  and  birds 
that  he  found  in  abundance  upon  the  large  estate  that  his  father  pos- 
sessed at  Tring,  and  which  he  also  procured  by  purchase.  His  col- 
lections gradually  increased  to  such  proportions  that  he  conceived  the 
idea  of  establishing  at  Tring  a  great  scientific  establishment  now 
known  as  the  Museum ;  at  the  same  time  be  made  some  experiments 
in  acclimation  in  the  park  of  the  chateau  and  at  Dundale,  one  of  its 
dependencies. 

Dundale  is  a  small  estate  situated  a  few  minutes  walk  from  the 
Museum;  there  is  there  a  small  park  with  a  large  pond  where  a  cer- 
tain number  of  webfooted  birds  breed  every  year.  Many  hybrids 
have  been  thus  obtained,  as  well  as  melanistic  and  albino  individuals. 
He  has  never  had  there,  however,  a  regular  station  for  experimental 
zoology,  as  I  had  supposed,  and  when  I  was  there  it  was  with  diffi- 
culty that  I  could  discover  a  few  ducks  swimming  about  in  the  clear 
water  among  aquatic  plants. 

The  animals  Uiat  feed  upon  the  extensive  undulating  plain  in  front 
of  the  park  of  the  chateau  of  Tring  are  likewise  not  placed  there  for 
the  purposes  of  study.  There  is  there  a  flock  of  17  emus  {Dromaetis 
and  another  of  15  rh'eas  {Rhea  americana  and  dnrwinii),  that,  im- 
pelled by  curiosity,'  came  forward  to  meet  me  when  I  entered  the 
park.  Farther  on  (pi.  iv)  I  met,  at  the  edge  of  a  pond,  some  soli- 
tary emus  and,  on  the  right,  in  a  slight  hollow,  a  herd  of  kangaroos, 
that,  sitting  up  in  order  to  examine  me  better,  allowed  me  to  approach 
near  enough  to  photograph  them;  I  recognized  the  great  kangaroo 
(Macropua  giganteus),  which  thrives  extremely  well  on  the  grassy 
plains  of  the  park,  and  Bennett's  kangaroo  {M.  Salmaturus  Ben- 
netti),  which  especially  affects  the  wooded  portions.  Continuing  my 
walk,  I  perceived  at  a  distance  a  herd,  comprising  about  150  head,  of 
Japanese  deer  {Cervus  sika)  and  fallow  deer.  Finally,  going  toward 
the  forest  that  bounds  the  park  on  one  side,  I  reached  an  inclosure 
where  was  an  ostrich  with  its  young  and  a  large  pheasantry  where 


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428  ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1901. 

there  are  raised  every  year  numerous  pheasants  and  partridges  for 
hunting  purposes. 

The  kangaroos,  as  well  as  the  deer,  pheasants,  and  partridges,  are 
in  perfect  liberty  and  seek  and  find  their  own  food.  They  are  never 
housed  during  winter,  and  it  is  only  when  the  ground  is  covered 
with  snow  that  any  pains  is  taken  to  supply  them  with  food ;  the . 
emus  and  rheas  alone  have  food  given  them  during  the  entire  year. 
All  breed  in  a  normal  manner,  and  at  the  time  of  my  visit,  July  25, 
1906,  the  female  kangaroos  had  young  in  their  pouches,  a  rhea  was 
brooding  seven  little  ones  born  five  days  previously  and  I  succeeded 
in  photographing  a  male  emu  who  was  followed  by  a  single  chick 
two  weeks  old.  I  will  add  that  at  Tring,  as  elsewhere  in  Europe  I 
believe,  the  young  broods  of  rheas  and  emus  suffer  a  heavy  mor- 
tality ;  the  adults,  on  the  contrary,  stand  our  climate  perfectly  well, 
but  sometimes  show  phenomena  of  total  albinism,  of  which  I  have 
seen  three  cases.  As  to  the  deer  and  kangaroos,  they  rear  their  off- 
spring perfectly  well,  and  at  Tring  the  multiplication  of  deer  is  so 
rapid  that  a  certain  number  have  to  be  killed  each  year. 

Last  year,  at  Tring,  one  could  admire  a  pair  of  Prjevalsky  horses; 
unfortunately  the  male  has  since  died.  The  female,  bred  to  one  of 
the  stallions  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford's  stock,  has  given  birth  to  a 
colt  which  is  now  as  large  as  his  mother, 

THE  ZOOLOQICAL  GARDEN  AT  DTTBLIN. 

The  2^1ogical  Garden  of  Dublin  belongs  to  The  Royal  Zoological 
Society  of  Ireland,  founded  in  1830.  This  society,  which  has  for  ite 
object  "  to  form  a  collection  of  living  animals  on  the  plan  of  the 
Zoological  Society  of  London,"  comprises  to-day  (1906)  837  active 
members,  44  corresponding  members,  and  15  honorary  members.  It 
is  administered  by  an  elected  council  composed*  of  24  members,  there 
being  one  president  (the  Rt.  Hon,  Jonathan  Hogg),  five  vice-presi- 
dents, one  secretary  (Dr.  R.  F.  Scharff),  and  one  treasurer  (Prof. 
A,  F.  Dixon).  The  council  take  a  friendly  breakfast  together  every 
Saturday  morning,  and  I  had  the  honor  of  assisting  at  one  of  these 
gatherings.  It  publishes  annually  for  the  general  session  of  the 
society  a  very  interesting  report. 

In  1905  the  total  receipts  of  the  society  amounted  to  £4,502  7s.  7d. 
Among  the  details  of  these  receipts  are  the  following: 

s  s.     d. 

Admissions  to  garden 2,4!W      9    8 

Animals  sold »10    12    2 

From  restHurant 20      0    0 

Elepbant  and  pony  Uchets 63    JO    0 

Members'  fees 662    16    0 

Government  goat 800      0    0 

M_f:i  by  Google 


E  Lion  House,  Dublin. 


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ZOOLOOICAL  OASDBHS — LOtSfiL.  429 

The  garden  is  administered,  under  the  general  direction  of  the 
secretary,  by  a  superintendent,  a  former  member  of  the  constabulary, 
who  lives  in  the  garden  and  has  under  his  orders  ten  keepers  of 
animals,  one  night  watchman,  one  gardener,  one  porter,  and  several 
young  boys. 

The  expenditures  of  the  garden  in  1905  were  as  follows: 

X  8.       d. 

Purchases  of  animals 194  fi  3 

ProTislons  for  animals __ _  804  13  6 

Printing  and  stationery 61  0  10 

AdvertlsiDg 104  2  6 

Building  and  repairs «07  14  9 

Water   rate — 99  6  10 

Salaries    1,099  14  0 

Heating,  lighting,  etc 426  7  8 

Total 3.387      6      4 

The  garden  is  open  every  day  from  9  a.  m.  until  sunset.  If  forms 
a  part  of  the  magnificent  Phcenix  Park,  situated  to  the  west  of  the 
city.  It  is  elongated  in  shape,  being  some  1,600  feet  in  length  by 
about  700  in  width  at  the  widest  part,  but  the  western  half  of  the 
garden  is  occupied  by  a  fine,  large  pond,  bordered  by  broad,  grassy 
slopes,  covered  with  trees  and  shrubs.  The  remainder  of  the  garden 
is  made  up  of  lawns,  with  some  trees,  but  few  flowers;  there  is  a  house 
for  the  superintendent,  a  restaurant,  and  a  certain  number  of  build- 
ings, paddocks,  aviaries,  etc.,  in  which  live  711  animals,  as  follows: 


Bepllles 

Batncblaoa 
Fish 


Number.  Speclea. 


Of  this  number,  in  1905,  217  were  presented  and  120  purchased. 

The  primates  are  placed  for  the  most  part  in  a  well-ventilated 
building  whose  general  arrangement  recalls,  on  a  smaller  scale,  the 
monkey  house  of  the  garden  at  London.  In  a  comer  of  this  house 
the  society  has  constructed,  for  the  anthropoids,  four  large  cages 
communicating  with  each  other,  two  of  which  open  toward  the  gar- 
den, from  which  they  receive  light  and  air  abundantly;  the  two  others 
face  toward  the  interior  of  the  house,  from  which  they  are  really 
separated  by  a  large  glazed  bay.  These  cages  are  raised  1  meter 
above  the  floor  of  the  building,  the  space  underneath  forming  a  sort 
of  cellar  in  which  are  contained  the  conduits  for  hot  air ;  the  cage 
floor  is  of  wood  impregnated  with  wax  dissolved  in  petroleum ;  the 
partition  walls  are  hollow  so  as  to  favor  the  circulation  of  the  hot 


480  ANNUAL  EEPOET  SMITHSONUN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

air;  the  roof  has  wide  'windows,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  partition 
separating  the  outside  from  the  inside  cages  is  itself  of  glass. 

The  Carntvora,  about  60  in  number,  are  scattered  about  in  at  least 
ten  different  buildings.  The  most  important  of  these  is  the  lion 
house,  constructed  in  1901,  and  called  the  Roberts  House,  after  Ix>rd 
Roberts,  a  former  president  of  the  society.  This  building,  which 
cost  but  little  more  than  100,000  francs  (pis.  iv  and  v),  was  built 
and  arranged  according  to  data  taken  from  the  best  examples  in 
Europe  and  America.  It  consists  of  a  main  building  inclosing  a 
lai^  hall  6  to  7  meters  wide,  covered  with  glass,  with  cages  upon 
both  sides.  Each  cage  is  3.20  meters  wide,  2.60  meters  deep,  and 
from  2  meters  to  2,70  meters  high ;  the  upper  part  of  the  back  wall 
is  of  red  brick,  the  lower  of  white  glazed  brick;  the  lower  part  of  the 
sides  is  of  wood  painted  black,  the  upper  part  of  sheet  iron  painted 
yellow :  the  ceiling  and  the  front  are  of  grill  work ;  the  floor,  1  meter 
above  the  ground,  is  of  wood  and  slopes  toward  a  large  gutter  that 
runs  along  in  front  of  the  cages.  There  are  three  or  four  large  ex- 
terior cages  and  a  lateral  annex  that  conducts  to  the  old  lion  house, 
now  used  as  a  nursery.  It  is  in  this  latter  house  that  have  been  con- 
ducted the  important  rearing  of  lions  that  have  rendered  the  Dublin 
Garden  so  celebrated. 

This  rearing  of  lions  commenced  as  far  back  as  1855,  when  the 
garden  bought  two  animals  from  Natal  that  became  the  ancestors 
of  a  whole  series  of  generations  of  Irish  lions.  In  1858,  three  years 
after  their  arrival  in  Dublin,  this  pair  had  a'  first  litter  of  a  single 
cub,  the  same  year  a  second  litter  of  ,4  cubs,  and  the  next  year  a  third 
litter  of  5.  From  this  last  litter  came  Old  Girl,  a  lioness  celebrated 
at  Dublin,  who  lived  for  sixteen  years  in  the  garden  and  died  there 
after  having  given  birth  to  55  cubs  in  13  litters. 

Up  to  1885  there  had  been  born  in  the  garden  131  cubs  from  4  lions 
and  9  lionesses;  21  of  these  cubs  died,  either  at  birth  or  while  under 
maternal  care;  13  died  afterwards;  89  were  sold,  bringing  £3,247  10s. 
{an  average  of  £36  per  capita) ;  5  were  kept  for  breeding  purposes, 
and  the  remaining  3  I  have  not  been  able  to  follow.  Toward  the  end 
of  this  period  another  lioness.  Queen,  was  bom,  who  has  given  birth 
to  28  cubs. 

From  1874  to  1878  there  was  an  interruption  in  the  births  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  male  kept  for  reproduction  had  not  yet  reached 
puberty.  Soon  the  births  resumed  their  normal  frequency  up  to 
1893  or  1894.  From  this  time  for  five  or  six  years  they  fell  off,  and 
this  could  only  be  attributed  to  the  weakness  of  the  breeding  animals. 
It  had  been  the  custom  of  the  administration  to  keep  for  breeding 
only  Irish  males,  always  mating  them  with  foreign  females  so  as 
to  avoid  the  possible  disadvantages  of  consanguinity.  It  was  thou^t 
*"st  in  this  instance  to  completely  renew  the  blood  by  purchasing 

ii.;,Gooyk' 


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ZOOLOOtCAL  GARDENS — LOISEL.  481 

a  foreign  male,  so  the  council  procured  ft  magnificent  Nubian  lion 
which  gave  a  new  activity  to  the  production  and  originated  a  new 
stock.  Up  to  the  present  time  there  have  been  born  at  the  garden 
246  cubs,  127  of  which  were  males,  112  females,  and  7  in  which  the 
sex  was  not  noted. 

The  breeding  of  other  great  Felidas  has  not  been  as  successful  here. 
The  Dublin  Garden  has  not  had  during  the  last  twenty  years  more 
than  6  or  7  tigers,  one  of  which  died  from  a  nontuberculous  skin  affec- 
tion. Nothing  has  resulted  from  the  mating  of  these  animals.  The 
same  be  said  as  to  the  leopards,  many  of  which  have  died  here  of 
cramps. 

On  the  contrary,  some  Cape  hunting  dogs  (Lycaon  pictua) ,  which 
died  two  years  ago  (1904),  gave  birth  to  young  in  the  garden  for 
four  successive  years,  {1896,  1897,  1898,  1899).  This  is  all  the  more 
interesting  because  these  animals  rarely  breed  in  captivity.  As  the 
mother  had  difficult;  in  nursing  her  offspring,  a  trial  was  made  in 
1897  of  suckling  them  with  a  domestic  dog.  Under  this  regimen  a 
young  Lycaon  reached  the  age  of  5  or  6  months.  The  next  year  a 
young  female  was  bom  and  was  kept  in  the  garden  in  good  health 
for  five  years. 

When  I  visited  the  garden  at  Dublin  there  had  just  been  built  near 
the  lion  house  a  new  structure  for  small  camivora,  which  were  previ- 
ously kept  in  the  monkey  house.  It  was  a  semicircular  building,  in- 
closing eighteen  small  cages,  which  by  the  removal  of  partitions  could 
be  transformed  into  nine  large  ones.  These  cages  open  externally 
upon  a  covered  gallery  for  visitors,  internally  upon  a  parallel  service 
passage.  Each  one  is  covered  with  glass  and  floored  with  wood 
treated  with  wax,  the  same  as  in  the  cages  for  anthropoids,  and  each 
has  a  smalt  retiring  compartment  placed  against  one  of  the  parti- 
tions 0.30  to  0.40  meter  above  the  floor.  The  entrance  to  this  can  be 
closed  by  the  keepers  and  is  provided  with  a  shelf  upon  which  the 
animals  may  jump. 

The  house  for  Herhivora,  situated  a  little  farther  away  on  the  same 
side,  was  constructed  in  1899.  Its  plan  is  the  result  of  the  observa- 
tions and  experience  of  a  number  of  years  and  may  be  given  as  a 
model  for  similar  constructions  at  the  present  time.  It  comprises  a 
series  of  stables  with  a  cement  floor  communicating  with  exterior 
paddocks  which,  like  the  stables  themselves,  are  raised  0.30  meter 
above  the  surrounding  ground. 

The  house  for  llamas  and  camels,  constructed  in  1897  and  to  which 
has  since  been  added  a  glazed  portion  for  giraffes,  has  seven  or  eight 
stables  arranged  in  form  of  a  cross,  each  having  an  exterior  paddock. 
Two  of  these  are  specially  arranged  for  females  in  gestation  or 
for  sick  animals.  The  llamas  and  camels  have  bred  there  several 
times.    •    *    •  A-  I 

Digilized  by  Google 


48S  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  IftH. 

I  noted,  among  the  most  curious  animals,  a  colony  of  Canadian 
porcupines  {Eretkiaon  dorsatus),  which  easily  climb  about  upon  the 
tree  assigned  to  them,  passing  the  whole  day  there ;  at  evening  these 
animals  retreat  to  little  houses  placed  around  the  trunk  at  some 
distance  from  the  ground. 

I  noted  that  a  certain  number  of  birds  elsewhere  kept  in  inclosures 
or  aviaries  were  left  here  in  perfect  liberty.  It  is  not  one  of  the  least 
of  the  beauties  of  the  garden  to  see  egrets,  pelicans,  flamingoes,  grebes, 
herons,  swans,  ducks,  water  hens,  gulls,  barnacle  geese,  etc-,  swimming 
about  on  the  large  pond  and  resting  along  its  brink,  or  indeed  to  meet 
on  the  lawns  or  walks  emus,  rheas,  peacocks,  cranes,  geese,  etc.,  who 
come  up  to  the  visitor  without  fear  and  beg,  sometimes  with  too  much 
insistence,  for  morsels  of  bread. 

THE    ZOOLOGICAL   GARDEN   AT  ANTWERP. 

The  Antwerp  Garden  is  the  only  one  of  four  Belgian  zoological 
gardens  founded  during  the  last  century  that  has  survived.  The 
one  at  Brussels  was  transformed  in  1879  to  become  the  Leopold  Park, 
that  at  Ghent  was  closed,  and  that  at  Li^  disappeared  at  the  time  of 
the  International  Exposition  of  1905. 

It  was  founded  in  1843,  and  belongs  to  the  Royal  Society  of 
Zoology  of  Antwerp  (Limited),  which  has  at  the  present  time  {April, 
1906)  7,800  members.  The  affairs  of  the  society  are  administered 
by  a  council  of  five  members  nominated  and  removable  by  the  general 
assembly,  from  whose  number  they  are  chosen ;  there  is  a  president 
(M.  Albert  Thys),  a  vice-president,  a  treasurer,  and  a  secretary. 
This  council  meets  at  least  once  every  two  months.  In  conjunction 
with  the  director  it  has  especial  charge  of  everything  relating  to  the 
sale,  purchase,  and  exchange  of  objects  belonging  to  the  collections 
of  the  society.  Its  operations  are  also  audited  by  a  committee  of  five 
nominated  and  removable  by  the  general  assembly. 

The  receipts  of  the  society  for  the  years  1905-6  were  as  follows: 

Membership   fees _ 368,789 

Sales  o(  tickets  to  strangers ^ 187,439 

Sales  of  milk  and  butter. 53,918 

Elephant  and  pony  tickets 2,917 

Sales  of  manure - 1,650 

Rent  of  restaurants _ 70,762 

Sale  of  animals ^._ 286,144 

Mlscellaneoua  sources 30,406 

Total 993.025 

The  garden  is  superintended  by  a  director  {at  present  Dr.  Michel 
L'hoest),  nominated  and  removable  by  the  general  assembly  by  secret 
ballot,  upon  recommendations  submitted  by  the  council.  This  di- 
rector, who  has  a  salary  of  12,000  francs  and  is  allowed  a  house,  has 


ZOOLOGICAL  QABDENS— LOISEL.  433 

the  general  superintendence  of  the  garden  and  all  the  premises. 
He  is  charged  with  the  preservation  and  maintenance  of  all  the  col- 
lections of  the  society  and  must  especially  see  to  the  enforcement  of 
the  regulations  of  the  garden  and  to  the  execution  of  all  measures 
determined  on  by  the  council.  He  has  under  bis  orders  all  the 
employees  of  the  establishment  and  recommends  them  to  the  council 
for  appointment  or  dismissal. 

The  staff  of  the  garden  comprises  about  100  employees,  including 
the  clerks  in  the  offices,  the  gardeners,  the  keepers,  and  the  different 
classes  of  workmen.  The  employees  and  their  families  have  a  right 
to  the  gratuitous  services  of  a  physician,  who  receives  from  the 
society  an  annual  compensation  of  2,000  francs.  After  thirty  years 
of  consecutive  service  they  are  allowed  a  retiring  pension  equivalent 
to  half  the  salary  received  by  them  during  the  last  year  of  their 
service,  provided,  however,  that  this  pension  shall  never  exceed  1,500 
francs.  In  case  of  decease  the  pension  may,  in  exceptional  cases,  be 
continued  to  the  widow  and  orphans. 

The  society  pays  1,200  francs  per  year  to  a  veterinarian  charged 
with  making  a  daily  visit  to  the  garden. 

The  total  paid  for  salaries  in  1905-6  was  158,347  francs.  Some  of 
the  other  expenses  were  as  follows : 

Care  and  Improvemeot  of  premises 46,236 

Care  of  gardea 4,715 

Pood  of  animals __ _ 126,261 

Purchase  of  plants  and  sbrubs.* 7,638 

Heating,  Ugbtlng,  and  water _„ 28,345 

OfSce  expenses 0,951 

Purchase  of  animals 315.371 

The  garden,  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  city,  covers  an  almost 
level  surface  about  10  hectares  in  extent.  It  has  spacious  lawns  orna- 
mented with  beds  of  flowers,  with  shrubs  and  great  trees,  two  large 
ponds  for  acquatic  birds,  and  several  small  basins.  Here  and  there 
statuary  is  placed — a  monument  to  Darwin,  the  Prometheus  group, 
a  group  of  Indians  returning  from  the  chase,  a  horseman  attacked 
by  jaguars,  etc. 

Most  of  the  large  buildings  are  placed  along  the  boundary  line  of 
the  garden,  and  recall,  by  their  different  styles,  the  countries  from 
which  were  derived  the  animals  they  shelter. 

A  large  playground  with  gymnastic  apparatus  that,  without 
charge,  is  at  the  disposal  of  children,  fine  cafes  and  restaurants,  a 
winter  garden,  and  a  magnificent  building  called  the  Palais  des 
Fetes  (which,  occupies  about  4,500  square  meters  and  cost  about 
l^f^iOOO  francs)  contribute  to  make  the  Antwerp  garden  a  pleasant 
place  whose  elements,  although  a  little  incongruous,  yet  together 
form  a  strong  attraction,  much  appreciated  by  Antwerp  society. 

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484  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

At  the  time  of  my  visit  in  October  there  were  about  3,500  animals 
in  the  garden.  The  number  is  constantly  varying  by  reason  of  the 
active  traffic  in  animals  that  goes  on  there.  In  the  month  of  Au- 
gust, for  example,  the  aviaries  and  reserve  cages  of  the  garden  often 
contain  50,000  to  60,000  small,  exotic  perching  birds  which  are  after- 
wards bought  by  dealers  and  amateurs. 

The  greater  number  of  the  animals  are  obtained  from  purchases 
made  from  captains  of  vessels  or  from  sailors  who  come  from  the 
Indies,  Africa,  America,  etc. ;  at  Antwerp  they  are  purchased  directly 
by  M.  LTioest;  at  Marseilles  purchases  are  made  by  Mr.  Auguste 
Charbonnier,  at  Bordeaux  by  Mr.  Marius  Casartelli. 

The  monkeys,  some  300  in  number  (a  good  many  being  in  reserve 
cages,  to  which  the  public  is  not  admitted),  are  installed  in  a  large 
house,  lighted  from  above  and  having  on  its  southern  side  a  large 
exterior  cage  of  fine  appearance.  This  house  has  a  large  central 
hall  with  Rve  separate  octagonal  cages  and  a  certain  number  of 
cages  along  the  sides  separated  from  the  public  by  glass. 

I  noted  two  young  orang-outangs  and  two  young  chimpanzees 
dressed  in  red  or  blue  vests,  but  apparently  not  in  as  good  health 
as  those  at  Manchester  or  Bristol." 

There  was  also  in  the  monkey  house  some  30  young  Cyiwcephala, 
the  only  monkeys  that  go  out  into  the  exterior  cage,  and  then  only 
during  summer;  a  few  years  ago  some  of  the  lemurs  died  of  cold, 
apparently  because  they  were  left  out  too  long  in  autumn. 

The  "  palace "  for  large  carnivora  is  an  imposing  structure  of 
rather  heavy  appearance  but  very  richly  fitted  up.  At  either  end 
large  entrances,  with  posts  in  the  form  of  lion  caryatides,  give  access 
to  a  large  gallery  having  a  double  row  of  columns  supporting  a  fine 
ceiling;  in  the  middle  of  the  western  wall  is  a  marble  catch  basin 
surrounded  with  green  plants  and  the  busts  of  former  directors. 
Along  the  eastern  wall  are  cages  for  the  Felidcp,  lighted  from  above 
and  arranged  like  those  in  the  lion  house  at  Dublin;  they  communi- 
cate, but  not  freely,  with  exterior  cages,  three  of  which  are  large  and 
in  the  form  of  rotundas.  {These  cages  are  washed  out  with  plenty 
of  water  every  day.)  The  lions  and  tigers  kept  here  frequently 
breed,  but  not  as  regularly  as  at  Dublin  and  Bristol ;  a  pair  of 
jaguars,  however,  has  for  the  last  six  or  seven  years  brought  forth 
a  young  one  each  year. 

The  food  of  these  animals  is  usually  horse  meat,  but  once  a  week 
they  are  given  mutton  or  beef,  which,  it  is  said,  fattens  them  better 
than  an  exclusive  diet  of  horse  meat  The  large  Felida  fast  every 
Saturday.  ' 

"Tbe  ornngB  here  sleep  on  tbe  floor  upon  a  bed  of  bay;  tbe  chimpanzees 
upon  a  sbelf  raised  above  the  surface  of  tbe  floor. 


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ZOOLOGICAL  GABDENS — ^LOIBBL.  485 

For  the  bears  the  garden  has  happily  abandoned  the  old  plan  of 
keeping  them  in  deep,  damp  and  badly  lighted  pits,  such  as  seen 
almost  everywhere.  They  are  given  fine,  large,  open-air  cages, 
covered  or  suirounded^by  verdure. 

The  giraffes  and  dromedaries  are  placed,  together  with  the  zebras, 
-wild  asses,  tapirs,  and  elephants,  in  an  Egyptian  temple  whose  ma- 
jestic front  and  fine  architectural  lines  of  great  purity  of  style  make 
it  one  of  the  finest  edifices  in  the  garden.  The  exterior  walls  and 
peristyle  of  this  building  are  covered  with  Egyptian  paintings  rep- 
resenting the  inhabitants  of  tropical  regions  coming  to  offer  to  the 
city  of  Antwerp  examples  of  the  most  characteristic  animals  of  their 
countries. 

The  interior  shows  a  large  hall  lighted  from  above  and  with  lateral 
cages.  The  two  giraffes  only  are  shut  off  by  glass  partitions  in  order 
to  give  to  their  rooms  the  desired  temperature.  They  have  sometimes, 
but  rarely,  bred  here,  and  the  young  are  often  affected  with  rickets, 
manifested  by  a  chronic  inflammation  of  the  joints. 

The  house  for  hippopotami  is  a  large  isolated  building  amply 
lighted  on  the  sides  and  above.  It  contains  three  large,  interior  tanks, 
2.5  meters  deep,  which  communicate  freely  behind  with  a  stall  having 
a  cement  floor.  Each  stall  opens  independently  into  an  exterior  pad- 
dock into  which  the  animals  are  allowed  to  go  during  summer  and  in 
fine  days  during  spring  and  autumn.  In  winter  the  water  for  the 
tanks  is  warmed  to  15°.  It  is  stagnant  water,  which  does  not  appear 
to  be  renewed  as  often  as  it  should,  for  when  I  was  there  it  gave  off 
an  offensive  odor.  However,  the  animals  seem  to  do  well.  A  pair  of 
hippopotami,  brought  to  the  garden  in  1881,  have  bred  with  consid- 
erable regularity  nearly  every  year  since,  bringing  forth  13  young  in 
seventeen  years,  7  males  and  6  females.  Two  of  these  died  shortly 
after  birth ;  the  others  have  thriwn  very  well.  The  male  of  this  first 
pair  died  in  1904 ;  the  female  is  still  living,  but,  as  she  seems  to  be 
no  longer  able  to  bear,  the  garden  bou^t,  in  1905,  two  young  females 
to  replace  her.    •    •    • 

The  buildings  for  the  ruminants  have  generally  exterior  yards  with 
a  floor  formed  of  a  layer  of  sand  resting  on  a  bed  of  cinders,  which 
appeared,  however,  to  be  very  damp  after  days  of  rain.  The  exterior 
yards  for  the  antelope  house,  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  building, 
are  covered  with  glass. 

The  reindeer  live  on  the  average  six  years  in  the  Antwerp  Garden 
and  give  birth  each  year  to  two  or  three  little  ones.  Their  food  is  as 
follows : 

Morning:  One  kilo  of  oats,  crushed  maize,  barley  and  rye  mixed, 
be^des  two  handfuls  of  lichens. 

Evening:  One-half  kilo  dry  white  bread,  besides  two  handfuls  of 
lichens.  f--  ■ 


486  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  lOffl. 

A  great  anteater  and  two  echidnas  live  in  the  monkey  house,  the 
former  having  been  there  five  years,  the  latter  three  years.  They  are 
given  finely  chopped  meat  and  eggs  beaten  up  in  milk.  The  anteater 
ip  in  a  large  glazed  cage,  1  meter  above  the  floor  paved  with  porcelain 
tiles;  he  has  only  a  board  to  sleep  on.  The  echidnas  are  in  a  small 
octagonal  cage  having  a  zinc  floor  covered  with  find  sand ;  curled  np 
in  a  comer,  they  seem  to  avoid  the  light. 

The  birds  form  the  greater  part  of  the  number  of  animals  in  the 
garden,  but  there  is  not  the  fine  ornithological  display  that  I  admired 
at  London.  Neither  did  I  notice  any  indication  of  any  wild  species 
nesting  in  the  garden.  The  greater  part  of  the  birds  are,  however, 
kept  there  merely  for  sale. 

THE    ZOOLOGICAL  OARDEN    AT  SOTTEKOAH. 

The  Zoological  Garden  at  Rotterdam  (Diergaarde)  belongs  to  the 
Vereeniging  Rotterdamsche  Diergaarde,  a  limited  society,  whose  ob- 
ject is  thus  defined  by  Article  I  of  its  statutes : 

The  society,  founded  In  1857  "  under  the  name  ot  Rotterdamsche  Diergaarde, 
has  for  Its  object  the  adrancemeDt.  by  agreeable  means,  ot  our  knowledge  ot 
Boology  and  botany. 

In  order  to  accompllBh  this,  collections  of  living  antmals  and  plants  will  be 
Increased  and  maintained  as  far  as  the  Qnancce  of  the  society  will  penntt. 

A  mueeum  and  a  library  will  be  added  to  the  Institution. 

The  number  of  members  Is  not  limited. 

This  number  amounted  on  December  31,  1906,  to  5,484.  The 
society  is  administered  by  a  council  of  25  members,  of  whom  the 
president  is  now  Mr,  C.  H.  Van  Dam.  This  council  is  itself  com- 
posed of  five  committees;  viz,  of  buildings,  of  animals,  of  plants 
(hothouses  and  gardens),  of  entertainments,  of  the  library  and  mu- 
seum. 

The  total  receipts  of  the  society  in  1905  were  161,880.91  florins,  of 
which  there  were — 

Florins. 

Gate  receipts. — 24,944.GS 

Sales  of  animals 7,590.00 

Restanrant  receipts. 8.325.00 

Sales  of  guides  and  postal  cards. 212.00 

The  society  has  established,  as  was  proposed,  a  library  and  a  mu- 
seum. The  library,  superbly  installed  on  the  first  floor  of  the  ad- 
ministration building  to  the  left  of  the  principal  entrance,  contains 
numerous  bound  volumes  and  scientific  periodicals.  The  museum, 
■which  occupies  the  entire  first  floor  of  the  restaurant  building,  has 
two  halls:  one  devoted  to  an  ethnological  collection  derived  from  the 
~       "     -ilonies  and  from  western  Africa :  the  other  devoted  to  birds 

rbe  garden  already  existed  In  186S  as  a  private  menagwie. 


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ZOOLOGICAL  OABDEN& — LOISEL.  4S7 

and  to  indigenous  mammals  as  well  as  to  a  collection  of  mollusks 
and  polyps  derived  for  the  most  part  from  the  Dutch  colonies. 

The  garden,  including  the  library  and  museum,  is  administered 
by  Dr.  J.  Btittikofer,  a  naturalist  to  whom  we  owe  the  greater  part 
of  our  knowledge  of  the  fauna  of  Liberia.  This  director,  appointed 
by  the  council,  has  quarters  in  the  garden  and  receives  a  salary  of 
4,400  florins.  He  really  directs  the  garden  and  disposes  of  the  sum 
voted  annually  by  the  council  for  the  general  expenses  of  the  estab- 
lishment. Besides,  he  can  appoint  or  remove  the  employees  of  the 
g:arden,  except  the  chiefs,  whose  appointment  or  removal  he  can  only 
recommend  to  the  council. 

The  society  has  established  a  special  fund  for  the  medical  care 
and  pensions  of  its  employees. 

The  garden  is  situated  northwest  of  Botterdam  upon  a  marshy 
subsoil  which  in  many  places  has  given  trouble  as  to  foundations. 
Its  area  is  about  13J  hectares.  The  general  design  of  its  shrubbery 
and  flower  beds  is  very  pleasing.  In  certain  localities  distant  per- 
spectives are  introduced  which  make  one  forget  the  city,  essentially 
€»mmercial  in  its  character,  that  surrounds  one  on  all  sides;  there 
are  picturesque  bridges  spanning  water  courses,  and  ponds  fed  by 
the  Diergaarde  Singel,  one  of  the  numerous  canals  of  Rotterdam; 
handsome  walks  conduct  the  visitor  to  lawns  shaded  with  great 
trees,  in  which  are  nesting  at  liberty  herons,  ravens,  and  storks ;  well- 
kept  beds  of  flowers  and  rocks  covered  with  alpine  plants  break  here 
and  there  the  monotony  of  the  landscape,  and,  in  the  large  hothouses 
one  may  specially  admire  the  Victoria  regia,  whose  leaves  cover  the 
surface  of  a  large  basin,  and  the  tree  ferns,  one  of  which  is  9  meters 
high. 

A  large  number  of  the  animals  in  the  garden  are  presented  by 
colonial  employees  of  the  Government  and  by  planters.  The  society 
has  also  an  agent  in  Batavia,  who  buys  directly  from  the  natives. 

On  entering  the  garden  by  the  main  entrance  the  first  building  on 
the  right  is  the  monkey  house  {pi.  vi).  This  edifice,  which  is  the 
finest  and  best  constructed  of  any  that  I  have  seen  up  to  this  time, 
was  completed  last  year  and  cost  86,000  gulden  ($36,000).  It  is  42 
meters  long,  14  meters  wide,  and  9.5  meters  high ;  lies  east  and  west, 
has  a  "blank  wall  on  the  north,  while  along  its  southern  side,  orna- 
mented with  sculptured  monkeys  and  pretty  designs  in  enameled 
brick,  is  a  series  of  exterior  cages. 

The  principal  entrance,  situated  at  the  western  end,  leads  into  a 
large  hall  (pi.  vii)  flanked  on  either  side  by  the  cages  of  the  mon- 
keys ornamented  by  clumps  of  green  plants  and  by  the  spray  of  two 
fountains  surrounded  by  flowers.  This  hall  is  divided  into  three 
parts  by  two  arcades,  marking  the  entrance  to  the  service  corridors, 
which  i  will  mention  further  on. 

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488  ANNUAL  BBPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

The  roof  is  of  glass  bricks,  of  the  Falconnier  system,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  ventilating  roof  that  runs  the  whole  length  of  the  hall, 
so  that  the  cages  are  much  better  lighted  than  the  hall.  The  advan- 
tage of  these  glass  bricks,  which  also  cover  the  exterior  cages,  is  that 
they  are  an  excellent  protection  against  too  sudden  cooling  and 
against  currents  of  air,  while  they  let  the  light  pass  frfeely.  They  are 
hollow  and  the  interior  cavity,  because  of  the  hi^  temperature  at 
which  they  are  molded  (850°)  presents  an  almost  absolute  vacaum. 
This  system  advantageously  replaces  that  of  double  windows.  A 
shallow  groove  around  each  brick  makes  it  possible  to  lay  it  in  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  cement,  so  that  the  system  is  united  in  a  very  solid 
manner.  The  large  windows  at  either  end  of  the  hall  and  the  mov- 
able frames  of  the  ventilation  roof  are  fitted  with  ordinary  window 
glass. 

There  are  37  interior  and  11  exterior  cages  for  the  monkeys;  some 
of  them  are  6  meters  in  diameter;  almost  all  the  others  have  a  super- 
ficial area  of  4  square  meters:  they  are  protected  from  the  public  by 
an  iron  balustrade  which  supports  a  grillage  2  meters  in  height.  The 
floor  of  the  cages,  raised  0.75  meter  above  that  of  the  hall,  is  formed 
of  a  thin  layer  of  concrete,  and  supports  a  tree  upon  which  the 
animals  may  climb,  the  trunk  of  which  is  carefully  set  in  a  cast-iron 
tube.  The  walls  are  lined  with  ivory-white  glazed  bricks;  all  the 
corners  are  rounded.  The  side  of  the  cage  presented  to  the  public 
is  closed  by  a  grillage  whose  meshes  do  not  correspond  with  those 
of  the  exterior  grillage,  so  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  throw  bread  or 
anything  else  to  the  animals;  only  the  cages  of  the  anthropoids  are 
provided  with  vertical  bars. 

The  back  wall  of  each  cage  has  at  its  upper  part  a  recess  lighted 
by  a  window  which  looks  out  above  a  service  passage,  and  in  this 
upper  part  there  is,  in  the  cages  of  the  south  side  only,  the  passage 
by  which  the  monkeys  reach  the  exterior  cages.  At  one  end  of  this 
passage  is  a  movable  trapdoor  that  the  monkeys  can  easily  raise, 
at  the  other  a  sliding  door  that  the  keepers  can  shut  or  open  from 
the  service  passage  by  means  of  a  chain. 

All  the  cages  have  a  glazed  interior  roof  set  obliquely  from  the  front 
backward,  attached  on  one  side  to  the  common  roof,  on  the  other 
supported  by  the  grill  in  front.  Each  cage  communicates  with  the 
service  passage  (1  meter  wide,  2  meters  high)  by  a  vertical  panel, 
and  in  this  panel  is  an  opening  for  introducing  food  and  a  snail 
window  that  lights  the  passage  and  permits  an  inspection  of  the 
cage.  In  the  service  passage  there  are  a  certain  number  of  cocks 
for  drinking  water,  hot  water,  and  gas,  and  a  gutter  to  take  off  the 
drip  from  washing  the  cages.  From  the  southern  passage  similar 
access  may  be  had  to  the  exterior  cages. 

The  system  for  heating  and  ventilating  this  house  appeared  to  me 
particularly  well  conceived.     I  visited  it  in  the  morning  accompa- 


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ZOOLOGICAL  QABDENS — LOIBGL.  489 

nied  by  Mr.  Biittikofer,  who  with  the  greatest  kindness  furnished  me 
'with  all  the  information  that  I  wished.  There  were  at  that  time 
150  monkeys  in  the  interior  cages  and  the  morning  cleaning  up  was 
not  yet  finished ;  still  there  was  no  bad  odor  and  the  air  seemed  as 
agreeable  as  that  of  a  conservatory. 

The  double  problem  that  bad  to  be  solved  in  constructing  this 
house  was,  first,  to  obtain  in  all  the  cages  an  equable  and  constant 
temperature  of  at  least  20°  even  during  the  greatest  cold;  second,  to 
establish  an  ample  ventilation,  without  drafts,  so  as  to  reduce  to  a 
Tninimiitn  the  disagreeable  odor  which  I  have  found  in  various  degrees 
in  most  of  the  monkey  houses  that  I  have  visited. 

In  order  to  realize  these  desiderata,  Mr.  Buttikofer  resolved  to 
seek  inspiration,  if  not  to  copy  exactly  the  systems  of  heating  and 
ventilation  used  in  the  new  monkey  house  of  the  zoological  garden 
at  New  York.  The  furnace  room  and  store  of  coal  are  placed  in  a 
large  cellar  under  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  building.  The  water, 
brought  nearly  to  the  boiling  point,  enters  a  system  of  tubes  300 
meters  long,  is  carried  throughout  the  entire  building  and  returns 
cooled  to  the  furnace.  Four  large  hot-water  pipes  are  under  the 
cages,  two  other  smaller  ones  run  along  the  exterior  walls  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  cages,  so  that  the  air  cooled  by  the  exterior  walls  is 
sufficiently  reheated  and  the  monkeys  have  there  quite  warm  places, 
where  they  like  to  remain. 

The  ventilation  is  intimately  connected  with  the  heating.  The 
cold  air  enters  freely  into  two  large  conduits  that  run  under  the 
floors  of  the  cages  throughout  their  length  close  by  the  hot-water 
pipes,  escapes  by  orifices  in  the  upper  part  of  these  conduits,  becomes 
heated  by  contact  with  the  hot-water  pipes,  and  warms  the  floor  of 
the  cages;  then  passes  into  the  central  hall  through  registers  placed 
in  front  of  the  cages.  From  the  hall  a  large  part  of  the  air  enters 
the  cages  through  the  grills,  then  rises  toward  openings  in  the  roof 
of  each  cage  near  the  exterior  wall,  by  which  it  passes  into  a  conduit 
that  communicates  with  two  evacuation  pipes.  In  this  way  the  air 
that  has  been  used  and  vitiated  in  the  cages  is  removed  from  the 
building  and  can  not  return  to  the  public  hall.  This  outlet  for 
vitiated  air  is  favored  by  the  inclined,  interior  roof  of  each  cage; 
this  roof,  indeed,  heated  on  both  surfaces  does  not  cool  the  vitiated 
air  and  prevents  it  from  falling  back  into  the  cage.  A  simple  system 
of  valves  placed  at  the  inlet  for  cold  air  and  the  outlet  for  heated 
air  enables  one  to  regulate  the  currents.  Besides,  the  ventilating 
chimneys  are  so  made  that  in  case  this  automatic  ventilation  should 
prove  to  be  insufficient  electric  ventilators  could  easily  be  installed. 

The  fact  that  most  of  the  monkeys  inhabit  moist  tropical  forests, 
and  therefore  should  have  air  with  a  certain  degree  of  humidity,  has 


not  been  forgotten.    To  accomplish  this  there  have  been  placed  in  the 


440  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SUTEHSOHIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

hot-air  conduits  shallow  receptacles  for  water  whidi  by  evaporatiiig 
imparts  the  necessary  humidity;  the  spray  of  the  fountains  in  the 
central  hall  also  assists.  Besides,  the  floor  of  the  central  hall  is 
washed  and  watered  freely  every  evening.  The  floors  and  walls  of 
the  cages  are  cleaned  every  day  and  washed  fitnn  time  to  time  with 
cresoline. 

The  reptiles,  batradiians,  and  fishes  are  placed  in  a  house  of  recent 
construction  (opened  in  May,  1906),  which  also  excited  our  admira- 
tion. The  walls  of  this  house  are  in  great  part  made  of  the  Palcon- 
nier  glass  bricks,  while  the  roof  is  of  ground  glass,  so  that  li^t  is 
diffused  throughout  the  rooms,  which  are  three  in  number,  a  central 
and  two  lateral  ones. 

The  central  hall  (pi.  vm),  which  is  first  entered,  is  decorated  with 
paintings  and  ornamented  with  great  clumps  of  papyrus  and  cypress; 
in  the  middle,  surrounded  by  a  grill,  is  a  basin  of  water  (which  may 
be  warmed)  with  a  central  island  having  gradually  sloping  edges  on 
which  may  bask  the  inhabitants  of  the  basin — crocodiles  frcnn  the 
Nile  and  from  Java,  caimans  from  the  Mississippi,  an  enormous  m<»u- 
tor  lizard  from  Java,  and  several  species  of  tortoises. 

In  the  lateral  rooms  there  are,  in  the  center,  large  cages  for  boas 
and  pythons;  along  the  sides,  against  the  Falconnier  bricks,  are  nu- 
merous little  cages,  miniature  conservatories,  and  aquariums  of  vari- 
ous sizes  placed  one  against  the  other  about  1  meter  above  the  floor. 
Beneath  these  installations,  separated  from  the  public  corridor  by 
glazed  brick,  run  the  water  pipes  which  afford  heat  during  winter. 
The  small  cages  are  supplied  with  moss  and  green  plants,  and  each 
has,  in  one  comer,  a  little  basin  for  water  which  may  be  filled  or 
emptied  by  cocks  accessible  from  below.  These  cages  contain  batra- 
chians  and  Ii2ards;  a  chameleon  had  just  laid  some  eggs  on  the  moss 
at  ^e  time  I  passed  by. 

A  description  of  the  Rotterdam  Garden  is  not  complete  without  a 
mention  of  the  infirmary  and  the  granary.  The  former  serves  not 
only  as  an  infirmary  but  also  as  a  quarantine  for  animals  that  arrive 
at  the  garden.  Upon  arrival  they  are  placed  in  separate  chambers, 
ea^  to  heat  and  disinfect,  under  the  charge  of  a  ^Ued  attendant. 
This  isolation  gives  them  an  opportunity  to  rest  after  their  journey 
and  has  also  two  other  advantages:  First,  by  keeping  the  animals 
for  some  time  it  assures  that  they  were  not  affected  with  any  con- 
tagious disease  when  they  arrived ;  then  it  makes  it  possible  to  free 
them  from  internal  and  external  parasites,  which  they  might  convey 
to  the  other  animals. 

The  granary  is  particularly  well  conceived.  Built  after  the  designs 
of  Mr.  Biittikofer,  it  prevents  wastage  of  grain  and  loss  of  time  and 
permits  the  storekeeper  to  easily  supervise  the  keepers  who  come  for 
food  for  the  animals.  Each  kind  of  grain  is  placed  in  a  bin  filled 
from  the  story  above  and  containing  the  supply  necessary  for  one 


,  Google 


,  Google 


ZOOLOGICAL  OABDENS — LOISEL.  441 

month.  A  simple  mechanism  in  each  bin  prevents  the  grain  being 
injured  by  pressure  and  assures  its  regular  outflow.  The  discharge 
spouts  are  in  the  basement,  in  a  room  large  enough  to  permit  several 
keepers  to  get  grain  at  the  same  time  under  the  supervision  of  the 
storekeeper. 

ZOOLOGICAL  GARDEN  AT  THE  HAGUE. 

The  Zoological  Garden  at  The  Hague  belongs  to  the  "  Koninklijk 
Zoologisch-Botanisch  Genootschap,"  a  limited  society  founded  No- 
vember 1,  1862,  for  a  period  of  twenty-nine  years  and  eight  months. 
In  July,  1891,  its  duration  was  prolonged  for  a  similar  period. 

The  object  of  the  society,  as  defined  by  Article  I  of  its  statutes,  is 
"to  contribute  to  instruction  by  establishing  a  collection  of  living 
plants  and  animals,  a  museum  and  a  library." 

It  is  administered  by  a  board  of  nine  persons  appointed  for  three 
years  by  the  members,  one-third  being  renewed  every  year.  The 
board  chooses  from  its  members  a  president,  a  vice-president,  and  a 
secretary.  They  meet  at  least  once  a  month,  and  every  five  years  ap- 
point a  director,  who  has  the  management  of  the  garden  and  the  col- 
lections. This  director,  at  present  Mr.  L.  J.  Dobbelmann,  has  under 
his  orders  5  keepers  of  animals,  6  gardeners,  5  workmen,  and  a  dozen 
of  temporary  employees.  In  his  last  annual  report  (1905)  I  find  the 
following  data : 

Fiorina. 

Total  receipts 80,  889 

Members'  fees 32,843 

Gate  receipts  (85,085) 19.675 

Food  of  animals.- 4,716 

Expenses  of  the  aquarlam 149 

The  garden  is  situated  to  the  east  of  the  city  and  is  only  about  6 
hectares  in  extent.  It  is  surrounded  by  water,  meadows,  and  beauti- 
ful trees,  which  set  it  oflf  to  great  advantage.  Its  collection  of  living 
animals  is  not  of  great  importance,  comprising  during  last  year  only 
140  mammals  of  30  different  species,  570  birds  of  187  different  species, 
and  a  ceirtain  number  of  fishes. 

ZOOLOGICAL  GARDEN    AT   AMSTERDAM. 

The  Zoological  Garden  at  Amsterdam  (Dierentuin  or  Artis)  be- 
longs to  the  Koninklijk  Zoologisch  (Jenootschap,  "  Natura  artis 
magistra  "  (hence  the  name  Artis  by  which  the  inhabitants  of  Am- 
sterdam designate  the  garden). 

The  Royal  Society  of  Zoology  was  founded  in  1838,  in  consequence 
of  a  circular  sent  out  to  the  inhabitants  of  Amsterdam  by  an  amateur, 
Mr.  G.  F.  Westermann.    That  circular  commenced  as  follows: 

"  Natnra  nrtie  mngiBtra."  Under  this  title  a  society  has  been  founded  baving 
for  Its  object  tbe  study  of  natural  history  In  an  attractive  and  agreeable  matiner, 

■  ,Gooylc 


442  ANNUAL  KEPOBT  SMITHSOKIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

both  by  a  collection  of  antmals  as  well  aa  by  a  cabinet  ot  atutFed  specimeas  of 
the  animal  klDgdom. 

The  cabinet  of  stuffed  specimens,  derived  from  the  collection  of  Mr. 
R.  Draak,  was  opened  to  the  public  in  1837.  Since  that  time  it  has 
constantly  increased,  by  gifts  and  purchases,  thanks  to  an  intelligent 
collaboration  given  by  the  Municipal  University  of  Amsterdam. 
This  part  of  the  garden  comprises  to-day  an  ethnographical  museum, 
collections  of  zoology  and  comparative  anatomy,  and  a  representation 
of  the  fauna  of  the  Netherlands.  The  latter  includes  not  only  Dutch 
vertebrate  animals,  mollusks,  and  insects,  but  has  also  groups  of 
indigenous  birds,  with  their  nests,  eggs,  and  little  ones,  shown  in 
their  natural  surroundings.  There  are  also  there  a  certain  number 
of  stereoscopic  views  of  nests  photographed  from  nature.  The  society 
has  also  at  the  garden  a  library  containing  a  very  rich  collection  of 
works  on  natural  history. 

The  collection  of  living  animals  was  commenced  in  1839  by  the  pur- 
chase of  a  menagerie,  then  celebrated,  belonging  to  C-  Van  Aken.  It 
has  increased  normally  since  that  time,  especially  by  the  installation 
of  an  aquarium,  constructed  on  ground  granted  by  the  city  under 
certain  conditions,  to  which  I  will  again  refer. 

The  society  has  at  present  (1905)  5,000  members.  Its  affairs  are 
administered  by  a  council  of  nine  members.  Its  receipts  amounted  in 
1905-6  to  228,500  florins,  among  which  were  the  following: 

Members'  fees 112,500 

Entrance  foes  from  strangers  (159,756  persons) 76.000 

Sale  of  IfvlDg  animals. ■ 2,100 

Sale  ot  guide  books 2,250 

Revenue  from  restaurant _ 12,125 

The  garden  is  controlled  by  the  director  of  the  society.  Dr.  C.  Ker- 
bert,  who  has  the  power  of  nominating  and  removing  employees  and 
of  freely  making  all  purchases  except  very  large  ones  without  refer- 
ence to  the  council. 

The  society  puts  aside  every  year  5.000  florins  as  a  reserve  fund 
from  which  to  pay  pensions  to  aged  or  sick  employees. 

The  total  paid  for  salaries  in  1905  was  56,750  florins.  Among  other 
expenses  I  noted : 

Food  for  animals 30, 500 

Purchase  of  animals. 10,000 

MalDtenance  of  bulldlnss 8,000 

Espense  of  gardening 1.600 

The  garden  is  situated  to  the  east  of  the  city  and  has  an  area  of 
10.1208  hectares  (25  acres).  It  appears  a  little  shut  in  by  the  houses 
that  surround  it;  its  lawns  and  garden  plats  are  not  sufficiently  exten- 
sive; the  water  of  its  ponds  is  too  black  and  odorous;  its  buildings  are 


ZOOLOGICAL  GABDENS — LOISEL.  448 

old  and  the  paintings  which  ornament  their  walls  hare  so  faded  that 
some  of  them  are  almost  invisible.  However,  independently  of  the 
scientific  interest  that  it  presents,  the  garden  does  not  lack  in  charm, 
and  certain  verdurous  nooks  ornamented  with  statues  are  worthy  of 
the  finest  zoological  gardens. 

I  was  not  able  to  ascertain  the  total  number  of  animals  existing  in 
the  garden  at  the  time  of  my  visit  (October,  1906).  There  were, 
apparently,  about  500  mammals;  the  number  of  other  animals  is  very 
variable. 

In  one  bouse,  heated  to  15"  C,  there  was  an  orang-outang  in  com- 
pany with  a  macaque.  These  animals  were  kept  in  a  large,  isolated 
cage,  surrounded  by  a  corridor  glazed  externally  which  separated 
them  frran  the  public  The  orang  has  lived  in  the  garden  for  five 
years  without  ever  having  been  sick.  Its  continual  activity  and 
the  brightness  of  its  eyes  were  in  striking  contrast  with  the  slow  move- 
ments and  sad  looks  of  the  orangs  that  I  had  previously  seen  in  other 
gardens.  How  amusing,  too,  were  the  antics  and  struggles  of  ihese 
two  monkeys !  As  is  always  the  case,  it  was  the  smallest  and  weakest 
that  was  the  most  a^^essive.  At  a  certain  moment  the  macaque  was 
seated  at  the  entrance  to  the  exterior  corridor  the  door  of  which  had 
been  opened  for  me;  he  was  watching  attentively  the  movements 
which  I  made  in  mounting  my  camera.  But  he  annoyed  the  orang 
who,  remaining  in  the  cage,  wished  also  to  see;  after  making  several 
ineffectual  efforts  to  push  the  maoaque  aside,  the  orang  seized  him  by 
the  tail  and  threw  him  back  roughly.  The  macaque,  furious,  uttered 
piercing  cries  and  threw  himself  on  the  orang,  who  paused  for  a 
moment,  quite  astonished  at  such  violent  anger;  then,  calm,  without 
apparent  haste,  jumped  from  side  to  side  of  the  cage,  always  avoid- 
ing the  macaque,  who  became  more  and  more  furious.  The  keeper, 
fortunately,  put  an  end  to  the  struggle  by  calling  to  the  two  monkeys, 
who  immediately  obeyed  him ;  he  opened  the  door  of  the  inner  cage 
and>the  orang,  with  kindly  countenance,  posed  graciously  before  my 
camera,  which  seemed  to  puzzle  him  a  good  deal.    •    •    • 

The  bear  house,  placed  opposite  the  lion  house,  dates  from  1897. 
It  is  a  fine  semicircular  structure.  The  circular  cages  contain  brown 
or  black  bears  of  various  species.  The  brown  bears  produce  young, 
but  do  not  rear  them.  The  white  bears  are  placed  in  a  large  central 
cage  which  has  at  the  back  a  rocky  construction  with  cavities  into 
which  the  females  may  retire.  They  have  young  every  year  and, 
unlike  the  brown  bears,  rear  them  very  well. 

The  aquarium,  which  is  one  of  the  curiosities  of  the  garden,  dates 
from  1877.  In  that  year  the  municipality  of  Amsterdam,  which 
had  already  created  a  university,  gave  to  the  Koyal  Society  of 
Zoology  a  piece  of  land  compri^g  2,735  square  meters,  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  garden,  under  the  condition  that  the  sod^W. 


444  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTItUTION,  1907. 

should  use  this  ground  for  the  erection  of  a  large  building  to  contain 
an  aquarium,  an  amphitheater,  a  museum,  and  working  laboratories 
for  the  professors  and  pupils  at  the  university,  all  students  of  natural 
sciences  to  have  free  entry  every  morning  to  the  garden,  the  library, 
and  the  museum.  For  some  time  past  Prof.  Max  Weber,  the  curator 
of  the  collections,  in  conjunction  with  Doctor  Kerbert,  present  di- 
rector of  the  garden,  has  obtained  a  unification  of  the  most  satis- 
factory kind  between  the  collections  of  the  university  and  those  of 
the  society. 

The  ground  donated  by  the  city  rested  on  a  subsoil  of  quicksand, 
as  indeed  is  the  case  with  all  Amsterdam.  Therefore  1,740  piles  were 
driven  down,  and  three  years  afterwards  a  magnificent  building  was 
completed  on  that  site. 

The  aquarium,  which  is  the  only  part  of  it  that  is  the  subject  of 
this  report,  was  arranged  according  to  the  system  of  continuous  cir- 
culation of  W.  Alford  Lloyd,  a  system  that  was  used  for  the  first  time 
on  a  large  scale  at  Paris  in  1861  for  the  aquarium  of  the  Jardin  d'Ac- 
climatation  in  the  Bois  de  Boulogne. 

Under  the  floor  are  three  great  reservoirs,  two  of  which  contain 
447,845  liters  of  sea  water,  the  other  116,256  liters  of  fresh  water.  It 
is  pumped  up  by  two  gas  engines  of  8  horsepower  (one  in  reserve) 
at  one  end  of  these  reservoirs;  delivered  into  two  great  conduits  of 
enameled  iron  (having  cocks  of  ebonite)  which  have  a  small  opening 
for  aeration  at  their  proximal  end;  it  is  then  carried  to  the  upper 
floors  and  runs  the  whole  length  of  the  building  above  the  tanks. 
From  each  great  conduit  the  water  passes  into  rubber  tubes,  placed 
at  suitable  intervals,  and  the  ends  of  these,  fitted  with  glass  tubes, . 
are  directly  above  the  tanks.  As  the  terminal  orifice  of  each  of  these 
tubes  is  but  a  few  millimeters  in  diameter,  the  jet  of  water  that  issues 
from  it  has  suflScient  force,  after  being  aerated  a  second  time,  t«  carry 
down  with  it  a  current  suflSciently  strong  to  carry  away  the  impuri- 
ties voided  by  the  fishes  into  the  water  of  the  tank;  the  largest  of 
these  matters,  falling  to  the  bottom,  are  removed  each  morning  by 
the  attendants  by  means  of  aspirating  tubes. 

The  tanks,  of  variable  dimensions,  are  twenty  in  number.  Nine 
have  a  total  capacity  of  84,605  liters  of  sea  water  and  eleven  a  total 
capacity  of  61,155  liters  of  fresh  water.  The  largest  has  a  capacity 
of  40  cubic  meters. 

The  service  of  these  tanks  is  effected  from  two  lateral  corridors 
having  glazed  roofs,  in  which  are  found  small  aquariums  for  zoolog- 
ical study  and  thirteen  reserve  tanks,  nine,  for  sea  water,  having  a 
capacity  of  13,171  liters,  and  four,  for  fresh  water,  of  9,095  liters. 

The  water  leaves  the  tanks  in  which  the  animals  live  by  a  lateral 
orifice  and  falls  into  a  common  conduit  that  takes  it  back  to  the  reser- 
voirs in  the  basement  at  the  end  opposite  to  that  from  which  it  issued. 


ZOOLOGICAL  OABDBNS — LOISEL.  445 

Sefore  returning  there,  however,  this  water  undergoes  a  series  of 
successive  filtrations;  it  first  falls  into  a  linen  cloth  suspended  at  the 
end  of  the  conduit,  then  it  passes  throu^  a  wooden  grating  that  sup* 
ports  the  cloth  and  afterwards  traverses  a  bed  of  sand  and  gravel. 

All  the  tanks  have  sandy  bottoms,  and  one  may  see  how  the  natural 
colors  of  the  soles,  flounders,  etc.,  harmonize  with  them.  They  are 
also  provided  with  artificial  rocks  covered  with  aquatic  plants  that 
form  a  dark  background  and  enable  one  to  see  the  animals  perfectly 
and  observe  their  behavior.  No  description  indeed  can  do  justice 
to  the  effect  produced  by  these  great  fishes  swimming  gracefully  in 
the  transparent  water  of  an  enormous  tank  5  or  6  meters  long  lighted 
by  a  diffused  light  in  which  their  pearly  colors  sparkle. 

In  the  little  room  at  the  back  are  found  on  separate  tables  a  cer- 
tain number  of  small  glass  aquariums,  some  cubical,  others  cup- 
shaped,  for  small  marine  animals  and  others,  the  temperature  of 
which  is  kept  constant  by  means  of  a  thermo-regulator  constructed 
according  to  the  system  of  Prof.  Max  Weber.  These  aquariums 
contain  exotic  fishes  from  the  Dutch  Indies,  from  South  America, 
China,  etc. 

The  Amsterdam  garden  has  also  a  special  installation  which  I 
previously  saw  attempted  only  at  one  other  place,  the  Zoological 
Garden  at  London  ^  that  is  an  insectarium,  which,  commenced  in 
1898  and  enlarged  in  1899,  is  now  confided  to  the  care  of  Mr.  Folak, 
B  teacher  at  Amsterdam. 

This  insectarium  is  not  at  all  like  the  farms  for  raising  butter- 
flies which  I  visited  in  England,  but  it  resembled  them  in  paying 
especial  attention  to  the  rearing  of  nocturnal  moths  which  in  Hol- 
land constitute  95  per  cent  of  the  Lepidoptera.  It  is  composed  of 
a  certain  number  of  small  cages  or  glass  cases  resting  upon  boxes 
and  arranged  entirely  around  one  of  the  rooms  of  the  reptile  house, 
decorated  with  palm  trees  and  green  plants,  which  give  it  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  little  conservatory. 

Each  insect  cage  is  formed  of  a  glass  case  without  cover,  placed 
with  its  opening  downward  on  a  zinc  box,  the  upper  surface  of  which, 
pierced  with  holes  and  covered  with  sand  or  moss,  supports  wide- 
mouthed  vessels  containing  fresh  plants  on  which  the  caterpillars 
feed.  The  glass  of  the  top  of  the  system  is  often  replaced  by  a 
grillage  and  supports  little  insect  boxes  containing  dried  specimens 
of  the  same  species  that  are  seen  alive  below. 


Since  my  journey  was  limited  to  the  United  Kingdom,  Belgium, 
and  the  Netherlands,  it  is  not  possible  to  draw  from  it  any  conclu- 
sions regarding  zoological  gardens  in  general,  yet  it  may  be  well  to 
give  here  a  sort  of  synthetic  resumS  of  the  principal  facts  observed, 


446  ANKtTAI.  BEPOBX  BUIXHSONIAK  IH8TITCTI0N,  1907. 

hoping  later  to  present  a  work  upon  the  utilization  of  such  estab- 
lishments, not  only  for  theoretical  and  practical  science,  but  also  for 
^e  education  of  artists  and  the  general  instruction  of  the  public. 

From  an  administrative  point  of  view  the  great  zoological  gardens 
fall  into  four  categories: 

First  Those  of  Great  Britain  are  carried  on  by  a  superintendent 
under  the  effective  direction  of  the  secretary  of  the  society  to  whom 
the  property  belongs. 

Second.  The  garden  at  Antwerp  is  administered  and  carried  on 
by  the  president  of  the  society  aided  by  the  director  of  the  garden. 

Third.  The  garden  at  The  Hague  is  administered  and  carried  on 
by  a  director  appointed  every  five  years. 

Fourth.  The  gardens  at  Kotterdam  and  Amsterdam  are  admin- 
istered and  carried  on  freely  by  a  director  under  the  annual  control 
of  a  council  of  administration. 

The  last  of  these  systems  seems  to  me  to  be  the  one  best  calculated 
to  give  a  sustained  activity  and  a  progressive  improvement  in  the 
methods  of  caring  for  the  animals.  The  third  one,  on  the  contrary, 
seems  the  least  fruitful  of  good  results. 

The  following  table  will  enable  one  to  form  a  general  idea  of  the 
activity  of  the  great  zoological  gardens  which  I  visited  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  year  1905-6.  I  will  merely  remark  tiiat  the  re- 
sources of  the  societies  are  composed  of  fixed  fees  for  the  members, 
annual  subscriptions,  gate  receipts,  sale  of  living  or  dead  animals, 
milk,  eggs,  guidebooks  and  postal  cards,  rent  of  restaurants  or 
amusement  halls,  and  finally  gifts,  either  of  animals  or  money. 

While  the  zoological  gardens  at  London  and  Amsterdam,  and  the 
aquariums  at  Plymouth,  Fort  Erin,  and  St  Helier  have  undertaken 
more  or  less  important  works  in  morphology,  physiology,  or  taxon- 
omy, and  the  resources  of  the  first  two  of  these  institutions  have  also 
enabled  them  to  publish  scientific  periodicals  whose  value  I  willingly 
recognize,  yet  not  one  of  them  has  undertaken  the  work  for  which  it 
would  seem  they  were  really  established,  that  is  to  say,  observations 
or  experiments  made  patiently  and  for  a  long  time  on  living  animals 
to  determine  their  habits,  reproductions,  and  relations  with  their 
environment,  in  fact  upon  what  we  have  a  right  to  ask  of  zoologists — 
the  study  of  experimental  transformism. 

I  am  not,  indeed,  the  only  one  who  has  made  reflections  of  this 
kind.  Already,  in  1889,  Professor  Ray-Lankester  remarked  that, 
since  Darwin,  no  large  progress  had  been  made  in  the  line  of  general 
zoology,  and  he  regretted  that  zoolo^cal  gardens  had  always  been 
conducted  as  popular  exhibitions.  {Encyclopcsdia  Britannica^  YoL 
XXIV,  p.  817.) 

If  these  gardens  have  not  been  used  for  the  study  of  general 
zoology,  it  would  seem  that,  unfortunately,  they  have  not  materially 


ZOOLOGICAL  QABDEKS — L0I8EL. 


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448  ANNUAL  EEPOKT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1901. 

aided  in  the  education  and  instruction  of  the  people.  Certain  of 
their  collections. are  doubtless  fine,  but  the  species  of  animals  there 
shown  are  placed  in  a  wholly  artificial  order,  and  the  visitors  seem 
to  look  only  for  the  beasts  that  are  most  curious  in  form  or  color  or 
most  amusing  in  their  movements. 

Neither  do  the  gardens  serve  to  illustrate  the  zoological  history  of 
their  countries,  for  we  have  not  found  anywhere,  reproducing  in  a 
constant  manner,  representatives  of  the  indigenous  species  or  varieties 
that  are  at  the  present  time  threatened  with  extinction — the  wild 
cattle  and  cats  of  Scotland  and  England,  the  red  deer  of  Ireland,  the 
cats  and  fowls  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  etc. 

The  zoological  gardens  do,  however,  offer  at  the  present  time  a 
great  advantage ;  that  is,  that  they  enable  us  to  ascertain,  by  a  com- 
parison of  their  methods,  the  best  means  of  preserving  wild  animals 
in  captivity.  This  is  by  no  means  a  slight  matter,  for  this  knowledge 
is  evidently  the  primary  condition  without  which  it  would  not  be 
possible  to  make  any  satisfactory  observation  or  experiment. 


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John  Ray,  1627-1705. 


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SYSTEMATIC  ZOOLOGY:  ITS  PROGRESS  AND  PURPOSE." 


By  Theodobb  Qill. 


It  is  most  fitting  that  in  this  year,  when  the  scientific  world  is 
commemorating  the  natal  centenaries  of  two  naturalists  who  have 
been  regarded  as  the  chief  systematists  of  their  times,  consideration 
should  be  given  to  the  subject  and  object  of  their  old  pursuits.  Carl 
Linn^,  whose  bicentenary  has  been  celebrated,  was  the  man  who  first 
provided  an  elaborate  code  of  laws  for  the  nomenclature  of  all  the 
kingdoms  of  nature  and  set  an  example  to  others  by  provision  of 
concise  and  apt  diagnoses  of  the  groups  and  species  he  recognized. 
Louis  Agassiz,  who  was  bom  during  the  centenary  year  of  Linne, 
gave  a  grand  impulse  to  the  study  of  nature  in  his  adopted  country, 
raised  it  in  popular  esteem,  taught  new  methods  of  work,  and  directed 
to  new  lines  of  investigation. 

Of  all  the  students  of  nature  from  the  time  of  Aristotle  to  the  cen- 
tury of  Linne,  none  requires  present  notice  as  a  systematic  zoologist 
except  John  Ray,  who  was  the  true  scientific  father  of  the  Swede. 
Bom  in  1627,  he  flourished  in  England  during  the  last  quarter  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  died  only  two  years  before  the  birth  of 
Linne. 

JOHN  RAY. 

It  was  long  ago  truly  affirmed  by  Edwin  Lankester  that  "  Ray  has 
been  pronounced  by  Cuvier  to  be  the  first  true  systematist  of  the 
animal  kingdom,  and  the  principal  guide  of  Linne  in  the  department 
of  nature."  ^  He,  indeed,  made  a  pathway  in  the  zoological  field 
which  Linne  was  glad  to  follow,  and  to  some  extent  he  anticipated 
the  brightest  thoughts  of  the  great  Swede.  He,  for  example,  in  a 
dichotomous  ^stematic  table  of  the  animal  kingdom,"  first  combined 
the  lunged  fish-like  aquatic  and  hairy  quadruped  viviparous  animals 
in  a  special  category  (Vivipara)  in  contrast  with  all  the  other  ver- 

'  Address  before  the  Section  of  Sfstematlc  Zoology,  Seventh  Interoatlonal 
Zoological  CongresB,  Auguet  20,  1007.— Reprinted  from  Science,  Oct  IS,  1907, 
with  verbal  modifications  and  additional  notes. 

*  Lankester,  Edwin.  "  The  Correspondence  of  John  Eay,"  1S48,  p.  4S5. 

"  Ray,  John,  "  Synopsis  Methodica  Anlmallum  Quadrupedum  et  Serpentlnt 
Generis,"  1683,  p.  53. 


D,a,l,z.:lbyC^Ogle 


460  ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

tebrates,  leaving  to  Linn^  only  the  privilege  of  igiiving  a  name  to  the 
class.  He  recognized  a  group  of  lung-bearing  animals  distinguished 
by  a  heart  with  a  single  ventricle,  including  quadrupeds  and  serpents, 
and  thus  appreciated  better  than  Linn6  the  class  which  the  latter 
named  Amphibia.  He  likewise  gave  the  anatomical  characters,  based 
on  the  heart,  blood,  and  lungs,  which  Linn4  used  for  his  classes.* 

THE  BEOINNINOa   OF   8Y9TEHATIC   ZOOLOOT. 

Systematic  zoology  is  a  vast  subject,  and  any  address  devoted  to  it 
must  necessarily  be  very  partial.  It  need  only  be  partial  for  such  an 
assemblage  of  masters  in  zoology  as  I  have  the  great  honor  to  ad- 
dress, and  I  shall  confine  the  present  discourse  to  a  review  of  some 
of  the  elements  which  have  made  systematic  zoology  what  it  now  is. 
I  will  venture,  too,  to  submit  reasons  why  we  may  have  to  take  a 
somewhat  different  view  of  the  achievements  of  some  men  than  did 
our  early  predecessors.  If  in  doing  so  I  may  appear  to  be  dogmatic, 
I  entreat  you  in  advance  to  insert  all  the  "  ifs  "  and  "  I  thinks  "  and 
"  perhaps "  that  you  may  deem  to  be  necessary.  For  the  present 
purpose,  the  work  of  two  who  exercised,  each  for  a  considerable  time, 
a  paramount  influence  on  opinion  and  procedure  deserves  notice, 
especially  because  there  has  been  much  misapprehension  respecting 
their  benefits  to  natural  science.  The  two  were  Carl  Linne  and  Georges 
Cuvier;  the  one  exercised  dictatorship  from  the  middle  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  till  some  time  after  its  close;  the  other  was  almost 

°Tbe  "  Synopsis  Metbodlca  Antmaltum  Quadrupedum  et  SerpeDtlni  Oeoerls" 
of  Hay  IB  very  scarce,  and  the  account  of  his  views  given  In  TBiions  works 
nilaleadlng ;  therefore  his  arrangement  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  so  far  as  the 
Vertebrates  ore  involved,  Is  here  reproduced  (from  p.  53)  : 

AnimaHum  Tabula  f/eneralt». 
Animalia  sunt  vel 

Sahguinea,  e6que  vel 

Pidmone  rwrptroniio,  corde  ventriculis  ptredito, 
Duobut 

Vivipara  [=Mamhaija  LJnn.] 

iAqualica;  cetaceum  genus. 
7>rrafr«i,  Quadmpedia,  vel,  Utifanotietiam  complectantur, 
pilosa.    Animalia  bujus  tt^DeriB  amphibia  terrestriboe 


Oviphra,  Aves  [=Avbs  linn.] 
Uaieo,  Quadrupedia  vivipara  &  Serpentes.     [=Aiiphibia  pp.  lino.] 
£rancftiur«ptran<ta,  Pisceasongumei  pneterCetoceos  omnee.   [=PiacsBaiid 
Amphibia  nantss  linn.] 
Exangtiia.     [^Invkbtebraxa] 
The  arrangement  of  the  Invertebrates  Is  not  better  (nar  worse)  than  that  of 
Llnnfi;  that  of  the  Vertebrates  la  better.    Furthermore,  Ray  segregated  the 
Vertebrates  (as  Sangnlnea)  from  the  Invertebrates  (Exangnla),  which  wise 
arrangement  LimiS  did  not  adopt. 


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CAROLUS  LiNNfCUS  (CARL  V 


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STSTEMATIO  ZOOLOGY — GILL.  461 

equally  dominant  from  the  first  quarter  of  the  last  century  to  well 
into  the  third  quarter.  No  other  men  approached  either  of  these  two 
in  influence  on  the  work  of  contemporaries  or  successors.  The  evil 
features,  as  well  as  the  good,  were  transmitted  to  and  adopted  by 
later  authors.  Therefore,  a  notice  of  those  features  may  assist  us  to 
a  correct  judgment  of  the  history  of  our  subject,  and  may  help  to 
show  why  the  disciples  of  the  great  Swede,  as  well  as  the  great  French- 
man, complicated  many  problems  they  investigated.  Sufficient  time 
has  elapsed  to  enable  us  to  judge  knowingly  and  impartially. 

CARL   VON    LINNE. 

Linn£  needs  no  present  eulogy,  for  this  year  his  praises  have  re- 
sounded over  the  whole  world.  Bom  just  two  centuries  ago  (1707) ,  he 
published  the  first  edition  of  the  "  Systema  Natures  "  in  1735,  and  his 
last  (twelfth)  in  1766.  The  various  editions  mark  to  some  extent 
the  steps  of  man's  progress  in  the  knowledge  of  nature  during  the 
time  limited  by  the  respective  dates. 

Linne's  industry  was  great,  his  sympathies  widespread,  and  his 
method  in  large  part  good.  Compare  the  "  Systema  Naturee  "  and 
other  publications  of  Linne  with  works  published  by  earlier  authors, 
and  the  reason  for  the  active  appreciation  and  esteem  which  greeted 
his  work  will  be  obvious.  The  typographical  dress  and  the  clearness 
of  expression  left  no  doubt  as  to  what  the  author  meant,  and  enabled 
the  student  to  readily  grasp  his  intentions.  His  boldness  in  giving 
expression  to  new  ideas  insured  success  when  they  deserved  it. 
Although  Ray  had  already  recognized  four  of  the  great  groups  or 
classes  of  vertebrates,  he  had  not  named  two  of  them,  and  there  were 
vernacular  terms  only  for  the  birds  and  fishes.  Linne,  for  the  first 
time,  applied  names  to  the  other  groups,  and  admirable  ones  they 
were.  Mammalia  and  Amphibia  were  the  coinage  of  Linne  and  are 
still  retained;  Mammalia  or  mammals  by  all;Amphibia  or  amphibi- 
ans by  the  majority  for  one  of  the  classes  now  adopted. 

A  great  advance,  too — an  inspiration  of  genius,  indeed — was  the 
segregation  of  the  animals  combined  under  the  class  of  mammals. 
Popular  prejudice  was  long  universal  and  is  still  largely  against  the 
idea  involved.  Sacred  writ  and  classical  poetry  were  against  it.  It 
seemed  quite  unnatural  to  separate  aquatic  whales  from  the  fishes 
which  they  resembled  so  much  in  form  and  associate  them  with  ter- 
i-estrial  hairy  quadrupeds.  How  difficult  it  was  to  accustom  one's  self 
to  the  idea  is  hard  for  naturalists  of  the  present  day  to  appreciate, 
Linne  himself  was  not  reconciled  to  the  idea  till  1758,  although  Ray 
had  more  than  hinted  at  it  over  three-score  years  before.  At  last, 
however,  in  no  uncertain  terms,  he  promulgated  it.     It  was  a  triumph 


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452  ANNUAL  BEPOET  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

of  science  over  popular  impressioDs ;  of  anatomical  consideration  over 
superficial  views. 

But  mingled  with  the  great  benefactions  were  many  views  which 
long  influenced  naturalists,  but  which  modem  zoology  has  over- 
thrown. 

LINN^AN   CI.A98E8. 

After  the  tentative  arrangements  published  in  the  original  first, 
second,  and  sixth  editions  of  the  "  Systems,"  Linne  thoroughly  re- 
vised his  work,  and  first  consistently  applied  the  binomial  method  of 
nomenclature  to  all  species  in  the  tenth  edition,  published  in  1758. 
Six  classes  were  admitted  with  equal  rank,  no  category  being  recog- 
nized between  the  class  and  kingdom.  The  classes  were  the  Mam- 
malia or  mammals,  Aves  or  birds,  Amphibia,  Pisces,  Insecta,  and 
Vermes.  The  first  four  of  these  classes  correspond  mainly  to  the 
.Vves  and  nameless  groups  of  Ray, 

During  the  Linnaan  period  of  activity  the  invertebrates  were  little 
understood,  and  his  treatment  of  that  enormous  host,  referred  to  his 
two  classes  Insecta  and  Vermes,  contrasts  rather  than  compares  with 
that  at  the  present  time.  Naturally,  the  vertebrates  were  much  better 
comprehended,  and  all  such  then  known,  with  a  single  exception, 
were  distributed  among  four  clas.ses  just  named,  the  Mammalia, 
Aves,  Amphibia,  and  Pisces.  The  solitary  exception  of  exclusion  of 
a  true  vertebrate  from  its  fellows  was  the  reference  of  the  genus 
Myxine  to  the  Vermes,  next  to  Teredo,  the  shipworm.  The  first  two 
classes  were  adopted  with  the  same  limits  they  now  have,  but  the 
Amphibia  and  Pisces  were  constituted  in  a  truly  remarkable  manner. 
The  class  of  Amphibia  was  a  creation  of  Linne,  and  was  simply  con- 
trasted with  his  Pisces  by  having  a  lung  of  some  kind  or  other 
{'^  pulmone  arbitrario  ^^) ,  while  the  Pisces  have  exposed  branchiie 
{"branchiin  extemU").  The  Amphibia,  thus  defined,  were  made  to 
include  as  orders:  (1)  Reptiles,  or  Reptilia,  having  feet;  (2)  Ser- 
pentes,  footless,  and  (3)  Nantes,  having  fins. 

Under  the  Nantes  were  first  grouped  the  lampreys,  the  selachians, 
the  anglers  (Zo/)Aiiw),and  thesturgeons  {Acipeiiser).  In  the  twelfth 
edition  were  added  Cycloptems,  Balisfes,  Ostracion,  Tetrodon,  Dio- 
don,  Centriscus,  Syngnathus,  and  Pegasus.  The  Nantes  were  added 
to  the  Amphibia  partly  because  of  the  assumption  that  the  branchial 
pouches  of  the  lampreys  and  the  selachians  were  lungs  and  partly  on 
the  authority  of  Dr.  Alexander  Garden,  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  who  mis- 
took the  peculiar  transversely  expanded  and  partly  double  air-blad- 
der of  Diodoh  ioT  a  lung.  With  such  errors  of  observation  as  a  basis, 
Linne  apparently  assumed  that  all  the  associated  genera  also  had 
lungs.    Gmelin,  in  his  edition  of  the  "  Systems  Naturte  "  (generally 


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SYSTEMATIC  ZOOLOGY — GILL.  453 

called  the  thirteenth),  corrected  this  error,  and  returned  all  the 
Nantes  to  the  class  of  Pisces,  thus  reverting  to  the  older  view  of  Linne 
himself.  The  Pisces  of  Linn£  included  only  the  genera  left  after  the 
exclusion  of  those  just  named  and  also  of  Myxine,  which  last  was 
referred  to  the  class  of  Vermes  between  the  leeches  {Birudo)  and  the 
fihipworms  {Teredo). 

UKHiEAN   OENEBA. 

The  genera  of  Linn€  were  intended  and  thought  by  him  to  be  natu- 
ral," and  natural  groups  some  of  the  so-called  genera  were,  but  pres- 
ent opinion  assigns  to  most  of  them  a  very  different  valuation  from 
that  given  in  the  "  System  Naturte."  Some  of  the  genera  of  Inverte- 
brates were  extremely  comprehensive.  For  example,  Asterias  in- 
cluded all  the  members  of  the  modem  classes  of  Stelleroidea  or  Aste- 
roidea  and  Ophiuroidea;  Echinus  was  coequal  with  the  Echinoidea; 
Cancer^  Scorpio,  Aranea,  Scolopendra,  and  Julus  were  essentially  co- 
extensive with  orders  or  even  higher  groups  of  tlie  zoologists  of  the 
present  time.  Others  were  so  heterogeneous  that  they  can  not  be  com- 
pared with  modern  groups.  Thus  Holotkuria,  in  the  last  edition  of 
the  "  Systema,"  was  made  to  include  four  holothurians  in  the  modern 
E«n8e,  a  worm,  a  physaliid,  and  three  tunicates;  in  other  terms,  the 
so-called  genus  included  representatives  of  four  different  classes  and 
even  branches  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

It  has  been  stated  by  various  writers  that  the  genera  of  Linn€  were 
essentially  coequal  with  the  families  of  modern  authors,  but,  as  has 
been  indicated,  such  is  by  no  means  the  case.  Other  striking  excep- 
tions to  the  generalization  may  be  shown. 

Not  a  few  of  the  genera  of  Vertebrates,  although  not  of  the  super- 
lative rank  as  several  of  the  Invertebrates,  were  equivalent  to  orders 
of  modern  zoology ;  such  were,  in  the  main,  Simla,  Testudo,  Venper- 
tilio,  and  Rana.  Simia  included  all  the  anthropoid  Primates  except 
man;  VespertUio  was  equivalent  to  the  order  Chiroptera  less  the 
genus  Noctilio;  Testudo  was  exactly  equal  to  the  order  Testudinata  or 
Chelonia;  Rana  to  the  order  Salientia  or  Anura.  A  number  of  other 
genera  of  one  or  few  species  known  to  Linn^  were  also  of  ordinal  or 
subordinal  value. 

In  striking  contrast  with  the  range  of  variation  of  such  genera 
were  others,  of  which  several,  well  represented  in  northern  waters, 
may  be  taken  as  examples.  Scorpana  was  distinguished  simply  be- 
cause it  had  skinny  tags  on  the  head ; '  Lahnts  because  it  had  free 
membranous  extensions  behind  the  dorsal  spines;"  and  Cohitis  be- 

'  Classts  et  ordo  est  saplentlte.  genuB  et  si>eclefl  Natane  opus. — Linn.  Syst. 
Nat.,  I,  13. 
*  Scorpana.    Caput  elrrla  adspersum. 
"  Labrvs.    Pinna  dorsallB  ramento  post  spinas  notata. 

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454  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  XBVI. 

cause  it  had  the  caudal  peduncle  of  regular  height  •  and  scarcely  con- 
stricted as  usual  in  fishes.  These  characters  are  of  such  slight  syste- 
matic importance  that  they  have  not  been  used  in  the  diagnoses  of  the 
genera  by  modem  ichthyologists.  Further,  use  of  them  misled  even 
LinnS  as  well  as  his  successors.  Some  of  the  consequences  may  be 
noticed. 

The  close  affinity  of  the  "  Norway  haddock  "  or  Swedish  Kungsfisk 
or  Rodfisk  {Sebastea  marinits)  to  the  typical  ScorpcBna  was  unper- 
ceived  and  that  species  referred  to  Perca  and  even  confounded  with  a 


The  tj^ical  Lahri  of  the  northern  seas  do,  indeed,  have  filiform 
processes  of  the  fin  membrane  behind  the  dorsal  spines,  but  most  of 
the  species  referred  by  Linnd  to  Lahrm  do  not,  and  among  them  is  a 
eonunon  sunfish  {auritus  =  Lepomis  auritus)  of  America. 

The  genus  Cobitis  was  made  to  include  Cyprinodonts  of  the  genera 
Anableps  and  Fundulua,  and  thus  were  associated  fishes  differen- 
tiated from  the  Loaches  by  characters  of  immeasurably  more  impor- 
tance than  the  trivial  one  which  was  the  sole  cause  of  their  juxta- 
position. 

Another  conspicuous  instance  of  a  trivial  character  used  as  generic, 
and  contrasting  with  very  important  differentials  of  species  included 
under  the  same  genus,  is  furnished  by  Esox.  The  essential  Linntean 
diagnostic  character  is  the  protrusion  of  the  lower  jaw.*  Nine  spe- 
cies were  referred  to  the  genus  which  represent  no  less  than  eight 
distinct  and,  mostly,  widely  separated  families  of  modem  system- 
atists."  Several  of  the  species  do  not  have  the  prominent  lower  jaw. 
and  one  of  them  (Lepisostens  osseus  of  modem  ichthyology)  is  espe- 
cially distinguished  by  Linn^  himself  on  account  of  the  shorter  lower 
jaw.* 

But  the  most  marked  cases  of  insignificance  of  characters  used  to 
differentiate  by  the  side  of  those  serving  for  combination  are  found 
in  the  class  Amphibia. 

The  genus  Lacerta  is  made  to  include  all  but  one  of  the  pedate 
Lizards,  and  the  Crocodilians  as  well  as  the  salamanders,  but  the 
*'  dragons,"  or  Agamoid  lizards  with  expansible  ribs,  are  set  apart  in 
an  independent  genus.' 

'Cobitii.    Corpus  vlx  ad  caudatu  aDgustatam. 

'  Etox.    AlflDdlbula  inferior  longlor,  punctata.     Sjst  Nat,  '5S ;  '66,  424. 

"The  species  are  <1)  Sphyrtma  ( Sphyrtenidse,  (2)  o9»eus  (Leplsosteldn), 
(3)  Vulpeg  (Albulldie),  (4)  Sffnodu^  (Sjnodontlde),  (5)  iudug  (Lncllda). 
(6)  belonc  (Eaoclda).  (7)  hrpxilvs  aa&  (8)  bTaaitiensU  (Exoccetidie).  and 
(0)  gymnocephnlua  (Clilrocentrldffi).    Syst.  Nat.,  '66,  513-517. 

'  Mandibula  fnferlqr  brevior.    Syst  Nat.,  '66,  516. 

e  Lacerta.  "Corpus  (Testa  Allsve)  nudum,  caudatum"  contrasting  witb 
Dra&t.    "  Corpus  Alls  volatile,"     Syst.  Nat.,  '66,  349. 


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SYSTEMATIC  ZOOLOGY QILL.  455 

The  genus  Coluber  was  intended  to  embrace  all  the  snakes,  except 
those  with  a  rattle  or  undivided  abdominal  and  caudal  scutes,"  and 
hence  the  vipers  and  copperheads,  so  very  closely  related  to  the  rattle- 
snakes, were  combined  with  ordinary  snakes  instead  of  with  their 
true  relations,* 

Many  of  the  genera  of  LinnS,  in  fact,  were  very  incongruous,  and 
the  great  Swede  not  infrequently  failed  to  interpret  and  apply  their 
characters  in  the  allocation  of  species.  A  few  cases  furnished  by 
t-ontmon  European  or  American  fishes  will  illustrate  what  is  meant. 

Specimens  of  the  common  gunnell  or  butterfish  were  received  by 
Liong  at  different  times  and  once  referred  to  his  genus  Ophidian  and 
at  another  time  to  the  genus  Slenniusy  and  the  same  species  stands 
under  both  names  in  the  last  two  editions  of  his  "  Systema." 

The  common  toadfish  of  the  Americans  (Opsanua  tau)  was  placed 
in  the  genus  Gadus  {tau)  and  a  nearly  related  species  of  the  Indian 
Ocean  was  referred  to  the  genus  Cottus  (grunnie-m). 

The  common  ten-pounder  of  the  American'coast  served  as  the  type 
and  only  species  of  the  genus  Elops,  and  also  as  a  second  species  of 
the  genus  Argentina,  although  the  characters  given  were  in  decided 
discord  with  those  used  for  the  latter  genus,  and  in  perfect  harmony 
with  those  employed  for  the  distinction  of  the  former  genus.  Indeed, 
it  might  be  properly  assumed  that  the  ascription  of  the  Argentina 
Carolina  to  Argentina  was  simply  a  matter  of  misplacement  of  a 
manuscript  leaf,  and  such  it  may  be  even  now  considered,  although 
the  error  is  continued  in  the  twelfth  edition,  having  escaped  the 
notice  of  Linn€. 

UNNJEAN    NOMENCLATURE. 

The  code  of  nomenclature  devised  by  Linne  was  in  many  respects 
admirable,  but  he  did  not  provide  sufficiently  for  the  principle  of 
priority  in  nomenclature.  He  set  the  example  of  changing  a  name 
given  by  himself  or  by  others,  when  he  thought  a  better  one  could  be 
substituted;  he  also  felt  at  liberty  to  change  the  intent  of  a  genus. 
A  few  examples  of  many  cases  may  illustrate. 

In  1756  the  name  Salacia  was  given  to  the  Portuguese  man-of-war; 
in  1758  the  name  Holothuria  was  substituted ;  in  1766  the  latter  name 
was  retained,  but  with  a  very  different  diagnosis,  and  for  the 
first  time  four  holothurians  in  the  modem  sense  of  the  woi'd  were 
introduced. 

In  1756  the  names  Cenckris  and  Crotalophorua  were  used  for 
genera,  two  years  later  renamed  Boa  and  Crotalus.    In  1756  Artedi's 

'  Coluber.  "  Scuta  abdomlnalln ;  squamie  caudales  "  coDtraeting  with  "  Cro- 
talus. Scutn  abdomlnalia  caudallaque  cum  crepitaculo "  and  "  Doa.  Scuta 
abdonlnalla  caudallaque  absque  crepitaculo."    Syst.  Nat.,  'G6,  340. 

*As  an  example  of  Coluber  a  figure  (tab.  3,  fig.  2)  of  a  suake  with  venom 
fangs  wrtB  given. 


1780—08 33 


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466  ANNUAL   HEPOHT   SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION,   1907. 

name,  Catodon,  was  retained  for  the  sperm  whale,  and  Artedi's  Phy- 
geter  mainly  for  the  killers  (Oreo) ;  but  in  1758  Pkyaeter  was  taken 
tip  for  the  sperm  whale,  for  which  it  has  been  retained  ever  since, 
except  by  a  very  few  naturalists. 

In  1756  and  1758  Ophidian  was  used  for  an  acanthopterygian  jug* 
ular  fish — the  common  northern  butterfish,  or  gunnell,  now  generally 
called  Pholis — but  in  1766,  under  the  guise  of  Opkidium,  it  was 
transferred  to  the  Apodes  and  primarily  used  for  the  soft-finned 
(supposedly)  apodal  type,  which  is  still  known  as  the  genus  Opki- 
dium . 

In  1756  and  1758  TrichechuB  was  used  for  the  manatee  alone,  while 
the  walrus  vt&s  correctly  associated  with  the  seals,  but  in  1766  the 
very  retrograde  step  was  taken  of  associating  the  walrus  with  the 
manatee  and  retaining  for  the  two  the  name  Trichechva.  Many 
naturalists  persist  to  the  present  day  in  keeping  the  name  for  the 
walrus  alone. 

The  example  thus  set  by  the  master  was  naturally  followed  by  his 
disciples.  Many  felt  at  liberty  to  change  names  and  range  of  genera 
as  they  thought  best  and  great  confusion  resulted,  which  has  con- 
tinued more  or  less  down  to  this  year  of  grace,  1907. 

Many  of  the  evils  which  have  been  the  consequence  could  have 
been  prevented  or  rectified  if  the  British  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science  had  been  logical  in  the  code  (often  admirable) 
which  it  published  in  1842.  Instead,  however,  of  accepting  the  edi- 
tion of  the  "System  Natune  "  (tenth)  in  which  Linn6  first  intro- 
duced the  binomial  nomenclature  as  the  starting  point,  they  pre- 
ferred homage  to  an  individual  rather  than  truth  lo  a  principle,  and 
insisted  on  the  twelfth  edition  as  the  initial  volume  of  zoological 
nomenclature."  Tlie  unfortunate  consequences  have  been  manifold. 
Such  consequences  are  the  natural  outcome  of  illogical  and  ill- 
considered  action  and  must  always  sooner  or  later  follow.  After 
these  many  years  almost  all  naturalists  have  acceded  to  the  adoption 
of  the  tenth  edition. 

■  Tbr  aildlllon  of  some  geneni  aod  man;  species  in  the  twelfth  edition  marked 
an  advance  in  that  re8|>ect  of  Linn^s  knowlnlge,  bat  otherwise  no  flnner  grasp 
vt  (he  materials  on  hand  became  manifest.  On  the  contrary,  one  ftunlllar  with 
the  siiccies  can  scarcely  fall  (o  recognize  an  Increase  of  a  t«idency  to  Impatience 
In  dealing  with  details  and  not  seldom  a  snap  Judgment  In  the  allocation  of 
BIM-clps  in  the  genera.  Indeed,  under  the  circumstances,  it  wonid  have  been 
better  If  the  last  edition  bad  never  been  published.  No  one  who  has  not  critic- 
ally examined  the  Systema  can  have  an  Idea  of  the  extoit  of  discrepancy  be- 
tween Ibe  generic  dlagno9t?s  and  cont^ita,  the  dnpllcatlon  of  species  nnder  dllfer- 
ent  fipnera,  the  mistakes  of  synonymy,  and  other  fniills.  It  has  been  affirmed 
thnt  Strickland,  the  chief  fornmlator  of  the  R.  A,  Oixle  of  IM%  had  preferred 
the  lenth  edition,  hut  wax  ui-erruled  by  bis  less  Informed  associates  of  the  com- 
millee  on  nomenclature. 

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SYSTEMATIC  ZOOLOGY — QILL.  457 

If  the  vertebrates  were  so  much  misunderstood  by  Linii4,  it  may 
naturally  be  supposed  that  the  invertebrates  were  equally  or  still 
less  understood.  Only  one  interesting  case,  however,  can  be  referred 
to.  In  the  ninth  edition  of  the  "  Systema  Nature  "  Linn^  had  a 
monotypic  genus  Salacia  (p.  79)  with  a  species  named  Pkyaalia 
which  was  evidently  a  Phyaalia  as  long  understood.  In  the  tenth 
edition  the  name  Eolothuria  was  substituted  for  Salacia  and  no  holo- 
thurians  in  the  modem  sense  were  recognized.  In  the  twelfth  edition 
all  the  species  of  the  former  edition  were  retained,  but  the  diagnosis 
was  altered  and  four  holothurians  of  recent  authors  were  added,  and 
thus  animals  of  different  subkingdoms  or  branches  were  confounded 
in  the  genus.  Now,  if  we  accept  the  tenth  edition  of  the  "  Systema  " 
as  the  starting  of  our  nomenclature,  obviously  Holothuria  can  not 
be  used  as  it  has  been  for  these  many  years,  and  it  must  be  revived 
in  place  of  Phyaalia,  notwithstanding  the  laments  of  those  who  are 
distressed  by  such  a  change.  The  echinoderms  now  called  holo- 
thurians must  be  renamed.  We  can  imagine  the  clamor  that  will 
arise  when  some  one  attempts  the  change." 

Another  fault  of  less  moment — indeed  a  matter  of  taste  chiefly — 
was  committed  by  Linn£.  Very  numerous  names  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals occur  in  the  writings  of  various  ancient  authors  and  were  mostly 
unidentifiable  in  the  time  of  Linn^.  He  drew  upon  this  store  with 
utter  disregard  of  the  consequences  for  names  of  new  genera.  Most 
of  the  ancient  names  can  now  be  identified  and  associated  with  the 
species  to  which  they  were  of  old  applied,  and  the  incongruity  of  the 
old  and  new  usage  is  striking.  For  example,  Dasy-pus,  a  Greek  name 
of  the  hare,  was  perverted  to  the  armadillos;  TrocMlue,  a  name  of  an 
Egyptian  plover,  was  misused  for  the  humming  birds;  Amia,  a  name 
for  a  tunny,  was  transferred  to  the  bowfin  of  North  America.  There 
was  not  the  slightest  justification  for  such  perversion  of  the  names 
in  analogy  or  fitness  of  any  kind ;  there  was  no  real  excuse  for  it.  At 
the  commencement  of  Linne's  career  (1737),  the  learned  Professor 
Dillenius,  of  Oxford,  strongly  protested  against  such  misusage  for 
plant  genera,  but  the  sinner  persisted  in  the  practice  till  the  end. 
Naturally  his  scholars  and  later  nomenclators  followed  the  bad  ex- 
ample, and  systematic  zoology  is  consequently  burdened  with  an 
immense  number  of  the  grossest  and  most  misleading  misapplications 
of  ancient  names  revolting  to  the  classicist  and  historian  alike. 

"  After  Dndisturbed  posseseton  of  ttie  name  for  nearly  a  century  and  a  half, 
two  naturallatB  IndepcDdently,  tn  ttie  same  month  (Anguet.  1007),  challeDged 
tbe  rlgbt  of  tha  Holotburlans  to  tbe  name  Holothuria,  and  contended  tbat  tlie 
typical  bolothiirlens  of  tbe  modems  sbould  be  renamed — Bahadschia  for  tbe 
genus  and  Bohad»chHdm  for  tbe  family.  T.  Gill  publlsbed  bis  remarks  in 
Science  for  August  9  (p.  185)  and  F.  Pocbe  In  tbe  Zoologlscber  Anzelger  for 
August  Sa  (p.  106). 

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458  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

The  influence  of  LinnS  continued  to  be  felt  and  his  system  to  be 
adopted  until  a  new  century  had  for  some  time  run  its  course.  Mean- 
while, in  France,  a  great  zoologist  was  developing  a  new  system  which 
was  published  at  length  in  1817,  and  anew  with  many  modifications 
a  dozen  years  later  (1829). 

aEOBQES  LEOPOLD  CHRETIEN  FREDBBIC  DAGOBERT  CUVIEB. 

Georges  Cuvier  (bom  1769)  claimed"  that  before  him  naturalists, 
like  Linne,  distributed  all  the  invertebrates  among  two  classes.**  In 
1795  he  published  an  account  of  memorable  anatomical  investiga- 
tions of  the  invertebrates  and  ranged  them  all  under  six  elates: 
Mullusks,  crustaceans,  insects,  worms,  echinoderms,  and  zoophytes. 
This  was  certainly  a  great  improvement  over  previous  systematic 
efforts,  but  from  our  standpoint  crude  in  many  respects.  It  was, 
however,  necessarily  crude,  for  naturalists  had  to  learn  how  to  look 
as  well  as  to  think. 

Cuvier  later  essayed  to  do  for  the  animal  kingdom  alone  what 
LinnS  did  for  all  the  kingdoms  of  nature.  So  greatly  had  the  num- 
ber of  known  animals  increased,  however,  that  he  did  not  attempt  to 
give  diagnoses  of  the  species,  but  merely  named  them,  mostly  in  foot- 
notes. His  superior  knowledge  of  anatomy  enabled  him  to  iostitnte 
great  improvements  in  the  system.  He  also  first  recognized  the  desir- 
ability of  combining  in  major  groups  classes  concerning  which  a  num- 
ber of  general  propositions  could  be  postulated. 

It  was  in  1812  that  Cuvier  presented  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences ' 
his  celebrated  memoir  on  a  new  associationof  the  classes  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  proposing  a  special  category  which  he  called  branch  (em- 
branchment), and  marshaling  the  classes  recognized  by  him  under 
four  primary  groups:  (1)  the  Vertebrates  or  Animaux  vertebres; 
(2)  the  MoUu^ks  or  Animaux  moUusques;  (3)  the  Articulates  or 
Animaux  articules,  and  (4)  the  Radiates  or  Animaux  rayonnes. 
These  were  adopted  in  the  "  R^gne  Animal."  In  the  first  (1817) 
edition,  as  in  the  second  (1829-1830),  nineteen  classes  were  recognized, 
and  in  the  latter  too  little  consideration  was  given  to  the  numerous 
propositions  for  the  improvement  of  the  system  that  had  been  sug- 
gested and  urged  meanwhile. 

It  has  been  generally  assumed  that  Cuvier's  work  was  fully  up  to  i 
the  high  mark  of  the  times  of  publication,  and  for  many  years  the 
classification  which  he  gave  was  accepted  by  the  majority  of  natural- 
ists as  the  standard  of  right.  To  such  extent  was  this  the  case  that 
his  classification  of  fishes  and  the  families  then  defined  was  retained 
to  at  least  the  penultimate  decade  of  the  last  century  by  the  first 

"R^Kne  Anlmnl.  1817.  I.  61. 

*  Soopoll  ant]  Storr  ndmltted  more  claftaeR. 

0  Ann.  MUB.  HlBt.  Nat,  Parle,  1S12.  1»,  73-84, 


Geohges  CuviER,  1769-1832. 


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systKMatic  zoology — GllX.  459 

ichthyologists  of  France.  Nevertheless  the  work  was  quite  backward 
in  some  respects  and  exercised  a  retardative  influence  in  that  the  pre- 
eminent regard  in  which  the  great  Frenchman  was  held  and  the  pro- 
clivity to  follow  a  leader  kept  many  from  paying  any  attention  to 
superior  work  emanating  from  Cuvier's  contemporaries. 

It  is  by  no  means  always  the  naturalist  who  enjoys  the  greatest 
reputation  for  the  time  being  that  anticipates  future  conclusions.  A 
Frenchman  who  held  a  small  place  in  the  world's  regard  in  compari- 
son with  Cuvier  advanced  far  ahead  of  him  in  certain  ideas.  Henri 
Marie  Ducrotay  de  Blainville  (1777-1850)  was  the  man.  When 
Cuvier  (1817)  associated  the  marsupials  in  the  same  order  as  the  true 
carnivores  and  the  monotremes  with  the  edentates,  Blainville  (1816) 
contrasted  the  marsupials  and  monotremes  as  Implacentals  ("  Didel- 
phes")  against  the  ordinary  Placentals  ("  Monodelphes").  ^Vhile 
later  (1829)  Cuvier  still  approximated  the  marsupials  to  the  carni- 
vores, but  in  a  distinct  order  between  the  carnivores  and  the  rodents, 
and  still  retained  the  monotremes  as  a  tribe  of  the  edentates,  Blain- 
ville (1834)  recognized  the  marsupials  and  monotremes  as  distinct 
subclasses  of  mammals  and  had  proposed  the  names  Monodelphes, 
Didelphes  and  Ornithodelphes,  still  largely  used  by  the  most  ad- 
vanced of  modem  theorologists. 

Against  the  action  of  Cuvier  in  ranging  all  the  .hoofed  mammals 
in  two  orders,  the  pachyderms  (including  the  elephants)  and  the 
ruminants,  may  be  cited  the  philosophical  ideas  of  Blainville  (1816), 
who  combined  the  same  in  two  very  different  orders,  the  Ongulo- 
grades  and  the  Gravigrades  (elephants),  and  distributed  the  normal 
Ongulogrades  under  two  groups,  those  with  unpaired  hoofs  (Im- 
paridigitates)  and  those  with  paired  hoofs  (Paridigitates),  thus 
anticipating  the  classification  of  Owen  and  recent  naturalists  by  very 
many  years." 

Cuvier's  treatment  of  the  amphibia  of  Linng  equally  contrasted  with 
Blainville's.  As  late  as  1829  the  great  French  naturalist  still  treated 
the  batrachians  as  a  mere  order  of  reptiles  of  a  single  family,  and  the 
crocodilians  as  a  simple  family  of  Saurians.  On  the  other  hand,  »s 
early  as  1816  Blainville  had  given  subclass  rank  to  the  naked  amphi- 
bians with  four  orders,  and  also  ordinal  rank  to  the  crocodilians,  and 
a  little  later  (1822)  he  raised  the  subclasses  to  class  rank.  Still  more, 
Blainville  early  (1816)  recognized  that  the  so-called  naked  serpents 

"  A  more  famllltir  Inetance  of  dltTerenoe  between  Cuvier  anH  Blainville  ia  that 
iDTolvlQK  the  ByRtcinatlc  relntlon  of  the  aye-nye  {Chdromgx  or  Daubentonia) . 
Cuvier,  to  the  end  of  his  life,  referred  It  to  the  Rodeots  and.  In  the  last  edition 
of  the  H5gne  Animal,  Interposed  11  between  the  Flylng-Squlrrela  (Pteromj/s)  and 
Marmots  {Arctomys).  Blainville,  on  the  contrary,  as  early  as  1810.  associated 
It  with  the  Lemurs,  to  which  it  Is  now  universally  conceded  to  be  most  nearly 
related.  Tbe  evidence  1b  very  conclusive.  Was  Cuvier  Doable  to  appreciate  Its 
Blgnlflcance  or  was  be  too  opinionated  to  recant  a  detenulnatlon  once  formed? 


1  once  formed  1 


460  ANNUAL  BEPOKT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,   IWI. 

were  true  amphibians  and  gave  satisfactory  reasons  for  his  assump- 
tion, though  to  the  last  Cuvier  (1829)  considered  them  to  be  merely 
a  family  of  the  ophidians.  As  Blainville  claimed,  he  based  his 
classification  on  anatomical  facts.' 

A  pupil  of  Blainville,  Ferdinand  L'Herminier  of  the  island  of 
Guadeloupe,  at  the  instance  and  following  the  lead  of  his  mast«r 
(1827),  undertook  the  comparative  study  of  the  sternal  apparatus 
of  birds  and  thereby  discovered  a  key  to  the  natural  relationship  of 
many  types  which  anticipated  by  many  years  the  views  now  current 
For  instance,  LTIerminier  first  correctly  appreciated  the  differences 
of  the  ostriches  and  penguins  from  other  birds,  the  difference  between 
the  passerines  and  swifts,  the  homogeneity  of  the  former,  and  the 
affinity  of  the  humming  birds  and  the  swifts.  Meanwhile  Cuvier, 
like  Linn^,  was  content  to  accept  as  the  basis  for  his  primary  classi- 
fication of  birds,  superficial  modifications  of  the  bill  and  feet  (toes 
and  nails)  which  led  to  many  unnatural  associations  as  well  as  sepa- 
rations, but  which  nevertheless  have  been  persisted  in  even  to  our  own 
day  by  many  ornithologists. 

Now  what  could  have  been  the  underlying  idea  which  hindered  the 
foremost  comparative  anatomist  of  his  age  from  the  recognition  of 
what  are  now  considered  to  be  elementary  truths  and  what  enabled 
Blainville  to  forge  so  far  ahead?  Cuvier  manifestly  allowed  himself 
to  be  influenced  by  the  sentiment  prevalent  in  his  time,  that  systematic 
zoology  and  comparative  anatomy  were  different  provinces.  It  may, 
indeed,  s^m  strange  to  make  the  charge  against  the  preeminent  anat- 
omist, that  he  failed  because  he  neglected  anatomy,  but  it  must  be- 
come evident  to  all  who  carefully  analyze  his  zooli^ical  works  that 
such  neglect  was  his  prime  fault.  He,  in  fact,  treated  zoology  and 
anatomy  as  distinct  disciplines,  or,  in  other  words,  he  acted  on  the 
principle  that  animals  should  be  considered  independently  from  two 
points  of  view,  the  superficial,  for  those  facts  easily  observed,  and 
the  profound,  or  anatomical  characters.  Blainville,  on  the  contrary, 
almost  from  the  first,  considered  animals  in  their  entirety  and  would 
estimate  their  relations  by  a  view  of  the  entire  organization.*     Yet 

■■ "  Ses  tmses  sont  anatomlquee  et  anrtout  llrtee  de  la  conalderalloD  da  crflne." 
Bull.  Scl.  Soc.  Phllora.,  Igl6,  p.  111. 

>  Tbe  comparison  instituted  between  Cuvier  and  Blainville  Is  more  than  Jnst 
to  tbe  former.  Cuvier  was  not  onlj  eigbt  ;ears  older  than  Blainville  but 
longer  and  better  established  in  scientific  circles;  be  bad  also  more  control  of 
sFientlBc  material  and  laboratories;  he  must  also  have  known  the  anatominl 
facts  as  well  as  Blainville.  The  dlfTerence  between  the  two,  therefore,  resulted 
from  the  manner  In  which  they  used  tbe  facilities  at  hand  and  the  latellectuit 
IKtwero  they  applied  to  the  conelderation  of  the  problems  involved.  While 
sometimes  Cuvier  more  nearly  anticipated  conclusions  now  adopted,  Blainville 
did  so  much  more  frequently.  If,  theu,  modern  biologists  are  right,  the  aian 
who  npprosched  nearest  to  them  must  be  regarded  pro  tonto  aa  the  superior. 


E  Blainville,  1777-1850. 


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Rerre  Latreille,  1762-1833. 


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SYSTEMATIC   ZOOLOGY QUA..  461 

the  sentiment  then  prevalent  was  reflected  by  one  who  enjoyed  a  high 
reputation  for  a  time  as'  a  "  philosophical  zoologist " — ^William  Swain- 
son.  In  "A  Treatise  on  the  Cieography  and  Classiflcation  of  Ani- 
mals "  (1836,  p.  173),  the  author  complained  that  "  Cuvier  rested  his 
distinctions  *  *  •  upon  characters  which,  however  good,  are  not 
always  comprehensible,  except  to  the  anatomist.  The  utility  of  his 
system,  for  general  use,  is  consequently  much  diminished,  and  it  gives 
tiw  student  an  impression  (certainly  an  erroneous  one)  that  the  in- 
terna!, and  not  the  external,  structure  of  an  animal  alone  decides  its 
place  in  nature."  It  was  long  before  such  a  mischievous  opinion  was 
discarded. 

Cuvier  was  regarded  almost  universally  by  his  contemporaries,  and 
long  afterwards,  in  the  words  of  his  intellectual  successor,  Louis 
Agessiz,  as  "  the  greatest  zoologist  of  all  time."  **  In  view  of  the  facts 
already  cited  and  innumerable  others  that  could  be  added,  however, 
the  contemporary  verdict  must  be  somewhat  modified.  Cuvier  was  a 
very  great  man  of  most  impressive  personality,  wide  versatility,  ex- 
traordinary industry,  vast  knowledge  of  zoological  and  anatomical 
details,  an  excellent  historian,  a  useful  critic,  and  of  good  judgment 
in  affairs  generally,  but,  although  a  greater  all-round  man,  as  a 
systematic  zoologist  he  was  not  the  equal  of  a  couple  of  his  French 
contemporaries,  Blainville  and  Latreille.  We  have  either  to  admit 
this  conclusion  or  confess  that  our  now  universally  admitted  views 
are  wrong.  Nevertheless,  Cuvier's  work  was  of  great  importance, 
and  he  first  brought  to  the  aid  of  systematic  zoology  the  new  science 
of  vertebrate  paleontology. 

CtrVIEH  AND   PALEONTOLOOT. 

The  animals,  and  especially  the  vertebrates,  of  past  ages  were  prac- 
tically unknown  to  the  early  zoologists,  and  when  they  had  large  col- 
lections, as  did  Volta  of  the  fishes  of  Mount  Boica,  they  identified 
them  with  modern  species,  or,  with  Scheuchzer,  might  consider  a 
giant  salamander  as  a  man  witness  of  the  deluge — "  Homo  diluvii 
testis !  "  It  was  not  until  Cuvier,  with  superior  knowledge  of  skeletal 
details,  examined  numerous  bones  unearthed  from  the  Tertiary  beds 
about  Paris,  that  the  complete  distinction  of  animals  of  ancient  forma- 
tions from  living  species  was  recognized.  Then  was  afforded  the  first 
glimpse  of  extinct  faunas  destined  to  far  outnumber  the  existing  one, 
but  so  imperfect  was  the  great  paleontologist's  foresight  of  what  lay 
in  store  for  the  future  that  he  enunciated  a  dogma  which  was  long  ac- 
cepted as  sacrosanct;  he  called  it  the  law  of  correlation  of  structure. 

nay  on  daflslflcation."  p.  286. 


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462  AHHUAL  BBPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

A  striking  and  even  amtising  example  of  its  ezpoeition  and  its  feulure 
I  have  previously  drawn  attention  to. 

Professor  Huxley,  in  his  excellent  "  Introduction  to  tiie  Classi6- 
cation  of  Animals"  (published  in  1869),  in  his  first  chapter,  *'  On 
Classification  in  Greneral,"  concluded  a  consideration  of  Cuvier's  law 
of  the -correlation  of  structure  with  the  following  paragraphs; 

Guvler,  tbe  more  servile  of  whose  Imitators  are  fond  of  citing  his  mistaken 
doctrines  as  to  tbe  nature  of  tbe  metbods  of  paleontology  against  tbe  conclndons 
of  logic  and  of  common  sense,  bas  pnt  this  so  strongly  that  I  can  not  refrain 
from  quoting  bis  wordai 

Bat  I  doubt  If  anyone  would  bare  divined,  If  nntangbt  by  obserratloo.  that 
all  ruminants  have  tbe  foot  cleft,  and  that  they  alone  have  It  I  doubt  If  any- 
one would  have  dimmed  that  there  are  frontal  horns  only  In  this  class;  that 
those  among  tbem  which  have  sharp  canines  for  the  most  part  lack  horns. 

However,  since  these  relations  are  constant,  they  must  have  some  sufficient 
canse;  but  since  we  are  Ignorant  of  it,  we  must  make  good  tbe  defect  of  tbe 
theory  by  means  of  observation ;  It  enables  us  to  establish  empirical  laws,  wblch 
become  almost  as  certain  as  rational  laws,  when  they  rest  on  sufficiently  re- 
peated obBervations ;  so  that  now,  whoso  sees  merely  the  print  of  a  cleft 
[fourchu]  foot  may  conclude  that  tbe  animal  which  left  this  Impression  rumi- 
nated, and  this  conclusion  Is  as  certain  as  any  other  in  physics  or  morale.  Tbta 
footprint  alone,  then,  yields  to  him  who  observes  It,  the  form  of  the  teetb.  the 
form  of  the  Jaws,  the  form  of  the  vortebrs,  the  form  of  all  the  bones  of  the 
lege,  of  the  thighs,  of  the  shoulders,  and  of  the  pelvis  of  tbe  animal  wblcb  baa 
passed  by ;  it  is  a  surer  mark  than  all  those  of  Zadlg. 

The  first  perusal  of  these  remarks  would  occasion  surprise  to  some 
and  immediately  induce  a  second,  more  careful  reading  to  ascertain 
whether  they  had  not  been  misunderstood.  Men  much  inferior  in  ca- 
pacity to  Cuvier  or  Huxley  may  at  once  recall  living  exceptions  to  the 
positive  statements  as  to  the  coordination  of  the  "  foot  cleft  "  with  the 
other  characteristics  specified.  One  of  the  most  common  of  domesti- 
cated animals — the  hog — may  come  up  before  the  "  mind's  eye,"  if  not 
the  actual  eye  at  the  moment,  to  refute  any  such  correlation  bb  was 
claimed.  Nevertheless,  notwithstanding  the  fierce  controversial  litera- 
ture centered  on  Huxley,  I  have  never  seen  an  allusion  to  the  lapse. 
And  yet  everyone  will  admit  that  the  hog  has  the  "  foot  cleft "  just  ' 
as  any  ruminant,  but  the  "  form  of  the  teeth  "  and  the  form  of  some 
Tertebrie  are  quite  different  from  those  of  the  ruminants  and,  of 
course,  the  multiple  stomach  and  adaptation  for  nunination  do  not 
exist  in  the  hog.  That  any  one  mammalogist  should  make  such  a 
slip  is  not  very  surprising,  but  that  a  second  equally  learned  should 
follow  in  his  steps  is  a  singular  psychological  curiosity.  To  make  tbe 
case  clearer  to  those  not  well  acquainted  with  mammals,  I  may  add 
that  because  the  feet  are  cleft  in  the  same  manner  in  the  hogs  as  in 

a »  Oaaemens  fosailee,"  ed.  4me,  tome  Ir,  p,  184. 


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Richard  Owen,  1804-1892. 


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JOM»NNES  MULLER.   ie01-185a 


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SYSTEMATIC  ZOOLOGY — GILL.  468 

the  niminants,"  both  groups  have  long  been  associated  in  the  same 
order  under  the  name  Paridigitates  or  Artiodactyles,  contrasting  with 
another  (comprising  the  tapirs,  rhinocerotids  and  horses)  called 
Imparidigitates  or  Perissodactyles.* 

I  need  scarcely  add  that  the  law  of  correlation  applied  by  Cuvier 
to  the  structures  of  ruminants  entirely  fails  in  the  case  of  many  ex- 
tinct mammals  discovered  since  Cuvier's  days,  Zadig  would  have 
been  completely  nonplussed  if  he  could  have  seen  the  imprint  of  an 
Agriochoerid,  a  Uintatheriid,  a  Menodontid,  or  a  Chalicotheriid. 

The  value  of  this  law  was  long  insisted  upon  by  many.  Some  of 
the  best  anatomists,  as  Blainville,  protested  against  its  univer^ltty, 
but  one  who  ranked  with  Cuvier  in  skill  and  knowledge  of  anatomy, 
Richard  Owen,  long  upheld  Cuvier's  view.  "  You  may  be  aware," 
he  wrote  in  1843,  "  that  M.  De  Blainville  contends  that  the  ground — 
viz,  a  single  bone  or  articular  facet  of  a  bone — on  which  Cuvier 
deemed  it  possible  to  reconstruct  the  entire  animal,  is  inadequate  to 
that  end.  In  this  opinion  I  do  not  coincide."*  The  many  mistakes 
Owen  made  in  attempting  to  apply  the  principle  proves  how  well 
Blainville's  contrary  opinion  was  justified. 

The  numberless  remains  of  past  animals,  exhumed  from  the  many 
formations  which  the  animals  themselves  distinguished,  have  entailed 
constant  revisions  of  systems  resulting  from  clearer  comprehension 
of  the  development  of  the  animal  kingdom.  Such  revision,  too', 
must  continue  for  many  generations  yet  to  come. 

CDVIEH   AND   ANATOMY. 

The  failure  to  sufficiently  apply  anatomy  to  systematic  zoology 
was  especially  exemplified  in  the  treatment  of  the  fishes  which  ab- 
sorbed so  much  of  Cuvier's  attention  in  later  years.  He,  as  well  as 
his  associate,  gave  accounts  of  the  visceral  anatomy  and  was  led — 
often  misled — to  conclusions  respecting  relations  by  his  dissections, 

"The  only  eesentlal  difference  between  the  feet  of  bogs  and  ordlnarr  mml- 
nants  Is  of  d^ree  In  the  development  of  tbe  lateral  boodeta.  There  Is  every 
gradation  among  tbe  Artlodactfles,  recent  and  extinct,  between  forms  having 
tbe  lateral  hoofs  aborted  and  those  with  alt  developed  and  accumbent  on  tbe 
ground,  as  in  tbe  Hippopotamus. 

"  Huxley  bad  previously,  in  1856,  In  an  article  "  On  tbe  method  of  Falieon- 
tologr"  (Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural  History,  2d  series,  vol.  18,  p.  49), 
called  attention  to  tbe  oversight  of  Cuvier;  be  quoted,  In  French,  tbe  passage 
bere  rendered  in  English,  nod  added:  "  I  confess  that,  considering  tbe  Fig  baa 
n  cloven  foot,  and  does  not  ruminate,  the  last  assertion  appears  to  me  to  be  a 
little  strong.  But  my  object  Is  not  to  criticise  Cuvier,"  etc.  Apparently  be 
bad  forgotten  tbe  facts,  however,  when  be  wrote  the  Introduction  referred  to. 

'  Owen,  Amer.  Joum.  ScL  and  Arts,  XLV,  1S13,  18&. 


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464  AKNUAIi  BEPOBT  SUITH&ONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

but  he  failed  to  receive  enlightenment  by  ezBrnioatioii  of  the  numer- 
-  ous  skeletons  he  had  made.  Those  skeletons,  pregnant  with  signifi- 
cance for  the  future,  had  no  meaning  for  Cuvier;  he  never  learned 
how  to  utilize  them  for  the  fishes  as  he  did  those  of  the  nwBunals. 
'His  colleague  and  successor,  Valenciennes,  in  the  great  "  Hietoire 
Naturelle  des  Poissons,"  was  equally  unappreciative  of  the  impor- 
tance of  comparative  osteology  for  comprehension  of  the  mutual  re- 
lations of  the  groups  of  fishes. 

CnriBR^B  SDCCESSOBS. 

The  same  defect  in  method  or  lope  that  characterized  Cuviers 
work  was  manifested  by  his  great  English  successor  in  range  of 
knowledge  of  comparative  anatomy,  Richard  Owen.  His  families, 
for  the  most  part,  were  the  artificial  assemblages  brought  together 
by  zoologists  on  account  of  superficial  characters  and  too  often  with- 
out rigorous  attention  to  the  applicability  of  the  characters  assigned. 
Much  better  was  the  work  of  the  greatest  naturalist  of  all,  Johannes 
Miiller,  who  advanced  our  knowledge  of  the  systematic  relations  of 
all  classes  of  vertebrates  as  well  as  invertebrates.  But  all  were  un- 
able to  free  themselves  from  the  incubus  of  the  popular  idea  that  all 
branchiferouB  vertebrates  formed  a  unit  to  be  compared  with  birds 
and  mammals.  Several  propositions  to  segregate,  as  classes,  Am- 
phioxus  and  the  chondropterygians  had  been  made,  and  Louis  Agas- 
siz  deserves  the  credit  of  claiming  class  value  for  the  myzonts  or 
marsipobranchs  as  well  as  the  selachians.  But  it  was  left  to  Ernst 
Haeckel,  a  pupil  of  Miiller,  still  happily  living,  to  divest  himself 
entirely  of  ancient  prejudices  and  appreciate  the  interrelationship  of 
the  primary  sections  of  the  vertebrate  branch.  He  for  the  first  time 
(1866)  set  apart  the  amphioxids  in  a  group  opposed  to  all  other  ver- 
tebrates, then  docked  off  the  marsipobranchs  from  all  the  rest,  and 
collected  the  classes  generally  recognized  in  essentially  the  same  man- 
ner as  is  now  prevalent.  We  may  differ  from  Haeckel  as  to  hb 
classes  of  fishes  and  dipnoans,  but  his  correctness  in  the  action  just 
noticed  will  be  conceded  by  most,  if  not  all,  systematic  zoologists 
to-day. 

EMBRYOLOOY. 

While  Cuvier  was  still  flourishing,  a  school  of  investigators  into 
the  developmental  changes  of  the  individual  in  different  classes,  and 
among  them  the  vertebrates,  was  accumulating  new  material  whidi 
should  be  of  use  to  the  systematic  zoolo^st.  Chief  of  these  was  Karl 
Ernst  von  Baer.  In  various  memoirs  (1826  et  seq.)  he  subjected  the 
major  classification  of  animals  to  a  critical  review  from  an  embryo- 
logical  point  of  view,  recognized,  with  Cuvier,  the  existence  of  four 
distinct  plans  which  he  called  types  and  characterized  them,  in  em- 


Louis  Agassiz,  1807-1873. 

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Ernst  Haeckel,  1834- 


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8T8TEUATIC  ZOOLOGY — GILL.  465 

bryological  terms — Evolutio  radiata,  Evolutio  coniorta  (mollusks), 
Evolutio  gemina  (articulates)  and  Evolutio  higemina  {vertebrat«s). 
The  last  were  successively  differentiated  on  account  of  the  embryonic 
changes  from  the  fishes  to  the  mammals.  "  These  Beitrfige,"  Louis 
Agassiz  justly  affirmed,  "  and  the  papers  in  which  Cuvier  character- 
ized for  the  first  time  the  four  great  types  of  the  animal  kingdom, 
are  among  the  most  important  contributions  to  general  zoology  ever 
published," 

One  of  the  most  notable  results,  so  far  as  systematic  zoology  was 
involved,  was  the  deduction  forced  on  Kowalevsky  by  his  investiga- 
tion of  the  embryology  of  tunicates,  that  those  animals,  long  asso- 
ciated with  acephalous  mollusks,  were  really  degenerate  and  special- 
ized protovertebrates.    This  view  early  won  general  acceptance. 

While  embryology  was  very  successfully  used  for  the  elucidation 
of  systematic  zoology  its  facts  were  often  misunderstood  and  per- 
verted. For  instance,  the  cetaceans  were  regarded  as  low  because 
they  had  a  primitive  fish-like  form,  although  it  must  be  obvious  to 
all  logical  zoologists  of  the  present  time  that  they  are  derived  from  a 
quadruped  stock;  snakes  have  been  also  regarded  as  inferior  in  the 
scale  because  no  legs  were  developed,  although  it  would  be  now  con- 
ceded by  every  instructed  herpetologist  that  they  are  descendants  of 
footed  or  lizard-like  reptiles.  Ammoccetea  was  considered  as  higher 
than  Petromysoji  "  inasmuch  as  tlie  division  of  the  lips  indicates  a 
tendency  toward  a  formation  of  a  distinct  upper  and  lower  jaw," 
but  we  now  know  that  Ammocostes  is  the  larval  form  of  Petromyzon. 
Still  more  pertinent  examples  might  be  adduced  without  number  for 
the  inferior  systematic  grades,  orders,  families,  genera,  species,  etc. 
The  words  high  and  low  were  used  when  generalized  and  specialized 
were  really  meant  and  those  words,  pregnant  with  mischief,  often 
led  their  users  astray  as  well  as  the  students  to  which  they  were 
addressed. 

PHILoaOPHICAL  zooLoor. 

As  knowledge  of  the  various  animal  groups  increased  and  countless 
new  species  were  piling  up,  yearning  arose  to  discover  principles 
underlying  the  enormous  mass  of  accumulating  details,  and  the  ex- 
cogitations of  various  naturalists  resulted  in  some  curious  specula- 
tion and  expression  in  classificatory  form.  They  called  their  out- 
pourings philosophy  or  philosophical  zoology,  and  philosophers  they 
were  called  by  others. 

Some  of  the  philosophers  grouped  animals  according  to  supposed 
degrees  of  nervous  sensibility;'  some  according  to  the  relations  of 

■Lamarck  (1812)  cootHided  for  three  categories  of  anlmali:  (1  )  Apathetic 
aniinalB  and  (2)  sensitive  animals  among  the  Invertdtrates,  and  (3)  lutelllKent 
animals,  equivalent  to  the  vertebrates.  CiOi^i'lc 


466  ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

parts  to  a  center  or  on  axis;  ■■  some  uoder  groups  supposed  to  corre- 
spond with  different  systems  of  the  body,  as  the  alimentary,  the  vas- 
cular, the  respiratory,  the  skeletal  and  the  muscular,^  and  some  would 
accord  to  each  of  the  senses  definite  groups.^ 

Equally,  if  not  more  extravagant,  views  were  entertained  by  many 
nuturalists  that  creative  power  delighted  in  the  symmetry  of  num- 
bers and  in  circular  arrangements.''  It  was  contended  that  all  groups 
of  animals  represented  analogous  groups  in  successively  diminishing 
circles;  that  in  a  perfect  system  there  were  a  definite  number  of  sub- 
kingdoms,  an  equal  number  of  classes  in  each  subkingdom,  of  orders 
in  each  class,  of  suborders,  of  families,  of  genera,  of  subgenera,  etc. 
Some  maintained  that  three  was  the  regnant  number,  others  upheld 
four,  others  seven,  but  the  most  numerous  and  influential  school  cod- 

oBlalnvllle  (1S16)  proposed  to  divide  tbe  animal  klDgdom  ioto  Uiree  sul)- 
klngdoms:  <1)  The  Artiomorpbes,  having  a  t^lateral  form,  (2)  the  Actino- 
morphee,  bavlng  a  radiate  form,  and  (3)  the  Heteromorpbes  (mainly  sponge*) 
and  protozoanB),  having  an  Irregular  form. 

'Oken  <1802-1S4T)  gave  expression  to  his  varying  views  in  several  differing 
classifications.  In  one  scheme  (El.  Physlophllosoiihj.  1847,  511  et  seq.)  he 
claimed  that  there  were  five  "circles"  correspoudlng  with  the  "animal  sys- 
temsi"  (1>  Intestinal  animals  (Protozoa  and  Radiates);  (2)  Vascular,  sexual 
aulmitls  (MoUusks) ;  (3)  Respiratory,  cutaneous  animals  (Articulates);  (4) 
Sarcose  animals  (Vertebrates  except  mammals),  and  (5)  Alstbeseozoa,  or  anl- 
tnala  "with  all    *    *     *    organs  of  sense  perfectly  developed"  (mammals). 

«  Oken  maintained  (1S02--1S47)  "  that  the  animal  classes  are  virtually  nothing 
else  than  a  representation  of  the  sense  organs,  and  that  they  must  be  arranj^ 
in  accordance  with  them.  Thus,  strictly  speaking,  there  are  only  five  animal 
classes:  Dermatozoa  (skin  or  touch  animals),  or  the  Invertebrata ;  Glossozoa 
(tongue  animals),  or  the  fishes  '  *  *;  Rhinozoa  (nose  animals),  or  tbe 
reptiles  •  •  •;  Otozoa  (ear  animals),  or  the  birds;  Opbtbalmoioa  (eye 
animals),  or  the  Thrlcozoa  (mammals)  *  *  *.  But  since  all  vegetative 
syatems  are  subordinate  to  the  t^ument  or  general  sense  of  feeling,  tbe  Der- 
matozoa divide  into  Jnst  as  many  or  corresponding  divisions,  which  on  account 
of  the  quantity  ,of  their  cont^ts,  may  be  for  the  sake  of  convenience  also 
termed  classes." — Oken,  El.  Pbyslophllosopby,  1&47,  p.  xl.  For  the  many  other 
assumptions  on  similar  and  divergent  lines  tbe  reader  must  refer  to  tbe  "  Ele- 
ments of  Physlophllosophy  "  (1S47), 

'The  style  of  argumentation  used  by  tbe  number- philosophers  bad  long  before 
been  employed  by  SIzzi,  a  contem[>orary  and  antagonist  of  Galileo,  who  proved, 
to  bis  own  satisfaction,  that  there  could  be  no  more  than  seven  planets.  Tbe 
Inconsequentlallty  Is  remarkable,  j  "  There  are  seven  windows  given  to  animals 
in  the  domicile  of  tbe  bead,  through  which  tbe  air  is  admitted  to  tbe  tabernacle 
of  the  body,  to  eullgbteu,  to  warm,  and  to  nourish  It;  which  windows  are  the 
principal  parts  of  the  microcosm,  or  little  world— two  nostrils,  two  eyes,  two 
ears,  and  one  mouth.  So  In  the  heavens,  as  In  a  macrocosm,  or  great  world, 
there  are  two  favorable  stare,  Jupiter  and  Venus;  two  nnpropltlous.  Mars  and 
Saturn;  two  luminaries,  the  Sun  and  the  Moon;  and  Mercnry  alone,  undecided 
and  indifferent.  From  which,  and  from  many  other  phenomena  of  nature,  such 
ae  the  seven  metals,  etc..  which  It  were  tedious  to  enumerate,  we  gather  that 
the  number  of  planets  Is  necessarily  seven."    More  follows  of  like  tenor, 


■■iGoot^lc 


Karl  von  Baer,  1792-1876. 


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Jean  Lamabck,  1744-1829, 


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SYSTEMATIC  ZOOLOGY — GILL.  467 

tended  for  five.  Exactly  what  the  philosophers  thought  they  meant, 
or  what  strange  visions  they  may  have  conjured  up  may  never  be 
known.  But  for  a  time  (1822-1842)  the  school  of  quinarians,  as 
they  were  called,  claimed  most  of  the  naturalists  of  Britain.  The 
most  zealous  of  the  school  (William  Swainson)  was  especially  dis- 
pleased with  the  developmental  hypothesis  of  Lamarck  and  charac- 
terized the  "  speculations  "  of  the  great  Frenchman  "  not  merely  as 
fanciful,  but  absolutely  absurd." 

But  it  was  the  much-contemned  hypothesis  of  descent  with  modi- 
fications that  was  destined  at  last  to  relieve  biological  science  of  the 
wild  and  irrational  speculations  and  classifications  of  the  nature- 
philosophers,  physiophilosophers,  circularians,  quinarians,  trinarians, 
septenarians,  and  their  like  that  flourished  during  the  first  half  of 
the  past  century. 

DEVELOPMENT  THEOHT. 

Although  there  had  been  previous  indications  of  belief  that  trans- 
mutation of  species  might  have  been  a  cause  for  the  diversity  of 
animal  life,  Jean  Baptiste  Pierre  Antoine  de  Monet  de  Lamarck 
(1809)  first  framed  a  hypothesis  that  had  a  logical  basis,  although 
weakened  by  unproved  postulates.  In  view  of  those  weaknesses,  it 
was  easy  to  bring  forth  many  facts  that  seemed  to  militate  unanswer- 
ably against  it,  and  such  were  well  put  forward  by  Cuvier;  as  the 
hypothesis,  too,  was  very  unpopular,  it  was  for  a  long  time  stifled. 
In  the  meanwhile  geological  and  paleontological  investigation,  com- 
parative morphology,  physiology,  embryology,  and  zoogeography,  as 
well  as  systematic  zoology,  were  revealing  innumerable  facts  that 
pointed  all  in  the  same  direction  and  were  only  explicable  collectively 
by  the  assumption  that  they  were  the  result  of  original  community 
of  origin  and  subsequent  deviation  by  gradual  changes  from  time  to 
time.  The  facts  were  at  length  collocated  with  extreme  skill  by 
Charles  Darwin  (1859)  and  a  rational  explanation  of  their  evolution 
by  means  of  natural  selection  made  the  new  development  theory  ac- 
ceptable to  well-informed  naturalists  and  logical  thinkers  generally. 

SEQUENCE   OF   0H0DP8. 

It  had  been  almost  the  universal  custom  from  olden  time,  as  well 
as  during  the  Linneean  era,  to  commence  the  enumeration  or  cata- 
logues of  animals  with  the  forms  exhibiting  most  analogy  with  man 
and  consequently  the  highest  in  the  scale  of  organic  nature.  As  long 
as  species  were  assumed  to  be  individually  created  this  was  perhaps 
the  most  natural  course,  and  at  least  had  the  advantage  of  proceed- 
ing from  the  comparatively  known  to  the  almost  unknown.  A  sig- 
nificant and  noteworthy  exception  to  this  mode  of  procedure  among 


468  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

the  old  naturalists  was  afforded  by  Lamarck  (1809  et  seq.),  the  pre- 
cursor in  this  respect,  as  well  as  in  recognition  of  descent,  of  the  mod- 
em school. 

When  it  became  generally  recognized  that  there  had  been  always  a 
progression  and  development  from  antecedent  fonns,  naturally  there 
was  a  change  in  the  manner  of  exposition  of  a  series,  and  the  lowest 
forms  were  taken  as  the  initial  ones  and  followed  by  those  successively 
higher  in  the  scale  of  beings.  Even  when  old  prejudices  were  admin- 
istered to  and  the  highest  animals  put  first  in  a  work,  it  was  often 
done  in  a  reversed  series;  that  is,  after  the  supposed  natural  ascensive 
series  had  been  determined  on,  that  series  was  simply  reversed  in 
order  that  the  highest  should  be  the  first  and  the  lowest  the  last. 
Many  of  our  text-books  of  zoology  still  have  this  characteristic,  but 
are  being  rapidly  replaced  by  those  exhibiting  the  phyletic  series. 

HieroLoor, 

One  of  the  most  noteworthy  modifications  of  systematic  zoology 
was  the  fruit  of  histological  research.  In  1839  Theodor  Schwann, 
incited  by  the  brilliant  results  of  Matthias  Jacob  Schleiden's  re- 
searches (1838)  in  vegetal  histology,  and  at  the  suggestion  of  Jo- 
hannes MuIIer,  undertook  investigations  which  led  him  to  consider 
that  the  animal  frame  was  built  up  from  innumerable  cells  variously 
modified  to  form  the  different  systems  and  organs  of  which  it  is 
composed.  Ultimately  the  animals  thus  developed  were  segregated 
by  Ernst  Haeckel,  and  the  animal  kingdom  was  limited  to  them,  while 
the  simple  unicellular  animals  which  had  been  already  designated 
as  Protozoa  were  associated  with  unicellular  plants  under  the  general 
term  Protista.  One  of  the  prominent  features  of  this  idea  was  ac- 
cepted by  Thomas  Henry  Huxley  {1874)  with,  however,  the  very 
important  modification  of  retaining  the  old  conception,  the  animal 
kingdom,  and  keeping  the  name  Protozoa  as  the  collective  name  of 
the  unicellular  animals  while  taking  a  suggested  name  of  Haeckel's 
(Metazoa)  for  the  multicellular  animals. 

ORAnUAI,  DEUHITATION  OF  OENEKA. 

As  has  been  already  noted,  the  animal  genera  of  Linn4  were  mostly 
extremely  comprehensive,  answering,  when  natural  groups,  to  fami- 
lies, superfamilies,  and  even  orders  or  classes  of  modem  naturalists. 
Such  contrast,  however,  with  others  of  the  Linneean  genera,  and  when 
this  fact  became  recognized  and  it  was  discovered  that  the  large 
genera  embraced  types  exhibiting  many  differences  in  detail,  the  lat- 
ter were  subdivided;  early  in  the  past  century,  at  first  owing  espe- 
cially to  French  and  German  naturalists,  the  subdivision  of  old 
genera  on  approximately  present  lines  was  comm^ced  and  applied  at 


Goo'^lc 


Charles  Darwin,  1609-1882. 


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Theodor  Schwann,  1810-1882. 


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SYSTEMATIC   ZOOIjOQY OtLL.  469 

different  times  to  Torioos  classes.  It  is  noteworthy  that  in  some 
instances  the  authors  of  the  new  genera  quite  abruptly  changed  their 
minds  regarding  the  nature  of  such  groups.  For  example,  Lac^pMe, 
iu  1798,  in  the  closing  lecture  of  his  course  at  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  recognized  only  51  genera  of  mammals,  but  a  few  months 
later  (in  1799),  in  a  "  tableau,"  admitted  and  defined  84  genera. 

It  seems  to  be  guierally  supposed  that  there  has  been  an  uninter- 
rupted tendency  among  zool<^ists  to  refinement  and  increase  of 
number  of  genera  to  the  present-  time,  but  such  is  by  no  means  the 
case.  Half  a  century  agoAnd  more  some  ornithologists  subdivided  old 
genera  and  made  new  ones  to  an  extent  to  which  none  of  the  present 
time  is  prepared  to  go.  For  example,  Charles  Bonaparte,  Prince  of 
Canino,  required  eleven  genera  of  gulls  to  include  those  now  congre- 
gated in  one.  About  the  same  time,  some  herpetologists  were  equally 
radical.  Leopold  J.  F.  J.  Fitzinger,  in  1843,  distributed  species 
which  are  now  combined  by  all  in  the  genus  Anolis  among  no  less 
than  fifteen  genera.  The  genus  Bufo,  as  now  understood,  was  split 
by  some  herpetologists  into  a  dozen  or  more.  These  are  only  samples 
of  numberless  analogous  cases. 

THE  OLD  AND  THE  NEW. 

A  comparison  of  systematic  zoology  at  its  dawn  with  that  of  the 
present  time  is  rather  a  contrast  of  different  themes. 

The  old  naturalists  believed  that  all  species  of  animals  were  created 
as  such  by  a  divine  fiat;  the  modem  consider  that  all  animals  are 
derivatives  from  former  ones  and  that  their  differences  have  been 
acquired  during  descent  and  development. 

The  Linnseans  based  their  systems  on  superficial  characteristics,  and 
the  modems  take  into  consideration  the  entire  animal. 

The  early  systematists  assumed  that  characters  drawn  from  struc- 
tures or  parts  most  useful  to  the  animals  were  the  best  guides  to  the 
relationship  of  the  animals;  the  latest  ones  have  learned  to  distrust 
the  evidential  value  of  similarity  of  structures  unaccompanied  by 
similarity  of  all  parts.  The  former  were  guided  mainly  by  physio- 
logical characters;  the  latter  take  morphological  ones. 

The  Linnseans  confined  their  generalizations  to  few  categories — 
genera,  orders,  classes;  the  modems  exhibit  the  manifold  modifica- 
tions and  coordinations  of  all  structural  parts  in  many  categories — 
genera,  subfamilies,  families,  superfamilies  and  various  higher 
groups. 

The  old  naturalists  believed  more  or  less  in  the  existence  of  a  regu- 
lar chain  of  beings  from  high  to  low;  the  new  ones  recognize  the 
boundless  ramifications  of  all  animal  stocks. 


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470  ANNUAL   BBPOBT   BMITHSONUN    INSTITUTION,  1907. 

The  elders  assumed  certain  forms  as  highest  and  ranged  their  series 
from  high  to  low ;  tiie  sons  commence  their  series  with  the  most  gen- 
eralized types  and  progress  trom  the  generalized  to  the  more  spe- 
cialized. 

PROBPECTS  AND  NEEDS. 

In  numerous  old  systematic  and  descriptive  works — but  in  many 
cases  not  very  old — the  skeleton  and  other  anatomical  details  were 
noticed  in  connection  with  the  species  described,  but  not  seldom  some 
of  those  details,  if  rightly  interpreted,  would  be  in  centravention  of 
the  classification  adopted.  In  fact,  the  anatomy  was  to  all  intents 
and  purposes  treated  as  an  offering  of  curious  but  useless  information. 
Such  conceptions,  happily,  are  mainly — but  not  entirely — of  the  past, 
and  we  may  live  to  welcome  the  day  when  every  animal  will  be 
treated  as  whole.  Systematic  zoology  will  then  be  regarded  as  the 
expression  of  our  knowledge  of  the  entire  structure  and  as  an  at- 
tempted equation  of  the  results  obtained  by  investigations  of  all 
kinds.  In  fact,  systematic  zoology  is  simply  an  attempt  to  estimate 
the  relative  importance  of  all  structural  details  and  to  correlate  them 
so  that  their  relative  values  shall  become  most  evident  It  is  the 
scientific  outcome  of  all  anatomical  or  morphological  knowledge  and 
the  aim  is  to  arrange  the  animal  groups  in  such  a  manner  as  to  show 
best  their  genetic  relations  and  the  successive  steps  of  divergence 
from  more  or  less  generalized  stocks. 

One  consummation  devoutly  to  be  wished  for  is  general  acceptance 
of  a  standard  for  comparison  and  the  use  of  terms  with  as  nearly 
equal  values  as  the  circumstances  permit.  There  is  a  great  differ- 
ence in  the  u^  of  taxonomic  names  for  the  different  classes  of  the 
animal  kingdom.  The  difference  is  especially  great  between  usage 
for  the  birds  and  that  for  the  fishes.  For  the  former  class,  genera, 
families  and  orders  are  based  on  characters  of  a  very  trivial  kind. 
For  example,  the  family  of  Turdidse,  or  thrushes,  relieved  of  formal 
verbiage,  has  been  distinguished  from  neighboring  families  solely  be- 
cause  the  young  have  spots  on  the  breast,  but  even  this  distinction  is 
now  known  to  fail  in  some  instances.  Extremely  few,  if  any,  of  the 
families  of  oscine  birds  are  based  on  characters  of  a  kind  which  would 
bo  regarded  as  of  family  value  in  other  classes  of  vertebrates.  On  the 
other  hand,  many  of  the  families  and  genera  of  fishes  are  made  by 
some  excellent  authorities  to  include  types  separated  by  striking 
peculiarities  of  the  skeleton  as  well  as  the  exterior.  The  mammals 
are  a  class  whose  treatment  has  been  mostly  intermediate  between 
that  for  the  birds  and  that  for  the  fishes.  Its  divisions,  inferior  as 
well  as  comprehensive,  have  been  founded  on  anatomical  characters 
to  a  greater  extent  than  for  any  other  class.     Its  students  are  numer- 


..Google 


Thomas  Henry  Huxlev,  1825-1895. 


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BY9TEMAT1C   ZOOLOGY GILL.  471 

ous  and  qualified.  Mammalogy  might  therefore  well  be  accepted  as 
a  standard  for  taxonomy,  and  the  groups  adopted  for  it  be  imitated 
as  nearly  as  the  differing  conditions  will  admit.  The  families  of 
birds  would  then  be  much  reduced  in  number  and  those  of  Gshes  in- 
creased. All  the  active  herpetologists  and  ichthyologists  of  the 
United  States  have  subordinated  their  own  beliefs  and  ideas  as  to 
"what  would  have  been  most  desirable,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  to 
approximate  the  desirable  reduction  of  the  terms  admitted  by  them 
to  a  standard  uniform  with  that  adopted  by  manunalogists.  If 
others  would  likewise  sacrifice  their  own  predilections,  the  lamentable 
ink|uality  of  usage  now  prevalent  would  be  much  less;  such  congruity 
would  be  to  the  great  advantage  of  comparative  taxonomy. 

In  these  days  of  extreme  specialization  one  of  the  greatest  needs 
in  our  universities  is  a  professor  of  systematic  zoology  with  whom 
conference  may  be  held  as  to  the  propriety  of  any  systematic  moifl- 
fication  resulting  from  special  investigation  of  the  anatomy  of  any 
organ  or  part,  or  of  any  group  of  animals.  Such  conference  might 
prevent  the  publication  of  many  propositions  due  to  exclusive  con- 
sideration of  an  isolated  subject.  Perhaps  the  designation  of  ^s- 
tematic  morphology  might  better  indicate  tlie  nature  of  the  su^ested 
course.  The  consummation,  however,  it  must  be  admitted,  is  more 
desirable  ^han  probable. 

I  have  intentionally  refrained  from  any  consideration  of  the  work 
of  living  zoologists.  If  I  had  undertaken  this,  the  task  of  selection 
would  have  been  very  difficult,  and  at  any  rate  the  time  demanded 
for  proper  consideration  would  have  been  much  more  than  that  requi- 
site for  the  reminder  of  past  discoveries.  The  progress  of  systematic 
zoology  during  recent  years  has  been  in  accelerated  ratio,  and  not  a 
few  of  those  whose  achievements  have  helped  to  put  zoology  at  its 
present  level  are  in  Boston  to-day.  It  is  from  the  summit  of  the  ele- 
vation they  have  enabled  us  to  reach  that  we  look  back  to  the  deeds  of 
old  masters  and  can  determine,  better  than  their  contemporaries  or 
immediate  successors,  their  relative  merits. 

[Note. — The  name  "  Llnne  "  has  been  used  because  it  wflfi  the  one  that  the 
author  assumed  In  the  last  (12th)  edition  ot  bis  great  worlt.  The  title  paca 
has  "Caboli  a  Lisng,  *  •  •  Systema  Natune,"  etc.  After  he  was  en- 
nobled (1761)  be  drupiied  the  Latin  form  and  resumed  the  vernacular  with  the 
addlOon  of  a  or  ton.] 
41780—08 34 


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THE  GENEALOGICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  MARINE 
MAMMALS." 


By  Prof.  O.  Abbu 


The  oltl  Norwegian  "  King's  Mirror  "  of  the  thirteenth  century 
enumerates  a  series  of  shales  of  commercial  importance,  among  which 
we  can  recognize  with  certainty  no  less  than  thirteen  kinds.  While 
it  is  true  that  in  this  work  correct  observations  are  mingled  with 
erroneous  traditions,  it  is,  nevertheless,  one  of  the  most  valuable 
natural  history  documents  of  the  Middle  Ages,  unhampered  by  preju- 
dices and  the  burden  of  antiquated  learning. 

How  greatly  has  our  knowledge  of  marine  manunals  increased 
since  that  time,  and  how  much  have  our  views  regarding  them 
changed!  Knowledge  in  this  field  has  increased  extraordinarily, 
especially  during  the  second  half  of  the  last  centurj-.  Although  we 
have  brought  it  to  so  great  perfection  compared  with  the  King's 
Mirror,  nevertheless,  we  still  meet  to-day  with  false  ideas  regarding 
marine  mammals  and  their  origin.  Step  by  step  we  have  brought 
ourselves  to  perceive  that  the  ancestors  of  the  whales,  of  the  sea-cows, 
and  of  the  seals  are  to  be  .sought  among  land  mammals,  from  which 
the  different  branches  have  been  adapted  independently  for  an  aquatic 
life,  and  have  developed  separately. 

We  have  approached  nearer  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  the 
origin  of  marine  mammals  in  different  ways.  The  first  was  through 
the  investigation  of  embryos,  for  the  purpose  of  finding  ancient 
characters  inherited  from  ancestors.  The  second  way  was  by  seek- 
ing through  comparison  of  the  organs  of  adult  animals  to  reach 
conclusions  regarding  their  relationship  and  derivation. 

The  direct  evidence  of  the  ancestors  of  living  animals  in  the  geo- 
lo^cal  strata  will,  however,  always  be  of  decisive  significance.  The 
discoveries  made  in  this  field  in  late  years  have  been  so  unexpected 
that  the  time  seems  favorable  for  rendering  the  present  state  of  our 
investigations  accessible  to  a  larger  circle  of  readers. 

As  a  preliminary,  we  shall  make  a  brief  survey  of  living  marine 
mammals,  and  afterwards  con.sidpr  their  history  more  in  detail. 

°  TrnnBliitnl,  by  ])eriuiii8loii,  fnini  "  MeereHkiinde,"  Herliii,  JHhrimiiK   I.  llHn, 


,GdBgle 


474  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

L  Living  Marine  Mammals. 
1.  WHALES. 
a.   whaleboxe  whales. 
The  whalebone  whales  are  not  only  the  giants  among  living  ani- 
mals, but  without  doubt  also  the  largest  marine  animals  that  have 
ever  lived.     No  marine  animal  of  the  past  has  reached  the  length  of 
the  northern  blue  whale  (or  sulphurbottom,  BaI(enoptera  musculm 
L.),  which  attains  25  to  30  meters  (82^  to  98^  feet).     (Fig.  1.) 


First  family^  right  whales. — The  best  known  representative  of 
this  family  is  the  Greenland  whale  (Arctic  right  whale,  or  bow- 
head),  Balwna  mysticetus  L,  Among  the  most  remarkable  char- 
acters of  this  clumsy  animal,  which  reaches  a  length  of  20  meters 
(65i  feet),  is  the  enormous  head,  which  alone  occupies  one-third 
to  two-fifths  of  the  total  length.  The  flippers  are  short,  broad,  and 
five-fingere<l.     The    whalebone    is    very    long   and    may    reach    the 


extraordinary  length  of  15  feet  in  old  animals.     The  belly  is  entirely 
smooth,  and  there  is  no  fin  on  the  back. 

Second  family,  gray  whales. — This  family  is  represented  only 
by  the  California  gray  whale  {Rhachianectes  glaueus  Cope),  which 
occupies  a  peculiar  intermediate  position  between  the  right  whales 
and  the  finbacks,  or  rorquals.  It  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  bowhead, 
but  the  body  is  more  slender  and  the  head  is  smaU.     (Fig.  2.)     The 

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HISTORY  OF   HABINE  HAHMALB — ABBL.  475 

pectoral  fin,  or  flipper,  is  long  and  narrow,  and  has  only  four  fingers. 
There  are  but  two  furrows  on  the  underside  of  the  body. 

Third  family,  rorquah  (finbacks  and  humpbacks). — To  this  group 
belong  the  gigantic  blue  whale,  or  sulphurbottom,  previously  men- 
tioned (fig.  1) ;  the  humpback  (Megaptera  nodosa  Bonn.),  17  meters 
(55J  feet)  long  (fig.  3) ;  the  common  finback  (Bdkenoptera  phyaa- 
tus  L.),  which  has  a  length  of  about  23  meters  (75|  feet) ;  and  the 
little  piked  whale  {Balamoptera  acuto-roatrata  Lac),  which  is  only 
9  or  10  meters  (29J  to  32$  feet)  long. 

The  humpback  (fig.  3)  reminds  one  of  the  bowhead,  on  account 
of  its  turgid  body,  but  differs  from  the  latter  both  as  regards  its 
flipper,  or  pectoral  fin,  which  is  long,  narrow  and  four-fingered, 
and  measures  almost  one-third  the  total  length  of  the  body,  and 
also  on  account  of  the  presence  of  a  small  dorsal  fin  and  of  numerous 
furrows  in  the  belly. 


Fia.  3. — Humpback  (Me«:ai>terB  n 
After  F.  W,  True.  The  skin  Ie 
c11ii)[lDg  barDaclca. 

The  sulphurbottom,  common  finback,  and  little  piked  whale  are 
much  more  slender  than  the  humpback,  and  have  decidedly  shorter 
flippers.  The  hand  of  the  finbacks  and  humpbacks  is  four-fingered, 
owing  to  the  disappearance  of  the  middle  finger. 

The  cervical  vertebrse  are  separate  in  the  finbacks,  humpbacks  and 
gray  whale,  but  in  the  right  whales  are  fused  together,  forming  a 
compact,  immovable  mass. 

B.  TOOTHED  WHALES. 

The  second  group  of  living  cetaceans  is  distinguished  from  the 
edentulous  whalebone  whales  by  the  possession  of  teeth.  In  the 
whalebone  whales  there  as  many  as  51  denticles  in  each  jaw,  but  only 
in  the  early  stages  of  embryonic  life.  They  disappear  long  before  the 
birth  of  the  animal. 

No  toothed  whale  reaches  the  size  of  the  sulphurbottom,  but  the 
male  sperm  whale  {Physeter  macrocep/talvs  L.)  is  18  meters  (59  feet) 
long.    The  female  is  only  half  as  long.    The  lower  jaw  of  the  sperm 


476 


ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907, 


whale  (fig.  20)  contains  large,  conical  teeth,  about  25  on  each  side, 
while  the  upper  jaw  (both  raaxillse  and  premaxillse)  is  toothless. 

The  sperm  whales  are  allied  to  the  beaked  whales,  which  are  repre- 
sented by  the  bottle-nosed  whale,  Hyperoodon.  This  whale  is  at  least 
10  meters  {32^  feet)  long,  and  is  remarkable  from  the  fact  that  it  has 
only  one,  or  at  most  two,  pairs  of  teeth,  in  the  front  of  the  lower  jaw. 
All  the  other  teeth  have  disappeared,  or  are  represented  only  t^ 
minute,  stunted  denticles  in  the  gums,  which  are  never  cut. 

The  third  family  of  toothed  whales  embraces  two  small  river 
dolphins,  one  of  which  (Pontoporia,  or  Stenodelphia)  (fig.4)  lives  at 


II 


r  doLphlD  (PddI 
la  Plata.  Aboi 
rtioc  porpoise   ( 


)  from  the  mouth  of 


liacienn  splDlpiDuls  Ilurmeli 


a  tbe  Ars«DtiDe  c 


-View  of  tbe  dorsal  fin  of  tbe  same  anlnia]  from  above.  In 
laiilfeldcrD  I  arc  seen  boDj  proluberancea,  which  are  the  temi 
armor  In  the  Bncvalon  ot  this  animal.      About  t  natural  a 


the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  the  second  (Inia)  in  tbe 
Amazon.  It  comprises  also  the  white  whale,  or  beluga  {Delpkinap- 
terus),  which  reaches  a  length  of  4  or  !i  meters  (13  to  16J  feet),  and 
the  narwhal," 

The  enormous  tusk  of  the  male  narwhal,  which  reaches  a  length  of 
3  meters,  was  looked  upon  in  earlier  ages  as  a  miraculously  powerful, 

"  The  white  whale  and  the  narwhal  are  usually  placed  In  the  family  Del- 
""hlnldffi,  or  the  true  dolphins,  but  In  a  septirnte  nnbfamlly. — P.  W.  T. 


HISTOBY  OP   MABINE   MAMMAJjS — ^iBBL.  477 

though  costly,  medicine,  and  was  universally  considered  to  be  the 
horn  of  the  fabulous  unicorn.  In  1749  I^eibniz  gave  a  highly  fantastic 
picture  of  it  in  his  "  Protogsea." 

To  the  great  group  of  dolphins  belongs  the  harbor  porpoise 
{Phoccena),  which  is  abundant  in  almost  all  (northern)  seas.  This 
small  dolphin,  P.  phoc<ena,  which  Is  only  1^  meters  (5  feet)  long,  is 
noteworthy  on  account  of  the  fact  that  small  bony  tubercles  are  to  be 
found  on  the  front  margin  of  the  dorsal  fin  and  flippers,  which 
tubercles  are  remnants  of  the  dermal  armor  borne  by  its  ancestors. 
The  harbor  porpoise  often  ascends  streams  a  long  distance,  and  has 
frequently  been  met  with  in  the  Elbe,  Schelde,  Thames,  and  Seine. 
Numerous  genera  and  species  of  dolphins  arc  recognized,  as  this 
family  includes  a  great  variety  of  forms.  The  killer  whale  {Orcinus) 
and  the  blackfish  (Globiocephalua)  belong  to  this  family,  as  well  as 
the  common  dolphin  {Delphinus  delphis),  which  was  known  to  the 
ancients  and  is  common  in  all  seas. 

The  peculiar  Ganges  dolphin  (Plataniata) ,  whidi  lives  in  the  great 
rivers  of  India,  stands  quite  by  itself.  This  dolphin  is  entirely  blind, 
due,  probably,  to  its  living  continuously  in  turbid  waters.  The  eyes 
are  only  as  large  as  peas,  and  have  no  lenses.  The  beak  of  this 
dolphin  reminds  one  forcibly  of  the  jaws  of  the  gavial,  or  Ganges 
crocodile. 

We  shall  now  endeavor  to  summarize  the  common  habits  of  the 
whales.  They  live  exclusively  in  the  water.  No  whale  is  fashioned 
to  move  on  land.  Progression  takes  place  only  through  the  powerful 
turning  about  of  the  great  caudal  fin,  with  its  flukes,  which  acts  like 
the  screw  at  the  stern  of  a  ship."  The  body  is  more  or  less  fusiform, 
and  the  swiftest  swimmers  have  a  high  dorsal  fin,  as  well  as  a  pointed 
finout,  which  cuts  the  waves  like  the  prow  of  a  ^ip.  The  arms  and 
hands  have  been  transformed  into  flippers,  which  serve  as  a  steering 
apparatus.  Since  the  work  of  propelling  the  body  falls  on  the  caudal 
fin,  or  flukes,  the  hind  limbs  have  become  superfluous,  and  have  been 
reduced  to  rudiments  which  lie  deep  in  the  soft  parts,  (P^gs.  25  and 
26.)  The  pelvis  has  lost  its  connection  with  the  vertebral  column,  and 
in  the  dolphins  consists  of  a  very  small,  slender  rod  of  bone.  In  the 
bowhead,  in  addition  to  a  larger  remnant  of  the  femur,  a  smaller  rem- 
nant of  the  tibia  is  present.     (Fig.  25,  T.) 

The  dentition  is  adapted  to  environmental  conditions  in  a  remark- 
able manner.  As  the  food  is  swallowed  whole,  the  teeth  have  only  the 
function  of  fangs  to  seize  and  hold  the  prey. 

The  number  of  teeth  varies  greatly.  It  ranges  from  246  in  the  long- 
beaked  dolphin  to  two  in  the  bottle-nosed  whale.    The  snout  is  short 

■Tills  Idea,  which  Is  not  original  with  Professor  Abel,  Is,  I  believe.  Incorrect. 
All  cetaceans,  and  certainly  the  smaller  ones,  progress  solely  by  uiiward  and 
downward  Rtrokes  of  the  flukes. — F.  W.  T. 

Digilized  by  Google 


478  ANHUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901, 

and  rounded  in  some  species  (such  as  the  blackfish),  but  in  others  it 
is  shaped  like  the  bill  of  a  snipe. 

The  principal  food  of  the  cetaceans  13  fish.  Only  one  species,  a  dol- 
phin inhabiting  the  coast  of  Cameroon,  has  become  herbivorous.  A 
large  number  of  cetaceans  feed  solely  on  cuttlefish,  especially  those 
toothed  whales  in  which  the  teeth  are  reduced  in  number,  such  as  the 
sperm  whale  and  bottle-nosed  whale.  The  Ganges  dolphin  (Plata- 
nista)  lives  chiefly  on  small  fresh-water  crustaceans.  The  whalebone 
whales  are  seldom  fish  eaters,  although  the  common  finback  and  the 
little  piked  whale  are  exceptions.  The  principal  food  of  the  whale- 
bone whales  consists  of  minute  crustaceans  and  soft  mollusks,  which 


occur  in  enormous  masses  in  the  open  sea.  The  gigantic  whales  swal- 
low enormous  quantities  of  these  little  animals.  No  less  than  1,200 
liters  (317  gallons)  of  crustaceans  about  an  inch  long  have  beeu 
found  in  the  stomach  of  a  sulphurbottom  whale. 

That  the  killer  whale  is  not  behind  the  sharks  in  point  of  voracity 
is  evidenced  by  the  finding  of  13  (young)  harbor  porpoises  and  15 
(young)  seals  in  the  stomach  of  an  animal  7.5  meters  (24J  feet)  long, 
all  having  been  swallowed  whole,  with  the  exception  of  one  seal,  which 
was  bitten  in  pieces. 


.y  Google 


HISTOBY    OF   MABINE    MAMMALS ^AB&L.  479 

2.  THE  SEA-COWS. 

The  sea-cows,  or  sirenians,  are  awkward,  stupid  creatures,  which 
can  scarcely  move  on  land,  but  are  excellent  swimmers.  In  spite  of 
their  whale-like  form,  they  must  be  associated  with  the  ungulates, 
from  which  at  first  sight  they  seem  very  different  Their  food  con- 
sists exclusively  of  aquatic  plants,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  they 
live  only  on  the  seacoast  or  in  rivers. 

The  arms  and  hands,  as  in  the  whales,  take  the  form  of  flippers. 
As  in  the  whales  also,  locomotion  is  due  solely  to  the  action  of  the 
caudal  fin,  and  the  hind  limbs  are  aborted. 

A  sea-cow  leaves  the  water  no  more  willingly  than  a  whale.  Their 
arms,  however,  are  capable  of  supporting  the  body  while  the  animals 
are  grazing  on  the  fidds  of  seaweed  (Tangwalder),  and  on  this  ac- 
count they  are  still  movable  at  the  elbow,  which  is  no  longer  the  case 
in  whales. 

Within  historical  times  a  sea-cow,  known  as  Steller's  sea-cow, 
Rkytina  (or  Hydrodamdlw) ,  has  been  completely  exterminated. 
Steller  discovered  this  helpless  animal,  which  was  from  8  to  10  meters 
(26  to  32J  feet)  long,  in  1741  in  Bering  Island.  About  twenty-seven 
years  later  it  was  annihilated. 

At  present  only  two  genera  of  sea-cows  live  in  the  tropics.  One 
of  them,  the  dugong  (Halicore),  is  distributed  from  the  Red  Sea 
along  the  coast  of  India  to  the  Solomon  Islands.  The  other  genus, 
the  manatee  {Manatus,  or  Trickeckus)  (fig.  6),  lives  on  the  cast  coast 
of  South  America  (ranging  northward  to  Florida).  The  dugong 
lives  exclusively  in  the  ocean,  but  the  manatee  ascends  rivers.  The 
African  manatee  has  been  met  with  in  the  Kibali  River  more  than 
2,000  kilometers  (1,243  miles)  from  the  mouth  of  the  Congo.  The 
American  manatee  has  withdrawn  in  part  to  the  upper  courses  of 
the  Orinoco  and  the  Amazon. 

3.  THK  nXNIPBDS. 

The  seals  are  at  once  distinguishable  from  the  whales  and  sea-cows 
from  the  fact  that  they  possess  well-developed  hind  limbs.  The  tail, 
on  the  contrary,  is  aborted  and  does  not  end  in  a  fin. 

The  manner  of  progression  in  the  water  is  entirely  different  in  the 
representatives  of  the  three  families  of  pinnipeds  (sea-lions,  walruses, 
and  seals).  The  seal  (fig,  7)  swims  by  powerful  back  strokes  of  its 
hind  limbs,  which  are  formed  like  fins,  and  after  a  stroke  are  laid 
against  one  another  and,  as  it  were,  folded  together.  This  mode  of 
swimming  has  a  gi-eat  advantage,  because  the  surface  exposed  to  the 
water,  and  hence  the  resistance  of  the  water,  is  thereby  greatly  re- 
duced.   The  arms  of  the  seal  serve  only  for  steering,  as  in  the  whales. 


.y  Google 


480 


ANNUAL  REPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 


In  the  sea-lions  {fig.  6)  the  fore  limbs  are  the  sole  organs  of  locomo- 
tion, while  the  hind  flippers  serve  only  for  steering;  exactly  the  oppo- 
site, therefore,  of  the  seals.  The  fore  feet  are  large  and  long  and  in 
form  remind  one  of  the  wings  of  penguins  and  auks.    They  have  not 


Tig.  7.— a  tea]  In  ■  BwlmmroK  poMiire.  (After  P.  GervnlB.)  The  flral  lod  Otih  toM 
of  ttie  bind  feci  are  of  equal  lenglli ;  the  middle  toe  IB  the  Bhortest.  The  hind  fllppen 
are  contraeteil  and  tberefote  In  tUe  poaltloD  tber  aBBume  after  a  back  atnAe.  The 
fore  lllppers  Berve  only  for  steering. 

the  slightest  similarity  with  those  of  whales  and  sea-(»ws.     In  swim- 
ming, they  are  turned  about  in  a  peculiar  fashion  like  a  screw. 

The  walrus  moves  in  the  water  in  such  a  manner  tliat  both  fore  and 
hind  flippers  serve  in  locomotion.     The  fore  flippers  move  alternately, 

as  in  sea-lions 
and  turtles.  The 
hind  flippers,  on 
the  contrary,  are 
turned  about  in 
the  same  manner 
as  in  seals.  The 
swimming  mo- 
tion of  the  walrus 
is,  therefore,  en- 
tirely different 
from  that  of  the 
sea  -  lions  and 
peDKuins.  seals. 

The  tail  is  rudimentary  in  all  three  families  of  pinnipeds,  and  plays 
no  role  in  locomotion. 

The  dentition  of  the  seals  is  simplified.  It  serves  for  masticating 
food  only  in  the  walrus.  In  all  other  pinnipeds,  it  serves  for  grasp- 
ing. Speaking  generally,  the  molar  teeth  of  the  seal  are  serrate,  with 
sharp  cutting  cusps,  while  those  of  the  eared  seal  are  single-pointed 


HISTOBT   OF   UABINE  MAMMALS—ABEL.  481 

and  conical.  The  teeth  of  the  walrus,  on  the  contrary,  are  blunt  and 
small,  and  some  of  them  fall  out  early. 

Among  the  seals  belong  the  harp  seal,  the  monk  seal  {Monacftua), 
the  hood  seal,  and  the  elephant  seal,  the  last  of  which  is  the  ginnt 
among  seals  and  reaches  a  length  of  9  meters  (2dj  feet).  The  eared 
seals  include  the  sea-lions  and  fur  seals.  The  northern  fur  seal  is  the 
best  known  representative. 

The  walrus  is  the  only  living  genus  of  the  family  to  which  it 
belongs. 

4.  THE  OTTERS. 

Only  one  genus  of  otters,  Enhydrie  (or  Latax),  that  to  which  the 
sea-otter  belongs,  can  be  included  among  marine  mammals,  as  all 
other  otters  are  fresh-water  animals  and  only  occasionally  go  to  sea. 
The  sea-otter  has  a  special  interest  for  us,  because  its  adaptation  for 
a  life  in  the  sea  has  not  progressed  so  far  that  the  characters  pecul- 
iar to  otters  have  been  effaced.  If  we  compare  the  sea-otter  with  its 
allies,  however,  we  see  that  its  hind  limbs  hove  already  become  real 
fins,  as  in  the  seals,  while  the  fore  feet  differ  but  little  from  those  of 
land  otters.  It  follows  as  a  consequence  of  the  larger  si%c  of  the 
hind  flippers  that  they  play  a  more  important  role  in  the  locomotion 
of  this  animal  in  the  water  than  do  the  fore  legs. 

We  have  passed  step  by  step  from  the  whales,  which  are  modified 
in  a  remarkable  manner  for  life  in  the  sea,  to  the  otters,  which  show 
but  few  differences  from  carnivorous  land  mammals.  The  thought 
might  arise,  therefore,  that  the  sea-otters  have  descended  from  the 
otters,  the  seals  from  the  sea-otters,  and  the  whales  from  the  seals; 
or,  in  other  words,  tliat  in  these  several  types  we  see  before  us  the 
various  stages  through  which  the  development  of  the  whales  has 
passed.  This  is  not  the  case.  We  have  only  to  observe  the  different 
modes  of  locomotion  in  the  water  displayed  by  the  whales  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  seals  on  the  other,  and  to  consider  that  in  the 
seals  the  tail  is  aborted,  and  does  not  bear  a  fin,  while  in  the  whales 
the  tail  fin  is  extraordinarily  powerful,  to  be  relieved  of  all  doubt 
that  there  are  here  two  fundamentally  different  forms  of  adaptation 
for  life  in  the  sea. 

Because  these  modifications  of  the  seals  and  whales  are  entirely 
different,  the  latter  can  not  possibly  be  derived  from  the  former. 
The  whales  must  possess  ancestors  in  which  the  tail  was  long  and 
well  developed,  so  that  at  an  early  stage  it  could  assume  the  labor 
of  locomotion  in  the  water. 

Similarly,  detailed  comparisons  show  that  no  close  relationship 
exists  between  the  seals  and  otters,  and  that  the  seals  must  have 
taken  their  origin  from  another  branch  of  the  carnivore  stem.     From 


the  otters,  seals,  and  whales,  which  without  exception  were  originally 


I. 


483  ANNUAL  REPORT  SJnTHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

carnivorous,  the  group  of  herbivorous  sea-cows  is  sharply  separated. 
Their  ancestors  were  not  carnivorous  but  herbivorous  mammals,  and 
they  have  remained  true  to  this  regimen.  |  t 

II.  The  Mesozoic  Marine  Reptiles. 

Since  the  ancestors  of  the  whales,  of  the  sea-cows,  and  of  the  seals 
can  not  be  looked  for  among  the  living  mammals,  the  question  may  be 
raised  whether  the  Mesozoic  marine  reptiles  may  not  be  regarded  as 
their  ancestors.  Indeed,  on  superficial  observation,  the  well-known 
ichthyosaurs  (fig.  9)  presents  the  form  with  which  we  are  familiar  in 
the  dolphin.  The  body  is  fish-like,  the  skull,  as  in  the  dolphin,  extends 
into  a  long  snout  with  numerous  teeth,  the  limbs  hare  the  form  of 
dippers,  there  is  a  dorsal  fin  which  reminds  one  forcibly  of  that  of 
a  dolphin,  the  skin  is  naked,  and  the  young  are  bom  alive. 


Opposed  to  these  similarities  of  form,  however,  are  many  much 
more  important  structural  differences.  The  ichthyosaurs  were  rep- 
tiles which  were  not  related  to  the  mammals  in  the  remotest  degree, 
and  became  extinct  without  leaving  descendants. 

On  more  careful  observation,  we  see,  moreover,  that  the  caudal  fin 
in  the  ichthyosaur  is  not  horizontal,  as  in  the  whales,  but  vertical, 
as  in  the  fishes.  In  addition,  not  only  the  fore  limbs  but  the  hind 
limbs  are  transformed  into  fins.  Only  the  form  of  these  fins  can  be 
compared  with  those  of  whales ;  their  structure  is  entirely  different. 

The  similarities  between  ichthyosaurs  and  dolphins  can  not.  there- 
fore, be  looked  npon  as  evidence  of  relationship.  They  result  from 
a  similarity  of  adaptation  for  the  same  mode  of  life.  If  we  search 
among  the  other  marine  reptiles  which  took  the  place  of  whales  in 
Mesozoic  times,  we  do  not  meet  with  any  form  which  exhibits  any 
similarity  to  living  mammals.  In  contrast  with  the  dolphin-like 
ichthyosaur,  stands  the  rotund*  plesiosaur,  with  its  turtle-like  body, 
four  long  fins,  and  a  small  skull  resting  on  a  very  long  neck.    With 


HIBTOBY   OF   MABINE    MAHMAIiS— ABEL.  488 

this  is  connected  the  peculiar  marine  turtles,  which  were  modiSed 
for  living  entirely  in  the  sea,  and  possessed  a  long  salamander-like 
body  and  fins,  and  a  vertical  caudal  fin  like  the  ichthyosaur.  They 
ally  themselves  to  the  snake-like  mosasaurs  (fig.  10),  which  again 
exhibit  other  forms  of  body. 


Flo,  10. — Restored  akeletoDS  of  MoMBaurus  Irom  the  Upper  Chalk  of  Kansas.  A. 
Clidastei  veloi  Marsh.  Leogtb  about  4  meters  (12  feet).  B.  Platecarpus  coiTptieuB 
Cope.  Length  aboat  4.6  meters  (14  feet).  C.  Trlraaorua  prorlger  Cope,  LenRth 
about  T.5  meters  (23  te«t).    After  8.  W.  WUIIston. 

Of  all  the  marine  reptiles,  none  can  be  the  ancestor  of  the  marine 
mammals.  Without  exception,  all  these  marauders  of  the  sea  were 
representatives  of  separate  branches  of  the  reptile  stock,  which  have 
entirely  died  out. 

The  time  of  the  extinction  of  the  great  marine  reptiles  does  not 
coincide  with  that  of  the  appearance  of  the  marine  mammals.  One 
may  not  at  all  picture  to  himself  that  the  extirpation  of  the  marine 
reptiles  which  ruled  the  sea  at  the  end  of  the  Mesozoic  was  due  to 
their  being  supplanted  and  annihilated  by  the  rising  and  flourish- 
ing mammals.  A  long  time  elapsed  between  the  destruction  of  the 
marine  reptiles  and  the  appearance  of  the  first  marine  mammals. 

III.  The  Ancsstoks  of  the  Misiss  Mahhals. 

The  Mesozoic  is  the  time  of  the  uncontested  dominion  of  the 
reptiles  on  land,  in  the  air,  and  in  the  sea.  The  mammals  of  this 
epoch  are  known  only  from  very  rare  and  insufficient  remains.  The 
dominion  of  the  mammals  begins  with  that  division  of  geological 
time  which  we  call  the  early  dawn  of  the  world,  ?<«  x^i^,  or  the 
Eocene.  They  first  conquer  the  land  and  then  take  possession  of 
the  sea. 

Digilized  by  Google 


ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 


II,  Quaternary— 


The  Cffinozoic  falls  into  the  following  subdivisions: 
I.  Present. 
.  aiacial  epoch. 

4.  Pliocene. — ^Exniuple:  The  upper  llgbt  sea  sands  of 
Antwerp  (wbalebone  wbales,  walmaeB,  seals). 
The  mnrlue  formations  of  tbe  upper  Itallim  lon-- 
and    (wbalebone    wbalee,    toothed    whales,     sea- 

3.  iliocenc. — Example:  The  lower  black  sea  sands  of 
Antwerp  (whalebone  whales,  toothed  whales,  and 
seals). 
Murine  deposits  of  the  outer  border  of  the  Alps 
(sea-caws  and  whales).  Clays  of  Nussdorf  and 
Helllgenstadt,  Vienna  (whales  and  seals). 

2.  Oligocene. — Example :  The  sea  sands  of  the  vicinity 
of  Mayence   (sen-cowB). 

1.  Eocene. — Example :  The  marine  chalk  of  the  Mokat- 
lamberg  near  Cuiro,  and  of  the  Fayum  (prlmltlT« 
cetaceans  and  the  first  sea-cows). 

The  different  divisions,  as  for  example  the  Eocene,  Oligocene,  etc, 
are  again  subdivided  into  Lower  Eocene,  Middle  Eocene,  Upper 
Eocene,  etc. 


FiOB.  11  and  IS.— akullii  ot  two  primitive  cetnc< 
Egypt.  Fig.  11.  Protocetus  atavus  E,  Frsas. 
11a.  obllqaelj  fram  aboT? ;  lib.  from  below.  F1 
LenKth  »'  skall  90  cm.   (^5.*  In.).      ItlKbt  "Ide. 


IB  from  tbe  lower  MIddIp  Eoccae  at 
l-eagth  of  HknII  60  cm.  <Z3.S  In.)  ; 
12.  Bocptas  BCbwelDfurtbl  B.  Fraas. 


While  only  land  mammals  have  tlius  far  been  found  in  the  Lower 
Eocene,  the  first  marine  mammals  appear  in  the  lower  Middle 
Eocene — primitive  cetaceans  and  the  oldest  sea-cows.  These  discov- 
eries were  made  during  the  last  five  years  in  a  region  from  which  pre- 


HISTORY  OF   MABINE  MAMMALS — ABEL.  486 

viously  only  scattering  remains  of  mammals  were  obtained,  namely,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Cairo  and  in  the  Fayum, 
The  oldest  whale  which  we  know  to-day, /"ro^oce^M*  {fig.  11),  differs 
'  so  extraordinarily  from  living  whales  that  at  first  sight  one  could 
hardly  assign  it  to  this  group  of  animals.  The  skull,  and  particu- 
larly the  teeth,  show,  on  the  other  hand,  an  astonishing  resemblance 
to  the  oldest  land  mammals. 

As  in  the  latter,  the  oldest  primitive  cetacean  has  3  incisors,  1  ca- 
nine, 4  premolars,  and  3  molars  on  each  side  of  the  upper  and  lower 
jaws.     As  in  the  carnivores,  the  canine  projects  strongly.     The  teeth 


Fig.  13. — Skult  ot  S  primitive  cptaecon.  I'roieunloiJon  atroi  AndrewB,  from  the  lower 
Middle  Eocene  ot  the  Fa^um  (Egypt).  Length  of  hIidII  80  em.  (23.Q  In.).  A.  Prom 
the  right   Bide.     B.  Pram   above.     Aftpr  C.   W.   Andrews. 

which  follow  it  are  two-root«d,  the  posterior  three-rooted.  The 
edges  of  the  teeth  are  smooth.  The  number  of  teeth  in  this  primitive 
cetacean  must  have  been  44,  a  great  contrast  to  the  recent  long- 
beaked  dolphin,  which  has  246  teeth. 

To  this  primitive  form  is  joined  another,  t'occtus  (fig,  12),  which 
differs  through  the  fine  serration  of  the  edges  of  the  teeth.  Then 
follows,  also  in  the  same  deposits  of  the  Middle  Eocene  sea,  a  third 
form.  Prozeuglodon.  (Fig,  13.)  In  this  cetacean  the  feeth  are  not 
formed  as  in  land  mammals,  but  the  edges  are  strongly  serrate^^gl.. 


486  ANNUAL   BEPOBT   8MITUBONIAN    INSTITUTION,   190T. 

This  last  genus  is  a  transition  form  to  the  lat«r  primitive  ceta- 
ceans of  the  upper  Middle  Eocene.  In  this  form,  Zeuglodon  (fig. 
14),  the  marked  difference  between  the  incisors,  canines,  and  anterior 
premolars  has  disappeared ;  the  })Osterior  teeth  have  lost  their  three 
roots  and  have  therefore  become  two-rooted.  The  last  molars  of  the 
upper  jaw  have  begun  to  retrograde,  and  in  one  species  (fig.  14)  are 
already  lost 

From  the  scanty  remains  of  the  limbs  of  this  primitive  cetacean 
which  have  been  discovered,  only  one  conclusion  can  be  drawn, 
namely,  that  the  arm  was  modified  so  as  to  form  a  flipper.  As  the 
tail  vertebne  of  the  later  primitive  forms  are  very  large  and  power- 
ful and  resemble  those  of  the  existing  whales,  it  is  certain  that  these 
creatures  swam  after  the  manner  of  the  whales  and  not  of  the  seals. 


Fto.  14.^ — ^knll  o(  a  primitive  cetacean.  ZeiiRlodon  oalria  DamM.  from  tbe  upper 
Middle  Bocene  of  r:gypt.  I.«Detb  of  skull  TO  cm.  (ST.S  In.).  J-alaclBoR ; 
C— canine ;  P— premolars ;  M— noUrs.     Alter  E.  v.  Stromer. 

The  primitive  cetaceans  appear  to  have  become  extinct  with  the 
latest  form  of  the  Upper  Eocene.  At  all  events,  no  remains  from 
later  deposits  give  us  any  evidence  of  a  continuation  or  transforma- 
tion of  this  stock.  We  are  therefore  confronted  anew  with  a  great 
question:  Where  shall  we  look  for  the  ancestors  of 'existing  whales  1 

A  small  primitive  cetacean  from  the  Eocene  deposits  of  the  Caucasus. 
Microseuglodon,  gives  us  a  clew.  This  appears  to  be  the  progenitor 
of  a  series  which  is  represented  in  the  Oligocene  only  by  a  small 
whale  from  the  vicinity  of  Biinde  in  Hanover,  but  which  in  the  Mio- 
cene (the  next  later  division  of  geological  time)  reached  a  high  de- 
velopment. This  Miocene  whale  has  a  very  full  dentition.  The 
teeth  remind  one  remotely  of  those  of  the  sharks.  It  is,  on  this 
account,  called  the  "  shark-tooth   whale,"  Sgualodon.    (Fig.   16.) 


Goo'^lc 


HIBTOBY  OF  MABHTB  MAMMALS — ABEL.  487 

These  squalodons  approach  the  primitiTe  cetaceans  of  the  Eocene  in 
the  form  of  the  posterior  teeth,  and  as  in  the  latter  these  teeth  in 
some  species  are  three-rooted.  An  important  difference  exists,  how- 
ever, in  the  number  of  the  teeth.  While  the  primitive  cetaceans 
have' only  11  teeth  on  each  side  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  in  the 
squalodons  the  number  is  14  or  16.  The  simplification  of  the  teeth 
proceeds  so  far  that  the  incisors,  canines,  and  many  of  the  anterior 
premolars  are  of  the  same  form. 

The  skull  of  the  squalodons  reminds  one  strongly  of  that  of  exist- 
ing toothed  whales.  The  nostrils  are  pushed  far  back  in  the  skull,  an 
adaptation  for  breathing  in  the  water.  With  the  squalodons  begins 
an  almost  unbroken  series  which  leads  to  the  existing  sperm  whale. 


Fro.  15. — Skulli  ot  two  sqnalodont  cetaceans.  8qas[odoD.  A  Sqnalodon  iltteU  Paquier. 
frocn  the  Uloceae  ot  Bl«lcheiibBch  Id  Lower  Bavaria,  i  natural  Bin.  An«c  K.  A. 
von  ZIttel.  B.  aqaalodon  barlenala  Jonrdan,  from  the  Miocene  ot  Barl  In  aoutbem 
France.     A  natural  sJxe.     After  Lortet. 

Between  1861  and  1863,  when  the  fortifications  of  Antwerp  were 
built,  thousands  of  whale  skeletons  were  dug  up,  and  among  them 
forms  which  show  in  the  clearest  manner  how  the  transition  between 
the  squalodons  and  the  sperm  whale  has  taken  place. 

First  we  see  that  in  the  different  forms  of  Scaldicetus  {fig.  16)  the 
two-rooted  teeth  have  become  single-rooted  through  the  fusing  to- 
gether of  the  roots.  The  crowns  of  the  teeth,  which  were  originally 
compressed,  have  become  conical.  The  cusps  on  the  edges  of  the 
teeth  have  disappeared  and  resolved  themselves  into  fine  serrations, 
whose  remains  finally  are  only  indistinctly  seen  on  the  crowns  of  the 
teeth.  The  crowns  are  shorter  and  the  roots  longer  and  thicker. 
The  teeth  stand  obliquely  and  form  a  formidable  grasping  appa- 
ratus. 


488  ANNUAL  BEPORT  SUITUBONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

In  the  scaldiceti  the  premftxillce,  maxilla,  and  mandible  still  bear 
teeth.  The  same  is  true  of  a  whale  belonging  to  a  later  formation, 
Pkyaeterula  (fig.  17),  in  which,  however,  the  enamel  layer  of  the 
erown  is  already  lost. 

Then  follows  a  foreruniier  of  the  sperm  whale,  Propkyieter 
(fig.  18),  in  which  the  incisors  fall  out  in  early  youth,  while  the 
maxillary  feeth  follow  a  little  later.  The  upper  dentition  is,  there- 
fore, gradually  aborted. 


Tlien  follows  the  genus  Placoziphius,  in  which  the  premaxilla; 
and  maxillie  have  become  entirely  toothless,  while  only  the  lower  jaw 
bears  teeth,  and  thus  we  reach  the  stage  where  the  existing  sperm 
whale  (fig.  20)  joins  on. 

There  are  few  genealogical  series  of  animals  which  give  us  the 
history  of  a  stock  so  clearly.  Of  special  interest,  however,  is  the 
sudden,  almost  "  explosive,"  development  from  the  squalodons  to  the 
sperm  whale.     The  entire  development  is  completed  in  a  X^^-  small 


HISTORY   OF    MABINB    MAMMALS ABEL.. 


section  of  geological  time,  the  Upper  Miocene,  and  since  that  time 
the  sperm  whales  have  not  materially  changed. 


A  second  series  springs  from  the  squalodons  and  leads  to  the 
existing  beaked  whales.  Here  the  simplification  of  the  dentition  is 
completed  in  a  different  way  than  in  the  case  of  the  sperm  whales. 


eak  ot  an  ancestor  at  tbe  Sperm  whale,  Proph^Beler  d 

e  of  Antwerp.      18a.  from  below:  18b,  from  without, 
e  richt  the  maxilla.     1  natural  size. 


The  most  important  difference  is  that  all  the  t«eth  disappear,  with 
the  exception  of  one  or  two  pairs  in  the  lower  jaw.     In  the  living 


490 


ANNUAL.  REPORT  SMITHSONUB   INSTITUTION,  1907. 


beaked  whales  one  iinds  rudimetiiary  denticles  which  remain  in  the 
gums  and  are  not  cut. 

In  this  series  also  we  know  the  most  important  transitional  forms. 
Fig.  19  shows  the  under  jaw  of  a  beaked  whale  from  the  Miocene  of 
France,  Oetorhynchiis,  in  which  the  alveolar  groove  is  greatly  reduced 


and  the  septa  between  the  alveoli  have  disappeared.  The  series  is 
developed  in  the  same  line  as  the  sperm  whales,  and  the  transfonna- 
tion  is  similarly  nearly  completed  in  the  Upper  Miocene.  At  this 
time  a  genus  of  beaked  whales,  .Wesoplodtm,  appears,  which  is  met 
with  abundantly  in  fossil  form,  but  very  seldom  at  the  present  day. 


orm  wbate.  Ptis'seter  macrocepbalus  L,  Length  of  the  body  rearh« 
0  («ell.  Aftor  W.  tl.  Flovcr.  Tbe  mandible  ba>  2T  large  alngle-rootrd 
B<de ;  the  upper  Jaw  and  tbe  premaiUle  which  (onn  the  end  of  tbe  anoDt 


Still  another  independent  series  springs  from  the  squalodons, 
which  has  its  highest  development  in  the  Miocene,  but  at  the  present 
time  is  on  the  decline.  To  this  group  belong  the  small  South  Ameri- 
can river  dolphins  {Stenodetpkis  and  Inia)  and  the  white  whale  and 
narwhal. 


.yGOOgll 


e 


HISTORY  OF   MARINE   UAMMALS — ABEL.  491 

Wliile  all  the  series  thus  far  spoken  of  are  still  represented  to-day, 
ii  fourth  series,  which  also  took  its  origin  in  the  squalodons,  is  entirely 
extinct.  This  series  comprises  the  long-beaked  dolphins  of  the  Upper 
Miocene  of  Antwerp  {Eurhinodelphidie) .  In  one  species  the  snout 
reaches  nine-eleveuths  of  the  total  length  of  the  skull,  an  enormous 
proportion,  which  stands  alone  among  all  the  long-beaked  aquatic 
animals  which  have  lived  hitherto.     (Fig.  21.) 

The  dolphins  of  the  present  are  not  the  descendants  of  the  squalo- 
dons.  What  their  ancestors  were  we  can  not  say  to-day.  It  is  sure, 
however,  that  they  sprang  from  armored  progenitors.  In  the  Upper 
Miocene  of  Radoboj  in  Croatia  a  small-toothed  whale  closely  allied 
to  the  harbor  porpoise  (PkociFna)  has  been  found  whose  whole  flipper 
was  covered  with  armor,  while  the  existing  harbor  porpoise  retains 
only  scanty  remains  of  this  old  armor.     (Fig,  5.) 


The  initial  link  for  connecting  the  whalebone  whales  with  the  land 
carnivore^  is  also  wanting  at  present.  Most  probably  they  originated 
from  the  primitive  cetaceans.  But  certainly  they  passed  through  the 
stages  of  toothed  whales,  as  numerous  denticles  are  present  in  the  jaws 
of  whalebone  whale  embryos.  The  oldest  whales  of  this  kind  appear 
in  the  Miocene.  They  are  very  small,  but  approach  very  near  the 
finbacks. 

While,  therefore,  the  origin  of  some  groups  of  whales  is  enveloped 
in  obscurity,  important  and  very  rich  discoveries  in  the  Eocene  of 
Egypt  have  shown  us  from  what  ancestors  the  sea-cows  originated 
and  how  their  stages  of  development  proceed. 

Contemporaneously  with  the  oldest  primitive  cetacean  appears  the 
oldest  sea-cow,  which  has  received  the  poetic  name  of  the  "  animal 
of  the  dawn,"  Eotherivm.  With  this  appears  a  second,  more  highly 
developed  genus,  Protosiren.  (Fig,  22.)  The  most  salient  character 
bj  which  the  oldest  sea-cows  are  distinguished  from  the  existing  ones 
is  the  possession  of  all  four  limbs.  The  dentition  is  as  complete  as  in 
the  oldest  primitive  cetaceans.  A  series  of  characters  points  with  cer- 
tainty to  a  near  relationship  with  the  pachyderms.  Elephants  and 
aea-cows  doubtless  had  the  same  ancestors. 

DiailizedbyGOOgle 


492 


ANNUAL  EEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 


The  hind  limbs,  which  are  still  functional  in  the  oldest  sen-cows 
from  the  lower  Middle  Eocene  (fig,  23,  I),  in  those  of  the  upper 
Middle  Eocene,  have  already  become  functionless  {fig,  23,  II).  The 
pelvis,  which  originally  consisted  of  ischium,  ileum,  and  pubis,  has 
degenerated.  The  obtflrator  foramen  has  disappeared.  (Fig.  23,  II.) 
The  acetabulum  has  become  smaller  and  rudimentary.    (Fig,  23,  III.) 

By  making  use  of  later  forms  we  can  trace  step  by  step  the  course 
through  which  the  degeneration  of  the  pelvis  and  of  the  femur  has 


Egypt.  Length  ■ 
"  ~  I  behlDd. 
Andrewa. 


Ulddle  Eocene  of 

D.  From  mbore. 

After  C.   W. 


The  pubis  gradually  became  smaller  (fig.  23,  II,  III, 
IV)  and  disappeared  entirely  in  a  sea-cow  from  the  Miocene  of  Aus- 
tria. Finally,  only  a  long  rod  of  bone  remains,  the  upper  part  of 
which  consists  of  the  ileum  and  the  lower  part  of  the  ischium,  as  in 
the  extinct  Arctic  sea-cow  and  the  existing  dugong. 

The  South  American  manatee  has  retained  a  rudiment  of  the 
femur,  but  this  is  only  about  18,5  mm,  long  and  about  2.5  mm.  thick, 
while  the  animal  itself  reaches  a  length  of  3  mete^  {10  feet).     {Fig. 

^^•>  ,  ^Google        ■ 


HISTORY  OP   MABINE  MAMMALS — ABEL.  493 

In  no  other  group  of  mammals,  perhaps,  can  the  stages  in  trans- 
formation be  followed  so  clearly  as  in  the  sea-cows.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  these  animals  inhabited  the  seacoast,  and  that  conse- 


quently  their  remains  have  been  met  with  abundantly  in  the  marine 
Tertiary  deposits  of  Europe.  The  whales  live  largely  in  the  high 
seas  and  a  carcass  is  only  occasionally  driven  on  shore  bjr  currents. 


494  ANNDAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITDTION,  1901. 

A  graveyard  of  whales,  such  as  exists  in  the  Upper  Miocene  and 
Pliocene  bay  of  Antwerp,  is  a  quite  unique  phenomenon. 

The  sea-cows  arose  in  the  Mediterranean  re^on  in  the  Middle 
Eocene.  Until  the  Pliocene  they  were  abundant  on  the  seacoasts  of 
Europe.  From  thence  the  ancestors  of  the  dugong  took  their  way 
toward  the  east  and  those  of  the  manatee  toward  the  west  Thus  it 
at  once  becomes  clear  why  the  range  of  the  two  living  genera  of  sea- 
cows  is  so  sharply  separated,  and  wliy  such  fundamental  differences 
exist  between  the  dugong  and  the  manatee.  They  separated  at  a  very 
early  time  in  the  Mediterranean  from  the  main  stock  of  the  sea-cows, 
which  is  now  extinct,  while  the  branches  continue. 

Let  us  return  again  to  the  whales.    The  degeneration  of  the  pelvis 
in  the  sea-cows  which  we  can  follow  directly,  gives  us  the  means  for 
solving  the  problem  of  the  rudimentary  hind 
limbs  of  the  whales.    If  we  compare  the  pelvis 
of  the  bowhead  or  Arctic  right  whale    (fig. 
25)   and  that  of  the  finback   (fig.  26)   with 
the  pelvis  of  the  oldest  sea-cows,  the  corre- 
spondence becomes  at  once  apparent.    In  both 
cases  the  ileum,  pubis,  and  ischium  are   in 
all  respects  similarly  formed.    The  obturator 
foramen    has    disappeared,    the    acetabulum 
for  the  femur  is  no  longer  functional.    The 
ileum   is   very  long,  the   ischium   and   pubis 
aborted.     Most  significant,  however,  is  the 
^o-  ^i'~^'^  pelvic  bone    position  of  the  remains  of  the  pelvis  in  the 
tee,   HanatuB   latiroetriB    body  of  the  whalebone  "whales.     The  pelvis 
"a^'i^!  '  -T  ""mnLw    ***  ^^^  Arctic  right  whale  is  turned  180°,  as 
of  the  femur-  The  iieam     compared  with  that  of  the  finback.    The  rudi- 
BDd  the  pubiB  are  lack-    rnetit  of  the  pelvis  of  the  toothed  whales  cor- 
responds also  entirely  with  the  forms  found 
in  the  dugong.    It  follows  that  the  reduction  of  the  pelvis  and  of  the 
hind  limbs  in  both  not  closely  allied  groups,  the  whales  and  the  sea- 
cows,  must  have  proceeded  in  exactly  the  same  order. 

The  example  shows  in  the  clearest  manner  the  importance  of  the 
study  of  fossil  forms,  as  it  is  only  through  a  more  exact  knowledge 
of  them  that  we  can  properly  understand  the  structure  of  living 
animals. 

If  we  turn  to  the  primitive  history  of  the  seals,  we  are  forced  to  say 
that  their  origin  is  not  yet  clear.  The  most  probable  supposition  is 
that  they  originated  from  bears.  Paleontology  unfortunately  leaves 
us  in  the  lurch,  as  the  oldest  seals  of  the  Miocene  already  show  all  the 
characters  of  existing  seals.  But  through  the  multifarious  observa- 
tions which  at  present  extend  throughout  all  civilized  countries,  it 


.y  Google 


HISTORY  OP   MARINE   MAMMALS ABEL. 


495 

time 


wjll  doubtless  be  possible  to  bring  this  problem  to  solution 
soon. 

If  we  review  the  results  of  our  investigation.s,  we  see  that  the 


Fid,  2a. — Left  p«It1c  bOD?  of  tbe  Bonbead  or  Arrtlc  right  wbBle.  RalaeDB  niTHtln'tuH  L.. 
seen  abllquel;  from  wltbonL  About  A  oatural  sice.  Prom  left  to  rliht.  tbe  first  three 
figures  make  It  lolelllslble  bow  the  present  posltloo  of  tbe  pelvic  bone  at  tbe  Bowbead 
was  assumed.  Tbe  upper  end  of  the  lleDm  has  rotated  twckward.  until  tbe  bip-bone 
Ilea  boTlioDtallr.  Tbe  anterior  end  Is  toward  tbe  left,  the  posterior  toward  the  rlK^t. 
IL.,  lleom;  F..  pobls;  IS..  Iscblum;  A.,  acetabulum:  f-.  femur;  T.,  tibia  (cartllagliionB). 

marine  mammals  do  not  form  a  single  group,  but  belong  to  series  of 
entirely  different  forms,  not  closely  related. 
The  whales  originated  from  very  old  land  carnivores,  the  sea-cows 


Fia.  26. — Left  pelTlc-bone  ot  the  Common  Plnback,  Balcuoptera  pbfsaluB  L..  seen  (*■ 
llquelj  from  without.  About  ■/,  natural  sise.  Tbe  left  and  middle  flEures  show  bov  tbe 
poBltlon  of  the  bip-bone  of  finback  asBumed  Its  present  position.  The  upper  end  ot 
the  Ileum  has  famed  downward  forwards,  so  tbst  the  bone  Is  horlzoutBl.  The  BDterior 
end  la  toward  tbe  left,  tlie  posterior  toward  the  Tight.     AbbreTlatlona  as  In  Pig.  25. 

from  elephant-like  pachyderms,  the  sea-otter  from  ordinary  otters, 
and  the  seals  probably  from  bears. 

We  have  seen  that,  in  spite  of  many  similarities  in  the  form  of  the 
body,  the  whales  are  not  allied  to  the  ichthyosaurs ;  also  among 
marine  mammals  there  is  a  series  of  corresponding  lines.     Thus  we 


.y  Google 


496 


ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 


find  in  the  whaler  and  sea-cows — two  widely  separated  stocks — a 
horizontal  caudal  fin,  rudimentary  hind  limbs,  fin-shaped  fore  limbs, 
a  more  or  less  naked  skin,  etc.  Let  us,  however,  look  more  closely 
at  one  of  these  structures  which  appear  so  similar.  The  flipper  of 
a  marine  mammal  is  always  much  broader  than  the  fore  limb  of  a 
land  mammal.  The  fin  must  be  broad  if  it  is  to  serve  as  a  good 
steering  apparatus.  In  the  whales  the  broadening  of  the  fin  is 
accomplished  by  the  broadening  of  both  lower  arm  bones,  so  that  the 
bones  themselves  are  increased  in  breadth  antero-posteriorly.  The 
space  between  the  radius  and  ulna  is  small.  (Fig.  27,  I.)  In  the 
sea-cows,  on  the  contrary,  the  broadening  of  the  fin  results  from  the 
increased  space  between  the  radius  and  ulna.  The  radius  is  bent 
forward  strongly,  while  the  bones  maintain  nearly  their  original 
size.     (Fig-  27,  II.)     In  the  seals,  finally,  the  same  result  is  reached 


from  wltbout. 


by  the  radius  being  increased  in  width  at  its  lower  end  and  the  ulna 
at  its  upf)er  end,  while  the  spaces  between  the  bones  remain  very 
small.     (Fig  27,  III.) 

Thus  the  same  result,  the  formation  of  a  broad  fin,  comes  about 
in  three  different  ways.  We  can  state  that  in  briefer  form  somewhat 
as  follows :  Like  form,  u-ith  different  structure. 

To  follow  the  relations  between  the  form  of  the  body  and  the 
structure  of  the  body  in  all  particulars  is  essential  if  one  wishes  to 
approach  the  problem  of  the  affinities  of  animals  one  to  another.  The 
history  of  the  separate  stems  of  the  marine  mammals  must  be  con- 
structed on  foundations  entirely  different  than  those  upon  which  the 
similarity  of  the  form  of  the  body  is  based.  We  recognize  here  again, 
as  everywhere,  the  dominating  influence  of  mode  of  life  on  the  struc- 
ture of  organisms,  which  in  different  groups  produces  the  phenomena 
of  convergent  adaptation.  ^-~  ■  , 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  PEOPT.ES.- 


By  Theobald  Fischer. 
Univer»ity  of  Marbttre. 


The  Mediterranean  region  for  many  years  haa  stood  in  the  fore- 
^ound  of  international  politics.  Morocco  has  drawn  the  attention 
of  the  whole  world  to  her  by  the  events  happening  on  her  coasts; 
events  which  have  already  resulted  in  the  occupation  by  the  French 
of  the  eastern  frontier  town  Ujda,  near  which  Bu  Amara  still 
holds  sway;  events  which  have  been  echoed  in  and  around  Casa- 
blanca, in  all  of  Morocco,  in  the  other  Atlas  countries,  and  in  fact 
all  through  the  world  of  Islam. 

In  comparison  with  the  active  commercial  interest  which  appar- 
ently all  the  nations  of  Europe  take  in  the  Mediterranean,  the 
inhabitants  of  these  countries  have  been  almost  entirely  in  the  back- 
ground. That  they  are  so  little  known  and  have  been  deemed  hardly 
worthy  of  consideration  has  again  and  again  caused  events  very  sur- 
prising to  the  European  diplomats  and  people  in  general.  Tlie  pur- 
pose of  this  paper  is  therefore  to  give  a  general  outline  of  the 
variegated  mixture  of  races  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  in  the  adjoining  inland  countries,  with  an  account  of  their 
numbers  and  distribution.  The  figures  are  given  in  roimd  numbers, 
sufficiently  accurate,  however,  for  the  present  purpose.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  it  would  be  difficult  for  anyone  to  tell  exactly  how  many 
Berbers  and  Albanians  there  are,  or  even  the  number  of  Greeks  and 
Turks. 

The  most  important  results  of  this  investigation,  I  should  say  at 
the  very  beginning,  may  be  considered  with  these  three  statements 
before  us: 

1.  The  Mediterranean  coimtries  are  as  a  rule  very  thinly  popu- 
lated, and  the  tendency  is  for  the  inhabitants  to  remain  chiefly  along 
the  coast. 

2.  One-third  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast  countries  of  the 
Mediterranean  are  of  one  race — the  Italian. 

"Translated,  by  permission,  from  the  Internationale  Wocbenscbrlft.  Berlin. 
Reptember  7.  14.  21.  28,  1907. 


,G8bgle 


498  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONUN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

3.  The  Berbers  of  the  Atlas  Mountain  region  deserve  much  more 
consideration  than  heretofore  has  been  given  them. 

The  old  function  of  the  Mediterranean,  that  of  being  the  source  of 
culture  for  the  whole  world,  faded  further  and  further  into  the  back- 
ground in  the  middle  ages.  The  Romans  had  united  the  whole  terri- 
tory under  one  government  and  in  this  way  had  caused  a  great  uni- 
formity in  manner  of  life.  In  the  Koman  period  all  ethnic  differ- 
ences were  more  or  less  completely  veneered  by  Roman  culture  which 
graded  into  Hellenic  in  the  east.  The  so-called  migrations  have 
changed  this  comparative  uniformity,  attained  in  a  long  historical* 
period,  into  the  variety  of  races  seen  at  the  present  day.  The  entire 
race  map  of  the  Mediterranean  has  been  altered. 

In  many  cases  this  complexity  is  only  apparent,  for  frequently  we 
6nd  the  primitive  races  hidden  under  a  new  language  and  a  new 
religion  which  they  have  adopted.  We  may  well  recall  as  an  exam- 
ple that  the  very  mixed  population  of  Asia  Minor,  including  the  Cel- 
tic Galatians,  at  one  time  gradually  acquired  the  Greek  language 
and  the  Christian  religion,  while  to-day  the  same  people  more  often 
speak  Turkish  and  are  Mohanmiedans.  Only  four  Mediterranean 
peoples  have  preserved  both  their  speech  and  racial  peculiarities  from 
the  period  before  the  migrations,  and  this  has  been  possible  only  on 
account  of  the  mountainous,  inaccessible,  and  unattractive  nature  of 
their  countries.  These  are  the  Basques,  the  Albanians,  the  Berbers, 
and  the  Greeks. 

The  first  two  have  diminished  in  numbers  to  a  small  remnant  and 
seem  doomed  to  extinction  as  races  at  no  very  distant  day.  In  spite 
of  this,  however,  both  have  played  a  prominent  part  in  recent  his- 
tory. The  Basques  were  the  supoorters  of  the  Carlist  uprising  in 
Spain,  and  the  Albanians  have  been  a  great  factor  in  oriental  ques- 
tions. The  Basques  are  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Iberians, 
They  have  kept  to  the  valleys  of  the  western  Pyrenees  and  to  the 
neighboring  Basque  Mountains,  named  from  them,  living  partly  on 
French  and  partly  on  Spanish  soil  between  Bilbao  and  Bayonne,  but, 
through  emigration,  especially  in  the  nineteenth  century,  to  the  La 
Plata  States,  and  throng  absorption,  they  have  been  reduced  to 
about  a  half  a  million  in  number.  The  Albanians  sprang  from  (he 
ancient  lUyrians,  who  have  been  able  to  hold  their  position  only  in 
a  portion  of  their  original  territory — the  most  inaccessible  middle 
stretches  of  that  great  folded  girdle  of  the  earth's  crust  foimd  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  and  which  may  appropriately  be 
called  "  a  land  of  perseverance."  Their  long  struggles,  first  with  the 
Slavic  overflow  and  then  with  the  Turks,  under  whose  oppression 
great  numbers  emigrated  to  Greece  and  Italy  during  the  fifteenth 
century,  did  not  exterminate  them.  In  sonthem  Italy  as  far  an 
Sicily  these  Albanians  number  now  about  80,000,  although  they  ap- 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  PEOPLES — FISCHER.  499 

pear  to  be  almost  entirely  absorbed  by  the  Italian  culture,  or  in  the 
process  of  assimilation.  Still  more  Albanians  have  probably  been 
assimilated  by  the  Greeks.  The  Albanian  cattle  raisers  and  farmers 
quickly  developed  into  mariners,  with  the  result  that  many  of  the 
naval  heroes  of  the  Grecian  struggle  for  independence  were  of  Alba- 
nian descent.  In  southern  Albania  and  Epirus,  also,  so  far  as  they 
adopted  the  Grecian  religion,  they  willingly  adopted  Grecian  cus- 
toms. AVhat  is  fatal  for  them,  however,  more  than  their  actual  posi- 
tion in  civilization,  is  their  separation,  because  of  racial  peculiarity 
and  the  nature  of  their  country,  into  many  little  clans,  often  in 
deadly  feud  with  one  another,  and  also  their  religious  tripartition. 
From  the  south  they  are  drawn  into  the  Greek  Church;  from  Italy 
into  the  Roman  Catholic,  and  in  Turkey  they  have  been  partly  won 
over  to  Mohammedanism.  There  are  many  of  them  spread  all  over 
Turkey  as  soldiers  and  officials,  often  in  high  positions.  But  not- 
withstanding their  pronounced  warlike  characteristics,  by  reason  of 
which  they  form  the  Sultan's  bodyguard,  and  lend  material  aid  to 
the  Turkish  armies  in  their  conquests,  and  their  large  number  of  a 
million  and  a  half,  they  are  a  factor  of  less  consequence  than  might 
be  expected,  because  of  their  scattered  condition. 

Although  scarcely  subordinate,  they  nevertheless  appear  to  be  the 
principal  support  of  the  Turkish  ascendency  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Balkan  peninsula,  Italy,  in  competition,  is  striving  to  win  over  the 
Roman  Catholic  Albanians,  who  educate  their  priests  principally  in 
Rome  and  thereby  is  endeavoring  to  secure  a  firm  foothold  in  the  pen- 
insula, even  in  opposition  to  the  Hapsbiirg  monarchy. 

Scattered  over  the  southeastern  European  peninsula  there  are  still 
remnants  of  the  pre-Roman  primitive  peoples  in  the  guise  of  the 
Rumanian  speaking  Aromunes,  Zinzares,  or  Walachians.  In  the 
twelfth  century  these  still  held  a  considerable  part  of  Thessaly,  then 
known  as  the  great  Walachia.  They  are  largely  lacking  in  national 
feeling,  belong  to  the  Greek  church,  and  incline  toward  Grecian 
customs.  Many  speak  three  languages  (Turkish,  Rumanian,  and 
Greek).  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  number  hardly  200,000,  they 
have  recently  been  prominent  politically  for  the  reason  that  Ruma- 
nian envoys  have  been  striving  to  draw  them,  csj^ecially  the  Mace- 
donian Waiachs,  away  from  the  Grecian  influence. 

In  Asia  Minor  also  there  are  still  significant  remnants  of  aboriginal 
peoples,  who  on  account  of  their  religion  consider  themselves  Greeks 
and  are  Hellenlzing  themselves  by  foimding  Greek  schools  and  em- 
ploying Greek  teachers.  Likewise  many — in  fact,  according  to  the 
opinion  of  those  who  best  know  the  conditions,  the  majority — of  the 
so-called  Turks  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  related  Mohammedan  sects 
who  form  the  remnants  of  the  original  people,  are  doing  the  same 
thine,  which  renders  it  difficult  to  secure  accurate  information  cpn- 


500  ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

ceming  them.  The  Celts  (Galatians)  who  in  the  third  century  B.  C. 
wandered  into  the  northern  half  of  the  highlands  in  the  interior  of 
Asia  Minor,  can  still,  even  when  Mahommedan  and  speaking  Turkish, 
be  easily  distinguished  by  their  light  brown  hair  and  blue  or  gray 
eyes,  from  the  native  Cappadocians  with  their  jet  black  hair,  nar- 
row faces,  and  peculiar  noses. 

In  an  entirely  different  category  from  these  disappearing  remnants 
are  two  other  aboriginal  peoples,  the  Berbers  and  the  Greeks. 

The  Berbers,  who  belong  to  the  Hamitic  group,  are  an  extraordi- 
narily interesting  race,  whose  language  and  peculiarities  have  been 
studied  far  too  little  on  account  of  the  fact  that  even  to  the  present 
day  they  energetically  resist  everything  foreign.  The  principal  re- 
gion where  they  live,  the  Atlas  mountain  territory,  or  Little  Africa, 
was  formerly  called  Barbary  after  these  people,  but  this  name,  for 
no  good  reason,  seems  to  have  passed  into  disuse  in  modern  times. 

In  place  of  the  name  Berber,  there  is  generally  used  a  term,  spread 
by  the  French  in  Algeria,  namely,  the  word  Kabyle.  This  word 
means  nothing  more  than  tribe.  The  comparatively  pure  Berbers  of 
the  high  coast  range  in  Algeria,  eastward  of  Algiers,  are  called 
Kabyles,  and  likewise  the  mountainous  region  of  Jebel  Jurjura  is 
called  Greater  Kabylia,  and  the  mountainous  region  east  of  Bougie 
is  known  as  Lesser  Kabylia. 

The  attention  of  the  entire  world  has  recently  been  centered  on  the 
Berbers.  Once  before  in  the  middle  ages  these  people  played  a  very 
important  part  in  the  political  and  social  development  of  the  world. 
The  Berbers  were  predominant  in  the  armies  that  conquered  Sicily 
and  Spain  and  they  were  very  prominent  among  the  "Arabic  " 
teachers  and  artists  of  that  time. 

The  Aghlabites  of  Kairwan,  founded  in  669  A.  D.  by  the  Arabians 
under  Sidi  Okba,  were  Berbers,  among  whom  scientific  life  had  its 
beginnings  in  the  ninth  century.  Berbers  also  were  the  Fatimides 
who  have  dominated  in  Mehedyia  since  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, and  the  Zirides  who  took  up  the  government  of  Tunis  in  place 
of  the  Fatimides  when  these  transferred  their  capitol  to  Egypt. 

The  sect  of  the  Almoravides,  made  up  of  Berbers  of  the  desert  who 
had  gone  over  to  Mohammedanism,  conquered  Morocco  in  1060  A.  D. 
under  the  leadership  of  Abu  Beker.  His  successor,  Yussuf  Ben 
Tashfin,  founded  Marrakesh  and  out  of  the  present  day  Morocco  and 
western  Algeria  formed  a  great  empire,  to  which  he  also  linked  Spain. 
An  even  still  greater  territory,  from  Tangier  to  Barca,  was  held  in  the 
sway  of  the  Almohades,  who  were  another  essentially  Berber  sect  and 
dynasty.  This  brilliant  epoch  of  the  Berber  domination  lasted  from 
1145  to  1269.  Partly  in  their  service,  the  alien  Arabic  tribes  spread 
out  farther  and  farther  and  as  bearers  of  Mohammedanism  forced 
their  language  and  to  some  extent  their  customs  upon  the  Berbers. 

Gooylc 


THE  MEDITERBANEAN  PEOPLES — FISCHEB.  501 

The  kingdoms  and  dynasties  of  the  Merinides  in  Fez,  the  Zianites  in 
TIemcen,  and  of  the  Hafsides  in  Tunis  (1228)  were  also  essentially 
Berber.  The  fall  of  these  kingdoms  started  with  their  incessant 
civil  wars,  and  disintegration  was  so  rapid  in  the  fifteenth  century 
that  soon  a  general  state  of  anarchy  prevailed,  and  the  overthrow  of 
Tunis  and  Algeria  by  the  Turks  in  the  sixteenth  century  thus  became 
an  easy  matter.  Only  Morocco  was  able  to  preserve  its  individuality, 
and  has  ever  since  then  been  an  independent  state. 

The  flourishing  condition  of  Tunis  and  a  large  part  of  Algeria  in 
Roman  times  must  not  be  forgotten.  The  Roman  soldiers  and  officials 
were  there  only  in  comparatively  small  numbers.  Colonization  in 
masses  had  not  taken  place  and  the  greater  part  of  the  population 
had  Phcenician  and  Berber  names,  even  if  somewhat  Latinized. 
Whatever  developments  in  culture  from  that  time  recognizable  now 
are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  Berbers,  and  give  good  evidence  of  the  great 
role  played  by  the  Berbers  in  the  "Arabic  "  period. 

These  people  offered  the  Romans  a  very  hard  fight  before  succumb- 
ing. The  Arabs  first  appeared  in  Tunis  in  the  year  647,  but  is  was 
not  until  669  that  they  fully  subdued  this  country  and  organized  it 
as  a  province  under  the  name  Ifrikia.  In  685  Okba  was  killed  by 
the  Berber  chief  Koce'ila,  and  the  Arabs  were  completely  expelled 
from  Ifrikia.  Every  pilgrim  from  Biskra  visits  Okba's  grave  in  the 
little  near-by  oasis  Sidi-Okba.  Koceila  established  his  own  dynasty 
at  Kairwan,  which  had  been  founded  by  Okba,  and  united  the  whole 
eastern  Atlas  region  into  one  kingdom.  Koceila  succumbed  in  690  to 
another  attack  of  the  Arabs,  but  the  Princess  Dina  of  the  Zenata  (a 
tribe  of  the  eastern  Aures  Mountains),  commonly  known  as  Kahena 
(Priestess),  organized  the  defense  and  again  drove  out  the  Arabs.  It 
is  characteristic  of  the  Berbers  that  a  woman  should  play  such  a  part. 
Other  Berber  tribes  also  had  women  as  rulers. 

In  703,  however,  deserted  by  the  Berbers  who  were  again  embroiled 
in  civil  war,  the  Princess  was  overpowered  by  a  fresh  onslaught  of 
the  Arabs.  At  that  time  12,000  Berber  warriors  were  forcibly  con- 
verted to  Mohammedanism  and  incorporated  in  the  Arabian  army. 

After  this  many  of  the  Berbers,  led  on  by  the  booty  in  prospect,  and 
by  the  cleverness  of  the  Arabs  in  making  their  interests  identical, 
joined  with  the  Arabs  of  their  own  free  will.  Tarik,  the  conquerer 
of  the  Visigoths,  was  a  Berber. 

The  Berbers  from  early  prehistoric  times  have  inhabited  the  Medi- 
terranean countries  of  north  Africa  from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  ocean 
and  the  Canary  Isles,  although  they  have  been  expelled  from  parts  of 
this  region  and  deprived  of  their  language  in  favor  of  Arabic,  under 
the  influence  of  Mohammedanism,  and  in  other  ways  are  more  or  less 
Arabicized.  They  have  maintained  themselves  in  the  purest  condi- 
tion in  the  mouutftins,  especially  those  of  sequestered  and  out  of  the 

ikGoo^^lc 


502  ANNUAL  B£FOKT  8MITHB0NIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

way  parts  of  Morocco.  The  inhabitants  of  this  country  are  not  Arabs, 
as  inTestigators  once  thought,  and  as  superficial  observers  sdll 
imagine,  but  almost  exclusively  Berbers.  The  question  as  to  wheither 
the  Berbers  in  a  prehistoric  age  migrated  from  western  Asia  or 
Europe  to  their  present  territory  has  been  much  debated.  The  wei^t 
of  evidence  Is  first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other,  but  research 
seems  rather  to  incline  toward  the  European  theory.  The  recent  ex- 
pression of  opinion  of  Bertholon,  the  F^nch  physician  and  anthro- 
pologist, based  on  investigations  of  the  prehistoric  antiquities  of 
northern  Africa,  is  on  the  side  of  a  migration  from  Europe.  Bertholon 
says  that  the  builders  of  the  megalithic  monuments  (Dolmen,  Menhir) 
of  Tunis  and  east  Algeria  are  of  the  same  race  that  left  behind  simi- 
lar monuments  in  Europe.  The  striking  resemblance  also  of  certain 
Implements  has  indicated  a  relationship  of  the  Berbers  and  the 
Basques.    This  is  also  considered  probable  for  linguistic  reasons. 

The  prominent  French  north  African  investigator,  Charles  Tissot, 
declares  himself  in  favor  of  the  migration  from  Europe,  because 
the  blond  type  of  Berber  is  most  frequent  south  of  the  Straits  of 
Gibralter  and  becomes  less  frequent  toward  the  east.  The  period 
of  migration  must  be  set  at  about  1500  B.  C,  since  the  monuments 
of  the  nineteenth  dynasty  in  Egypt  already  represented  the  Libyans 
as  a  blond  and  blue-eyed  people. 

I'he  Berber  tribes  of  Juala  and  Uled  Hannech  in  Algeria,  the 
Krumir  of  north  Tunis  and  the  Shaamba  of  the  Algerian  Sahara 
even  to  this  day  erect  sepulchers  which  resemble  the  megalithic  tombs. 
The  so-called  "grave  of  the  Christian  woman"  (tombeau  de  la 
fhr^tienne),  really  the  grave  of  a  Berber  princess,  west  of  Alters, 
which  is  so  much  visited  by  travelers  in  Algeria,  and  the  so-called 
Medracen,  the  grave  of  a  Berber  prince  (Massinissa?),  between  Con- 
Ktantine  and  the  Aures  Mountains,  in  a  country  at  present  an  absolute 
desert,  are  nothing  more  than  finished  forms  of  these  megalithic 
tombs.  The  tent  dwellers  of  Tunis  even  to-day  use  the  same  types 
of  clay  vessels  as  those  found  in  the  megalithic  grave  chambers.  In 
other  respects  also  the  European  influence  in  ancient  times  may  be 
recognized.  Certain  peculiarities  in  the  physical  type  of  the  Berbers 
may  likewise  be  traced  far  back.  With  these  peculiarities  as  a  test 
the  ancient  Numidians  are  to  be  differentiated  as  true  Berbers  from 
the  Libyans,  the  Afri,  whose  name  is  still  borne  by  the  continent, 
from  the  Maxyes,  and  from  the  Gatulians  of  the  southwestern  Atlas 
region.  These  tribal  divisions  have  persisted  even  to  the  present 
day  and  often  have  proved  to  be  fatal  to  them. 

Many  of  the  tribes  named  by  Ptolemy  are  recognizable  to-day  in 
Morocco.  In  the  Mazikes  we  recognize  the  Masig,  the  tribal  name 
which  the  Berbers  of  northwest  Morocco  use.  His  Autololes  are  the 
Ait  Hilala,  his  Macenites  the  Miknassa,  his  Bacuatae  the  Berguit«, 


.y  Google 


THE   MEDITERB&NEAN  PEOPLES — FISCHER.  503 

and  the  name  Mauren  (Moors),  from  which  in  earlier  times  Morocco 
was  called  Mauretania,  is  derived  by  Tissot  and  Quedenfeldt  from  the 
Semitic  Maurim,  which,  literally  translated,  corresponds  to  the  teiro 
which  the  Moroccans  now  often  apply  to  themselves,  el-garbaua,  the 
people  of  the  west.  The  name  Berber  was  known  before  the  appear- 
ance of  Greeks  or  Bomans  in  north  Africa,  and  still  clings  as  a  special 
collective  name,  Breber  or  Beraber,  to  the  tribes  in  the  high  central 
Atlas  region  of  central  Morocco.  Those  of  the  southwest  are  dis- 
tinguished from  them  as  Schlu  or  Schloh,  those  of  the  north  as 
Amaziges  or  Amazirghes.  As  in  ancient  times,  there  is  now  in  Nubia 
the  city  Berabra.  Somaliland  is  called  Barbaria,  and  another  Ber- 
berland  lies  in  the  country  of  the  Troglodytes  between  the  Nile  and 
the  fied  Sea  south  of  the  port  of  Berenice.  These  names  indicate 
the  wide  distribution  of  the  Berbers  in  former  times.  Even  the 
cranial  measurements  of  the  old  Egyptians  show  a  similarity  to  those 
of  the  Berbers.  It  is  to-day  an  unquestioned  fact  that  the  Guanches 
of  the  Canary  Isles  were  Berbers.  Berber  inscriptions  are  found 
from  Cyrenaica,  at  present  inhabited  by  Arabs,  all  the  way  to  the 
Canary  Isles  and  far  into  the  Sahara. 

The  territory  at  present  inhabited  by  the  Berbers  reaches  from  the 
oases  of  the  Libyan  desert  to  the  oc^an,  and  includes  the  entire 
western  Sahara  as  far  as  the  mountain  oasis  of  Air  and  the  bend  of 
the  Niger  at  Timbucto,  and  even  Senegal,  which  owes  its  name  to 
the  Berber  tribe  Zenaga,  a  people  speaking  a  Berber  dialect,  who 
migrated  or  were  driven  there  from  the  southern  Atlas  valleys  only 
since  the  sixteenth  century.  All  the  so-called  Moorish  tribes  whom 
the  French  have  encountered  in  Senegal  are  more  or  less  pure  Ber- 
bers. Everywhere  in  northwest  Africa  the  French  and  Berbers  are 
standing  in  opposition  to  each  other.  The  Tuaregs  of  the  western 
Sahara,  who  can  be  considered  now  as  conquered  by  the  French,  are 
Berbers  who  were  forced  into  the  desert  only  in  the  middle  ages, 
and  who  must  be  considered  among  the  least  mixed  of  all  the  tribes. 
Their  incessant  struggle  with  starvation  in  a  land  so  scanty  in  prod- 
ucts has  reduced  them  to  an  astonishingly  small  number  and  trans- 
formed them  into  desert  bandits.  According  to  the  most  recent 
French  estimates  the  two  great  tribes,  the  Hogar  and  the  Asjer,  can 
place,  respectively,  only  1,200  and  300  warriors  in  the  held.  The 
language  of  these  people  is  entirely  free  from  Arabic  words.  They 
possess  a  script  of  their  own,  which  is  used,  however,  only  for  inscrip- 
tions, on  their  shields,  on  rocks,  and  for  verses  at  their  occasional 
fests. 

The  Shaamba  in  the  Algerian  Sahara,  who  were  not  much  more 
than  bandits,  but  who  have  been  entirely  subdued,  are  also  Ber- 
bers. The  same  is  true  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  oasis  groups,  Tuat, 
41JS0-^B— 36  „,„„,.,G00glc 


604  ANNUAL  SEPOET  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

Qurara,  and  Tidikelt,  recently  taken  by  the  French.  They  belong  to 
the  old  Berber  tribe,  the  2jenata,  and  number  not  400,000  as  is  usually 
assumed,  but  only  60,000,  which  indicates  that  this  region  is  also  very 
sterile.  Berbers  make  up  almost  entirely  the  inhabitants  of  the  oases 
of  Wed  Eir  and  the  Tunisian  Sahara,  and  also  the  people  of  the  oasis 
studded  desert  plateaus  extending  from  the  bend  of  the  Lesser  Syrtb 
at  Gabes  to  the  western  limits  of  the  Greater  Syrtis.  The  semi- 
nomadic  tribes  in  the  hilly  country  extending  along  the  coast  south 
of  the  Atlas  Mountains  to  Cape  Juby  are  likewise  Berbers. 

The  principal  home  of  the  Berbers,  however,  is  the  Atlas  region, 
although  until  recently  they  were  all  considered  Arabs,  on  account 
of  the  general  prevalence  of  the  Arabic  language  and  because  the 
French  have  long  persisted  in  the  unfortunate  error  of  not  diflfer- 
entiating  between  Arabs  and  Berbers,  and  have  generally  spoken  only 
of  Arabs.  Yet  how  fundamentally  different  are  they  in  physical 
and  mental  characteristics ! 

The  number  of  pure  Arabs  in  all  northwest  Africa  is  very  small. 
Even  the  conquering  invaders  were  few  in  number,  both  actually 
and  in  comparison  with  the  Berber  folk  which  they  encountered. 
For  how  could  any  great  number  of  truly  nomadic  people  be  produced 
from  thinly  populated  Arabia!  It  was  a  small  army  according  to 
our  ideas.  The  results  they  accomplished  were  due  to  the  idea  that 
the  soldiers  represented,  the  reckless  fanaticism  which  possessed 
them,  and  the  disastrous  political  and  social  condition  of  the  people 
they  encountered. 

The  first  Arab  influx  of  any  great  extent  took  place  in  1050  A.  D., 
when  the  central  Arabian  nomad  tribes  Uled  HUal  and  Uled  Solelm, 
amounting  at  most  to  about  250,000,  entered  the  country.  With  the 
coming  of  these  nomad  hordes  the  wasting  of  the  country  began. 
Part  of  them  also  scattered  over  the  Saraha,  and  being  herdsmen 
they  appropriated  the  plains  and  valleys  by  preference,  and  forced 
the  Berbers  into  the  mountains.  They  penetrated  gradually  even 
into  the  extreme  wet^tern  parts  into  the  plains  of  the  Atlas  foreland 
of  Morocco,  where  there  are  to-day  Arab  tribes  like  the  Amar,  who 
live  a  little  south  of  Tangier,  the  Khlot  and  THq,  between  El  Ksar 
and  Larash,  the  Howara  in  Sus  and  the  Vied  Delim  south  of  Tensift. 
who  have  maintained  themselves  in  such  a  pure  state  that  they  can 
be  recognized  as  Arabs  by  their  physical  peculiarities,  although  they 
have  assumed  many  of  the  Berber  characteristics.  They  have  re- 
mained nomads  to  this  day,  or  at  best  are  seminomads  even  under 
the  influence  of  the  most  favorable  conditions  of  land. 

How  many  pure  Arabs  there  are  in  the  Atlas  region  is  very  difficult 
to  state.  Hamy  has  recently  estimated  them  to  be  about  60,000  in 
Tunis,  out  of  the  one  and  a  half  million,  inhabitants.  The  tribes  of 
Hamema  in  south  Tunis  near  Gafsa  and  the  Riah  between  Ed  Djeni 

Gooylc 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN    PEOPLES FISCHER.  605 

and  Medjez  el  Bab  are  Arabs.  Tunis  being  an  open  and  accessible 
country  is  especially  fitted  to  encourage  a  mixture  of  the  two  races 
and  to  allow  the  Arabicizing  of  the  Berbers  to  progress  most  rapidly, 
although  the  Berber  is  ethnically  predominant.  It  is  a  fact  that,  ex- 
cept in  the  island  of  Djerba  and  the  mountains  of  Arad  in  south 
'Funis,  the  Berber  language  is  left  only  in  a  few  villages  of  northern 
Tunis  in  the  region  of  Enfida  (Tacruna,  Djerada,  Zriba).  The 
dialect  of  these  villages  is  like  that  of  the  Shauia  of  the  Aures  Moun- 
tains, The  physical  type  of  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants,  however, 
and  their  customs  are  just  the  same  as  Sallust  and  Pomponius  de- 
scribed. The  Gurbi  {huts  made  of  twigs)  are  Salliist's  "  mapalia.'* 
In  Algeria,  where  the  French  have  neglected  to  establish  the  relation 
in  numbers  between  the  Arabs  and  Berbers,  an  authority  has  stated 
that  their  number  is  so  small  that  they  will  entirely  disappear  in  the 
near  future.  The  same  is  true  of  Morocco.  These  facts  are  less  ap- 
parent because  many  Berber  tribes  are  so  far  Arabicized  that  they 
have  not  only  given  up  their  language  and,  in  many  cases,  adopted 
Arabian  customs,  but  consider  themselves  Arabs  and  announce  this  as 
a  fact  I  observed  this  state  of  affairs  among  the  Freshish,  a  semi- 
nomadic  tribe  of  central  Tunis,  descendants  of  the  Frexes,  who  have 
lived  in  the  same  place  for  two  thousand  years.  Their  neighbors,  the 
Majer,  the  Mattnata,  and  the  Urghemma,  really  a  league  of  tribes,  are 
also  Berbers.  The  people  of  the  Kerkenah  Islands  and  of  Jerba  seem 
to  have  maintained  themselves  in  a  very  pure  state.  Among  them- 
selves they  speak  only  Berber,  The  well-known  Knimir  and  the 
Mogod  in  the  mountains  along  the  northern  boundary  of  Tunis  are 
likewise  Berbers.     The  former  number  6,500,  the  latter  5,900. 

The  Rhiata,  known  for  their  wild  freedom  of  life,  who  are  the 
guardians  of  the  most  important  route  of  commerce  which  runs  along 
the  geologic  and  orologic  boundary  line  between  the  Rif  Mountains 
nnd  the  Moroccan  Atlas  region  from  Fez  toward  the  east,  and  con- 
nects the  river  country  of  Muhiya  with  the  Atlas  foreland  of  Morocco, 
consider  themselves  Arabs,  although  they  are  pure  and  typical  Ber- 
bers and  still  speak  Tamazirt  to  some  extent. 

How  this  Arabicizing  is  accomplished  may  be  very  well  observed 
around  Tangier.  All  the  environs  of  Tangier  and  all  the  villages  in 
sight  of  the  city  were  settled  during  the  last  two  centuries  by  military 
colonies  of  the  government,  the  people  of  which  came  from  the  Rif 
region  and  almost  all  of  whom  even  yet  recognize  the  fact  that  they 
originated  there.  These  colonists  have  now  formed  a  new  tribe,  the 
Fahgya,  but  since  they  are  economically  entirely  dependent  on  Tan- 
gier, for  whose  protection  their  colonies  were  established,  they  have 
acquired  the  Arabic  speech  more  and  more.  The  villages  on  the 
southerly  slope  of  the  small  mountain  range  to  the  westward  of  Tan- 
gier, on  whose  western  end  stands  the  light -house  of  Cape- Spartel, 


506  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

are  the  only  places  where  Berber  is  still  spoken,  and  this  is  because  of 
their  isolated  location. 

Those  peasants  whom  visitors  to  Tangier  see  in  the  markets  and 
think  are  "Arabs"  are  absolutely  pure  Berbers.  If  one  of  them  was 
dressed  like  a  German  peasant  no  one  would  doubt  but  that  he  was 
really  what  he  seemed.  The  inhabitants  of  the  city  of  Tangier  itself 
are  naturally  also  very  much  mixed  with  the  Berber  element.  The 
tribes  that  inhabit  the  country  back  from  the  coast  cities  of  Morocco, 
which  has  been  so  much  discussed  of  late,  are  all  more  or  less  pure 
Berbers  and  in  some  degree  are  seminomads.  This  is  also  true  of  the 
Shauia  around  Casablanca,  the  Dukkala  around  Masagan,  the  Shedma 
around  Mogador,  the  Semmur  and  Zair  around  Rabat,  the  Beni 
Ahsen  on  the  lower  Sebu,  and  farther  in  the  mountains  the  Zaian, 
Qenian,  Beni  Mgild,  Beni  Mtir,  the  Beni  Uarain,  whom  De  Segonzac 
calls  the  ugliest  of  all  the  Berbers,  the  Ait  Yussi,  and  others ;  in  fact, 
every  tribe  with  whom  the  French  will  next  have  to  deal  are  Berbers. 
Some  of  these  tribes  climb  high  and  penetrate  into  the  mountains  in 
the  summer  time  with  their  herds  and  are  very  active  and  difficult 
to  control.  They  are  able  to  elude  every  superior  force,  as  the  Sul- 
tan's armies  have  so  often  discovered,  and  can  inflict  the  severest 
losses  on  their  enemies  by  enticing  them  into  ambuscades. 

In  Algeria  the  French  have  contributed  enormously  to  the  adoption 
of  the  Arab  tongue  by  the  Berbers,  because  they  have  for  decades 
considered  all  the  natives  as  Arabs  and  have  forced  Mohammedan 
government,  law,  and  customs  and  therefore  the  Arab  language  upon 
them.  Yet,  in  1859,  Hanoteau,  a  profound  student  of  the  Berbers, 
estimated  the  number  of  the  Berbers  in  Algeria  to  be  850,000,  the 
great  majority  of  the  native  population,  while  he  reckoned  the  Arabs 
at  only  one-sixth  this  number. 

The  Marquis  de  Segonzac,  another  ethnological  authority,  says 
there  are  no  longer  any  pure  Arabs  anywhere  in  Morocco. 

The  Berbers  physically  are  an  extraordinarily  powerful  and  sturdy 
race,  slender,  muscular,  somewhat  above  the  average  height,  but 
with  no  tendency  toward  fat,  which  is  considered  becoming  only 
among  the  young  girls  of  a  few  tribes.  Their  endurance  of  bodily 
exertion  and  privation  is  wonderful,  but  above  all  they  excel  in  walk- 
ing and  running.  The  Berber  couriers  who  carry  the  German  mail 
in  Morocco  cover  an  incredible  distance,  as  much  as  120  kilometers  in 
twenty-four  hours.  \Vhen  my  attendants  traveled  40  to  45  kilo- 
meters on  a  Htretch  they  showed  not  a  trace  of  fatigue.  They  all 
love  exercise.  Unlike  the  indolent  Arabs,  they  are  very  fond  of  play- 
ing ball,  and  have  everywhere,  as  in  our  country,  clubs  for  shooting, 
fencing,  and  the  like. 

The  warlike  tendency  gives  rise  also  to  standing  feuds  among  the 
different  tribes.    These  feuds  were  formerly  purposely  enoouraged 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN   PEOPLES — FISCHER.  507 

by  the  Government  in  Morocco,  in  order  to  weaken  and  subdue  some 
of  the  tribes.  They  would  deliver  one  tribe,  with  whom  they  could 
do  nothing  by  fair  means,  over  to  another  or  several  others  to  be 
"  eaten  up."  These  always  carried  out  the  commission  as  thoroughly 
as  possible,  so  that  the  implacable  hatred  of  the  conquered  people 
was  rendered  ineffective  for  a  long  time. 

The  Berbers  are  endowed  with  all  the  characteristics,  physical  and 
intellectual,  which  go  to  make  superior  soldiers:  personal  bravery, 
scorn  of  death,  and  sobriety.  The  French  would  before  long  have 
had  all  of  them  organized  into  a  large  army,  but  since  by  so  doing 
a.  hostile  force  would  be  assembled,  only  a  few  thousand  men  were 
enrolled.  Berbers  form  the  principal  part  of  the  Tirailleur  regiment. 
It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  these  physical  characteristics,  as 
veell  as  the  astonishing  longevity  which  was  noted  even  in  the  Koman 
inscriptions  in  the  eastern  Atlas  region,  are  to  be  attributed  to  the 
fact  that  only  the  strongest  by  nature  survive  the  lack  of  care  during 
childhood. 

The  skin  of  the  Berbers  is  light  brown  like  the  southern  Europeans; 
their  hair  is  usually  brown,  though  frequently  blond,  and  their  eyes 
are  blue.  Their  countenance  is  open,  fearless,  and  intelligent,  and 
their  eyes  full  of  life. 

The  Beni  Mgild  of  the  central  Atlas  region  of  Morocco  are  termed 
reddish  blond  by  de  Segonzac;  the  neighboring  Ait  Aiach  are  also 
usually  blond  and  blue-eyed,  according  to  him.  The  Fahcya  around 
Tangier  are  mostly  brown  or  blond  with  blue  eyes,  and  Ch.  Tissot 
maintains  also  that  the  blond  element  is  most  frequent  among  the 
Berbers  of  the  Moroccan  Atlas  country,  where  they  have  retained 
the  purest  type.  At  least  one-third  of  all  the  inhabitants  there  are 
blond.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Berbers  of  Jurjura  and  of  the  Aures 
Mountains  in  Algeria. 

Colonel  Lartigue,  who  has  made  a  comprehensive  study  of  the 
Shania  of  these  mountains,  says  that  they  closely  resemble  Europeans 
and  often  have  blond  hair,  althou^  they  are  generally  dark.  They 
are  wiry  and  thin  and  their  average  height  is  about  1.75  meters 
(5  feet  9  inches).  Kobelt,  the  German  physician  and  naturalist, 
asserts  that  among  the  Milianah  west  of  Algiers  half  of  the  children 
have  blond  hair  and  blue  eyes,  and  even  among  the  adults  there  is  a 
striking  number  of  blonds  or  of  those  with  light-brown  hair.  The 
Berbers  of  Jerba  also  are  blond  or  have  chestnut-brown  hair.  This 
characteristic  is  verified  by  the  oldest  extant  set  of  sailing  directions 
for  the  Mediterranean,  the  Stadiaamos,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  third 
century  A.  D.,  where  these  Berbers  are  mentioned  as  blond  and  ver- 
handsome. 

The  famous  poet  Kallimachos,  a  Cyrenean  Greek  of  the  third 
century  B.  C,  also  tells  of  the  light  color  of  the  indigenes  of  Gyrene, 


508  ANNUAL  REPORT  BHTTHBONIAN   INSTITUTION,  19OT, 

while  on  the  Egyptian  monuments  the  Libyans  and  Tamahiis  are 
represented  with  European  features  and  blond  hair.  When  the 
Spaniards  discovered  the  Canary  Isles  they  found  there  a  blond 
and  brown  type.  That  people  have  considered  these  blond  Berbers 
as  remnants  of  the  Vandals  may  be  merely  mentioned. 

The  Berbers,  in  direct  contrast  to  the  Arabs,  have  a  great  ability 
for  grasping  ideas,  especially  practical  ones,  and  have  great  capacity 
for  work.  Berber  jugglers,  often  of  remarkable  dexterity,  travel  all 
over  the  world,  and  are  known  oven  in  Germany,  where  some  of  them 
have  served  also  as  teachers  of  their  language. 

The  Berber  is  passionate  and  easily  moved,  but  at  the  same  time 
serious,  even  sad.  He  has  a  great  deal  of  personal  pride,  as  I  know 
from  my  own  experience,  and  resents  unkind  and  inconsiderate  treat- 
ment, a  fact  that  many  Europeans  seem  to  overlook.  A  Berber 
keeps  his  word.  Their  acquisitive  instincts  are  highly  developed, 
but  their  food  and  domestic  arrangements  are  simple,  even  in  great 
prosperity.  Rich  and  poor  alike  wear  the  same  soiled  and  tattered 
burnous.  The  Berbers  value  personal  property  highly.  Many  Ber- 
bers from  south  Tunis  wander  toward  the  city  of  Tunis,  and  many 
Berber  mountain  and  oasis  dwellers  of  Algeria  travel  to  Algiers  and 
other  coast  cities  to  save  a  little  sum  of  money  and  then  return  to 
the  home  country,  to  which  they  cling  faithfully,  and  buy  a  bit  of 
land  and  a  little  house,  the  desire  of  every  Berber.  Thousands  of 
them  travel  every  year  to  Algeria  to  work  on  the  railroads,  at 
harvesting,  on  harbor  works,  in  mines,  and  in  other  such  places,  in 
order  to  earn  money.  I  have  myself  traveled  with  such  groups 
for  some  time  in  the  interior  of  the  Moroccan  Atlas  foreland,  to  be- 
come familiar  with  their  views  and  experiences.  The  Berbers  are 
industrious  agriculturalists  and  tree  cultivators.  In  the  mountains, 
where  there  is  a  local  overpopulation — in  Jurjura  there  are  almost 
100  people  to  the  square  kilometer — they  have  terraced  the  slopes  and 
artificially  irrigated  and  fertilized  them  in  order  to  make  the  most 
possible  out  of  their  valuable  ground.  Every  available  foot  of  earth 
is  made  use  of.  In  this  way  they  have  transformed  several  mountain 
districts  into  very  landscape  gardens;  for  example,  the  inclines  and 
valleys  of  the  Serhun,  the  sacred  mountains  near  Fez,  the  slopes  of 
the  Atlas  near  Demnat  and  the  Jurjura  and  Aures  mountains  of 
Algeria.  In  the  Serhun  the  products  of  the  olive  and  fig  trees  bring 
the  necessary  ready  money,  while  in  the  other  mountains  apricot  trees 
furnish  this. 

How  valuable  these  irrigated  garden  lands  can  become  in  these 
comparatively  thickly  populated  mountain  districts  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  in  the  Aures  mountains  a  hectare  is  worth  as  much  as 
16,000  francs.  The  island  of  Jerba  is  one  great  garden  and  orchard. 
It  is  astonishing  to  see  how  the  Berbers  have  been  able  to  adapt  to 


THE  MEDITEBBANEAN   PEOPLES — FISCHER.  509 

cultivation  the  dry  and  rocky  mountains  of  southern  Tunis,  espe- 
cially in  the  territory  of  Arad  south  of  Ghabes  and  of  Tripoli. 

Bee  culture  is  carried  on  with  espscial  zeal  by  them,  and  wax  is 
therefore  one  of  the  exports,  of  southern  Morocco. 

All  the  Berbers  seem  to  have  a  leaning  to  a  settled  and  agricul- 
tural life,  although  it  must  be  admitted  that  those  tribes  which  are 
known  as  seminomads  or  nomads  only  are  cultivators  from  necessity. 
The  Berbers  are  also  clever  artisans,  masons,  joiners,  weavers,  pot- 
ters and  the  like. 

Pottery  and  woolen  weaving  flourish  in  Jerba,  and  the  purple-dye 
industry  has  been  carried  on  there  for  a  long  time,  while  the  woolen 
trade  of  Tunis  is  almost  altogether  in  their  hands.  Tanning,  dyeing, 
soap  making,  leather  working  and  the  like  are  carried  on  in  other 
places.    The  Mozabites  are  especially  skillful  merchants. 

From  a  moral  point  of  view  the  Berbers  show  great  contrasts.  An 
authority  has  advanced  the  opinion  that  "  pure  Berbers  have  pure 
morals."  The  mountain  Berbers  of  Rif  and  the  Berbers  who  are 
the  least  mixed  of  all  are  recognized  as  especially  strict  morally.  On 
the  other  hand,  we  are  assured  that  there  are  many  tribes  with  loose 
customs,  who  are  of  ancient  descent,  at  least  the  oasis  dwellers  of  the 
great  deserts  come  in  this  category.  *  *  *  Wives  are  bought  in 
some  regions,  yet  in  many  tribes  the  position  of  the  women  is  much 
freer  than  among  the  Arabs,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  they  go 
unveiled. 

The  Berbers  have  been  altogether  won  over  to  Mohammedanism, 
yet  that  religion  became  generally  known  only  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, and  was  then  only  outwardly  observed.  The  Berbers  seldom 
exhibit  religious  fanaticism,  least  of  all  in  Tunis.  The  Jebala  drink 
wine  which  they  make  themselves,  as  well  as  buying  it  from  Jews  and 
Christians,  so  that  drunkenness,  unheard  of  elsewhere  in  the  world  of 
Islam,  is  not  infrequent  among  them.  They  also  smoke  kif  immoder- 
ately and  eat  boar  meat.  The  saints'  tombs,  which  are  sometimes 
small  cubical  structures  with  domes  called  Marabut  or  Kubba,  and 
sometimes  mosque-like  buildings,  are  always  carefully  covered  with 
white  paint,  and  therefore  are  visible  for  a  great  distance.  These 
are  very  much  reverenced,  especially  in  Morocco,  and  are  very  numer- 
ous, while  mosques  are  few.  Sherifia  families,  who  because  they  are 
descendants  of  the  prophet  are  considered  as  holy  and  enjoy  especial 
privileges,  are  frequently  found  and  often  form  entire  villages. 
These  are  of  course  Arabs.  Occasionally  especially  prominent  sherifs, 
i.  e.,  descendants  of  Mohammed,  succeed  in  rnakin<;  peace  between 
tribes  who  are  in  blood  feud  with  each  other,  and  everywhere  act  as 
protective  guides  and  make  journeys  through  hostile  territory  possi- 
ble. The  only  places  I  have  experienced  unfriendliness  in  my  travels 
have  been  these  sherif  villages,  for,  dirty  and  ruined  as  these  holy 


510  ANNUAL  REPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

places  usually  are,  the  Christian  may  not  camp  near  one  because  he 
might  defile  it.  Religious  orders  and  sects  play  a  great  part  in 
Berber  life.  Those  of  the  Ma  el  Ainin  in  southern  Morocco  are 
very  important  at  present. 

The  Berbers  use  the  Mohammedan  calendar  in  political,  municipal, 
and  religious  affairs,  while  for  the  seasons  of  the  agricultural  year 
the  Roman  or  Christian  calendar  is  in  use.  The  great  agricultural 
feast  of  Ajisera  therefore  falls  on  the  summer  solstice. 

The  agricultural  calendar  of  the  Moroccan  Berbers,  as  well  as  tliat 
of  the  Fah^ya,  has  the  following  months:  Jena'ir,  Febrair,  Mars. 
E^ril,  Maio,  Junio,  Juliuz,  Aghocht,  or  Ghocht,  Chutembir,  Octuber, 
Nuambir,  Dudjambir.  Even  the  Tuaregs  of  the  desert  still  have  this 
reckoning  of  time.  The  Shauia  of  the  Aures  Mountains,  who  still 
keep  up  many  old,  originally  Christian  customs,  still  celebrate  Christ- 
mas under  the  name  Bu  Ini.  The  first  day  of  the  year  is  universally 
called  Junar  (January).  On  this  day  all  clothes  are  washed  and  all 
utensils  in  use  changed.  The  new  year's  night  is  celebrated  by  a 
feast  at  which  meat  and  eggs  are  eaten.  Six  weeks  later,  when  spring 
begins,  the  people  of  Menaa  hare  a  country  feast,  when  they  march 
into  the  woods  to  the  sound  of  the  flute  and  come  back  decorated  with 
branches  and  herbs. 

The  Berbers  are  a  thoroughly  democratic  folk,  .especially  the 
mountain  people.  In  this  they  differ  fundamentally  from  the  Arabs. 
The  Jemaa,  a  common  council  of  the  elder  and  more  important  men 
of  the  village  or  tribe,  takes  care  of  the  local  affairs.  Every  village 
has  its  common  hall,  Beit-es-Corfa,  which  often  also  serves  for  a 
magazine  for  weapons  and  gunpowder,  as  among  the  Jebala.  In 
Jurjura  the  common  hall  is  generally  a  simple  stone  structure  with 
benches  within,  at  the  entrance  of  the  village. 

The  consciousness  of  any  racial  connection  seldom  goes  further 
than  the  tribe.  There  are  a  number  of  confederations,  however, 
which  prevent  in  a  measure  the  eternal  feuds  between  the  tribes. 
As  far  as  the  French  have  carried  their  dominion  they  have  put  a  ' 
stop  to  these  feuds.  The  facilitation  of  travel  for  which  they  are 
responsible,  and  the  activity  of  the  widely  distributed  religious 
orders,  has  had  the  result,  however,  of  making  the  widely  separated 
tribes  known  to  each  other  and  of  wakening  and  strengthening  the 
idea  of  national  unity  among  them.  This  condition  will  be  of  great 
importance  in  future  events. 

The  settlements  of  the  Berbers  are  consistent  with  the  warlike 
nature  of  the  people,  to  the  prevailing  insecurity  and  to  the  topo- 
graphical conditions.  These  are  always  small  villages,  as  is  natural 
in  an  essentially  agricultural  population,  and  are  known  as  Debar 
{plural  Dchur),  Ksar  (plural  Ksur),  and  also  as  Dechera.  Large 
settlements  like  cities  are  found  only  in  the  oases  and  in  a  few  wide 

ii.;,Gooyk' 


THE   MEDITEBRANRAN   PEOPLES — FISCHER.  511 

and  especially  well-watered  valleys.  All  the  settlements,  however, 
are  inaccessible  and  fortress-like,  perched  on  an  incline  or  a  cliff 
in  a  commanding  position  and  visible  from  a  distance.  The  little 
low  stone  dwellings  are  generally  built  in  a  circle  with  their  backs 
abutting  on  each  other,  so  that  they  may  form  the  surrounding  wall 
of  the  little  fortress,  which  is  entered  by  a  single  gate.  Even  the 
more  recent  villages  of  the  Fah^ya  around  Tangier  are  built  on  this 
plan  and  with  this  sort  of  construction.  They  consist  of  nothing  but 
little  high  lying  groups  of  tiny  straw-covered  houses  or  huts  woven 
of  twigs  (Gurbi).  Three  of  these  generally  form  an  enclosed  court, 
and  the  whole  village  is  surrounded  by  a  circular  or  rectangular 
wall  made  up  of  the  back  of  the  houses  or  of  a  thick,  impenetrable 
hedge  of  opimtias  or  cacti.  It  is  the  same  way  in  the  Berber  moun- 
tain nests  of  central  Tunis,  Bargu,  and  Kessera.  Among  the  Fahtjya 
there  generally  stands  in  the  plaza  in  the  interior  the  one-storied 
white-tinted  house  of  the  Moqaddem  or  magistrate,  generally  the 
wealthiest  man  of  the  village.  *  In  front  of  this  house,  under  the 
shade  of  a  tree,  the  Jemaa,  or  town  council,  is  convened.  Here  also 
is  situated  the  mosque,  when  present,  generally  nothing  but  a  hut, 
where  school  is  also  held.  It  serves,  too,  as  a  sleeping  place  for 
Moslem  guests. 

I  found  the  Berber  villages  in  the  plains  of  southern  Morocco  also 
built  in  a  circle  and  fortified  by  an  impenetrable  wall  of  thorns 
(Zisyphus  Lotus  L.)  with  only  one  entrance,  which  was  closed  at 
night  also  by  a  gate  of  thorns.  It  would  not  be  an  easy  thing  to 
storm  one  of  these  fortresses.  Sometimes  the  lay  of  the  country  does 
not  allow  such  a  construction ;  then  the  little  houses  and  courts  ascend 
the  slopes  or  terraces  like  an  amphitheater  and  are  generally  perched 
on  top  of  as  steep  declivities  as  possible.  This  method  of  settlement 
has  put  the  Berbers  in  a  position  peculiarly  suited  to  perpetuate  their 
language  and  customs.  The  Komans  were  never  able  to  conquer 
Jurjura,  the  so-called  greater  Kabylia,  and  therefore  named  it  "  mons 
ferratus,"  and  the  French  liave  ^cceeded  in  doing  this  only  after 
twenty-seven  years  of  hard  struggle.  The  Morrocan  Atlas  and  Rif 
mountain  regions  are  one  great  fortress  of  this  kind.  It  is  to  be 
further  remarked  that  the  mountain  Berbers  generally  build  strong 
ca.stles  with  stone  or  mud  walls  to  which  they  bring  all  their  stores 
and  valuables,  each  family  having  a  separate  room.  These  castles 
serve  as  a  place  of  refuge  in  war  times.  All  the  heights  on  the  edge 
of  the  high  Atlas  Mountains  to  the  south  and  east  of  Marrakesh, 
especially  in  Demnat  and  Entifa,  are  crowned  with  such  strong- 
holds, resembling  the  ruined  castles  of  Germany.  These  are  called 
Tirremt.  The  strongholds  in  the  upper  Muluyu  region  are  like  this 
also.    They  at  once  reminded  me  of  the  church  fortresses  of  the 


.y  Google 


)12 


ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  19ff7. 


['ransylvanian  (lermans,  or  the  so-called  Saxons,  which  were  built 
'or  similar  reasons. 

These  forts  are  encountered  throughout  the  whole  territory  in- 
labited  by  the  Berbers.  In  the  Aures  Mountains  these  joint  fortified 
itorehouses  are  known  as  Gelaa  or  Thaqelet  (fort).  The  villagre, 
yhich  consists  of  low  cubical  houses  of  stone  or  air-dried  brick,  is 
^nerally  built  on  the  slopes  around  thp  Gela&.  Many  a  Gelaa  can 
)e  entered  only  with  the  help  of  a  rope  ladder. 

In  the  interior  of  central  Tunis  there  are  numerous  flat-topped 
xsiks  which  form  natural  fortifications  and  have  invited  settlement, 
rhese  have  there  the  same  name,  Kelaa.  The  one  best  known  is 
[(alaat-es-Senam,  which  dates  from  the  Roman  period,  and  in  the 
ater  history  of  Tunis  has  been  the  center  of  the  resistance  to  the  Bey. 
[t  is  accessible  only  by  a  stairway  hewn  in  the  rock.  These  fortified 
storehouses  are  met  with  in  the  greatest  numbers  in  the  southern 
runisian  region  of  Arad  on  the  serried  mountainous  cliff  walls  of 
he  great  desert  plateau  which  runs  eastward  from  the  lesser  Syrtis. 
Here  are  found  real  fortified  cities  like  El  Hudenin  and  Metamer, 
vhich  form  the  storehouses  of  entire  tribes  and  even  confederations. 

El  Mudenin,  the  storehouse  of  20,000  nomads  of  the  pure  Berber 
;ribes  of  Urghemma,  is  inhabited  in  winter  only  by  the  guards  and  a 
few  traders  and  innkeepers,  when  all  the  Berbers  have  led  their  herds 
far  into  the  desert.  From  the  inside,  the  six  or  seven  storied  houses 
seem  like  open  honeycombs.  They  are  nothing  more  than  small 
irehed  rooms  one  above  the  other  entered  by  pushing  away  a  stone, 
rt'here  possible  these  great  storehouses  are  placed  still  higher  on  the 
cliffs  and  hive  a  door  only  on  the  steepest  side.  The  Berbers  of  this 
•egion,  especially  those  of  the  tribe  of  Matmata,  besides  living  in 
hese  mountain  nests,  also  inhabit  caves  artificially  excavated  in  the 
nclines  of  the  valleys  in  the  clayey  marl  which  is  sufficiently  hard  for 
he  purpose.  Quite  a  number  of  villages  are  made  up  entirely  of 
;hese  cave  dwellings,  so  that  they  may  almost  be  called  Troglodyte 
nountains.  A  tunnel  leads  into  a  large,  generally  rectangular,  court 
srhich  is  open  at  the  top,  and  the  dwellings  and  storerooms  open  into 
his  like  stalls.  These  regions,  therefore,  were  practically  independ- 
mt  of  Tunis  and  wer?  only  conquered  by  the  French  in  1882.  The 
Funisian  army  with  its  cannon,  which  visited  the  region  in  1876,  had 
;o  withdraw  from  one  of  these  mountain  fortresses,  Ksar  Beni 
Knezer,  as  they  found  it  impregnable.  There  are  also  cave  villages  in 
he  Aures  Mountains. 

According  to  French  statistics,  of  the  138,000  dwellings  in  Tunis 
n  1890,  57,000  were  houses  and  81,000  tents.  I  do  not  think,  how- 
!ver,  that  in  Algeria  and  still  less  in  Morocco  the  number  of  tent 
Iwellers  is  comparatively  as  great  as  in  the  open  and  generally  level 
country  of  Tunis.    The  tent  dwellers  need  not  be  all  accouute<i  as 

,  Goo« 


THE  MEDITEBBANEAN   PEOPLES — PISCHEH.  513 

pure  nomads,  for  most  of  them  may  properly  be  ranked  as  semi- 
nomads.  In  any  case,  however,  they  are  shifting  and  evasive.  The 
tent  villages  of  the  seminomadic  Berbers  are  also  built  in  circular 
form,  as  indicated  by  their  name,  Duar.  .The  cattle  are  driven 
into  the  circle  each  night,  so  that  when  I  was  among  the  Beni  Ahsen 
of  the  Sebu  plain  of  Morocco  my  tent,  pitched  inside  the  ring,  on 
account  of  the  predatory  Zemmur,  stood  in  the  midst  of  herds  of 
cattle. 

The  language  of  the  Berbers,  the  Tamazirt,  the  preservation 
and  spread  of  which  has  already  been  considered,  has  been  too 
little  investigated  as  yet.  It  is  broken  up  into  a  number  of  dialects, 
as  might  be  expected  from  the  wide  distribution  of  the  people.  The 
study  of  it  makes  comprehensible,  however,  the  meaning  of  the  few 
fragments  of  old  Libyan  inscriptions  which  have  come  down  to  us, 
for  on  Libyan  monuments  of  the  period  are  found  script  characters 
still  used  by  the  Berbers,  especially  in  the  alphabet  of  the  Tuareg 
Hogar. 

It  is  only  since  the  Targi  alphabet  (Tifinagh)  has  been  known  that 
it  has  been  possible  to  undertake  in  earnest  the  restoration  work 
which  began  when  the  bilingual  inscription  of  Thugga  in  Tunis  wa.? 
found.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  present  Berbers  speak  essen- 
tially the  same  language  as  their  forefathers  of  the  Roman  period. 
The  Libyan  alphabet  was  then  always  used,  but  became  obsolete  in 
favor  of  the  Arabic  on  account  of  Mohammedanism.  Still  it  is  as- 
sumed that  there  are  old  copies  of  the  Koran  in  Berber  characters 
among  the  Rif  Berbers. 

The  total  number  of  Berbers  at  the  present  time  may  be  roughly 
estimated  at  from  12,000,000  to  15,000,000. 

In  the  Atlas  countries  there  must  be  differentiated  from  the  Berbers 
not  only  the  Arabs,  but  also  the  so-called  Moors.  Under  this  name 
are  usually  included  all  the  Arabic-speaking  city  dwellers  of  these 
countries.  This  is  a  greatly  mixed  element  of  the  population.  The 
principal  stock  is  without  a  doubt  Berber,  since  even  now  Berber 
blood  is  being  continually  mixed  with  these  "  city  Arabs,"  as  they 
may  be  well  called.  The  most  varied  collection  of  other  components 
enters  into  the  mixture,  however.  In  ancient  times  there  were  the 
Phcenician  and  Roman  colonists,  then  the  Arabs  and,  especially  since 
the  fifteenth  century,  the  so-called  Andalusians,  Mohammedan  emi- 
grants from  Spain,  who  spoke  Spanish  to  some  extent  and  were  very 
often  engaged  in  piracy.  This  brought  Europeans  in  great  numbers 
from  all  the  Mediterranean  countries,  many  of  whom  were  absorbed 
in  the  Mohammedan  population,  becoming  renegades.  Christian 
women  and  girls  were  also  brought  and  put  in  the  harems. 

Immigrations  of  Jews  into  this  territory  also  reached  well  back 
into  the  Roman  period.    In  Cyrenaica  in  the  beginning  of  thes«ni^|l. 


514  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   rNSTITUTrON,  1907. 

century  A.  D.,  they  were  planning  to  fonn  a  state  of  their  own. 
Still  more  Jews  followed  in  the  train  of  the  Arabs,  and  those  return- 
ing from  Spain  spread  themselves  all  over  the  country.  They  are 
commonly  city  dwellers  here  as  elsewhere  and  are  generally  engaged 
in  mercantile  business  or  in  money  handling,  but  there  are  also  many 
artisans  among  them.  In  Morocco  they  are  limited  as  a  rule  to  their 
own  quarter  of  the  city  (the  Mellah).  Single  Jewish  families  and 
small  groups  of  them  are  found  every>there  in  the  Atlas  region,  even 
in  the  innermost  valleys  of  the  Moroccan  Atlas  region.  Most  Moroc- 
can caids  have  a  "  court  Jew  "  for  their  money  affairs.  The  Marquis 
de  Segonzac  even  found  fortified  villages  of  Jewish  people  armed 
with  weapons  like  their  Arab  and  Berber  neighbors.  Their  number 
in  the  whole  Atlas  region  probably  does  not  exceed  200,000,  although 
they  play  an  important  part  in  the  commerce  of  the  country.  Politi- 
cally they  are  now  very  influential,  because  since  their  emancipation 
in  Algeria  they  have  become  everywhere  the  exponents  and  carriers 
of  French  customs  and  language,  a  fact  which  has  made  them  doubly 
hated  by  the  natives. 

The  Greeks,  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  Mediterranean 
peoples,  are  among  the  oldest  races  of  Europe.  They  have  held 
with  wonderful  tenacity  to  their  ancient  territory  and  to  the  prin- 
cipal features  of  their  national  characteristics,  and  have  absorbed 
all  foreign  invaders.  Whatever  good  and  bad  characteristics  we 
see  in  the  present  Greeks  are  essentially  those  of  the  old  Hellenes. 
The  Greeks  of  to-day  must  be  admired  especially  for  their  patriotism, 
their  national  pride,  their  desire  for  culture  and  their  wilUngness 
to  sacrifice  themselves  for  these  ideals.  These  are  their  sword  and 
buckler  in  their  stru^le  for  national  existence,  and  can  not  be  val- 
ued too  highly.  It  is  these  characteristics  which  in  spite  of  their  par- 
tizanship,  their  distrustfulness,  and  their  superstition,  have  brought 
the  country  to  a  new  prosperity  economically,  and  have  raised  them 
again  to  the  position  of  the  certter  of  the  entire  Grecian  influence, 
the  focus  of  economic  and  intellectual  life,  and  the  point  of  departure 
for  European  civilization  for  the  whole  Orient.  This  little  country 
has  accomplished  this,  too,  not  only  without  any  loss  whatever  to 
other  races,  but  with  a  continual  gain  by  the  incorporation  of  other 
less  resistant  races.  The  Greek  influence  is  making  great  progress; 
it  is  very  important  in  oriental  political  affairs  to-day,  and  is  likely 
to  become  even  more  so  in  the  future. 

Just  as  the  Greeks  are  absorbing  the  Albanians,  who  wish  them- 
selves to  be  Greeks,  so  in  the  middle  ages  did  they  take  in  the  Slavic 
tide.  The  Peloponnesus  was  called  Sclavinia  after  these  peopU 
for  a  long  time.  Italian  and  other  Frankish  components  have  aJso 
been  incorporated,  so  that  the  Greeks  miist.  surely  be  termed  a  mixed 
race.    Only  in  a  few  out  of  the  way  mountains  like  the  Maina  and 


THE   MEDITEBRANEAN   PEOPLES — FiSCHEB.  515 

rTsakonia  in  the  Peloponnesus  and  on  a  few  islands  can  we  find  any 
pure  descendants  of  the  old  Greeks,  who  are  distinctly  Greek  in 
physical  type.    This  is  especially  true  of  the  women. 

The  culture  force  in  the  Greeks,  however,  is  out  of  proportion  to 
their  numbers.  Compulsory  education  is  unnecessary  among  a 
people  where  lazy  children  after  fifteen  absences  suffer  the  disgrace 
of  being  excluded  from  attendance  at  school. 

In  order  to  estimate  fairly  what  the  Greeks  have  accomplished  in 
the  last  6fty  or  seventy-five  years,  we  must  take  into  account  how 
long  these  people  groaned  under  the  Turkish  lash,  and  also  the  fact 
that  the  stru^le  for  freedom  turned  the  country  into  a  desert,  and 
the  people,  it  might  almost  be  said,  into  a  band  of  robbers.  Even 
the  language  has  been  purified  again.  That  the  Greeks  never  retro- 
gressed in  culture  as  far  as  the  Bulgarians,  for  example,  is  of  course 
to  be  attributed  somewhat  to  the  nature  of  the  country,  which  may 
best  be  termed  a  maritime  mountain  country.  For  this  reason  the 
Turks  were  never  able  to  subdue  the  people  completely  and  perma- 
nently. The  Greeks  always  held  connections  over  the  sea  with  the 
Christian  Occident  and  its  culture. 

The  sea  stamps  its  characteristics  on  the  Grecian  landscape  and 
upon  its  people.  Their  home  is  the  sea-incised  land  of  Greece  and  the 
shores  of  its  archipelago,  a  section  of  the  earth's  surface  almost  as 
large  as  Germany,  but  with  hardly  a  fourth  of  the  land. 

Everywhere  in  Asia  Minor,  from  Cilicia  and  Cyprus  to  the  Helles-  ' 
pont  and  the  Balkan  peninsula,  in  Thrace,  Macedonia,  Albania, 
everywhere,  the  Greeks  cling  to  the  coast.  Greeks  are  the  freighters 
of  the  whole  Mediterranean  eastward  from  Odessa  to  Alexandria 
and  to  the  west  to  Trieste,  Malta,  and  Marseilles.  For  this  reason 
they  were  indispensable  to  the  Bulgarians  as  well  as  the  Turks,  The 
fishermen  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean  from  Syria  to  Tunis  are 
Greeks. 

It  is  in  Turkish  territory  in  the  adjoining  part  of  Asia  Minor  that 
the  Greeks  are  making  especial  progress.  The  Turks  had  everywhere 
taken  the  fertile  land  from  them  and  made  them  the  tenants  of  large 
Turkish  landholders,  but  they  have  transformed  the  mountains  and 
the  poor  ground  into  thickly  settled  garden  tracts  and  have  linally 
bought  out  the  Turks  in  many  cases.  The  number  of  their  children 
is  everywhere  large,  on  account  of  their  great  domesticity  and  the 
purity  of  their  home  life,  so  that  they  have  an  incentive  in  this  also 
for  acquiring  profierty  and  spreading  out. 

The  younger  generation  presses  toward  the  mainland,  especially 
from  the  islands,  which  have  made  up  their  enormous  losses  in  the 
fight  for  liberty  and  are  again  thickly  settled.  Some  are  even  over- 
populated,  like  Samos.    Many  Greeks  seek  their  fortune  in  the  great 

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516  AKNUAL   REPORT   8HITHBONIAN    INBTITUTIOH,  1901. 

cities  of  Constantinople,  Odessa,  Smyrna,  and  Alexandria,  and  return 
h<HDe  prosperous,  to  purchase  a  homestead. 

The  number  of  Grreeks  can  be  estimated  at  about  3,000,000.  A  small 
number,  to  be  sure,  but  we  must  consider  that  in  the  entire  Kingdom 
at  the  end  of  the  war  for  independence  there  were  only  600,000  men 
left,  while  to-day,  with  a  somewhat  extended  area,  it  is  inhabited  by 
2,500,000  men,  and  these  5,000,000  people,  united  by  a  national  spirit 
and  a  love  of  country,  mean  a  great  deal  more  in  the  thinly-populated 
Orient  than  they  do  in  western  Europe.  The  Greeks  are  therefore  a 
factor  which  will  have  to  be  reckoned  with,  as  the  annexation  of  Thes- 
saly  and  Crete,  which  awaits  only  its  formal  consummation,  shows. 

Migration  has  added  new  members  to  the  Mediterranean  race 
family.  Some  have  been  developed  by  the  fusion  of  inmiigrants  and 
conquering  peoples  with  the  already  greatly  mixed  primitive  aborig- 
ines, whose  Latinization  had  brought  them  to  a  higher  plane  of 
culture,  and  some  by  the  invasion  of  new  races  from  the  outside,  who 
wiped  out  their  precursors  or  absorbed  them  and  appropriated  their 
territory.  Thus  were  the  Latin  peoples  of  the  northwestern  Mediter- 
ranean developed;  all  have  a  considerable  admixture  of  Germanic 
blood,  Italians  as  well  as  French,  Spaniards  as  well  as  Portugese. 
The  initial  stirrings  of  the  great  whirlwind  known  as  "  the  migra- 
tion of  nations,"  which  led  into  the  German  invasion  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, were  aroused  in  Central  Asia.  This  whirlwind  drew  the 
southeast  peninsula  of  Europe  and  the  Atlas  region  into  the  turmoil 
of  its  wake,  and  worked  at  first  great  havoc  on  the  old  Mediterranean 
civilization,  but  afterwards  brought  a  new  flourishing  period.  In 
this  whirlwind  of  migration  the  Teutons  were  followed  by  the  Slavs 
and  Bulgarians,  and  after  these  came  the  Mongolians  and  Turks, 
both  from  Central  Asia.  Finally  the  steppes  of  Arabia  gave  forth 
swarms  of  men  over  all  hither  Asia  and  the  north  coast  of  Africa, 
which  were  swept  across  to  the  northern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  back  again  toward  the  east,  only  to  be  halted  in  their  course  by 
the  power  of  the  Franks  on  the  battlefield  of  Tours. 

Of  the  Latin  races  in  the  Mediterranean  region  proper  about 
34,000,000  are  Italians  (including  Corsicans,  Maltese,  Nizzards,  Tes- 
sinians,  etc.),  2,500,000  are  French,  about  300,000  of  whom  are  in 
Algeria  and  Morocco,  18,000,000  Spaniards,  and  4,700,000  Portuguese. 
Besides  these  ther^  are  about  200,000  Zinzares  and  about  300,000 
Kumanians  in  Servia,  Bulgaria,  and  the  Dobrudsha. 

The  Slavs  on  the  southeast  peninsula  of  Europe  number  about 
10,000,000—5,000,000  each  of  Servians  and  Bulgarians.  Of  these 
two  the  Servians  came  from  the  northward  and  the  Bulgarians  from 
the  northeast.  Both  of  them  had  hardly  shaken  off  the  Turkish  yoke 
when  they  became  engaged  in  violent  conflict  over  the  Macedonian 
Slavs,  a  body  of  people  whose  ethnical  position  is  yet  to  be  determiued. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN   PEOPLES FISCHER.  617 

It  is  fatal  to  the  Servians  that  they,  like  the  Albanians,  are  divided 
between  the  Roman  Church,  the  Greek  Church,  and  Mohammedan- 
ism. They  are  also  hampered  by  being  divided  politically  into  two 
countries,  Mooteoegro  and  Servia,  and  are  also  spread  out  into  Dal- 
matia,  Bosnia,  and  Herzegovina.  It  is  also  true  that  a  considerable 
portion  of  old  Servia  is  still  under  Turkish  rule.  Bulgaria,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  almost  a  national  unit,  and  only  a  small  part  of  its 
people,  the  Pomaces,  have  gone  over  to  Mohammedanism. 

After  the  Slavic  wave  came  the  Arabic  period  of  influence,  which 
Arabicized  not  only  Egypt  and  the  northern  part  of  Africa,  but  also 
Syria,  which  had  become  strongly  Crecian,  but  in  whose  population 
the  old  Aramaic  element  was  still  strongly  dominant.  Mohammedan- 
ism stretched  as  a  barrier  across  the  whole  Mediterranean  region  and 
was  a  great  factor  in  causing  uniformity  of  life  and  customs.  This 
is  to-day  far  less  effective  and  broken  down  in  many  places,  but  is 
still  a  great  influence. 

During  all  these  centuries  this  region  became  the  region  of  greatest 
friction  between  occidental  Christians  and  the  oriental  world  of 
Islam.  This  region  of  friction  became  still  larger  when  the  steppes 
of  Asia  again  poured  forth  a  flood  of  people  against  the  Mediterra- 
nean region  and  Europe.  This  time  it  was  the  Turks,  followed  by 
the  Mongolians,  who  came  with  a  rush  and  retired  as  quickly  as  they 
came,  at  least  from  Mediterranean  territory. 

The  Turks,  however,  obtained  a  firm  foothold  in  Asia  Minor, 
cleared  out  the  lost  trace  of  the  Soman  Empire  of  the  east,  and  sub- 
dued almost  the  whole  of  southeastern  Europe.  It  was  only  the 
German  strength  which  stopped  them  there  also,  for  they  made  them- 
selves masters  of  almost  the  whole  world  of  Islam,  which  had  been 
till  then  entirely  Arabic  Syria,  Egypt,  and  the  whole  of  north 
Africa  as  far  as  Morocco  fell  into  their  hands.  Under  Turkish  rule 
all  Christian  civilizational  influences  were  excluded  even  more  than 
under  the  Arabs.  Behind  the  boundaries  of  the  Turks,  Bulgarians 
and  Servians  reverted  to  barbarism,  Albania  became  the  least  known 
of  all  European  countries  to-day,  and  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  all  of 
northern  Africa  remained  absolutely  isolated  and  unknown. 

Tunis  has  been  opened  to  commerce  only  since  1881,  Morocco  only 
since  1900  in  the  principal  lines,  and  the  same  is  true  of  Tripoli  and 
Barca.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  in  fact  even 
since  the  eighteenth  century,  the  Turkish  tide  has  been  on  the  ebb. 
Greece,  Servia,  and  Bulgaria  are  again  restored  to  the  Christian 
world.  Algeria  belongs  entirely  to  the  French  and  Tunis  essentially 
so,  while  Egypt  has  fallen  to  the  English. 

It  can  not  be  said,  however,  that  the  contrast  between  Christianity 
and  Mohammedanism  is  any  less  for  this  reason.    On  the  contrary, 


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518  ANNUAL   REPORT   SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION,   1901. 

it  runs  like  an  electric  strain  through  the  whole  region  and  will  make 
itself  felt  in  every  military  development  within  its  reach,  especially 
in  the  Atlas  countries  and  in  Egypt,  in  a  manner  that  will  surprise 
the.  unknowing. 

The  Semitic  and  Mongol-like  elements  which  the  Arabic  and  Turk- 
ish invasion  brought  with  them  into  the  Mediterranean  region  were 
not  of  great  importance,  since  the  people  themselves  were  not  very 
numerous.  But  whether  because  of  their  despotism  or  whether  be- 
cause of  the  power  of  Mohammedanism,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  case  of 
the  Berbers,  they  seem  to  have  made  the  foreign  elements  conform  to 
their  habits.  Therefore  we  can  consider  as  "Arabs  "  not  only  the  in- 
habitants of  Barca  and  Marmarika,  who  are  pure  Arabs,  only  300,000 
strong,  to  be  sure,  but  also  the  inhabitants  of  lower  Egypt  and  Syria. 
But  while  the  changes  in  the  political  map  have  caused  no  ethnical 
differences  of  any  moment  in  the  Arabic  division  of  Mohammedanism, 
in  the  Turkish  division  these  have  been  especially  small.  This  is  no 
doubt  due  principally  to  the  fact  that  the  Turks  were  represented  in 
the  greater  part  of  their  empire  only  by  officials  and  soldiers  who 
have  disappeared  again  with  the  Turkish  dominion.  Thus  there  are 
no  longer  any  Turks  in  Algeria,  Tunis,  or  Egypt. 

In  Algeria  even  the  Kuluglis,  sons  of  Turks,  have  disappeared. 
The  military  colonies  also,  which  especially  in  Greece,  Servia,  and 
Bulgaria  kept  guard  over  the  important  points  on  the  great  military 
routes  which  lead  from  Constantinople  and  Salonica  throu^  the 
peninsula  to  Belgrade,  are  to  be  seen  no  more.  But  not  only  the  Turks 
themselves,  but  also  the  Tartars  and  Circassians,  who  settled  under 
their  protection  in  Bulgaria,  have  wandered  back  into  Turkish  terri- 
tory, particularly  to  Asia  Minor,  where  under  the  name  of  Muhad- 
shir  they  have  essentially  strengthened  the  ranks  of  the  Turks,  espe- 
cially in  agricultural  matters,  since  they  are  on  a  somewhat  higher 
plane  of  civilization.  By  such  remigrations  the  number  of  Turks  in 
the  part  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  still  controlled  by  them  has  become 
considerably  increased,  especially  in  Constantinople. 

Nevertheless,  if  the  number  of  Mohammedans  in  the  southeaston 
part  of  Europe  is  set  at  3,500,000,  we  could  find  hardly  1,500,000 
Osmanlis  among  them,  and  these  also,  like  the  whole  Turkish  people, 
except,  perhaps,  the  Turkomans  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  northern  edge 
of  Syria,  who  came  in  later,  are  so  mixed  with  Aryan  blood  from  the 
incorporation  of  the  Janissaries,  for  instance  (principally  enslaved 
Christian  boys  of  especial  power),  and  are  so  confused  by  admixtore 
with  Persian,  Slavic,  Greek,  and  Circassian  slave  women  that  thdr 
physical  type  has  lost  every  Mongol-like  characteristic,  evMi  if  tbfff 
have  preserved  their  own  system  of  morals  and  their  language. 


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THE  MEDITEBKAJIKAN  PEOPLES — FISCHEB.  S19 

The  number  of  the  Turks  is  considerably  decreasing  also  in  their 
o'wn  native  country,  Asia  Minor.  The  principal  reasons  for  this  are 
that  they  alone  bear  the  blood  tax  in  their  incessant  wars,  so  that 
the  young  men  are  for  many  years  withdrawn  from  home — in  some 
vilayets  the  women  outnumber  the  men  by  12  per  cent — coming  back, 
either  not  at  all  or  physically  and  morally  injured,  and  that  they 
suffer  more  commercially  under  the  poor  Turkish  administration  than 
do  the  crafty  Greeks,  Armenians,  and  others. 

Figures  show  that  the  Turkish  civilization  in  nearer  Asia  Minor 
has  been  almost  supplanted  by  the  Grecian.  This  fact  also  is  likely 
to  have  important  political  significance  in  the  near  future.  The  num- 
ber of  Osmaolic  Turks  and  those  who  consider  themselves  such  is  very 
difficult  to  estimate.  Ten  millions  would  probably  cover  all.  Besidas 
**  Turks  "  and  Greeks,  there  are  a  few  hundred  thousand  Armenians 
in  Asia  Minor  who  were  distributed  forcibly  by  the  Turks  oil  over 
the  peninsula  even  as  far  as  Ckmstantinople. 

The  Arabic-speaking  population  of  Syria,  a  considerable  part  of 
vFhich  is  Christian,  however,  may  be  estimated  at  2,000,000  and  that 
of  lower  Egypt  at  about  5,500,000. 

Neglecting  small  and  from  our  point  of  view  unimportant  divi- 
sions, we  get  in  round  numbers  the  following  table  of  the  apportion- 
ment of  races  of  the  Mediterranean  region : 

1.  Catholic  Latin  peoples  on  the  bays  of  the  DortbweBtem  part 60, 000, 000 

(»)  Italians - 34.000,000 

(6)  apanlardB 18,000,000 

(c)  Portngueae 4.700,OW 

((J)   French 2,800,000 

2.  Slavs  of  the  floutheast  Europe&n  peninaula   (ChrlBtlans  of  the 

Greeh  Church) 10,000,000 

(«)  Servians ^ 5,000,000 

(6)  Bnlgarians S, 000,000 

3.  Albanians    (Mohammedans,    Koman   Catholics,    Oreebi,    Chrls- 

tlanB> 1,500,000 

4.  QreetB 5,000,000 

B.  "Turks" 10,000,000 

6.  Berbers  13,000,000 

7.  "Arabs  " 8, 250. 000 

Total  Hohammedana 81, 000, 000 

Total  Christians 76,000,000 


Grand  total  of  all  Mediterranean  peoples 106,000,000 

From  this  it  appears  that  the  Christian  inhabitants  of  the  region 
are  in  the  great  majority.  It  also  appears  that  the  Mohammedan 
districts  are  extremely  thinly  populated.  This  is  due  not  so  much  to 
geographical  disadvantages,  for  Syria,  Barca,  Tripoli,  and  Tunis 


41780—06 »7 


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630  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  S1CITH80N1AN   INBTTTUTION,  1907. 

were  thickly  populated  in  the  Roman  period,  as  to  the  poor  adminis- 
tration, which  marks  all  Mohammedan  countries.  Egypt,  Timis,  and 
Algeria  all  show  that  such  countries  under  European  and  Christian 
administration  rise  quickly,  economically,  and  increase  in  population. 

The  superiority  of  the  Christian  people  over  the  Mohammedans  in 
the  Mediterranean  region,  although  it  must  be  discounted  somewhat 
by  the  clannishness  of  these  latter  due  to  their  religion,  is  hei^tened 
by  the  fact  that  the  followers  of  Islam  inhabit  even  to  the  present  day 
the  dryest  districts  on  the  Mediterranean  and  are  all  landsmen  and 
have  an  aversion  to  the  water,  Turks  as  well  as  Arabs.  The  Greeks, 
Italians,  and  the  other  Christian  peoples  tend  entirely  to  the  sea 
traffic.  The  Turks  have  never  had  any  knowledge  of  maritime  lore 
and  to  this  day  are  ignorant  of  it.  In  those  periods  when  there  was 
a  powerful  Turkish  fleet,  the  ships  were  commanded  by  ren^ades 
and  manned  by  Christians.  The  Barbary  pirates  were  '*Andalu- 
sians"  driven  out  of  Spain,  and  Berbers,  and  their  leaders  in  the 
sixteenth  century  were  mostly  ren^ades  also. 

The  last  and  most  important  indication  of  the  table  is  that,  of  the 
106,000,000  inhabitants  of  the  Mediterranean  countries,  34,000,000, 
or  32  per  cent,  are  Italians.  This  is  a  highly  important  fact  and 
one  to  be  well  considered  in  the  near  future,  for  the  national  unity 
of  the  Italians,  which  has  resulted  in  great  economic  development, 
will  make  itself  felt  with  growing  political  importance  and  render 
active  the  advantages  of  central  position  and  other  geographical  fac- 
tors. This  is  all  the  more  likely  because  the  characteristic  tend- 
ency of  pushing  toward  the  sea  and  centralization  on  the  coast,  which 
marks  the  distribution  of  all  the  Mediterranean  peoples,  is  especially 
pronounced  in  Italy. 

Italy  must  naturally  be  a  thoroughly  maritime  country  from  its 
long  and  slender  shape,  for  its  extension  across  from  the  foot  of 
the  Alps  almost  to  the  Atlas  Mountains  furnishes  long  coast  lines 
and  slight  distances  from  the  sea.  The  people  there  press  toward  the 
sea,  a  fact  which  is  most  marked  in  Liguria,  Apulia,  and  in  the  north 
and  east  coasts  of  SicUy.  All  the  larger  cities  lie  on  the  seacoast; 
even  Milan  is  only  120  kilometers  (75  miles)  from  the  ocean.  Eighty 
per  cent  of  the  surface  of  the  kingdom  is  within  100  kilometers  {Si 
miles)  from  the  sea ;  that  is,  in  two  hours  one  can  reach  the  sea  from 
any  part  of  this  country.  Fully  16  per  cent  of  the  population  live 
directly  on  the  ocean.  This  is  a  fact  of  great  importance  for  the 
prestige  of  Italy  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  Italians  have  been  skilled 
sailors  from  time  immemorial  and  the  fisheries  of  the  Mediterranean 
are  for  the  most  part  in  their  control. 

Likewise  in  almost  all  the  other  countries  on  the  Mediterranean  the 
people  live  principally  near  the  sea.  In  Spain  there  has  recently  de- 
'eloped  a  sharp  contrast  between  the  interior  and  coast  provinces; 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  PEOPLES — FISCHER.  521 

the  population  in  the  former  is  steadily  decreasing,  while  in  the  coast 
countries  it  is  just  as  steadily  on  the  increase. 

From  the  very  small  number  of  35  inhabitants  to  the  square  kilo- 
meter,  the  interior  provinces  have  decreased  to  14  and  15,  while  in  the 
Mediterranean  coast  provinces  Valencia  shows  68  to  the  square  kilo- 
meter, Malaga  71,  Alicante  76,  and  Barcelona  117,  as  much  as  the 
average  of  the  whole  German  Empire. 

In  the  Atlas  countries  this  tendency  toward  the  sea  is  even  more 
marked ;  all  the  larger  cities  lie  on  the  coast,  Constantine  and  Tlemcen 
are  less  than  100  kilometers  away,  and  this  distant  is  only  exceeded 
in  the  cases  of  Fez  and  Marrakesch. 

We  may  safely  say  that  two-thirds  of  all  the  inhabitants  live  less 
than  100  kilometers  from  the  sea.  It  is  the  same  way  in  Syria,  where 
the  deserts  begin  less  than  100  kilometers  from  the  coast,  and  the  case 
is  the  same  in  Asia  Minor  and  of  course  in  Greece  and  the  Balkan 
Peninsula. 

This  brings  us  to  the  conclusion  that  all  the  Mediterranean 
countries  were  thickly  populated  in  ancient  times  and  have  not 
changed  so  in  their  nature  that  they  could  not  support  a  far  greater 
number  of  people  than  they  do  to-day.  Asia  Minor  alone,  where  to- 
day there  are  only  18  inhabitants  to  the  square  kilometer,  has  room 
for  forty-three  millions  more,  while  the  girdle  of  land  which  begins 
at  the  gates  of  Vienna  and  ends  at  the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates  could 
surely  hold  a  hundred  millions  more.  If  we  consider  this  and  the 
fact  that  in  the  Mohammedan  countries  which  are  under  European 
administration  the  population  is  again  increasing,  as  is  shown  by 
Egypt  and  Algeria,  it  becomes  very  evident  that  the  Mediterranean 
not  only  looks  back  on  an  illustrious  past,  but  is  destined  to  have 
a  great  future,  and  its  political  importance  will  become  steadily  and 
rapidly  greater  as  time  goes  on. 


.y  Google 


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PREHISTORIC  JAPAN." 


By  Dr.  B.  Buu^ 
1876-1901,  Froje»»or,  Imperial  Japancte  Onivertitv  of  Tokoo. 


As  an  introduction  to  the  subject  of  this  paper,  which  concerns  the 
history  of  primitive  Japan  as  developed  from  archeological  finds,  it 
seems  proper  briefly  to  review  the  types  of  men  now  living  there  and 
to  sketch  their  origin. 

At  the  outset  we  may  safely  affirm  that  all  the  race  types  of  which 
we  find  remains  or  traces  are  represented  among  the  Japanese  people 
of  to-day.  It  is  a  fact  that  within  the  last  2,000  years  no  conquering 
peoples  have  invaded  the  borders  of  Japan.  Even  earlier  than  that 
it  is  probable  that  only  very  few  large  and  powerful  influxes  occurred 
at  any  time  on  account  of  the  position  of  the  country  in  the  midst 
of  a  sea  where  storms  and  currents  prevail.  Since  the  beginning  of 
our  records  immigration  has  come  solely  from  the  neighboring  coun- 
tries, China  and  Korea,  and  for  more  than  a  thousand  years  even  this 
has  been  too  insignificant  to  be  worthy  of  consideration. 

In  previous  addresses  before  the  German  Anthropological  Congress 
in  1885  and  five  years  ago  before  this  society  I  have  considered  the 
eastern  Asiatic  race  peculiarities  in  detail  and  have  distinguished  in 
Japan  three  essential  elements:  First,  the  north  or  true  Mongolian 
type;  second,  the  south  Mongolian  or  Malayan  type,  and  third,  the 
Aino  type,  which  is  at  present  becoming  less  and  less  frequent.  The 
Ainos  were  the  original  inhabitants,  but  for  practical  reasons  I  shall 
consider  them  last. 

It  Ls  hardly  possible  to  draw  a  sharp  line  between  the  Malayan  and 
Mongolian  types,  as  the  transition  from  one  to  the  other  all  over  east- 
ern Asia  is  so  gradual  that  every  attempt  to  make  an  exact  division 
has  failed.  For  example,  we  find  in  Japan,  Korea,  and  China  a  large 
number  of  people  who  might  be  termed  pure  Malays,  and,  on  the 

■■  Tren elated,  by  peruilBslon.  from  Zeltacbrlft  fttr  Ethnologie,  Berlin,  lOOT, 
part  3,  pagea  281-310.  Read  at  the  meeting  of  tbe  Antbropologlcal  Socletr  of 
Beriln.  May  16,  1906.  . 

B2ff>^IC 


524  AHNTJAI.  BGPOBT  SHITHSOKIAN  INSTITUTIOK,  IfWI, 

other  hand,  in  southeast  Asia  we  may  find  the  most  marked  slaot-eyed 
Mongolian  type,  of  which  the  present  nominal  Emperor  of  Annum 
is  a  good  example. 

For  these  reasons  the  tenn  Austrasian  (i.  e,,  eastern  Asiatic)  race 
ia  preferable  to  the  expression  "  yellow  race  "  used  by  Cuvier  for  tJie 
combined  Mongol  inn -Ma  lay  an  races,  as  it  includes  people  of  a  dark- 
brown  color  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Asiatic  continent. 

So  much  can  be  said,  however,  that  the  north  or  true  Mongolian 
division  may  be  distinguished  by  their  comparatively  large  size,  large 
head,  prominent  cheek  bones,  more  or  less  slanted  eyes  and  meso-  or 
brachycephalic  skull,  while  in  the  southern  or  Malay  division,  smaller 
size,  less  prominent  cheek  bones,  and  less  slanted  or  more  horizontal 
eyes  prevail.  Probably  there  is  an  admixture  of  Hindu  or  other  for- 
eign blood  in  many  "  Malays." 

In  Japan  these  types  are  seldom  found  pure ;  much  oftener  they  are 
mixed. 

The  assertion  that  the  Japanese  are  essentially  identical  in  race 
with  the  inhabitants  of  Korea  and  the  larger  part  of  China  was 
formerly  strongly  combated.  Investigators  were  too  much  influ- 
enced by  outward  appearances,  especially  by  dress  and  methods  of 
wearing  the  hair.  Even  such  a  keen  and  much  traveled  observer 
as  Lord  Curzon,  late  viceroy  of  India,  allowed  himself  to  be  led 
astray.  He  declared  that  the  Koreans  were  such  a  characteristic  moe 
that  it  was  impossible  to  confound  them  with  the  indigenes  of  another 
land  wherever  they  might  be  met.  To  contradict  this  I  have  the 
testimony  of  any  number  of  Japanese  and  Koreans,  that  they  them- 
selves can  not  distinguish  one  from  the  other  if  costume  and  method 
of  hairdressing  are  the  same;  and  in  comparing  Japanese  and 
Clhine.se,  the  same  holds  good.  Even  conceding  that  the  Chinese 
are  generally  larger  and  have  softer  features,  the  difference  is  hardly 
greater  or  even  as  great  as  between  different  types  in  Germany,  or 
between  the  English  and  Gerjnans.  Therefore  I  can  not  understand 
how  Donitz'can  say '' the  Japanese  are  so  different  at  first  si^t 
from  the  Mongolians  who  inhabit  the  neighboring  mainland  that  it 
is.hard  to  conceive  how  there  could  be  any  direct  connection  between 
them."  Clearly  he,  too,  had  been  deceived  by  outward  appearance, 
especially  by  the  difference  of  clothing  and  hairdressing.  The  sight 
of  Koreans  in  European  dress  would  soon  have  changed  his  opinion. 

The  natural  path  for  immigration  into  Japan  is  through  Korea, 
as  a  glance  at  the  map  shows.  This  is  confirmed  by  the  most  ancient 
traditions  of  Japan  and  the  finds  of  the  prehistoric  period.  By  this 
route  the  people  entered  who  first  brought  a  sort  of  civilization  into 

■  X'orgcBcblcbtlkbe  Gritb»r  In  Japan.  Verbandl.  d.  Berl.  Aalbropol.  Get. 
1887,  p.  114.  -,  , 


PSBHISTOBIC  JAPAN SAELZ.  525 

the  land.  They  landed  on  the  island  of  Kiushiu  and  on  the  southerly 
part  of  the  west  coast  of  the  principal  island,  founding  a  kingdom 
in  Idzumo,  the  oldest  of  which  any  Japanese  sources  speak.  The 
accounts  of  this  kingdom  are  mythical,  or  legendary.  Gods,  monsters, 
and  miracles  play  a  great  part  in  them,  but  without  doubt  there  is 
8ome  historical  truth  at  the  bottom.  Another  early  migration  of 
well  organized  but  less  civilized  people  must  have  been  directed  to 
the  central  part  of  Japan  in  the  region  around  Kioto  and  Nara,  which 
was  afterwards  the  true  center  of  the  Japanese  Empire  for  two 
thousand  years. 

Probably  later  than  these  immigrants  came  other  tribes,  either  by 
way  of  Korea  or  along  the  chain  of  islands  made  up  by  Formosa  and 
the  Liukiu  Archipelago,  which  joins  South  China  and  Japan.  The 
latter  route,  to  be  sure,  is  longer,  but  it  is  made  comparatively  easy 
by  the  "  Kuroshiwo  "  or  the  "  black  current "  which  flows  in  this 
direction,  and  by  the  periodic  southwest  monsoon  of  the  summer 
which  drives  vessels  northward,  and  the  northeast  monsoon  of  the 
winter  which  enables  them  to  return  easily.  Whence  the  wanderers 
came  who  traveled  by  this  route — if  they  did  come  this  way — we  do 
not  know.  Whether  it  was  from  Formosa,  or,  what  is  far  more 
likely,  from  Shantung,  or  parts  of  central  or  southerly  China,  is  an 
unanswered  question.  We  do  know,  however,  that  it  is  in  the  south- 
west part  of  Japan,  where  the  Kuroshiwo  skirts  the  land,  that  the 
so-called  Malayan  type  is  most  prevalent 

These  immigrations,  particularly  the  last  one,  in  all  probability 
occurred  in  the  first  thousand  years  before  Christ.  That  they  came 
from  the  mainland  of  Asia  is  further  indicated  by  the  otherwise  un- 
explained appearance  at  that  time  in  southwest  Japan  of  an  iron-age 
culture  too  high  for  Malays  of  that  period.  Furthermore,  the  Japa- 
nese language  is  related  to  the  Turkish,  Hungarian,  and  Finnish ;  that 
is  to  say,  to  languages  spoken  by  people  who  had  settled  in  central 
and  eastern  Asia.  The  Turks  or,  let  us  say,  the  peoples  of  the  Turk 
race,  in  earlier  times  made  themselves  felt  more  in  the  east  than  in 
the  west.  Once  they  invaded  Korea  with  a  great  army,  an  attack 
in  which  their  whole  army  was  annihilated.  China  also  suffered 
much  from  their  inroads.  In  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  A.  D. 
they  held  control  of  a  mighty  kingdom  in  Turkestan.  When  these 
facts  are  considered,  the  great  distance  between  the  present-day 
Turkey  and  Japan  makes  this  relationship  of  sj)eech  less  strange. 

Even  before  immigration  began  by  way  of  Korea  or  from  the  south, 
Japan  was  inhabited  by  people  belonging  to  an  entirely  different  race, 
the  Ainos,  little  of  whose  blood  remains  in  the  veins  of  the  Japanese 
at  the  present  day.  Once,  as  the  names  of  mountains,  rivers,  and 
other  localities  bear  witness  and  archeological  finds  indicate,  they 
inhabited  the  whole  of  the  Japanese  islands.    During  the  period 


636  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

recorded  by  history  they  were  driven  from  the  northern  half  of  the 
main  island  toward  the  north,  till  they  remained  as  a  pure  race  only 
in  the  island  of  Yezo.  Therefore  the  Aino  type  is  met  more  and  more 
frequently  in  the  north  of  the  main  island  aa  we  approach  Yezo, 
but  even  in  the  center  of  the  island  scattered  remnants  are  still  found. 
I  have  been  repeatedly  surprised  at  the  number  of  individuals  of  tbe 
pure  Aino  type  that  dwell  in  the  barely  accessible  mountains  of  the 
three  provinces  of  Kodzuke,  Shinano,  and  Etchigo.  Apparently  tbe 
uncivilized  Ainos,  pressed  hard  by  the  advancing  Japanese,  fled  hither 
from  all  the  surrounding  territory.  In  the  famous  watering  place 
Kusatsu,  lying  in  this  region,  where  the  same  families  have  persisted 
for  many  centuries  without  new  infusion  of  blood  from  the  outside, 
I  have  seen  examples  of  the  most  pronounced  Aino  type. 

According  to  my  hypothesis  those  of  the  inhabitants  of  Kiushiu 
and  the  Liukiu  Islands  who  are  characterized  by  their  thickset  build, 
more  or  less  European  cast  of  countenance,  and  heavy  growth  of  hair, 
are  also  to  be  classed  as  the  remnants  of  this  or  a  cognate  primitive 
people.  These  are  the  groups  designated  as  Kumaso  and  Hayabito 
in  tbe  Japanese  legends  and  the  oldest  historical  records. 

The  intruding  Mongolian  conquerors  first  took  possession  of  the 
plains  and  the  fertile  coast  region,  forcing  the  aborigines  toward  the 
north  and  toward  the  wild  southeastern  region  into  Kiushiu  and  the 
Liukiu  Islands,  or  perhaps  sparing  them  only  in  these  regions.  For 
only  in  these  last-mentioned  districts  do  we  find  this  type  at  all  fre- 
quent It  is  generally  admitted  to-day  that  the  Aino  is  not  Mon- 
golian, but  is  closely  related  to  the  Caucasian  race.  It  is  difficult  to 
understand  how  anyone  who  has  seen  a  large  number  of  pure  Ainos 
could  believe  them  Mongolians. 

They  now  number  about  17,000  on  the  island  of  Yezo.  On  Saldialin 
they  are  still  fewer.  They  will  soon  disappear  as  a  race,  not,  however, 
because  they  will  t>e  stamped  out  by  the  encroaching  civilization,  but 
because  they  will  be  gradually  absorbed  by  the  Japanese.  Intermar- 
riage is  now  of  almost  daily  occurrence,  and  tbe  opinion  of  Mr.  B.  H. 
Chamberlain  that  such  marriages  are  barren  is  not  borne  out  by  the 
facts.  I  have  myself  seen  many  offspring  from  such  unions.  The 
Japanese  type  generally  prevails  amongst  these  half-breeds. 

From  what  land  the  Ainos  came  to  Japan  we  have  no  idea.  We 
are  much  more  at  sea  than  with  those  people  of  antiquity  about  whom 
Schiller  could  say, "  Wiirde  die  Geschichte  davon  schweigen,  Tausend 
Steine  wurden  redend  zeugen,  die  man  aus  dem  Sdioss  der  Grde 
grabt ; "  for  the  Ainos  have  neither  any  art  nor  a  written  language. 

The  common  hypothesis  is  that  they  carae-by  way  of  Sakhalin, 
which  at  a  recent  period,  geologically  speaking,  was  continuous  with 
the  mainland  and  had  probably  a  much  milder  climate  before  the 
formation  of  Bering  Straits.    But  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  as  far  as 


PBEHI8T0BIC  JAPAN — BABLZ.  527 

Sakhalin  to  meet  the  possibility  of  a  dry-shod  immigration  from  the 
mainland. 

From  the  geological  history  of  the  British  Isles  we  know  the  fact 
l^hat  not  merely  once  but  twice  they  were  connected  with  the  continent 
and  twice  separated  from  it.  The  sea  floor  sank  and  rose  and  fell 
a^ain  from  150  to  200  meters.  In  the  Paleolithic  age  there  was  no 
Bnglish  Channel. 

Now,  if  the  sea  floor  between  Korea  and  Japan  lay  only  130  meters 
higher  than  it  does  to-day,  Japan  would  cease  to  be  an  island.  It 
■would  be  an  extension  of  the  continent  upon  which  the  people  of  the 
Paleolithic  and  Neolithic  ages,  even  unversed  in  maritime  enterprise, 
could  wander  dry-shod.  The  whole  Liukiu  chain,  too,  would  have 
been  connected  with  Japan,  and  there  also  we  find  Aino-like  hairy 
men,  whose  women  folk  tattoo  their  hands  just  as  do  the  Aino  women. 
A  less  widely  accepted  theory  is  that  the  Ainos  are  related  to  the 
primitive  inhabitants  of  Australia.  This  is  founded  on  the  actual 
resemblance  often  noted  of  the  two  types.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
are  essential  differences. 

Now  the  question  is,  were  the  Ainos  really  the  first  settlers  in  Japan 
or  was  there  another  people  before  them?  This  latter  opinion  has 
several  supporters,  being  vigorously  upheld  by  Mr.  J.  Tsuboi,  pro- 
fessor of  anthropology  at  the  University  of  Tokyo. 

In  ancient  Japanese  tales  and  legends  mention  is  frequently  made 
of  the  so-called  Tsuchigumo — that  is,  earthspiders  or  cave  dwellers. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Ainos  myths  tell  us  of  Koropokguru,  and  also 
of  Kobito  or  dwarfs.  The  first  is  an  Aino  word,  the  second  a  Jap- 
anese word  adopted  by  the  Ainos.  Koropokguru  is  commonly  con- 
strued to  mean  men  who  lived  beneath  a  certain  sort  of  burdock  with 
enormous  leaves  (Petasites  japonicus) ,  and  who  were  therefore  very 
small:  But,  in  the  first  place,  these  burdocks  grew  so  large  in  Yezo 
that  a  big  man  could  stand  beneath  them,  and  in  the  second  place, 
according  to  Batehelor,  the  highest  authority  on  the  Aino  language, 
the  word  Koropokguru  means  nothing  more  than  earth  dweller,  and 
consequently  applies  only  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  dwellings  known 
to  the  Kurile  Ainos  to  this  day.  It  can  not  therefore  be  taken  as 
eWdence  of  the  existence  of  a  dwarfish  race  before  the  Aino. 

This  is  very  important,  for  it  concerns  the  question  as  to  whether 
the  shell  heaps  found  in  great  numbers  all  over  Japan,  with  their 
rich  contents  of  stone  implements,  pottery,  human  figures  of  clay, 
bones,  and  the  like,  are  relics  of  the  Ainos  or  whether  they  come  from 
a  still  earlier  people  who  might  be  considered  to  have  been  Koro- 
pokguru. 

The  afore-mentioned  missionary,  Mr.  Batehelor,  who  lived  for 
thirty  years  among  the  Ainos  and  devoted  his  life  to  teaching  and 
studying  them,  rejects  the  Koropokguru  hypothesis  as  enJirely  wa- 


528  ANNtJAL  REPORT  SMtTHSONUN  iNStlTUTtON,  19ffl. 

tenable  from  his  wide  experience.  Professor  Koganei,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tokyo,  rejects  it  on  anatomical  grounds.  On  the  other 
hand,  Professor  Tsuboi  gives  a  long  list  of  reasons  that  make  it  prob- 
able to  him  that  the  stone  age  and  shell  heap  deposits  originated  frcMii 
a  people  different  from  the  Aino. 

Moat  of  Tsuboi's  arguments  are  hardly  convincing,  but  it  is  indeed 
a  noticeable  fact  that  the  clay  statues  of  that  period  do  not  have 
distinctly  Aino-like  features  and  generally  have  no  beard.  Tsuboi 
formerly  held  that  none  of  them  have  beards,  but  recently  has  ad- 
mitted that  there  are  exceptions.  He  holds  to  the  idea  that  a  people 
resembling  the  Eskimos  were  the  makers  of  these  relics,  and  goes  on 
to  mention  objects  common  to  the  stone-age  people  and  the  Eskimos, 
such  as  snow  spectacles,  clay  vessels  (the  present  Ainos  in  Yezo 
make  no  pottery) ,  and  various  unimportant  details  like  form  of  dress. 
But  according  to  thefr  own  traditions  the  Ainos  did  make  pottery 
at  an  earlier  period  and  we  find  to-day  among  the  Kurile  Ainos  tbe 
same  sort  of  clay  ware  as  the  stone-age  people  made.  Furthermore, 
clothing,  the  manner  of  hair  dressing  and  head  ornaments  may  have 
changed  both  among  the  Ainos  and  the  Eskimos  in  the  course  of 
time.  The  conception  of  the  rings  around  the  eyes  as  indicating  snow 
spectacles  seems  to  me  rather  farfetched.  Neither  do  the  clay  fig- 
ures have  such  heavy  clothing  as  must  be  expected  if  the  stone-age 
people  of  Japan  had  lived  in  a  climate  like  that  of  the  present  Eski- 
mos. However,  I  hold  to  the  idea  that  the  Ainos  were  the  makers  of 
these  stone-age  remains  with  less  certainty  than  do  Koganei  and 
Batchelor,  on  account  of  the  type  of  face  on  the  clay  figures  and  the 
frequent  lack  of  the  full  beard.  Nevertheless  these  authors  have  by 
far  the  greater  probability  on  their  side. 

Even  if  Tsuboi  were  correct  in  saying  that  the  stone-age  men  were 
a  people  with  little  beard  and  far  removed  from  the  Ainos — in  fact,  if 
they  were  truly  Eskimos — this  would  not  exclude  them  from  relation- 
ship with  the  present  Japanese,  for,  in  spite  of  their  dolichocephalic 
skulls,  the  Eskimos  stand  very  close  to  the  north  Mongolians. 

So  much  for  the  race  elements  entering  into  the  question. 

As  in  most  other  countries,  there  are  in  Japan  cave  dwellings, 
sometimes  single,  sometimes  in  groups,  but  the  archeological  finds  in 
these,  as  a  rule,  amount  to  nothing.  The  caves  are  almost  all  arti- 
ficial and  consist  sometimes  of  a  single  low  room  of  irregular  shape 
entered  through  a  hole,  and  sometimes  of  several  communicating 
chambers  at  different  levels.  A  cave  of  15  square  meters  floor  surface 
is  about  the  limit  in  size.  The  people  often  call  them  "  devils'  caves." 
I  have  myself  seen  some  such  caves  near  Tokyo  and  have  found  noth- 
ing in  them.  At  one  place  in  the  province  of  Kodzuke  north  of  Tokyo 
there  is  a  large  hill  honeycombed  with  these  caves,  which  Professor 
"suboi  has  described  in  detail,  but  here  also,  all  evidence  is  lackiiig  as 


PBEHTBTOBIC  JaPaN — BaELZ.  529 

to  the  period  and  peculiarities  of  the  inhabitants.  Perhaps  the; 
belonged  to  the  cave  dwellers  or  "  earth  spiders  "  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  the  victorious  marches  of  the  first  (legendary)  emperor 
of  Japan,  Djimutenno. 

In  later  times  the  caves  often  served  as  places  of  refuge  for  robbers 
and  fugitives,  and  it  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  during  the  endless 
civil  wars  that  raged  in  Japan  in  the  middle  ages  many  such  caves 
■were  made  as  hiding  places  by  vanquished  refugees.  They  are  dug 
in  a  very  soft  sandstone  easily  scratched  with  the  finger  nail,  and 
from  their  position  in  the  wooded  foothills  of  the  mountains  their 
origin  might  at  least  partly  be  attributed  to  such  a  contingency. 

The  theory  has  also  been  put  forward  that  the  caves  were  cata- 
combs. But  even  the  discovery  of  skeletons  in  such  caves  would  not 
prove  that  they  were  the  most  primitive  form  of  graves,  for  we  know 
from  the  history  of  the  Egyptians  that  they  resorted  to  cave  burials 
only  after  having  erected  the  most  artistic  tombs  in  the  ojwn  air  for 
thousands  of  years.  In  fact,  in  Japan  the  rock  graves,  which  occur 
in  the  southwestern  and  middle  part  of  Japan  surely  belong  to  a 
higher  period  of  culture,  the  iron  age.  Besides,  even  in  our  own  time 
many  inhabitants  of  Tonkin  built  themselves  cave  dwellings  which 
could  easily  be  confused  with  catacombs,  although  only  a  generation 
before  they  had  lived  in  houses  like  their  neighbors.  These  modem 
cave  builders  were  Tonkinese  and  Chinese  irregular  troops,  called 
pirates  by  the  French.  They  dug  caves  in  almost  inaccessible  cliffs 
to  escape  their  European  enemies.  Perhaps  in  the  next  decade  some 
learned  investigator  finding  these  caves  will  advance  very  profound 
theories  about  the  aborigines  of  Tonkin.  Let  us  therefore  be  cautious. 
Everywhere  in  Japan  there  are  shell  heaps  and  other  relics  of  the 
stone  age  which  give  a  rich  return,  and  which,  as  already  mentioned, 
have  led  to  a  spirited  discussion  as  to  the  race  of  their  originators. 
■  The  first  shell  heap  was  found  and  thoroughly  investigated  by  the 
zoologist,  Professor  Morse,  in  the  environs  of  Tokyo  in  1879.  The 
finds  were  described  by  him  as  numerous  stone  and  bone  implements, 
animal  and  human  bones,  mollusk  shells,  and  pottery.  Most  of  them 
are  at  present  in  the  Imperial  Museum  at  Tokyo.  To-day  the  number 
of  shell  heaps  and  other  stone-age  sites  known  in  Japan  amounts  to 
four  thousand. 

Even  in  the  very  outskirts  of  Tokyo  some  have  been  found,  and 
near  the  city  of  Yokohama,  close  by  the  race  course,  I  have  myself 
collected  a  great  number  of  primitive  stone  implements  and  pottery. 
Most  of  the  implements  consisted  of  roughly  worked  slate.  There  are 
among  them,  however,  some  well-finiahed  stone  celts,  so  that  from 
the  form  alone  we  could  draw  no  division  line  between  paleolithic 
and  neolithic.  But,  judging  from  the  pottery,  this  whole  culture  is 
neolithic.    Less  frequently  one  finds  well-fashioned  arrow  pointe, 


580 


ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   IN8TITDTI0K,  1907. 


lance  points,  knives,  and  other  implements  of  flint  or  of  obEddian. 
The  quantity  of  stone  implements  varies  greatly.  In  some  shell  heaps 
they  are  exceedingly  numerous,  in  others  one  wonders  at  their  scaraty. 
Most  of  the  rough  tools  and  weapons  are  made  from  the  vol- 
canic rock  of  the  neighboring  region;  others  are  fashioned  from 
serpentine,  granite,  gneiss,  or  other  stone.  Nephrite  is  very  rardy 
used.  Generally  speaking  the  discoveries  of  stone  weapons  of  fine 
workmanship  become  more  frequent  as  we  go  north,  because  the 
stone  age  prevailed  there  long  after  the  more  civilized  southwest 
had  passed  into  the  iron  age.  Evidently,  however,  stone  clubs  were 
used  in  that  more  civilized  region  too,  for  to  the  first  Japanese  em- 
peror— supposed  to  have  lived  about  the  seventh  century  B.  C. — is 
attributed  in  the  oldest  legends  a  song  in  which  he  says  that  he  had 
struck  down  his  enemies  with  his  knobbed  stone  sword.    There  are 


many  specimens  of  stone  clubs,  up  to  80  cm.  and  over  in   length. 
Some  of  them  are  of  a  distinctly  phallic  shape. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  the  roughly  shaped  tools  form  the  great 
majority  of  the  finds.  The  beautifully  polished  stone  axes  occasion- 
ally found  often  taper  so  little  toward  the  handle  that  they  appear 
almost  rectangular  and  not  trapezoidal  in  shape.  They  also  occur 
with  one  beveled  edge  like  the  knife  of  a  plane.  Sometimes  double 
axes  are  found  with  bored  or  unbored  shaft  (Fig.  1.)  Grindstones 
and  the  familiar  stones  with  many  small  pit-like  hollows  are  not  c(»n- 
mon.  Net  sinkers  and  whirls  are  numerous,  as  is  natural  from  the 
location  of  the  shell  heaps  near  the  sea.  The  best  examples  of  the 
pottery  of  the  stone  age  are  also  found  in  northern  Japan.  It  is  here, 
too,  where  we  find  most  frequently  the  highly  characteristic  statuettes 
of  clay.  Some  of  these  are  of  a  soft-baked  gray  clay  mixed  with  ani- 
•nal  hair;  others  are  of  a  better  red  or  black  clay.    The  softness  of 


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,  Google 


PBEHISTOBIC  JAPAN — BAELZ.  531 

the  gray  figures  is  responsible  for  the  fact  that  in  spite  of  all  care  they 
do  not  keep  in  the  same  good  condition  in  which  they  are  found. 
Two  of  these  gray  figures,  shown  on  pi.  i,  have  a  full  beard.  They 
are  the  only  ones  of  this  sort  known ;  usually  the  beard  is  absent  or 
is  only  indicated  by  strokes  of  the  modeling  tool. 

The  eyes  of  the  figures  are  often  surrounded  by  a  raised  line  which 
is  construed  to  represent  snow  spectacles  by  some  Japanese  archeolo- 
gists.  A  further  thing  to  be  noticed  about  the  eyes  is  that  they  do  not  ■ 
slant  upward  like  those  of  Mongolians,  but  the  lids  are  horizontal  and 
the  eyes  are  deep  set  like  those  of  Europeans.  Many  of  the  figures 
are  distinctly  painted  or  tattooed  on  the  face. 

The  gray  figures  are  evidently  the  most  ancient.  The  better  burnt 
red  and  black  figures  are  more  recent,  and  some  have  the  type  of  the 
Japanese  terra-cotta  figures  of  the  iron  age  to  be  mentioned  later, 
and  have  slit  eyes  and  the  aquiline  nose  of  refined  Mongolian  type. 
Their  entire  workmanship  and  the  care  often  expended  on  the  cloth- 
ing indicates  a  late  period,  perhaps  the  first  centuries  A.  D.  A  few 
rather  good  mask-like  representations  of  human  faces  have  also  been 
found. 

The  numerous  handmade  clay  vessels  and  pots  from  the  stone  age 
show  great  variety  in  form  and  motive  of  decoration.  They  are 
made  generally  of  a  reddish  clay  and  are  often  very  badly  fired.  As 
they  are  usually  thin,  they  break  and  fall  to  pieces  easily,  so  that  well- 
preserved  pots  of  large  size  are  rare. 

Fig.  2  shows  a  collection  of  fragments  with  different  patterns. 

The  most  beautiful  and  best  preserved  vessels  are  found  in  the 
northern  part,  where  for  the  longest  period  the  stone  age  prevailed. 
They  are  sometimes  red,  sometimes  brown,  sometimes  black,  and  oc- 
casionally gray.  Some  resemble  glazed  ware.  Most  of  them  are 
about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  modem  teapot  and  have  often  peculiar 
forms  of  spout  and  lid.     (See  fig.  3.) 

The  peculiar  rectangular  oblong  or  trapezoidal  earthenware  tablets 
should  also  be  mentioned.  These  are  sometimes  as  large  as  the  hand, 
and  are  often  decorated  with  human  faces  or  eyes,  or  with  other  more 
or  less  fantastic  designs.  They  are  supposed  to  be  toys  or  dolls,  on 
what  grounds  I  am  not  able  to  determine.  More  probably  they  were 
charms  or  idols. 

Animal  figures  are  few  and  small.  Bear  and  bird  heads  are  found, 
and  occasionally  fish  heads. 

Personal  ornaments  appear  in  the  shape  of  stone  and  clay  rings, 
hollow  clay  tubes,  beads  of  bone  and  clay,  and  also  the  numerous 
comma-shaped  objects  2  to  5  cm.  in  length,  or  even  longer,  which 
are  called  magatama  (crooked  jewels),  and  which  were  the  most 
desired  and  prized  personal  adornments  in  Japan  well  into  the  his- 

,  I  by  Google 


582  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 


.  .^,,  .  ni.    ^     J'P"°e«  pottery  niMlIy  from  the  eiiTiroos  of  Yokohama.     No    17  bu 
!•  attHbuted  to  a  later  period.     One-third  natural  aiie.     Baeti  eollecHM^ 


PBEHISTOEIC  JAPAN — BAELZ.  588 

torical  period.  In  the  shell  heaps  they  are  of  stone,  horn,  boar  or 
■wolf  teeth,  and  in  the  graves  of  the  iron  age  of  glass,  camelian, 
rock  crystal,  quartz,  and  nephrite.  They  are  generally  perforated 
at  the  thick  end  and  were  worn  on  a  string,  together  with  beads  and 


bugles  of  the  same  material,  as  a  necklace.  Their  peculiar  shape 
has  given  rise  to  many  conjectures.  Probably  they  were  originally 
teeth  or  claws  of  wild  animals,  which  were  worn  as  amulets  every- 
where in  the  stone  age, 

Digilized  by  Google 


S84  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTnUTION,  IMH. 

I  show  {fig.  4)  for  comparison  a  picture  of  the  canine  tooth  of  i 
wolf  (now  in  the  British  Museum)  from  the  French  paleolithic 
caves  of  Laugerie  Basse  and  an  animal  tooth  from  a  shell  heap  in 
Japan.  The  figures  called  c  and  d  are  magatama  of  serpentine  or 
rock  crystal  from  Japanese  graves  of  the  iron  age.  The  last  form  is 
the  most  frequent,  and  it  is  this  form  which  is  commonly  meant  wh(«i 
magatama  are  mentioned. 

Donitz  thinks  that  the  shape  of  the  magatama  indicates  a  "  sym- 
bol of  lascivious  meaning."  Others  see  in  it  a  picture  of  the  wing 
of  a  certain  butterfly.  Sometimes  they  look  like  a  little  fish.  Hj 
opinion  is  that  originally  they  were  used  as  charms,  either  to  protect 
the  wearer  from  the  animals  from  which  they  came  or,  in  the  case 
of  the  fish-shaped  ones,  to  attract  the  fish. 

Some  special  power  must  have  been  attributed  to  them,  for  their 
value  as  ornaments  alone  does  not  explain  why  they  were  used  in 


Pia  4. — 80-mlM  Uagitima,  mtnral  t\m.    a  U  an  anlmit'B  tooth  t 

In  Fraace  (paleolithic)  ;  b  Is  fnim  s  Japaaeae  shell  heap;  o  and  i  are  Irom  tbe  crana 
of  the  Japaoese  Iron  age  (Dolmeo  period). 

mythical  or  half  mythical  times  as  jewels  of  the  gods,  of  the  Emperor, 
end  of  other  persons  of  the  highest  rank.  A  magatama  is  even  to-day 
one  of  the  three  emblems  of  sovereignty  in  Japan.  Their  religious 
significance  can  be  seen  also  from  their  use  in  the  Shinto  ritual  and 
from  the  further  fact  that  two  or  three  such  comma-like  figures  form- 
ing a  circle  appear  frequently  on  religious  and  ritualistic  objects  all 
over  eastern  Asia.  The  circle,  made  up  of  two  "  commas,"  one  red  and 
the  other  green,  is  the  national  emblem  of  Korea.  This  form  repre- 
sents the  masculine  and  feminine  principles — Yang  and  Yin  of  die 
Chinese — and  also  heaven  and  earth.  The  triply  divided  circle  rep- 
resents heaven,  earth,  and  man  (the  product  of  the  two).  The  Swas- 
tika, in  my  opinion,  belongs  to  the  same  group  of  ideas. 

Horn  and  bone  are  found  as  implements,  such  as  needles,  awls, 
(irrow  points,  harpoons,  pipes,  and  also,  but  much  less  frequently, 
fashioned  into  ornaments.  The  bones  occurring  most  commonly  are 
from  deer  and  wild  boars,  and  occasionally  from  dogs,  wolves,  and 


.y  Google 


PBEHISTORIC  JAPAN — BABLZ.  5S6 

monkeys.    Among  the  monkeys  Professor  Morse  has  recognized  a 
K3niopithecus  besides  the  Macacus  found  in  Japan  to-day. 

Himian  hones  are  found  in  the  shape  of  fragments  of  tubular  bones, 
such  as  the  humerus,  radius,  ulna,  femur,  tibia,  and  fibula.  Some- 
times they  are  in  a  condition  which  points  to  cannibalism.  Only  in- 
complete fragments  of  cranial  and  face  bones  have  been  discovered." 
The  tibia  are  very  flat,  and  in  this  respect  the  people  of  the  shell-heap 
period  closely  resemble  the  Aino. 

The  shells  of  molludis  are  naturally  found  in  large  quantities. 
Sixty  species  have  already  been  determined,  which,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected, are  distributed  in  varying  numbers  in  different  places.  In 
this  connection  Morse's  observation,  that  the  mollusk  fauna  of  Tokyo 
Bay  has  undergone  a  decided  change  since  the  building  of  the  shell 
heaps,  is  of  especial  interest,  as  it  indicates  that  these  are  very  old. 
Professor  Milne  is  bold  enough  to  name  a  definite  age — three  thousand 
years.  But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  bay  of  Tokyo  has 
changed  very  much.  The  whole  eastern  coast  of  Japan  in  that 
vicinity  is  slowly  rising.  A  large  part  of  the  area  of  the  present 
city  of  Tokyo  lay  under  water  a  thousand  years  ago,  and  the  hill  of 
Ueno,  with  its  celebrated  city  park,  was  an  island  five  hundred  years 
ago.  The  great  inflowing  rivers  have  partly  filled  up  the  bay  at  the 
north  end  where  the  shell  heaps  examined  by  Morse  lay.  Therefore 
it  is  quite  possible  that  the  smaller  percentage  of  salt  in  the  water 
and  other  conditions  altered  the  form,  size,  and  frequency  of  the 
conchylia  within  a  comparatively  short  period  of  time. 

While  the  remains  of  the  stone  age  lie  scattered  promiscuously 
around  in  shell  heaps,  and  while  no  regular  graves  of  that  period 
are  known,  it  is  different  in  the  metal  age.  This  period  may  be 
divided  into  two  parts,  a  bronze  and  an  iron  age  (there  has  been 
no  distinct  copper  age  in  Japan),  but  while  in  other  countries  we 
often  find  transitions  from  stone  to  bronze  and  from  bronze  to  iron, 
the  deposits  of  these  three  periods  in  Japan  lie  unmixed  side  by  side, 
or  one  lies  on  top  of  the  other. 

That  the  people  of  the  metal  period  were  different  from  those  of 
the  stone  age  is  evidenced  by  this  lack  of  transition  and  by  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  metal  finds.  These  cease  to  the  northward  of  Tokyo 
somewhat  beyond  the  Kwanto  Plain  just  where  the  region  of  the 
Aino  begaji  in  historic  times,  and  where  the  stone  weapons  and  the 
corresponding  pottery  reached  their  highest  development. 

■  since  the  above  has  been  written  Doctor  Monro,  ot  Yokohama,  the  dlatln- 
gnlabed  arcbeolOKlst,  has  sncceeded  In  exhuming  six  ekuUe  of  the  stone  age. 
whlcb  In  my  opinion  leave'no  doubt  tbat  the  Btone-age  people  were  really 
Alnos.— EX  B. 


4171 


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686 


ANBUAI.  BEFOBT   SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION,  1907. 


Tombs  containing  iron  have  never  been  found  in  this  Aino  terri- 
toi7,  and  stone  weapons  never  occur  in  the  graves  containing  metal  ' 

The  real  question  is  whether  the  bronze-using  people  are  idendctl 
in  race  with  the  iron  people.  Even  if  they  are,  we  must  assume  thit 
there  were  two  distinct  surges  of  immigration  separated  by  a  cod- 
siderable  period  of  time,  the  first,  consisting  of  people  in  the  bronze 
age  and  the  second  of  people  in  the  iron  age.  TTie  latter  immigrants 
became  the  masters  of  the  land,  and  the  dolmen  graves  belonging 
to  them  were  built  even  into  the  historical  period.  Their  sway  r^ 
resents  the  dawn  of  twilight  of  history.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that 
the  iron-age  people  were  the  direct  forebears  of  the  present  Japanese. 
The  difference  of  the  bronze  and  iron  age 
folk  appears  further  probable  from  the  fact 
that  in  the  oldest  Japanese  annals  (712  and 
720  A.  D.)  the  word  bronze  is  altogether  ab- 
sent, unless  possibly  the  word  for  copper  in- 
cludes bronze.  In  any  case  the  annals 
consider  iron  as  the  only  metal  used  in  swords 
from  the  very  beginning.  Even  the  sun  god- 
dess has  an  iron  sword.  The  bronze  swords 
discovered  must  therefore  come  from  another 
people  or  tribe,  thou^  the  race  in  both  cases 
may  have  been  the  same. 

That  both  the  bronze  and  iron  people 
brought  their  culture  from  the  continent  is 
shown  not  only  by  the  geographical  position 
of  the  country  and  the  indications  of  ancient 
legends,  but  also  by  the  nature  of  the  grave 
deposits. 

The  bronze  age  can  be  disposed  of  in  a  few 
words,  for  comparatively  little  is  known  about 
it.  There  are  no  distinct  graves  of  this 
period,  although  bronze  weapons  and  other 
implements  often  occur  near  the  surface  in  fields  or  clearings  of  south- 
western Japan.  Together  with  them  are  sometimes  found  unglazed 
hand -fashioned  cups  and  bowls  of  red  clay.  The  bronze  swords  and 
lances  are  double  edged,  and  they  are  similar  to  those  of  the  bronze  age 
in  Europe.  They  are  often  so  large  that  they  were  perhaps  intended 
for  sacrificial  purposes  rather  than  for  use  against  enemies.  Both 
these  weapons  and  the  rather  infrequent  arrow  points  are  well  fin- 
ished. The  latter  are  found  in  the  iron-age  tombs,  whereas  the  swords 
of  the  bronze  and  iron  ages  are  totally  different. 

Celts,  needles,  and  fibulte  are  not  found  in-  Japan.  In  plowing  their 
fields,  peasants  occasionally  unearth,  besides  little  round  bells,  veiy 
peculiar  large  fiat  bells,  made  of  thin  bronze,  as  much  as  80  cm.  or 


Pio.  6. — Japanese  bronxe 
weapooa  (after  Gow- 
land  I,  Above  swordi  or 
tBDces.  the  larger  TO  cm. 
In  leagtb.     Below,  arrow 


FBEHI8T0BIC  JAPAN BAELZ.  587 

more  in  height.  That  these  were  intended  to  be  bung  up  is  shown 
by  the  hole  at  their  top,  but  what  they  were  used  for  and  where  they 
came  from  no  one  knows.  They  are  generally  attributed  to  Chinese 
origin.  They  show  finely  worked  geometrical  designs  and  often  quite 
a  number  are  found  together. 

The  bells  occur  only  in  the  vicinity  of  bronze  weapons  in  southern 
Japan,  especially  in  the  part  lying  nearest  the  continent.  The  farther 
north  the  less  frequently  do  bronze  articles  occur,  and  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  Inland  sea  there  are  none. 

Although  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  bronze  weapons  were  cast 
in  Japan,  molds  for  casting  swords  having  been  found,  it  is  doubtful 
-whetiier  the  bronze  itself  came  from  Japan.  Several  Japanese 
archeologists  think  that  all  bronze  was  imported  from  China  or 
Korea.  In  early  times  neither  copper  nor  tin  mines  were  known  in 
Japan,  and  when  the  first  copper  mine  was  discovered  there  about 
700  A.  D.  it  was  considered  an  occasion  for  national  celebration ;  and 
yet  the  bronze  age  must  have  antedated  this  by  at  least  1,500  years. 

Few  ornaments  of  the  bronze  age  are  extant.  They  are  principally 
beads,  bugles,  or  magatama,  made  of  rock-crystal,  steatite,  and  jasper. 
Unfortunately  all  discoveries  of  the  deposits  of  the  bronze  age  were 
made  by  accident  and  by  uneducated  people,  so  that  a  systematic 
consideration  of  them  is  out  of  the  question.  The  theory  is  that  the 
places  where  the  bronze  pieces  are  found  were  originally  graves,  prob- 
ably covered  by  a  small  tumulus  which  gradually  wore  down  or  was 
destroyed  by  the  farmer.  Whether  or  not  they  inclosed  sarcophagi 
of  wood  or  of  soft  terra  cotta  can  not  be  determined.  If  there  were 
any,  they  have  been  totally  destroyed  by  the  weathering,  as  have  the 
bones  of  the  persons  buried.  Anything  like  a  stone  lining  has  never 
been  found. 

The  iron  age  in  Japan  is  at  the  same  time  the  dolmen  age.  W. 
Donitz  has  described  the  dolmens  in  the  volume  of  1887,  page  114,  of 
these  Proceedings."  But  since  Donitz  himself  only  saw  a  few  dolmens 
which  were  furthermore  empty,  little  is  added  to  the  sum  of  knowl- 
edge by  him,  especially  in  comparison  with  the  highly  interesting 
investigations  of  Oowland,  who  published  the  results  of  his  work 
begun  more  than  thirty  years  ago  in  the  London  Archeologia  for 
1897.  Gowland  himself  has  examined  more  than  400  of  the  1,200 
known  dolmens,  many  of  which  were  untouched,  and  has  gathered  a 
valuable  collection  of  objects  out  of  them,  now  exhibited  in  the 
British  Museum. 

The  dolmens  in  Japan  are  all  megalithic  structures  and  were  cov- 
ered with  tumuli,  often  of  large  dimensions.     If  many  of  them  stand 

» ZeitBchrift  Mr  BUinolf^le,  Bprlin. 

□  ,9,„z^byG0Ogle 


638  ANKUAL  BEPOBT  8M1TH80NIAN   INSTITUTION,  WWJ. 

nncorered  now,  it  is  because  the  tumolns  has  been  removed  by  climatic 
influences  or  by  the  hand  of  man. 

The  simple  stone  chambers,  or  stone  cists — that  is,  three  perpendicu- 
lar slabs  of  stone  covered  with  a  very  large  cap  stone — are  not  found 
in  Japan.  This  is  the  more  remarkable  from  the  fact  that  in  Korea. 
mostly  in  the  northern  part,  I  have  seen  a  great  nimiber  of  these, 
while  megalithic  dolmens  appear  to  be  lacking  there. 

The  stonee  of  the  Japanese  dolmens,  particularly  tlie  roof  stones, 
are  often  very  large,  but  regularly  hewn  stones  are  the  ezception. 
There  are,  according  to  Gowland,  only  four  dolmens  of  the  last 
sort,  and  they  belong  to  a  comparatively  recent  period.  Generally 
they  are  put  together  without  any  mortar  (wtuch,  however,  was 
doubtlessly  known  then)  and  the  interstices  filled  with  small  atones. 

Occasionally  true  rock  graves  are  found,  graves  of  regular  shape 
hewn  out  of  the  rock.  Judging  from  the  finds  in  them  they  belong 
to  the  dolmen  age.  They  differ  in  their  whole  execution  from  the 
primitive  caves  mentioned  before. 

Qowland  differentiates  four  forms  of  the  dolmens:  First,  the  sim- 
ple covered  passage  (all^  couverte) ;  second,  the  covered  passage 
broadening  out  on  one  side  at  the  inner  end  into  a  chamber;  third, 
the  same  form  with  a  symmetrical  widening  out  on  both  sides  (this 
is  the  most  usual  form),  and  fourth,  dolmens  with  two  separated 
chambers  one  lying  behind  the  other. 

It  is  likely  that  the  last  form  always  represents  a  later  stage  of 
development;  perhaps  also  the  social  position  of  the  deceased  in- 
fluenced the  form. 

The  chambers  are  rectangular  in  shape.  The  length  varies  from 
1}  to  8  meters;  the  gallery  leading  in  is  often  longer.  The  breadth 
of  the  chambers  is  generally  less  than  3  meters  and  the  average  height 
about  2  meters,  although  it  may  rise  to  5  meters.  Some  of  them  are 
vaultlike.  The  tumulus  over  the  grave  is  sometimes  as  large  as  30 
meters  in  length  and  10  in  height,  but  usually  only  half  that  size. 
The  entrance  is  almost  always  from  the  south,  though  frequently  a 
little  toward  the  east  or  west.  Deviations  amounting  to  40°,  which 
are  observed  in  the  large  Japanese  dolmen  as  well  as  in  the  small 
dolmens  of  Korea,  can  perhaps  be  explained  from  the  time  of  year 
of  the  burial.  East  and  west  are  easier  to  determine  than  true  south, 
on  account  of  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun.  In  midsummer  the 
sun  rises  toward  the  north,  in  winter  toward  the  south.  If  the  people 
founded  their  orientation  on  the  rising  of  the  sun,  as  they  probably 
did,  south  would  be  too  far  to  the  east  in  summer  and  too  far  to  the 
west  in  winter. 

Whether  the  peculiar  position  of  the  dolmen  entrances  toward  the 
south  is  to  be  attributed  solely  to  the  sun  and  its  wor^ip,  or  whether 
it  is  based  on  some  other  religious  or  astronomical  idea,  it  is  difficult 


PREHISTOBIC  JAPAN — BABLZ.  589 

to  determine.  I  may  remark  in  this  coDnection  that  in  China  from 
the  earliest  times,  the  Emperor,  the  representative  of  heaven  on 
earth,  bore  the  title  '^  The  south  looking  Emperor."  The  bodies 
were  buried  uncremated,  but  the  bones  at  the  time  of  the  examination 
had  usually  disintegrated.  Where  the  position  of  the  body  could 
be  determined  it  was  generally  laid  in  the  direction  of  the  long  axis 
of  the  structure,  that  is,  north  and  south.  The  bodies  lay  on  the 
floor,  which  was  rarely  paved  with  stones  or  covered  with  plaster,  but 
at  other  times  sar- 
cophagi   of    stoue, 

terra    cotta    and  m 

wood  were  used.  ^ 

One  dolmen  usu- 
ally served  for  only 
one  or  two  persons; 
Interment  of  s 
larger  number  was 
very  infrequent  and 
probably  indicated  W 
a  family  vault  or  ^ 
the  death  of  many 
from  some  special 
occurrence. 

A  particular  form 
of  grave  is  repre- 
sented by  the  im- 
perial graves  (Jap. 
"Misasagi")  of  the 
dolmen  period. 
They  would  be 
more  appropriately 
termed        princely 

graves,    since    they  ^"3-  ^ — Japtmcw  imperial  gnTe  (ttfter  Qowluid).    The  Uagtb 

J                                    ,  ol  tbe  mound  between  viler  surfaces   Is  074   feet.     The 

do   not    occur   only  outlines  ot  the  mound  recall  the  schematic  oatllnea  of  a 

in     central     Japan  human   agare.     The   dotted   lines   Indicate   rows   ot   clar 

1          .>      T>  cyliDders. 
where  the  Emperor 

always  lived,  but  also  in  all  the  districts  where  dolmens  abound,  and 
which  must  be  considered  as  the  seats  of  great  feudal  princes.  These 
graves  are  often  only  a  kind  of  unusually  large  dolmen  mounds,  yet 
they  are  prominent  not  only  by  their  often  enormous  dimensions,  but 
they  have  other  peculiarities.  In  contrast  to  the  portion  of  the  dol- 
mens on  hills,  these  graves  lie  principally  on  plains.  They  are  double 
mounds  of  a  characteristic  form  (as  the  accompanying  figure  by 
Gowland  shows),  consisting  of  a  trapezoidal  mound  flat  on  top  and 
often  terraced,  joined  to  a  higher  circular  one  likewise  fiat- on  top. 


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ANNUAL  BEPOHT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  IWT. 


Around  the  whole  structure  runs  a  large  ditch  or  moat.  The  orienti- 
tion  of  the  long  dimension  is  east  and  west.  The  entrance  to  the 
dolmen  is  in  the  south  side  about  a  third  or  half  way  up  the  cir- 
cular mound.  It  contains  one  and  often  two  stone  or  terra  cotta  sar- 
cophagi. At  other  times  the  sarcophagi  are  buried  in  the  mound 
without  any  real  dolmen  structure.  The  whole  mound  is  surrounded 
at  different  levels  by  several  rows  of  short,  broad,  hollow  tubes  of 
terra-cotta  placed  close  together.  The  total  number  of  these  oftoi 
runs  up  into  the  thousands.  The  terra  cotta  figures,  called  Tsut- 
shinigyo  (earth  figures),  are  also  found  here,  but  only  a  few  are 
preserved,  since  most  of  them  soon  crumble  away  in  the  open  air. 

An  idea  of  the  enormous  labor  which  the  erection  of  such  grave 
mounds  entailed  n>ay  be  obtained  from  the  fact  that  one  of  these 
misasagi  with  its  moat  covers  not  less  than  200  acres. 


■CCTION   THROUBH    KB. 


PlO.  7. — Japanese  li 


il  grBTG  Id  loDgltudltial  a 


ectlan.     Alter  GowlmDd. 


During  the  many  centuries  of  Shogun  rule,  when  the  Emperor  was 
a  purely  nominal  potentate  and  lived  almost  a  prisoner  in  his  capital, 
these  graves  were  so  completely  neglected  that  farmers  laid  out  fields 
on  some  of  them.  Gowland  found  the  largest  grave  mound  he  exam- 
ined entirely  given  up  to  agriculture. 

In  1868,  however,  the  Emperor  was  fully  reinstated  in  his  rights 
and  power,  and  since  then  all  the  imperial  mounds  have  been  rigor- 
ously protected.  They  are  fenced  in  and  Shinto  temples  have  been 
erected  at  their  foot.  They  are  particularly  numerous  in  the  provinces 
of  Yamato  and  Kawachi,  and  they  have  a  very  imposing  and  stately 
appearance  as  they  rise  from  the  plain.  Each  one  is  attributed  to  a 
special  Emperor,  but  it  is  doubtful  in  some  cases  whether  just  that 
'Emperor  whose  name  the  mausoleum  bears  lies  there. 

The  objects  found  in  the  dolmen  or  rock  graves  are  very  numerous 
and  often  valuable  from  an  artistic  point  of  view. 


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I 


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PREH19T0E:C   japan — BAELZ. 


541 


Of  the  wea^ns  the  most  characteristic  are  the  iron  swords,  which 
differ  in  form  as  much  from  the  swords  of  the  bronze  age  as  from 
those  of  the  later  Japanese,  which,  as  is  well  known,  curve  backward 
toward  the  point.  The  iron  swords  are  perfectly  straight,  with  a  hilt 
long  enough  for  both  hands.  The  length  of  the  cutting  edge  is  gen- 
erally from  80  to  100  cm.,  and  the  grip  from  15  to  20  cm.  The  swords 
are  incased  in  a  wooden  sheath.  This  is  often  covered  by  a  copper 
sheath,  on  which  in  exceptional  cases  a  gold  sheath  is  hammered,  with 
designs  of  dragons  and  other  things. 

These  swords  were  not  thrust  into  the  girdle  like  the  later  Japanese 
swords,  but  hung  at  the  girdle  or  belt  of  the  wearer  by  a  loop  fastened 
to  two  eyelets  on  the  sheath.  Iron  lances  or  spears  appear  to  have 
been  little  used.  Arrow  points  of  iron  and  pieces  of  ornamental 
gilded  bronze  bits  and  horse  trappings  have  been  found.  The  Jap- 
anese of  that  time  must  have  been  keen  horsemen,  for  such  articles  are 
often  quite  numerous  in  the  more  elaborate  graves  and  are  of  varied 
and  beautiful  esecution. 


Fia,  8. — Bworda  ornamented  wltb  gold  from  >  Japanese  piiDce'B 


Miueum  In  Tokjo. 


Pieces  of  armor  are  rare,  probably  because  the  iron  has  been  de- 
stroyed by  rust.  The  Tokyo  Museum,  however,  possesses  some  large 
and  well-preserved  specimens  of  iron  breastplates  and  several  hel- 
mets, one  of  them  finely  gilded.  Out  of  the  same  grave  with  some  of 
these  objects  was  obtained  a  pair  of  perfectly  preserved  gold-plated 
copper  shoes. 

Although  iron  swords  are  much  more  common  than  bronze  swords, 
it  is  doubtful  in  their  case,  too,  whether  they  were  made  from  native 
material.  No  mines  nor  iron  works  have  been  found,  and  even 
to-day  Japan  is  a  country  poor  in  iron. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  among  the  gifts  of  a  King  of  Kudara 
{in  Korea)  in  the  third  century  A.  D.  fifty  bars  of  iron  are  explicitly 
mentioned.    A  great  many  swords  could  be  made  from  these. 

Whatever  bronze  objects  are  found  in  the  dolmen  graves  are  in  the 
form  of  ornaments.  Bronze  mirrors  plainly  coming  from  China 
(some  of  them  being  dated  from  the  Han  dynasty,  200  B.  C.  to  200 
A.  D.),  little  bronze  bells  for  horses,  horse  bits  and  trappings,  and 
bronze  arrow  points  are  among  the  most  numerous.    Besides  these 


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542 


ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 


there  are  gold-plated  rings  of  iron  or  copper  made  without  soldering, 
of  the  same  fonn  and  techhique  as  those  in  the  more  elaborate  graves 
of  the  bronze  and  iron  age  in  Europe.  Some  small  rings  of  solid 
gold  or  silver  have  also  been  found.  Among  the  other  ornaments 
may  be  mentioned  little  thin  plates  of  gold  and  silver  used  as  trim- 
mings for  clothes,  glass  and  stone  beads,  and  bu^es.  Gowland  found 
no  less  than  1,018  specimens  of  these  last  ornaments  in  one  dolmoi 
grave,  together  with  the  comma-shaped  magatama  already  mentioned. 
The  last  are  not  so  numerous,  however.  Steatite,  jasper,  agate, 
rock  crystal,  and  occasionally  the  foreign  stones,  chrysopras  and 
nephrite,  are  used  for  this  jewelry.  The  prevailing  colors  of  the 
jewelry  are  blue  for  the  beads  and  a  dull  green  for  the  ston^  In 
many  graves  are  found  small  models  in  steatite  of  woodra^hoes, 
combs,  spindles,  knives,  daggers,  arrow  p^ts,  and 
some  radially  striped  disk-shaped  objects^hose  sig- 
nificance is  not  known.  They  are,  froiMpeir  shape, 
called  wagon- wheel  stones  by  Japanese  j^heologists. 
The  pottery  of  the  dolmens  has  been  described  in 
detail  by  Donitz,  and  the  principal  forms  are  figured 
in  his  paper  already  quoted.  He  rejects  the  idea 
prevalent  amongst  the  Japanese  experts,  of  Korean 
orif^n  or  influence  in  regard  to  this  pottery,  as  in  his 
opinion  the  ancient  Koreans  th^nselves  were  un- 
skilled potters,  and  as  the  Korean  pottery  used  at 
the  cerejnonial  Japanese  tea  ceremonies  (cha  no  yu) 
was  shaped  by  hand  and  was  of  a  rough  type,  while 
the  gray  dolmen  ware,  although  mostly  unglazed, 
was  always  nuide  on  the  wheel  and  is  of  a  madi 
higher  artistic  standing.  The  cha  no  yu  ware,  how- 
ever, is  of  a  much  later  date  and  only  part  of  it  conies  from  Korea, 
while  the  clay  vessels  found  in  the  old  Korean  graves  are  munistak- 
ably  identical  with  the  Japanese  dolmen  pottery. 

In  any  case  the  fact  remains  that  even  before  Christ  artistic  and 
well-formed  vessels  existed,  which  were  shaped  upon  the  wheel,  and 
yet  centuries  later  potters  were  brought  over  from  Korea.  In  Japan 
itself  the  best  potters  must  have  lived,  not  in  the  imperial  province 
of  Yamato,  but  in  the  distant  province  of  Idzumo,  the  seat  of  the  most 
ancient  culture,  whither  the  Qovemment  sent  again  and  again  fw 
potters  when  they  were  needed  quickly. 

In  connection  with  the  pretty  conical  stands  or  bases  of  some  of 
the  vases  with  triangular  and  rectangular  holes,  I  may  remark  that 
I  have  seen  in  the  museum  at  Cairo  very  ancient  Egyptian  clay  vasee 
with  the  same  striking  ornamentation.  Donitz  thinks  that  the  holes 
were  put  in  to  facilitate  the  baking.   Gowland  cmsideis  them  raitirely 


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PBEHISTORIC  JAPAN — BA£LZ.  548 

oniainental.    Perhaps  a  fire  was  made  in  the  cavity  to  warm  the 
liquid  in  the  bowl  or  vase  on  the  top. 

There  is  a  special  sort  of  pottery  which  Donitz  does  not  mention, 
viz,  the  clay  cylinders  and  figures  which,  unlike  the  gray  vessels 


1  age.    Tbe  cheeki  ar* 

occurring  in  the  inside  of  the  dolmen,  are  found  on  the  outside  of 
the  imperial  double  grave  mounds.  They  are  made  of  a  poorly 
baked  red  terra  cotta,  and  for  this  reason  are  much  inclined  to  dis- 
integrate.   The  cylinders  are  about  40  cm.  high  and  30  to  35  cm.  in 

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544  ANNUAL  REPOBT  SMTTHBONIAN  INeTITUTION,  1907. 

diometfir,  and  stand  by  the  hundreds  or  thousands  in  rows  one  above 
the  other  on  the  imperial  graves.  Their  purpose  is  not  known.  It 
can,  as  Gowland  says,  hardly  be  to  protect  the  mound  from  erofdon 
by  the  weather,  on  account  of  their  position,  and  it  is  also  improbable 

that  they  were  set 
up  or  laid  there  as 
a  substitute  for  liv- 
ing servants  buried 
with  the  illustrious 
dead.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  may  as- 
sume that  the  less 
frequent  so-called 
Tsutshi-nigyo  (that 
is,  earth  figures  of 
men)  found  with 
the  cylinders  served 
that  purpose.  As 
in  almost  all  half 
barbaric  ancient 
countries,  servants 
and  slaves  or  war 
captives  were  killed 
at  the  tomb  of  a 
prince  in  Japan  in 
order  to  serve  him 
in  the  next  world. 
In  Japan  this  hu- 
man sacrifice  took 
the  terrible  form 
of  burying  the  vic- 
tim in  the  earth  up 
to  the  breast,  caus- 
ing a  lingering 
death  from  hunger 
and  thirst  or  suffo- 
cation. AnemperOT 
is  said  to  have  been 
touched  by  the  cries 

Fio.  11. — Terra  eotta  Ogaie  wltb  armar  rrom  the  xrave  moond     and  groans  of  these 
ot  a  prlQce.     After  Tsubal :  Koko.aku.  unfortunate, whlch 

lasted  several  days  and  nights,  and  therefore,  on  the  advice  of  a 
famous  official,  he  issued  an  edict  that  in  the  future  the  human  sacri- 
fices should  be  stopped  and  the  servants  replaced  by  clay  figures  which 
were  buried  in  the  tumuli.    Probably  this  was,  as  in  so  many  other 

ii.;,Gooyk' 


PRGHISTOBIC   JAPAN BAELZ.  545 

cases  in  Japan,  an  imitation  of  a  Chinese  custom,  since  a  substitution 
of  stone  figures  for  human  sacrifices  is  mentioned  there  much  earlier. 
These  "  Haniwa  nigyo  "  or  Tsutshi-nigyo,  sometimes  60  cm.  in  height, 
are  of  value  because  they  show  the  dress  and  armor  and  the  orna- 
tnents  of  that  period.  They  are  alsq  interesting  in  that  they  have  the 
features  which  distinguish  in  Japan  the  refined  north  Mongolian  type, 
of  graceful,  slender  build,  aquiline  nose,  and  narrow  slanting  eyes, 
in  strong  contrast  to  the  stone-age  figures  previously  mentioned. 

The  horses  formerly  sacrificed  at  the  tombs  were  also  replaced  by 
clay  horses. 

The  distribution  of  the  dohnens  is  interesting  and  at  the  same  time 
gives  an  idea  of  the  political  and  social  state  of  affairs  at  that  time. 
A  glance  at  the  map  shows  that  geographically  Japan  is  divided  into 
two  almost  equal  parts, 

a    western   half    (some- 

-what  south,  to  be  sure), 

"which  includes  a  part  of 

the  main  island  and  the 

great  islands  Kiuschiu 

and  Skikoku,  and  an- 
other half  running  al- 
most  north   and   south, 

which  is  made  up  of  the 

larger  part  of  the  main 

island     and     of     Jezo. 

The  two  parts  are  joined 

almost  at  right  angles 

by  a  broad  isthmus  at 

136-137°  longitude  east 

of    Greenwich    and    34—      *"'"■  12.— Cl«j  hone  from  the  grave  monnd  o(  a  prlDC* 
of  Ibe  Iron-age  Dolmen  period. 

35°    northern    latitude. 

This  isthmus  forms  an  important  ethnical  and  civilizational  bound- 
ary. The  bronze  culture  is  absolutely  and  the  iron  culture  nearly 
confined  to  the  country  west  of  the  isthmus.  Northward  of  it  is  the 
main  region  of  neolithic  culture ;  only  here  are  found  the  well-finished 
stone  weapons  and  neolithic  human  clay  figures  in  any  quantity.  In 
this  large  northern  territory  we  find,  however,  one  well-circumscribed 
oasis  of  iron -age  culture  with  dolmens — the  fertile  plain  around 
Tokio  with  the  surrounding  mountainous  country. 

Besides  this  isolated  group  in  the  north,  we  can  distinguish  five 
other  centers  for  the  dolmens,  two  of  which  lie  in  the  great  southern 
island  of  Kiushiu.  The  smaller  one  is  near  the  Pacific,  in  the  province 
of  Hiuga,  where  the  grandfather  of  the  first  Emperor  is  supposed 
to  have  come  down  from  heaven  and  whence  he  is  said  to  have  started 
on  his  victorious  march.    This  took  him  first  to  the  nor^  of  .the 

■  ,Gooylc 


646  ANNUAL  REPORT  SjnTHSONIAK   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

Kiushiu.  Here  we  find  the  second  l&Tga  dolmen  region,  includii^ 
the  island  of  Tsushima  and  the  provinces  lying  opposite  the  southern 
point  of  Korea,  a  region  where  bronze  weapons  are  especially  fre- 
quent. This  region  was  afterwards  for  a  thousand  years  the  seat  of 
powerful  vassals,  who  were  often  enou^  arrayed  against  the  imperial 
court.  From  here,  acc<M^ing  to  the  Japanese  annab,  the  first  Empcrw 
continued  his  journey  across  the  bay  of  Shimonoseki  to  the  main 
island  and  marched  along  the  shores  of  the  inland  sea.  On  this  road 
we  encounter  a  third  dolmen  center  in  the  province  of  Bizen.  The 
conquest  at  last  reached  its  goal  in  the  central  provinces,  the  Ookinai, 
which  were  from  then  the  seat  of  the  imperial  rule  for  more  than  two 
thousand  years.  It  is  no  wonder  then  that  we  find  here  the  fourth 
and  largest  of  the  dolmen  centers. 

The  fifth  lies  along  the  northwest  coast  of  the  principal  island  in 
and  around  the  province  of  Idzmno,  where,  as  mentioned  above,  the 
conquerors  already  found  a  civilized  people.  The  sixth  is  that  in 
and  around  the  Tokyo  plain. 

Thus  the  legendary  stories  of  ancient  Japanese  history  are  cor- 
roborated by  the  archeological  finds.  From  these  we  learn  that  the 
invaders,  a  people  in  the  iron-age  culture,  took  possession  of  the 
fertile  coast  stretches  in  the  southwest  and  spread  out  to  the  east  and 
north  along  the  ocean.  In  Yamato  and  Idzumo  they  encountered 
organized  communities  of  a  cultivated  and  propably  related  race; 
these  they  subdued  only  after  a  fierce  struggle.  The  regions  where  we 
find  the  Dolmen  centers  were  ruled  by  feudal  princes  who  for  a  long 
time  recognized  the  Emperor  only  as  primus  inter  pares,  since  they 
were  buried  in  a  similar  manner  as  the  Emperor  himself.  Their 
power  was  gradually  absorbed  by  the  emperors  in  Yamato,  and  at 
last  these  were  able  to  proclaim  themselves  "  sole  rulers  by  the  grace 
of  the  gods." 

The  period  of  the  imperial  mounds  as  well  as  of  the  common 
dolmen  mounds  which  are  found  in  groups  of  10  to  200  at  the  foot 
or  on  the  slope  of  hills,  probably  began  at  least  in  the  fourth  century 
B.  C,  perhaps  a  good  deal  earlier.  Its  end  is  fixed  abont  the  year 
700  A.  D.,  since  at  that  time  an  imperial  edict  was  issued  forbidding 
this  form  of  burial.  Cremation  was  then  inaugurated  under  the 
influence  of  Buddhism,  ^ 

It  is  noticeable  in  connection  with  the  Japanese  dolmens  that  (1) 
they  are  found  in  neither  the  stone  nor  the  bronze  age,  but  belong  ex- 
clusively to  the  iron  age;  that  (2)  they  are  always  of  a  megalithic 
nature,  simple  stone  vaults  or  so-called  cists  not  having  been  found 
so  far  in  Japan,  although  they  are  numerous  in  Korea;  and  that 
(3)  the  country  where  they  are  found  is  entirely  isolated  from  all 
regions  with  similar  structures.  It  is  necessary  to  go  as  far  as  the 
Caspian  Sea  or  to  the  northern  part  of  India  to  find  AOytbiitf  liks 


PBEHISTOKIC  JAPAN BAELZ.  547 

them.  But  their  most  similar  counterparts  existed  in  prehistoric 
Northern  Europe. 

In  summing  up  the  whole  subject  briefly  we  may  say :  The  oldest 
inhabitants  of  Japan  known  to  us,  the  Ainos,  lived  in  the  stone  age 
and  have  left  their  traces  in  the  shell  heaps  and  many  other  places. 
Formerly  they  inhabited  the  whole  island,  but  were  gradually  pressed 
towards  the  north,  where  the  stone  age  prevailed  even  within  the  last 
thousand  years,  and  where  the  products  of  that  age  reached  the 
highest  state  of  development.  The  present  Ainos  make  pottery  no 
longer ;  they  have  for  a  long  time  obtained  their  pottery  and  other 
vessels  from  the  Japanese,  when  they  could  not  use  their  own  wood 
utensils. 

In  the  second  place,  there  lived  in  the  southwestern  part  a  people 
of  the  bronze  age  who  did  not  reach  the  isthmus  and  the  Biwa  Lake 
towards  the  north.  These  either  drove  out  or  subjugated  the  aborig- 
ines of  this  region. 

Finally  there  appeared  in  the  southwest  a  conquering  people 
of  an  iron-age  culture  that  took  possession  of  the  territory  of  the 
bronze  people  and  gradually  extended  their  dominion  over  the  whole 
island  empire.  In  the  seventh  century  A.  D.  they  had  only  pene- 
trated as  far  as  the  region  somewhat  north  of  Tokyo,  near  Sendaig. 
In  central  Japan,  in  Yamato  and  Idzumo,  they  had  encountered  and 
subdued  organized  tribes  which  were  not  in  the  bronze  age,  for  there 
are  no  bronze  weapons  found  in  Yamato.  Whether  these  tribes  still 
used  stone  weapons  or  whether,  as  is  far  more  probable,  they  already 
had  iron  is  an  open  question. 


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THE  ORIGIN  OF  EGYPTIAN  CIVILIZATION.' 


By  EktovABD  Natille,  D.  C.  L.,  LL.  D.,  eta 


Who'  were  the  Egyptians?  Were  they  a  native  race,  born  in  the 
country  which  they  inhabited,  or  did  they  come  from  abroad  as 
immigrants  1  Were  they  a  mixed  population,  and  if  so,  can  we  dis- 
tinguish the  various  elements  which  formed  the  Egyptian  nation! 
These  questions  have  lately  occupied  most  intensely  the  attention  of 
Kgyptolo^sts.  The  excavations  made  during  the  last  twenty  years 
enable  us  to  give  an  answer  very  different  from  the  point  of  view 
advocated  by  such  masters  as  Lepsius  or  E.  de  Roug^.* 

For  these  two  pioneers  in  the  field  of  Egyptian  learning  the  Asi- 
atic origin  of  the  Egyptians  seemed  a  certainty,  especially  for  Lep- 
sius, who  had  been  very  much  struck  by  the  fact  that  the  oldest 
monuments  known  in  his  time  were  the  pyramids  and  the  tombs 
around  them,  while  in  Ethiopia,  as  far  as  the  province  of  Fazoql,  he 
found  nothing  but  very  lat«  monuments.  The  conclusion  he  drew 
from  what  he  saw  was  that  the  Egyptians  had  come  through  the 
Isthmus  of  Suez,  and  that  after  having  settled  first  at  Memphis  they 
had  extended  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  the  civilization  going  up  the 
river  towards  the  south. 

This  idea  seemed  justified  at  a  time  when  nothing  was  known 
of  the  beginning  of  civilization,  which  appeared  from  the  first  as 
complete  with  all  its  special  characters.  As  no  trace  had  yet  been 
discovered  of  its  first  steps,  of  a  lower  and  primitive  stage  out  of 
which  the  Egyptian  culture  might  have  emerged,  it  was  natural  to 
suppose  that  we  had  before  us  an  importation  from  abroad,  and  that, 
if  not  the  whole,  at  least  the  principal  features  of  the  civilization 
were  a  product  of  Asia,  whence  they  had  been  brought  by  the  first 
settlers  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile. 

One  of  the  first  to  dispute  the  Asiatic  origin  of  the  Egyptians  was 
M.  Maspero,  who  in  his  History  of  Egypt  (1895)  stat«s  that  "the 

'R^rlnted  from  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Xntbropologlcal  Inatittite,  ToL 
XXXVII,  1907,  by  permlBHlon  of  tbe  council. 

^JBh  de  Rough's  Idea  has  been  expounded  by  hla  bod,  J.  de  Roug6  (Orlglne  de 
)a  Race  Egyptlenne,  Paris,  1895),  "The  starting  point  of  tbe  Egyptian  peoples  Is 
to  be  looked  for  in  Asia,  where  they  lived  la  the  nelgbborhood  of  the  anceston 
of  the  Chaldeans."  ,-.  . 


550  ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTmJTION,  1907. 

hypothesis  of  an  Asiatic  origin,  however  attractive  it  may  seem,  is 
somewhat  difficult  to  maintain.  The  bulk  of  the  Egyptian  popula- 
tion presents  the  characteristics  of  those  white  races  which  have  been 
found  established  from  all  antiquity,  on  the  Mediterranean  slope  of 
the  Libyan  continent."" 

Since  M.  Maspero  wrote  these  lines,  the  excavations  of  MM.  Petrie, 
Morgan,  Am^lineau,  followed  by  several  other  explorers,  hare  re- 
vealed to  us  the  primitive  state  of  the  Egyptians — a  degree  of  cul- 
ture which  had  not  gone  beyond  the  stone  age.  The  tombs  discov- 
ered in  various  places  have  preserved  not  only  the  bodies  of  their 
primitive  inhabitants,  but  also  their  implements,  their  tools,  what  I 
consider  to  be  their  idols,  and  pottery,  the  painted  decoration  of 
which  shows  their  mode  of  life  and  their  occupations. 

These  tombs  caused  great  astonishment  to  the  explorers  who  fir^ 
opened  them.  The  idea  of  an  Egyptian  burial  was,  till  then,  so  inti- 
mately connected  with  mummification  that  it  seemed  strange  to  un- 
earth small  tombs  of  oval  or  rectangular  form,  in  which  the  body  lies 
without  any  trace  of  mummification.  The  skeleton  is  folded,  the 
knees  being  against  the  chest,  and  the  hands  holding  the  knees  or 
being  at  the  height  of  the  mouth.  This  has  been  called  the  embryonic 
position.  It  is  not  the  only  form  of  burial.  Sometimes  the  body  has 
been  broken  in  pieces  immediately  after  death ;  in  other  cases  there 
is  what  is  called  a  secondary  burial.  After  the  flesh  had  been  de- 
stroyed, the  bones  have  been  gathered;  occasionally  an  attempt  has 
been  made  to  give  them  the  embryonic  posture,  or  they  have  been 
jumbled  together  in  the  tomb ;  bones  belonging  to  various  bodies  have 
been  mixed,  so  that  Mr.  Fetrie  believed  at  first  that  those  burlak 
showed  us  the  remains  of  feasts  of  cannibals.  With  the  body  pot- 
tery of  different  colors  is  found  in  the  tombs,  and  also  vases  of  hard 
stones,  remarkably  well  made  and  finished,  a  few  rude  human  figures, 
some  of  them  characterized  by  the  steatopyga  which  exists  in  .other 
countries,  and  with  distinct  traces  of  tattooing,  tools  of  ivory,  flint 
instruments,  of  exquisite  workmanship,  and  a  great  number  of  slate 
palettes.  Sometimes  the  latter  have  the  forms  of  animals,  chiefly 
birds  and  fishes;  others  are  mere  lozenges.  The  purpose  of  these 
slates  has  not  yet  been  clearly  recognized.  I  am  inclined  to  think 
that  they  are  the  images  of  food  offerings,  when  they  are  in  the 
hand  of  the  deceased,  who  holds  them  up  to  his  mouth,  or  they  may 
be  amulets  or  images  of  divinities. 

That  is  a  short  description  of  what  are  called  t^e  prehistoric  or 
predynastic  tombs  of  the  old  Egyptians.*    They  were  first  discovered 

"Dawn  of  ClvUmtlon,  p.  45. 

'Capart.  "Lea  rites  fiiDfiralres  des  EETptfens  prtblBtorlquee,"  Annates  de  la 
Bociete  Sclenttflque  de  Bruxelles,  t.  XXIV. 


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ORIGIN    OF   EGYPTIAN    CIVILIZATION— NAVILLE.  551 

in  middle  Egypt;  but,  lately,  so-called  prehistoric  cemeteries  have 
been  found  nearly  everywhere  above  the  Delta,  so  that  we  have  here 
a  positive  proof  of  the  existence  of  a  people  which  had  not  yet  adopted 
Egyptian  customs,  but  which  occupied  the  whole  of  the  valley, 
Therefore  I  can  not  consider  the  name  "  prehistoric  "  as  being  cor- 
rect. No  doubt  the  state  of  civilization  revealed  by  these  tombs  is 
that  which  preceded  Menes,  the  first  historical  king,  but  I  can  not 
admit  that  it  should  have  ceased  when  the  foreign  invaders  conquered 
the  native  race  and  settled  in  the  valley.  Certainly  a  vase  in  red  pot- 
tery, with  black  rim,  of  the  kind  which  is  most  commonly  found  in 
those  tombs,  may  be  prehistoric,  but  we  have  also  definite  proofs  of 
that  style  of  pottery  having  lasted  at  least  till  the  twelfth  dynasty 
in  historic  times.  Evidently  the  native  stock  was  very  numerous; 
^it  was  the  bulk  of  the  population,  and  its  customs  changed  only  by 
.degrees.  Let  us  consider  what  takes  place  at  the  present  day.  In 
the  cities  like  Cairo  or  Alexandria  we  find  all  the  refinements  of 
civilization.  At  a  few  hours'  distance,  if  we  enter  the  tent  of  a 
Bedouin  of  the  Delta,  except  for^sn  old  matchlock,  what  we  shall  see 
is  much  more  similar  to  a  prehistoric  dwelling  than  to  a  product  of 
the  twentieth  century. 

Therefore  I  entirely  disagree  with  the  chronological  classification  y 
which  has  been  attempted  of  the  so-called  prehistoric  pottery.  I  be- 
lieve the  true  classification  should  be  geographical.  We  have  to 
notice  the  peculiar  taste  and  style  of  each  locality.  Egypt  is  a  very 
conservative  country ;  besides,  the  fact  of  its  not  being  concentrated 
around  a  city,  but  being  a  line  which  extends  along  the  river,  makes 
it  much  more  difficult  for  an  influence  originating  from  the  capital 
to  be  felt  at  the  end  of  the  country.  Even  at  the  present  day  tastes 
and  fashions  differ  in  the  various  localities.  The  pottery,  for  in- 
stance, is  not  the  same  at  Sioot  as  it  is  at  Keneh  of  Edfoo.  It  seems 
evident  that  it  was  the  same  in  antiquity;  besides,  there  might  be 
differences  in  the  degree  of  development  One  locality,  under  favor- 
able circumstances,  may  have  made  a  certain  progress,  while  another, 
more  remote,  without  intercourse  with  its  neighbors,  may  have  pre- 
served longer  the  rude  and  coarse  style  of  old  times.  That  does  not 
mean  that  the  rude  and  the  more  perfect  vase  could  not  be  contem- 
pm^neous. 

I  should  therefore  propose  that  this  name  "  prehistoric  "  should  be 
dropped,  and  should  be  replaced  by  that  of  native,  or  rather  African, 
civilization,  for  this  is  the  result  of  the  latest  excavations.  As  far 
back  as  we  can  go  we  find  in  Egypt  a  native  race,  with  customs  and 
culture  distinct  from  that  of  the  later  Egyptians,  a  culture  which  we 
must  call  indigenous,  since  we  have  no  clue  whatever  to  indicate  that 
it  came  from  abroad.    This  race  does  not  seem  to  have  progressed 


41780—08 3S 


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652  ANNUAL  BEPORT  BMITHSONUN  INSTITtmOH',  Uffl. 

further  from  the  stone  age,  but  to  have  attained  a  remarkable  skill 
in  working  hard  stones,  ivory,  and  wood,  not  to  speak  of  flint  imple- 
ments, of  which  they  have  left  us  magnificent  specimens.  This 
culture  lasted  late  in  historical  times,  and  may  have  ceased  at  very 
different  epochs  in  the  various  places  where  it  existed. 

I  call  this  culture  African.  One  of  the  distinct  Airican  features 
is  the  mode  of  burial  which  I  mentioned  before,  the  so-called  em- 
bryonic posture.  Herodotus,  speaking  of  the  African  nation  called 
the  Nasamonians,  says  that  "  they  bury  their  dead  sitting,  and  are 
rig^t  careful,  when  the  sick  man  is  at  the  point  of  giving  up  the  ^oet, 
to  make  him  sit  and  not  let  him  die  lying  down." 

Now,  when  Herodotus  speaks  of  a  man  sitting,  we  must  not  fancy 
him  resting  on  a  chair.  Seats  do  not  belong  to  the  furniture  of  a 
desert  dwelling.  He  sits  on  his  heels,  and,  in  that  posture,  his  chest 
leans  against  the  knees,  and  his  hands  are  at  the  height  of  his  mouth. 
Hundreds  of  old  Egyptian  statues  represent  men  in  that  position. 
Supposing  that  a  man  has  died  sitting  and  has  fallen  on  his  side; 
he  has  exactly  the  so-called  embryonic  position,  which  finds  its  expla- 
nation in  that  African  custom.  If  afterwards  vases  with  food  and 
drink  and  some  of  his  tools  are  put  around  him  in  his  grave,  his 
tomb  will  be  the  abridged  image  of  the  hut  in  which  he  sat  in  hb 
lifetime;  it  will  be  his  "  eternal  bouse,"  as  the  Memphite  Egyptians 
called  the  tomb. 

As  for  secondary  burials,  I  believe  the  explanation  is  to  be  found 
in  a  custom  stUl  prevailing  among  some  South  American  Indians, 
and  of  which,  I  am  told,  some  examples  have  been  found  in  old 
burials  in  Switzerland."  If  a  man  dies  at  a  great  distance  from  the 
cemetery  which  is  to  be  his  grave,  he  is  interred  provisionally ;  some- 
time afterwards  his  bones  are  gathered  and  carried  in  a  skin  bag 
to  the  place  where  he  is  to  be  finally  buried.  This  would  explain  the 
disorder  which  is  sometimes  noticeable  in  the  bones  of  a  tomb,  and  the 
fact  that  the  bones  of  several  skeletons  have  been  mixed  together. 
These  skeletons  have  been  brought  from  another  place,  after  the 
flesh  has  been  destroyed,  and  careles.sly  put  into  their  grave. 

These  tombs  give  us  interesting  information  as  to  the  mode  of  life 
of  the  primitive  Egyptian.  We  gather  it  chiefly  from  yellow  vases, 
hand-made,  and  decorated  with  subjects  in  red  painting.  These 
drawings,  being  very  rude,  have  received  different  interpretations. 
It  seems  to  me  evident  that  what  they  usually  show  us  are  not  boats, 
but  representations  of  dwellings.  These  dwellings  were  huts,  placed 
on  mounds,  and  probably  made  of  wickerwork.  They  were  surround- 
ed by  inclosures  made  of  poles,  something  like  what  is  called  now  a 
"zeriba,"  sheltering  the  inhabitants  against  wild  beasts.    There  are 

"lam  Indebted  for  tbat  informatloa  to  tbe  Undiiess  trf  my  cotmttTinail,  Ur. 
A.  de  Molln.  Oo(1>jlc 


ORIGIN   OF  EGYPTIAN   CIVILIZATION — NAVILLE.  553 

generally  two  huts  with  a  kind  of  slope  between  them,  which  is  the 
entrance.  At  the  side  of  one  is  a  standard  pole,  bearing  either  the 
symbol  or  the  god  of  the  village. 

In  these  inclosures  we  see  men  whose  life  is  that  of  hunters.  They 
are  armed  with  bows  and  spears;  the  animals  are  those  of  the  desert 
— large  birds,  chiefly  ostriches,  gazelles,  and  antelopes,  of  which  the 
rich  Memphite  Egyptians  liked  to  have  large  flocks.  Trees  appear 
here  and  there,  but  the  inhabitants  of  these  villages  do  not  seem  to 
have  practiced  agriculture;  we  do  not  see  cattle,  neither  oxen  nor 
sheep  nor  asses,  none  of  the  domestic  animals.  Sometimes  men  are 
shown  struggling  against  wild  beasts,  and  women  holding  their  hands 
over  their  heads,  as  if  they  were  carrying  a  jar  or  a  basket.  Boats 
with  sails  will  occasionally  appear,  therefore  they  knew  how  to  navi- 
gate. The  great  number  of  slates  in  form  of  fishes  are  certainly  a 
proof  that  they  practiced  fishing  as  well  as  hunting. 

These  people,  who  in  some  respects  seem  to  have  reached  only  a 
very  rudimentary  degree  of  civilization,  knew  how  to  make  fine  vases 
of  very  hard  sfone.  Their  flint  instruments  are  among  the  finest 
known,  but  their  sculpture  is  rude,  not  in  animals,  but  in  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  human  figure.  The  characteristic  feature  of  this 
race  is  that  they  were  hunters  and  not  agriculturists. 

As  to  their  physical  type;  the  views  between  the  numerous  experts 
who  have  studied  Egyptian  skulls  are  decidedly  conflicting.  How- 
ever, they  are  unanimous  on  one  point  They  all  agree  that  the  pre- 
(  historic  Egyptians  were  not  negroes,  that  they  had  long  hair,  gener- 
ally black,  but  sometimes  fair,  and  that  prognathism  hardly  appeared. 
Some  of  the  authors  admit  a  negroid  influence,  and  have  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  there  were  two  races,  a  negroid  and  a  nonnegroid. 
This  view  is  strongly  attacked  by  others.  If  we  look  at  the  painting 
of  a  prehistoric  grave  found  at  Hieraconpolis,  we  find  the  men  of  a 
brown  or  reddish  color,  very  like  that  of  the  Egyptians  of  later 
times. 

As  to  the  connection  of  the  prehistoric  Egyptians  with  the  other 
races  of  North  Africa,  especially  the  Libyans  and  the  Berbers,  un- 
questionable evidence  has  been  sought  in  craniology,  or  anthropome- 
try. I  can  not  help  quoting  the  two  following  statements  which  are 
given  as  equally  decisive,  and  which  are  derived  from  the  same  kind 
of  arguments.  Let  us  first  hear  Doctor  Maclver :  "  What  has  anthro- 
pometry to  say  on  the  question  whether  the  prehistoric  Egyptians 
were  or  were  not  Libyans?  The  answer  is  most  definite  and  explicit. 
The  prehistoric  Egyptians  were  a  mixed  race,  the  component  ele- 
ments of  which  it  is  difficult  to  analyze  with  exactness,  but  this  mixed 
race  as  a  whole  was  not  Berber.  •  *  *  "  And  further,  "  it  is 
impossible   any   longer  to   maintain   the  view   that  the  prehistoric 

L.,,,_,  ikGoo^^lc 


554  ANNUAL  HEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

Egyptians  were  Libyans."  "  If  we  turn  to  Professor  Sergi,  professor 
of  anthropology  at  Borne,  we  find  that  he  finishes  his  chapter  on  the 
physical  character  of  the  Libyans  by  the  following  words:*  "The 
Egyptians  were  a  racial  branch  from  the  same  stock  which  gave 
origin  to  the  Libyans  specially  so  called,  one  of  the  four  peoples  of 
the  Mediterranean."  It  is  well  known  that  Professor  Serge's  state- 
ments rest  mainly  on  the  study  of  skulls  considered  in  a  point  of  viev 
different  from  that  of  other  anthropologists. 

These  two  quite  contradictory  statements  are  the  best  proof  that 
we  can  trust  craniology  in  the  main  lines,  in  its  broad  distinctions, 
while  it  is  no  safe  guide  in  the  minor  differences  which  constitute  the 
ethnological  characters,  Virchow  himself,  the  illustrious  anthro- 
pologist, has  declared  that  from  the  sight  of  a  sliull  it  is  impossible 
•to  trace  with  certainty  the  ethnic  position  which  it  occupies. 

Thus  we  find  at  the  origin  of  the  Egyptian  civilization  a  people 
with  the  Caucasian  type,  with  long  hair,  occupying  the  valley  of  the 
Nile,  as  far  as  Assuan  and  farther  south.  Even  now  various  authors 
suppose  that  the  valley  was  peopled  &om  Asia,  and  that  these  pre- 
historic inhabitants  came  from  the  east.  We  see  absolutely  no  rea- 
son to  dispute  their  native  character.  We  can  not  touch  here  the 
vexed  question  of  how  the  different  nations  were  bom,  and  how,  leav- 
ing their  cradle,  they  dispersed  in  the  various  parts  of  the  world.  We 
must  take  them  when  they  first  appear  as  nations.  At  the  first  sight 
which  we  have  of  the  Egyptians,  they  show  themselves  to  us  as  Afri- 
cans, having  some  connection  with  the  neighboring  natives  of  the 
west,  Libyans  and  Berbers,  as  they  are  called  now,  Tehennu  and  Tam- 
ahu  as  they  are  styled  in  the  Egyptian  inscriptions. 

Certainly  their  civilization,  such  as  it  appears  in  the  prehistoric 
tombs,  is  no  foreign  import.  It  is  so  completely  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  soil  and  by  the  animals  and  plants  which  occupied  the 
land  that  we  are  compelled  to  affirm  that  it  is  of  African  growth. 

It  seems  nearly  certain  that  in  that  remote  epoch  the  white  races 
of  the  north  extended  farther  south  than  they  did  later,  and  that 
they  were  driven  northwards  by  the  negroes.  If  we  consult  an  in- 
scription of  the  fifth  dynasty  of  the  old  empire,  found  in  the  tomb 
of  an  officer  called  Herkhflf  at  Assuan,  we  read  that  he  went  to  a 
country  called  Amam,  which  could  not  be  farther  north  than  Khar- 
tfim  or  the  Soudan,  The  people  of  Amam  wished  to  drive  the  Tam- 
ahu  toward  "  the  western  comer  of  the  sky,"  He  himself  went 
through  Amam,  reached  the  Tamahu,  and  pacified  them,  so  that  at 
that  time  the  Tamahu  must  have  occupied  countries  now  called  Kor- 
dofan  or  Darfur,  or  perhaps  Borku.  Later  on,  in  the  struggles  which 
the  Libyans  waged  against  the  Egyptians,  we  find  them  inhabiting 


"D.  Raodall-Maclver  and  A.  Wilkin.  Libyan  Notee,  ^P^103,  lOT. 
'  G,  Sergl,  The  Mediterranean  Race,  p.  83.  , 


3,107. 


OBIGIN  OF  EOrPTIAN   CIVILIZATION SAVILLE.  555 

the  desert  on  the  west  of  the  Delta.  Evidently  the  negro  races  must 
liave  invaded  the  territory  which  the  Tamahu  originally  occupied, 
and  compelled  them  to  settle  near  the  coast,  where  we  find  them 
under  the  Pharaohs  of  the  twentieth  dynasty. 

With  the  Tamahu  are  often  mentioned  the  Tehennu,  a  name  which 
means  "  the  yellow  ones."  I  consider  them  as  being  one  of  the  Afri- 
can nations  of  a  color  lighter  than  that  of  the  Egyptians,  a  difference 
-which  is  so  easily  noticeable  in  Cairo  in  going  to  the  Tunis  bazaar. 

I  believe  the  name  of  the  prehistoric  Egyptians  has  been  pre- 
served. They  are  called  the  Anu.  The  sign  An,  with  which  their 
name  is  written,  means  a  pillar,  a  column  of  stone  or  wood,  or,  even 
as  Brugsch  translates,  a  heap  of  stones.  According  to  Brugsch  also, 
their  name  Anu,  or,  in  the  latter  inscriptions  Anii,  means  the  Troglo- 
dytes or  the  Trogodytes,  the  inhabitants  of  caverns,  and  in  Ptolemaic 
times  this  name  applied  to  the  Kushite  nations  occupying  the  land 
between  the  Nile  and  the  Ked  Sea. 

But  we  find  them  much  earlier;  they  often  occur  at  Anu  Ta  Khent, 
the  Ann  of  Lower  Nubia  and  of  Khent  Hunnefer,  the  southern  part 
of  Nubia.  An  inscription  in  the  Temple  of  Deir  el  Bahari  speaks  of 
the  Anu  of  Khent,  Lower  Nubia,  of  Khent  Hunnefer,  Upper  Nubia, 
and  of  Setet,  which,  in  the  texts  of  the  Pyramids  is  clearly  the  land 
of  the  goddesses  Sati  and  Anqet,  the  land  and  islands  of  the  cata- 
racts." The  Anu  are  found  much  farther  north.  In  the  inscriptions 
of  Sinai  we  see  the  King  Khufu  striking  the  Anu,  the  inhabitants 
of  the  mountains  who  are  evidently  the  population  he  conquered  when 
he  invaded  the  peninsula. 

An  is  the  name  of  Heliopolis,  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  Egypt,  and 
the  religions  capital  of  the  country.  The  same  name,  with  a  feminine 
termination,  is  Anit,  which  means  Tentrya  (Dendereh),  but  also 
Latopolis  (Esneh)  and  Hermonthis  (Erment).  The  land  of  Egypt 
is  often  called  the  two  lands  of  An,  so  that  we  can  trace  the  name 
of  An,  not  only  among  the  neighboring  nations  of  Egypt,  but  in 
the  country  itself,  from  an  early  antiquity.  Evidently  this  name — 
the  two  lands  of  An — for  Egypt,  is  a  remainder  of  the  old  native 
stock  before  the  conquest. 

Anti,  a  word  with  an  adjective  form,  means  a  bow.  The  sense  of 
the  word  seems  to  be  "  that  of  the  Anu,  the  weapon  of  the  Ann." 
We  can  recognize  the  Anu  in  those  archers  who  are  represented  sev- 
eral times  on  the  slate  palettes,  which,  although  later  than  the  con- 
quest, are  among  the  oldest  monuments  of  Egypt.  The  Anu  use  ar- 
rows with  triangular  flint  points.  More  often  we  see  them  as  un- 
armed men  with  pointed  beards,  trodden  down  by  the  king,  who  has 
taken  the  form  of  the  divine  bull  Bat,  or  torn  to  pieces  by  a  lion. 

>W.  Max  MUller,  Aslen  und  Europa,  p.  20. 

,d  by  Google 


556  ANNUAL  EEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INeTlTCTION,  IWl. 

An  ivory  blade  found  by  Mr.  Petrie  shows  a  bearded  prisoner  stand 
ing,  over  whom  is  written  Setet,  the  land  of  the  cataracts,  which,  as 
we  have  seen  it,  is  one  of  the  countries  inhabited  by  the  Ann. 

Several  Egyptologists  have  admitted  that  the  Anu  were  foreign 
invaders  who  had  been  repelled  by  the  Egyptians,  On  the  contraiy, 
I  conclude,  from  what  has  been  discovered  lately,  that  thej  were  the 
native  stock  occupying  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  and  that  they  had  been 
conquered  by  invaders,  who  very  soon  amalgamated  so  completely 
with  their  subjects  that  they  formed  one  single  people. 

The  aboriginal  stock,  as  we  saw,  had  carried  the  civilizatJon  to 
a  certain  point.  But  it  is  clear  that  before  the  historical  times,  at  aa 
epoch  which  we  can  not  fix,_  a  foreign  element  entered  the  valley  of 
the  Nile,  subdued  the  Anu,  taught  them  a  culture  which  was  unknown 
before,  and  created  the*  Egyptian  Empire. 

y-With  this  invasion  appears  the  hieroglyphical  writing,  which  seons 
to  have  been  unknown  to  the  native  stock.  This  writing  has  sudi 
an  absolutely  Egyptian  character  that  it  must  have  originated,  or 
rather  developed,  in  the  country  itself.  We  do  not  know  any  written 
monument  which  we  may  trace  to  the  African  dwellers  of  the  coun- 
try. On  the  slates  and  cylinders  which  are  later  than  the  conquest, 
and  which  are  the  oldest  written  remains  which  have  been  preserved, 
we  find  signs  with  an  archaic  character,  but  which  lasted  through 
the  whole  time  when  hieroglyphical  writing  existed. 

Let  us  first  consider  how  the  conquerors  designated  their  kings.  It 
was  done  in  a  peculiar  manner,  in  a  shape  which  is  always  the  same. 
At  the  top  of  the  group  is  a  bird,  usually  said  to  be  a  hawk,  but  which 
M.  Ix>ret  has  recognized  to  be  the  peregrine  falcon.  The  bird  stands 
on  an  oblong  rectangle,  often  called  a  banner,  at  the  lower  part  of 
which  is  a  drawing  showing  the  facade  of  a  funeral  chapel,  the  door- 
way giving  access  to  the  ka,  viz,  the  double  of  the  deceased.  Above 
the  drawing  and  below  the  bird  are  a  few  signs  which,  whenever  we 
understand  them,  give  us  an  epithet,  a  qualification  of  the  king. 
Therefore,  it  is  not  his  name,  it  is  his  first  title,  -the  first  part  of  the 
complicated  protocol,  which  will  develop  into  a  sentence,  and  which 
forms  the  royal  name  of  the  Pharaohs. 

Thus,  every  king  is  a  hawk,  or,  as  we  said,  a  falcon,  the  bird  which 
is  the  symbol  of  the  god  Horus,  and  by  which  his  name  was  written 
throughout  the  Egyptian  histoi-y  from  its  earliest  beginnings  to  the 
time  of  the  Romans.  The  king  is  the  god  Horus.  This  name  leads  us 
to  Arabia,  where  the  falcon  is  called  horr."  This  is  the  country  where 
we  have  to  look  for  the  .starting  point  of  the  race  which  conquered 
Egypt,  If  we  consult  the  Egyptian  inscriptions,  we  shall  find  that, 
on  both  sides  of  the  Red  Sea,  in  Arabia  as  well  as  in  Africa,  there 
"  I»ret,  Horua-le-Faucon,  p.  20. 

D,a,i,z.:ibyGoogle 


OBIGIK  OF  EGYPTIAN   CIVILIZATION — NAVILLE.  557 

'was  a  region  which  has  had  various  names.  One  of  them  is  Kttsk, 
wrongly  translated  Ethiopia;  another  is  Punt,  very  frequent  in 
Egyptian  texts,  where  it  is  synonymous  with  Tanuter,  the  divine  land. 
It  seems  that  the  region  originally  called  by  that  name  was  southern 
Arabia,  whence  the  populations  emigrated,  which  settled  on  the  Afri- 
can coast.  We  do  not  know  exactly  the  appearance  of  the  race  in  that 
remote  time,  but  the  sculptures  of  the  Temple  of  Queen  Hatshepsu 
at  Deir-el-Bahari  show  us  what  was  the  appearance  of  the  people  at 
Punt.  At  that  time  the  population  of  the  country  was  mixed ;  it  con- 
tained negroes  of  different  kinds,  brown  and  black,  but  the  real 
Puntites,  or  Punites,  as  I  think  their  name  must  be  read,  are  very 
like  the  Egyptians.  They  belong  also  to  the  Caucasian  type,  with 
long  hair  and  pointed  beards.  Their  color  is  a  little  more  purple- 
hued  than  than  of  the  Egyptians- 
Here  a  very  important  question  arises.  Did  the  Punites,  the  inhab- 
itants of  southern  Arabia,  belong  to  the  Semitic  stock?  Looking  at 
the  information  which  we  have  derived  lately  from  Arabia  and  from 
Babylonia,  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  they  were  not  Semites. 
They  were  Hamifes,  like  the  Egyptians  themselves  and  some  of  the 
north  African  populations,  and  like  some  of  the  inhabitants  of  Chal- 
deea,  whose  origin  is  also  attributed  by  a  few  scholars  to  Arabia,  so 
that  they  should  have  the  same  starting  point.  Ko  doubt  I  shall  hear 
the  objection  that  Egyptian  is  a  Semitic  language.  My  answer  is 
that  the  better  we  know  the  Egyptian  language  the  more  fully  we 
grasp  the  conceptions  of  the  Egyptian  mind,  the  more  it  seems  evi- 
dent that  Egyptian  is  an  ante-Semitic  or  pre-Semitic  language.  In 
certain  points  it  has  kept  the  character  of  infancy.  Semitic  languages 
are  in  a  more  advanced  linguistic  stage ;  they  have  outgrown  by  far 
the  degree  of  development  which  Egyptian  has  reached.  To  my 
mind  we  have  to  reverse  the  method  which  is  generally  followed.  We 
are  not  to  look  for  the  origin  of  Egyptian  in  the  Semitic  languages, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  to  see  that  what  the  Semitic  languages  have 
borrowed  from  the  old  Egyptian  speech  and  writing. 

The  Arabian  origin  of  the  Egyptians  is  mentioned  by  the  Nu- 
midian  King  and  writer,  Juba,"  quoted  by  Pliny.  After  having 
given  the  names  of  the  various  tribes  of  the  Troglodytsa,  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  African  coast,  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea,  the 
writer  says:  "As  for  the  neighbors  of  the  Nile  from  Syene  to  Meroe, 
they  are  not  Ethiopian  nations,  but  Arabs.  Even  the  city  of  the 
Sun,  not  far  distant  from  Memphis,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
the  Arabs."  Thus  for  Juba  the  Egyptians  are  Arabs.  When  he 
says  that  they  are  not  Ethiopians,  we  must  consider  this  word  as 
meaning  negroes. 

"Muller,  Fragm.  Hist.  Grace,  III,  p.  477. 

i.dbyGoOgle 


558  ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

The  Arabian  origin  of  tlie  Egyptian  population  is  adopted  bf 
several  scholars,  but  opinions  differ  as  to  the  way  they  followed  la 
their  invasion.  I  said  before  that  the  opinion  of  Lepsius,  who  sap- 
posed  them  to  have  come  through  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  is  now  aban- 
doned. Professor  Petrie  thinks  that  they  came  'through  the  harbor 
of  Kosseir,  and  that,  after  having  followed  the  valley  of  Hamamat, 
tliey  reached  the  region  where  is  now  the  city  of  Keneh,  and  where 
was  the  old  Egyptian  city  of  Coptos,  But  if  we  study  the  traditions 
of  the  Egyptians,  which  are  to  a  certain  degree  confirmed  by  the 
Greek  writers,  we  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  conquerors  must 
have  crossed  the  Red  Sea  farther  south  than  Kosseir,  perhaps  in  the 
region  where  is  now  Massowah,  and  that  they  stopped  some  time  in 
the  valley  of  the  Nile,  in  the  Sudan,  before  they  came  down  and  set- 
tled betow  the  cataracts. 

This  has  been  translated  by  Diodorus  in  this  way:  The  Greek 
writer  says,  "  That  the  Ethiopians  assert  that  Egypt  is  one  of  their 
colonies;  there  are  striking  likenesses  between  the  laws  and  the  cus- 
toms of  both  lands;  the  kings  wear  the  same  dress  and  the  ursus 
adorns  their  diadem."  In  this  case  we  must  give  the  name  of  Ethio- 
pians another  sense  than  in  the  quotation  from  Juba.  It  does  not 
mean  negroes,  but  the  African  population  called  the'  Anu  of  Nubia. 

If  we  consult  Egyptian  inscriptions,  we  find  that,  without  any 
exception,  the  south  always  comes  first.  The  north  is  never  spoken 
of  as  an  ancient  resort  from  which  the  population  should  have  issued. 
The  south  has  always  the  preeminence  over  the  north.  The  kings 
of  the  south  are  mentioned  before  those  of  the  north;  the  usual 
name  for  king  properly  means  "  King  of  the  South."  In  his 
orientation,  when  he  fixes  bis  cardinal  points,  the  Egyptian  turns 
toward  the  south,  so  that  the  west  is  with  him  the  right  side.  That 
does  not  mean  that  he  is  marching  toward  the  south.  In  the  myth- 
ological inscriptions  we  read  that  Horus  first  resided  in  the  south, 
and  coming  down  the  river,  conquered  the  country  as  far  as  the  sea. 
The  Egyptian  looks  toward  the  direction  whence  his  god  originally 
came.  This  direction  is  at  tlie  same  time  that  of  the  Nile,  of  another 
form  of  the  god  who  gives  him  life,  and  ijllows  him  to  exist.  The 
mythological  narrative  of  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  the  god  Horus 
^  is  of  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies.  The  eneniies  of  the  god  take  the 
forms  of  animals,  and  are  led  by  Set.  Horus  conquers  the  land  for 
his  father,  Harmachis,  who  is  the  king.  "  In  tlie  year  363,"  says  the 
text,  "  His  Majesty  was  in  Nubia,  and  his  numberless  soldiers  with 
him."  Horus  is  the  general  who  leads  the  soldiers,  while  his  father 
remains  in  his  boat.  Battles  are  fought  in  various  places  along  the 
river ;  all  of  the  episodes  of  the  struggle  are  recorded  by  the  names 
given  to  localities,  to  temples  or  to  religious  objects  such  as  sacr«d 
boats.     The  last  encounter  takes  place  on  the  northern  boundai^  of 


OBIGIN   OF  EGYPTIAN   CIVILIZATION^NAVILLE.  559 

Egypt,  on  the  Pelusiac  branch  of  tlie  Nile,  at  tlie  fortress  of  Zar,  now 
^Cantarah.  This  narrative  seems  certainly  a  late  remembrance  of  an 
establishment  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  of  a  warlike  race  coming  from 
the  south. 

-  In  the  monuments  of  the  first  dynasties  which  have  been  discovered 
at  Abydos  and  elsewliere  there  is  a  record  of  the  conquest  and  of  the 
subjection  of  the  native  stock.  It  is  a  festival  called  the  festival  of 
Striking  the  Ann. 

The  oldest  representation  of  it  is  on  the  large  slate  found  by  Mr. 
Quibell  at  Hieraconpolis,  The  king,  preceded  by  the  queen  and  by 
four  standard  bearers,  is  shown  entering  a  hall  where  his  enemies  are 
seen  lying  down  with  their  heads  cut  off  and  put  between  their  feet. 
The  proofs  that  the  enemies  of  the  king  are  the  Anu  is  the  ivory  blade, 
■which  we  quoted  before,  on  which  a  prisoner  is  seen  coming  from  the 
country  of  the  cataracts,  which  we  know  was  inhabited  by  the  Anu ; 
also  a  tablet  found  by  Mr.  Petrie  "  on  which  we  read  that "  the  heads 
or  the  chiefs  of  the  Anu  are  brought  to  the  great  hall."(?)  And 
lastly,  another  tablet  on  which  the  signs  are  more  doubtful,  but  which 
speaks  perhaps  of  the  defeat  of  the  Nubians.' 

On  the  other  side  of  the  slate  palette  we  see  the  same  king  holding 
bis  enemy  by  a  tuft  of  hair  and  striking  him  with  his  mace.  This 
scene  is  also  engraved  on  a  small  ivory  tablet  belonging  to  King  Den, 
and  on  ivory  cylinders,  where  the  king  striking  his  enemies  is  repeated 
many  times.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  ssculpture  of  King 
Khufu  at  Sinai,  where  he  is  seen  striking  in  tlie  same  way  the  Anu  of 
Sinai.  It  seems  to  have  been  the  typical  and  conventional  way  of  rep- 
resenting the  victory  of  the  invader  dver  the  native  inhabitants,  and 
it  occurs  several  times  in  the  old  empire.  Later  on  it  changed.  In.i 
stead  of  one  single  enemy  we  see  a  great  number  of  various  races.  The 
king  holds  them  bound  together  by  their  hair  and  fells  them  at  a 
blow.  This,  in  my  opinion,  does  not  record  victories  which  the  king 
himself  has  achieved ;  it  is  a  conventional  and  symbolical  way  of  in- 
dicating that  he  belongs  to  the  predominant  race,  that  he  can  trace 
his  descent  to  the  conquerors  of  the  Anu.  The  cluster  of  enemies  held 
together  is  only  a  modification  of  the  original  scene,  which  may  be 
invested  with  a  ceremony  at  the  coronation. 

The  festival  of  the  Striking  of  the  Anu  is  mentioned  in  the  Palermo 
stone,  a  document  of  the  old  empire,  showing  that  the  tradition  per- 
sisted. Even  as  late  as  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  this  festival  was  cele- 
brated by  Thothmes  III." 

The  monuments  of  the  first  dynasties  found  at  Abydos  and  Hiera- 
conpolis give  us  an  idea  of  the  civilization  of  the  foreign  invaders. 

"Royal  Tombs,  I,  pp.  16,  20. 

"  Ibid..  11.  p.  32. 

"Leps-,  Denkm..  Ill,  p.  55.  n       jh  GoO*jlc 


660  ANNUAL   REPORT   SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION,   ISOI, 

As  Hooii  an  tiiey  api)eur  we  see  domestic  animals,  the  bull,  tbe  ajis,  the 
sheep,  which  arc  not  found  on  the  pictures  of  the  prehistoric  vases. 
The  careful  researches  made  by  Doctor  Lortet  on  the  mummies  of 
Egyptian  bulls  have  led  him  to  the  conclusion  that  the  long-horned 
bull,  which  is  the  oldest  breed  found  on  the  monuments,  is  &  native 
race  and  has  not  been  imported  from  Asia.  Doctor  Lortet  says  the 
1  same  of  the  ass  and  of  the  sheep.  Thus  the  foreign  invaders  domesti- 
cated the  animals  which  they  found  in  tbe  country.  The  fact  of  their 
having  practiced  domestication  implies  that  in  that  people  there  was 

ra  propensity  toward  civilization  and  progress,  which  did  not  exist  in 
the  natives.  Probably  also  they  were  agriculturists.  When  they  set- 
tled below  the  cataracts  they  took  with  them  the  papyrus,  which  even 
now  is  found  on  the  upper  Nile,  although  it  has  disappeared  entirely 
from  Egypt.  This  plant  was  used  for  various  purposes,  and  not  only 
for  making  paper. 

Looking  at  their  civilization  in  general,  we  find  that  there  is  hardly 
an  element  of  it  which  could  not  originate  in  Egypt  They  must  soon 
have  perceived  that  dry  Xile  mud  was  a  very  good  material  for  build- 
ing, which  did  not  require  to  be  burnt.    The  art  of  btiilding  certainly 

"began  in  Egypt  with  brick  and  wood.  The  first  step  afterwards  was 
to  replace  the  bricks  by  stone,  of  which  there  were  various  kinds  par- 
ticularly well  suited  for  that  purpose.  It  is  natural  that,  having  such 
fine  material  as  the  sandstone  *of  Silsilis,  the  limestone  from  the 
quarries  of  Turah  and  Thebes,  the  diorite  and  black  granite  from 
Hamamat,  and  especially  the  beautiful  red  granite  from  Assuan,  the 
Egyptians  should  have  become  great  builders.  It  is  perhaps  the  only 
art  in  which  they  far  excelled  the  neighboring  nations,  much  more 
than  in  sculpture  or  in  painting. 

As  we  have  said  before,  the  writing  also  is  of  decidedly  EgyptiaLii 
origin.  We  can  find  in  it  no  trace  of  a  foreign  element.  Civiliza- 
tion seems  to  have  grown  entirely  in  the  last  settlement  of  the  in- 
vaders.     They  adopted  and  developed  the  rudimentary  culture  of 

rtheir  subjects.  They  improved  it  so  as  to  produce  the  admirable  dis- 
play of  Egyptian  art  and  industry  which  occurs  under  the  fourth 
dynasty.  If  the  followers  of  Horus  had  brought  their  animals 
from  Arabia,  one  would  expect  to  see  among  them  the  horse,  which 
does  not  appear  before  the  Hyksos  invasion.  If  they  had  been 
already  civilized  before  reaching  Africa  tiiey  would  have  left  traces 
of  their  passage  in  the  various  places  where  they  stopped.  At 
present  no  vestiges  of  an  early  Egyptian  civilization  have  been  dis- 
covered in  southern  Arabia,  or  even  on  the  upper  Nile.  However, 
there  is  one  side  of  their  culture  which  decidedly  comes  from  abroad, 

''the  art  of  working  metal.  Except,  perhaps,  for  a  little  gold  in  the 
country  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea,  no  metal  is  found  in 
Egypt,  neither  copper  nor  iron.     The  arrows  of  the  Anu  qertainly 


ORIGIN   OF  EGYPTIAN   CIVILIZATION NAVILLE.  661 

had  flint  points,  and,  although  the  Anu  were  very  skilled  in  the  way 
they  made  and  used  their  flint  instruments,  they  did  not  employ 
metal.  If  we  consult  the  inscription  of  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by 
Horns,  we  see  that  his  companions  are  often  called  Mesennu,  black- 
smiths, who  knew  also  how  to  cut  stone  and  wood,  but  whose  chief 
art  was  that  of  working  metal.  Ilorus  gives  settlements  to  his  com- 
panions in  various  parts  of  Egypt  I  believe  metallurgy  must  have 
originated  from  the  necessity  of  having  instruments  for  the  culture 
of  the  soil.  One  can  imagine  the  Horian  invaders  stopping  in  a  land 
of  remarkable  fertility  and  feeling  induced  naturally  to  improve  the 
means  they  had  of  deriving  advantage  from  the  admirable  soil  of  the 
country  which  they  had  chosen  for  their  abode.  It  seems  to  me  that 
at  the  beginning  metallurgy  was  the  associate  of  agriculture;  later 
on  it  was  used  only  for  the  fabrication  of  weapons. 

We  said  before  that  the  Horians  jjrobably  brought  Into  Egypt 
from  their  original  resort  on  the  upper  Nile  that  most  useful  plant, 
the  papyrus.  Another  plant  which  is  often  mentioned  in  the  in- 
scriptions of  the  first  dynasties  is  the  vine.  On  the  clay  sealings  of 
the  big  jars  discovered  at  Abydos  mention  is  often  made  of  the  vine- 
yards from  which  the  wine  contained  in  the  jars  is  derived.  Did 
the  vine  come  to  Egypt  from  Asia^  Here  again  we  can  trace  an 
African  origin  for  this  plant.  De  CandoUe,  in  his  book  on  the 
cultivated  plants,  says  that  the  vine  grows  spontaneously  in  southern 
Europe,  in  Algeria,  and  Morocco.  The  same  botanist  lays  stress  on 
the  possible  dissemination  of  the  plant  through  natural  causes,  like 
the  birds,  the  wind,  and  the  currents.  In  the  oldest  lists  of  offerings 
several  kinds  of  wine  are  quoted.  When  the  lists  become  more  de- 
tailed and  complete  the  names  of  the  localities  from  which  they  come 
are  given.     They  are  most  of  them  places  in  the  Delta, 

In  the  new  empire  the  good  quality  of  the  wine  from  the  various 
oases  is  often  praised.  There  it  seems  probable  that  the  plant 
came  from  Africa;  the  oases  always  had  more  connection  with 
Africa — with  the  west —  than  with  the  east.  We  hear  of  the  Libyan 
wines  brought  by  the  Tamahu.  They  are  known  to  Strabo  as  well 
as  those  from  Mareotis.  Thus,  even  for  the  vine,  we  are  not  obliged 
to  admit  an  importation  from  Asia. 

The  Egyptian,  and  after  them  the  Greek  writers,  tell  us  that  the 
^first  historical  king  was  Mena  or  Menes.  Herodotus  adds  that  in 
nis  time  all  Egypt  except  the  Thebaid  was  a  marsh.  Mena  is  said 
to  have  founded  Memphis  and  its  Temple  of  Ptah,  and  also  to  have 
built  a  great  dike  in  order  to  regulate  the  course  of  the  Nile.  Accord- 
ing to  Diodorus,  Menes  taught  his  people  to  fear  the  gods  and  to 
offer  them  sacrifices;  also  to  make  use  of  tables  and  beds  and  of  fine 
garments.     He  introduced  luxury  among  his  subjects. 


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562  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

It  is  usua)  now  to  speak  of  pre-Menite  kings.  I  believe  this  to  be 
a  mere  hypothesis.  The  tradition  of  Menes  having  been  the  first 
king  restfi  on  Egyptian  monuments,  and  is  recorded  by  Greek  authors. 
When  a  sovereign  like  Rameses  II  engraved  on  a  temple  a  list  of  his 
predecessors  I  can  not  help  thinking  that  he  began  with  the  first, 
and  he  would  not  have  put  aside  the  kings  who  were  before  Menes, 
especially  when  their  graves  or  their  funeral  chapels  were  only  a 
short  distance  from  the  temple  where  he  engraved  bis  list. 

As  for  Menes,  except  for  the  scanty  information  which  we  get 
chiefly  from  the  Greek  authors,  we  are  reduced  to  conjectures. 
'Undoubtedly  he  belonged  to  the  race  of  the  conquerors,  to  the  civil- 
izers,  but  I  should  not  think  that  he  was  the  leader  of  the  conquest 
Jhe  tribe  of  Horus  must  have  been  settled  in  the  country  some  cen- 
turies before  him.  They  must  have  had  time  to  develop  the  civiliza- 
tion which  we  find  under  the  first  dynasties.  He  probably  was  the 
"first  to  unite  the  whole  country  under  his  rule,  and  thus  he  was  the 
founder  of  the  Egyptian  kingdom. 

One  may  fancy  that  the  native  stock,  the  Anu,  consisted  of  various 
tribes,  each  having  as  its  central  point  the  village  where,  as  we  see 
on  the  potteries,  the  symbol  or  god  of  the  tribe  was  put  up  on  a  pole 
as  a  standard.  These  symbols  are  the  only  religious  element,  the 
only  trace  of  worship  which  we  notice  on  the  drawings  of  the  pot- 
teries. The  tribe  of  Horus  did  not  eradicate  the  local  cults.  As 
time  went  on  the  standards  became  the  great  divinity  of  each  nome 
or  province.  I  believe  this  is  the  explanation  of  the  great  number 
of  local  gods  which  we  find  in  Egypt.  They  were  at  first  the  tutelary 
divinity  of  a  small  clan  of  abori^nes.  The  conquerors  seem  to  have 
preserved  the  religious  traditions  of  their  subjects;  for  instance,  one 
of  the  mo^  ancient  cities  of  Egypt,  it^  religious  capital,  where  was 
taught  a  cosmogonic  doctrine,  which  was  adopted  more  or  less  in  the 
whole  land,  Heliopolis,  is  called  An.  It  has  the  name  of  the  Anu. 
These  ancient  natives  appear  in  later  times  in  reli^ous  ceremonies 
such  as  the  Sed  Festival  celebrated  by  Osorkon  II,  of  the  twenty- 
second  dynasty  at'Bubastis.  There  does  not  seem  to  have  existed 
between  conquerors  and  subjects  an  irreconcilable  religious  feud  such 
as  there  was  later  between  liie  Hyksos  and  the  Egyptians.  It  would 
have  prevented  their  mixing  together  and  becoming  one  nation. 

The  relics  of  the  first  three  dynasties  show  an  extraordinary 
development  of  all  ceremonies  and  customs  concerning  religion.  Be- 
sides HOrus,  the  falcon,  which  is  the  symbol  of  the  king,  the  royal 
god,  there  are  other  divine  animals,  like  the  jackal,  the  god  Apuatu, 
the  god  who  shows  the  ways;  and  also  a  bull,  or  rather,  judging  from 
the  nature  of  the  animal,  a  butFalo.  The  hierarchy  of  priests  is 
already  fixed ;  court  employments  are  mentioned,  and  festivals  which 
Till  go  through  the  whole  of  Egyptian  history,  tike  the  Sed  Festival, 


OBIGIN    OF   EGYPTIAN    CIVILIZATION NAVJLLE.  568 

which  I  think  to  be  an  indiction.  The  rites  of  the  foundation  of 
temples  are  very  similar  to  what  they  will  be  in  Goman  times. 
Hieroglyphs  are  sculptured,  very  archaic  in  appearance;  they  are 
the  first  rudiments  of  the  hieroglyphical  alphabet,  which  is  already 
fully  developed  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  dynasties. 

Very  interesting  religious  objects  are  the  slate  palettes,  having  on 
one  side  near  the  middle  a  circular  depression  surrounded  by  a  ring. 
These  slates  are  often  sculptured,  and  bear  animals  or  war  scenes, 
or  representations  of  festivals,  such  as  that  of  Striking  the  Anu. 
On  such  slates  with  a  depression  there  are  sculptures  on  both  sides. 
Therefore  I  can  not  admit,  with  Professor  Petrie,  that  these  depres- 
sions were  made  for  mixing  green  paint.  If  that  was  their  purpose, 
there  was  no  reason  for  their  being  so  targe  as  that  found  at  Heira- 
conpolis,  and  for  being  adorned  with  such  fine  sculptures,  not  to 
speak  of  their  being  quite  inappropriate  for  mixing  colors.  I  believe 
this  depression  contained  a  religious  emblem,  a  piece  of  wood  or 
precious  stone,  which  had  the  form  either  of  a  knob  or  of  a  bud.  It 
corresponds  exactly  with  the  description  which  Quintus  Curtius  gives 
us  of  the  appearand  of  the  god  in  the  oasis  of  Jupiter  Ammon.  The 
god  had  the  form  of  an  "  umbilicus."  This  knob  on  the  Hieraconpolis 
palette  has  a  guard  of  two  panthers  or  leopards;  in  other  cases,  of 
two  dogs.  This  is  not  the  only  form  of  the  god  who  had  the  name  of 
Bat.  He  may  be  a  bull  with  one  or  two  heads,  and  also  a  tree.  In 
that  case  the  two  leopards  are  replaced  by  two  other  spotted  animals, 
giraffes,  one  standing  on  either  side  of  the  tree.  We  have  here  an 
example  of  tree  worship,  such  as  was  practiced  in  Crete  and  in  the 
Mge&ii  islands. 

In  conclusion,  such  are  the  principal  features  of  the  civilization 
of  the  early  Egyptian  dynasties.  It  belongs  to  a  nation  formed  by 
an  indigenous  stock,  of  African  origin,  among  which  settled  con- 
querors  coming  from  Arabia,  from  the  same  starting  point  as  the 
Chaldeans.  This  explains  a  certain  similarity  between  Egypt  and 
Babylon.  The  foreign  element  was  not  Semitic.  They  belonged, 
like  the  natives,  to  the  Hamitic  stock;  therefore  they  easily  amalga- 
mated with  the  aborigines,  into  whom  they  infused  their  more  pro- 
gressive and  active  spirit.  The  result  was  the  Egyptians  such  as  we 
know  them  under  the  first  three  dynasties,  or,  as  we  call  that  time, 
the  Thinite  period.  At  the  end  of  it  something  took  place  which 
we  can  not  yet  explain — a  sudden  bound  from  the  rude  culture  of  the 
Thinites  to  the  refinement  in  art  and  industry  and  to  the  literary 
growth  which  are  exhibited  by  the  fourth  dynasty  and  afterwards. 
Has  there  been  a  new  invasion,  coming  this  time  from  Asia?  It  is 
possible;  but  there  again  we  have  no  historical  evidence  of  any  kind, 
and  we  have  to  resort  to  conjecture. 


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564  ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

The  dawn  of  Egyptian  civilization,  which  we  have  to  place  at  > 
veiy  early  period,  is  certainly  a  distinct  proof  of  the  important  pait 
played  by  Africa  in  the  history  of  human  culture.  Whether  the  whole 
region  of  the  Mediterranean  was  first  peopled  by  Hamites,  as  is  now 
asserted  by  various  authors,  I  do  not  feel  competent  to  decide.  But 
it  seems  to  me  unquestionable  that  the  Hamitic  civilization  has  been 
the  first  in  date,  and  that  it  has  largely  influenced  the  islands  and  the 
neighboring  nations.  When  we  look  at  the  startling  results  of  the 
excavations  in  Crete,  when  we  remember  that  this  island  is  the 
natural  bridge  between  Egypt  and  the  Hellenic  peninsula,  we  can 
not  help  concluding,  with  one  of  the  excavators  of  the  "house  of 
Minos,"  Doctor  MacKenzie,  that  the  races  who  were  the  bearers  of 
the  Ji^gean  civilization  came  from  the  south. 


1 


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ST-nvrn  an  R>»IM   1' 


Distribution  of  the  Oriental  FmE  Piston. 


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THE  FIRE  PISTON.' 


Ky  Henry  Balfodb,  M.  A., 

Vumtvr  of  the  Pttt-Bivera  Mugcum,  Oxford. 


The  fire  piston  appears  to  have  been  but  little  known  to  ethnogra- 
phers at  the  time  when  Dr.  E.  B.  Tylor  published  his  Researches  into 
the  Early  History  of  Mankind,''  which  contains  the  classical  and 
fascinating  chapter  upon  fire  making,  one  of  the  pioneering  articles 
upon  this  interesting  subject.  Doctor  Tylor  refers  (p.  246)  very 
■  briefly  to  this  instrument  as  follows:  "There  is  a  well-known  scien- 
tific toy  made  to  show  that  heat  is  generat«d  by  compression  of  air. 
It  consists  of  a  brass  tube  closed  at  one  end,  into  which  a  packed  pis- 
ton is  sharply  forced  down,  thus  igniting  a  piece  of  tinder  within  the 
tube.  It  Ls  curious  to  find  an  apparatus  on  this  principle  (made  in 
hard  wood,  ivory,  etc.)  used  as  a  practical  means  of  making  fire  in 
Birmah,  and  even  among  the  Malays."  If,  taking  this  short  sentence 
as  my  text,  I  make  an  attempt  to  bring  together  the  available  infor- 
mation regarding  this  peculiar  fire-producing  appliance,  I  trust  that 
I  may,  however  inadequately,  be  offering  as  my  contribution  to  this 
volume  a  subject  which  at  least  has  the  sympathy  of  the  honored  and 
veteran  anthropologist,  to  whom  the  book  is  dedicated."  Doctor 
Tylor's  reference  to  the  fire  piston  contains  two  statements,  (1)  that 
it  is  a  well-known  scientific  toy,  (2)  that  it  is  a  useful  appliance  in 
certain  eastern  regions.  I  may  conveniently  divide  my  subject  in  a 
similar  fashion  and  deal  firstly  with  the  "  scientific  toy  "  and  its 
practical  descendants  as  they  exist  or  have  existed  in  civilized  Europe, 
and  secondly  with  the  "  useful  appliance  "  as  it  is  found  amid  an  en- 
vironment of  lower  culture  in  the  East.  An  interesting  ethnological 
problem  is  involved,  one  whose  solution  is  somewhat  baffling. 

"Reprinted,  by  permission  of  the  niitbor  and  tbe  delegates  of  the  Claren- 
don PresB,  Oxford,  from  AnCbropological  EsBnyii  presented  to  Edward  Buraett 
Tylor  In  honor  of  his  7Bth  birthday,  Ort.  2,  J907. 

*  London.  1878. 

'  Edward  Burnett  Tylor. 

665 


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566         aknuaIj  bbpobt  shithsoniab  iNsnTcnoN,  1907. 

TUe  FIKE  PISTON  IN  EUBOPE. 

Appreciation  by  physicists  of  the  scientific  fact  that  heat  and  cold 
may  be  produced  by  the  mechanical  condensation  and  rarefaction  of 
gases  dates  back  to  before  the  commencement  of  last  century.  A 
paper  upon  this  bubject  was  read  by  John  Dalton  in  the  year  1800,  * 
firing  the  results  of  experiments  in  the  compression  and  rarefaction 
of  air,  which  were  noted  as  producing  increased  and  decreased  tem- 
peratures. On  December  29, 1802,  M.  Mollet,  professor  of  physics  in 
the  Central  School  at  Lyons,  announced  to  the  Institute  of  France 
that  he  had  noticed  that  tinder  could  be  ignited  by  placing  a  small 
piece  in  the  narrow  channel  with  which  the  tower  end  of  a  pump  for 
condensing  the  air  in  an  ordinary  condensation  pump  is  furnished. 
Two  or  three  strokes  of  the  piston  were  usually  sufficient  to  cause  a 
spark.  ^  He  also  ^^tated  that  be  had  observed  a  luminous  appearance 
caused  by  the  dLscharge  from  an  air  gun  in  the  dark.  On  the 
strength  of  this  announcement,  J.  C.  Poggendorff'  refers  to  Mollet 
as  the  discoverer  of  the  Tachypyrion  (instrument  for  producing  fire 
by  compression  of  air).  On  the  other  hand,  we  may  gather  frcHn  F. 
Rosenberger  '  that  a  workman  in  the  small-arms  factory  at  Etienne- 
en-Forez  {near  Lyons)  was  the  actual  discoverer  of  the  fact  that  a 
great  amount  of  heat  was  generated  in  charging  an  air  gun  with  an 
ordinary  compression  pump,  and  that  tinder  could  be  ignited  thereby. 
Mollet  is  Ijere  stated  to  have  communicated  this  discovery  by  the 
workman,  who  must,  if  Rosenberger's  account  is  the  true  one,  be 
credited  as  being  the  original  French  observer  of  this  phenomenon, 
Mollet  having  acted  as  the  reporter  of  the  discovery.  The  tacts  an- 
nounced were  not  understood  by  the  French  scientists,  who  were  in- 
clined to  discredit  them,  but  very  soon  the  experiment  with  the  air- 
compression  pump  was  repeated  by  others,  and  tinder  (amadou)  was 
easily  ignited  by  this  means.  A  letter  was  sent  by  M.  A.  Pictet,  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  Bibliotheque  Britannique,  to  Mr.  Tilloch  in  Eng- 
land, on  January-  1,  1803,  announcing  Mollet's  communication  to  the 
Institute  of  France,"  and  the  writer  stated  that  he  considered  the 
phenomenon  as  never  having  been  noticed  before.  But  William 
Nicholson  affirmed'  that  it  (the  flash  from  an  air  gun)  had  been 

0  Mem.  Uaocheirter  Lit  and  Phil.  Soc,  V.  pL  it,  p.  515.  1802. 

>•  Jonnial  de  Fbyslqoe.  LVIII,  1804,  p.  457 ;  McbotsoD'a  Jooraal  of  Nat  Pbl- 
loBopby,  CbemlBtry,  and  tbe  Arts,  IV,  1S03 ;  PhllosopUcal  HaKHBloe,  XIV,  p.  363. 

'  BioKTapb.-Llterarisclies  Handworterbucb,  II,  1863,  Leipstg. 

'  (i«tKhlcbte  d.  Pbyslk,  ISST,  III,  p.  224. 

"  Philosophical  Magazine,  XIV.  p.  363. 

/  >'lcholHon'a  Journal,  I.  c.;  Marc  Auguste  Pictet,  "  Sar  l'6:baDlIement  dM 
projectiles  prr  leur  frottement  contre  I'alr,"  BIbUotMqae  Britannique,  KXIIl. 
1803,  pp.  331-338. 


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THE  FIBB   PISTON — BAiFOUB.  567 

Jmown  for  some  time  in  England,  having  been  first  mentioned  nearly 
a  year  and  a  half  previously  by  Mr.  Fletcher  at  a  meeting  for  philo- 
sophical experiments  and  conversations,  which  was  then  held  weekly 
at  Mr.  Nicholson's  house.  He  adds,  "  It  is  a  curious  phenomenon, 
and  deserves  investigation."  No  one  at  the  time  explained  the  cause 
of  the  phenomenon,  which  had  been  accidentally  noticed  and  had  not 
been  arrived  at  by  direct  scientific  experiment.  Nicholson's  state- 
ment is  interesting,  not  only  as  assigning  the  first  observation  of  this 
physical  effect  to  an  earlier  dat«  (somewhere  about  the  middle  of  the 
year  1801),  but  also  as' ascribing  to  an  Englishman  its  discovery. 

In  later  days  the  experiment  of  igniting  tinder  in  a  compression 
pump  became  a  common  one  in  physical  laboratories,  and  fire  pistons 
were  specially  made  for  the  purpose.  These  consist  usually  of 
cylinders  of  brass,  closed  at  the  lower  end  and  very  accurately  bored 
or  gauged.  Into  the  bore  fits  a  piston  rod,  carefully  packed  at  the 
lower  end,  so  as  to  occupy  the  bore  as  completely  as  possible.  At 
the  lower  extremity  of  this  piston  rod  is  a  cup-like  depression,  in 
which  a  piece  of  amadou  can  be  placed.  By  driving  the  piston  rod 
home  very  forcibly  the  column  of  air  in  the  cylinder  is  violently 
compressed  into  a  fraction  of  its  normal  length,  the  sudden  conden- 
sation generating  an  amount  of  heat  amply  sufficient  to  ignite  the 
tinder.  The  piston  rod  is  at  once  withdrawn  as  quickly  as  possible 
and  the  tinder  is  found  to  be  glowing,  and  a  sulphured  match  may 
be  lighted  from  it.  In  place  of  the  brass  cylinder  and  piston  one  of 
glas-s  may  be  used,  and  the  vapor  of  carbon  bisulphide  can  be 
exploded  by  the  compression,  the  flash  being  plainly  visible  through 
the  glass. 

Not  only  was  this  principle  adapted  for  scientific  illustration,  but 
it  was  also  applied  to  domestic  use.  Who  was  the  first  person  to 
adapt'  the  air-compression  method  for  use  in  everyday  life  may 
never  be  known.  AVe  know,  however,  that  its  potentialities  for 
utilitarian  purposes  were  recognized  not  very  long  after  the  scientific 
interest  had  been  roused.  Among  the  specifications  of  English 
patents  for  the  year  1807  there  is  one,  dated  February  5,  No,  3007, 
recording  an  invention  by  Richard  Lorentz  of  "  an  instrument  for 
producing  instantaneous  fire."  The  figure  of  this  instrument  is  re- 
produced here  {fig.  1  on  pi.  ii),  and  specification  runs  as  follows: 

The  Illustration  Bbows  tbe  construction  of  my  machine  or  iDBtrument  for 
prodiiclog  iDBtantaneous  Are.  a  represents  tbe  cap  or  bead  of  a  ittatt  or  stick, 
haviiii;  tberein  u  cuvlty  or  space  for  containing  tbe  prepared  fungus  known  by 
the  name  of  Gerinnn  tinder,  or  for  containing  common  tinder  of  rags,  or  any 
other  very  combustible  substance,  c  Is  the  outer  end  of  tbe  rod  of  a  syringe, 
which  works  by  a  jilston  in  tbe  upt>er  part  of  tbe  staff,  and  by  a  stroke  of  about 
twelve  Inches  forces  the  common  air  with  great  velcK-ltj-  uud  In  an  highly  con- 
densed state  throngh  a  small  aperture  against  the  combustible  matter  included 


41780—08 40 


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668  ANNUAL   BEPOBT   SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,   1907. 

In  tbe  bead  a,  wUcb  Is  well  screwed  on  against  a  sbonlder  or  face  armed  nltii 
a  collar  of  leatben.  b  Is  tbe  bole  for  admitting  commim  air  wben  tbe  plstoo  is 
drawn  qalte  back.  Tbe  manner  of  working  conalsts  simply  la  pressing  tbe 
Old  of  tbe  rod  of  tbe  cbarged  syringe  strongly  against  tbe  groand  so  as  to  drlre 
tbe  air  suddenly  on  tbe  tinder,  and  tbe  cap  a  beliv  wltbout  loss  of  tlSM 
unscrewed  tbe  tinder  Is  found  to  be  on  Ore. 

It  will  be  noted  that  this  instrument  differs  in  one  important 
particular  from  the  ordinary  fire  piston  of  the  physical  laboratory. 
In  the  latt«r  the  air  is  merely  compressed  in  the  bottom  of  the  cvlio- 
der,  whereas  in  Lorentz's  machine  the  air  is  not  only  compressed  bv 
the  drive  of  the  piston  rod,  but  it  is  also  forced  under  high  pressure 
through  a  minute  duct  beyond  which  the  tinder  lies.  The  term  fire 
syringe,  so  frequently  applied  to  the  various  instruments  for  pro- 
ducing fire  by  air  compression,  aeems  to  be  peculiarly  suited  to  thU 
form,  since  the  air  is  forced  throu^  a  duct  at  the  end  of  the  main 
cylinder  chamber,  just  as  water  is  forced  through  the  nozzle  duct  of 
a  squirt  or  syringe.  Xo  doubt  the  air,  already  heated  by  the  com- 
pression, gains  additional  heat  from  the  friction  caused  by  its  violent 
passage  through  the  small  duct.  It  is  possible  that  this  instrument 
owes  its  origin  to  the  observation  of  the  flash  produced  by  the  dis- 
charge of  an  air  gun,  to  which  I  have  referred  above,  in  addition  to 
the  scientific  experitaients  as  to  heat  generated  by  simple  compression 
of  air  in  a  small  space. 

Fire  pistons  in  which  the  duct  was  omitted  appear  to  have  enjoyed 
some  favor  upon  the  Continent,  and  to  a  lesser  degree  in  England, 
during  the  early  third  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  the  Mechanics' 
Magazine,  Vol.  XVII,  1832,  p.  328,  the  following  passage  occurs : 

The  following  Is  a  sketch  of  a  simple  Instramwt  for  obtaining  a  light.  Aa 
tbe  Invention,  tboogb  not  new  [ft  Is  very  well  known  on  tbe  Continent  by  tbe 
name  of  tbe  Instantaneoufi  llght-glving  syringe.  Ae  It  bas  not,  bowever,  been 
described  In  tbla  work  and  may  be  new  to  some  of  onr  readers,  we  Insert  onr 
correspondent's  description.— Editorial  note].  Is,  perhaps,  not  goierall;  known, 
I  Bball  be  glad  to  see  this  description  of  It  In  your  magazine.  •  •  •  Xoars 
respectfully,  E.  J.  MrrcHEu.,  June  IB.  1S32. 

The  description  referring  to  the  figures  (fig.  2)  I  give  in  full: 

AS  is  a  brass  cylinder,  similar  In  appearance  to  a  small  brass  cannmi,  bavins 
tbe  bole  rather  better  than  three-eighths  of  an  Inch  In  diameter,  drilled  tme  and 
clean  rinsed,  cd  is  tbe  form  of  a  piston  to  work  In  tbe  cyllDder.  but  unpacked. 
EF  Is  the  same  ready  packed  with  thick  leather  and  Btted  up  for  use.  h  Is  a 
circular  brass  nut.  working  against  the  screw  to  keep  the  packing  tight,  k  Is  a 
email  book,  fastened  In  n  hole  drilled  through  tbe  nut  h.  c  Is  the  handle  to  tbe 
piston  and  Is  made  of  wood.  The  method  of  use  Is  described  as  follows:  "Pre- 
pare some  thin  cotton  rag  (older  and  thinner  the  better)  by  steeping  it  tn  a  solu- 
tion of  saltpeter,  and  drying  It  In  a  warm  oven ;  tear  a  small  piece  off  and  place 
It  on  tbe  hook  k  ;  introduce  the  piston  ef  Into  the  cylinder  ab  a  short  distance 
only;  then  take  the  cylinder  In  the  right  band,  place  11  i>erpendlcular  upon 
tbe  Ooor  or  a  table,  and  strike  tbe  handle  k  with  tbe  bftU  of  tlw  right  hand,  n 


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THE  FIEE  PIBTON — BALPOXTB,  569 

tbat  the  plflton  may  rapidly  descead  to  the  bottom  of  ab,  and  being  suddenly 
withdrawn,  the  tinder  will  be  found  on  lire,  and  will  Ugbt  a  common  brimstone 
match.  Amadou,  or  German  tinder,  which  may  be  obtained  at  any  of  the  prin- 
cipal dmggiBts,  la  likewise  a  good  tinder,  but  1  prefer  tlie  rag  steeped  In  salt- 
peter.—B.  J.  M. 

This  instrument  is  of  the  simple  air-compression  kind,  and,  except 
for  the  piston  rod  terminating  m  a  hook  instead  of  a  hollow  for  the 
tinder,  it  is  identical  in  principle  with  the  most  prevalent  form  of  fire  . 
piston. 

In  1834  a  notice  occurs"  of  a  French  modification  {6g.  8)  of  the 
type  of  instrument  invented  by  Lorentz,  referred  to  above,  though 
from  the  following  account  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  very  suc- 
cessful: 

An  attempt  has  been  made  In  France  to  produce  an  Instantaneoua  ItfcM  by  the 
compression  of  air.  A  strong  tube  a  Is  furnished  with  a  piston  a,  which  may  be 
driven  rapidly  from  c  to  D  by  striking  the  linob  e  at  the  end  of  the  piston  rod. 
The  end  of  the  tube,  at  u.  Is  pierced  with  small  holes  to  allow  the  air,  when 
forced  up  by  the  piston,  to  pass  into  the  hollow  space  o,  In  the  piece  f,  screwed 
air-tight  to  the  end  of  the  tubes.  When  a  light  is  wanted  a  bit  of  tinder  Is 
placed  In  the  hollow,  the  top  screwed  on,  and  the  piston  driven  In  forcibly;  on 
unscrewing  the  top  the  tinder  will  be  found  Ignited.  Some  modlBcation  of  this 
Instrument  may  be  fonnd  useful,  but  In  Its  present  state  It  Is  Inferior  to  the 
common  tinder  box;  It  requires  considerable  strength.  Is  equally  slow  In  getting 
a  light,  requires  a  match  to  be  lighted  after  the  tinder  has  talien  flre,  and  la 
easily  pnt  out  of  order. 

The  method  of  squeezing  the  compressed  air  through  ducts  into  a 
tinder  chamber  is  very  similar  to  that  patented  by  Lorentz.  The 
loss  of  time  caused  by  the  necessity  for  unscrewing  the  tinder  recep- 
tacle after  the  tinder  was  ignited  must  have  militated  against  the 
eflSciency  of  these  syringe-like  forms.  As  far  as  I  am  aware  none  of 
them  have  been  preserved,  and  this  may  be  an  indication  that  they 
never  were  numerous  or  extensively  used.  Specimens  of  the  simple 
fire-piston  form  occur  sparingly  in  museums  and  private  collections. 
An  example  from  Bedminster,  Bucks  County,  Pennsylvania,  said  to 
date  about  1815-1820,  is  mentioned  by  H.  C.  Mercer.*  A  specimen 
of  brass  from  Gestrikland,  or  Helsingland,  Sweden,  is  in  the  Nor- 
diska  Museum,  Stockholm.  Mr.  E.  Bidwell  possesses  three  speci- 
mens, one  of  which  (fig.  4)  is  entirely  of  brass  and  of  large  size,  and 
resembles  rather  the  modem  instrument  of  the  physical  laboratory 
than  the  old  domestic  form.  The  tube  is  of  thin  brass,  SJ  inches 
long  by  I  inch  in  diameter.  The  other  two  {figs.  T)  and- 6),  which 
may  have  been  intended  for  domestic  use,  are  smaller,  of  brass 
throughout,  with  the  exception  of  the  piston  rods,  which  are  of  steel. 
In  one  (fig,  5)  the  lower  end  of  the  piston  rod  is  packed  with  leather, 

•The  Penny  Magazine,  London,  1834,  July  26,  p.  2S6. 
'Ught  and  Fire  Malting,  Pblladeiphls,  1888,  p.  26. 

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570  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

while  in  the  other  (fig.  6)  a  brass  piece  accurately  fitting  the  bore  of 
the  tube  is  screwed  on,  and  no  packing  is  required.  All  these  hare 
cup-like  depressions  at  the  end  of  the  plunger  for  holding  the  tinder. 
Mr.  Bidwell's  specimens  are  all  said  to  be  English.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear likely  that  the  practical  everyday  use  of  these  fire  pistons  was 
at  any  time  very  general,  and  the  tinder  box  easily  held  its  own 
against  them,  but  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  a  certain  practical  value 
was  recognized  for  them,  and  even  in  quite  recent  years  they  were 
reintroduced  in  France,  and  a  pocket  form  was  sold  by  tobacconists 
in  Paris.  In  these  (fig.  7)  the  cylinder  is  of  white  metal  with  wooden 
knob,  the  plunger  is  of  hard  wood  with  cupped  end,  and  &ted  to  the 
side  of  the  cylinder  is  a  tubular  holder  for  the  common  cord  tinder. 
A  specimen  given  me  by  Mr.  Miller  Christy  works  very  satisfactorily 
with  a  really  "  quick  "  form  of  tinder.  Its  reintroduction  in  western 
Europe  was,  no  doubt,  prompted  rather  by  its  peculiar  interest  as  a 
scientific  toy  than  by  its  being  recognized  as  being  of  real  practical 
importance.  For  ordinary  purposes,  as  an  appliance  useful  in  every- 
day life,  its  death  knell  was  sounded  when  the  lucifer  match  became 
generally  known.  The  latter,  which  has  held  its  own  unchaUenged 
during  the  last  seventy  years  or  so,  proved  too  strong  and  too  se- 
verely practical  a  competitor,  before  which  the  time-honored  tinder 
box,  the  fire  piston,  and  the  earlier  chemical  methods  ("  sulphuric- 
acid  bottle,"  "phosphorus  bottle,"  " promethian,"  etc)  had  to  give 
way. 

THE  FIRE  PISTON   IN  THE  EABT. 

Interesting  as  is  this  fire-producing  appliance  as  it  occurs  in  west- 
ern Europe  in  the  form  of  a  scientific  instrument,  and,  to  a  limited 
extent,  as  a  machine  for  domestic  use,  from  an  ethnological  point  of 
view,  the  interest  of  the  fire  piston  centers  mainly  upon  its  occur- 
rence in  the  east  in  an  environment  of  relatively  low  culture.  The 
problem  is  to  ascertain  whether  this  peculiar  and  very  specialized 
method  of  fire  production  was  introduced  into  the  oriental  regions 
from  Europe,  or  whether  it  was  invented  independently  by  the  little- 
civilized  peoples  among  whom  it  is  found  as  an  appliance  of  prac- 
tical everyday  use.  Either  theory  is  beset  with  difficulties,  which  are 
likely  to  remain  unsolved  in  the  absence  of  early  records.  I  shall 
revert  later  to  the  consideration  of  this  question,  and  will  now  deal 
with  the  geographical  distribution  and  varieties  of  the  fire  piston 
in  oriental  regions.  Briefly  stated,  it  may  be  said  that  the  range 
of  this  instrument  extends  sporadically  over  a  wide  area  from  north- 
em  Burma  and  Siam  through  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  the  Malayan 
Archipelago  to  its  eastern  limits  in  the  islands  of  Luzon  and  Min- 
danao iu  the  Philippines. 


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THE  FIBE  PISTON — BALPOUB.  571 

Burma. — In  this  region  the  fire  piston  is  principally  associated  with 
the  Kachin  (Kachyen,  Kakhyen,  or  Kakyen)  people,  and  the  forms 
vary  as  regards  the  materials  used  in  their  construction.  The  cylin- 
ders may  be  of  bamboo,  wood,  or  horn,  the  pistons  or  "  plungers " 
are  either  of  wood  or  horn,  or  are  made  of  a  combination  of  both 
materials.  In  all,  the  heat  is  produced  by  simple  compression  of  the 
air  in  the  tube,  and  I  have  seen  no  examples  in  which  the  air  is  forced 
through  a  duct. 

Four  examples  were  collected  for  me  by  my  friend,  Mr.  H.  E.  Leve- 
soD,  from  the  Kachins,  on  the  Chinese  border  of  the  northern  Shan 
States  (lat.  24°  T  N.,  long.  98°  15'  E.),  nearly  due  east  of  Bhamo. 
These  are  interesting  on  account  of  their  rude  and  simple  structure. 
Each  (figs.  8, 9, 10)  consists  of  a  natural  tube  of  stout-walled  bamboo, 
closed  near  the  lower  end  by  a  natural  node.  The  "  plunger  "  is  of 
wood,  with  a  large  roughly  shaped  head.  One  of  the  heads  is  hex- 
agonal, each  facet  being  decorated  with  chip  carving  (fig.  10).  The 
lower  end  is  cupped  to  form  a  receptacle  for  the  tinder,  and  is  packed 
with  fine  thread  coated  with  wax  (?).  Two  very  similar  specimens 
from  the  Shans  of  upper  Burma  are  in  the  Ethnological  Museum  at 
Cambridge, 

A  better  made  example,  though  still  composed  of  the  same  mate- 
rials (fig.  11),  was  collected  for  me  by  Mr.  Leveson  from  the  Wa 
villagers  in  East  Mangliin  (Mong-lem),  on  the  Chinese  frontier, 
22°  20'  N.,  99°  10'  E.  The  bamboo  tube  is  neatly  finished  off,  and 
the  "  plunger  "  is  of  very  hard  wood,  with  exceptionally  large  head 
accurately  shaped.  Another  specimen  in  my  possession  (fig.  12) 
having  a  cylinder  of  bamboo  is  somewhat  more  pretentious,  the 
cylinder  being  carved  in  a  decorative  form ;  the  wooden  "  phrager  " 
is  unusually  long  and  tapering.  This  example  was  obtained  by  Mr, 
Frank  Atlay  at  the  Ruby  mines,  Mogok,  and  kindly  given  to  me. 
A  small  cloth  bag  containing  vegetable-floss  tinder  belongs  to  this 
specimen,  with  which  I  have  been  able  to  produce  fire  with  consider- 
able ease  on  many  occasions. 

In  the  Ethnological  Museum  at  Rome  are  several  very  rudely 
constructed  examples  of  wood  and  horn,  collected  by  Leonardo  Fea 
from  the  Kachins  (Cowlle  Kachins)  and  Shans  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Bhamo,  chiefly  to  the  east  of  that  town.  These  (figs.  13, 14,  15,  16 
on  pi.  m)  differ  somewhat  from  the  types  most  commonly  seen  from 
Burma.  In  all  of  them  the  cylinder  is  of  stout  buffalo  horn,  either 
light  or  dark  colored,  cut  from  the  solid  tip  of  the  horn.  In  two 
of  them  (fig.  13)  a  pair  of  flanges  are  raised  upon  the  surface  near 
the  top,  and  a  carrying  cord  is  knotted  through  these  flanges.  A 
similar  pair  of  perforated  flanges  appear  on  a  specimen  in  the  British 
Museum.    In  these  two  examples  the  "  plunger "  is  of  hard  wood, 


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672  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INBTITUTION,  IWl. 

with  expanded  head  cut  from  the  solid  (fig.  13).  A  third  specimen 
has  a  piston,  with  wide  head  cut  from  one  solid  piece  of  dark  horn. 
Three  others  (figs.  14,  15,  16)  and  a  fourth  specimen  (fig.  IT)  from 
the  same  district,  given  me  by  Prof.  E.  H,  Giglioli,  are  peculiar  in 
having  the  shaft  of  the  plunger  of  horn,  while  the  head  is  of  wood 
fixed  by  means  of  a  stout  rivet  of  horn  to  the  shaft,  which  is  widened 
at  this  point,  and  is  tenoned  into  the  head.  The  head  in  some  consists 
of  a  single  piece  of  wood,  in  others  it  is  in  two  pieces,  and  is  reen- 
forced  with  bindings  of  string  and  cane.  The  riveted  head  seems  to 
be  specially  associated  with  the  Kachins.  The  collector  gives  the 
native  name  of  the  instrument  as  caifo  or  caifoe,  and  he  adds  the 
remark  that  while  these  people  are  called  Kachin  by  the  Burmese, 
they  describe  themselves  as  Chimfo  or  Simpfo  (i.  e.,  "men");  the 
name  is  also  given  as  Chingpaw." 

A  specimen  (fig.  18  on  pi.  u)  in  my  collection,  obtained  by  Mr. 
I^eveson  from  a  Kachin  on  the  Chinese  border,  from  the  same  district 
whence  the  ruder  bamboo  specimens  were  procured,  has  a  cylinder  of 
rou^  bom  of  a  light  color  and  a  plunger,  also  very  roughly  made  of 
black  horn.  Reference  is  also  made  by  Capt.  W.  Gill '  to  the  fire 
piston  (with  wooden  cylinder)  among  the  Kachins  of  the  village  of 
Pungshi  (Ponsee),  on  the  Taiping  River,  50  or  60  miles  east  of 
Bhamo.  John  Anderson "  describes  and  figures  the  instrument  from 
the  Kachins  of  the  same  region ;  it  resembles  that  shown  in  fig.  18. 

Other  specimens  of  the  Kachin  fire  piston  of  which  I  have  record 
are  as  follows: — 

Two  examples  with  plain  horn  cylinders,  Berlin  Museum. 

One  (referred  to  above)  with  horn  cylinder,  8.7  cm.  long,  having 
perforated  flanges  for  a  carrying  cord ;  "  plunger "  of  hard  wood 
riveted  to  rounded  wooden  head;  given  by  Mr.  R.  Gordon  to  the 
British  Museum  in  1873. 

One  given  by  Mr.  R.  Gordon  to  the  Mayer  collection,  Liverpool 
Museum,  1874. 

One  of  wood,  Homiman  Museum. 

One  with  tapering  cylinder  of  horn  and  wooden  "  plunger,"  in 
Mr.  E.  Bidwell's  collection. 

One  with  tapering  horn  cylinder,  7.5  cm.  long,  piston  of  horn  ten- 
oned into  a  cubical  wooden  head  and  secured  with  k  rivet;  given  by 
Sir  W.  N.  Geary  to  the  British  Museum,  1901. 

"H.  J.  Wehrll,  Internat  Arctalv  f,  EtbD<%raptile,  8»ppl,  to  Vol.  XVI,  1'04,  p. 
45.  See  also  L.  Fea,  Quattro  Annl  fra  1  Blrmanni  e  le  trlbil  Umttrofe,  and 
E.  C  3.  George,  Memoirs  od  tbe  Tribes  lobabltlng  the  Kacbln  Hills,  CenniB 
of  1892.  Burma  Beport,  I,  appendices. 

I-  The  Hirer  of  Golden  Sand,  IffiO.  Vol.  11,  p.  395. 

1  Mandalay  to  Momleu,  1870.  p.  134.  and  plate,  figs.  3  and  4. 


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JO 


Fire  Pistons. 


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THE  FIRE   PISTON — BALFOUB.  678 

One  with  cylinder  of  horn,  8.6  cm.  long,  tapering  upward,  cut  in 
nine  longitudinal  facets,  and  with  ring  of  carving  round  the  base; 
plunger  of  hard  wood  with  the  head  capped  with  silk  wrapping; 
native  name,  mi-put;  pven  by  Capt.  R.  C.  Temple  to  the  Pitt-Rivers 
Museum,  Oxford,  1890  (fig.  19). 

One  small  though  elaborate  specimen  of  black  horn  throu^out, 
apparently  lathe-turned,  the  cylinder  ornamentally  shaped,  and  rein- 
forced at  the  end  with  metal  bands,  as  is  also  the  rounded  head  of  the 
"piunger;"  from  the  cylinder  hang  three  strings,  one  carrying  a 
small  velvet  bag  of  vegetable-floss  tinder,  another  a  small  nutshell 
containing  grease  for  lubricating  the  packing  of  the  piston,  the  third 
a  small  ivory  spatula  for  spreading  the  grease  (fig.  20  on  pi.  m) ; 
given  by  Maj.  R.  C.  Temple  to  the  Pitt-Rivers  Musemn,  1894. 

From  Mandalay,  and  probably  of  Kachin  origin,  I  have  in  my 
possession  a  specimen  very  similar  to  the  last,  of  black  horn  through- 
out, iathe-turned,  the  head  of  the  piston  riveted  to  the  end  of  the 
5>haft;  with  bag  of  vegetable-floss  tinder,  and  small,  spherical  wooden 
grease  box  (fig.  21) ;  given  to  me  by  the  collector,  Mr.  H.  O.  Mor- 
daunt,  in  1899. 

A  sketch  (fig.  23)  of  an  elaborately  carved  fire  piston  seen  in 
Mogok,  1893,  was  made  for  me  by  Mr.  Donald  Qunn.  The  decorative 
treatment  of  this  specimen  is  unusually  elaborate.  The  native  name 
is  given  as  mizoon. 

Two  examples,  locaUy  called  mi-put,  collected  in  the  southern 
Shan  states,  were  given  me  by  Mr.  H.  E.  Leveson  in  1890  and  1891. 
Of  these,  one  (fig.  23)  is  quite  plain,  with  long  cylinder  of  hard 
wood,  and  piston  of  buffalo  horn  with  large  rounded  knob.  It  was 
obtained  from  a  pung'if  or  priest  in  a  monastery  (kyaung).  The 
other  (flg.  24)  is  entirely  of  buffalo  horn,  the  cylinder  gracefully 
fluted  in  eight  facets;  the  plunger  is  elegantly  tapered,  and  has  a 
rounded  head  inlaid  with  small  metal  studs.  The  depth  of  the  bore 
in  the  cylinder  is  only  4.5  cm.,  the  cylinder  itself  being  8.3  cm.  long. 
This  gives  a  very  limited  play  to  the  piston,  rendering  the  operation 
of  fire  producing  a  somewhat  difficult  one.  Belonging  to  this  speci- 
men are  a  tinder  pouch  of  palm  spathe  and  a  turned-wood  box  for 
grease  (fig.  24  a). 

Farther  still  toward  the  south  a  specimen  was  seen  by  Prof.  A. 
Bastian,  in  a  monastery  in  Shwegyin,  which  lies  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Poung-loung  River  in  Pegu.  The  tube  was  of  ivory."  A  similar 
specimen  was  made  for  him  by  a  native. 

It  would  appear  that  the  westerly  limit  of  distribution  of  fire 
pistons  in  Burma  is  bounded  by  the  Irrawaddy  River,  while  they 
extend  in  a  north  <and  south  direction  from  the  neighborhood  of 


0  BaBtian,  Die  Voelker  des  Oestlfcben  Aaim,  1866,  II,  p.  418. 


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574  ANNUAL  REPOBT  SMITH80NUN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

Bhamo  to  Rangoon.  To  the  northeast  they  extend  some  distance 
across  the  Chinese  frontier,  among  the  eastern  Kachins  and  peoples 
of  mixed  Kachin  blood.  On  the  eastern  side  of  Burma  they  are 
found  in  both  the  northern  and  southern  Shan  states. 

French  Indo-Ckina. — A  piston  (fig.  25  on  pi.  iv)  in  the  Edinburgh 
Museum  was  obtained  from  the  Khas  {or  Kutnuks),  an  aboriginal 
hill  tribe  of  low  stature,  inhabiting  the  country  north  of  Luang 
Prabang,  which  lies  on  the  Mekong  River  in  lat.  20"  N.  It  is  entirely 
of  bom;  the  cylinder  is  carved  in  an  ornamental  molding  at  either 
end.  The  piston  has  a  knobbed  head  coated,  apparently,  with  some 
kind  of  composition.  A  bag  of  cloth  serves  as  a  tinder  pouch  (fig. 
25a). 

Farther  to  the  southeast  the  implement  is  again  met  with  among 
the  Mo'i's,  a  people  of  very  low  culture  inhabiting  the  table  lands  and 
mountains  between  the  Mekong  River  and  the  coast  of  Annam,  from 
the  frontier  of  Yunnan  to  Cochin  China.  They  differ  racially  from 
the  Annamese  and  Thai,  and  are  said  by  Deniker "  to  belong  prob- 
ably to  the  "  Indonesian  "  stock.  A.  Gautier  describes  "  the  instru- 
ment as  having  a  cylinder  of  hard  wood,  with  a  bore  of  7  to  8  cm.  in 
depth,  and  7  to  8  mm.  in  diameter.  The  piston,  also  of  wood,  has  a 
large,  rounded  knob,  and  is  cupped  at  the  lower  end  for  the  tinder  in 
the  usual  way.  The  tinder  (aTnadou)  is  kept  in  a  hard  fruit  shell 
hollowed  out.  The  native  moistens  the  end  of  the  piston  in  his  mouth, 
BO  as  to  lubricate  it,  and  also  to  make  the  small  piece  of  tinder  adhere 
to  the  cupped  hollow.  Apparently  the  instrument  is  in  constant  use 
amongst  the  MoTs. 

Malay  Peninsvla. — John  Cameron  frequently  saw  the  fire  piston  in 
use  among  the  Malays  of  the  Straits,  prior  to  1865.    He  writes: ' 

There  Ib  one  peculiarity  which  I  will  mention,  as  it  might,  I  tblnk,  be  capable 
of  improved  application  at  home;  It  la  the  method  adopted  by  aotoe  of  obtain- 
ing Are.  It  is  true  that  this  Is  not  the  usual  method,  nor  do  I  remember  to 
bare  seen  It  alluded  to  by  any  other  writer;  1  have  witnessed  it,  nevertheless, 
repeatedly  availed  of  by  the  Malays  of  the  Straits;  and  In  some  of  the  telaode 
to  the  eastward  of  Java,  where  I  drat  saw  It,  It  Is  In  constant  use.  A  small 
piece  of  bom  or  hard  wood  about  3  or  4  Inches  long  and  three-qnartera  of  an 
Inch  In  diameter  is  carefully  bored  through  the  center  for  three-fourths  of  Its 
length,  with  a  hole  about  a  quarter  of  an  Inch  In  diameter.  To  fit  this,  a  sort 
of  ramrod  or  piston  of  hard  wood  Is  made,  loose  all  along,  but  padded  with 
thread  or  cotton  at  the  |>olnt,  so  as  to  be  as  nearly  air-tight  as  possible,  wboi 
placed  Into  the  hole  of  the  little  cylinder.  •  •  •  When  used,  the  cylinder  is 
held  flrmly  In  the  list  of  the  left  hand;  a  small  piece  of  tinder,  fcenerally  dried 
fungus.  Is  placed  In  a  cavity  on  the  point  of  the  piston,  which  is  then  Just  en- 
tered Into  the  mouth  of  the  bore;  with  a  sudd^i  strobe  of  tbe  right  hand  the 

<■  Races  of  Man.  p.  302. 

*  '•  Etude  sur  les  Mots,"  Bull,  de  la  Socl«e  de  G&^raphle  Commerclale  du 
Havre,  1902,  pp.  95  and  177. 
"  Our  Tropical  Possesstons  In  Malayan  India.  1S05,  p.  130. 


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THE  PIBE   PISTON — BALPOUB.  675 

piston  Is  forced  up  the  t>ore,  from  wlii(.-li  it  rebuuutis  slit'lilly  htick  wllli  tlie 
elasticity  of  tbe  compressed  air,  and  on  belog  plucked  out,  which  it  must  be  In- 
stantly, the  tinder  Is  found  to  be  lighted.  *  *  *  1  can  oDly  attribute  tbe 
light  produced  to  the  sudden  and  powerful  compression  of  the  air  in  the  bore  of 
the  cylinder. 

This  description  of  the  method  of  using  the  fire  piston  applies 
practically  to  all  oriental  examples.  The  record  is  interesting  as 
being  an  early  reference  to  the  use  of  the  instrument  in  the  peninsula, 
and  also  in  the  eastern  Malayan  Archipelago. 

Turning  now  to  more  recent  records  of  the  occurrence  of  fire  pistons 
in  the  peninsula,  I  may  give  the  following  first-hand  information, 
which  I  owe  largely  to  Mr.  W.  W.  Skeat  and  to  Mr.  Nelson  Annan- 
dale,  who  have  done  so  much  for  the  ethnology  of  this  region : 

Mr.  Annandale,  in  1901,  saw  the  instrument  in  regular  use  at  and 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Ban  Hai  Kau,  a  village  in  the  state  of  Nawn- 
chik  (called  Toyan  by  the  Malays) ,  the  most  northerly  of  the  Siamese 
Malay  states,  west  of  the  Patani  Kiver.  The  Siamese  name  of  the 
fire  piston  is  lek  phai  tok,  the  Malayan  name  is  gobi  api.  It  is  there 
chiefly  used  for  lighting  cigarettes  in  the  jungle,  as  the  spark  is  not 
easily  extinguished  by  high  winds.  One  specimen  from  this  village, 
given  me  by  Mr.  Annandale  (fig.  26),  is  of  very  small  size,  the  cylin- 
der being  only  5,7  cm,  in  length  and  the  bore  4.5  cm.  It  is  entirely  of 
black  horn;  the  cylinder  is  ornamentally,  though  roughly,  turned, 
barrel-shaped  in  the  center,  and  tapered  to  a  blunt  point  at  the  lower 
extremity.  The  piston  has  a  plain,  rounded  knob  at  the  top,  and  the 
uSual  hollow  for  tinder  at  the  other  end.  A  specimen  obtained  there 
by  Mr.  Bobinson  for  5  cents  is  very  similar  in  shape  and  size,  though 
somewhat  better  made.  A  third  specimen  from  the  same  locality 
(fig.  27),  collected  by  Mr.  Annandale  for  the  Pitt-Rivers  Museum, 
has  a  very  elegantly  lathe-turned  and  slightly  engraved  cylinder  of 
horn ;  the  piston  is  of  light  wood  with  a  turned  knob  of  horn  through 
which  it  is  fixed  with  an  adhesive. 

From  farther  south,  in  the  state  of  Patani,  Mr,  Skeat  procured 
three  examples  very  similar  in  shape  to  those  of  Nawnchik ;  these  are 
in  the  Cambridge  Museum.  One  of  them  is  very  small  (fig.  28), 
with  horn  cylinder  and  wooden  piston;  the  depth  of  the  bore  is  only 
3  cm.  A  second  has  a  lathe-turned  horn  cylinder  and  a  piston  of 
hard  wood  with  ivory  head,  depth  of  bore  3.7  em.  The  third  (fig. 
29)  is  larger  somewhat,  with  lathe-turned  cylinder  of  bone  and 
wooden  piston;  depth  of  bore  5.5  cm.  AH  three  were  obtained  in 
Jalor  (Jala),  one  of  the  seven  districts  of  Patani,  some  30  miles  up 
the  Patani  River.  The  Malay  name  given  by  Mr.  Skeat  is  gobek  api 
(lit.  "  fire  piston  ").  The  word  gobek  is  that  usually  applied  to  the 
piston  (pestle  and  mortar)  used  by  old  and  toothless  men  for  cirush- 
ing  up  the  betel  leaf;  api  in  Malayan  means  "fire."    The  tinder, 


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576  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  8M1THB0NUN   INSTITUTION,  19OT. 

rabok,  is  usually  tlie  fluffy  substance  obtained  from  the  leaf  bases  of 
the  iukas  palm  {Caryota  grifjithii),  though  occasionally  it  is  ob- 
tained from  other  kinds  of  palm,  or  from  rattan.  Mr.  Skeat  tells 
me  that  the  fire  piston  occurs  throughout  the  interior  of  the  old  Malay 
state  of  Patani,  or  in  other  words,  the  subdistricts  of  Jala,  Ligeh, 
Biserat,  and  Rhaman,  and  he  also  mentions  that  there  is  a  prc^ble 
extension  northward  and  eastward  into  more  distinctly  Siamese  ter- 
ritory. His  specimens  are  practically  identical  with  those  obtained 
by  Messrs.  Annandale  and  Bi^inson  in  Xawnchik. 

Mr.  Annandale  procured  for  the  Pitt-Rivers  Museum  an  example 
from  the  Samsam  (i.  e.,  Siamesing-Malay)  village  of  Ban  Pbra 
Muang  in  Trang,  on  the  west  coast,  c.  7"  25'  N.,  99'  30'  E.  This 
is  the  most  northerly  district  in  the  peninsula  from  which  I  have 
definite  record  of  a  fire  piston.  This  specimen  (fig.  30)  has  a  cylin- 
der of  light-colored  horn,  pointed  and  ringed  below,  as  usual  in 
the  peninsula,  the  upper  half  roughly  bound  round  with  string  coated 
with  black  wax.  The  piston  is  of  black  horn  with,  rounded,  carved 
knob,  which  is  hollowed  out  as  a  receptacle  for  holding  the  supply 
of  tinder.    The  depth  of  bore  is  5.5  cm. 

There  are  specimens  in  the  Taiping  Museum  from  the  province 
of  Perak,  on  the  western  side  of  the  peninsula,  but  their  exact  locality 
is  not  specified,  and  I  have  no  descriptions  of  them  as  yet. 

An  interesting  aberrant  type  (fig.  31),  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
was  sent  to  Mr.  F.  W.  Rudler  in  1893  by  Mr.  Henry  Louis.  It  was 
obtained  by  the  latter  in  1690  when  in  camp  on  a  little  stream  known 
as  Ayer  Katiah,  a  tributary  to  the  Teluban  River.  Presumably  this 
is  the  Telubin  River  in  the  Siamese  states  of  Saiburi  or  Telubin,  the 
next  river  down  the  coast  after  the  Patani  River.  In  this  the  cyl- 
inder is  of  wood,  6.4  cm.  long,  neatly  bound  round  with  bands  of 
plaited  cane.  The  lower  end  is  rounded  off,  instead  of  terminating 
in  the  point  so  characteristic  of  the  peninsula.  The  piston,  of  hard 
wood,  is  very  short,  and  has  a  large,  roughly-carved  head.  The  pack- 
ing is  of  pale  vegetable  fiber.  A  large  bean  shell  serves  as  a  tinder 
box:  it  appears  to  be  an  entada  bean  (fig.  31  a).  Mr.  Louis  related 
that  a  party  of  Malays  came  down  from  some  neighboring  kam- 
ponffs  (i.  e.,  villages),  and  squatting  down  in  camp,  began  to  smoke, 
when  one  of  the  party,  a  young  man,  in  the  most  matter-of-fact  way, 
took  out  his  fire  piston  and  lit  his  cigarette.  The  particulars  were 
kindly  sent  to  me  by  Mr.  Rudler, 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  distribution  of  the  fire  piston  is  a  veiy 
wide  one  in  the  Malay  I'eninsula,  where  it  is  found  in  the  hands 
of  both  Malay  and  Siamese  people,  as  well  as  among  the  mixed 
Siamese-Malays.  The  question  arises  whether  the  instrument  is 
originally  Malayan  or  Siamese.  I  have  consulted  Mr.  Annandale 
and  Mr,  Skeat  upon  this  point,  and  both  are  inclined  to  regard  it  as 

Gooylc 


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THE  PIBE   PISTON BALFOUB,  577 

of  Siamese  origin.  The  former  writes  to  me  as  follows:  "With 
regard  to  the  gobi  api,  it  is,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  a  purely  Siamese 
implement  I  have  never  seen  or  beard  of  it  in  a  purely  Malay 
community.  •  •  •  There  are  specimens  from  Perak  in  the  Taip- 
ing  Museum,  but  their  exact  locality  is  not  recorded,  and  even  within 
a  few  miles  of  Taiping  there  is  a  large  Samsam  village,  while  the 
people  of  Upper  Perak  are  indistinguishable  from  those  of  Rhaman 
and  Kedah,  being  physically  as  much  Siamese  as  Malay."  Mr.  Skeat 
informs  me  that,  although  the  specimens  which  he  obtained  in  Jalor 
were  used  by  Malays,  he  is  inclined  to  thihk  that  they  are  borrowed 
from  the  Siamese  (or  Siamesing-Malays) ,  who  appear  to  use  them 
,  much  more  than  the  Malays  do.  "  There  are  a  good  many  Siamese 
and  Samsams  (i,  e.,  Siamesing-Malays)  in  tlie  district,  and  it  is  to 
their  influence  that  I  am  inclined  to  attribute  these  fire  utensUs." 
Again  he  writes:  "  I  have  a  strong  belief  that  this  particular  object  is 
Siamese,  because  it  appeared  to  die  out  as  we  worked  south  into  the 
more  exclusively  Malay  districts,  and  I  never  came  across  any  speci- 
men of  it  in  Kelantan  or  Trengganu  (which  are  substantially  Malay 
districts),  any  more  than  I  did  on  the  west  coast,  where  Siamese 
influence  was  equally  at  a  discount.  My  recollection  is  quite  clear 
on  the  point  that  at  Biserat  in  Jalor  the  fire  piston  was  used  by  the 
Siamese  more  commonly  than  by  the  Malays,  who  appeared  to  have 
borrowed  the  idea  from  them." 

I  have  not  as  yet  seen  or  heard  of  any  specimens  of  the  fire  piston 
from  Siam  proper,  but  it  would  be  most  interesting  to  know  if  they 
have  been  used  there,  and  also  to  learn  the  details  of  their  form,  so 
that  we  may  ascertain  whether  the  types  of  the  Burmese  region  can 
be  linked  by  intermediate  varieties  with  those  of  the  Malay  Peninsula. 

I  must  now  turn  to  the  distribution  of  this  interesting  fire-making 
appliance  beyond  the  southern  limits  of  the  peninsula. 

Sumatra, — Van  Hasselt "  mentions  the  use  of  the  fire  piston  by  the 
Menangkabo  Malays  in  the  hinterland  of  Padang,  on  the  west  side 
of  the  island.  The  specimen  which  he  describes  (fig.  32)  is  of  "  kar- 
bouw  "  (buffalo)  horn,  and  its  native  name  is  tjaioew  api  bdlantaq. 
In  form  it  reminds  one  of  some  Kachin  types.  Its  size  is  large,  and 
the  plain  surfaces  of  both  cylinder  and  piston  head  are  relieved  with 
ring  marks.  The  tinder,  raboewq  (cf.  raboJt  in  Jalor),  is  obtained 
from  the  anau  palm.    This  specimen  was  obtained  at  Soepajang. 

There  is  a  specimen  in  the  Berlin  Museum  from  Padang  on  the 
west  coast,  but  of  this  I  have  not  full  particulars. 

Mr.  R.  T.  Pritchett  figures*  an  ornate  example  from  Sumatra  (fig. 
33) ;  he  does  not,  however,  specify  the  material  or  the  size. 

(■Veth,  Midden  Sumatra,  III,  p.  177,  and  pi.  Lxxxni,  flga.  12  and  1.1. 
>  Snxtkf&na,  1890,  p.  97. 


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578  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SBHTHSONUN  INSTITUTION,  1807. 

There  is  a  very  fine  specimen  in  the  British  Museum  (fig.  34) 
which  was  collected  by  Csrl  Bock  at  Fort  van  de  Capelle,  Padang 
province,  Sumatra.  This  example  is  elaborately  carved  out  of  horn. 
The  cylinder  is  8.2  cm.  long  and  tapers  slightly  from  above;  it  is 
decorated  with  bands  of  earring.  The  piston  has  a  carved  head  which 
is  surmounted  by  a  well-shaped,  rounded  receptacle  for  tinder.  This 
is  very  neatly  fitted  with  a  cap  or  lid  which  fits  into  the  opening  like 
a  stopper,  and  is  furnished  on  one  side  with  a  small  projecting  spur; 
in  closing  the  lid  this  spur  passes  throu^  a  slot  in  the  rim  of  the 
tinder  receptable,  and  a  Half  turn  secures  the  lid  in  position  (fig. 
34  a).  The  name  of  this  instrument  is  given  as  tanar  datar,  but  it 
seems  possible  that  there  has  been  some  confusion  with  Tanah  Datar,  . 
the  name  of  a  place.    At  least  this  name  requires  verification. 

Borneo — Sarawak. — In  this  island  the  fire  piston  is  found  princi- 
pally in  the  hands  of  Malays  and  Sea  Dayaks  of  Sarawak.  In 
]  866,  F.  Boyle  described  "  it  as  used  l^  some  of  the  Dayak  tribes,  and 
expressed  much  astonishment  at  the  singular  method  of  procuring 
fire.  His  description  is  evidently  erroneous,  but  he  adds,  "  I  must 
observe  that  we  never  saw  this  singular  method  in  use,  though  the 
officers  of  the  Rajah  seemed  acquainted  with  it."  He  refers  to  lead 
being  \i?sA  as  a  material  in  making  the  instruments,  and  adds  that 
"  the  natives  say  that  no  metal  but  lead  will  produce  the  effect" 

Charles  Brooke,  in  1866,*  writes  as  follows :  "  There  is  a  method 
•  *  *  used  by  the  Saribus  and  Sakarang  Dyaks  for  obtaining 
fire,  which  is  peculiarly  artistic,  and  from  what  direction  such  a 
practice  could  have  been  inherited  is  beyond  my  ken.  The  instrument 
is  a  small  metal  tube,  about  3  inches  long,  closed  at  one  end,  with  a 
separate  piston,  the  bottom  of  which  fits  closely  into  the  tube,  and 
when  some  dried  stuff  answering  the  purpose  of  tinder  is  introduced, 
and  the  piston  slapped  suddenly  down,  the  head  of  it  being  held  in  the 
]>alm  of  the  hand  in  order  to  withdraw  it  as  quickly  as  possible  with 
c  jerk,  fire  is  by  this  means  communicated  to  the  tinder  in  the  tube. 
The  Dyaks  call  the  instrument  '  besi  api.' " 

W.  M.  Crocker  asserts  •■  that  the  fire  piston  is  "  found  among  the 
Saribus  Dyaks  only.  Here  we  have  a  small  brass  tube  lined  with 
lead;  no  other  metal,  the  natives  say,  would  produce  the  same  result. 
A  small  wooden  plunger  is  made  to  fit  the  tube,  the  end  of  which  is 
hollowed  out  in  the  shape  of  a  small  cup,  in  which  is  placed  the 
tinder." 

W.  H.  FumesK  also  describes  and  figures*  an  example  with  lead- 
lined  brass  cylinder  and  wooden  piston,  from  the  Sarilms  Ibans  (Sea 

'Adventures  amoDg  the  Dyaka  ot  Borneo,  1866,  p.  ST. 

•Tmi  Tfenre  In  Sarawak,  1866,  p.  50. 

«JoDm.  Anthrop.  Ingt.,  XV,  1886,  p.  426, 

*  Home  Life  of  tbe  Borneo  Head-HonterB,  1907, 


xToog  Ic 


THE  FIBE  PISTON BALFOUH.  579 

Dyaks),  and  in  the  British  Museum  there  are  two  specimens  from 
the  Saribas  district,  also  Sea  Dyak.  One  was  presented  by  Mr, 
G.  D.  Haviland  in  1894,  the  other  by  Mr.  Charles  Hose.  Both  in- 
struments have  cylinders  of  lead-lined  brass,  9  cm.  and  9.8  cm.  long, 
and  pistons  of  bard  wood.  Mr.  Hose's  specimen  has  attached  to  it  a 
bamboo  box  for  tinder,  the  other  has  a  tinder  holder  of  canarium  nut- 
shell and  also  a  small  cleaning  rod  of  cane  and  a  metal  spatula  ( ?  for 
grease).  Best  api  and  gockoh  api  are  given  as  the  native  names. 
These  two  examples  closely  resemble  a  specimen  (fig.  35)  presented 
by  Mr.  D.  T.  S.  Bailey  to  the  Pitt-Rivers  Museum  in  1904,  It  came 
from  the  Sea  Dayalis  of  Simanggang,  near  Saribas-  In  structure  it 
is  identical  with  the  others,  and  it  has  a  tinder  box  of  canarmtn,  nut 
and  a  brass  pricker  attached  to  it.  Dr.  A.  C.  Haddon  brought  back 
a  very  similar  Saribas  Dayak  specimen,  gnchu  api.  Another  ex- 
ample of  the  same  form  in  the  Kuching  Museum,  said  to  be  from 
the  Kayana  but  doubtless  of  Sea  Dayak  origin,  is  figured  by  both 
Lady  Brassey  "  and  R.  T.  Pritchett.* 

Another  type  of  fire  piston  in  Sarawak  differs  from  the  above  only 
in  the  fact  of  the  cylinder  being  made  of  lead  alone,  instead  of  the 
lead  being  merely  a  lining  to  a  brass  tube.  Mr.  D.  I.  S.  Bailey  pre- 
sented a  specimen  of  this  kind  to  the  Pitt-Eivers  Museum  in  1904 
(fig.  36).  The  cylinder  has  been  cast  evidently  in  a  two-piece  mold 
of  bamboo,  and  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  lead  and  tin.  It  is 
decorated  with  simple  relief  designs.  The  piston  is  of  wood.  At- 
tached to  the  cylinder  are  a  tinder  box  of  entada  bean  full  of  palm- 
scurf  tinder,  and  also  a  brass-wire  pricker.  It  is  a  Sea  Dayak  speci- 
men from  Simanggang. 

A  nearly  identical  specimen  was  given  to  the  Pitt-Rivers  Museum 
in  1889  by  Mr.  S.  B.  J.  Skertchley.  It  was  made  by  a  Kalaka  { ?  Kal- 
ukah)  native  from  the  western  part  of  Sarawak,  not  very  far  from 
the  Saribas  and  Simanggang  districts.  Mr.  Skertchley  gives  a  de- 
tailed account  of  the  instrument,  to  which  I  will  refer  readers  for  full 
details,  and  also  an  excellent  figure."  The  instrument  itself,  besi  apt. 
resembles  the  last  in  all  essential  details;  a  bamboo  tinder  box  with 
palm-scurf  tinder,  a  cleaning  rod  of  cane,  and  one  half  of  a  bamboo 
casting  mold  accompany  the  specimen.  Mr.  Skertchley  says  that  the 
metal  of  the  cylinder  is  composed  of  two  parts  lead  to  one  of  tin. 
"  It  is  cast  in  a  bamboo  mould.  •  *  ♦  The  mould  is  a  thin  piece 
of  bamboo,  split  lengthwise,  on  the  interior  of  which  the  ornamental 
bands,  etc,  are  incised.  A  piece  of  flat  wood,  plank  by  preference, 
has  a  hole  made  in  it  the  size  of  the  bore.  Through  this  hole  a  rotan 
is  pushed,  which  also  passes  through  a  lump  of  clay  tempered  with 

"  The  Last  VoyaRe,  1887,  p.  148. 

■'  Suoklana,  1890,  p.  97. 

"■Journ.  Aathrop.  Inst,  XIX,  ISSW,  pp.  415-448,  and  pi.  ki,  flg,  lfon|(; 


580  ANNUAL  EEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

sand  stuck  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  plank.  The  rotan  projects 
beyond  the  clay  to  a  distance  somewhat  greater  than  the  length  of 
the  cylinder.  The  mould,  bound  together  with  split  rotan,  is  placed 
centi«lly  and  vertically  over  the  projecting  rotan,  thus  forming  a 
box  closed  below  with  clay,  open  at  the  top,  and  having  a  rotan  in 
the  centre.  Into  this  the  molten  metal  is  poured.  When  cool  the 
rotan  is  withdrawn,  the  mold  open,  and  the  cylinder  is  complete.  A 
good  mould  will  make  three  or  four  castings,  but,  as  a  rule,  the  first 
destroys  it.  The  measurements  of  the  cylinder  are:  Length,  3J 
inches;  width,  ^  inch;  bore  §  inch.  This  is  the  average  size;  larger 
ones  do  not  work  well ;  smaller  ones  are  of  no  use." 

British  North  Borneo. — The  only  actual  specimen  which  I  have 
from  British  North  Borneo  (fig.  37  on  pi.  v)  was  sent  in  1890  by 
Mr.  L.  P.  Beaufort,  who  collected  it  on  the  west  coast,  to  Sir  R, 
Biddulph  Martin,  who  has  very  kindly  given  it  to  me.  It  is  quite  a 
remarkable  and  specialized  form,  unlike  any  other  which  I  have  seen 
from  any  part  of  the  east.  As  in  the  last-mentioned  examples  from 
Sarawak,  the  cylinder  is  of  lead,  or  possibly  lead  and  tin,  cast  in  a 
bivalve  bamboo  mold,  and  decorated  at  the  lower  end  with  faintly 
rai^d,  foliated  designs,  and  at  the  upper  end  with  punched  or  incised 
zigzags.  The  great  peculiarity  of  this  example  lies  in  the  form  of  the 
lower  end  of  the  cylinder.  The  base,  instead  of  being  flat  or  rounded, 
is  of  un^mmetrical  form  and  concave,  and  just  above  this  is  a  broad, 
i-ounded  notch  on  one  side.  From  this  notch  a  perforated  duct  com- 
municates with  the  bottom  of  the  bore  of  the  cylinder,  very  much 
after  the  fashion  of  the  touchhole  and  fire  duct  of  an  early  muzzle- 
loading  camion.  The  presence  of  this  duct  is  a  most  peculiar  feature, 
and  its  raison  d'etre  is  not  readily  accounted  for.  It  certainly  recalls 
to  one's  mind  those  early  European  and  English  forms,  in  which  the 
air  is  violently  driven  through  holes,  to  which  I  have  already  referred, 
and  it  has  occurred  to  both  Mr.  Miller  Christy  and  myself  that,  pos- 
sibly, the  tinder  was  held  in  the  outside  notch  against  the  small 
orifice,  through  which  the  air  was  violently  driven  in  a  compressed 
state  by  the  piston,  the  friction  due  to  passing  through  the  small  duct 
being  largely  responsible  for  the  production  of  heat.  At  the  same 
time  I  am  disinclined  to  think  that  this  was  the  case.  The  duct  is, 
to  my  mind,  fsr  too  large  for  the  purpose,  and  it  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  enlarged  at  all  since  it  was  first  made;  through  such  a  duct 
the  air  would  escape  so  easily  and  quickly  when  forced  throu^  by 
the  piston  that  there  would  be  very  little  compression  or  friction,  and, 
consequently,  very  little  rise  of  temperature.  The  tinder,  moreover, 
would  almost  certainly  be  blown  away.  It  seems  to  me  more  likely 
that  the  tinder  was  placed,  as  usual,  on  the  end  of  the  piston  (which 
is,  indeed,  hollowed  out,  cup-wise,  in  the  usual  manner,  evidently 
with  this  intention),  and  that  when  the  piston  was  ^veu  forcibly 


THE  FIBB  PISTON — BAUOUB.  681 

downward,  the  small  orifice  of  the  duct  was  tightly  closed  by  a 
fioger  which  would  lie  comfortably  in  the  rounded  notch.  This  would 
allow  the  air  to  be  compressed,  as  the  cylinder  would  thus  be,  tem- 
porarily, a  closed  one.  At  the  end  of  the  piston  stroke,  when  the 
tinder  was  ignited,  the  finger  would  be  raised,  thus  opening  the  duct, 
and,  in  addition  to  the  piston  being  more  readily  and  quickly  with- 
drawn, through  no  vacuum  being  formed,  the  air  from  the  outside, 
which  would  rush  in  through  the  open  duct  owing  to  the  suction  of 
the  piston,  would  actually  blow  up  the  tinder  into  a  higher  state  of 
incandescence,  rendering  it  unnecessary  to  blow  ujKin  it  after  removal 
from  the  cylinder.  I  offer  this  theory  as  a  possible  solution  of  the 
mystery  of  this  peculiar  type,  though  as  yet  I  have  not  been  able  to 
conduct  experiments  in  order  to  see  if  such  a  process  would  act  effi- 
ciently. The  piston  of  this  specimen  is  of  wood,  and  presents  the 
peculiarity  of  the  cupped  end  having  been  capped  with  lead.  This 
lead  capping  is  damaged,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  see  whether  it  was 
intended  to  take  the  place  of  a  packing  or  whether  it  was  supple- 
mentary to  the  more  usual  packing  of  thread.  No  trace  of  thread 
packing  is  to  be  seen,  though  a  sunken  groove  near  the  end  of  the 
pistons  seems  to  be  designed  for  holding  some  kind  of  packing  wound 
round  at  this  point.  Mr,  Beaufort  told  Sir  R.  B.  Martin  that  fire 
pistons  were  becoming  very  difficult  to  obtain  in  British  North 
Borneo,  where  they  are  confined  to  the  west  coast.  He  also  added 
that  "  the  better  ones  are  made  of  wood."  " 

The  only  example  made  of  wood  from  Borneo  is  one  figured  by 
C.  M.  Pleyte,'  and,  although  this  is  not  so  stated,  it  seems  likely  that 
this  may  have  come  from  British  North  Borneo.  It  is  (fig.  88)  quite 
plain,  and  differs  in  external  detail  from  examples  from  Sarawak. 

In  regard  to  the  general  question  of  the  presence  of  the  fire  piston 
in  Borneo,  it  appears  to  be  confined  to  an  area  extending  from  the 
westerly  portions  of  Sarawak  to  the  western  coast  of  British  North 
Borneo,  though  there  is  a  wide  hiatus  in  the  distribution  between 
these  two  regions.  It  is  only  found  on  or  comparatively  near  the 
coast,  where  there  is  a  strong  admixture  with  the  Malay  element,  and 
where  Malayan  culture  is  very  evident  Both  Mr.  C.  Hose  and  Mr. 
R.  Shelford  are  strongly  of  opinion  that  this  instrument  has  been 
introduced  by  the  Malays,  from  whom  the  Sea  Dayaks  have  borrowed 
it  in  comparatively  recent  times.  Mr.  Shelford  wrote  to  me  in  answer 
to  my  inquiries  that  "  the  Malays  and  Sen  Dayaks  of  the  Saribas 
River  were  at  one  time  associated  a  good  deal  in  piracy,  etc.,  and 
there  was  a  good  deal  of  intermarrying;  at  the  present  day  the 
'  Orang  Saribas '  have  more  of  the  Malay  in  them  than  any  other 
tribe  of  Sea  Dayaks,  and,  as  far  as  I  can  make  out,  they  are  the  only 

"Journ.  Antbrop.  InHt.,  XX,  1801,  p.  331.  ,-,  . 

*GlobuB,  LIX,  pL  IV.  p.  3  (of  reprint),  flg.  T.  ihy^iOOglC 


582  ANNUAL  REPOHT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

tribe  who  know  the  use  of  the  chelop  (i.  e.,  fire  piston)."  The  latter 
remark  leaves  out  of  consideration  the  occurrence  of  the  implement 
in  British  North  Borneo;  but  there,  too,  Malayan  culture  is  not  lack- 
ing on  the  coast,  and  it  is  likely  that  the  forms  found  there,  which 
differ  from  the  Sea  Dayak  forms  of  Sarawak,  are  traceable  to  the 
same  Malayan  origin,  the  difference  in  type  being  due  either  to  varia- 
tion within  the  district  or  to  different  types  of  the  instrument  having 
been  introduced  by  the  Malays.  The  use  of  lead  as  a  material  is 
peculiar  to  Borneo,  and  it  is  possible  that  this  may  be  a  character 
developed  in  the  island  itself,  unless  the  Malays  may  have  themselves 
used  this  metal  and  introduced  its  use  with  the  instrument  itself.  Of 
this  there  appears  so  far  to  be  no  record.  There  is  no  Siamese  influ- 
ence in  Borneo,  so  that  the  direct  influence  of  Siamese  culture  from 
the  Malay  Peninsula  is  quite  improbable, 

Java. — Fire  pistons,  though  now  scarce  in  Java,  range  over  a  wide 
area  of  the  island.  They  are  apparently  always  made  throughout  of 
buffalo  horn ;  at  least,  all  the  specimines  I  have  seen  or  know  of  are 
of  this  material. 

A  good,  well-made  specimen  in  my  possession  (Sg.  39),  of  black 
horn  carefully  polished,  has  a  cigar-shaped  cylinder,  with  two  bands 
of  ornamental  engraving.  The  piston  terminates  in  a  large  rounded 
head,  which  is  fixed  to  it  with  a  horn  rivet.  This  knob  or  piston 
head  is  hollowed  out,  and  serves  as  a  receptacle  for  tinder,  which 
consists  of  a  brown  palm  scurf.  The  specimen  was  obtained  in 
Buitenzorg  in  the  west  of  Java.  This  shape  appears  to  be  a  charac- 
teristic one.  Mr.  C.  M.  Pleyte,  of  Leiden,  had  several  examples  of 
this  form  from  Bogor,  one  of  which  is  now  in  the  Edinburgh  Mu- 
seum; these  are  almost  identical  with  my  specimens.  In  the  museum 
at  Rotterdam  there  is  a  horn  fire  piston  from  Java,  but  I  do  not 
know  if  its  shape  is  the  same  as  the  above.  In  the  Cambridge  Mu- 
seum may  be  seen  a  specimen  from  Kadiri  (Kediri),  in  which  the 
cylinder  is  shorter  and  terminates  in  a  small  projecting  knob.  It 
is  ringed  all  over  with  transverse,  incised  lines  (fig.  40).  A  dif- 
ferent type  again  is  figured  by  C.  M.  Pleyte,'  in  which  the  horn 
cylinder  tapers  from  below  upward,  the  base  being  broad  and  cut 
off  square.  The  knob  on  the-  piston  is  hollowed  for  containing 
tinder,  and  is  furnished  with  a  lid  which  fits  over  a  flange  (fig.  41). 
In  the  same  article  Pleyte  refers '  to  a  Sundanese  fire  piston  (West 
Java)  called  tjeletok.  The  form  of  this  is,  unfortunately,  not  de- 
scribed.   He  says  that  tjeletok  is  from  the  root  word  i^etoA;=Malay 

•Globus.  LIX,  pt.  IV,  p.  3  (of  reprint). 

*  Quoting  the  catalogue  of  the  Batavlaasche  Oenootscliap  vao  Kuusten  ^ 
Wetenacbappen,  p.  50,  No.  1120. 


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lO 


Fire  Pistons. 


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THE  FIBE   PISTON — BAUOUH.  588 

tjatok;  mentjatok=^tc\ick  down  quickly  or  with  force.  The  word 
is  the  same  as  tjatoew  given  as  the  Malayan  name  of  the  instrument 
in  Sumatra. 

Flores. — From  this  island  there  is  a  fire  piston  in  the  Vienna 
Museum  (fig.  42).  It  is  made  of  horn,  and  is  peculiar  in  having 
a  rounded  receptacle  for  tinder  at  the  lower  end  of  the  cylinder,  in- 
stead of  in  the  knob  of  the  piston. 

John  Cameron  says,  as  quoted  above,  that  prior  to  1865  he  saw 
the  fire  piston  in  use  in  some  of  the  islands  to  the  eastward  of  Java, 
so  that  we  may  assume  that  other  islands  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Flores  possessed  the  instrument  at  that  time.  Unfortuately,  he 
does  not  specify  the  localities. 

Philippine  lalanda. — The  fire  piston  as  it  occurs  in  the  Philippines 
appears  to  be  restricted  mainly  to  the  wild  non-Negrito  tribes  of 
north  central  Luzon,  where  it  is  used  by  natives  of  the  so-called 
"  Indonesian  "  group.  It  is  also  recorded  from  Mindanao,  however. 
H.  Savage  Landor  says:"  "This  instrument,  called  Bantin,  gener- 
ally made  of  carabao  horn,  is  found  among  various  tribes  of  North 
Luzon,  and  also  in  South  Luzon,  among  the  curly-headed  Aetas  of 
the  Gulf  of  Ragay.  *  •  •"  He  does  not  specify  the  particular 
tribes  in  the  north,  and  it  is  unfortunate  that  he  does  not  say  if  his 
information  regarding  the  Aetas  is  first-hand  or  not.  I  have  found 
no  other  references  to  fire  pistons  among  tribes  of  Negrito  stock, 
and  further  information  is  required  on  this  point.  A.  E.  Jenks  re- 
marks *  that  "  the  fire  syringe,  common  west  of  Bontoc  Province 
among  the  Tinguian,  is  not  known  in  the  Bontoc  culture  area." 
Others  extend  the  distribution  into  the  Bontoc  area,  and  beyond  it 
into  the  more  central  portions  of  the  interior  of  North  Luzon.  Doctor 
Schadenberg  mentions "  their  use  by  the  Bontoc  people,  and  describes 
the  cylinder  as  of  carabao  (buffalo)  horn  tip,  c.  9  cm.  long  with  a 
bore  of  about  1  cm.  The  fire  piston,  together  with  a  box  for  grease 
and  tinder  of  charred  cotton,  is  carried  in  a  pouch  woven  from 
hejuco.  He  adds  that  the  natives  value  them  very  greatly  and  require 
a  high  equivalent  in  exchange. 

In  the  Dresden  Museum  there  are  two  specimens.  Of  these,  one, 
ftpm  the  Igorrotes  of  Bontoc  (fig.  43),  has  a  cylinder  of  wood  taper- 
ing from  below  "upward;  the  other  (fig,  44),  from  the  Igorrotes  of 
TJagan,  is  very  similar,  but  is  made  of  horn.    Each  has  a  separate 

0  Gems  of  the  Baet,  1904,  II,  p.  334. 

'Tbe  BoDtok  Igorrot,  Manilii,  lOOS,  p.  134.  (Department  of  tbe  Interior, 
EUinol.  Survey  Publications,  Vol.  I.) 

"Verhandl.  d.  Berliner  Gesell.  f.  Anthrop..  1886,  p.  [SSI],  In  ZetL  f.  Ethnol., 
Vol  XVIII. 


41780—08—^1 


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JNUAL  REPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  19ffl. 

er  of  bamboo.*  Another  Igorrote  example  (fig.  45),  col- 
r.  Alexander  Schadenberg,  is  in  the  Vienna  Museum.  The 
of  carabao  horn  and  the  piston  of  wood ;  the  tinder  of  cot- 
lined  in  a  bamboo  holder.  The  collector  refers  to  the-  use 
ument  among  the  Igorrotes  of  Tiagan,  Lepatito,  and  Bon- 
.  Sawyer "  gives  the  Igorrote  name  of  the  fire  piston  as 
Sulpakan  is  mentioned  as  the  native  name  of  a  specimen 
n  in  the  Berlin  Museum.  A  Tinguian  specimen  is  in  the 
um.  In  the  Ethnological  Museum  at  Rome  there  is  a  fire 
1  the  Calinga  tribe  in  the  province  of  Nueva  Vizcaya,  col- 
os6  Ma.  de  Mourin,  1893  (fig.  46).  The  horn  cylinder  is 
illy  faceted  and  transversely  ringed  at  either  end.  The 
■  wood.  D.  C.  Worcester  mentions  "  examples  made  of  buf - 
Tom  the  wild  tribes  of  North  Luzon.  He  adds;  "  To  per- 
operation  successfully  requires  long  practice.  I  have  yet 
ite  man  who  professes  to  be  able  to  do  it.  *  *  •  How 
I  first  came  to  think  of  getting  fire  in  such  a  way  is,  to  me, 
'  I  may  assure  him  that  the  process  of  procuring  fire  by 
is  quite  easy,  provided  that  the  bore  of  the  cylinder  is  true 
ston  carefully  packed.  In  Mr.  Edward  Bidwell's  coUec- 
s  an  example  (fig.  47)  from  Luzon  with  horn  cylinder  and 
ton,  made  very  plainly.  Mr.  Landor  '  says  that  in  the  more 
ire  pistons  from  Luzon  "  a  receptacle  for  the  tinder  balls 
ind  and  a  metal  spoon  attached." 

here  is  a  reference  to  the  fire  piston  in  Mindanao,  the 
land  of  the  Philippine  group.  F.  H.  Sawyer  mentions  ' 
used  by  the  Mouteses  or  Buquidnones  ia  that  island. 

ORIGIN  AND  DI8FEBSAI-. 

^ven  as  far  as  my  present  information  admits  a  descrip- 
geographical  distribution  and  varieties  of  the  fire  piston, 
turn  to  the  more  difficult  though  perhaps  more  interest- 
'  my  subject.  The  question  arises,  ^Vhat  do  we  learn  as 
try  of  this  instrument  from  its  distribution  ? 
regions  in  which  it  occurs  are  very  widely  separated,  both 
ally  and  culturally.  On  the  one  hand,  we  have  western 
j  England  as  a  home  of  the  fire  piston  in  an  environment 
lest  culture ;  on  the  other  hand,  we  find  it  occurring  over 

oneo  auB  dem  Kgl.  Ethnog.  Museum  zu  Dresden,  by  A.  B.  Meyer 

itenberg,  VIII,  Die  Pblltpplnen.    I.  Nord  Luzon,  1890,  p.  21,  and  pi. 

and  19. 

ibltants  of  tbe  Philippines,  1900,  p.  266. 

Ippine  Islands,  1898,  p.  2S7. 

p.  345. 


wG 


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THE  FIEE   PISTON — BALFOUR.  585 

a  very  wide  but  very  connected  area  in  the  east,  amongst  peoples 
relatively  low  in  the  scale  of  civilization.  The  primary  question 
requiring  solution  is  whether  the  fire  piston  has  been  transmitted 
from  the  one  geographical  area  to  the  other,  or  whether  it  was  inde- 
pendently arrived  at  in  the  two  regions.  We  know  that  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  method  of  producing  heat  by  compression  of  air  was 
discovered  in  England  and  France  by  scientific  experiment,  and  that 
this  principle  was  to  some  extent  adapted  to  domestic  use  there,  by 
the  invention  of  the  fire  piston,  so  that  it  is  at  least  clear  that  the 
European  form  was  not  derived  from  the  east.  Was,  then,  the 
eastern  instrument  a  derivative  from  the  western!  This  question  is 
not  easily  answered.  On  the  one  hand,  the  difficulty  of  explaining 
how  native  peoples,  in  a  comparatively  low  condition  of  culture, 
could  possibly  have  arrived  independently  at  the  knowledge  requisite 
for  the  invention  of  this  method  of  fire  production  is  so  great  as 
almost  to  compel  the  belief  that  the  instrument  must  have  been  intro- 
duced from  elsewhere  by  some  more  highly  cultured  race.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  it  is  only  one  hundred  years  ago  last  February 
that  the  first  English  patent  was  taken  out  by  Lorentz  for  a  fire 
piston,  and  that  the  scientific  knowledge  of  this  method  of  obtaining 
a  spark  dates  only  from  a  very  few  years  earlier.  This,  among  a 
people  in  the  highest  state  of  civilization  and  of  scientific  advance- 
ment. It  seems  almost  incredible  that  so  delicate  and  far  from  obvi- 
ous a  method  can  have  been  discovered,  whether  by  accident  or  by 
gradual  development,  by  any  of  the  eastern  peoples  amongst  whom 
it  has  been  found  in  use.  At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  admitted 
that  this  is  the  only  serious  difficulty  which  lies  in  the  way  of  admit- 
ting the  possibility  of  an  independent  origin  in  the  two  main  regions 
of  distribution.  There  is  no  inherent  impossibility  in  such  a  double 
origin,  cases  of  independent  invention  of  similar  appliances  in.widely 
separated  regions  having  frequently  arisen.  There  is  no  record  of 
introduction  by  Europeans. 

There  are,  furthermore,  considerable  difficulties  in  accounting  for 
the  dispersal  of  the  fire  piston  in  the  east,  under  the  theory  of  its 
original  introduction  from  Europe.  From  the  earlier  references  we 
learn  that  prior  to  1865  the  fire  piston  was  already  well  known  in 
the  east  over  a  very  extensive  geographical  area,  embracing  Burma, 
the  Malay  Peninsula,  Borneo,  and  the  "  islands  to  the  eastward  of 
Java."  This  is  a  wide  range  of  distribution,  and  it  would  seem 
probable  that  considerable  time  would  be  required  to  account  for 
this  extensive  dispersal,  even  if  the  instrument  had  been  introduced 
by  travelers  from  the  west.  If  we  choose  to  conjure  up  a  picture 
of  enterprising  European  voyagers  in  the  earlier  half  of  last  cen- 
tury depositing  supplies  of  fire  pistons  in  various  islands  of  the 
Malay  Archipelago  and  on  the  mainland  of  southeastern  Asin„|[Fe 


586  ANNUAL  EEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

must  also  allow  for  the  time  which  must  have  elapsed  before  due 
appreciation  of  the  value  and  potentialities  of  the  new  machine 
would  have  been  developed  in  peoples  to  whom  its  principle  was 
hitherto  absolutely  unknown.  We  must  also  allow  for  a  still  longer 
period  during  which  the  difficulties  of  making  imitations  of  the 
European  instrument  by  native  methods  were  gradually  overcome; 
for  we  must  bear  in  mind  that,  simple  and  few  as  are  the  essential  ele- 
ments which  together  form  the  fire  piston,  it  is  only  when  thej  are 
in  perfect  adjustment  tliat  the  instrument  will  work  effectively  and 
produce  the  desired  result.  To  this  extent  the  fire  piston  is  essen- 
tially a  delicate  instrument ;  an  imperfect  bore,  faulty  packing  of 
the  piston,  or  inferior  tinder,  will  at  once  render  the  appliance  prac- 
tically useless.  Native  made  and  effective  fire  pistons  were  certainly 
widely  distributed  in  the  east  before  1865.  European  travelers  who 
observed  them  expressed  great  astonishment  at  this  peculiar  method 
of  fire  producing,  which  was  evidently  quite  new  to  them.  They 
were  educated  and  experienced  men,  and  we  may  gather  from  their 
marveling  at  the  method  that  they  were  unacquainted  with  it  at 
home,  where  the  domestic  use  of  the  fire  piston  must  have  long 
since  died  out.  Bastian,  who  records  in  1866  that  he  had  seen  the 
fire  piston  in  Burma,  was  born  in  1826,  and  was  therefore  about 
forty  years  old  at  the  time,  and  although  his  memory  would  have 
gone  back  that  far  into  the  early  half  of  the  last  century,  he  was 
evidently  imfamiliar  with  the  instrument  in  Europe.  It  is  unlikely, 
therefore,  that  the  instrument  was  of  at  all  recent  introduction  from 
Europe  at  that  time.  Another  important  point  to  be  remembered 
is  the  fact  that  no  fire  pistons  of  European  make  have,  apparently, 
been  found  in  the  eastern  area  of  dispersal. 

From  the  passage  in  the  Mechanics'  Magazine  quoted  above  we 
may  gather  that  in  1842  the  fire  piston  was  but  little  known  in 
England,  though  it  is  said  to  have  been  familiar  on  the  Continent. 
It  appears  on  the  whole  unlikely  that  this  instrument  can  have  been 
taken  out  as  a  trade  article  to  the  east  by  English  travelers  later 
than,  say,  1830,  since  its  practical  use,  never  very  prevalent  in 
England,  seems  to  have  been  quite  on  the  wane  by  that  time.  Nor 
is  it  likely  that  it  would  have  been  traded  abroad  much  earlier  than, 
say,  1815,  since  its  first  introduction  to  domestic  use  in  England  was 
no  earlier  than  1807.  This  would  allow  a  probable  maximum  period 
of  fifteen  years  during  which  English  traders  and  travelers  could 
introduce  it  to  various  parts  of  the  east.  The  predominant  European 
influences  in  those  regions  which  are  comprised  within  the  area  of 
dispersal  of  the  fire  piston  in  the  east  have  been  the  English  and 
the  Dutch.  Of  the  use  made  of  the  instrument  by  the  Dutch,  I  have 
no  record,  but  at  least  it  would  appear  that  Uiey  were  not  very 
vigorous  in  pushing  this  article  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  since  sudi 


THE  FffiE  PISTON — BALFOXJB.  687 

large  posaeesions  as  Dutch  Borneo,  Celebes,  end  the  Moluccas,  do 
not  appear  to  have  received  the  instrument.  As  to  the  French,  who 
appear  to  have  entertained  a  kindly  feeling  toward  the  fire  piston 
and  to  have  made  fairly  considerable  use  of  it,  they  need  hardly  be 
considered  as  possible  introducers,  since  the  regions  of  geographical 
distribution  of  the  fire  piston  in  the  east  are  mainly  outside  the  sphere 
of  their  direct  influence. 

It  is  certainly  difficult  to  account  for  the  wide  eastern  distribution 
of  the  fire  piston  and  the  development  of  local  native  varieties  by 
the  theory  of  introduction  from  Europe,  which  allows  so  short  a  time 
in  which  to  develop  the  conditions  which  already  obtained  prior  to 
1865,  This  is  especially  the  case  when  we  remember  that  such  primi- 
tive and  widely  separated  peoples  as  the  Moiis  of  Indo-China  and 
the  Indonesian  peoples  of  Luzon  in  the  Philippines  are  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  manufacture  and  use  of  the  instrument.  These 
peoples  have  until  recently  been  very  little  known  to  Europeans. 

It  may  be  suggested  that  Europeans  may  have  introduced  the  fire 
piston  into  some  one  or  two  districts  only,  and  that  the  further 
dispersal  was  effected  by  transmission  elsewhere  through  native 
agency.  This  would,  however,  have  required  a  longer  time  than  is 
available,  as  dispersal  by  this  means  is  necessarily  slow. 

It  has  frequently  been  suggested  that  the  Chinese  must  have  origi- 
nated and  organized  the  dispersal  of  the  fire  piston  in  the  east.  It 
is  a  common  practice  to  credit  the  Chinese  with  the  invention  of 
many  strange  things,  but  there  is,  imfortunately,  no  evidence  what- 
ever that  they  even  knew  of  the  fire  piston,  except  perhaps  on  the 
Burmese  and  Siamese  frontiers.  At  least,  as  far  as  I  know,  there  are 
no  records  or  specimens  which  give  evidence  of  such  knowledge  on 
their  part. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  fire  piston  in  the  Siamese 
Malay  states  and  the  Malayan  regions  of  the  peninsula  has  caused 
some  of  the  distinguished  local  experts  to  believe  that  the  instrument 
is  rather  Siamese  than  Malayan  in  origin,  as  far  as  that  region  is 
concerned.  This  theory  would  perhaps  account  for  its  northeasterly 
and  northwesterl}'  dispersal  among  the  Moi's,  the  Shans,  and  the  Ka- 
chins.  It  is  possible  that  the  Malays  may  have  borrowed  it  from  the 
Siamese.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Malays  have  certainly  acted,  perhaps 
not  as  the  sole,  but  at  any  rate  as  the  main,  dispersers  of  the  fire  piston 
over  the  islands  of  the  East  Indian  Archipelago,  from  Sumatra  to  the 
Philippines.  Wherever  in  this  region  the  fire  piston  is  found — even 
though  it  be  in  the  hands  of  and  manufactured  by  more  primitive 
peoples — the  influence  of  Malayan  culture  is  also  observable,  and  the 
instrument  is  not  found  in  districts  which  are  remote  from  Malayan 
contact.  It  is  even  possible  that  the  Malays  are  the  actual  originators 
and  that  the  Siamese  may  have  borrowed  the  idea  from  them.    Or  the 


588  ANNUAL  REtOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSITTUTION,  ISffl. 

evidence  of  its  frequent  use  among  the  widely  separated  "  Indo- 
nesian "  or  Froto- Malay  tribes  of  Luzon  and  the  MoTs  of  Indo-China, 
who  are  by  some  ethnologists  classed  as  belonging  to  the  "  Indo- 
nesian "  stock,  together  with  the  fact  that  the  neighboring  more 
highly  cultured  peoples  are  without  it,  may  be  taken  as  pointing  to  a 
Proto-Malayan  origin,  which  would  assign  the  invention  of  the  fire 
piston  to  a  race  still  lower  in  culture  than  the  Malays  proper.  This 
theory  would  involve  a  very  considerable  antiquity  for  the  Eastern 
fire  piston  and  the  probabilities  are  perhaps  hardly  in  favor  of  it. 
All  that  can  be  said  with  any  certainty  is  that,  whether  the  fire  piston 
was  introduced  to  the  Malays  by  Europeans  or  by  some  other  Eastern 
people  in  a  condition  of  culture  more  or  less  on  a  par  with  their  own, 
we  must,  I  think,  give  to  the  Malays  due  credit  for  having  materially 
assisted  in  extending  the  geographical  range  of  the  instrument  and 
of  having  introduced  it  into  several  of  the  islands  of  the  Eastern 
Archipelago  where  it  has  taken  root,  and  where  local  varieties  have 
in  the  course  of  time  arisen  and  themselves  again  become  modified 
in  matters  of  detail. 

With  the  single  exception  of  the  peculiar  type  from  British  North 
Borneo  (fig.  37),  all  the  eastern  forms  are  essentially  the  same  in 
general  structure,  the  less  important  details  being  those  which  alone 
are  capable  of  modification  and  variation.  These  details  include  the 
materials  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  cylinder  and  piston,  which 
may  be  of  bamboo,  wood,  horn,  ivory,  bone,  brass,  or  lead  {lead  and 
tin  usually) ;  the  external  form;  such  accessories  as  the  tinder  recep- 
tacle, which  may  be  separate  from  the  instrument,  and  consist  of  bam- 
boo, nutshells,  beans,  palm  spathe,  or  of  woven  materials.  Prickers 
for  adjusting  the  tinder,  grease  boxes  and  spatulse  for  applying  the 
grease  to  the  piston  packing,  are  other  accessories  which  may  be 
present  or  absent,  but  whose  occurrence  in  identical  shape  in  widely 
separated  regions  adds  to  the  evidence  which  goes  to  prove  that  the 
whole  series  of  eastern  types  belongs  to  one  morphological  group. 

Assuming,  for  purposes  of  argument,  that  the  oriental  fire  pis- 
ton was  invented  independently  by  the  relatively  primitive  peoples 
among  whom  it  appears  to  have  been  in  use  during  a  long  period, 
we  may  consider  the  question  as  to  the  manner  in  which  these  peo- 
ple might  conceivably  have  hit  upon  this  highly  specialized  method 
of  producing  fire.  It  must  be  admitted  that  the  great  difficulty  in 
arriving  at  a  satisfactory  conclusion  upon  this  point  is  the  principal 
factor  which  militates  against  the  acceptance  of  the  theory  of  the 
native  origin  of  the  fire  piston.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that,  if 
the  invention  was  made  by  an  eastern  people,  the  principle  must 
have  been  arrived  at  by  some  happy  accident,  the  effect  having  been 
produced  during  the  process  of  some  action  or  work  unconnected 
with  fire  makiiig.    It  is  inconceivable  that  such  a  physical  phenome- 


THE  PIBE   PISTON — ^BALPOXJB.  589 

non  could  hare  been  thought  out  and  elaborated  scientifically  by 
primitive  peoples,  and  we  may  remember  that  in  Europe  the  first 
appreciation  of  this  phenomenon  of  heat  production  by  air  compres- 
sion was  due  not  to  research  but  to  observation  of  an  unexpected 
effect  There  are  three  absolute  essentials  necessary  for  production 
of  heat  in  this  manner:  (1)  A  cylinder  with  accurate  bore,  closed  at 
one  end;  (2)  a  piston  accurately  fitting  the  cylinder;  (3)  tinder  which 
is  very  quickly  inflammable.  Therefore,  in  our  search  for  proto- 
types, we  are  necessarily  restricted  to  objects  in  which  these  elements 
may  conceivably  be  associated. 

A  form  of  bellows  used  in  blowing  up  the  fire,  which  is  very 
prevalent  in  Burma  and  many  parts  of  the  mainland  and  the  Eastern 
Archipelago,  and  which  belongs  largely  to  Malayan  culture,  is  con- 
structed upon  the  principle  of  a  piston;  there  is  a  cylinder  and  a 
packed  piston,  whose  thrust  drivei^  the  air  out  in  a  forcible  manner. 
In  this,  however,  a  duct  opens  from  the  lower  end,  and  since,  there- 
fore, the  cylinder  is  not  a  closed  one,  there  can  be  but  little  compres- 
sion of  the  air ;  certainly  not  sufficient  to  cause  a  marked  rise  in  the 
temperature.  So  that,  even  if  by  accident  some  tinder -like  material 
adher^  to  the  piston,  it  could  not  be  ignited.  In  breaking  through 
the  nodes  of  a  bamboo,  in  order  to  render  the  bore  continuous  and  of 
greater  holding  capacity,  a  rod  may  be  thrust  violently  down  the 
cylinder,  which  at  first  is,  of  course,  closed.  Certain  simple  and 
primitive-looking  fire  pistons  among  the  Kachins  are  indeed  made 
of  natural  bamboo  cylinders.  It  is  unlikely,  however,  that  the  rod 
would  fit  so  tightly  as  to  act  like  a  packed  piston,  and  hence  there 
would  be  next  to  no  air  compression.  Appliances  of  the  nature  of 
toy  popguns  and  water  syringes  are  not  unknown  in  the  East,  but 
although  these  exhibit  some  structural  resemblance  to  the  fire  piston, 
there  seems  little  likelihood  of  their  having  suggested  the  latter.  The 
process  of  boring  and  gauging  btowguns  when  these  are  made  of 
solid  wood  might,  conceivably,  have  led  to  some  unintentional  com- 
pression of  the  air  within  the  bore,  which  might  have  caused  the 
ignition  of  some  responsive  material  adhering  to  the  boring  or  gaug- 
ing rod.  While  even  this  is  improbable,  it  is  interesting  to  recall 
that  the  distribution  of  the  oriental  blowgun  embraces  many  of  the 
regions  where  the  fire  piston  is  found.  I  have  frequently  had  it 
suggested  to  me,  that  it  is  obvious  that  the  fire  piston  must  have  been 
derived  from  the  pestle  and  mortar  so  commonly  used  throughout 
the  Indo-Chinese  and  Malayan  area  for  crushing  the  betel  nut  or 
chavica  leaves.  In  favor  of  this  it  may  with  truth  be  urged  that 
there  is  often  a  very  strong  resemblance  between  the  two  appliances; 
indeed  some  of  the  small  pestle  and  mortar  apparatus  in  the  British 
Museum  bear  so  striking  a  resemblance  to  some  of  the  Bornean  fire 
pistons,  e.  g.,  the  type  shown  in  fig.  35,  that  it  is  necessary  to  Ipok 


590  ANNUAL  BEPOHT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

carefully  at  the  specimens  in  order  to  see  to  which  group  they  belong. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  evident  that  the  suggestion  that  the  pestle 
and  mortar  is  the  prototype  of  the  eastern  fire  piston  is  based  solely 
upon  this  superficial  similarity,  which  is  evidently  appreciated  by 
the  Malays,  since  they  apply  the  word  gobek  to  both  instruments. 
We  have  only  to  remember  that,  for  all  practical  purposes,  charac- 
teristics which  are  essential  to  the  efficiency  of  the  one  instrument 
are  absolutely  detrimental  to  that  of  the  other.  In  the  case  of  the 
betel  mortar,  it  is  imperative  that  the  pestle  should  work  loosely 
in  the  mortar,  and  it  is  equally  essential  that  in  the  fire  apparatus 
the  piston  should  very  accurately  fit  the  bore.  \  slight  departure 
from  this  rule  in  either  case  renders  the  instrument  useless  for  its 
purpose,  and  it  is,  consequently,  most  improbable  that  either  could 
have  accidentally  performed  the  function  of  the  other  and  so  have 
suggested  it. 

One  other  appliance  seems  to  have  a  claim  to  consideration.  Id 
the  process  of  cleaning  the  barrels  of  the  small  muzzle-loading  can- 
nons, such  as  are  frequently  seen  in  the  East  Indies,  it  is  conceivable 
that  in  driving  an  accurately  fitting  cleaning  rod  up  the  bore  with 
some  force  a  considerable  compression  of  the  air  inside  might  result, 
and  that  a  piece  of  readily  combustible  matter  might  have  been 
ignited  thereby.  The  touchhole,  being  very  small,  might  not  have 
caused  a  too  great  diminution  of  the  air  pressure,  since  the  air  could 
only  escape  relatively  slowly  through  this  orifice:  or  on  some  occa- 
sions the  touchhole  may  have  been  temporarily  blocked,  in  which 
case  the  compression  would  have  been  greater  and  more  effective. 

In  some  respects  this  appears  to  be  the  least  unlikely  of  the  pos- 
HJble  suggestions  as  to  the  prototype  of  the  fire  piston,  and  color  is 
lent  to  the  idea  by  the  form  of  the  North  Borneo  fire  piston  {fig.  37), 
in  which  the  cylinder  has  the  appearance  of  a  miniature  cannon 
actually  fitted  with  a  "  touchhole." 

At  the  best,  however,  I  am  not  at  present  able  to  offer  any  very 
convincing  suggestions  as  to  how  the  fire  piston  may  possibly  have 
been  discovered  in  its  eastern  home,  and  it  seems  all  too  likely  that 
the  question  of  its  monogenesis  or  polygenesis  may  never  be  com- 
pletely determined.  The  problem  remains  an  exceedingly  interesting 
one,  both  from  technological  and  ethnological  standpoints,  and,  in 
concluding  this  attempt  to  bring  together  the  material  available  for 
comparative  study,  I  may  express  the  hope  that  further  information 
may  be  forchcoming,  both  as  regards  the  earliest  records  of  the  fire 
piston  in  the  east  and  as  regards  the  geographical  distribution  and 
varieties  of  this  peculiar  method  of  producing  fire. 

I  wish  to  thank  heartily  those  who  have  so  kindly  assisted  me  to 
procure  specimens  or  information.  More  especially  am  I  indebted 
to  Messrs.  Skeat.  Annandale.  Shelford,  Leveson,  Miller  Christy, 
Joyce,  and  Bidwell.  whose  assistance  has  been  of  much  value  to  me. 


THE  FIHB   PISTON — BAUOUH,  691 

DBTTAILHD  DBSCBIPTION  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Fio.  1.  Fire  arrlDge,  from  patent  speclflcatlon  of  Richard  Lorente.  IS07.  No. 
3007;  prlDted  ISSfi. 

Via.  2.  Fire  pUtoo,  from  E.  J.  MItcbell.  Jane  IB,  IS32.  In  Tbe  Mecbanics' 
Magazine,  XVII,  1S32,  p.  328. 

Fio.  3.  Fire  piston,  France,    From  The  Penny  Magazine,  July  20,  1834.  p.  268. 

Fio.  4.  Fire  piston,  England;  of  rolled  brass:  length  of  cylinder,  14  cm. 
Far  domestic  use  or  for  scientific  experiment.     E.  Bldwell  collection. 

Fio.  5.  Ditto,  England;  cylinder  of  rolled  brass,  10.2  cm.  long;  piston  of 
steel,  g.F>  cm.,  with  brass  mounts  and  leather  packing.     E.  Bldwell  collection. 

Fig  S.  Ditto,  England;  cylinder  of  cast  brass,  S.l  cm.  long;  piston  of  steel, 
8.6  cm.,  with  brass  mounts;  the  packing  Is  of  brass.     E.  Bldwell  collection. 

Fig.  7.  Fire  piston,  modem  French;  cylinder  of  white  metal,  7.6  cm.,  with 
ebony  knob;  at  side,  a  tube  for  cord  tinder  fitted  with  ball-and^chaln  extin- 
guisher; piston  of  ebony.  7.8  cm.  Purchased  In  Paris.  Qlven  by  Mr.  Miller 
Christy  to  author,  1902. 

Fig.  8.  Fire  piston,  Kachin,  northern  Shan  states,  lat  24*  7'  N.,  Ion.  98*  IS' 
EL;  cylinder  of  bamboo,  8J  cm.;  piston  of  wood,  9.2  cm.  Given  by  Mr.  H. 
Leveson  to  author  In  1898. 

Fio.  9.  Ditto,  same  data ;  cylinder  of  bamboo,  8  cm. ;  piston  of  wood,  13.1  cm. 

Flo.  10.  Ditto,  same  data;  cylinder  of  l>amboo,  8.5  cm.;  piston  of  wood,  llJS 
cm.,  carved  head. 

Pio.  11.  Plre  piston,  made  by  Wa  villagers  on  the  Chinese  frontier  of  Bast 
Burma,  22°  20'  N.,  99°  10'  E. ;  cylinder  of  stout  bamboo.  13  cm. ;  piston  of  bard 
wood,  10.S  cm.    Given  by  Mr.  H.  Leveson  to  author  In  1900. 

Pio.  12.  Plre  piston.  Ruby  Mines,  Mogok,  Burma;  cylinder  of  lathe-turned 
bamboo,  8.9  cm.:  piston  of  wood,  10  cm.  Obtained  by  Prank  Atlay  and 
given  by  him  to  author  In  1007. 

Pig.  13.  Fire  piston,  Kaifo,  Gaurl  Kachlns.  east  of  Bhamo,  upper  Burma; 
cylinder  of  light-colored  bom,  c.  7.6  cm. ;  pistoD  of  wood.  c.  9JS  cm.  Collected 
by  Leonardo  Fea,  1885;  Ethnological  Museum,  Rome  [40232]. 

Fio,  14.  Ditto,  same  data ;  cylinder  of  black  horn,  c.  8.5  cm.;  piston  of  bom 
riveted  to  wooden  knob.     Pea  collection;  Ethnological  Mnseum,  Rome  [40233]. 

F'lo.  15.  Ditto,  Kachlns  of  mountains  east  of  Bhamo :  cylinder  of  black  horn, 
c.  8.2  cm. ;  piston  of  horn  riveted  to  wooden  knob.  Fea  collection ;  Eltbnoiogical 
Museum,  Rome  [40235]. 

PtG.  16.  Ditto,  Kachlns  and  Shans  in  mountains  east  of  Bhamo;  cylinder  of 
black  horn.  c.  0  cm-:  piston  of  hom  riveted  to  wooden  knob.  Fea  collection: 
Ethnological  Museum,  Rome  [40472]. 

Fio.  17.  Ditto.  Kachin  (Slmpfo),  Bhamo  district;  cylinder  of  black  hom, 
7.9  cm. :  piston  of  hom  riveted  with  hom  to  wooden  knob,  12  cm.  Fea  collec- 
tion, 1885 :  given  to  the  author  by  Prof.  E.  H.  Qlglloll.  1003. 

Fia.  18.  Plre  piston,  obtained  from  a  Kachin  on  the  Chinese  border  of  the 
northern  Shan  states,  24°  7*  N..  98*  16'  B.  Collected  by  Mr,  H.  B.  Leveaon, 
1898,  and  given  to  the  author. 

Pio.  19.  Fire  piston,  Kachin,  Upper  Burma:  carved  cylinder  of  black  horn, 
8.6  cm.;  piston  of  hard  wood  with  knob  wrapped  tn  silk,  13.3  cm.  Collected  by 
Capt  R.  C.  Temple  and  given  by  him  to  tbe  Pitt-Rivera  Mnsenm,  1890. 

Fig,  20.  Fire  piston.  Kachin,  Upper  Burma ;  lathe-tumed  cylinder  of  black 
hom  with  silver  mounts,  6.3  cm. :  turned  piston  of  hom  with  brass-tinged  knob ; 
attached  to  it  are  a  bag  of  velvet  and  silk  containing  vegetable-fioss  tinder,  a 
grease  box  of  nut  shell,  nnd  an  ivory  spatula  for  greaae.  Collected  by  MaJ.  R.  C 
Temple  and  given  to  the  Pitt-Rivers  Museum,  1804. 

D,g,l,zP:lbyGOOgle 


692  ANNUAL  BEK)HT  SMITSeONlAN  INSTITTJTION,  100.. 

Fro.  21.  Fire  piston,  Mandala^,  Burma;  lathe-turned  cylinder  of  black  bom, 
6.4  cm.;  piston  of  bom  riveted  to  turned  born  knob;  attached  to  It  are  a  clotb 
bae  with  veKetable-floss  tinder,  and  a  spherical,  lathe-turned  wooden  bos  for 
grease.    Qtven  by  Mr.  H.  O.  Mordannt  to  the  author,  1899. 

Pia.  22.  Fire  piston.  Ruby  Mines.  Mogok.  Burma.  Collected  by  Mr.  Frank 
Atlay.    Prom  a  sketch  by  Hr.  D.  Ounn. 

Pia.  23.  Fire  piston,  mi-put,  obtained  from  a  pungt  at  a  monastery,  Bouthem 
Khan  states;  cylinder  of  hard  wood,  11.9  cm.;  piston  of  black  born,  13.1  cm. 
Collected  by  Mr.  H.  Leveson  and  given  to  the  author,  1S90. 

Fio.  24.  Fire  piston,  mi-put,  southern  Shan  states;  cylinder  of  black  horn 
gracefully  fluted,  8.S  cm. ;  piston  of  black  horn  with  knob  Inlaid  with  metal  pins. 
1G.5  cm.;  fumlahed  with  a  tinder  pouch  of  palm  spathe  and  a  turned  wooden 
grease  bos  (flg.  24a).  Collected  by  Mr.  H.  Leveson  and  given  to  tbe  autbw, 
1891. 

FiQ.  26.  Fire  piston,  Khas  or  Eumuks,  north  of  Luang  Prabanjc.  Slam: 
cylinder  and  piston  of  born,  with  bag  of  v^etable-Boss  tlitder.  Scl^ice  and 
Art  Museum,  Edinburgh. 

Fio.  26.  Fire  piston,  gojA  api  (Malay)  or  let-pkol-tok  (Siamese),  Ban  Sal 
Kau,  Nawnchlk,  Patanl,  Siamese  Malay  states;  turned  cylinder  of  black  horn, 
5.7  cm. ;  piston  of  bom,  6^  cm.  Collected  by  Mr.  Nelson  Annandale  and  given 
to  tbe   Pitt-Rivers  Museum.  1902. 

F*iG.  27.  Ditto,  same  data;  cylinder  of  dark  bom.  latbe-tumed,  8  cm.;  piston 
of  wood  fitting  Into  bom  knob.    Annandale  collection ;  Pltt-Rlvers  Museum. 

Fio.  28.  Fire  piston,  gobek  api,  obtained  from  Malays  In  Jalor.  Patanl. 
Siamese  Malay  states;  cylinder  of  light  bom,  6.3  cm.;  piston  of  wood.  Col- 
lected by  Mr.  W.  W.  Sfceat ;  Csmbrldge  Museum. 

Fio.  29.  Ditto,  same  data  ;  cylinder  of  turned  bone,  9.5  cm. ;  piston  of  wood. 

Fio.  30.  Fire  piston,  from  the  Samaam  village  of  Ban  phra  Mnang.  Trnng. 
Siamese  Malay  states;  cylinder  of  light  bom,  lathe-turned,  7  cm.;  piston  of 
turned  black  horn  with  knob  hollowed  out  for  holding  tinder,  7.8  cm. ;  Annan- 
dale collection.  1901 ;  Pltt-Rlvers  Museum. 

Fio.  31.  Fire  piston,  obtained  by  Mr.  Henry  Louis  on  the  Ayer  Katiah,  a 
small  tributary  to  the  Telubnn  River  (this  preaumably  is, the  Telubin  River  In 
Patanl),  Malay  Peninsula;  cylinder  of  wood  covered  with  cane-work  rings,  6JJ 
cm.;  piston  of  hard  wood;  tinder  boi  (flg.  31a)  made  from  an  cntada  bean. 
Given  by  Mr.  F.  W,  Rudler  to  the  British  Museum,  1901. 

Fio.  32.  Fire  piston,  Malays  of  Soepajang,  Menangkabau,  Sumatra ;  made  of 
buffalo  bom,  cylinder  c.  11  cm.  long;  copied  from  Veth,  "Midden  Sumatra," 
18n-1879,  pt  2,  pi.  Lxxxiii,  figs.  12  and  13. 

Fio.  83.  Fire  piston,  Sumatra  ;  copied  from  R.  T.  Prltchett,  "  Smoklana,"  p.  97, 

FiQ,  34.  Fire  piston,  Fort  van  der  Capelle,  North  Padang,  Sumatra;  carved 
cylinder  of  dark  bom,  8.2  cm. ;  piston  of  bom,  carved,  and  with  knob  hollowed 
out  for  tinder  and  fitted  with  lid  which,  with  a  half  turn,  can  be  secured  by  a 
firojectlon  which  passes  through  a  notch  (flg,  34  a).  Collected  by  Mr,  Carl 
Bock;  British  Museum. 

Fio.  35.  Fire  piston,  gochok  apt  (Malay),  pantang  beat  apt  (Sea  Dayak),  Sea 
Daysk,  Slmanggnng,  West  Sarawak;  cylinder  of  brass,  lined  with  lead,  9,1  cm,; 
lathe-turned  piston  of  wood;  canaHum  nut  with  v^etable  tinder  and  brus 
pricker  attached.  Collected  by  Mr.  D.  1.  S.  Bailey,  and  given  by  him  to  the 
I'itt-Rivers  Museum,  1904. 

Fia.  36.  Fire  piston,  same  data;  cylinder  of  lead  (or  lead  and  tin)  cast  la 
bamboo  mold,  8.1  cm. ;  carved  piston  of  bard  wood,  11.6  cm.  Bailey  collection. 
Pltt-Rlvers  Museum,  1801. 


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THE  PI8E  PISTON— BALPOUB.  598 

Pia.  37.  Fire  pleton,  west  coast  of  British  North  Borneo;  of  very  unusual  con- 
struction;  cylinder  of  lead  (or  lead  and  tin),  cast  In  bamboo  mold,  with  lateral 
uotch  on  one  side  at  lower  end,  from  which  a  duct  leads  to  the  bottom  of  the 
bore  tu  the  cylinder;  length  of  cylinder,  10.3  cm.;  piston  of  wood.  13.5  cm., 
capped  with  lead  at  the  lower  extretolty.  Collected  hy  Mr.  P.  Beaufort.  1890; 
given  by  Sir  R.  Blddulph  Martin,  Bart.,  to  the  author,  1907. 

Flo,  38.  Fire  piston,  Bonieo;  of  wood.  Copied  from  C.  M.  Pleyte,  "  Indone- 
Klsches  Feuerzeug,"  Globus,  LIX.  No.  4. 

Fio.  30.  Fire  piston,  BuitenzorK,  west  Java ;  of  hlack  bom ;  cylinder.  lO.K  cui.. 
ongraved ;  piston  riveted  to  knob,  which  Is  hollowed  out  for  veKetable-floss  tin- 
der.   Collected  by  Mr.  C.  M.  I'leyte;  author's  collection. 

Flo.  40.  Fire  piston,  Kedlrl,  east  central  Java ;  of  hlack  horn ;  cylinder,  7  cm. 
Cambridge  Museum;  figure  taken  from  facsimile  belonging  to  Mr.  E.  BIdwell. 

FiQ.  41.  Fire  piston,  Java;  of  buffalo  bora;  the  knoS)  of  the  piston  hollowed 
and  Btted  with  lid,  forming  a  tinder-box.  Copied  from  C.  M.  Pleyte,  "  Indone- 
slsches  Feuerzeug,''  Globus.  LIX,  No.  4. 

Fig.  42.  Fire  piston,  Flores  Island,  Bast  Malayan  Archipelago;  made  of  bom; 
cylinder  fltted  with  tinder  receptacle  at  lower  end.  Vienna  Museum;  from  a 
rough  sketch. 

Fia.  43.  Fire  piston,  Igorrotes  of  Boutoc,  North  Luzon.  Phlllppioe  Islands ;  of 
wood,  engraved ;  piston  of  wood ;  tinder  holder  of  bamboo,  10  cm.  Collected  by 
Herr  C.  Sem[>er;  Dresden  Museum;  copied  from  A.  B.  Meyer,  Publ.  a.  d. 
Konlgl.  Ethn.  Museum  zu  Dresden,  VIII,  pi,  17,  flg.  18. 

Fio,  44.  Fire  piston.  IgorrotL-s  of  Tlagan,  North  Luzon;  of  butTalo  hora; 
cylinder,  8.8  cm. ;  piston.  12.7  cm. ;  engraved  bamboo  tinder  holder,  8  cm.  Sem- 
per collection,  Dresden  Museum ;  copied  from  same  source,  flg.  19. 

Flo.  45.  Fire  jilston,  Igorrotes  of  Tlagnn,  I*panto  and  Bontoc,  North  Luzon, 
cylinder  of  buffalo  horn;  piston  of  wood;  a  bamboo  holder  with  cotton  tinder 
belongs  to  this.  Collected  by  Dr.  Alexander  Schadenberg,  Dresden  Museum 
(30313) ;  copied  from  a  sketch  kindly  made  by  Irene  Bust  of  Vienna. 

Flo.  40.  Fire  piston,  Cnllnga  tribe,  Nueva  Vlscaya.  North  Luzon ;  faceted 
cylinder  of  bom,  c.  63  cm.;  piston  of  wood.  Ethnological  Museum,  Home 
(49164) :  from  a  rough  sketch. 

Flo,  47.  Fire  piston,  Luzon.  Philippine  Islands;  cylinder  of  black  horn,  7.5 
cm.;  piston  of  wood.     E.  Bidwell  collection. 


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THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  CANAANITE  ALPHABET.' 


By  Fkanz  Pextobius. 


Soon  after  the  year  1000  B.  C.  there  appeared  in  Canaan  a  system 
of  writing  which  has  been  very  incorrectly  called  an  alphabet,  that 
is,  a  phonetic  writing  which  resolves  even  the  simple  syllable  into 
its  component  parts.  With  this  reservation,  however,  for  the  sake 
of  brevity,  the  system  will  herein  be  referred  to  as  the  Canaanite 
alphabet. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  Canaanite  alphabet  quickly  conquered 
the  world,  but  its  definite  origin  has  been  shrouded  in  obscurity^ 
There  has  been  no  lack  of  effort  to  derive  this  alphabet  from  older 
and  more  complicated  oriental  systems,  but  this  has  not  been  success- 
ful.   Other  methods  of  explanation  have  likewise  led  to  no  result. 

Canaan's  northern  frontier  borders  the  territory  of  the  Hittite 
inscriptions,  while  opposite  the  coast  of  northern  Canaan  is  the  island 
of  Cyprus,  where,  down  to  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  there 
survived  in  the  "  epichorial,"  or  native,  syllabic  writing,  an  especially 
pure  phonetic  system.  There  is  a  common  tendency  to  derive  this 
Cypriote  syllabic  system  from  the  Hittite  pictures.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  systems  akin  to  Cypriote  writing  once  spread  over 
all  of  Asia  Minor,  as  evidenced  in  the  Greek  alphabet  in  the  exotic 
admixtures  from  some  of  the  peoples  of  ;Vsia  Minor." ' 

Thug  considering  the  geographical  position  of  these  countries,  the 
syllabic  writing  of  Asia  Minor  and  Cyprus  might  have  been  the 
source  of  the  Canaanite  alphabet.  There  are  other  reasons  of  a 
general  character  that  may  be  adduced  in  favor  of  this  possibility. 
Is  the  Canaanite  system  really  an  alphabetic  one  as  it  is  commonly 
called  1  I  believe  that  upon  close  observation  this  question  will  have 
to  be  answered  in  the  negative.  It  is  really  a  syllabic  system  like  the 
Cypriote,  except  that  some  of  the  Canaanite  signs  have  the  value  of 
simple  consonants  only,  as  in  the  Cypriote.  In  Canaanite  we  have 
9t3p,  i.  e.,  Ka-tA-1,  just  as  the  same  group  of  sounds  would  be  written 

"  TraDBlated,  by  permlBalon,  from  Uie  German  of  Franz  PrEetorlus,  Ueber  deo 
Urapnm^c  dee  hanaanaelscbeD  Alpbabets.    Berlin,  Reather  und  Relchard.  1906. 

^See  Snyre  In  Scbllemann's  "  I1lof>."  pp.  766  ff..  and  In  The  TraDsactions  of 
the  Society  of  Biblical  Archeology,  Vol.  IX.  pp.  112  tt. 


DigilizedbyGOOglf 


.c 


596  ANNUAL  HEPOET  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  IQOT. 

in  Cypriote,  8  h  T"  >■  e.,  Ka-ta-I.  And  just  as  the  Cypriote  writing 
has  only  such  syllabic  signs  (aside  from  the  five  vowels)  as  express 
the  combination  of  a  consonant  with  a  succeeding  vowel,  so  also  in 
the  Canaanite  p  is  ka,  not  ak.  Signs  for  composed  (closed)  syl- 
lables (bak,  daf,  etc.)  are  used  in  neither,  no^  are  double  conso- 
nants considered  in  either.  In  Canaanite  we  find  ^sp,  i.  e.,  kt-(C)te-l, 
and  in  Cypriote  2  +  ?  +,  i-  e.,  ' A-7i6-{\)\co-vt.  Finally,  the 
Canaanite  reads  from  right  to  left  just  as  does  the  Cypriote. 

I  am  unaware  whether  anyone  has  heretofore  thou^t  of  the  pos- 
sibility of  the  Canaanite  alphabet  being  dependent  upon  the  Cypriote 
syllabic  writing,  but  certainly  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  follow 
up  this  theory;  for  what  Roeth  adduced  in  this  direction  in  Die 
Proklamation  des  Amasis  an  die  Cyprier,  pp.  1  ff,  may,  in  my  opinion 
be  passed  over. 

The  Cypriote  syllabic  writing  is  by  no  means  perfect  and  definite. 
This  it  can  not  possibly  be,  since  it  has  signs  only  for  open  syllables 
and  nothing  else,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  employ  syllabic  signs 
to  indicate  consonants.  Each  Cypriote  ^liable  sign  is  equivocal, 
inasmuch  as  it  can  express  both  a  certain  open  syllable  and  also 
merely  the  initial  consonant  of  such  syllable.  Certain  rules  have 
developed  on  this  point  (which  need  not  be  detailed  here),  but  these 
only  operate  when,  for  instance,  the  syllabic  sign  "  po  "  is  to  be  used 
for  "  p,"  and  not  for  the  syllabic  sign  "  pi  "  or  "  pa,"  but  they  do  not 
definitely  indicate  that  "  p  "  alone  is  to  be  pronounced,  and  not  "  po." 
This  can  be  determined  only  by  a  knowledge  of  the  Greco-Cypriote 
dialect.  So,  for  instance,  we  find  i5'Z  F/1  >  i-  «-?  po-to-li-ne,  but  only 
through  a  knowledge  of  the  language  and  of  the  context  do  we  learn 
that  these  syllabic  signs  are  to  be  combined  into  nrokty  (ptolin),  and 
not  into  ptoline.  To  one  who  is  not  an  expert  in  Cypriote  writings 
it  will  be  of  little  use  to  state  that  in  this  word  only  the  syllabic  signs 
"  po  "  and  "  ne  "  should  be  used  for  the  consonants  "  p  "  and  "  n  " 
alone.  In  the  same  manner  it  can  not  be  inferred  from  the  writing 
alone  that  ^  f^  Cd  i.  e.,  mi-si-to-ne  is  to  be  understood  as  fttoS&v 
(misthon),  ot^  |-  ^J  ;t  ^  i-  e.,  ka-te-se-ta-se,  as  Kuriaraae  (katestase) 
the  rule  also  prohibited  the  employment  in  these  words  of  other 
syllabic  signs  than  "  si,"  "  ne,"  and  "  se  "  for  the  consonants  ff, »', 
andff. 

We  learn  from  fixed  academic  rules  that  the  Cyprians  of  Greek 
tongue,  or  perhaps  even  those  inhabitants  of  Asia  Minor  from  whom 
the  Cyprians  had  received  their  syllabic  writing,  had  so  far  pro- 
gressed in  discerning  the  component  parts  of  the  syllable  that  they 
took  the  first  groping  step  to  pass  from  the  syllabic  writing  to  the 
alphabet.  To  be  sure,  they  already  had  in  the  signs  for  the  five 
vowels,  a,  e,  i,  o,  and  u,  signs  for  five  simple  sounds;  but  as  a  matter 
of  fact  they  employed  these  vowel  signs  only  where  the  vowel  in  itself 

ii.;,Gooyk' 


CAHAANITE  ALPHABET — FB^TOSIVB.  597 

constituted  a  syllable,  so  that  the  Cypriote  vowel  signs  equaled,  in 
the  frequency  of  their  use,  all  the  syllables.  So,  in  the  Cypriote  sys- 
tem also,  the  second  components  of  a  diphthong  wei-e  as  important 
as  a  syllable- forming  vowel. 

It  can  hardly  be  assumed  that  it  was  the  identical  Cypriote  known 
to  us  that  was  adopted  and  modified  by  the  Canaanites,  but  it  was 
probably  an  earlier  form,  akin  to  the  present  one,  that  they  must  have 
received  from  Asia  Minor.  But  as  we  do  not  know  this  older  form 
we  must  begin  our  investigation  from  the  Cypriote.  We  may  assume, 
on  the  ground  of  the  Cypriote  pattern,  that  the  Canaanites  likewise 
discerned  in  the  system  of  syllabic  writing  received  by  them  the 
idea  of  the  pure  consonant,  and  also  the  possibility  of  each  syllabic 
sign  being  used  merely  for  the  initial  consonant  of  the  syllable. 
Hence  started  the  transforming  and  value-changing  activity  of  the 
Ganaanites. 

In  Cypriote  five  syllabic  signs  were  formed  from  each  consonant. 
For  instance,  from  p  were  formed  pa,  pe,  pi,  po,  and  pu,  each  of 
which  could  also  merely  signify  p.  The  Canaanites,  however,  limited 
the  number  of  syllabic  signs  to  one.  Thus  for  pa,  pe,  pi,  po,  pu,  and 
p  only  one  sign  was  chosen. 

If  I  am  not  mistaken,  the  ambiguity  and  indefiniteness  already 
existing  in  Cypriote  were  carried  to  a  complete  uniformity  or  sim- 
plicity when  the  writing  was  carried  over  into  a  foreign  language, 
since  it  became  necessary  to  give  some  of  these  syllabic  signs  particj- 
lar  sound  values,  partly  such  as  were  not  represented  at  all  in  the 
Cypriote-Greek  language,  partly  such  as  the  Cypriote  writing  did 
not  distinguish  from  other  similar  sound  values.  In  consequence  of 
this  a  considerable  number  of  the  old  syllabic  signs  were  used  up. 
Since  the  Canaanites  retained  only  one  sign  for  all  the  open  syllables 
attached  to  one  and  the  same  consonant  and  for  the  consonant  itself, 
so  the  element  common  to  all  its  applications,  that  is,  its  merely  con- 
sonantal value,  became  very  prominent  in  this  sign.  It  seems  as  if 
the  Canaanites  created  an  alphabetic  system  while  syllabic  writing 
still  existed,  only  to  its  great  loss,  because  the  new  form  was  more 
indefinite.  And  yet,  it  must  be  said  that  it  had  the  advantage  of 
being  simpler,  and  the  overwhelming  success  of  the  Canaanite  system 
shows  that  this  advantage  was  much  greater  than  the  loss. 

Upon  the  basis  laid  by  the  Canaanites  with  this  apparently  alpha- 
betic system  it  was  easy  for  the  Greeks  to  create  with  a  single  stroke, 
as  it  were,  a  genuine  alphabet.  Semitic  peoples,  on  the  other  hand, 
made  various  attempts  to  check  the  indefiniteness  and  ambiguity  of 
the  Canaanite  system,  but  in  principle  they  have  not  yet  passed 
beyond  the  syllabic  stage. 

Passing  now  to  a  detailed  discussion  of  the  origin  of  the  Canaanite 
signs  from  the  Cypriote,  we  must  again  recall  that  since  in-,Cypripte 

T.ooylc 


698  ANNUAL  B£POBT  SMITHBONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

five  syllabic  signs  ore  attached  to  each  coDSonant,  it  would  not  be 
uncommoQ  to  find  here  and  there  a  certain  similarity  to  a  Canaanite 
sign  with  a  corresponding  sound.  This  aspect  was  also  pointed  out  by 
Arkwright  in  his  unsuccessful  attempt  to  derive  the  exotic  portions 
of  the  Lycian  alphabets  from  Cypriote  forms:  "In  spite  of  the 
very  large  range  of  comparison  afforded  by  a  syllabary  in  which 
every  consonant  appears  in  five  distinct  forms,"  etc."  This  abundance 
of  signs  is  offset  by  some  serious  deficiencies.  In  the  first  place, 
the  Cypriote  writing  does  not  distinguish  between  k,  k*,  and  g,  t,  t*, 
and  d,  p,  p»,  and  b.  In  transcribing  Cypriote  signs  the  conventional 
usage  is  to  employ  merely  k,  t,  and  p.  Futhermore,  the  Cypriote  writ- 
ing has  but  one  surd  sibilant  and  no  gutturals  at  all.  But  fortunately 
our  discussion  is  only  made  easier  by  these  deficiencies;  for  in  the 
five  syllabic  signs  for  k,  k*,  and  g  we  may  look  for  the  Canaanite 
k  as  well  as  for  the  Canaanite,  g,  and  in  the  five  syllabic  signs  for 
t,  t",  end  d  we  may  look  for  the  Canaanite  t  as  well  as  for  the  Canaan- 
ite d,  etc.    And  to  what  can  we  attach  the  origin  of  the  gutturals! 

Notwithstanding  the  great  danger  of  deceptive  coincidence,  it 
nevertheless  seems  to  me  that  some  Canaanite  characters  exhibit 
-such  a  great  resemblance  to  Cypriote  signs  of  a  corresponding  sound 
that  I  wonder  why  nobody,  so  far  as  I  know,  has  yet  called  attention 
to  it.  I  repeat  here  that  in  all  probability  it  was  not  the  Cypriote 
system  that  we  know  that  came  to  the  Canaanites,.  but  an  earlier 
form  of  the  same  family  of  writing  systems,  so  that  it  is  quite  natural 
that  we  should  be  able  to  follow  only  in  part  the  process  of  adapta- 
tion and  development.  As  a  possibility,  though  a  remote  one,  I 
would  mention  that  the  origin  of  the  Canaanite  alphabet  in  its  en- 
tirety should  be  looked  for  somewhere  else,  though  the  Cypriote 
system  of  Asia  Minor  may  have  supplied  it  with  a  large  contingent, 
just  as  such  contingents  from  it  entered  into  the  Greek  alphabet  of 
the  peoples  of  Asia  Minor. 

I  begin  with  the  vowel  signs.  In  the  same  degree  that  the  Cypriote 
writing  makes  little  distinction  between  long  and  short  open  syllables, 
so  there  is  little  distinction  between  signs  for  long  and  short  vowels. 
It  has  only  the  quantitatively  indifferent  vowel  signs  a,  e,  i,  o,  and  u. 
Xor  does  it  add  these  vowel  signs  to  a  syllabic  sign  of  an  open  syllable 
ending  in  a,  e,  i,  o,  or  u,  in  order  to  thus  mark  such  an  open  syllable 
as  a  long  one.  In  fact,  the  use  of  these  vowel  signs  is  very  limited ; 
they  are  employed  only  when  the  vowel  begins  a  syllable,  that  is, 
when  the  vowel  sign  is  at  the  same  time  the  sign  of  an  open  syllable. 
The  signs  i  and  u  are  used,  besides,  as  second  components  of  a  diph- 
thong, which  components  are  considered  in  the  Cypriote  system  of 
writing  as  separate  open  syllables.  Examples  of  the  use  of  the 
"  Jabreslierie  (lea  oeHrerrelcblBcbeD  drclineologiscben  Institutes,  vol.  2,  p.  74. 


■■iGoot^lc 


CANAANn'B  ALPHABET — PBSTOBIUS.  599 

vowel  signs:  X  +1  X  X.  i-  e-,  a-m\i-ko-lo-i='AfiVK\mt  (Amykloi) 
J*'  *  £2  ^  A  I  T  ><  I  X  )(  )C  T;  )'(  X>  i-  e.,  me-ma-na-me-no-t  |  e- 
u-we-re-ke-8i-a-se=;«>i>'a;'^»'0i  evfepyeaias  (memnamenor  euver- 
gesias) ;  X  I  X  * ,  i-  «■ ,  a-i-we-i= aif-ti  (aivei) ;  ^J  X  !S2  :i:,  i-  e. ,  te- 
o-i-se=5fo^5  (theois). 

Since  the  Canaanites  modified  the  Cypriote  syllabic  writing  to  the 
extent  that  for  the  five  open  syllables  inherent  in  a  consonant  and  for 
that  consonant  itself  they  retained  only  one  sign,  it  was  but  consist- 
ent that  for  all  the  five  syllables  not  inherent  in  a  consonant,  for  all 
the  five  syllables  which  begin  with  a  vowe!,  and  for  ail  the  syllable- 
forming  vowels  they  likewise  retained  only  one  sign.  Five  mono- 
phone  syllabic  signs  between  exclusively  polyphone  signs  would  have 
been  too  great  a  contradiction.  The  Canaanites  obtained  this  poly- 
phone sign  for  the  syllable-forming  vowels  from  the  Cypriote  +, 
i.  e.,  a. 

The  sign  for  a  in  C'ypriote  is  Hf,  that  i&~,  a  six-pointed  star,  the  ver- 
tical stroke  of  which  usually  rises  considerably  above  the  others,  ^t:  is 
the  prototype  of  the  Canaanite  4^.  In  order  to  write  the  Cypriote  + 
the  pen  had  to  set  in  thrice;  the  sign  was  therefore  cursively  abbrevi- 
ated by  beginning  above  to  the  right  and  writing  the  two  nonvertical 
points  of  the  star  in  a  single  stroke.  As  a  result  the  picture  of  the 
star  was  defaced.  Whether  the  beginning  of  this  cursive  transforma- 
tion was  already  made  in  Asia  Minor.  Cyprus  or  in  Canaan  we  can 
not  know. 

By  employing  the  Cypriote  syllabic  sign  for  «  as  a  polyphone  sign 
for  syllable-forming  vowels  in  general  {&  )t,  ^.  i(,  and  (t  =  a,  e,  i,  o, 
and  u),  the  Canaanites  achieved  something  besides.  They  learned 
through  this  mode  of  writing,  something  which  was  perhaps  espe- 
cially suggested  to  them  by  the  phonetic  system  of  all  the  Semitic 
languages — that  every  vowel  which  begins  a  syllable  is  introduced  or 
can  be  introduced  by  a  very  weak  consonant,  such  as  the  Arabic 
hamsa;  they  gained  through  this  mode  of  writing  an  understanding 
of  this  weak  consonant  itself.  4-  (k)  ^^  fof  them  no  more  a  polyphone 
vowel  sign,  but  became  a  syllabic  sign  for  hamsa  with  inherent  a,  e,  i, 
o,  and  u,  and  also  a  sign  for  mere  hamsa.  The  uniformity  of  the 
Canaanite  system  of  writing  was  not  broken  up:  K  stood  on  the  same 
level  with  3,  3.  t  (b,  g,  d),  etc. 

I  consider  it  merely  a  coincidence  that  the  4.  migrated  then  as  a 
(a)  to  the  Greeks.  It  certainly  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  original 
Cypriote  sound  value,  for  the  sound  value  of  the  sign  in  Greek  was 
rather  the  name  of  the  character;  the  name  alef  pushed  aside  other 
possibilities,  and  the  sound  value  of  a  was  logically  (that  is,  after  the 
fifst  letter  of  the  word)  established,  the  hamsa  not  being  felt  or  being 


.y  Google 


600  ANNUAL   BEPOBT   SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,   1901. 

deliberately  neglected.  In  the  same  manner  originated  the  sound 
value  of  E,  H,  and  O. 

The  Cypriote  vowel  signs  for  e  and  o  do  not  seem  to  have  found 
a  place  with  the  Canaanites.  But  we  unmistakably  recognize  the 
presence  of  the  Cypriote  i  and  u  with  the  Canaanit«s.  I  shall  in 
the  first  place  discuss  the  origin  of  the  Canaanite  forms  from  the 
Cypriote. 

The  sign  for  i  in  Cypriote  is  X-  The  vertical  insertion  in  the  four- 
rayed  star  in  sometimes  more  or  less  bent  toward  the  upper  right 
ray  X !  ^'^  some  places  we  also  met  with  the  form  X)  ^'^  which  the 
vertical  insertion  U  so  inclined  as  to  be  parallel  with  the  upper  left 
ray.  In  this  X  I  discern  tbe  prototype  of  the  Canaanite  £.  In 
order  to  write  the  Cypriote  X)  t:he  pen  had  again  to  set  in  thrice  as 
in  the  ^.  The  sign  was  cursively  abbreviated  by  first  forming  the 
vertical  insertion  with  the  slanting  bar  running  from  right  above  to 
left  below  in  one  stroke,  X-  Here,  too,  we  do  not  know  where  this 
transformation  was  first  effected,  but  it  may  be  surmised  that  the 
above-mentioned  secondary  forms  X  ^°^  X  w^re  already  prelimi- 
naries to  the  cursive  X-  "^^i^  cursive  >^  was  then  modified  into  £. 
In  this  last  development,  as  exhibited  by  the  Canaanite  alphabet, 
the  tendency  toward  cursive  writing  is  likewise  unmistakable.  For 
after  the  ray  to  the  right  below  was  adjoined  to  the  principal  bar, 
the  hand  had  to  hasten  toward  the  left  side  to  write  the  next  follow- 
ing letter  in  order  to  finish  the  last  ray,  i.  e.,  that  to  the  left  above. 

The  sign  for  u  in  Cypriote  is  T,  V,  V  and  similar  forms.  Here 
the  identity  with  the  (]^naanite  Y  is  evident;  only  that  in  the  latter 
an  older  phase  of  graphic  development  seems  to  be  preserved.  In 
Greek  Y  became  Tand  v  which  is  nearer  the  Cypriote  form. 

The  Canaanite  use  of  the  two-vowel  signs  agrees  with  that  of 
Cypriote  in  so  far  as  they  serve  to  express  diphthongs ;  so,  for  instance, 
in  the  Moabite  (Mesha)  Stone  'S'?'  nn'SS  (biraai,  bebaithah).  1  shall, 
however,  not  assert  that  this  Canaanite  use  of  Y  i^^  Z  is  directly 
connected  with  that  of  Cypriote,  neither  shall  I  deny  it.  In  fact,  I 
leave  the  question  of  the  oldest  use  of  the  matres  lectionis  (the  vowel 
letters)  entirely  aside. 

In  their  polyphone  system  the  Canaanites  had  the  same  trouble 
with  the  monophone  syllable-forming  vowels  £  and  Y)  ^  they  had 
with  the  ^.  In  the  same  way  that  they  changed  the  value  of  ^,  as 
shown  above,  so  they  also  changed  that  of  Z  and  Y-  Of  the  syllable- 
forming  vowels,  i  and  u  became  polyphone  syllabic  signs  for  i  (=  con- 
sonant y)  and  u  (=  w  or  v)  with  attached  a,  e,  i,  o,  and  u  p^  =  ya, 
ye,  etc.;  Jl  =  wa,  we,  etc.)  and  also  signs  for  i  and  u  alone.  The  uni- 
formity of  the  system  was  thus  also  here  preserved. 

Alongside  the  sign  X  f^*^  syllable-forming  i  there  was  already  in 
Cypriote  a  syllabic  sign  for  la  :  O  0-  This  seems  to  have  been 
entirely  suppressed  by  the  Canaanites  through  the  X  (Z)  baving  been 


CAKAANITE  ALPHABET— PaaiTOBIUS.  601 

changed  into  a  polyphone  syllabic  sign,  as  explained  above.  The 
suppressioii  of  ia  seems  to  have  been  the  easier  as  the  syllabic  signs 
for  ie,  ii,  io,  and  iu  were  entirely  or  nearly  absent. 

But  there  were  in  Cypriote  alongside  the  sign  for  syllable- forming 
u  also  the  syllabic  signs  for  ua,  ue,  ui,  and  uo.  These  also  are  not  rep- 
resented in  the  Canaanite  alphabets  known  to  us;  they  have  been 
suppressed  by  the  polyphone  syllabic  sign  y,  which  was  changed  from 
the  Cypriote  T.  I  sarmise,  however,  that  this  disappearance  took 
place  gradually;  that  the  original  Canaanite  alphabet  possessed  a 
sign  related  to  the  Cypriote  ue  which  survived  for  a  long  time  in 
private  writing,  although  it  is  completely  absent  from  inscriptions. 

In  the  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgenlaendischen  Gesellschaft, 
Vol.  LVTII,  p.  461  f.,  I  have  shown  that  the  South  Semitic  sign  for 
u,  ©,  as  regards  its  form,  absolutely  can  not  be  derived  from  the 
Canaanite  Yi  l>ut  that  it  is  easily  explained  from  the  Greek  digamma- 
sign  Fr,  Latin  F.  Nor  can  the  Greek  digamma,  Latin  F,  be  dis- 
cerned in  the  Canaanite  alphabet  I  closed  the  discussion  with  the 
words :  "  Thus  the  agreement  of  the  Greek  digamma  with  the  South 
Semitic  wau  points  to  the  existence  of  some  sign  for  w  in  the  oldest 
time  in  Canaan,  but  which  did  not  come  to  us  from  Canaan  itself." 
I  recognize  in  the  Cypriote  syllabic  sign  for  ue  the  missing  Canaanite 
sign.  This  looks  like,  ^  7,  X  Whether  this  sign  was  already 
simplitied  by  the  Canaanites  to  ^,  ^  ^,  or  by  the  Greeks,  can  not  be 
known ;  for  the  South  Semitic  (p  can  also  be  easily  explained  from 
the  Cypriote  form  of  the  sign. 

I  thus  assume  that  there  were  once  in  Canaan  two  signs  for  u  (w) ; 
Y  (from  Cypriote  Y)  and  i,  "2,  or  something  similar.  Both  signs 
seem  to  have  been  considered  in  Canaan  as  mere  variants  and  had 
but  one  place  in  the  firmly  established  succession  of  letters  in  the 
alphabet.  So  also  they  could  have  had  but  one  sound  value  in 
Canaan.  The  Greeks,  however,  adopted  the  two  signs  with  separate 
sound  values,  one  as  digamma,  the  other  as  upsilon.  This  obviated 
the  treating  of  both  signs  as  mere  variants;  each  obtained  its  own 
place.  Digamma  remained  in  the  sixth  place  of  the  Greek  alphabet, 
while  upsilon  was  placed  toward  the  end.  There  was  evidently  a 
hesitancy  fo  disturb  the  traditional  numerical  values  of  the  letters, 
corresponding  to  their  firmly  established  order  of  succession  at  the 
beginning  of  the  alphabet  where  the  frequently  used  small  numbers 
were  ranged.  The  two  closely  related  signs  must  therefore  be 
separated. 

I  am  inclined  to  consider  it  as  a  mere  accident  that  the  Greeks 
chose  V  as  a  vowel  and  digamma  as  a  consonant,  and  do  not  think  that 
the  original  Cypriote  values  of  the  corresponding  signs  played  any 
part  in  this  choice.  It  is  also  evidently  accidental  that  digamma 
sooner  or  later  disappeared  from  both  the  Canaanite  and  Greek  alpha- 
bets (but  not  from  the  South  Semitic  alphabet).  GoO^lc 


602  ANNUAL  BBPOitT  SUITH80NIAN    INSTITUTION,  1907. 

With  the  discussion  of  the  digamma,  which  originated  from  the 
Cypriote  syllabic  sign  uS,  we  leave  the  Cypriote  vowel  signs  and 
come  now  to  the  si^s  for  open  syllables  with  initial  consonant. 

I  shall  first  discuss  the  three  "emphatic"  consonants  0,  |^,  and  (p. 
The  characteristic  peculiarity  of  their  enunciation  is  that  they  are 
followed  by  a  vowel  of  the  sound-color  of  u  and  o.  At  first  sight  the 
striking  resemblance  between  those  Canaanite  signs  and  the  Cypriote 
syllabic  signs  for  tu,  su,  and  ku  might  be  considered  merely  a  decep- 
tive coincidence,  but  this  idea  is  considerably  weakened  when  it  is 
observed  that  the  Canaanites  merely  chose  the  Cypriote  syllabic  signs 
with  inherent  u  for  representing  those  three  consonants  which,  as  it 
were,  were  predisposed  for  u. 

The  Cypriote  syllabic  sign  for  tu  appears  as  K,  P,  fii,  fii,,  and  ^- 
From  this  sign  originated  the  Canaanite  @  by  drawing  together 
the  external  lines  into  a  circle,  while  the  cross  inside  the  Canaanite 
sign  represents  the  interior  strokes  T  of  the  Cypriote  prototype. 

The  Cypriote  syllabic  sign  for  su  looks  like  K  ^"(^  hi-  "^^  P^d 
was  thus  given  four  strokes.  I  do  not  think  it  requires  much  imagi- 
nation to  recognize  the  Cypriote  prototype  in  fhe  Canaanite  |^; 
the  long  bar  to  the  left  is  the  same  in  each.  The  triple-toothed  line 
to  the  right  is  a  cursive  contraction  of  the  disconnected  short  lines  of 
the  Cypriote  sign. 

The  Cypriote  sign  for  ku  looks  like  Sf:,  more  rarely  like  I'l.  Id 
this  I  see  the  prototype  of  the  Canaanite  <p .  Already  in  the  less 
frequent  Cypriote  form  there  is  a  beginning  made  toward  rounding  up 
the  confusion  of  points  and  rays ;  in  the  Canaanite  <p  they  were  fully 
contracted  into  a  circle  with  a  slight  depression  below,  which  is  easily 
explained  from  the  form  of  the  Cypriote  prototype.  Here  also  a 
remarkable  coincidence  must  be  noticed.  When  the  Canaanite  <p 
migrated  to  the  Greeks  as  Konna  (koppa)  it  obtained  in  most  caste 
the  value  of  a  *■  before  o  and  u.  I  assume  that  this  is  due  to  the 
emphatic  quality  of  the  Canaanite  sound  discussed  above,  and  that 
it  is  not  a  relic  of  the  Cypridte  sign  which  is  its  basis.  Still  less 
can  this  be  the  case  with  the  Latin  Q  which  originated  from  the  <p 
and  which  in  combination  can  be  used  as  ku — just  as  the  Cypriote  ^. 

In  the  three  signs  just  discussed  we  have  found  a  definite  reason 
why  the  Canaanites  selected  the  Cypriote  syllables  terminating  in  n. 
Otherwise  it  might  have  been  expected  that  they  would  have  pre- 
ferred those  terminating  in  e;  for  the  syllabic  signs  in  e  occur  most 
frequently  in  Cypriote  as  mere  consonants.  Not  only  can  they,  ac- 
cording to  fixed  rules,  have  the  value  of  mere  consonants  in  the 
middle  of  a  word  like  the  other  syllabic  signs,  but  they  are  admis- 
sible at  the  beginning  of  a  word  only  as  consonants.  Thus  only 
'S'  ^  Z  h  ^<,  i-  e. .  eta-li-o-ne  =  'HSoKioy  (Edalion),  and  JiJ  VS  0  *, 
i.  e.,  pa-si-le-u-se  =  fiaffiktvs  (basileus)  are  possible.  Ae  the 
Canaanites  simplified  the  syllabic  writing  known  to  them  so  as  to 


CANAANITE   AUPUABET PH^TOKIUS.  603 

retain  but  ODe  sign  for  &11  the  syllables  attached  to  a  consonant  and 
for  this  consonant  itself,  it  seems  but  natural  that  they  should  have 
preferred  those  syllabic  signn  which  were  least  fixed  and  most  in- 
different, such  as  those  terminating  in  e.  Thus  we  recognized  above 
in  the  Cypriote  syllabic  sign  ue  the  prototype  of  the  lost  Canaanite 
digamma. 

And  it  seems  indeed  as  if  the  Canaanites  had  preferred  the  Cypriote 
syllabic  signs  in  e.  I  shall  quote  for  the  present  the  Canaanite  ^,  the 
angles  of  which  are  not  everywhere  as  pointed  as  in  the  Moabite  Stone. 
In  Cypriote  the  sign  for  ne  ia  iSi-  Discarding  the  two  short  strokes 
on  either  side,  there  remains  only  the  Canaanite  sign. 

The  Canaanite  letter  ^  1  would  declare  aa  a  cursive  abbrevlaUon 
of  the  Cypriote  syllabic  sign  for  me.  Its  usual  form  is  y^,  Xi  ^^^ 
there  also  occur  forms  like  X  *°<^  ¥•  I*  seems  to  me  that  from 
these,  especially  from  the  latter  forms,  the  Canaanite  sign  could 
have  easily  originated.  The  insertion  in  the  middle  below  was  com- 
bined with  the  ray  to  the  right  above  to  one  long  bar  to  which  the 
two  left  rays  were  cursively  attached  and  straightened.  The  ray  to 
the  right  below  vanished.     Something  like  -f ,  ^. 

I  must  confess,  however,>that  I  do  not  here  feel  quite  on  solid 
ground,  and  the  wealth  of  Cypriote  signs  that  offer  themselves  for 
selection  ia  disquieting.  The  Cypriote  syllabic  sign  for  mi  is  p, 
sometimes  also  Xi  T  a&d  U.  I  do  not  think  that  the  Canaanite  sign 
'  /  originated  from  it ;  but  the  possibility  can  not  be  absolutely  denied. 

Likewise  the  slender  Canaanite  sign  (j  might  have  originated  from 
the  Cypriote  syllabic  sign  for  le,  i.  e.,  8>  Occasional  forms  like  a 
and  2f  are  more  similar  to  the  Canaanite  sign.  But  here  also  Z.,  li, 
which  might  ^so  be  considered  as  the  prototype  of  Canaanite  6,  is 
disturbing. 

As  for  Canaanite  9  (r),  the  Cypriote  syllabic  sign  for  re,  Q  and  f^, 
hardly  comes  into  consideration,  but  the  Canaanite  sign  9  could 
easily  have  originated  from  0,  D,  ra,  as  well  as  from  Jl,  ro.  The 
fact  that  the  letter  is  named  ro  can  hardly  be  adduced  in  favor  of 
its  derivation  from  Jl,  ro. 

As  the  Cypriote  writing  unfortunately  does  not  distinguish  between 
tenuis,  media,  and  aspirata,  the  idea  sugge&ts  itself  that  the  Ca- 
naanites  availed  themselves  of  the  vocalic  variety  of  these  syllabic 
signs  in  order  to  more  precisely  distinguish  the  character  of  their 
consonante.  We  have  already  seen  that  they  selected  the  syllabic 
signs  tu,  su,  and  ku  in  order  to  obtain  a  deiinite  designation  for  the 
specifically  Semitic  "  emphatic  "  consonants.  We  have  also  seen  that 
the  choice  of  the  syllabic  ending  in  u  was  not  merely  a  conventional 
matter,  but  had  its  origin  in  the  sound-color.  This  origin  can,  how- 
ever, hardly  be  discerned  elsewhere. 

I  would  again  suggest  that  the  Cypriote  sign  for  pe  (p''e,  be), 
f>,  3)  S  and  similar  ones  might  be  Uie  prototype  of  the  Canaanite 


604  ANNUAL  REPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  19OT. 

"^  (p).  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  the  forms  are  not  suffi 
ciently  characteristic  to  afford  basis  for  proof,  and  the  correspond- 
ence of  the  name  of  the  Canaanite  sign,  fe,  with  the  Cypriote  sound 
value  is  probably  merely  a  coincidence.  Still,  I  would  even  go  fur- 
ther and  see  in«the  Cypriote  syllabic  sign  for  po  the  prototype  of 
the  Canaanite  Q  (b).  The  syllabic  sign  looks  like  ^,  St  &lso  /^,  i^, 
and  similar  ones.  I  believe  the  external  resemblance  between  the 
two  letters  is  not  small. 

The  syllabic  sign  for  ke  (k*'e,  ge)  in  Cypriote  is  -jt.  Occasionally 
the  upper  angle  is  somewhat  obtuse,  and  the  two  lower  strokes 
are  sometimes  combined,  as  in  ^,  jC.  The  assumption  seems  to  me 
self-evident  that  we  have  here  the  prototype  of  the  Canaanite  ■/. 
And  as  the  syllabic  sign  for  ko  is  in  Cypriote  A,  fli  &ud  1,  it  is  agaio 
not  difficult  to  see  in  it  the  origin  of  the  Canaanite  sign  ~\,  \  (A). 

It  seems  as  if  the  Canaanites  derived  from  the  same  syllabic  sign  -^ 
(kV  ^e)  also  the  two  gutturals  "^  and  j^,  lUthough  they  had  at  their 
disposal  the  syllabic  signs  ^,  ka,  and  ^,  ki.  The  resemblaore  of 
these  forms  speaks  clearly  in  favor  of  the  assumption  that  ^  and  '^ 
are  merely  different  developments  of  the  Cypriote  -^t,  while  in  ^ 
there  was  added  on  the  left  side  a  differentiating  bar. 

But  the  Cypriote  syllabic  signH  |— ,  ta,  ^i^,  te,  /^,  ti,  and  F,  to,  seem 
to  have  no  similarity  with  the  Canaanite  X  (^)  ^^^  A  (d).  On  the 
prevailing  analogy  it  was  to  be  expected  that  ^  (te)  would  have 
developed  into  X,  F  (to)  into  J,  The  possibility  of  this  development 
can  not  be  denied,  especially  since  the  three  strokes  of  the  F  can 
easily  be  reconstructed  into  ^. 

Cypriote  writing  has  but  one  surd  sibilant,  while  the  Canaanite 
writing  has  three.  We  have  already  recognized  above  the  origin 
of  the  Canaanite  t^  in  the  Cypriote  syllabic  sign  for  su.  The  Cypriote 
signs  for  se  and  si  seem  to  have  supplied  the  Canaanite  W  and  ^. 

Cypriote  se  looks  like  ^,  and  from  it  originated  Canaanite  >A/. 
The  sign  was  formed  in  Canaanite  by  starting  to  the  left  above,  in 
one  stroke,  neglecting  the  vertical  left  bar.  Later  there  arose  in 
Canaanite  signs  some  forms  more  closely  resembling  the  Cypriote,  but 
which  can  not  be  direct!}'  connected  with  it,  such  as  IM  and  similar 
ones.  Here  the  vertical  bar  to  the  left  arose  from  a  cursive  need. 
The  usual  form  of  Cypriote  si  is,  A,  T,  sometimes  ^  5,  ^,  also  'S.- 
I  believe  the  way  to  Canaanite  ^  and  Greek  I  is  not  very  far  from 
it.  It  may  be  worth  mentioning  as  a  coincidence  that  the  picture 
of  the  Cypriote  syllabic  sign  involuntarily  reminds  one  of  the  Ca- 
naanite name  of  the  letter  samek,  "  support." 

I  thus  claim  for  about  half  of  the  twenty-two  signs  of  the  Canaanite 
alphabet  a  certain  knowledge  of  their  origin.  And  this  certainly 
lends  some  weight  to  the  consideration  of  the  other  resemblances  and 
surmises  that  otherwise  would  have  to  be  dismissed  witboat  further 
reflection  as  coincidents  and  fantasies.  CiOOolc 


THREE  AKAMAIC  PAPTKI  FROM  ELEPHANTINE, 
EGYPT.- 


By  Prof.  Eduakd  Baohau. 


The  Tery  ancient  records  here  for  the  first  time  made  known  to  the 
learned  world  are  noteworthy  in  many  respects.  They  are  remarkable 
for  their  lan^age  and  for  their  contents.  They  are  especially  valu- 
able because  of  their  relation  to  the  latest  historical  books  of  the 
Old  Testament,  the  Chronicles  and  the  books  of  Ezra  and  !N'ehemiah. 
They  also  throw  light  on  the  history  of  the  Jews  during  the  little 
known  period  between  the  activity  of  Nehemiah  and  the  appearance 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  In  language  they  are  essentially  identical 
with  the  Aramaic  chapters  in  the  books  of  Ezra  and  Daniel,  and  in 
phraseology  they  present  many  points  of  contact  with  the  official  rec- 
ords in  the  book  of  Ezra.  They  relate  to  the  rebuilding  of  a  destroyed 
temple,  just  as  the  book  of  Ezra  relates  to  the  rebuilding  of  the 
temple  and  the  walls  of  Jerusalem. 

It  was  the  achievement  and  good  fortune  of  Dr.  Otto  Kubensohn 
to  have  found  these  papyri  during  the  recent  excavations  on  Ele- 
phantine, an  island  in  the  Nile  opposite  Assuan,  a  city  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  river,  on  tlie  border  of  Egypt  and  Xubia.  Among  the 
results  of  his  excavations,  there  reached  the  Royal  Museum  of  Berlin, 
besides  larger  and  smaller  pieces  and  fragments  of  papyri,  several 
still  unopened  scrolls.  When  these  were  unrolled  by  Mr.  Ibsc^er,  the 
curator  of  the  papyri  at  the  museum,  they  were  found  to  be  in 
part  Aramaic,  among  them  the  one  designated  here  as  No  1.  Doctor 
Rubensohn  describes  the  discovery  as  follows: 

The  mnse  of  rnlna  IKom)  situated  on  the  south  potat  of  the  Island  of  Ele 
phantine,  and  repreaenting  the  ancient  city  of  the  same  name,  Is  on  Its  northern 
half  covered  with  a  dense  maze  of  walla  of  unbumt  bricks,  the  remains  of 
private  dwellings  of  various  periods  of  antlgulty.    The  entire  northern  half  of 

*  Translated  and  abstracted,  by  permission,  from  "  Drel  Aramaeische  Fapy- 
rosurknnden  aus  Elephantine "  by  Ednard  Sachau  In  the  Abhandlungen  der 
koenlgUcben  preuselscheo  Akademie  der  Wlssenschaften  for  the  year  1907. 


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606  ANNUAL   REPORT   SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION.  1907. 

tbf  Koin  bns  li«eu  (lioroughly  devaetated  Uurlug  tbe  Inst  decadmi  by  the  nehab 
diggers  or  the  fellabin,  In  search  of  ammonlacal  earth,  bo  that  at  preeent  tbe 
nndlBturbed  part  at  the  Kom  along  Its  west,  particularly  the  southwest,  forms 
a  sleep  jireclplce  towara  those  ports  of  the  ancient  city  dog  over  by  the  fellnhln 
atid  thus  brought  down  to  u  low  level. 

The  Aramaic  papyri  came  to  light  In  two  rooms  Id  two  different  but  not 
widely  separated  house  groups,  not  very  distant  from  the  present  western  edge 
of  the  Kom.  By  far  the  larger  part  of  the  finds  was  In  tbe  southem  room ;  from 
the  northern  only  a  few  fragmaits  were  obtained.  Tbe  building  containing 
tbe  Aramaic  finds  was  In  a  very  poor  state  of  preserratlon,  llbe  almost  all  tbe 
other  briL'b  structures  of  Elephantine.  Besides  this,  the  soutberu  bouse  here 
described  had  evidently  been  rebuilt  at  various  periods,  and  tbe  remnants  of 
walls  of  ft  construction  very  similar  to  tbe  first  made  Its  survey  extremely  diffi- 
cult. It  was  therefore  Impossible  to  determine  accurately  the  ground  plan  of 
tbe  bouse.  The  destruction  Is  only  to  a  limited  degree  the  result  of  time,  but  Is 
cblefiy  due  to  the  activity  of  tbe  sebah  diggers,  traces  of  whose  work  were 
plainly  visible.  Indicating  comparatively  recent  operations.  Tbe  spot  where  the 
Aramaic  pai>yri  purcliaBcd  by  Mr.  Mond  were  found  was  pointed  out  to  me  two 
years  ago  by  the  dealer  who  sold  tbem,  and  In  our  first  campaign  la  Febroary. 
1906,  we  excavated  from  this  point  south,  unearthing  Oreek  papyri.  In  tbe 
present  campaign  we  worked  northwards  and  soon  came  upon  the  Aramaic  docu- 
ments here  described.  Tbere  can  be  no  donht,  therefore,  but  tliat  those  in  tlie 
museum  at  Cairo  came  from  this  very  AK>m.  The  Cairo. papyri,  according  to 
tbe  ststements  of  the  dealers,  were  In  a  pot,  while  the  Greek  papyri  discovered 
in  our  first  excavations  were  deposited  In  a  similar  manner  in  two  {wts.  These 
new  Aramaic  documents,  however,  were  found  In  the  debris  near  tbe  eastern 
and  southem  walls  of  the  room,  scarcely  half  a  meter  below  the  present  surface 
The  first  two  pieces  were  in  the  rubbish  outside  of  the  room  to  the  west,  where 
they  tiad  evidently  been  transferred  by  earlier  unauthorized  diners.     •     •     • 

The  finds  of  Doctor  Rubensohn  come  from  the  archives  of  such 
Jewish  colony  as  must  have  lived  at  Elephantine.  They  have  a  close 
relation  to  the  Aramaic  papyri  discovered  at  Assuan,  which  have 
been  edited  by  A.  H.  Sayce  with  the  assistance  of  A.  E.  Cowley 
(Iiondon,  1906),  and  which  in  all  probability,  though  they  came  to 
light  at  Assuan,  were  originally  found  at  Elephantine  and  formed 
part  of  the  papyrus  treasure,  the  final  discovery  of  which  was  re- 
served for  Doctor  Kubensohn.  The  documents  edited  at  Oxford 
belong  to  the  same  period  as  those  now  at  Berlin;  they  originated 
under  the  same  circumstances,  were  composed  in  p:\rt  by  the  same 
persons,  and  the  same  names  appear  in  them  as  in  these  later  finds. 

IXKTUMENT  1. 

Containing  a  petition  of  Jedoniah  and  his  fellow-pnests  of  tbe 
Jewish  temple  of  Elephantine  addressed  to  Bagohi,  the  Persian  gov- 
ernor of  Jerusalem,  asldng  for  the  restoration  of  their  temple,  which 
was  destroyed  through  the  machinations  of  the  Egyptian  priests  of 
the  god  Chum  {or  Hnub).  Written  in  408-407  B.  C.  (P1&  I 
and  II.) 


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ARAMAIC   PAPYBl — SACHAU.  607 

TBANSLATION. 

1.  To  onr  Lord  Bagohl,  governor  of  Jndea,  thy  serrants,  Jedonlab  and  bla 

companloiiB,  the  priests  In  the  fortress  Yeb;  Greeting: 

2.  Mar  our  Lord,  the  God  of  Heaven,  grant  thee  peace  abundantly  at  oil  tUnea, 

and  give  thee  favor  before  Ktng  Darius  and 

3.  the  sons  of  the  royal  house  a  thousandfold  more  than  now,  and  give  thee 

long  life!    May  Joy  and  health  be  tblQe  at  all  times! 

4.  Now  thy  BervantB,  Jedonlah  and  his  compantOQB,  speak  thus:  In  the  month 

of  lammuz  (July-Angast),  in  the  14th  year  of  King  Darius,  when  Arsam 

5.  departed  and  wait  to  the  King,  the  prieets  of  the  god  Hnub  in  the  fortress 

Yeb  entered  a  conspiracy  wltb  Waidrang,  who  was  the  governor  here,  as 
follows : 

6.  "The  temple  of  the  God  Jahu   (Yahu)  In  the  fortress  Yeb  shall  be  re- 

moved."   Thereupon  Waidrang  Bent 

7.  letters  to  his  son  Nephayan,  who  was  commander  of  tbe  fortress  Syene, 

saying:  "The  temple  in  the  fortress 

8.  Yeb  shall  be  destroyed."    Thereupon  Nephayan  brought  E^ptlans  together 

with  other  soldiers,    liiey  came  to  the  fortress  Yeb  wltb  their    •     ■     ■ 

9.  They  entered  Into  that  temple  and  destroyed  it  to  tbe  ground,  and  broke  to 

pieces  the  pillars  of  stone  that  were  there. 

10.  They  destroyed  also  the  Ave  gates,  built  of  hewn  stone,  which  were  In  the 

temple,  and  their  tops  (?)     *    ■    ■    and  bronze  hinges 

11.  In  marble  slabs  (?)  and  the  roof,  made  wholly  of  cedar  wood  together  with 

the  stucco  (7)  of  the  wall  (?)  and  other  things  that  were  there. 

12.  all  this  they  burnt  with  firev    And  the  bowls  of  gold  and  sliver  and  what- 

ever was  In  the  temple  they  took 

13.  and  appropriated  to  themselves.    And  since  (already  In)  the  days  of  the 

Kings  of  Egypt  bad  our  fathers  built  this  temple  in  the  fortress  7eb. 
And  when  C^mbyses  entered  Egypt 

14.  he  found  tills  temple  built,  and  wblle  the  temples  of  the  gods  of  E^ypt 

were  then  all  overthrown,  no  one  Injured  anything  In  this  temple. 

15.  And  since  they  [Waidrang  and  the  priests  of  Hnub]  have  done  tbis,  we  wltb 

our  wives  and  cbttdren  have  put  on  aackclotb  and  fasted  and  prayed  to 
Jahu,  the  Lord  of  Heaven 

16.  who  gave  us  cognizance  of  Waidrang  [i  e.,  punished  him].    The  chain  was 

removed  from  bis  feet,  and  all  the  posaesslons  which  he  acquired  per- 
ished and  all  the  men 
IT.  who  wished  ill  to  his  temple  were  slain,  and  we  saw  it  oiirselves  to  our 
satisfaction.    And  before  this,  at  the  time  when  this  evil  was  done  us, 

18.  have  we  sent  a  letter  to  onr  Lord   (Bagohl)  and  to  Jehohanan  (John), 

the  High  priest,  and  his  companions,  the  priests  In  Jerusalem,  and  bis 
,     brother  Ostan, 

19.  that  Is,  AnanI  [Hannant]  and  the  nobles  of  tbe  Jews,  but  they  sent  ns  no 

answer.    Also  since  the  Tammuz  day  of  tbe  14th  year  of  King  Etarius 

20.  to  this  day  we  wear  sackcloth  and  are  fasting.    Our  wives  have  become  like 

widows.    We  have  not  anointed  ourselves  with  oil 

21.  nor  drunk  wine.    Neither  from  that  day  to  this  day  of  tbe  17tb  year  of 

King  Darius  have  meal-offerings,  frankincense  or  bumt-olTerings 

22.  t>een  oBTered   in  this  temple.    Now  thy  servants,  Jedonlah,  and  his  com- 

panions, and  tbe  Jews,  all  the  citizens  of  Yeb,  speak  thus: 

23.  If  it  seem  good  to  our  lord,  mayest  thou  tbink  about  tbIs  temple  to  rebuild 

It,  since  we  are  not  permitted  to  build  It,  and  look  upon  the  recipients 


v.Goo^^lc 


608  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

24.  of  tby  beneSta  and  of  tby  mercy  bere  In  Egypt.    Mny  ii  letter  be  seut  from 

tbee  to  tbetn  concerning  tbe  temple  of  Jubu 

25.  that  It  be  built  again  tn  the  fortress  Yeb  as  It  was  built  In  former  times. 

And  we  wilt  offer  nieat-offerlngs  and  frankincense  and  burnt-otferlDSB 

26.  upon  tbe  attar  of  the  God  Jabu   lu  thy  name.    And   we  will  pray  for 

tbee  at  att  times,  we  and  our  wives  and  our  children  and  all  tbe  Jewa 

27.  who  are  here  when  this  will  be  done,  until  tbe  temple  la  built.    And  tboa 

Bhalt  bave  a  portion  before  Jabu,  tbe  God 

28.  of  Heaven,  from  every  one  who  offers  to  blm  burnt-offerings  and  sacrlSces 

In  value  equal  to  a  Bltver  shekel  for    *     •    •    And  concerning  the  gold 

29.  we  liave  sent  message  and  miide  known.    We  have  also  atl  of  us  wrlttoi 

concerning  these  matters  in  a  letter  in  our  name  to  Delaiab  and  Sheiem- 
iah,  the  sons  of  Sanballat,  the  governor  of  Samario. 
80.  Arsam  also  baa  no  knowledge  of  all  that  lias  t)een  done  to  us.    Tbe  aOth 
of  Marbeabwan  (OctotKr-November),  In  tbe  ITtb  year  of  King  Darlna 

It  is  well  known  that  Elephantine,  whose  old  Egyptian  name  was 
Abu,  Ibu,  lab,  or  lb,  which  in  Greek  and  Aramaic  become  leb  or  Yeb, 
was,  under  Persian  and  Soman  dominion,  a  fortress  with  a  garrison 
guarding  the  frontiers  against  Nubia.  It  is  also  known  from  classi- 
cal and  Egyptological  writings  that  the  ram-headed  Chnemu  or 
Hnub  was  worshipped  in  Elephantine  together  with  other  di^'inities. 
(Compare  Strabo,  C  817.) 

Bagohi,  to  whom  the  letter  is  addressed  (line  1),  and  Jehohanan, 
the  high  priest  at  Jerusalem  (line  18),  are  undoubtedly  identical 
with  Bagoas  or  Bagoses  andloannes  mentioned  in  Josephus's  Antiqui- 
ties, XI,  7,  where  it  is  related  that  while  Bagoas  (Bagoses)  was  Per- 
sian governor  in  Jerusalem  the  High  Priest  loannes  slew  in  the 
temple  his  brother  Jesus,  who  contested  the  dignity  of  the  high 
priesthood.  Bagoas  thereupon  invaded  the  temple  and  imposed 
upon  the  Jews  a  fine  of  50  drachms  for  every  lamb  that  there  was 
to  offer  in  the  temple.  The  High  Priest  Jehohanan  is  also  mentioned 
n  Nehemiah,  XII,  22.  Jedoniah,  who  appears  as  head  of  the  Jewish 
community  in  Elephantine,  occurs  also  in  the  Aramaic  papyrus  of 
Assuan.  In  Jadon,  Nehemiah,  III,  7,  may  be  seen  an  abbreviation 
of  this  name.  Sanballat,  who  is  named  as  governor  of  Samaria 
(line  29),  is  the  well-known  adversary  of  Nehemiah.  (Compare 
Nehemiah,  II,  10, 19 ;  III,  33 ;  IV,  1 ;  VI,  1.)  His  sons  are  not  men- 
tioned in  the  Old  Testament;  but  the  names  they  bear,  Delaiah  and 
Shelemiah,  often  occur  in  the  time  of  and  in  connection  with  San- 
ballat. (Compare  Nehemiah,  VI,  10-12;  XIII,  13;  I  Chronicles, 
III,  24;  XXIV,  18.) 

But  that  the  community  of  Elephantine  should  turn  for  assistance 
to  the  sons  of  one  who  had  been  the  bitterest  foe  of  Nehemiah  and 
of  the  restoration  of  the  Jewish  nation  and  its  cult  in  Palestine 
seems  rather  strange.  Can  it  be  that  the  Jews  of  Elephantine  were 
in  entire  ignorance  of  Nehemiah  and  his  great  national  work?  Or, 
since  Nehemiah's  return  to  Babylon  (about  433  B.  C.)  had  his  con- 


ARAMAIC   PAPYBI — SACHAU.  609 

flict  with  Hanballat  become  so  much  a  thing  of  the  past  that  the  com- 
munity believed  it  could  ignore  these  tilings  without  fear  of  giving 
offense  ?  Or,  were  the  Jews  of  Elephantine  derived  not  from  Judah 
and  Benjamin  but  from  various  parts  of  the  old  kingdoms  of  Judah 
and  Israel  (they  might  have  come  to  Egypt  already  before  the  over- 
throw of  both  of  these  kingdoms),  so  that  they  could  consider  them- 
selves as  being  not  direct  parties  to  the  political  and  religious  differ- 
ences between  Jerusalem  and  Samaria?  However  this  may  be,  it 
appears  certain,  that  they  did  not  act  in  the  spirit  of  N'ehemiah  when 
they  asked  the  sons  of  his  hereditary  enemy  for  help. 

Arsam  (lines  4  and  30)  is  possibly  identical  with  Arsanes  of  the 
Greek  historian  Ktesias,  who  was  governor  of  Egypt  when  Darius 
II,  Nothus,  424-405  B.  C.  (the  king  referred  to  in  lines  4,  21,  and 
80),  acceded  to  the  ttirone.  His  temporary  absence  from  Egypt  was 
taken  advantage  of  by  the  priests  of  Chnemu,  who  bribed  his  subor- 
dinates, and  with  their  assistance,  under  the  leadership  of  Waidrang, 
a  Persian  magistrate  of  Elephantine,  destroyed  the  temple  of  the 
Jewish  community.  According  to  lines  16  and  17  a  reaction  soon 
set  in;  the  enemies  of  the  Jews  were  deprived  of  the  fruits  of  their 
plunder  and  were  all  killed  before  their  eyes.  As  to  the  manner  of 
this  reaction  and  by  whom  it  was  brought  about,  nothing  is  said 
in  the  document.  It  may  be  assumed  that  Arsam  had  meanwhile 
returned  to  Egypt.  But,  though  the  evil  doers  had  been  punished, 
the  effects  of  their  evil  deeds  were  not  remedied.  The  house  of  God 
still  lay  in  ruins  and  the  congregation  was  not  allowed  to  rebuild 
it.  Who  these  new  adversaries  wei'e  is  not  recorded.  Hence  the 
petition  to  Bagoas. 

Document  II  is  a  duplicate  of  Document  X,  with  only  slight  varia- 
tions. 

Document  III  shows,  if  I  am  not  greatly  mistaken,  that  the  ardent 
wish  of  the  Jewish  community  of  Elephantine,  the  permission  to  re- 
build its  destroyed  temple,  was  granted,  for  this  short  but  complete 
papyrus  can  be  interpreted  in  this  sense  without  stretching  the  imagi- 
nation. This  document  is  not  the  written  answer  of  any  of  the  three 
addresses  mentioned  in  Document  I,  but  in  my  opinion  it  is  a  note  pre- 
served in  the  archives  of  this  community  of  Elephantine  concerning 
the  oral  answer  which  Bagoas,  the  Persian  governor  of  Judea,  and 
Delaiah,  the  son  of  Sanballat,  the  governor  of  Samaria,  gave  Jedo- 
uiah,  the  bearer  and  writer  of  the  petition. 

TBANSI.ATION. 

1.  Account  of  that  which  Bagohl  aad  Delaiab  said  to  me.    The  account  Is  as 

follows : 
2  "  Thou  Bhalt  apenk  in  £^pt 

3.  before  Arsames  concerning  the  altar  bouse  of  the  Giod 

4.  of  Heaven  which  had  been  built  in  the  fortress  Teb 

5.  before  our  time,  before  Cambyses. 


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610  ANNUAL   REPORT   SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION,   liWI. 

tt.  Whfcb  Waldrang,  tbat    •     •     •     ba«  ilestruyvil 
T.  In  tbe  14tli  year  of  King  Darini. 

8.  To  be  rebuilt  In  Its  place,  as  It  was  before 

9.  and  meal -offerings  and  frankincense  sball  be  offered  npon 

10.  that  altar  IlbewlBe  as  before 

11.  was  used  to  be  done." 

To  sum  up  the  facts  to  be  derived  from  these  documents: 

There  was  in  Elephantine  in  the  fifth  century  B.  C.  a  Jewish 
community  which  possessed  a  spacious,  well-built  t«mple  with  five 
gates  and  a  cedar  roof.  The  builders  of  the  temple  had  been  rich 
enough  to  have  cedars  transported  from  the  far  Lebanon  forests  to  the 
border  of  Xubia,  and  their  descendants  were  rich  enough  to  have 
sacrificial  bowls  of  gold  and  silver. 

The  temple  had  already  existed  for  a  long  time  vrhen  Document 
I  was  written  in  408-407  B.  C.  Cambyses,  when  he  entered  Egypt 
in  625,  found  it  there,  and  while  he  destroyed  the  temples  of  the 
gods  of  Egypt  he,  the  son  of  the  great  prince  who  allowed  the  Jews 
living  in  Babylonian  captivity  to  return  to  their  home,  did  not 
inflict  any  injury  to  the  temple  of  the  Jewish  community  in  Elephan- 
tine. \\'hen  was  this  temple  built?  When  was  the  Jewish  community 
in  Elephantine  settled  t  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  Babylonians  in  588?  After  the  destruction  of  Samaria  by  the 
Assyrians  in  723?  The  documents  and  fragments  of  documents  dis- 
covered at  Elephantine,  instructive  as  they  are  concerning  many 
other  things,  give  no  information  on  these  points. 

In  this  temple  they  offered  to  the  God  Jabu,  the  Lord  of  Heaven, 
their  prayers,  their  burnt-offerings,  meal-offerings,  and  frankin- 
cense. They  worshipped  him  with  undivided  loyalty.  There  is  here 
no  trace  of  their  having  turned  away  in  any  manner  toward  the 
gods  of  Egypt.  When  their  temple  was  destroyed  they  mourned 
in  sackcloth  and  with  fasting;  they  had  no  consecrated  place  where 
they  could  serve  their  God,  and  in  touching  words  they  pronounced 
their  gratitude  to  the  man  who  could  perhaps  procure  them  the  pos- 
sibility of  rebuilding  their  temple,  promising,  with  their  wives  and 
children,  to  pray  to  their  God  for  him,  a  Zoroastrian. 

The  Jews  enjoyed  the  protection  of  Darius,  Xerxes,  and  Artaxerxes. 
Under  their  regime  they  had  led  a  peaceful  and  in  every  respect 
satisfactory  existence,  and  it  was  only  when  Arsames,  the  Persian 
governor,  left  the  country  to  go  to  the  court  of  the  King  that  a 
conspiracy  of  Egyptian  priests  and  Persian  subordinate  officials 
succeeded  in  destroying  the  sanctuary  of  the  Jewish  community. 
But  the  reaction  which  soon  followed  and  the  punishment  of  the 
evil  doers  seems  again  to  have  been  the  work  of  the  Persian  Govern- 
ment 

Thus  these  documents  show  anew  that  the  policy  of  the  Ache- 
menides  was  favorable  to  the  Jews.    Cyrus  gave  them  permission  to 


v.Goo^^lc 


ARAMAIC    PAPYRI— SACHAU,  611 

return.  Under  the  Cambyses  the  temples  of  Eg^^pt  were  destroyed, 
but  the  Jewish  temple  in  Elephantine  was  spared.  Under  Persian 
rule  in  Egypt  the  Jewish  community  was  able  there  to  erect  and 
maintain  a  magnificent  house  of  God.  When  the  Persian  governor 
left  the  country,  the  enemies  of  the  Jews,  Egyptian  priests  and  their 
allies,  gained  the  upper  hand  and  destroyed  and  pillaged  the  house 
of  God.  And  again  it  was  a  Persian,  the  governor  of  Judea,  to 
whom  they  turned  with  a  petition  for  redress,  after  the  high  priest 
of  their  own  nation  and  reli^on  in  Jerusalem,  Jehohanan,  had 
ignored  their  petition.     (See  Document  I,  line  19.) 

When  Jeremiah  prophesied  to  his  countrymen  in  Egypt  of  their 
extermination  through  sword,  famine,  and  pestilence  (Jeremiah 
XLIV,  11  ff.),  he  intimated  in  one  passage  at  least  that  they  longed 
to  return  to  the  fatherland.  (Jeremiah  XLIV,  14 :  "  that  they  should 
return  into  the  land  of  Judah,  to  the  which  they  have  a  desire  to 
return  to  dwell  there  ".)  Such  a  longing  can  not  be  discerned  in 
these  papyrus  documents,  but  they  show  how  the  Jews  of  Elephan- 
tine, when  trouble  befell  them,  turned  their  eyes  in  search  of  help  to 
Palestine,  to  the  high  priest  in  Jerusalem,  and  to  the  governors  of 
Israel  and  Judah  appointed  by  the  Persian  Government.  They 
must,  therefore,  have  been  at  that  time  without  influential  protectors 
in  Egypt  itself. 

The  language  of  the  documents  is  pure  Aramaic,  as  pure  as  only 
such  model  Aramaic  writers  as  Aphraates,  Ephraem,  and  Narsea 
write.  The  date  of  these  documents  is  important  for  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  Arameans,  which,  notwithstanding  all  researches,  is  still 
obscure.  These  documents  are  valuable  for  their  dialect,  which  in 
this  early  period  was  closely  akin  to  Hebrew,  and  also  for  the  iig^t 
they  throw  on  the  history  of  Hebrew.  My  impression  is  that  Hebrew 
for  the  Jews  in  Elephantine  in  the  fifth  pre-Christian  century  was 
at  most  only  the  language  of  the  cultus  and  sacred  writings.  That 
they  wrote  their  business  documents  in  Aramaic  may  have  been 
out  of  consideration  for  the  government  authorities  before  whom 
the  affairs  had  eventually  to  be  transacted.  But  if  they  also  com- 
posed their  narratives  and  poetry  in  Aramaic  and  not  in  Hebrew, 
as  these  papyri  indicate,  the  conclusion  would  be  that  Aramaic  was 
certainly  the  vernacular  among  them,  the  language  of  old  and  young, 
of  man,  woman,  and  child. 

The  excavations  in  Elephantine  have  enriched  the  Old  Testament 
with  a  new  and  significant  chapter.  What  will  their  continuation 
bring  to  light  ?  As  to  the  fact  that  they  must  be  continued,  there  can 
be  no  question  among  the  friends  of  the  Bible  and  of  antiquity,  and 
it  is  to  bo  hoped  that  there  will  be  no  lack  of  fimds  in  the  present 
day  when  all  are  so  enthusiastic  on  the  subject  of  excavation  in  Bible 
lands.  -,  , 

D,:,-|.KlbyC_.OOglC 


.y  Google 


THE  PROBLKM  OF  COLOR  VISION.' 


B7  JoRN  M.  Dane. 


The  problem  of  color  vision  is  one  of  the  most  intricate  which  the 
biologist  is  asked  to  solve.  The  following  paragraphs  are  intended 
to  indicate  the  several  methods  which  are  being  employed  for  its 
solution,  together  with  some  of  the  results  thus  far  obtained.  The 
anatomy  of  color  vision  will  be  considered  first;  then  in  turn  its 
physiology  and  its  development ;  and  finally,  the  abnormal  conditions 
of  color  blindness,  together  with  the  theories  of  normal  vision  to 
which  they  have  given  rise. 

Anatomy. — The  mechanism  of  color  vision  is  lodged  in  the  rod  and 
the  cone  cells.  A  ray  of  light,  after  passing  through  the  lens  of  the 
eye  and  its  vitreous  body,  penetrates  several  layers  if  the  retina,  thus 
arriving  at  the  proximal  ends  of  the  elongated  rod  and  cone  cells. 
These  sells  are  arranged  in  a  single  row.  The  light  traverses  the 
length  of  the  cells  to  their  distal  ends  which  it  stimulates.  The  rod 
and  cone  cells  project  against  a  single  layer  of  heavily  pigmented 
cells,  the  stratum  pigmenti  retinct.  (Fig.  1,  S.  P.)  These  have  non- 
retracfile  processes  which  are  found  between  the  rods  and  the  cones. 
The  pigment  fuscin,  in  the  form  of  elongated  or  crystalloid  granules, 
migrates  into  these  processes  when  the  eye  is  illuminated ;  in  the  dark 
it  is  withdrawn  into  the  cell  body. 

Every  rod  cell  consists  of  a  rod,  a  rod  fiber,  and  a  nucleus,  arranged 
as  shown  in  fig.  1,  A.  A  rod,  which  is  from  40  to  50  >*  long  and  1.5 
to  2  ^  in  diameter,  consists  of  a  doubly  refractive,  lustrous  outer  seg- 
ment, and  a  singly  refractive,  finely  granular  inner  segment.  In 
serum  or  dilute  osmic  acid  the  outer  segment  breaks  into  a  series  of 
regular  transverse  disks  which  are  believed  to  indicate  a  stratified 
structure  in  the  living  rods.  Visual  purple  is  a  pigment  which  occurs 
only  in  the  outer  segments  of  the  rods.  It  bleaches  rapidly  in  the  light, 
but  {unless  the  pigmented  stratum  has  been  removed  experimentally  1 
it  is  soon  restored  in  the  dark.  Light  thus  appears  to  incite  chemical 
processes  in  the  outer  segments  of  the  rods.  The  inner  segments  are 
sometimes  described  as  having  a  longitudinally  fibrillar  structure  in 


.,..„,  GSigle 


614 


ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONUN   INSTITUTION,  19V!. 


their  out«r  portions.  The  opposite  ends  pass  rather  abruptly  into  the 
very  slender  rod  fibers.  Each  fiber  somewhere  in  its  course  expands 
to  inclose  the  nucleus,  and  finally  terminates  in  a  pyriform  enlarge- 
ment. The  nucleus  in  preserved  specimens  may  have  its  chromatin 
arranged  in  a  few  broad  transverse  bands. 

Kvery  cone  cell  consists  of  a  cone,  a  cone  fiber,  and  a  fiucleus.  The 
cones  like  the  rods  are  divisible  into  outer  and  inner  segments.  The 
outer  segment  is  usually  shorter  than  that  of  the  rod  (12  fi)  and 
tapers  somewhat  to  its  rounded  extremity.  It  never  contains  visual 
purple,  but  otherwise,  as  for  example  in  breaking  into  transverse 
disks,  it  resembles  the  outer  segment  of  the  rod.  The  inner  cone  seg- 
ment bulges  like  the  body  of  a  flask.  It  is  divided  into  an  outer, 
longitudinally  fibrillar  ellipsoid  portion,  and  an  inner  contractile 
myoid   portion.     The  noncontractile  ellipsoid   is  said   to  become 

strongly  eosinophilic 


Rod.  {.t... 


S,P. 


«/. 


£2 
Co 

wit 

*4^ 

ftV 

g 

== 

= — • 

in  the  dark.  Because 
of  the  myoid  sub- 
stance the  cones,  un- 
like the  rods,  may 
alter  their  length. 
The  contractility  is 
said  to  be  less  in  man 
than  in  the  pig,  and 
less  in  the  latter  than 
in  some  amphibia  and 
fishes  where  the  myoid 
segment  is  reported  to 

Fio.  1.— .1,  diagram  at  baman  rod  cellB  and  cone  cells  from  shorten  from  50  fi  tO 
the  Mjnalorlal  part  o(  the  retina.  B,  cone  cells  from  the  5  „  The  nuclei  are 
toTca,  drawn  on  the  same  scale.  ^  1    ■  ■ 

found  in  a  mass  of 
protoplasm  near  the  base  of  the  cone;  beyond  the  nucleus  the  pro- 
toplasm forms  a  cone  fiber  which  is  thicker  than  that  of  a  rod  and 
which  ends  in  a  branched  and  expanded  base. 

The  stimuli  received  by  the  outer  segments  of  the  rods  and  cones 
are  transmitted  through  their  fibers  to  the  nerve  cells  of  the  retina, 
and  thence  to  the  brain.  A  single  retinal  nerve  cell  receives  the 
stimuli  from  several  rods  and  cones. 

Since  rods  and  cones  are  believed  to  have  different  relations  to 
the  perception  of  color,  their  distribution  in  man  and  other  animals 
should  be  .^significant.  In  the  peripheral  portion  of  the  human  retina 
rods  are  in  excess,  so  that  in  sections  three  or  four  rods  appear  be- 
tween every  two  cones.  Near  the  depression,  or  fovea,  where  visdon  is 
most  acute,  rods  and  cones  are  equally  abundant,  and  in  the  fovea 
itself  only  cones  are  found.     These  cones,  however,  are  strikingly 


.y  Google 


problem:  op  color  vision — dane.  G15 

rod-like  in  form,  and  greatly  exceed  the  rods  in  length.  (Fig.  1,  B.) 
Slender  cones  are  also  found  in  the  thickened  area  centralis  which  in 
many  mammals  replaces  the  human  fovea. 

In  the  ape,  horse,  pig,  cow,  sheep,  and  dog  the  rods  and  cones  are 
similar  to  those  of  man.  In  rodents  which  avoid  the  light  the  cones 
are  "  very  small  and  hard  to  detect  since  their  inner  segments  scarcely 
differ  from  those  of  the  rods,  from  which  they  may  be  distinguished 
by  their  much  shorter  outer  segment.  M.  Schultze  at  first  questioned 
the  existence  of  cones  in  the  mouse,  guinea  pig,  mole,  hedgehog,  and 
bat.  The  cat  undoubtedly  has  cones,  but  they  are  small,  slender,  and, 
except  in  the  area,  infrequent."  "  Birds  have  a  single  or  double  fovea, 
like  that  of  man.  Cones  are  small  but  very  numerous,  and  in  their 
inner  segments  they  often  contain  a  drop  of  oily  substance,  either 
colorless  or  various  shades  of  yellow,  green,  or  red.  Presumably 
these  drops,  which  are  absent  from  the  rods  and  some  of  the  cones, 
exert  an  important  influence  upon  color  perception.  In  owls  the 
bright  colored  drops  are  lacking  and  the  cones  are  said  to  be  fewer. 
Some  reptiles  have  fovese;  two  kinds  of  visual  cells  are  reported, 
neither  of  which  resembles  the  mammalian  rods.  M.  Schuitze  be- 
lieved that  reptiles  have  only  cones.  In  fishes  and  amphibia,  both 
rods  and  cones  occur;  in  some  sharks,  rays,  and  eels,  however,  the 
cones  so  resemble  rods  that  they  may  be  overlooked.  Whether  or  not 
deep-sea  fishes  are  without  cones  is  apparently  unknown.  In  the 
various  groups  of  animals  the  rods  and  the  cones  each  present  modifi- 
cations of  structure,  with  which  as  yet  physiological  observations 
have  not  been  correlated. 

PHYBIOLOOr. 

The  physiology  of  color  vision  is  the  study  of  the  functions  of 
the  rod  and  the  cone  cells.  In  passing  from  a  bright  to  a  very  dim 
illumination  one  experiences  a  momentary  blindness;  after  becom- 
ing accustomed  to  the  darkness,  a  modified  form  of  vision  is  re- 
gained. In  this  twilight  vision  the  fovea  is  far  less  sensitive  to  light 
than  the  more  peripheral  parts  of  the  retinn.  Moreover  all  ob- 
jects appear  in  shades  of  gray.  The  spectrum  is  bright  but  colorless, 
and  its  brightest  part  has  shifted  from  the  yellow  portion  toward  the 
blue.  Von  Kries  has  explained  these  facts  by  assuming  that  the  cones 
are  the  agents  of  day  vision,  and  the  rods  of  twilight  vision.*  Cones, 
exclusively,  occur  in  the  fovea  where  day  vision  is  most  acute;  and 
rods  predominate  where  twilight  vision  is  at  its  best.    The  fluctua- 


°The  quotation,  and  much  of  this  accouat  of  the  retinn,  ie  from  Vod  Bboer's 
r^um^  In  Koelllker'a  Handbucb  der  Gewebetehre,  1902,  vol.  3,  pp.  818-832. 

*  Von  Kriee  presents  this  Dupllzltiltstbeorie  tii  Naccel's  Ilandbucli  dpr  Phyaiol- 
ogte.  1904,  vol.  .^,  l>|i.  168-193. 

4178&-08— 43  r-  I 

Digilized  by  Google 


616  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   IKSTITUTIOB,   1907. 

tions  in  the  visual  purple  of  the  rods  show  that  they  respond  to  the 
varying  intensities  of  dim  light,  and  this  purple  is  known  to  disinte- 
grate most  rapidly  in  green  light  which  appears  brightest  in  twilight 
vision.  Whether  or  not  the  bleached  rods  are  active  in  day  visioQ 
has  not  been  determined. 

It  is  probable  that  all  cones  do  not  respond  to  color  stimuli.  In 
the  peripheral  portion  of  the  retina  there  is  a  partially  color-blind 
region  where  red  and  green  can  not  be  distinguished  from  one  an- 
other, and  the  outermost  portion  of  the  retina  is  always  totally  color 
blind.  Since  cones  occur  in  these  areas  they  also  must  be  color 
blind.  From  these  considerations  it  is  reasonably  assumed  that,  in 
human  vision,  the  ability  to  perceive  colors  depends  upon  the  differ- 
entiation of  certain  of  the  cones. 

Since  at  the  present  time  the  nature  of  vision  can  not  be  determined 
by  the  microscopic  examination  of  the  retina,  and  since  a  very  effi- 
cient vision  may  exist  without  color  perception,  it  may  fairly  be  ques- 
tioned whether  the  lower  animals  are  capable  of  color  vision.  The 
biological  importance  of  this  problem  is  very  great,  since  prevalent 
theories  of  the  development  of  the  colors  of  flowers,  and  the  bright 
plumage  of  male  birds,  assume  a  color  perception  in  insects  and  fe- 
male birds  essentially  like  that  in  man.  To  learn  what  a  bee  actually 
sees  has  been  thought  impossible  since  it  requires  that  one  should 
possess  the  nervous  system  of  an  insect  and  still  remain  a  man. 

There  is  a  large  literature  dealing  with  the  distinctions  which 
the  lower  animals  make  between  various  colors,  but  the  factor  of 
intensity  or  brightness  has  seldom  been  satisfactorily  eliminated. 
The  trout  fisherman  is  con&dent  that  one  Bsh,  at  least,  discrimi- 
nates colors  with  precision.  Careful  experiments  with  the  chub, 
by  feeding  it  from  colored  forceps  and  taking  certain  precautions 
to  eliminate  brightness,  indicate  that  the  chub  distinguishes  red  from 
green  and  from  blue." 

Nagel,  who  is  convinced  that  the  phenomena  of  mimicry  and 
warning  colors  demand  color  vision  in  animals,  experimented  with 
the  dog.  After  taking  precautions  to  eliminate  brightness,  he  proved 
that  the  dog  perceived  the  difference  between  red  and  blue,  blue  and 
green,  and  red  and  green." 

Kinnaman  tested  the  monkey,  Macacvs  rhesva.  Its  food  was  placed 
in  one  of  six  receptacles,  precisely  alike  except  that  each  was  of  a 
different  color.    When  the  monkey  had  learned  to  choose  correctly 

"  Waebbum,  M.  F.,  and  Bentley,  I.  M.  The  establiehment  of  bd  oasociatlon 
iiivotving  color  (11  sort  in  I  nation  la  the  creefa  cbnb.  Journ.  of  Oomp.  Npar..  I'JOC, 
vol.  16.  pp.  113-125. 

^  Htmntpdt.  F.,  nnd  NnKel,  W.  Versuche  liber  die  Belzwlrkung  Tcrsehledr- 
iier  Strnblnrten  auf  Menscben  und  Tleraugen ;  Festschrift  der  Albert-Lndwlgs- 
Unlveraltat  In  Freiburg,  1902. 


.y  Google 


PBOBLBM   OF  COLOR  VISION — DANE.  617 

the  food-containing  glass^  a  different  color  was  selected.  Thus  the 
monkey  learned  to  proceed  at  once  to  the  receptacle  with  food, 
whether  it  was  blue,  yellow,  red,  or  green.  It  was  tested  also  with 
a  black  and  light  gray  glass.  Having  learned  that  the  food  was  in 
the  former,  successively  darker  grays  were  substituted  for  the  empty 
one.  The  percentage  of  wrong  choices  increased  and  it  was  found 
that  grays  were  confused  which  the  human  eye  can  distinguish  with 
perfect  ease  and  certainty.  Kinnaman  concludes  that  "  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  monkeys  perceive  colors."  Two  colors  of  equal  bright- 
ness are  distinguished  better  than  two  grays  of  equal  brightness; 
and  though  the  brightnesses  are  the  same,  colors  may  be  distinguished 
frwn  grays." 

In  the  dancing  mouse,  however,  the  cones  of  which  are  at  least 
very  rod-like,  Yerkes  has  recently  found  that  color  vision  is  extremely 
poor.  There  is  some  evidence  of  discrimination  of  red  and  green, 
and  of  red  and  blue,  but  none  whatever  of  blue  and  green.  Ap- 
parently such  visual  guidance  as  is  received  results  from  differences 
in  brightness.    The  mouse  discriminates  blacks,  grays,  and  whites.* 

Because  of  the  inherent  difficulties  in  the  investigation  of  color 
vision  in  the  lower  animals,  comprehensive  results  have  not.yet  been 
(Stained,  but  the  newer  methods  promise  notable  discoveries, 

DBVBLOPMBKT. 

Since  color  vision  is  a  complex  differentiation,  it  might  be  expected 
that  in  the  course  of  development  an  individual  sliould  successively 
pass  through  the  simpler  stages  by  which  it  was  acquired.  Anatomic- 
ally it  has  been  shown  that  the  retinal  layers  first  become  distinct  at 
the  center  of  the  retinal  cup,  and  that  the  differentiation  of  the  retinal 
cells  decreases  from  the  center  toward  the  periphery.  In  the  chick 
it  is  said  that  the  cone  nuclei  may  be  identified  at  an  earlier  stege  than 
the  rod  nuclei,"  but  it  is  not  generally  recognized  that  one  form  of 
visual  cell  precedes  the  other. 

The  development  of  color  vision  has  been  theoretically  considei-ed 
by  Mrs.  Ladd  Franklin."  Her  theory  assumes  that  the  colorless 
sensations,  white,  gray,  and  black,  are  caused  by  a  primitive  photo- 
cbemical  substance  called  the  gray  substance,  which  is  ocnnposed  of 
numerous  gray  molecules. 

»  Kinnaman,  A.  J.  Mental  life  of  two  Hacacua  rhesus  monkeys  In  captivity. 
Amer.  Joum.  of  PBych.,  1902,  vol.  13.  pp.  98-148. 

*  Terkes,  R.  If.  Tbe  sense  of  vision  In  the  dancing  monsc  Journ.  of  Comp. 
Neur.,  1907,  toI.  17,  p.  194. 

'  Weysae,  A.  W.,  and  Burgess,  W.  S.  Histogenesis  of  the  retina.  Araer.  Nat., 
190fi,  Tol.  40.  pp.  611-834. 

'  Franklin,  C.  L.  On  tbeorlee  of  llgbt  sensation.  Mind,  1893,  n.  s.,  vol.  2, 
I.p.  47»-489. 

Digilized  by  Google 


ANNUAL  BEPOET  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,   1901. 


Stagt  J 


Stage   3 


618 

These  gray  molecules,  which  persist  in  their  primitive  state  cnly 
in  the  rods,  upon  disassociation  furnish  us  with  the  gray  sensa- 
tions. In  the  cones  the  gray  molecules  have  undergone  a  develop- 
ment such  that  a  certain  portion  only  of  the  molecule  becomes  dis- 
associated by  the  action  of  light  of  a  friven  color. 

The  differentiation  of  the  primitive  gray  molecule  is  supposed 
to  have  taken  place  in  three  stages.  (Fig.  2.)  The  first  stage  is 
represented  by  the  simple,  primitive  gray  molecule,  so  constructed 
that  it  is  disintegrated  by  light 
of  any  color,  thus  producing  a 
gray  or  white  sensation.  In  the 
second  stage  the  molecule  b 
more  complex  and  contains  two 
groupings,  the  disassociation  of 
one  of  which  gives  the  sensation 
of  yellow  and  the  disassociation 
of  the  other  gives  blue.  The 
simultaneous  disassociation  of 
both  gives  white.  This  stage 
persists  in  the  peripheral  por- 
tion of  the  retina  where  neither 
green  nor  red  can  be  perceived 
as  such.  In  the  third  stage  the 
yellow  grouping  is  divided  to 
form  two  new  combinations,  the 
disassociation  of  one  of  which 
produces  the  sensation  of  green 
and  the  other  the  sensation  of 
red.  If  the  red  and  green 
groupings  are  disassociated  to- 
gether the  resulting  sensation  is 
yellow ;    whereas    the    simulta- 

FIQ.   2.— Diagram  to   llloatrate  the  Franklin  neOUS   disaSSOciation   of  the   red, 

theory.     The  l>lue.  green,   and   red  Kroup-  preen,  and  blue  eroUDinfifS  pro- 

lDK«  are   repreaented   by   an   outer,    middle.  ^  '  ,  ,  .,       ^         ^.      ^     ^ 

and  Inner  circle  of  dots,  respectlvelj.    DiB-  (lUCes  the  White  seUSatlOU. 

aaaodated  groupings  ara  omitted.  Schenck  "  has  somewhat  ex- 

tended this  theory  by  describ- 
ing the  development  of  the  primitive  gray  molecule.  Since  in 
twilight  vision  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum  is  lost,  and  the  green- 
blue  portion  is  its  brightest  part,  he  considers  that  the  photo- 
chemical substance  of  the  rods  is  attuned  only  to  the  green-blue 
light,  which  is  perceived  as  colorless.  Later  this  photo-chemical 
substance   becomes   sensitized   in   two   stages,   first   to   include   the 

°  Schenck.  F.  t)ber  die  phjalologlschen  Omadlagen  dee  FarbenslDDB.  Slti.- 
ber.  d.  Gesaell.  d.  gee.  Naturw.  z,  Marburg,  1907,  Jabrg.  1906,  pp,  laa-lM. 

T.,ooylc 


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Stage  3 


PROBLEM   OF   COLOR  VISION — DANE.  619 

green-yellow,  and  then  the  yellow-red,  which  however  are  still  per- 
ceived as  colorless  light.  Thus  a  gray  molecule  like  that  of  Mrs. 
Franklin's  first  stage  is  constructed.  It  occurs  in  the  color  blind 
peripheral  cones.  The  formation  of  color-reacting  groupings  in 
the  partly  sensitized  gray  molecule  leads,  according  to  Schenck,  to 
thase  forms  of  human  vision  in  which  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum  is 
shortened. 

Observations  upon  the  color  perception  of  young  children  do 
not  support  these  developmental  theories.  Holden  and  Bosse "  tested 
two  hundred  children  by  placing  before  them  square  pieces  qi  col- 
ored paper  attached  to  a  gray  background  of  similar  brightness. 
If  the  child  made  an  effort  to  grasp  the  square,  its  color  must  have 
been  perceived.  It  was  found  that  the  average  child  would  react 
to  ail  colors  by  the  tenth  month,  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum  causing 
response  a  little  earlier  than  the  violet  end.  When  ribbons  of  six 
spectral  colors  were  placed  before  children  of  from  seven  to  twenty- 
four  months,  red  was  selected  first;  orange  or  yellow  second  and 
third;  and  green,  blue,  and  violet  last  of  all.  NageP  showed  his 
child  o^f  twenty-eight  months  each  of  the  spectral  colors  in  varying 
degrees  of  brightness,  at  the  same  time  teaching  him  their  names. 
Bed  and  green  were  learned  easily,  but  blue  was  acquired  with  greater 
difficulty  than  any  other  color,  including  violet.  Green,  violet,  and 
red  were  preferred;  black,  yellow,  white,  gray,  and  blue  had  second- 
ary rank.  Other  experiments  with  the  color  perception  of  children 
have  ^ven  different  results.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  children  are 
not  known  to  pass  from  a  color  blind  stage,  through  one  of  yellow- 
blue  vision,  to  a  discrimination  of  all  the  spectra]  colors.  No  race  of 
men  now  exists  in  which  any  of  the  colors  is  unknown;  and  the  notion 
derived  from  studying  the  color  terms  and  references  in  ancient 
literature,  that  man  in  historic  times  had  a  deficient  color  sense,  is 
not  substantiated.  It  may  be  that,  as  in  children,  the  red  portion 
of  the  spectrum  was  preferred  to  the  blue,  but  even  this  is  not  estab- 
lished. 

COLOR  BLINDNESS. 

All  the  colors  which  are  normally  perceived  may  be  produced  by 
combinations  of  the  spectral  red,  green,  and  blue.  Normal  vision 
is  therefore  Irickromatic.  Sometimes  in  trichromatic  vision  the  red 
end  of  the  spectrum  is  shortened;  in  other  cases  a  mixture  of  red 
and  green,  which  to  normal  persons  appears  pure  yellow,  may  seem 

■Holden,  W.  A.,  and  Bosee,  K,  K.  The  order  of  development  of  color 
perceptiou  and  color  preference  In  the  child.  Arch,  of  Ophth.,  liKW,  vol.  29, 
pp.  261-277. 

*Nflgel,  W.  A.    Observations  on  the  color  sense  of  a  child.    Jouni.  of  Comp, 

Nenr.,  litOO,  vol.  16.  pp.  217-230.  ^--  . 


620  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONUH   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

tinged  with  red  or  green.  ITius  there  are  variations  in  trichromatic 
vision.  Greater  abnormalities  may  take  the  form  of  dichromatic 
and  monochromatic  vision.  The  latter  is  a  rare  pathological  condi- 
tion in  which  all  colors  are  perceived  as  shades  of  one ;  vision,  there- 
fore, is  essentially  colorless  (achromatic),  the  images  obtained  being 
comparable  with  photographs.  In  dichromatic  vision  color  percep- 
tion is  so  limited  that  all  of  the  shades  perceived  may  be  made  by 
combining  two  of  the  spectral  colors  red,  green,  and  blue;  blind- 
ness to  the  third  of  these  colors  may  be  partial  or  complete.  The 
ordinary  color  blindness  is  dichromatic.  Forty  men  and  four  women 
per  thousand  are  either  wholly  unable  to  perceive  certain  colors  or 
can  recognize  them  only  with  difficulty.  This  defect  is  usually  con- 
genital and  hereditary.  It  may  cause  so  little  trouble  as  to  pass  unde- 
tected until  the  age  of  seventy.  All  attempts  to  overcome  the  color 
blindness  by  educating  the  color  sense  in  various  ways  have  failed. 

Since  dichromatic  color  blindness  plays  so  large  a  part  in  the 
theories  of  normal  vision,  a  portion  of  Doctor  Pole's  description  of 
his  own  case  is  here  inserted.  He  says,"  "  In  the  first  place  we  see 
white  and  black  and  their  intermediate  gray,  provided  they  are  free 
from  alloy  with  other  colors,  precisely  as  others  do.  (Such  state- 
ments are  confirmed  by  those  who  are  color  blind  in  one  eye,  the  other 
being  normal.)  Secondly,  there  are  two  colors,  namely,  yellow  and 
blue,  which  also  if  unalloyed  we  see,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  in 
the  normal  manner.  But  these  two  are  the  only  colors  of  which  we 
have  any  sensation.  It  may  naturally  be  asked :  Do  we  not  see  objects 
of  other  colors,  such  as  roses,  grass,  violets,  oranges,  and  so  on  f  The 
answer  is  that  we  do  see  all  these  things,  but  that  they  do  not  give  us 
ihe  color  sensation  correctly  belonging  to  them;Hheir  colors  appear 
to  us  as  varieties  of  the  other  color  sensations  which  we  are  able  to 
receive.  Take,  for  example,  the  color  red.  A  soldier's  coat  or  a  stick 
of  sealing  wax  conveys  to  me  a  very  positive  sensation  of  color,  by 
which  I  am  perfectly  able  to  identify,  in  a  great  number  of  instances, 
bodies  of  this  hue.  But  when  I  examine  more  closely  what  I  really 
see,  I  am  obliged  to  conclude  that  it  is  simply  a  modification  of  one 
of  my  other  sensations,  namely,  yellow.  It  is  in  fact  a  yellow  shaded 
with  black  or  gray,  a  darkened  yellow  or  yellow  brown." 

Dichromatic  vision  occurs  in  three  forms,  in  two  or  which  red  and 
green  are  not  differentiated  from  one  another.  The  three  forms  are 
named  protanopia,  deuteranopic,  and  tritanopia,  respectively.  In 
protanopia  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum  is  shortened ;  that  is,  a  portion 
which  to  the  normal  person  is  red  appears  black.  The  remainder  of 
the  red,  the  orange,  the  yellow,  and  the  green  appear  as  successively 

o  Pole,  W.  Color  blindness  In  relattoD  to  tbe  Homeric  expressloDS  for  color. 
Nature,  1878,  vol.  18,  pp.  676-679. 


.y  Google 


PEOBLBM  OF  COLOB  VISION — DANE.  621 

lighter  shades  of  yellow  which,  toward  the  blue,  becomes  gray  or 
white.  This  white  shades  into  blue,  which  deepens  toward  the  violet 
end  of  the  spectrum.  In  deuteranopia,  which  is  the  normal  condition 
of  a  peripheral  zone  of  the  retina,  the  red  of  the  spectrum  is  not 
shortened.  Red,  orange,  yellow,  and  green  appear  as  lighter  shades 
of  one  color,  called  red  or  yellow,  and  shade  into  a  white  or  gray  band 
which  is  a  little  nearer  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum  than  the  corre- 
sponding band  of  protanopia.  Blue  is  perceived  normally.  Tritan- 
opia is  a  rare  form  in  which  yellow  and  blue  are  not  recognized.  The 
spectrum  presents  red  and  green  portions,  separated  by  a  white  band 
in  place  of  the  yellow.  A  dark  green  is  seen  in  place  of  blue  and  the 
violet  end  of  the  spectrum  is  shortened. 

THEORIES  OF  OOLOB  VISION. 

Certain  features  of  color  blindness  are  ingeniously  explained  by 
Hering's  theory,  illustrated  in  figure  3.  It  is  supposed  that  the 
cones  contain  a  photo-chemical  substance  which  is  disassociated  by 
red  rays,  but  which  is  built  up  by  the  green  rays,  giving  rise  re- 
spectively to  the  sensations  of  red  and  green.  A  second  substance 
is  broken  down  by  yellow  and  built  up  by  blue  light.  As  shown 
in  the  figure,  orange  is  a  mixed  sensation  due  to  the  simultane- 
ous partial  destruction  of  red-green  and  the  yellow-blue  substances. 
Yellowish  green  and  greenish  blue  are  likewise  mixtures,  and  violet 
is  supposed  to  combine  the  partial  construction  of  the  yellow-blue  with 
the  destruction  of  the  red-green,  the  latter  being  indicated  by  the 
broken  line.  There  are  four  pure  sensations,  red,  yellow,  green,  and 
blue.  Color  blindness  may  be  due  to  the  absence  or  deficiency  of  the 
red-green  substance  (protanopia  and  deuteranopia,  the  two  forms 
being  varieties  of  a  single  type),  or  to  lack  of  the  yellow -blue  sub- 
stance (tritanopia).  Hering  further  considered  that  there  was  a 
white-black  sulwtance,  built  up  in  darkness  to  give  rise  to  the  sensa- 
tion of  black,  but  destroyed  in  varying  degree  by  different  colored 
lights,  thus  giving  white.  In  monochromatic  vision  the  retina  con- 
tains only  this  white-black  substance.  The  curve  w  of  figure  3  shows 
that  the  maximum  stimulation  of  white  is  in  the  yellow  portion  of 
the  spectrum.  Without  considering  the  difficulties  concerning  the 
white-black  hypothesis,  it  may  be  questioned  whether  both  construc- 
tive and  destructive  chemical  processes  can  produce  color  sensations  of 
similar  nature.  Mrs.  Franklin  considered  that  her  theory  was  sup- 
ported by  the  fact  that  the  color  sensations  were  all  chemically 
destructive.  Hering's  theory,  moreover,  calls  for  four  primary  color 
sensations,  whereas  physicists  recognize  that  only  three  are  necessary. 
Accordingly  the  physicist  Young  proposed  a  simpler  theory  ante- 


..Googlc 


622  ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  19OT. 

dating  that  of  Hering.     It  was  advocated  by  Helmholtz,  and  is 
generally  known  as  the  Young-Helmholtz  theory. 

According  to  the  Young-Helmholtz  theory  there  are  three  photo- 
chemical substances,  red,  green,  and  blue,  respectively,  which  are 
stimulated  by  the  various  rays  of  the  spectrum  as  shown  in  figure 
4.  Absence  of  stimulation  produces  black,  and  the  simultaneous  dis- 
association  of  all  three  yields  white.  Protanopia  is  interpreted  as  red 
blindness,  due  to  deficiency  of  the  red  perceiving  substance.  Deutera- 
nopia  is  green  blindness,  and  tritanopia  is  blue  blindness.  Since  it 
would  appear  that  the  perception  of  white  must  be  lost  with  the 
disappearance  of  one  of  the  three  elements,  the  theory  has  been  vari- 
ously modified.  In  protanopia  the  red  and  the  green  substances  may 
be  so  altered  that  each  responds  both  to  red  and  green  light  (Fick), 


Fio.  3. — DIagrBm  to  lllustrRte  Herlog'K  thmry  o(  Color  TiaioD,  The  red- 
greea  substance,  r-o.  Is  Tcrtlcall^  sluded ;  and  tbe  rellow-blue  sabatance, 
V-b,  to  transversel;  shaded, 

or  the  red  and  the  green  substances  may  be  imperfectly  segregated, 
as  assumed  by  Mrs.  Franklin's  theory.  The  close  relation  between 
the  red  and  green  substances  is  shown  in  Koenig's  presentation  of 
the  Young-Helmholtz  theory.  (Fig,  5.)  The  absence  of  either 
would  give  rise  to  somewhat  similar  conditions,  such  as  occur  in 
protanopia  and  deuteranopia.  The  figure  indicates  that  in  trichro- 
matic vision,  the  colors  from  yellow  to  blue  affect  all  three  sub- 
stances to  a  certain  extent,  thus  adding  a  small  amount  of  white  to 
the  color  sensation.  In  dichromatic  vision  the  mixing  of  the  two 
elements  yields  white.  In  case  the  red  substance  is  absent,  this 
white  will  appear  nearer  the  blue  than  in  case  the  green  Is  absent; 
its  position  is  indicated  by  the  intersection  of  the  blue  with  the 
green  and  red  curves,  respectively.  In  the  absence  of  the  blue 
substance,  the  white  band  is  near  the  yellow.    This  accords  with  the 


Goo'^lc 


PBOBLEM   OF   COLOR  VISION — DANE. 


628 


Fia.  *. — DlBEram  to  llluBtraW  the  Yopng-Hemholla  theory. 
r,  g,  h,  red,  green,  and  hlue  percelTlng  Bobetanco, 
mpectlvely. 


observfttioDS  upon  the  color  blind.  The  absence  of  the  gieen  sub- 
stance would  not  shorten  the  spectrum,  but  the  lack  of  the  red  or  blue 
would  cut  off  their  respective  ends.  All  of  these  features  are  equally 
well  explained  if,  instead  of  the  absence  of  one  of  the  three  sub- 
stances, such  a  modification  of  its  reaction  is  a.ssumed  as  would 
be  illustrated  by  a  lateral  shifting  of  its  curve  in  the  diagram.  Thus 
in  red  blindness  the 
red  curve  is  shifted  to 
cover  more  closely  the 
territory  of  the  green ; 
in  green  blindness  the 
green  is  shifted  toward 
the  red;  and  in  the 
blue  blindness  the  blue 
and  green  curves  are 
brought  together.  Thus 
in  the  color  blind  all 
three  substances  are 
present  but  in  modified 
form.  Since  this  modi- 
Bed  Young-Helmholtz  theory  accords  so  well  with  observations  on 
color  blindness,  it  is  generally  considered  as  the  most  satisfactory  ex- 
planation of  color  vision. 

An  interesting  attempt  has  been  made  by  Patten  to  bring  this 
theory  into  relation  with  structural  elements  in  the  cones."  He  be- 
lieves that  the 
visual  cells  of 
invertebrates 
are  character- 
ized by  a  fib- 
r  i  1  I  a  ti  o  n 
which  is  trans- 
verse to  the  di- 
rection of  the 
incident  light 
R       0        Y  0  B  V  waves,  and 

that  the  ten- 
dency of  the 
vertebrate 

rods  and  cones  to  separate  into  transverse  disks  is  evidence  of  a  similar 
structure.  Many  hundreds  of  such  fibrils  may  exist  in  a  rod  or  cone. 
They  are  not  supposed  to  vibrate  like  tense  strings,  but  to  act  as  "  con- 
ductors or  resonators,"  a   fact  which  would  not  exclude  chemical 

'  Patten,  W.    A  bnaia  for  a  theory  of  color  vielon.    Amer.  Nat„  1898,  vol.  82, 

ikGoo^^lc 


624 


ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITtlTION,  1907. 


changes  resulting  in  fatigue.  The  long  fibrils  respond  to  the  red  end 
of  the  spectrum  and  the  short  ones  to  the  blue.  In  rods  the  fibers  are 
of  equal  length  and  only  monochromatic  vision  is  possible,  but  in  the 
cones  their  varying  length  allows  a  range  of  color  perception.  Any 
variation  in  the  form  or  dimensions  of  the  cones  would  bring  about 
corresponding  changes  in  vision.  The  increased  length  of  the  cones 
at  the  fovea  provides  for  a  greater  power  of  color  discrimination.  If 
the  base  of  a  cone  were  absent  or  cylindrical  it  would  be  red  blind. 

This  theory  is  illustrated  in  figure 
6.  On  the  right  is  the  diagram  of  a 
cone  and  its  fibrils;  the  latter  radi- 
ate from  an  axial  filament,  the  ex- 
istence of  which  has  been  discussed 
g  and  denied  by  other  investigators. 

The  fibrils  in  the  right  half  of  the 
cone  are  drawn  as   responding  to 
red,    yellowish    green,    and    violet 
0  light;  the  Young- Helmholtz  curves 

are  shown  on  the  left.  In  nonpolar- 
ized light  all  of  the  fibrils  in  a  trans- 
verse section  of  a  cone  respond  uni- 
formly, but  in  polarized  light  only 
such  are  affected  as  are  indicated  in 
the  cross  sections  on  the  left  of  the 
figure.  Thus  the  dullness  of  polar- 
^  ized  light  is  explained.     The  cor- 

rectness   of    this    supposition,    as 
Doctor  Patten  states,  will  be  deter- 
mined by  extensive  measurements, 
^.Ts.  much   more  accurate  and   detailed 

^^  than  any  heretofore  made,  of  the 

visual    elements   in    all   classes    of 
he  aup.     animals. 

Tarioua  It  will  be  noted  that  according 
light  wavea  affect  tbem.  (Patten.)  jo  Patten's  and  Mrs.  Franklin's 
theories  the  mechanism  for  reaction 
to  all  the  colors  may  exist  in  a  single  cone.  The  Hering  theory  calls 
for  the  reaction  to  at  least  two  colors  in  one  cone ;  but,  according  to  the 
Young-Helmholtz  theory,  although  the  three  substances  could  exist  in 
a  single  cone,  each  is  declared  to  exist  in  a  cone  by  itself.  This  is  con- 
sidered to  be  strongly  in  favor  of  the  validity  of  the  Young-Helm- 
holtz theory.  Since  physiologists  find  no  instance  in  which  different 
sorts  of  impulses  are  conveyed  over  a  given  nerve  fiber,  it  is  believed 
that  a  single  cone  fiber  can  transmit  only  one  sort  of  color  sensation. 
The  stimuli  of  the  red,  green,  and  blue  cones  respectively  are  s 


PROBLEM   OP   COLOR  VIBION DANE.  626 

to  be  gathered  by  separate  nerve  cells  of  the  retina,  and  the  optic 
nerve  consequently  contains  certain  6bers  transmitting  only  red,  green, 
and  blue  sensations  respectively.  The  mixing  of  the  sensations,  giving 
rise  to  the  perception  of  shades  and  tints,  is  therefore  accomplished  in 
the  brain  and  not  in  the  cones.  In  an  attempt  to  test  this  supposition, 
attention  has  been  called  to  the  perception  of  the  colors  of  stars.  The 
image  of  the  star  is  so  minute  that  it  would  cover  but  a  single  cone, 
but  the  conclusion  that  one  cone  perceives  its  color  is  invalidated 
by  the  fact  that  'the  retina  is  not  sufficiently  stationary ;  the  image  of 
the  star  falls  in  rapid  succession  upon  several  cones  which  may  unite  in 
giving  the  color  perception.  Those  who  believe  in  the  specific  energy 
of  the  rod  and  cone  fibers  dismiss  at  once  several  of  the  theories  of 
color  vision.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  separation 
of  the  cones  into  forms  responding  to  red,  blue,  and  green  light,  with 
three  corresponding  sets  of  nerve  cells  and  fibers  to  convey  these 
separate  stimuli  to  the  brain,  does  not  rest  upon  anatomical  evidence. 


.y  Google 


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IMMUNITY  IN  TUBERCULOSIS.' 


By  SiuOK  Plexneb,  M.  D., 
Rofkcfelh-f  Inttitute  for  Medical  Regearch,  XeK  York  City. 


I  can  not  begin  this  address  without  delaying  a  moment  to  testify 
to  my  sense  of  the  great  honor  which  has  been  conferred  upon  me 
by  your  invitation.  Neither  can  I  proceed  with  it  until  I  have  ex- 
pressed to  you  my  conviction  that  there  are  persons  present  in  this 
audience  whose  scientific  work  on  tuberculosis  makes  them  far  abler 
than  I  to  discuss  the  complex  problem  of  immunity  in  tuberculosis. 
My  work  in  bacteriology  in  the  past  has  not  led  me  to  an  especial 
consideration  of  the  highly  important  problem  of  the  prevention  and 
cure  of  tuberculosis,  and  I  can  therefore  account  in  no  other  way  for 
my  selection  to  address  you  this  evening  than  that  you  desired  this 
topic  presented  to  you  from  the  point  of  view  of  one  who  has  done 
some  work  in  the  general  field  of  bacteriology. 

The  modem  study  of  tuberculosis,  as  you  know,  begins  with  the 
generation  which  immediately  preceded  the  epoch-making  discoveries 
of  Koch.  It  may,  I  think,  be  said  with  justice  that  this  study  was 
inaugurated  by  the  first  purposeful  transmission  by  inoculation  of  the 
disease  from  animal  to  animal.  For  whatever  may  have  been  the 
speculations  upon  the  infectious  and  transmissible  character  of  the 
disease  before  this  demonstration,  yet  the  demonstration  was  neces- 
sary before  further  steps  in  the  elucidation  of  the  cause  and  preven- 
tion of  the  disease  could  be  taken.  Koch  in  his  masterful  monograph 
gives  the  credit  of  successful  inoculation  to  Klencke,  who  in  the  year 
1843  succeeded  in  inducing  an- extensive  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs  and 
liver  in  rabbits  by  inoculation  with  portions  of  miliary  and  in- 
filtrating tubercles  from  man.  Klencke,  after  accomplishing  this 
result,  did  not  continue  his  investigations,  and  they  were  consequently 
soon  forgotten.    In  the  meantime  Villemin's  experimental  investiga- 

'  Address  delivered  at  the  Joint  meeting  of  the  Association  of  American 
Physicians  and  the  National  Association  for  tbe  Study  and  Prevention  of 
Tuberculosis,  beld  at  Washington,  D.  C.  May  16,  1906.  Reprinted,  by  per- 
mlBSton,  from  the  transactions  of  the  second  meeting  of  tbe  National  Associa- 
tion for  tbe  Study  and  Prevention  of  Tuberculosis,  1906. 

62T 


Digilized  by  Google 


638  AMNHAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

tions  were  begun  and  pursued  to  a  successful  termination.  He 
inoculated  not  only  with  tubercular  material  from  human  beings,  but 
also  from  cases  of  bovine  tuberculosis,  and  he  seemed  to  have  proved 
experimentally  the  identity  of  the  latter  disease  with  human  tuber- 
culosis. Villemin's  researches,  from  the  number  of  bis  experiments, 
the  careful  manner  in  which  they  were  carried  out  and  the  employ- 
ment of  suitable  control  experiments,  appeared  to  decide  the  question 
in  favor  of  the  infective  theory  of  tuberculosis.  The  numerous 
workers  who  repeated  Villemin's  experiments,  after  the  same  or 
modified  methods,  arrived  at  very  contradictory  results.  The  op- 
ponents of  the  infective  theory  strove  to  prove  that  true  tuberculosis 
could  be  induced  by  inoculation  with  nontubercular  materiaL  To 
the  decision  of  this  question  Cohnheim  and  Salbmonsen  contributed 
largely  by  selecting  for  inoculation  the  anterior  chamber  of  a  rabbit's 
eye.  The  great  advantage  which  tliis  method  possesses  over  all  others 
arises  from  the  fact  that  the  course  of  a  successful  tubercular  inocula- 
tion can  be  watched  throughout  by  the  experimenter  until  the 
pathological  process  has  advanced  so  far  that  the  whole  organism — 
the  neighboring  lymphatic  glands,  the  lungs,  spleen,  liver,  and  kid- 
neys— becomes  tuberculous. 

A  further  point  in  favor  of  this  method  of  inoculation  is  that 
spontaneous  tuberculasis  of  the  eye  has  never  been  observed  in  rabbits. 
It  was  reserved  for  the  genius  of  Robert  Koch  to  discover  nearly 
twenty  years  later,  in  1882,  by  the  employment  first  of  an  original 
staining  method,  the  tubercle  bacillus  in  sections  of  tuberculous 
organs,  and  next  by  the  use  of  a  special  method  of  artificial  cultiva- 
tion, to  secure  growths  of  the  bacillus  free  from  all  admixture  with 
extraneous  matter.  With  these  pure  cultivations  he  succeeded,  as 
you  well  know,  in  reproducing  in  certain  domestic  animals  all  the 
characteristic  appearances  of  tuberculosis  in  man.  Furthermore, 
Koch's  studies  of  this  period  convinced  him  of  the  unity  of  causation 
of  the  various  tubercular  affections  met  with  in  man  and  also  of  those 
met  with  in  the  common  domestic  animals.  Refusing  to  be  daunted 
by  the  fact  that  tuberculosis  tends  to  appear  under  different  aspects 
in  each  species,  and  directing  his  attention  not  upon  the  gross  ap- 
pearances of  the  disease,  but  focusing  it  upon  the  microscopical 
appearances  of  the  primary  tubercle,  which  as  he  said  recurs  with 
typical  regularity  in  all  the  different  processes  in  man,  Koch  recog- 
nized the  essential  identity  of  the  apparently  widely  different  forms 
of  tuberculosis  in  the  various  species  of  animals.  It  does  not  detract 
from  the  immense  value  of  his  work  that  Koch  failed  to  distinguish 
between  the  tubercle  bacilli  isolated  from  the  tubercular  tissue  in 
fowls,  cattle,  and  man.  This  failure  was  by  no  means  accidental,  for 
the  possibility  of  the  existence  of  differences  in  nature  of  the  cultures 
depending  upon  their  origins  was  clearly  in  his  mind.  .Many  of  you 


IMMUNITY   IN   TUBERCUL0SI6 — PLEXNEB.  629 

will  recall  the  long  list  of  cultures  which  is  given  in  the  paper  on 
tuberculosis  published  in  1884.  In  regard  to  this  list  Koch  says: 
"  It  may  cause  some  surprise  that  so  relatively  large  a  number  of  cul- 
tures was  set  on  foot  when  a  few  would  have  sufficed  for  observing 
the  behavior  of  bacilli  in  cultures.  It  seemed  to  me,  however,  not  . 
improbable  that  though  bacilli  from  varying  forms  of  tuberculosis — 
perlsucht,  lupus,  phthisis,  etc.,  presented  no  differences  microscopic- 
.ally,  yet,  that  in  cultures  differences  might  become  apparent  between 
bacilli  from  different  sources.  But  although  I  devoted  the  greatest 
attention  to  this  point,  I  could  find  nothing  of  the  kind.  In  all  the 
cultures,  whether  taken  from  miliary  tubercles,  lupus,  or  perlsucht, 
the  tubercle  bacilli  behaved  exactly  the  same." 

Our  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  has  been  in- 
creased until  at  this  time  several  distinct  kinds  are  recognized.  These 
may  conveniently  be  classified  according  to  their  chief  sources  into 
human,  bovine,  and  avian  tubercle  bacilli,  and  into  so-called  tubercle 
bacilli  of  cold-blooded  animals.  This  last  group  of  bacilli,  which 
■will  detain  us  only  a  short  time,  differs  greatly  from  the  other  vari- 
eties, as  can  readily  be  seen  when  the  fact  is  recalled  that  the  hi^ 
temperatures — temperatures  approaching  blood  heat — which  are  re-  ■ 
quired  for  the  growth  of  the  mammalian  and  avian  bacilli,  quite  pre- 
clude their  multiplication  under  conditions  of  ordinaty  external 
nature.  Hence  they  are  not  adapted  to  a  life  outside  the  living  body 
except  as  cultivated  artificially  at  this  relatively  high  temperature. 
In  man's  conflict  with  tuberculosis  this  fact  is  of  the  greatest  service, 
since  by  reason  of  it  he  is  enabled  to  disregard  the  danger  of  any 
increase  in  tubercle  bacilli  outside  the  animal  body.  The  relatively 
low  temperatures  at  which  the  tubercle  bacilli  of  cold-blooded  animals 
develop  adapt  them,  indeed,  to  an  independent  existence ;  but,  as  they 
are  wholly  devoid  of  power  to  cause  disease  in  warm-blooded  animals 
and  as  they  would  appear  to  have  a  restricted  dissemination  even 
among  cold-blooded  species,  they  are  of  comparatively  small  impor- 
tance. 

Of  far  greater  consequence  is  the  question  whether  the  disparity 
which  exists  between  the  several  kinds  of  tubercle  bacilli  derived  from 
warm-blooded  animals  is  a  wide  one.  This  question,  which  at  first 
sight  may  appear  to  be  chiefly  of  academic  interest,  has,  in  reality, 
far-reaching  practical  significance.  The  close  relationship  which  man 
bears  to  domestic  animals  makes  every  fact  of  animal  disease  of  high 
value  to  him.  And  in  the  case  of  no  animal  disease  are  facts  of  greater 
moment  than  in  tuberculosis.  Not  only  is  the  human  race,  by  reason 
of  its  dependence  upon  the  animal  kingdom  for  food,  work,  etc.,  ex- 
posed to  the  diseases  of  animals  which  are  transmissible  to  man,  but 
domestic  nnimals  are  also  exposed  to  diseases  of  human  beings.  This 
correlative  susceptibility  may,  therefore,  cooperate  to  produce  a 

,  I  by  Google 


630  ANNUAL  REPOKT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

vicious  circle  of  events  by  which  infection  or  the  dangers  of  infection 
are  kept  alive  and  threatening.  Hence  it  is  that  an  effective  solution 
of  the  problem  of  limitation  of  tuberculosis,  whether  by  suppression 
outright  or  by  suppre^ion  through  the  induction  of  immunity,  must 
take  into  account  the  degree  to  which  tuberculous  animals  of  different 
species,  through  direct  or  more  remot«  association,  are  a  source  of 
danger  to  one  another. 

There  is  no  longer  any  doubt  that  the  avian  tubercle  bacillus  de- 
parts considerably  from  the  human  and  from  the  bovine  types  of 
bacilli.  The  early  observations  of  the  Italian  investigators,  Kivolta 
and  Mafucci,  have  been  confirmed  and  so  extended  as  to  give  us  a 
fairly  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  capacities  for  pathogenic 
action,  upon  different  animal  species,  of  the  avian  bacilli.  At  the 
same  time  painstaking  studies  of  the  degree  to  which  birds  are  sub- 
ject to  inoculation  with  pure  cultures  of  tubercle  bacilli  of  human 
origin  support  the  view  of  diversity  in  type  of  bacilli  and  suscepti- 
bility of  species.  And  yet,  while  fowl  react  only  with  slight  local 
lesions,  as  a  rule,  to  inoculations  of  tubercle  bacilli  of  human  origin, 
certain  mammals  have  proved  themselves  fairly  subject  to  experi- 
mental inoculation  with  avian  bacilli.  While  the  guinea  pig,  other- 
wise so  sensitive  to  inoculation  tuberculosis  with  the  mammalian 
bacilli,  is  relatively  resistant  to  the  avian  variety,  the  rabbit,  which 
exhibits  a  marked  degree  of  refractoriness  to  the  human  bacilli,  suc- 
cumbs quite  readily  to  the  avian  bacilli.  It  is,  however,  worth  noting 
that  the  reactions  in  the  rabbit  which  avian  tubercle  bacilli  call  forth 
do  not  conform  to  those  observed  in  tuberculosis  in  general;  there 
is  absence  of  typical  tubercles  and  caseation,  and  the  chief  patho- 
logical alterations  observed  are  found  in  connection  with  the  enlarged 
spleen. 

The  literature  on  tuberculosis  contains  a  anall  number  of  refer- 
ences to  the  cultivation  from  human  subjects  of  the  avian  tubercle 
bacillus.  From  our  present  knowledge  it  may  be  postulated  that 
avian  tubercle  bacilli  occur  rarely  in  man.  Rabinowitsch  has,  in- 
deed, recently  emphasized  the  occasional  occurrence  of  the  avian 
bacilli  in  cattle,  swine,  horses,  and  monkeys;  but  they  constitute  a 
small  source  of  danger  in  the  spread  of  tuberculous  disease  among 
mammals.  The  parrot,  because  of  its  use  as  a  pet  and  of  its  sus- 
ceptibility to  the  avian  bacillus,  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  human 
bacillus,  on  the  other,  is  a  greater  menace  to  public  welfare. 

The  subject  of  bovine  tuberculosis  and  of  bovine  tubercle  bacilli 
is  among  the  most  important  of  all  the  questions  relating  to  the  sup- 
pression of  tuberculosis.  The  admirable  studies  of  Theobald  Smith 
established  the  distinction  in  type  subsisting  between  certain  bacilli 
of  human  and  of  bovine  origin.  We  have  come  now  to  regard  these 
types  as  separate  and  not  to  be  transmuted,  at  least  nojt  readily  under 


IMMUNITY  IN   TUBEBCULOSIB — FLEXNEB.  681 

artificial  conditions  of  cultivation,  into  each  other.  Into  the  disputed 
questions  of  variation  due  to  environment  I  can  not  afford  to  enter. 
But  I  would  have  you  believe  that  transformations  of  avian,  bovine, 
and  human  bacilli  into  each  other  have  probably  not  been  accom- 
plished by  experimentation.  The  cultivation  of  one  variety  of  bacilli 
in  the  body  of  an  alien  species  has  been  said  to  alter  profoundly  the 
properties  of  the  bacilli ;  but  the  observations  upon  this  point  are  in 
my  opinion  far  from  convincing.  The  mere  fact  that  avian  and  bo- 
vine varieties  of  bacilli  preserve  their  peculiar  properties  when  occur- 
ring naturally  in  the  diseased  body  of  an  alien  species — man,  for  ex- 
ample— tends  to  discredit  the  experimental  transmutations  referred  to. 

Bovine  tubercle  bacilli  are  characterized,  as  ascertained  by  Smith, 
by  a  greater  degree  of  pathogenic  power  for  mammals  in  general  than 
human  bacilli,  with  which  fact  is  correlated  certain  peculiarities  of 
cultural  and  physiological  properties  serving  further  to  separate  the 
bovine  from  the  human  bacilli.  The  bacilli  of  mammalian  origin  are, 
perhaps,  closely  related  and  less  removed  from  each  other  by  the  sum 
of  their  properties  than  they  are  from  the  avian  bacillus.  With  the 
few  exceptions  mentioned  all  forms  of  mammalian  tuberculosis  are 
caused  by  either  the  human  or  the  bovine  bacillus. 

In  view  of  the  general  fact  that  the  bovine  bacilli  show  a  greater 
degree  of  pathogenic  action  for  the  lower  mammals  than  the  human 
bacilli,  it  was  natural  to  assume  that  bovine  bacilli  would  be  power- 
fully pathogenic  for  man  also.  To  test  this  probability  directly  by 
experiment  is,  of  course,  not  permissible.  But  the  belief  that  tubercu- 
losis in  cattle  is  a  menace  to  man  is  expressed  in  the  many  regulations 
by  which  it  is  aimed  to  control  and  prevent  the  use  as  food  of  products 
derived  from  tuberculous  animals.  It  was  not  until  Koch's  address 
was  delivered  in  1901  that  any  serious  doubt  existed  in  the  minds  of 
sanitarians  and  pathologists  that  tuberculous  cattle  offered  a  source  of 
danger  to  man.  The  specific  knowledge  which  has  accumulated  since 
that  date  has  served  to  establish  the  transmissibility  in  some  degree 
of  bovine  tuberculosis  to  the  human  subject.  The  inherent  difficulty 
and  tediousness  of  the  investigation  of  the  specific  types  of  tubercle 
bacilli  existing  in  human  cases  of  tuberculosis  necessarily  limit  the 
total  number  of  instances  in  which  it  has  been  established,  beyond 
peradventure,  tliat  the  bovine  type  of  bacillus  does  occur  in  tubercu- 
lous processes  in  man.  In  this  country  the  responsibility  of  refuting 
the  too  general  statement  of  Koch  has  fallen  chiefly  upon  Ravenel  and 
Theobald  Smith,  whose  admirable  studies  in  this  direction  are  of  a 
convincing  nature. 

If  we  pause  for  a  moment  to  consider  upon  what  data  Koch  based 
his  statement  of  the  independence  and  noncommunicability  of  tuber- 
culosis in  cattle  and  man,  we  shall  appreciate  that,  in  so  far  as  he  dealt 


41780—08 M 


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632  ANNUAL  HEPOHT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,   1901. 

with  established  fact  and  not  hypothesis,  he  had  long  been  anticipated. 
That  cattle  are  highly  resistant  to  infection  with  tuberculous  material 
and  tubercle  cultures  obtained  from  human  subjects  can  be  concluded 
from  the  early  experiments  of  Baumgarten,  Sidney  Martin,  Frothing- 
ham,  and  Dinwiddie.  The  most  conclusive  evidence  upon  this  subject 
is  contained  in  Theobald  Smith's  paper  of  1898,  in  which  he  sum- 
marizes his  experiments  by  stating  that  "  putting  all  the  facts  ob- 
tained by  experiments  on  cattle  together,  it  would  seem  as  though  the 
sputum  bacillus  can  not  gain  lodgment  in  cattle  through  the  ordinary 
channels."  In  view  of  these  facts,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that 
Koch  and  Schiitz  later  failed  to  produce  marked  or  general  tubercular 
infection  of  cattle  by  feeding  or  inoculating  directly  into  the  circula- 
tion tuberculous  materials  and  cultures  of  tubercle  bacilli  of  human 
origin.  That  this  result  does  not  dispose  of  the  entire  question  at 
issue,  but  leaves  open  the  important  consideration  of  the  implantation 
of  the  more  virulent  bovine  bacilli  upon  man,  was.  of  course,  present 
in  Koch's  mind,  and  was  met  by  him  by  emphasizing  the  infrequency 
with  which  primary  intestinal  tuberculosis,  which  is  the  form  of  tu- 
berculosis presumably  arising  from  ingested  virulent  tubercle  bacilli, 
is  encountered  in  human  beings.  The  reports  which  have  appeared 
since  have  tended  to  show  that  primary  tuberculosis  of  the  abdominal 
viscera,  especially  in  children,  is  not  so  infrequent  as  Koch  believed  it, 
and  the  researches  inspired  by  Koch's  address  have  brought  out  the 
important  fact,  now  based  upon  actual  observation  under  the  micro- 
scope, that  tubercle  bacilli  may  pass  through  the  intact  intestinal 
wall  and  reach,  by  means  of  the  lymph  current,  the  mesenteric  glands ; 
and  have  made  it  seem  probable,  also,  that  by  entering  or  being  car- 
ried into  the  blood  vessels  in  the  intestine  the  bacilli  may  be  carried 
to  the  lungs.  When  all  the  known  facts  of  food  infection  in  tubercu- 
losis are  assembled,  they  make  quite  an  imposing  array,  for  they  indi- 
cate, quite  in  opposition  to  the  exclusive  view  expressed  by  Koch,  that 
tubercle  bacilli  entering  the  body  with  food  may  be  implanted  upon 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth,  from  which,  probably,  chiefly 
in  the  region  of  the  tonsils,  they  may  be  carried  to  the  lymphatic 
glands  of  the  neck  and  adjacent  parts,  where  they  develop  and  pro- 
duce tubercular  disease;  or  they  become  implanted  upon  the  intestinal 
mucosa  and  pass  the  epithelial  barrier  without  first  causing  disease 
there,  and  set  up  lesions  in  the  mesenteric  lymph  nodes  or  even  be 
transported  by  the  blood  or  lymph  to  the  distant  lungs;  or  they  may 
first  multiply  in  the  intestine,  cause  tubercular  disease  there,  and  then 
migrate  further,  involving  the  abdominal  and  thoracic  organs. 

If  I  have  seemed  to  tarry  too  long  over  this  aspect  of  my  subject, 
1  will  ask  you  to  consider  for  a  moment  in  how  far  the  endeavor  to 
limit  the  spread  of  tubercidosis  among  the  human  race  must  be  in- 
fluenced by  the  avenues  of  infection  to  which  the  race  is  jezposed. 


IMMUNITY   IN   TUBERCULOSIS — FLEXNER.  633 

If  we  side  with  Koch  in  the  view  expressed  in  1901,  and  reiterated 
just  the  other  day  in  his  Nobel  prize  address,  that,  as  he  says,  human 
tuberculosis  and  tuberculosis  in  cattle  are  so  distinct  from  each  other 
that  the  latter  is  not  to  be  feared  as  transmissible  to  man,  at  least, 
as  his  last  utterance  puts  it,  not  in  a  form  which  comes  in  considera- 
tion in  regard  to  tuberculosis  as  a  "  Volkskrankheit,"  or  race  dis- 
ease, then  it  is  only  necessary  to  direct  efforts  to  the  suppression  of 
tubercle  bacilli  of  bunAi  origin.  \j  For,  if  the  danger  of  infection  of 
surroundings  and  healthy  individuals  is  limited  to  the  expectoration 
of  persons  suffering  from  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs  and  upper  air 
passages,  the  problem  before  us,  while  still  very  large,  is  less  by  a 
considerable  amount  than  if  there  must  also  be  taken  into  account 
the  widely  prevalent  disease  among  cattle,  swine,  and  other  domestic 
animals.  While  I  do  not  pretend  to  speak  in  terras  of  great  authority, 
yet  it  would  seem  to  me  that  the  time  is  not  yet  ripe  to  disregard,  in 
attempting  to  suppress  tuberculosis,  the  disease  in  domestic  animals. 
Greatly  as  I  sympathize  with  the  active  propaganda  which  is  being 
made  by  instruction  and  material  help  to  protect  tuberculous  human 
beings  from  injuring  tliemselves  and  others,  and  greatly  as  I  hope 
to  see  promoted  the  means  of  caring  for  the  tuberculous  in  sanatoria, 
etc.,  yet  I  hope  that  there  may  occur,  at  this  time,  no  relaxation  in 
in  the  efforts  being  made  to  control  the  spread  of  tuberculosis  among 
cattle  and  to  prevent  the  consumption  of  infected  milk  and  flesh  by 
man  and  other  animals.  That,  on  the  other  hand,  the  suppression 
completely  of  tuberculosis  among  cattle  would  not  be  followed  by  a 
great  reduction  in  the  morbidity  due  to  tuberculosis  in  man  is  shown 
by  Kitasato's  statistics  from  Japan.  In  that  country  the  human  dis- 
ease prevailed  with  its  usual  activity  at  a  time  when  the  cattle  dis- 
ease, owing  to  the  absence  of  cattle,  was  unknown,  and  milk  formed 
no  appreciable  element  in  the  food  of  children. 

In  dealing  with  the  complex  problem  of  tuberculosis — a  problem 
whose  difficulties  enlarge  with  the  continued  growth  in  size  of  cities — 
we  are  materially  assisted  by  the  knowledge  of  the  manner  in  which 
the  virus  of  tubercle  is  separated  from  the  diseased  body,  the  condi- 
tions of  its  contamination  of  our  environment,  and  the  avenues 
through  which  it  endeavors  to  enter  the  healthy  body.  Though  it  is, 
perhaps,  scarcely  to  be  hoped  that  a  time  will  arrive  when  tuberculosis 
will  have  become,  through  precautions  against  infection,  as  rare  as  are 
to-day  smallpox  and  typhus  fever,  yet  it  is  a  most  hopefiil  result  of 
the  crusade  against  tuberculosis  that  a  marked  reduction  in  the  mor- 
tality, and  probably  in  the  incidence  of  the  disease,  has  been  going 
on  in  some  countries — as,  for  instance,  in  England — for  forty  years. 
In  New  York,  the  system  organized  by  Biggs  has  brought  about  a 
reduction  since  188fi  of  35  per  cent  in  the  mortality  of  the  disease; 
and  while  in  Prussia  the  mortality  was  stationary  in  the  decade  from 


684  ANNUAL  REPORT  SHITHBONIAN   INSTITUTION,   1901. 

1876  to  1886,  sine©  that  time  a  reduction  of  more  than  30  per  cent  has 
been  noted.  These  figures  show  what  may  be  accomplished  in  reduc- 
ing the  dangers  of  infection  with  tuberculosis  by  a  regime  of  educa- 
tion, improved  conditions  of  living  for  the  poorer  classes,  and  the 
segregation  in  hospitals  and  sanitoria  of  any  considerable  number  of 
the  infective  tuberculous  during  the  most  dangerous  period  of  the 
disease. 

The  discovery  of  the  microbic  agent  oAtubercuIosis  naturally 
awakened  the  hope  that  a  specific  means  of  treating  and,  possibly,  of 
preventing  tuberculosis  might  now  be  found.  The  early  years  follow- 
ing the  cultivation  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  saw  no  realization  of  this 
hope,  and  to-day  we  are  still  far  from  the  desired  goal.  However,  the 
prodigious  labor  which  has  been  expended  in  the  search  for  a  means 
of  protection  against  infection  with  the  tubercle  poison  has  not  been 
wholly  devoid  of  results. 

In  an  address  of  this  kind  it  is  not  practicable  to  deal  with  the 
separate  contributions,  in  detail,  which  the  many  workers  have  made 
to  the  subject  of  immimity  in  tuberculosis.  The  most  that  can  be 
accomplished  is  to  bring  together  the  more  important  results  of  all 
the  workers  and,  after  having  assembled  them,  to  judge  of  their  value 
and  to  consider,  possibly,  in  what  important  respects  they  are  still 
imperfect.  I  can  not  do  better,  at  the  beginning,  than  to  remind  you 
that  the  successful  point  of  departure  has  been  the  discovery  that 
variations  in  type  and  in  virulence  exist  among  tubercle  bacilli.  The 
earlier  view  which  taught  that  the  tubercle  bacillus  is  a  micro- 
organism of  uniform  and  fixed  virulence  has  been  shown  to  be  erro- 
neous, first  by  the  discovery  of  variations  according  to  certain  origins, 
and  second  by  a  gradual  decline  in  pathogenic  power  suffered  by 
certain  strains  through  long  cultivation  outside  the  animal  body. 

The  animals  which  have  been  of  special  use  for  tests  of  inmiunity 
are  rabbits,  cattle,  and  goats.  The  guinea  pig,  which  furnishes  an 
almost  ideal  animal  for  the  detection  of  tuberculosis,  because  of  the 
sensitiveness  of  its  reaction  to  inoculations  with  tubercular  material, 
fails,  for  the  same  reason,  to  be  a  highly  suitable  animal  in  which  to 
carry  out  tests  of  immunity ;  and  yet  it  has  been  employed  with  some 
success. 

The  first  important  contribution  to  the  subject  of  experimental 
immunity  in  tuberculosis  was  madeby  Koch  in  connection  with  his 
researches  on  tuberculin — a  product  of  the  growth  in  broth  of  tubercle 
bacilli,  freed  from  the  bacilli  and  concentrated.  In  spite  of  the 
failure  of  tuberculin  to  bring  about  a  favorable  issue  in  all  cases  of 
human  tuberculosis  in  which  it  is  administered,  it  still  remains  a 
useful,  perhaps  the  most  useful,  strictly  medicinal  agent  employed  for 
the  treatment  of  tuberculosis.  But  the  sum  of  its  useful  properties  is 
not  embraced  in  its  employment  as  a  therapeutic  substance;  it  is  also 

Gooylc 


IMMUNITY   IN   TUBEBCULOBI8 — FLEXNEB.  6S6 

a  diagnostic  agent  of  high  value,  and  its  action  upon  the  tuberculosis 
organism  is  so  specific  and  remarkable  that  it  has  proved  itself  of  the 
greatest  importance  and  aid  in  the  effort  to  unravel  the  complicated 
series  of  biological  phenomena  which  constitute  the  tubercular  state. 

It  is  possible  to  increase  somewhat  the  resistance  of  animals  to 
tubercular  infection  by  previous  treatment  of  tuberculin;  but  this 
increase  is  not  remarkable.  It  is  possible  to  bring  about  arrest  of  the 
tubercular  process  in  the  infected  organism  by  means  of  tuberculin; 
and  in  some  instances  this  arrest  leads,  through  the  changes  induced 
in  the  tuberculous  tissue  by  means  of  the  tuberculin  injections,  directly 
to  cure,  or  indirectly,  through  an  increased  power  of  resistance  and 
attack  on  the  part  of  the  forces  of  the  organism,  to  eventual  cure. 
But  a  high  and  lasting  degree  of  immunity  has  never  been  secured  by 
the  use  of  tuberculin.  This  fact,  disappointing  as  it  was  at  first,  is 
now  easily  explicable.  Tuberculin  does  not  represent  the  entire  series 
of  forces  contained  in  the  bacilli  which  the  body  has  to  resist  in  pre- 
f^erving  itself  from  infection  with  tubercular  poison.  The  peculiar 
principles  contained  in  tuberculin  are,  indeed,  not  highly  toxic  for  the 
normal  individual ;  and  our  experience  in  securing  immunity  to  micro- 
parasites  and  their  products  has  taught  us  that  where  no  reaction  or 
response  to  the  introduction  of  the  foreign  poison  is  called  forth,  no 
degree  of  protection  to  larger  doses  or  more  virulent  poisons  of  the 
same  nature  is  to  be  expected.  Toxic  as  is  tuberculin  to  the  tuber- 
culous organism,  it  is  almost  innocuous  to  the  tubercle-free  body.  It 
has  been  found,  in  keeping  with  this  distinction,  that  the  normal 
animal  shows  after  tuberculin  treatment  evidence  of  the  minimal 
production  of  the  neutralizing  or  antibody  for  the  tuberculin,  which, 
were  tuberculin  a  direct  poison  for  the  tissues,  would  probably  be 
produced  in  larger  amounts.  On  account  of  this  absence  of  action  on 
the  normal  organism  it  has  been  thought  that  the  active  principle  in 
tuberculin  does  not  exist  in  a  free  state,  but  occurs  in  some  combina- 
tion, from  which  the  tuberculous,  but  not  the  nontuberculous,  organ- 
ism can  free  it,  and  that  the  separation  takes  place  in  the  tubercular 
foci  upon  which  the  specific  action  of  the  poison  is  directly  exerted. 
If  this  view  is  correct  then  the  failure  of  tuberculin  to  exercise  any 
profound  action  on  the  healthy  organism  is  easily  grasped. 

Increased  knowledge  of  bacterial  infection  and  immunity  has 
taught  us  that  in  case  of  bacteria  which  invade  the  depth  of  the  body 
and  produce  their  peculiar  effects  by  reason  of  their  immediate  pres- 
ence, we  can  not  exjwct  to  achieve  marked  immunity  through  the  use 
of  the  soluble  gross  products  of  the  parasites.  The  reaction  of  the 
body  to  the  invasion  depends  not  upon  the  presence  in  the  invader  of 
one  set  of  toxic  principles,  but  of  many,  some  of  which  are  contained 
in  the  solid  substance  of  the  micro-parasite  and  do  not  go  over  into 
the  fluids  in  which  they  multiply.    Thus  it  has  been  found,  in  case  of 

Cooylc 


636  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMfTHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  ItKO. 

certain  bacteria,  that  a  degree  of  immunity  or  protection  which  it  is 
impossible  to  obtain  even  after  very  prolonged  treatment  with  the 
fluid  portions  of  cidtures,  can  be  secured  quickly  when  small  quan- 
tities of  the  living  or  even  dead  micro-organism  are  injected  into  the 
Itody.  A  high  degree  of  bacterial  immunity  has  been  secured  up  to 
now  for  a  small  number  of  micro-organisms  by  vaccination — by  the 
method  introduced  by  Pasteur — for  several  animal  diseases,  notably 
anthrax  or  splenic  fever,  fowl  cholera,  and  black-leg.  In  these  cases 
the  living  attenuated  micro-organisms  are  employed. 

Neither  lasting  nor  marked  immunity  in  tuberculosis  can  be  ob- 
tained by  the  inoculation  of  cultures  of  tubercle  bacilli  killed  by  heat, 
sunlight,  or  other  agency.  Dead  tubercle  bacilli  are  poisonous  and 
bring  out  a  striking  reaction  of  the  organism,  but  this  reaction  does 
not  confer  immunity  to  subsequent  inoculations  of  the  living  germ. 
It  may  well  be  that  the  dead  bacilli,  especially  if  reduced  to  im- 
palpable powder  s«>  as  to  facilitate  absorption,  may  after  injection 
raise  the  powers  of  resistance  in  the  organic  forces,  although  the 
height  of  the  sustained  forces  is  not  sufficient  to  enable  the  body  to 
throw  off  completely  the  living  infecting  organism.  It  is  easy  to 
prove  that  the  animal  organism  is  modified  by  the  development  within 
it  of  the  tubercle  bacilli;  and  merely  disposing  of  dead  bacilli  in- 
creases its  power  of  reaction  against  a  second  injection  of  dead 
tubercle  bacilli ;  the  second  action  being  much  more  vigorous  than  the 
first.  The  experiments  of  Koch  which  immediately  preceded  the  dis- 
covery of  tuberculin  clearly  demonstrated  that  tuberrtilous  guinea 
pigs  into  which  tubercle  bacilli  are  reintroduced  subcutaneously  react 
in  a  very  especial  manner.  An  active  inflammatory  process  develops 
about  the  site  of  second  inoculation  which  eventually  brings  about  the 
expulsion  of  bacilli  with  the  exudations;  a  voluminous  slough  forms, 
which,  when  shed,  carries  with  it  a  large  number  of  bacilli;  and  this 
shedding  is  followed  neither  by  the  formation  of  a  [>ermanent  ulcer 
nor  hypertrophy  of  the  neighboring  glands,  a  regular  result  of  the 
primary  inoculation.  Tlie  tubercular  organism  reacts  in  the  same 
manner  to  dead  as  to  living  bacilli;  the  tuberculous  animal  has  ac- 
quired immunity  against  reinfection  or  reintoxication  by  the  tubercu- 
lous virus,  which,  however,  in  no  way  prevents  the  first  inoculation 
from  becoming  generalized  and  setting  up  a  tuberculosis  of  almost  all 
the  organs. 

If  we  attempt  an  interpretation  of  these  phenomena  we  can  con- 
clude that  the  organism,  once  it  is  poisoned  with  tubercle  virus, 
l>ecomes  supersensitive  to  the  tubercle  poison.  This  supersensitive- 
ness  is  displayed  in  the  manner  of  reaction  upon  reinoculation  of  the 
tuberculous  organism  to  tuberculin  and  to  dead  and  living  tubercle 
bacilli.  But  the  organism  poisoned  with  dead  tubercle  bacilli  is  not 
in  reality  tuberculous;  it  is,  however,  sensitized.     In  keeping  with 


IMMUNITY  IN   TUBEBCULOSIB — FLESNEB.  637 

this  distinction,  it  can  be  said  that  while  the  tuberculous  organism 
has  acquired  a  degree  of  immunity  to  reinfection,  the  organism 
merely  poisoned  with  tuberele  bacilli  has  failed  to  develop  this  state 
of  resistance. 

The  experimental  results,  which  I  shall  relate  to  you,  upon  which 
are  based  our  belief  in  the  artificial  production  of  immunity  to  tuber- 
culosis, were  all  obtained  by  the  use  of  living  bacilli.  It  would,  there- 
fore, seem  as  if  in  the  course  of  their  residence  and  development 
within  the  body  the  immunizing  organisms  behave  differently  from 
those  in  artificial  cultivations.  This  difference  in  behavior  could 
be. accounted  for  on  the  supposition  that  under  conditions  of  parasitic 
life,  surrounded  as  the  bacilli  are  with  complex  Quids  and  more  com- 
plex cells,  they  form,  in  their  growth,  products  which  either  are 
distinct  from  those  which  are  formed  by  them  in  cultures,  or  these 
products,  in  eiatu  nascendi,  are  acted  upon  and  modified  by  the  active 
and  labile  ferments  in  the  fluid  and  protoplasm  of  cells,  with  which 
the  growth-products  must  come  into  immediate  contact.  Professor 
Welch,  to  whom  this  variation  in  behavior  of  bacteria  under  parasitic 
and  saprophytic  states  of  existence  was  fully  apparent,  endeavored 
a  few  years  ago  in  his  Huxley  lecture  to  explain  the  difference  in 
activity  of  bacteria  growing  within  and  outside  the  body  by  suppos- 
ing that  in  the  body  they  are  induced  to  secrete  substances  the  stim- 
ulus to  the  production  of  which  is  absent  in  the  culture  tube.  How- 
ever this  may  be,  it  is  evident  that  the  only  form  of  immunity  in 
tuberculosis  which  deserves  the  name  has  been  obtained  by  the  em- 
ployment for  inoculation  of  living  cultures  of  the  tubercle  bacillus. 

Although  the  earliest  experiments  which  had  for  their  object  the 
production  of  immunity  in  small  animals  by  means  of  previous  in- 
oculation of  products  of  the  growth  and  of  attenuated  cultures  of  the 
tubercle  bacillus  were  published  in  1890  {Martin  and  Grancher, 
Courmont  and  Dor),  yet,  I  think,  the  first  really  promising,  because 
successful,  achievements  of  this  end  were  made  by  Tmdeau  in  1902 
and  1903  and  by  De  Schweinitz  in  1904. 

Trudeau  protected  rabbits  from  virulent  tubercle  bacilli  by  first 
injecting  them  with  a  culture  of  bird  tubercle  bacilli,  the  subsequent 
injection  of  virulent  mammalian  bacilli  being  made  into  the  anterior 
chamber  of  the  eye.  The  rabbits  to  be  protected  were  twice  inject«d 
subcutaneously  at  intervals  of  twenty-one  days  with  cultures  of  the 
avian  bacilli.  About  one  in  four  of  the  rabbits  died  within  three 
months,  profoundly  emaciated,  but  without  tubercular  lesions.  The 
remaining  animals  recovered  and  were  apparently  in  good  health, 
when,  with  an  equal  number  of  controls,  they  were  inoculated  in  the 
eye  with  a  culture  of  mammalian  tubercle  bacilli.  The  results  are 
instructive:  In  the  controls  little  or  no  irritation  following  the  oper- 
ation is  observed  and  the  eye  remains  quiescent  or  nearly  so  for  about 


ogle 


638  ANNUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  18OT. 

two  weeks,  when  the  changes  described  in  the  early  parts  of  this 
address  manifest  themselves.  After  a  few  weeks  general  inflamma- 
tion of  the  structures  of  the  eye  develops,  the  inoculation  wound 
becomes  cheesy  and  the  eye  is  more  or  less  completely  destroyed. 
The  disease,  however,  remains  usually  localized  in  the  eye  for  many 
months,  and  may  remain  there  permanently,  depending  upon  the 
virulence  and  number  of  bacilli  injected. 

In  the  vaccinated  animals,  on  the  contrary,  the  introduction  of  the 
mammalian  bacilli  at  once  gives  rise  to  a  marked  degree  of  irritation. 
From  the  second  to  the  fifth  day  the  vessels  of  the  conjunctiva  become 
engorged,  and  evidences  of  marked  inflammation  appear  in  the  an- 
terior chamber  and  on  the  iris  (reaction  of  immunity).  However, 
at  the  end  of  the  second  to  the  third  week,  when  the  eyes  of  the  con- 
trols begin  to  show  progressive  and  steadily  increasing  evidence  of 
inflammatory  reaction,  the  irritation  in  those  of  the  vaccinated  ani- 
mals begins  slowly  to  subside  and  the  eyes  to  mend.  In  from  sis 
to  twelve  weeks,  in  the  successful  cases,  all  irritation  has  disappeared 
and  the  eyes  present  only  the  evidences  of  traumatism  and  inflamma- 
tion. This  experiment  leaves  no  doubt  of  the  protective  influence 
exerted  by  the  first  inoculations  of  the  avian  bacilli  and  clearly  estab- 
lishes that  related  cultures  of  tubercle  bacilli  of  moderate  virulence 
for  an  animal  species  can  afford  protection  to  subsequent  inoculation 
with  special  and  more  pathogenic  strains  of  the  bacillus.  Notwith- 
standing the  fact  that,  as  Tnideau  records,  some  of  the  protected 
animals  slowly  relapse  and  the  disease  resumes  its  progress,  although 
by  almost  imperceptible  stages,  the  experiment  still  shows  that  pro- 
tection, not  absolute  immunity,  from  tuberculosis  may  be  obtained  in 
rabbits  by  a  species  of  vaccination. 

De  Schweinitz  in  1894  reported  certain  experiments  which  he  made 
on  guinea  pigs  and  cattle.  He  inoculated  the  former  with  a  culture 
of  tubercle  bacilli  of  human  origin  cultivated  for  about  twenty  gen- 
erations in  broth.  This  culture  was  of  a  low  grade  of  virulence  for 
these  animals,  but  it  served  to  protect  them  to  such  an  extent  that  when 
they  were  afterwards  inoculated  with  tuberculous  material  from  a 
cow  they  remained  healthy,  while  control  pigs  injected  with  the  same 
material  became  tuberculous  and  succumbed  in  about  seven  weeks. 
De  Schweinitz  injected  large  quantities  of  human  tubercle  bacilli  into 
cattle — beneath  the  skin,  into  the  peritoneal  cavity  and  into  the  circu- 
lation— without  injury. 

I  may,  at  this  time,  digress  for  a  moment  and  leave  the  more 
strictly  chronological  method  of  presentation  to  allude  to  the  set  of 
experiments  on  the  protection  of  guinea  pigs  from  tuberculosis  which 
Trudeau  reported  to  the  National  Tuberculosis  Association  at  its  last 
meeting.  The  special  merit  of  this  experiment  is  that  it  shows  the  ex- 
istence of  a  connection  between  viruleuce  and  infectivitj  in  the  germ 


IMMUNITY   IN   TUBERCULOSIS — FLEXNER.  689 

and  its  capacity  to  confer  immunity.  Unless  the  bacillus  has  the 
power  to  gain  some  footholcl  in  the  body  it  affords  no  protection ;  if 
on  account  of  high  pathogenic  power  or  virulence  it  easily  gains  a 
foothold,  then  it  brings  about  infection.  To  choose  a  culture  of  tu- 
bercle bacilli  of  just  the  right  grade  of  virulence  is  one  of  the  condi- 
tions, apparently,  of  successful  experiment,  as  it  must  also  be,  in  view 
of  this  fact,  one  of  the  difficulties  of  the  method.  The  same  difficulty 
has  been  encountered  in  the  practical  carrying  out  of  this  method  of 
immunization  in  cattle.  Several  series  of  guinea  pigs  were  inoculated 
with  tubercle  bacilli  as  follows:  (a)  With  dead  bacilli,  (6)  with  living 
bacilli  from  cold-blooded  animals,  (c)  with  a  culture  of  human  bacilli 
cultivated  artificially  for  more  than  twenty  years  which  produces  on 
inoculation  no  appreciable  local  lesions  and  never  tends  to  generalize, 
and  (d)  another  human  culture  cultivated  artificially  for  more  than 
fourteen  years,  which  still  causes*in  all  the  pigs  slightly  enlarged 
inguinal  glands  near  the  site  of  inoculation,  and  occasionally  brings 
about  slight  caseation  of  the  nodes  with  a  tendency  to  partial  general- 
ization of  the  virus.  The  dead  bacilli  and  the  bacilli  from  cold- 
blooded species  gave  no  protection;  the  second  human  culture,  by 
reason  of  its  greater  invasive  properties,  protects  better  than  the  first, 
which  is  almost  devoid  of  power  to  grow  in  the  animal  body.  In  no 
case,  however,  was  the  growth  of  the  virulent  bacilli  wholly  sup- 
pressed. 

In  man  the  question  of  acquired  immunity  has  been  answered  by 
many  authorities,  as  far  as  the  main  considerations  go,  in  the  negative. 
A  large  number  of  well-observed  facts  demonstrates  that  a  person  who 
has  suffered  from  localized  tuberculosis  of  the  lymph  glands — scrofula 
so-called — or  other  form  of  local  tuberculosis,  can  not  count  upon  an 
immunity  from  pulmonary  tuberculosis.  And  yet  it  can,  I  think,  be 
shown  by  reference  to  statistics  that  in  man  there  exists  a  refractory 
condition  which  becomes  increased  after  infection,  since  the  number 
of  persons  who  have  been  the  victims,  at  some  period  of  their  life,  of 
a  tuberculous  infection,  is  very  large  in  comparison  with  tlie  number 
who  die  of  this  disease,  or  the  even  larger  number  who  develop  severe 
forms  of  it.  Hirsch  gives  the  mortality  of  tuberculosis  as  compared 
with  deaths  from  all  other  cau^s  as  3 :  22 ;  in  other  words,  tuberculosis 
claims  as  victims  of  death  one  in  every  seven  persons.  This  propor- 
tion does  not,  however,  express  the  morbidity  from  tuberculosis, 
wjiich  is,  in  reality,  far  greater  than  these  figures  indicate.  It  is 
difficult  to  secure  by  vital  statistics  reliable  data  of  the  incidence  of 
tuberculosis;  but  trustworthy  observations  made  at  autopsies  upon 
human  beings  indicate  that  as  many  as  90  per  cent  of  persons,  dying 
from  alt  causes,  have  at  some  period  of  their  life  l>een  the  victims  of  a 
tubercular  infection.     In  far  the  greater  number  of  instances  the 


disease  remains  fixed  in  the  bronchial  or  other  lymphatic  gla&d&  or 

Coogic 


640  ANNUAL  BEPOHT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901, 

the  apex  of  the  lungs  and  exerts  no  injurious  effect  upon  the  organism 
as  a  whole.  We  may,  therefore,  fairly  conclude  that  the  human 
organism  possesses  a  strong  inherent  tendency  to  overcome  infection 
with  the  tubercle  bacillus.  So  much  can  be  safely  predicated.  But 
whether  the  suppression  of  a  local  infection,  such  as  I  have  described, 
gives  an  increased  capacity  for  overcoming  subsequently  invading 
tubercle  bacilli  remains  for  (he  present  an  open  question.  It  is  cer- 
tainly not  disproved  by  the  facts  cited ;  and  some  authorities  hold  fast 
by  the  belief  that  a  degree  of  immunity  to  tuberculosis  may  be 
acquired  by  man. 

In  the  year  1901,  on  December  12,  on  the  occasion  of  his  accept- 
ance of  one  of  the  Nobel  prizes,  Behring  announced  that  he  was 
engaged  upon  the  study  of  artificial  immunization  of  cattle  to  tuber- 
culosis. In  this  address  the  claim  was  made  that  a  method  had  been 
perfected  whereby  it  was  possible  to  vaccinate  cattle  successfully 
against  tuberculosis.  These  experiments  consisted  in  the  endeavor  to 
immunize  cattle  by  means  of  tuberculin,  other  toxins,  so  called,  from 
the  tubercle  bacillus,  dead  tubercle  bacilli,  bacilli  weakened  with 
chemicals  and  living,  active  cultures  of  the  tubercle  bacillus.  In  the 
four  years  which  have  elapsed  since  this  announcement  was  made  a 
series  of  monographic  papers  bearing  on  this  subject  has  appeared 
from  Behring's  laboratory  in  Marburg.  The  plan  of  immunization 
has,  in  this  time,  undergone  a  number  of  modifications  until  now  it 
consists  in  the  inoculation  intravenously  of  young  cattle — calves 
twelve  weeks  old  preferably — with  a  standard  human  culture,  which 
is  now  furnished  commercially,  A  second  inoculation  of  an  increased 
quantity  of  this  culture  is  injected  three  months  later.  Cattle  treated 
in  this  way  are  regarded  as  highly  immune  and  are  denominated  by 
Behring  as  "  Jennerized."  If  to  them  a  dose  of  virulent  bovine 
culture  of  tubercle  bacilli  is  given,  no  permanently  bad  results  fol- 
low, although  an  equal  dose  of  the  virulent  culture  will  cause,  in  an 
unvaccinated  animal,  the  development  of  generalized  tuberculosis 
leading,  in  a  few  weeks,  to  death. 

In  his  endeavor  to  find  a  culture  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  which 
would  fulfill  the  requirement  of  producing  a  transient  illness  and 
leave  protection  behind,  Behring  discovered  that  not  all  tubercle 
bacilli  of  human  origin  were  without  danger  to  cattle  inoculated  with 
them.  We  were,  indeed,  not  unprepared  for  this  announcement, 
since,  in  the  first  place,  we  had  learned  that  in  some  instances  tubercle 
bacilli  of  the  bovine  type  have  been  cultivated  from  examples  of 
human  tuberculosis,  and,  on  the  other,  that  not  all  the  bacilli,  of  any 
type,  exhibit  equal  degrees  of  virulence.  The  culture  employed  by 
Behring,  although  it  has  now  been  employed  to  inoculate  several 
thousand  cattle,  is  said  never  to  have  produced  severe  disturbances 
of  health ;  even  when  animals  already  tuberculous  are  inoculated  the 


Gooylc 


IMMUNITY    IN    TUBERCULOSIS FLEXNER.  641 


results  are  not  yprioiis:  fpver  lasting  several  days  sets  in,  the  animals 
may  cough,  and  they  may  eat  less  and  lose  somewhat  in  weight,  but 
even  they  return  to  what  is  for  them  the  normal. 

It  would  appear  that  McFadyean  is  entitled  to  the  credit  of  the 
discovery  equally  with  Bebring  of  the  immunization  of  cattle  against 
tuberculosis;  and,  indeed,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  his  results 
even  anticipated  those  of  Behring,  By  using  for  injection  first  tuber- 
culin and  then  in  succession  tuberculin  and  tuberculous  material  con- 
taining bovine  and  possibly  human  tubercle  bacilli,  McFadyean 
succeeded  in  increasing  the  resistance  of  several  cattle  to  artificial 
tubercular  infection. 

Pearson  and  Oilliland,  1902,  in  this  country  early  published  ac- 
counts of  some  experiments  which  they  carried  out  upon  the  immu- 
nization of  cattle  against  tuberculosis.  They  employed  a  culture  of 
human  tubercle  bacilli  for  producing  immunity  and  found  that  sub- 
sequently the  protected  animals,  as  compared  with  the  controls,  which 
all  succumbed  to  the  virulent  inoculation,  either  developed  no  lesions 
or  very  inconsiderable  ones  upon  being  given  large  quantities  of 
highly  pathogenic  bovine  cultures.  As  far  as  I  know  these  experi- 
menters are  the  only  investigators  who  have  endeavored  to  carry  the 
principles  of  the  method  a  step  farther,  so  as  to  bring  about  arrest 
of  the  disease  in  cattle  already  tuberculous.  While  it  is  unlikely 
that  such  a  therapeutic  use  of  "vaccination"  will  ever  be  made  in 
veterinary  practice,  the  facts  are  of  considerable  theoretical  interest, 
especially  in  view  of  the  somewhat  similar  means  employed  to  arrest 
tuberculosis  in  man. 

The  immense  importance  to  scientific  agriculture  of  the  matter  of 
immunization  of  cattle  against  tuberculosis  and  the  even  greater  col- 
lateral interest  which  the  subject  has  for  man,  as  enlarging  the  pos- 
sibilities of  immunity  even  for  him,  have  led  to  a  discussion  on  the 
priority  of  the  discovery  between  Neufeld,  a  pupil  of  Koch,  and 
Behring.  It  would  appear  from  Neufeld's  writings  that,  while  work- 
ing under  Koch's  direction,  he  ascertained  as  early  as  1900-1901  that 
large  animals — donkeys  chiefly,  but  cattle  also — could  be  protected 
from  artificial  infection  with  virulent  tubercle  bacilli,  always  fatal  to 
control  animals,  by  previous  treatment  with  tubercle  vaccine,  of  which 
several  different  preparations  were  studied.  It  is  not  within  the 
scope  of  this  address  to  apportion  the  credit  of  priority;  but  in  any 
case,  assuming  the  facts  to  be  as  stated  by  the  contestants,  McFadyean 
should  receive  as  great  credit  as  either  of  the  others,  if  not  the  chief 
credit.  The  principle  which  alt  the  investigators  employed  is  not 
new  in  experimental  medicine,  but  has  come  to  us  from  the  genius  of 
Pasteur.  It  may,  however,  be  said  that  our  knowledge  of  the  tubercle 
bacillus  and  its  varying  activities  had  by  the  year  1900  become  so 
nuich  enlarged  that  the  possibility  of  putting  the  facts  of  the  newly 

oyTc 


642  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

discovered  properties  to  &  practical  test  of  immunity  occurred  to  the 
several  independent  workers  in  bacteriology.  There  can,  I  think, 
be  no  doubt  that  Behring  deserves  the  credit  of  making  the  pro- 
tection of  cattle  from  tuberculosis  a  feasible,  practical  object  of 
study.    This  alone  is  a  merit  of  no  small  ordw. 

From  the  mere  fact  that  cattle  have  been  successfully  protected 
from  infection  by  the  tubercle  bacillus,  even  under  the  severest  condi- 
tions of  laboratory  experiment,  it  can  not  be  concluded  that  they  will 
be  equally  refractory  when  exposed  to  the  natural  sources  and  modes 
of  infection.  In  the  laboratory  the  virulent  infectious  agent  is 
brought  into 'the  animal  by  injection,  under  the  skin,  into  the  serot^ 
cavities  or  into  the  circulation,  which  are  avenues  through  which  in 
the  natural  disease  infection  rarely  if  ever  takes  place.  And  while 
this  mode  of  introduction  of  the  virulent  bacilli  into  the  body  may, 
theoretically,  be  more  severe  than  their  introduction  into  the  lungs 
with  inhaled  air,  or  into  the  stomach  through  infected  stalls  and  food, 
yet  the  profound  differences  in  the  defenses  of  the  body  with  which 
the  bacilli  come  into  conflict,  under  these  different  circumstances,  may, 
after  all,  determine  the  issue  in  a  manner  quite  contrary  to  our  expec- 
tations. It  is,  therefore,  of  the  highest  interest  to  learn  that  in  their 
later  tests  Behring  and  his  coworkers  exposed  vaccinated  cattle  to 
stalls  and  herds  which  were  known  to  be  badly  infected,  with  the  re- 
sult that  at  the  time  of  the  report,  they  had  apparently  escaped  infec- 
tion. I  am  enabled  through  the  courtesy  of  a  private  communication 
from  Doctor  Pearson  to  state  that  cattle  vaccinated  by  himself  and 
Gilliland  which  were  kept  for  two  years  under  natural  conditions  of 
infection  have  not  contracted  tuberculosis,  while  the  control  animals, 
exposed  to  the  same  conditions,  have  all  developed  the  disease,  some 
dying  spontaneously  by  reason  of  the  severity  of  the  infection.  Doc- 
tor Pearson  also  informs  me  that  their  experiments  indicate  that  the 
degree  of  resistance  bears  a  rather  definite  relation  to  the  number  of 
vaccinations  given  the  cattle.  No  cattle  vaccinated  three  times  with 
their  standard  vaccine — a  living  culture  of  tubercle  bacilli  of  human 
origin — have  developed  tuberculous  lesions  even  after  two  years' 
severe  exposure.  In  their  experience,  two  injections  of  Behring's 
vaccine  do  not  always  suffice  for  such  heavy  exposure  as  they  em- 
ployed. 

As  regards  the  question  of  duration  of  the  protection,  it  may  be 
said  that  Behring,  basing  his  views  on  results  of  vaccination  made 
three  years  before,  expressed  the  belief  in  1904  that  it  would  endure 
during  the  life  of  the  animal.  As  young  healthy  cattle  are  vaccinated 
before  they  fall  victims  to  infected  stalls  and  herds,  it  would  seem  as 
if  infected  herds  might  therefore  gradually  be  replaced  by  healthy 
ones.  The  gain,  this  being  true,  would  be  almost  incalculable  to 
agriculture. 

■     DiailizedbyGOOgle 


IMMUNITY    IM    TDBERCULOBIS— FliEXNEH.  648 

I  am  in  the  fortunate  position  of  being  able  to  bring  before  you  a 
critical  summary  of  the  subjects  just  presented  by  one  wholly  con- 
versant with  its  practical  as  well  as  its  theoretical  aspects.  Through 
the  courtesy  of  Dr.  Leonard  Pearson  I  have  been  enabled  to  read  the 
advance  sheets  of  a  review  on  immunization  in  tuberculosis  which  will 
i^oon  be  issued  from  the  Phipp's  Institute.  Doctor  Pearson  concludes 
that  there  appears  to  be  no  doubt  that  different  cultures  of  human 
bacilli  have  different  immunizing  values.  Some  can  not  be  used  at  all 
because  they  are  of  too  high,  and  others,  possibly,  because  they  are  of 
too  low,  virulence  for  cattle.  There  is  also  need  for  comparison  in 
immunizing  value  of  fresh  cultures  and  cultures  that  have  been  dried 
in  vacuum  and  reduced  to  powder.  Some  observations  appear  clearly 
and  strongly  to  indicate  that  the  fresh  cultures  are  preferable.  Al- 
though it  has  been  shown  that  vaccination  can  be  practiced  so  as  to  be 
entirely  harmless  to  the  animals,  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  not 
always  unattended  with  danger,  ^liat  is  the  shortest  and  most 
economical  procedure  for  the  protection  of  cattle  on  a  large  scale  is 
still  to  be  established.  Only  prolonged  observation  of  carefully 
recorded  results  of  vaccinations  practiced  on  a  large  scale  can  settle 
this  point.  The  question  of  duration  of  immunity  is  still  an  open 
one.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  immunity  endures  a  year.  To  say, 
at  the  present  stage  of  the  studies,  that  it  will  last  during  the  entire 
life  of  an  animal  is  to  make  a  statement  for  which  there  is  no  experi- 
mental proof.  Modes  of  vaccination,  as  illustrated  by  the  intervals 
between  the  successive  injections,  differ  greatly.  Behring  recommends 
an  interval  of  three  months,  while  others  have  obtained  a  high  degree 
of  immunity  by  repeated  injection  at  short  intervals.  As  artificial 
immunity  is  relative  and  not  absolute  it  need  not  excite  surprise  that 
the  immunity  to  the  tubercle  bacilli  can  be  overcome  by  the  injection 
of  large  quantities  of  active  bacilli.  What  is  desired  in  practice  is  a 
degree  of  immunity  that  will  suffice  to  protect  animals  from  acquiring 
the  disease  under  natural,  and  consequently  highly  variable,  condi- 
tions. In  some  herds,  where  the  natural  disease  prevails  in  a  mild 
form,  a  lower  degree  of  immunity  may  suffice  than  in  other  herds,  in 
which  the  disease  is  more  severe  and  widespread.  We  are,  therefore, 
at  the  beginning  of  this  complex  and  highly  important  subject.  These 
are  Doctor  Pearson's  conclusions. 

There  is  another  aspect  of  this  subject  which  demands  attention. 
When  it  is  recalled  that  immunity  in  cattle  is  obtained  by  the  injec- 
tion of  living  human  tubercle  bacilli  the  question  arises  whether  this 
procedure  is  wholly  free  from  danger  to  the  consumers  later  of  the 
flesh  and  milk  of  these  cattle.  It  would  appear  that  the  human  bacilli 
do  not  excite  in  cattle  the  tubercular  lesionw,  in  which  doubtless  the 
bacilli  are  so  inclosed  as  to  be.  to  n  considerable  degree,  protected 
from  perisbiiig.    It  is  equally  true  that  as  the  living  micro-organism 


644  ANNUAL   REPORT   SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION,    1901. 

can  not  be  replaced  by  dead  ones  in  bringing  about  immunitj-,  the 
immunizing  process  is  in  some  way  bound  up  with  their  survival  and 
even,  possibly,  with  a  restricted  multiplication.  Hence  it  is  necessary 
that  we  ascertain,  first,  how  long  the  hiiman  bacilli  survive  in  the 
organs  of  the  vaccinated  animals,  and  second,  whether  they  are  ever 
eliminated  with  the  milk  of  cows.  The  observations  already  made 
upon  these  points  are  so  few  as  at  present  not  to  be  useful  for  any  sci- 
entific deductions.  But  before  the  method  is  too  implicitly  relied 
upon  these  questions  should  be  answered. 

It  is  an  interesting  subject  of  speculation  as  to  what  the  result  will 
be  when  cattle  in  general,  and  possibly,  man  later,  shall  have  been 
immunized  to  tuberculosis.  Will  the  race  of  tubercle  bacilli  dis- 
appear in  large  measure  from  the  world  t  This  would  indeed  be  a 
beneficent  result.  But  Doctor  Smith  has  pointed  out  in  a  recently 
delivered  addreas  that  doubtless  host  and  parasite  eventually  come  to 
hold  a  kind  of  equilibrium  to  each  other,  and  hence  an  increased  de- 
gree or  resistance  in  the  former  might  tend  to  bring  about  that  selec- 
tion among  the  parasites  through  which  races  of  greatly  augmented 
power  for  invasion  would  be  produced.  If  this  were  true,  and  he 
even  suggests  that  the  natural  process  of  weeding  out  the  weaker 
among  the  human  race  tends  to  this  result,  the  parasite  would  try 
to  keep  up  with  the  host  as  his  resistance  increased  uijtil  a  point  was 
reached  beyond  which  further  enhancement  of  power  was  impassible. 
Would  the  higher  animal  or  the  lower  vegetable  organism  finally 
claim  the  victory?  We  need  perhaps  at  this  moment  not  to  relax  our 
efforts  to  achieve  a  practical  immunity  for  man  as  well  as  for  animals 
because  of  this  future  danger.  I  am  not  aware  that  the  smallpox 
germ  has  increased  measurably  in  virulence  since  vaccination  became 
general,  but  I  would  also  add  that  a  century  is  a  small  period  of  time 
in  the  life  history  of  any  living  organism. 

Before  closing  this  address  I  should  like  to  refer  briefly  to  the  new 
interest  which  has  been  excited  in  the  use  of  tuberculin  in  the  treat- 
ment of  human  tuberculosis  by  reason  of  the  application  to  the  study 
of  tuberculosis  of  a  method  introduced  by  A.  E.  Wright,  of  London, 
whereby  it  is  held  that  the  exact  effect  of  the  tuberculin  injection  can 
be  measured  and  controlled.  The  method  consists  in  the  determina- 
tion of  the  capacity  of  the  blood  leucocytes  to  take  up  tubercle  bacilli 
when  the  blood  and  the  bacilli  are  brought  together  outside  the  body 
in  a  test  tube.  Wright  and  his  pupils  have  worked  out  the  normal 
power  of  the  blood  to  cause  the  englobing  of  the  bacilli ;  and  they  have 
noted  a  diminution  of  this  capacity  in  the  blood  of  many  persons  suf- 
fering from  tuberculosis.  They  speak  of  this  englobing  capacity 
of  the  blood  as  "  opsonic  index,"  from  the  word  meaning  to  prepare — 
to  cater  for;  since  the  bacilli  must  first  be  prepared  by  substances  in 
the  blood  serum  before  they  can  be  ingested  by  leucocytes.     The  in- 


IMMUNITY    IN    TUBERCULOSIS— FLiEXN BE.  646 

jection  of  tuberculin,  when  cautiously  done,  tends  to  bring  about  a 
rise  in  the  tuberculous,  of  the  "  opsonic  index,"  which  Wright  be- 
lieves is  a  measure  of  the  good  done,  as  an  increase  in  immunizing 
substances  in  the  blood  is  the  cause  of  the  rise.  He  also  discovered 
that  time  is  required  for  the  occurrence  of  the  rise  and  that  Hie  im- 
mediate result  of  the  injection  is  a  fall  of  the  index — so-called  neg- 
ative phase.  This  latter  must  be  permitted  to  pass  away  and  be 
succeeded  by  the  positive  phase  before  another  injection  is  given. 
Gradually  the  '"  opsonic  index  "  is  driven  up  in  the  cases  that  are 
favorable  to  the  treatment. 

I  do  not  intend  to  discuss  the  value  to  the  clinician  of  this  interest- 
ing method  and  Wright's  observations  based  upon  it.  The  subject  ap- 
pears to  me  to  be  one  of  great  intricacy  and  therefore  to  be  approached 
in  a  spirit  of  proper  criticism  despite  its  evident  allurements.  My 
purpose  in  mentioning  it  at  all  is  to  bring  again  to  your  attention  a 
method  of  exciting  the  tuberculous  body  to  put  forth  an  effort  at  self- 
immunization  which  is  sometimes  efficient  to  a  marked  degree.  It  is 
not  the  injected  tuberculin  that  accomplishes  directly  the  changes  in 
the  condition  of  the  patient,  for  there  already  exists,  doubtless,  an 
excess  of  similar  poisons  in  the  tuberculous  foci  in  the  body.  The 
healthy  body,  indeed,  does  not  react  in  this  manner  and  is  not  to  be 
protected,  enduringly,  from  tuberculous  infection  by  a  previous  treat- 
ment with  tuberculin.  As  Koch's  phenomenon  shows  the  tuberculous 
organism  to  have  developed  defenses  against  subsequent  tuberculous 
infection  which  the  normal  body  does  not  possess  in  equal  degree,  the 
employment  of  tuberculin  indicates  that  the  diseased  body  can  be 
aroused  artificially  to  put  forth  a  stronger  effort  than  its  unaided 
natural  forces  enable  it  to  make,  in  order  that  the  disease  may  be 
overcome.  Herein  resides  a  great  principle,  an  immense  power  for 
good,  and,  consequently,  a  great  hope  for  future  progress  in  the 
rational  and  specific  treatment  of  tuberculosis  in  man.  Efficient 
efforts  at  suppression  of  the  causes  of  tuberculosis,  deeper  knowledge 
of  the  principles  of  bacterial  immunity,  are  the  two  forces  which  in 
time  may  stay  the  ravages  of  the  "  White  Death." 


.y  Google 


,  Google 


THE  AIK  OF  THE  NEW  YORK  SUBWAY  PRIOR  TO.  1906." 


By  Geobqb  a.  Soper. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  object  of  this  paper  is  to  record  some  hitherto  unpublished  facts 
concerning  the  quality  of  the  air  of  the  New  York  subway  before  any 
material  change  was  made  in  its  ventilating  arrangements,  and  to 
seek  to  explain  the  essential  conditions  which  controlled  it.  The 
investigation  was  made  by  me  in  1905  at  the  request  of  the  Board  of 
Rapid  Transit  Railroad  Commissioners  for  the  city  of  New  York, 

The  principal  questions  investigated  related  to  temperature,  hu- 
midity, odor,  bacteria,  and  dust.  The  conditions  found  in  the  sub- 
way were  compared  with  the  conditions  found  in  the  streets  through 
which  the  subway  runs,  and  occasionally  with  conditions  in  other 
places. 

In  all,  there  were  about  2,200  chemical  analyses  of  air,  3,000  deter- 
minations of  bacteria,  and  about  400  other  analyses  in  special  studies 
of  dusts,  oils,  disinfectants,  and  other  substances.  About  50,000  sep- 
arate determinations  of  temperature  and  humidity  were  made  prior 
to  the  adoption  of  a  system  for  automatically  and  continuously  re- 
cording temperatures  throughout  the  length  of  the  subway  and  in 
the  streets. 

The  methods  employed  in  studying  the  different  topics  were,  for 
the  most  part,  such  as  had  been  used  in  other  sanitary  and  meteoro- 
logical investigations  in  which  a  considerable  degree  of  accuracy  was 
required.  It  is  not  claimed  that  they  would  have  been  the  best  to 
adopt  in  a  purely  scientific  research.  It  was  necessary  to  design  them 
for  practical  as  well  as  accurate  use. 

For  the  most  part,  the  air  to  be  analyzed  was  collected  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  18  inches  to  2  feet  above  the  pavement.  This  height  was 
decided  on  as  the  most  convenient  and  suitable,  after  an  attempt  had 
been  made  to  collect  it  at  the  breathing  line.     Only  by  taking  sam- 

"  Read  before  the  Society  of  Arts,  BoBton,  November  22.  1806.  Abridged,  by 
pennlsstoQ,  from  the  Technology  Quarterly  and  ProceedlDgs  of  the  Society  of 
Arte,  Uaasachueetts  Institute  at  Technology,  Boetoa,  Mass.  Vol  XX,  No.  1, 
March,  1907.  pp.  58-118. 


41780—08 45 


.G?^?)glc 


648  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

pies  near  the  ground  was  it  possible  to  avoid  attracting  curious 
crowds  of  persons  whose  presence  would  have  rendered  the  samples 
valueless.  Tests  made  of  air  from  different  elevations  indicated  that 
no  substantial  error  was  made  in  taking  samples  near  the  pavement. 

Very  few  samples  of  air  were  taken  in  the  cars.  Persons  familiar 
with  the  conditions  of  crowding  in  the  cars  of  the  New  York  subway 
at  practically  all  hours  of  the  day  will  appreciate  the  inconvenience 
with  which  delicate  and  bulky  scientific  apparatus  could  be  used 
among  persons  standing  as  close  together  as  it  was  physically  pos- 
sible to  stand.  Furthermore,  the  question  at  issue  was  not  whether 
the  passengers  in  the  cars  obtained  good  air  or  not,  but  whether  the 
nir  outside  th.e  cars  was  satisfactory. 

The  part  of  the  road  which  was  in  operation  during  the  period  of 
this  investigation  extended  from  the  lower  end  of  Manhattan  Island 
northward  to  Ninety-sixth  street  and  Broadway,  where  it  di\'ided, 
one  branch  continuing  along  Broadway  to  One  hundred  and  flfty- 
f-eventh  street,  and  the  other  eastward  and  northward  until  it  crossed 
under  the  Harlem  River  and  reached  that  part  of  the  city  known  as 
the  Bronx. 

Nearly  all  of  this  road  was  underground.  There  was  a  short,  ex- 
jjosed  portion  of  a  few  blocks  covering  a  valley  at  One  hundred  and 
twenty-fifth  street,  and  the  branch  to  the  Bronx,  after  crossing  the 
Harlem,  soon  emerged  upon  an  elevated  structure,  which  it  did  not 
leave  to  the  end  of  the  line;  but  the  parts  of  the  subway  which  were 
not  underground  were  not  considered  in  this  investigation. 

The  length  of  the  road,  about  21  miles,  and  the  rather  wide  variety 
of  conditions  which  occurred  in  it  made  it  desirable  to  confine  the 
investigation  as  far  as  practicable  to  a  representative  section. 

There  was  no  diiBculty  in  selecting  this  section.  The  road  between 
Ninety-sixth  street  and  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  was,  in  every  respect, 
the  most  important.  Further  on  in  this  paper  it  will  be  shown  that 
this  section  was  divisible  into  two  parts,  distinct  differences  both  as  to 
details  of  construction  and  the  condition  of  the  air  being  noticeable 
between  the  part  north  of  Fifty-ninth  street  and  that  south. 

Nearly  all  the  studies  recorded  in  this  paper,  except  those  of  tem- 
perature and  humidity,  refer  especially  to  the  representative  section 
between  Ninety-sixth  street  and  the  bridge.  In  many  cases,  however, 
they  have  a  much  wider  application. 

The  length  of  the  section  was  about  6  miles.  The  cubic  air  space 
included  was,  in  round  figures,  26,100,000  cubic  feet,  including  the 
stations. 

The  section  was  four  tracks  wide,  excepting  a  piece  of  tunnel  which 
ran  between  Forty-second  street  and  Thirty -fourth  street.  Here 
there  were  two  tunnels  of  two  tracks  each,  running  side  by  side,  cut 
through  the  rock.  (  'odtilf 


AIB  OF   NBW  TOBK  SUBWAY — BOPEB.  649 

By  the  contract  for  construction  we  le&m  that  it  was  intended, 
when  the  road  was  designed,  that  it  should  be  easily  accessible,  light, 
dry,  clean,  and  well  ventilated.  It  was  largely  to  accomplish  these 
ends  that  the  road  was  built  as  close  to  the  surface  of  the  streets  as 
physical  conditions  permitted. 

Much  care  was  taken  to  make  the  subway  dry.  It  was  declared  to 
be  the  "  very  essence  of  the  specifications  "  for  construction  to  secure 
a  structure  which  should  be  entirely  free  from  the  inward  percolation 
of  ground  or  outside  water. 

The  roof  of  the  subway  was  so  close  to  the  level  of  the  streets  that  it 
was  possible  for  the  builders  to  make  extensive  use  of  vault  lights  for 
illuminating  the  stations  with  natural  light.  Full  advantage  was 
taken  of  the  possibilities  in  this  direction.  The  area  of  the  vault 
lights  at  some  stations  was  so  great  that  little  artificial  light  was 
employed,  excepting  at  night. 

Incandescent  lamps  were  the  only  artificial  lights  used  except  for 
signals.  . 

Provisions  for  cleardineaa. — In  constructing  the  road,  provisions 
for  keeping  the  subway  clean  were  carefully  carried  out  at  the  sta- 
tions. The  passenger  platforms  were  made  of  cement  and  the  walls 
of  tile,  the  joints  and  moldings  being  such  as  to  permit  of  easy  clean- 
ing. The  stairways  were  supplied  with  safety  treads,  which  collected 
much  street  dirt,  thus  keeping  it  from  entering  the  subway. 

Provision  was  made  in  the  original  design  for  a  concrete  roadbed, 
which  would  have  enabled  the  road  to  be  kept  clean  between  stations; 
but  modifications  in  the  contract,  after  it  was  let,  resulted  in  the  con- 
struction of  a  broken  stone  roadbed,  from  which  only  comparatively 
large  particles  of  refuse  could  be  removed. 

The  subway  was  ventilated  through  the  stairways  at  the  stations 
and  through  blow  holes  in  the  roof.  Exchanges  of  air  between  the 
subway  and  streets  took  place  chiefly  by  reason  of  the  movement 
of  trains. 

The  subway  was  about  50  feet  wide  and  18  feet  high  on  the  four- 
track  section  between  Brooklyn  Bridge  and  Ninety-sixth  street,  and 
the  cross  section  of  a  car  occupied  about  14  per  cent  of  this  subway 
section.     The  trains  were  from  150  feet  to  408  feet  long. 

The  number  of  passengers  in  the  cars  varied  somewhat  at  different 
hours  of  the  day,  but  the  cars  were  usually  crowded.  There  were 
fifty-two  seats  in  each  car,  and  when  the  aisles  and  platforms  were 
filled  the  total  number  of  passengers  per  car  ranged  from  about  115 
to  140,  The  densest  crowding  occurred  in  the  rush  hours  when  people 
were  going  to  and  from  their  work  and  throughout  the  length  of 
that  portion  of  the  subway  which  was  selected  for  closest  observation. 

The  number  of  cars  per  train,  the  number  of  trains  per  hour,  and 
the  speed  varied  at  different  hours.    The  local  trains  usually  con- 


660 


ANNUAL  BBPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  IWI. 


ststed  of  five  cars,  and  ran  at  a  rate,  exclusive  of  stops,  of  about  21 
miles  per  hour.  The  express  trains  generally  consisted  of  eight  cars, 
and  ran  at  a  rate,  exclusive  of  stops,  of  about  26  milea  per  hour. 

The  total  number  of  passengers  carried  in  the  subway,  as  indicated 
by  an  official  statement  of  the  ticket  sales,  averaged,  for  the  last  two 
months  of  1905,  440,000  per  day.  There  were  about  twice  as  many 
passengers  carried  in  November  and  December  as  in  July. 

As  a  train  moved  through  the  subway,  air  was  forced  ahead  of  it 
and  air  followed  it.  As  a  rule,  a  general  current  flowed  along  the 
track  on  each  side  of  the  subway  in  the  direction  of  the  train  move- 
ment, and  these  currents  continued  even  when  no  train  was  within 
hearing  distance.     The  important  action  of  a  train  was  to  put  large 


t  up  bj  t: 


tb   a    vent  lis  ted    tbermomEter    anil 
show   tbe  movement  of  loeal.    Ibe 
Tbe  cbaDgeB  Id  temperature  were  due  to  air 


volumes  of  the  air  in  motion.  Where  stairways  or  blowholes  oc- 
curred and  offered  lines  of  diminished  resistance,  the  air  rushed  out 
through  them  as  a  train  approached  and  rushed  in  as  the  train 
went  by. 

The  difference  in  barometric  pressure  necessary  to  set  up  these  air 
currents  was  exceedingly  slight ;  the  effect  of  friction  against  the  walls 
and  pillars  of  the  subway  and  the  sides  of  the  stairways  considerable. 
A  great  part  of  the  force  with  which  the  air  currents  were  set  in  mo- 
tion was  generally  used  up  in  eddies  about  the  trains.  The  rest  was 
useful  for  ventilation. 

The  movement  of  the  air  depended  upon  the  speed  of  the  nearest 
train,  the  movement  of  other  trains  in  the  vicinity,  the  size  and  loca- 
tion of  the  neighboring  openings  to  the  outside  air,  the  size  of  the  par- 


AIK  OP  NEW  YORK  SUBWAT — 80PEB.  651 

ticular  cross  section  of  the  subway  with  reference  to  the  sections  of  the 
moving  trains,  the  force  and  direction  of  the  wind  in  the  streets  with 
reference  to  the  position  of  the  stairways,  the  difference  in  tempera- 
ture inside  and  outside  of  the  subway,  and  other  conditions. 

The  chemical  analyses  of  air  which  were  made  gave  data  from 
which  the  frequency  with  which  the  air  was  renewed  could  have  been 
computed  had  the  number  of  passengers  present  at  any  corresponding 
time  and  part  of  the  subway  been  known.  Accurate  information  on 
this  subject  was  not,  however,  obtainable  from  the  Rapid  Transit 
Commission  or  the  operating  company. 

Observations  with  anemometers  were  made  at  a  number  of  stations 
on  several  occasions.  As  a  result  of  seventy-nine  of  these  observa- 
tions, covering,  in  the  aggregate,  two  hours  and  thirty-five  minutes, 
made  at  eight  stations,  it  was  calculated  that  an  average  of  573,000 
cubic  feet  of  air  had  moved  in  and  out  of  one  stairway  per  hour. 
This  was  at  the  rate  of  9,500  cubic  feet  per  minute. 

The  maximum  movement  of  air  observed  was  when  63,000  cubic 
feet  passed  in  at  one  station  in  one  minute  through  a  single  stairway. 
The  velocity  of  the  current  on  this  occasion  was  16^  miles  per  hour. 

That  the  air  circulated  freely  from  one  station  to  another  was  ■ 
shown  by  COj  analyses  (to  be  referred  to  later)  and  by  noting  the 
time  that  it  took  an  odor  to  pass  from  one  station  to  another.  Cologne 
of  a  highly  concentrated  grade,  and  in  sufficient  quantity  to  produce 
a  distinct  perfume  throughout  the  air  of  a  station,  was  used  at 
several  points  and  the  odor  noted  up  and  down  the  line  with  the 
help  of  investigators  with  stop  watches.  Care  was  used  that  the 
cologne  should  not  be  transported  mechanically  by  coming  in  contact 
with  the  trains  in  liquid  form. 

As  a  result  of  eight  cologne  experiments,  it  was  found  that  the 
odor  was  carried  from  station  to  station  at  the  average  rate  of  271 
feet  per  minute,  or  about  3.08  miles  per  hour. 

The  ventilation  of  the  subway  bears  an  interesting  resemblance 
to  the  ventilation  of  the  human  lungs,  and  it  will  help  to  understand 
the  former  if  we  trace  some  of  the  details  of  this  analogy. 

The  ventilation  of  both  the  subway  and  the  lungs  is  due  to  currents 
of  air  passing  inward  and  outward  as  a  result  of  changes  of  pressure, 
caused  chiefly  by  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  enclosed  space. 

It  is  true  that  with  the  lungs  the  size  of  the  enclosed  space  is  alter- 
nately enlarged  and  reduced  through  the  movement  of  its  walls,  while 
in  the  subway  the  size  of  the  enclosure  is  increased  and  diminished 
through  what  is  termed  the  piston  action  of  the  trains;  but  in  other 
respects  the  similarity  is  close. 

In  the  normal  amount  of  air  which  passes  out  of  the  subway  on  the 
approach  of  a  local  train,  and  is  replaced  by  an  indraught  of  fresh  air 
as  the  train  draws  away,  we  have  what  physiologists,  in  speakiiu'  of 


662  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

the  ventilation  of  the  lungs,  call  the  "  tidal  air."  In  the  additional 
quantity  which  is  drawn  in  by  the  express  trains,  we  have  the  "  com- 
plimental  air,"  and  in  the  excess  which  is  forced  out  by  express  trains 
the  "  reserve  or  supplemental  air." 

These  three,  the  tidal,  complimental,  and  supplemental,  we  may 
term  the  "  respiratory  or  ventilating  capacity  "  of  the  subway. 

Finally,  there  is  an  amount  of  air  which  remains  in  the  subway  and 
is  not  immediately  forced  into  the  streets  by  any  combination  of  local 
and  express  trains ;  this  we  may  call  the  "  residual  air." 

This  terminology  is  appropriate  and  convenient  for  general  pur- 
poses, and  it  is  suggested  that  it  should  come  into  use  among  ventilat- 
ing and  sanitary  experts  in  dealing  with  ventilation  problems  of 
much  less  strictly  physiological  character  than  those  to  which  it  has 
hitherto  been  confined. 


TEMPERATURE  AND  1 

From  an  early  period  in  the  construction  of  the  road,  an  effort  had 
been  made  to  observe  the  temperature  and  humidity  at  a  number  of 
points  by  means  of  automatic,  recording  thermometers.  Later,  when 
the  sanitary  conditions  were  being  made  the  subject  of  investigation, 
these  records  were  critically  examined  and  the  observations  put  upon 
a  more  exact  basis. 

Throughout  the  six  mbnths^  investigation  with  which  this  paper  is 
concerned  the  subway  was  generally  warmer  than  the  streets.  The 
only  exceptions  were  when  the  outside  temperature  rose  rapidly  after 
a  prolonged  low  period.  This  usually  occurred  in  summer  in  the 
middle  of  the  day,  and  in  winter  after  a  cold  snap. 

The  excess  of  subway  temperature  over  outside  temperature  in- 
creased considerably  during  the  autumn  and  winter  months.  In  the 
early  part  of  July  the  difference  between  the  temperature  for  the 
whole  day  inside  and  outside  of  the  subway  was  less  than  5°.  In  the 
latter  part  of  September  it  was  over  10°.  In  January  it  was  at  some 
stations  about  20°.  An  average  daily  difference  for  a  week  of  30° 
was  foimd  at  one  station. 

The  subway  grew  warmer  as  the  summer  advanced.  It  averaged 
81°  through  July,  1905.  In  the  week  of  August  4  to  10  it  was  83.4°. 
Thereafter  it  declined  very  gradually,  until  the  latter  part  of  Septem- 
ber, when  it  was  76°. 

In  the  week  of  September  29  to  October  5  there  wfts  a  slight  rise  to 
78",  corresponding  with  a  rise  of  temperature  out  of  doors.  This  was 
followed  by  a  more  rapid  decline  than  had  occurred  at  any  time  be- 
fore. Uncomfortably  high  temperatures  were  not  again  experienced 
in  1905. 

During  its  hottest  period  the  temperature  of  the  subway  followed 
the  temperature  of  the  oub^ide  air,  except  in  the  more  extreme  and 


AlB  OF   NEW  YOBK  6UBWAY — 60PEB. 


668 


rapid  changes  of  the  latter.  This  correspondence  is  seen  to  be  most 
marked  when  the  data  for  inside  and  outside  are  compared  is  the 
form  of  weekly  and  monthly  averages,     (See  fig.  2.) 

The  temperature  in  the  subway  for  the  daytime  for  July  and 
August,  combining  the  records  of  these  two  months  to  form  an  aver- 
age, was  82.4° ;  it  was  76.8°  outside;  difference,  5.6°. 

Highest  temperatures  in  the  summer  of  1905. — The  highest  tem- 
perature observed  in  the  subway  during  the  investigation  was  95°. 
This  occurred  at  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  station,  July  18,  1905,  at 
3,50  p.  m. 

The  hottest  weeK  was  that  of  August  4  to  10,  inclusive.  The  aver- 
age daily  temperature  for  the  subway  during  this  time  was  83.4°; 
for  the  outside  air,  78.2° ;  difference,  5.2°. 


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The  maximum  temperature  observed  in  the  subway  during  this 
hottest  week  was  88.2° ;  in  the  streets  it  was  88.2°  at  the  same  time. 

The  express  stations,  with  the  exception  of  Ninety-sixth  Street, 
which  was  exceptionally  open  to  the  outside  atmosphere,  were  all 
warmer  than  the  local  stations  in  their  vicinity. 

The  coolest  stations  were  those  which  were  most  open  to  the  street; 
the  hottest  the  most  closed. 

The  relative  humidity  in  the  subway  was  generally  less  than  that 
out  of  doors,  but  the  temperature  of  the  dew  point  was  higher.  In 
other  words,  the  actual  weight  of  aqueous  vapor  present  was  greater 
in  the  subway  than  outside,  but  it  appeared  to  be  less  in  the  subway 
than  in  the  streets. 

The  humidity  in  the  subway  varied  with  the  humidity  out  of  doors. 
(See  fig.  3.) 

There  were  no  fogs  nor  mists  in  the  subway.  A  faint  haze  was 
not  uncommon. 

Digilized  by  Google 


664 


ANHUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 


The  average  relative  humidity  for  the  subway  for  July  and  Augi^ 
was  57.5  per  cent;  for  the  outside  air,  60.6  per  cent;  difference,  3.1 
per  cent. 

The  greatest  average  relative  humidity  occurred  during  the  week 
when  the  average  temperature  was  highest  During  this  period  the 
relative  humidity  averaged  64.4  per  cent. 


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CHEMICAL   CONDITION   OF   THE    AIR. 

The  chemical  analyses  of  air  were  confined  chiefly  to  determina- 
tions of  carbon  dioxide,  for  it  was  thought  that  no  other  test  could 
give  such  a  correct  knowledge  of  the  extent  to  which  the  air  was 
vitifttfid  by  respiration,  and  none  could  be  made  on  such  a  large  scale 
as  was  wanted  with  so  little  probability  of  error.  The  method  of 
analysis  was  accurate  to  within  .08  part  per  10,000. 


iiy       [     Avguat       j  3*pt«mb«-    I      Octobsr      I    Novwribw   JDacwfitaar 


About  eighty  samples  of  air  were  analyzed  for  oxygen.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  amount  present  in  the  subway  and  in  the  streets 
seemed  so  slight  and  uninstructive  that  the  determinations  were  soon 
discontinued  as  a  routine  procedure. 

The  carbon  dioxide  analyses  produced  results  from  which  I  de- 
rived the  following  conclusions: 

The  average  amount  nf  carbon  dioxide  in  Hoe  subway  was  a  little 
larger  than  in  the  air  of  the  streets. 

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AIB  OF   NEW  YORK  SUBWAY — BOPEB.  655 

The  average  of  ail  results  was,  for  the  subway,  4.81  volumes  per 
10,000  volumes  of  air,  and  for  the  streets,  3.67;  difference,  1.14.  This 
difference  must  be  regarded  as  very  slight.     (See  fig.  4.) 

The  frequency  with  which  the  air  was  renewed  could  not  be  ac- 
curately calculated,  for  the  reason  that  the  number  of  passengers 
traveling  in  the  subway  was  not  known. 

At  no  time  or  place  was  the  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  large. 

The  greatest  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  found  in  the  subway  was 
8.89.  This  occurred  in  the  tunnel  between  the  Grand  Central  station 
and  the  Thirty-third  Street  station,  on  December  27,  1905,  at  6.02 
p.  m.  At  the  same  time  there  was  a  block,  during  which  trains  were 
stalled  at  all  points  in  the  vicinity.  At  the  adjoining  stations  of 
Thirty-third  street  and  Grand  Central,  the  carbon  dioxide  was  higher 


r  oC  I  he  BUbwui — 

than  usual  at  the  same  time,  the  amount  at  Thirty-third  street  being 
7.84  and  at  Grand  Centra!  7.87. 

The  carbon  dioxide  in  the  subway  varied  according  to  season,  hour, 
place  where  the  sample  was  collected,  and  other  circumstances. 

There  was  more  carbon  dioxide  found  in  the  autumn  than  in  the 
summer  or  winter.  It  seemed  likely  that  this  was  explainable  largely 
on  the  ground  that  many  more  passengers  were  carried  in  autumn 
than  in  summer,  and  that  in  winter  there  was  more  wind  in  the 
streets  and  the  subway,  increasing  the  amount  of  ventilation. 

The  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  varied  in  the  subway  at  different 
hours  of  tlie  day.  (See  fig.  5.)  These  irregularities  corresponded 
with  the  irregularities  in  the  amount  of  travel  which  took  place  at 
different  hours. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  periodic  changes  in  the  amount  of 
carbon  dioxide  occurred  in  the  streets.     In  the  streets  the  carboD 

ii.;,Gooylc 


656  ANNUAL  BEPOET  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,   1907. 

dioxide  was  highest  between  5.30  and  6  p.  m.  and  lowest  between 
1  and  3  a.  m.  The  amount  increased  from  a  minimum  in  the  early 
morning  hours  to  about  9  a.  m.  After  this  there  was  a  fall  to  about 
1.30  p.  m.,  followed  by  a  rise  to  the  highest  point  of  the  day,  which 
occurred  between  5,30  and  6  p.  m.  (See  fig.  6.)  The  average  range 
of  CO;  outside,  as  determined  by  hourly  results,  was  0.8  part  per 
10,000.' 

In  the  subway  the  greatest  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  for  the  whole 
day  also  occurred  between  5,30  and  6  p.  m.  Thereafter  there  was  a 
gradual  fall  to  the  lowest  point,  which  was  reached  between  3  and 
4  ii.  m. 

From  this  lowest  point  the  amount  increased  steadily  to  about  9 
a.  m.,  after  which  it  fell  irregularly  to  between  1  and  2  p.  m. 

The  average  for  the  whole  day  agreed  closely  with  the  average 
between  1  and  3  p.  m. 

In  the  late  afternoon  there  was  a  rapid  rise  to  the  maximum  fcr 
the  day,  which  was  reached  at  about  5.30  p.  m. 


The  samples  of  air  which  were  analyzed  for  oxygen  were  collected 
from  9.30  a.  m.  to  5.30  p.  ra.,  between  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  and 
Ninety-sixth  Street  stations.  The  average  amount  of  oxygen  found 
in  the  air  of  the  streets  was  20.71  per  cent;  in  the  subway,  20.60 
per  cent;  difference,  0.11  per  cent.  The  least  amount  found  in  the 
subway  was  20.25  per  cent. 

BACTERIAL  CONDITION   OF  THE   AIR. 

The  studies  concerning  the  micro-organisms  in  the  subway  related 
chiefly  to  the  number  and  origin  of  the  bacteria  and  molds.  It  was 
not  practicable  within  the  time  and  scope  of  the  investigation  to 
determine  the  various  species  of  bacteria  present,  but  the  principal 
sources  of  many  of  them  were  investigated  indirectly,  with  fairly 
satisfactory  results. 

The  bacteria  were  collected  by  allowing  them  to  settle  from  the 
air  on  circular  plates,  or  Petri  dishes,  3j  inches,  or  about  9  cm.,  in 


.y  Google 


AIB  OF   NEW  TOBK  SUBWAY — SOPEK.  657 

diameter,  containing  a  standard  agar  culture  medium  (see  fig.  7), 
and  by  collecting  them  from  the  air  by  means  of  sand  filters. 

Beside  the  routine  estimates  of  the  number  of  bacteria  recovered 
from  the  air,  special  studies  were  made  of  the  length  of  life  of  the 
pneumococcus  in  the  subway,  the  numbers  of  bacteria  in  subway  and 
other  dusts,  the  action  of  lubricating  oil  upon  bacteria,  the  kinds  of 
molds  present,  and  the  efficiency  of  various  commercial  deodorants 
and  germicides  intended  for  subway  use. 


A  careful  examination  of  the  bacterial  data  collected  in  these 
studieti,  excepting  the  data  whicli  relate  to  the  dust,  has  led  me  to  the 
following  conclusions : 

There  were,  on  an  average,  more  than  twice  as  many  bacteria  found 
in  the  air  of  the  streets  as  in  the  air  of  the  subway,  e.xcepting  after 
rain)?,  when  fewer  were  found  outside  than  inside. 

The  average  numbers  of  bacteria  which  settled  from  the  air  in 
fifteen  minutes,  and  were  subsequently  enumerated,  were,  in  the  sub- 
way, 500;  outside,  1,157;  difference,  657.     (See  fig.  8.) 

The  average  number  of  bacteria  found  by  filtering  the  air  was  8,200 
per  cubic  meter  in  the  subway  and  6,500  in  the  streets;  difference, 
3,800. 

The  molds  recovered  from  the  air  by  filters  were  almost  always  less 
numerous  in  the  subway  than  out  of  doors.    The  maximum  numter 


668 


ANNUAL  HEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1901. 


of  molds  found  was  1,100  per  cubic  meter.  This  observation  was 
made  in  the  tunnel  under  Central  Park. 

The  average  ratio  of  molds  to  bacteria,  as  determined  by  the  obser- 
vations with  filters,  was  1  to  40  in  the  subway. 

The  wind  in  the  streets  had  a  decided  effect  upon  the  numbers  of 
bacteria  collected  from  the  air,  both  inside  and  outside  of  the  sub- 
way. The  averages  show  that  five  times  as  many  were  recoverable 
from  the  air  in  the  streets  with  a  wind  of  18  miles  per  hour  as  with  a 
wind  of  9  miles. 

No  attempt  was  made  to  identify  the  different  kinds  of  bacteria. 
To  have  undertaken  to  name  the  species,  even  with  a  great  deal  more 
time  than  was  available  and  a  special  corps  of  bacteriol<^ists,  would 
probably  have  produced  little  result.     Nevertheless,  the  conclusion 


1906                                                    1 

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Fia.  8. — ATerHtre  mimberB  of  bacteria  which  BUbslded  from  (be  air  per  sqaare  toot  per 
minute,  aa  delermlaed  b;  tbe  ptate  method.  In  the  sabnaj  apd  Btreets  from  JuI:p  10  to 
October  2,  1905.     The  Dumber  of  samplm  cepreBented  1b  2,742. 

was  reached  that  most  of  the  bacteria  in  the  subway  come  from  the 
streets.    The  principal  reasons  for  holding  this  view  follow: 

1.  The  numbers  of  bacteria  recovered  from  the  air  of  the  subway 
varied  with  the  more  decided  changes  in  the  streets. 

2.  The  bacteria  were  more  numerous  at  the  subway  stations  near 
the  stairways  than  at  the  remote  ends  of  the  platforms. 

3.  In  the  subway  stations,  the  bacteria  were  more  numerous  on  that 
side  of  the  road  toward  which  the  wind  blew  than  on  the  opposite 
side. 

4.  There  were  more  bacteria  at  the  arrival  ends  of  the  platforms  of 
the  stations  than  at  the  departure  ends. 

5.  Street  dirt,  probably  containing  large  numbers  of  bacteria,  was 
often  carried  down  the  stairways  into  the  subway  by  inrushing  cur- 
rents of  air  and  by  the  passengers. 


.y  Google 


AIB  OP  NEW  YORK  STTBWAT — BOPBB.  659 

Altlioiigh  it  seemed  likely  from  these  re&sons  that  most  of  the  bac- 
teria in  the  air  of  the  subway  were  derived  from  the  streets,  thero 
was  ground  for  concluding  that  some,  and  among  them  objectionable 
kinds,  were  due  directly  to  the  presence  of  the  people.  It  is  practi- 
cally certain  when  great  crowds  are  packed  together,  as  they  often 
were  in  some  stations  and  most  cars,  that  dangerous  bacteria  are,  at 
least  occasionally,  transmitted  from  person  to  person.  An  obvious 
feature  of  this  danger  lies  in  the  fact  that  people  talk,  cough,  and 
sneeze  into  one  another's  faces  at  extremely  short  range  under  such 
circumstances. 

The  numbers  of  bacteria  in  the  air  of  the  subway  varied  with  the 
amount  of  travel.  They  were  most  numerous  when  the  trains  were 
most  numerous,  and  fewest  when  the  trains  were  fewest. 

When  the  trains  were  blocked  many  of  the  bacteria  disappeared 
from  the  air.  In  one  case  the  bacteria  were  reduced  from  1,800  to 
250  in  about  an  hour  in  this  way. 

The  effect  of  sweeping  the  platforms  with  brooms,  without  first 
taking  precautions  against  raising  dust,  was  noted.  On  one  occasion 
the  numbers  of  bacteria  were  increased  by  sweeping  from  about  5,000 
to  13,000,  and  remained  above  8,000  for  at  least  three-quarters  of  an 
hour — the  time  covered  by  the  observation. 

It  was  not  found  that  any  harmful  germs  were  capable  of  multiply- 
ing in  the  oil  which  dripped  from  the  machinery  of  the  cars  upon  the 
broken  stone  ballast  and  wooden  ties  of  the  roadbed. 

The  lubricating  oil  apparently  removed  and  collected  from  the  air 
large  numbers  of  bacteria,  many  of  which  soon  ceased  to  exist. 

The  pneumococcus  was  found  capable  of  retaining  its  virulence  in 
dried  sputum  in  the  subway  for  twenty-three  days.  This  is  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  findings  of  Wood,  who  reported  that  the  pneumococcus 
was  killed  in  four  hours  in  sunlight. 

With  few  exceptions,  there  were  not  so  many  bacteria  in  the  air  of 
the  toilet  rooms  as  in  the  rest  of  the  subway.  In  some  cases  the  num- 
bers were  much  greater. 

The  proprietary  disinfectants  used  in  the  toilet  rooms  had  no  germ- 
icidal or  deodorizing  value.  Furthermore,  they  produced  counter 
odors  of  a  peculiarly  unpleasant  character. 

The  numbers  of  bacteria  recovered  from  the  dust  of  the  subway 
averaged  500,000  per  gram. 

The  largest  number  of  bacteria  found  in  subway  dust  was  2,000,000 
per  gram.  Still  greater  numbers  probably  could  have  been  found  by 
selecting  the  specimens  of  dust  toward  this  end. 

For  comparison  with  the  numbers  of  bacteria  found  in  dust  from 
the  subway,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  dust  which  had  accumulated 
under  similar  circumstaDces  in  a  Broadway  theater  contained  270,000 

,_,:ibyGoogle 


660  AHHUAL  BEPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITCTION,  1907. 

bacteria;  in  a  new  and  fashionable  hotel,  360,000;  in  a  well-known 
Fifth  Avenue  church,  320,000;  in  the  tallest  office  building  in  the  city, 
850,000;  and  in  the  quiet  attic  of  a  country  house  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  old,  110,000  bacteria  per  gram. 

Dust  which  had  accumulated  in  the  subway  contained  over  twice  as 
many  molds  as  dust  collected  in  outside  buildings.  In  the  dusts  the 
ratio  of  bacteria  to  molds  was  89  to  1  for  the  subway,  and  250  to  1 
elsewhere. 


Odors  were  more  or  less  prevalent  at  all  times  and  at  nearly  all 
places  in  the  subway.  In  some  cases  they  were  so  faint  as  hardly  to 
be  noticeable,  in  others  very  decided. 

The  effects  of  the  odors  upon  the  passengers  varied  with  the  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  individual.  To  some  persons  the  odors  were  exceed- 
ingly offensive,  to  others  they  were  barely  noticeable;  many  pas- 
sengers soon  became  used  to  the  odors  and  did  not  seriously  object  to 
them. 

To  persons  unaccustomed  to  the  subway  the  odors  were  unpleasant, 
and  suggested  that  conditions  existed  which  were  injurious  to  health. 

The  odors  were  most  apparent  during  hot,  damp  weather,  at  places 
where  the  greatest  crowding  occurred  and  where  the  least  amount  of 
ventilation  took  place. 

Odors  were  far  more  often  offensive  in  the  cars  than  elsewhere, 
especially  in  the  fall  and  winter  months,  when  the  windows  were 
closed  and  the  number  of  passengers  was  unusually  large. 

An  effort  was  made  to  ascertain  the  main  causes  of  the  odors.  It 
was  not  possible  to  analyze  them  chemically  or  to  measure  them  by 
other  means  than  the  senses,  although  samples  of  subway  dust  and 
air,  when  brought  to  the  laboratory,  often  smelt  unmistakably  of  the 
subway.  By  inspections  in  the  subway  and  repair  shops,  by  examin- 
ing in  the  laboratory  a  large  number  of  solid  and  liquid  substances 
taken  from  the  subway,  and  by  attempting  to  duplicate  the  odors  in 
closed  chambers  under  different  conditions  of  temperature  and  hu- 
midity, some  of  the  causes  of  the  odors  were  discovered. 

The  following  conclusions  are,  in  my  view,  justified  by  these 
studies: 

The  stone  ballast  of  the  roadbed  was  responsible  for  part  of  the 
odor.  This  stone  was  made  of  broken  trap  rock,  and  its  peculiarly 
slaty  odor  in  the  warm  atmosphere  of  the  subway  was  unmistakable. 
It  could  be  most  easily  distinguished,  especially  at  the  more  open  sta- 
tions, on  damp  days. 

Frequently  the  odor  of  the  trap  was  masked  by  other  odors. 

The  oil  used  in  lubricating  the  wheels  and  machinery  of  the  cars 
was  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  odor.    Large  quantities  of  this  oil 


Am  OF  ITBW  YORK  SUBWAT — SOFEB.  661 

were  allowed  to  drip  from  the  machinery  upon  the  ballast  and  ties  of 
the  roadbed  when  the  subway  was  first  put  in  operation. 

Samples  of  the  oil  were  obtained  for  experiment.  It  was  not 
feasible  to  determine  by  analysis  its  exact  composition,  but  in  other 
ways  it  was  ascertained  that  it  was  composed  chiefly  of  petroleum 
and  fish  oil. 

The  quantity  of  oil  used  in  the  subway  in  the  first  year  of  operation 
was  larger  than  had  ever  been  used  on  an  equal  length  of  road. 

Much  of  the  oil  and  greatio  was  heated  on  the  bearings,  and  some 
of  it  was  volatilized.  The  car  journals,  motor  armature  bearings,  and 
motor  axle  bearings  were  sometimes  raised  to  a  temperature  of  from 
100°  to  170"  F. 

That  the  oil  was  distributed  through  the  atmosphere  of  the  subway 
was  fully  demonstrated.  It  was  recovered  from  the  dust  by  extrac- 
tion with  ether  to  the  extent  of  1.18  per  cent  by  weight  of  dust. 

Odors  were  given  off  by  the  hot  motors  acting  upon  various  more 
or  less  volatile  substances  other  than  oil  and  grease.  Among  these 
substances  were  the  insulating  material  covering  some  of  the  electric 
wiring  and  the  paint  upon  the  motor  cases. 

Electric  sparking  produced  the  odors  of  ozone  and  nitrous  oxide. 

The  hot  brake  shoes  gave  off  a  peculiar  odor. 

A  pungent  and  unpleasant  odor  was  produced  by  the  proprietary 
disinfectants  used  in  the  foilet  rooms.  This  odor  was  so  penetrat- 
ing that  it  was  occasionally  noticeable  on  the  streets  outside  of  the 
subway, 

A  strong  and  disagreeable  odor  was  caused  by  an  oily  cement  used 
in  fastening  decorative  tiles  in  place  at  some  of  the  stations.  An 
ingredient  of  this  cement  was  a  cheap  grade  of  fish  oil.  In  order 
to  disguise  the  fishy  odor,  creosote  was  freely  mixed  with  the  oil 
before  mixing  it  with  the  cement.  The  result  of  these  intermingled 
odors  was  peculiarly  unpleasant.  Fortunately,  the  odor  of  the 
cement,  although  very  powerful  at  first,  rapidly  disappeared. 

Hot  boxes,  of  which  there  were  a  considerable  number  when  the 
road  was  first  put  in  operation,  at  times  produced  a  persistent  and 
suffocating  odor.  Wool  waste  was  used  in  packing  the  car  journals, 
and  when  this  caught  fire  its  unpleasant  smell  could  be  distinguished 
through  the  subway  for  a  long  time. 

Occasionally  a  fuse  was  blown  out  and  its  odor  distributed  up  and 
down  the  line.  When  a  fire  occurred,  as  happened  on  a  few  occa- 
sions, the  odor  of  smoke  persisted  in  the  part  of  the  subway  where 
the  fire  occurred  for  a  surprisingly  long  period  of  time.  In  one 
case  the  odor  was  distinctly  noticeable  to  passengers,  as  the  cars 
passed  the  spot,  three  months  after  the  fire  had  taken  place. 

The  odor  of  tobacco  smoke  was  not  uncommon  at  the  subway  sta- 
tions.   Bules  existed  against  smoking  in  the  subway,  but  they  were 


66S  ANNUAL  BSPOBT  BUITHSONIAV  INSTITUTIOS,  1901. 

not  enforced.  Lighted  cigars,  cigarettes,  and  pipes  were  occasionally 
carried  even  into  the  cars. 

Odors  from  new  concrete  and  fresh  paint  were  often  noticed.  The 
former  was  persistent,  the  latter  transient. 

Odors  of  human  origin  were  sometimes  present,  but  almost  always 
close  to  people.  They  were  most  common  during  warm,  damp 
weather  and  where  there  was  much  crowding.  These  odors  often 
came  from  the  clothing  of  the  passengers.  It  was  sometimes  possible 
to  learn  the  occupation  of  a  workman  by  the  odor  of  his  clothes. 
Odors  of  coffee,  garlic,  bad  teeth,  liquor,  cheese,  and  perfumery  were 
some  of  the  personal  odors  noticed. 

The  pecullal"  odor  given  off  by  clothing  which  had  been  hung  in 
a  kitchen  was  frequently  noticed. 

In  fact,  under  the  conditions  of  crowding,  amounting  frequently  to 
close  personal  contact,  it  seemed  that  odors  of  practically  every  char- 
acter connected  with  human  existence  were  noticeable. 

Excepting  in  rare  instances,  where  ignorant  employees  were  not 
kept  under  as  strict  supervL^iion  as  their  defective  sense  of  decency 
required,  the  odors  which  permeated  the  general  air  of  the  subway 
did  not  point  to  conditions  dangerous  to  health.  Personal  odors  were 
detectible  only  at  short  range.  When  people  are  crowded  so  closely 
together  that  their  breath  and  other  body  odors  are  offensive,  there  is 
always  danger  that  disease  may  be  transmitted  from  one  to  another. 

The  toilet  rooms  were  much  neglected  at  the  time  of  this  investiga- 
tion, and  often  gave  rise  to  an  unpleasant  local  odor. 


The  dust  of  the  subway  was  made  the  subject  of  study  because  of  its 
unpleasant  features  and  the  possibility  that  it  might  play  a  part  in 
producing  or  aggravating  respiratory  diseases.  Its  possibilities  for 
barm  were  considered  to  He  in  its  bacterial  and  physical  composition. 

The  dust  was  examined  microscopically,  chemically,  and  bacterio- 
logically,  by  a  special  method  which  was  devised  for  determining 
the  gross  weight  of  dust  in  a  measured  volume  of  the  air,  and  by  an 
instrument  for  estimating  the  total  number  of  floating  particles 
present. 

In  appearance,  the  dust  was  always  black  and  very  finely  powdered. 
It  was  easily  distinguishable  by  the  eye  from  dusts  collected  in  the 
streets  and  in  theaters,  churches,  office  buildings,  and  mercantile  and 
manufacturing  establishments. 

The  subway  dust  had  a  peculiarly  adhesive  character,  which  caused 
it  to  attach  itself  securely  to  all  surfaces,  even  when  these  were  verti- 
cally placed  and  glazed.  All  parts  of  the  subway  which  had  not 
been  recently  cleaned  and  painted,  or  were  not  of  a  dark  color,  were 
sprinkled  with  this  black  dust  when  the  investigation  b^an.| 


AIE  OF   NEW  YORK  8TJBWAT — SOPBB.  668 

The  dust  had  a  marked  capacity  for  soiling  linen  and  other  articles 
of  clothing.  Straw  hats  and  the  light-colored  garments  worn  by  pas- 
sengers of  both  sexes  in  summer  were  likely  to  be  soiled  by  coming  in 
contav;t  with  even  small  accumulations  of  the  dust. 

When  examined  microscopically,  the  dust  was  found  to  be  com- 
posed of  particles  of  many  substances,  conspicuous  among  which  were 
fine,  flat  plates  of  iron.  In  fact,  these  iron  particles  could  often  be 
seen  with  the  naked  eye,  glistening  upon  the  hats  and  garments  of 
persons  who  had  been  riding  in  the  subway. 

Particles  2  mm.  long  were  on  one  occasion  taken  from  a  magnet 
which  had  been  carried  in  the  hand  on  a  ride  of  twenty  minutes  in 
the  cars.    By  comoarison  it  was  found  that  magnets  hung  up  in  the 


FlO.  9. — HaONItic  f 

subway  collected  more  particles  of  iron  than  magnets  of  the  same  size 
and  strength  hung  up  in  an  iron  foundry  or  a  dry  grinding  and  pol- 
ishing establishment.  Fig.  9  shows  a  magnetic  field  formed  by  sub- 
way dust. 

The  size,  as  well  as  the  number,  of  the  particles  depended  upon  the 
place  where  they  were  sought. 

Many  were  so  small  that  they  floated  in  the  air  as  dust.  These 
generally  escaped  notice,  except  where  beams  of  sunlight  entered  the 
subway  or  where  the  subway  air  emerged  from  some  small  opening 
into  the  sunlight  in  the  streets,  under  which  circumstances  they  glis- 
tened plainly. 


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664  ANNUAL  REPORT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

Particles  of  subway  dust,  not  iron,  comprised  bits  of  silica,  cement, 
stone,  fibers  of  wood,  wool  and  cotton,  molds,  and  undistinguisbable 
fragments  of  refuse  of  many  kinds. 

Besides  the  dust  which  resulted  from  the  grinding  of  metals,  it 
was  evident  that  the  gradual  wear  and  tear  of  many  substances  in  the 
subway  contributed  to  the  dust. 

Chemical  composition  of  the  dust. — ^The  separate  chemical  analyses 
of  eleven  samples  of  accumulated  dust  from  the  subway  showed  the 
following  av^age  percentage  composition :  Total  iron,  61.30,  includ- 
ing 59.89  metallic  iron;  silica,  etc.,  15.58';  oil,  1.18;  organic  matter, 
21.94,  as  shown  in  fig.  10. 


F:g.  lO.^^rompoeltlaii  of  hi 

Origin  of  metallic  dust.—X  large  part  of  the  metallic  iron  came 
from  the  wear  of  the  brake  shoes  upon  the  steel  rims  of  the  wheels  of 
the  cars. 

The  wear  upon  the  brake  shoes  was  very  severe.  By  weighing 
them  when  they  were  new  and  after  they  were  worn  out,  and  deter- 
mining the  number  used,  it  was  calculated  by  the  operating  company 
that  one  ton  of  brake  shoes  was  ground  up  every  month  for  each  mile 
of  subway.     The  brake  shoes  consisted  of  cast  iron  with  steel  inserts. 

There  was  also  some  loss  to  the  rails  and  rims  of  the  wheels  and  to 
the  contact  shoes  which  ran  upon  the  third  rail.  Probably  25  tons  p«r 
month  would  be  a  low  estimate  of  the  weight  of  iron  and  steel  ground 
up  in  the  whole  subway  every  month. 

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AIB  OF   NEW  TOEK   SUBWAY — SOPEE.  665 

Weight  of  duat  in  subway  and  street  air  compared.— The  average 
weight  of  dust  suspended  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  subway  as  found 
by  the  use  of  sugar  filters,  using  all  of  the  results,  was  61.6  mg,  per 
thousand  cubic  feet  of  air,  or  2.25  mg.  per  cubic  meter ;  in  the  streets, 
52.1  mg.  per  thousand  cubic  feet,  or  1.83  mg.  per  cubic  meter;  differ- 
ence, 9.5  mg.  The  maximum  amount  found  in  the  subway  was 
204  mg. 

Twenty-three  comparative  tests  were  made  to  determine  with  par- 
ticular care  the  weight  of  suspended  dust  per  thousand  cubic  feet  of 
air  inside  of  the  subway  and  in  the  streets  at  the  same  time  and  as 
near  the  same  place  as  possible.  These  showed  an  excess  of  dust  in 
the  subway  of  47  per  cent  over  that  outside.  In  five  cases  there  was 
more  dust  outside,  the  greatest  excess  being  30  per  cent.  In  the  other 
eighteen  cases  the  excess  of  subway  dust  over  street  dust  ranged  from 
11  to  800  per  cent. 

Weight  of  dvst  inhaled  hy  pasnengers. — The  weight  of  dust  which 
the  average  passenger  inhaled  in  one-half  hour  in  the  subway  was 
very  slight.  Assuming  that  360  c.  c,  or  22  cubic  inches,  of  air  were 
taken  in  at  each  breath  and  that  the  pas.senger  breathed  eighteen  times 
a  minute,  the  total  quantity  of  air  which  passed  into  the  lungs  in  half 
an  hour  was  about  6.88  cubic  feet,  or  6.50  cubic  meters.  Using  the 
average  of  all  results,  or  61,6  mg.  per  thousand  cubic  feet,  as  the 
weight  of  dust  suspended  in  the  atmosphere,  it  appears  that  the  aver- 
age passenger  took  into  his  nose  or  mouth  0.42  mg.  of  dust  in  a  ride 
of  half  an  hour. 

The  amount  of  dust  found  in  the  air  of  the  subway  varied  with  a 
number  of  circumstances.  More  dust  was  found  at  the  arrival  ends 
than  at  the  departure  ends  of  the  station  platforms.  This  was  prob- 
ably due  to  the  fact  that  the  brakes  were  applied  near  the  arrival 
ends,  and  to  the  fact  that  the  currents  of  air  from  incoming  trains 
helped  to  carry  dust  from  those  sections  of  the  subway  which  lay 
between  stations  to  the  platforms. 

The  stations  where  the  greatest  weights  of  dust  were  found  were 
express  stations;  there  the  amoimt  of  metallic  dust  formed  by  the 
braking  of  the  trains  was  much  greater  than  at  the  local  stations  and 
the  travel  from  the  streets  was  greatest. 

The  numbers  of  bacteria  found  in  the  accumulated  dust  of  the  sub- 
way were  usually  smaller  than  the  numbers  found  in  dust  which  had 
accumulated  outside. 

The  average  result  of  thirty  samples  of  dust  which  had  accumulated 
in  the  subway  was  500,000  bacteria  per  gram  of  dust.  The  average 
obtained  from  six  samples  of  dust  which  had  accumulated  under  what 
appeared  to  be  comparable  circumstances  in  different  buildings  in 
New  York  was  600,000. 

DiailizedbyGOOgle 


666  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  19OT. 

The  largest  number  of  bacteria  found  in  a  sample  of  subway  dost 
was  2,000,000. 

FINAL  O0NCLU8ION8. 

A  review  of  the  results  of  the  investigation  warrants,  in  my  opinion, 
the  following  brief  statement  of  the  most  essential  facts  determined 
with  respect  to  the  quality  of  the  air. 

According  to  usual  sanitary  standards,  based  on  chemical  and  bac- 
teriological analyses,  the  general  air  of  the  subway  was  always  and 
everywhere  satisfactory.  The  air  in  the  cars  in  winter  is  not  included 
in  this  statement. 

According  to  public  opinion,  based  on  the  testimony  of  the  senses, 
the  air  was  everywhere  unsatisfactory,  especially  during  the  summer 
months. 

My  own  conclusion  was  that  the  general  air,  although  disagreeable, 
was  not  actually  harmful,  except,  possibly,  for  the  presence  of  iron 
dust.  The  strong  drafts  in  winter  at  the  stations  and  the  lack  of 
sanitary  care  exercised  over  the  subway  were,  however,  worthy  of 
careful  consideration  in  this  connection. 

The  high  temperature  of  the  subway  was  its  most  noticeably  objec- 
tionable feature.  Had  it  not  been  for  the  heat,  it  is  probable  that  the 
other  unpleasant  features  would  have  failed  to  arouse  serious  protest. 
The  heat,  as  is  well  known,  was  due  to  the  conversion  of  the  electric 
power  which  ran  the  trains  into  friction.  The  amount  of  heat  given 
off  by  the  passengers  was  so  small  by  comparison  as  to  have  had 
practically  nothing  to  do  with  elevating  the  general  temperature. 

The  heat  was  most  objectionable  in  the  mornings  and  evenings  of 
summer  during  the  hours  of  greatest  travel  and  when  the  air  outside 
was  cooler  than  during  the  rest  of  the  day. 

The  heat  did  not  indicate  that  the  air  was  vitiated  or  stagnant,  as 
was  popularly  supposed.  The  subway  was  hot  because  a  great  deal  of 
heat  was  produced  in  it,  and  stored  by  the  materials  of  which  the 
subway  was  built.  That  the  heat  did  not  escape  rapidly  enough  for 
comfort  was  no  proof  that  the  air  was  not  renewed  often  enough  for 
health. 

The  carbon  dioxide  and  oxygen  analyses  indicated  that  the  products 
of  respiration  were  rapidly  carried  away.  Among  the  2,200  carbon 
dioxide  determinations,  most  of  which  were  made  in  the  subway,  no 
sample  of  air  was  found  which  contained  above  8.89  parts  of  CO,  per 
ten  thousand  volumes,  and  this  amount  was  found  under  circum- 
stances which  must  be  regarded  as  exceptional. 

The  average  excess  of  carbon  dioxide  in  the  subway  over  that  in  the 
streets,  1.14  parts  per  ten  thousand  volumes,  showed  that  the  air  was 
renewed  with  remarkable  frequency.  In  the  absence  of  a  census  jiv- 
ing the  number  of  passengers  in  different  parts  of  the^ubway  at  dif- 


AIB  OF  NEW  TORK  BUBWAT — SOPBB.  667 

ferent  hours,  it  was  impossible  to  calculate  just  how  frequently  the 
air  was  renewed;  but  from  such  estimates  as  it  was  possible  to  make 
it  seemed  not  improbable  that  the  air  of  the  whole  subway  was  com- 
pletely renewed  at  least  every  half  hour. 

It  is  true  that  the  renewal  occurred  somewhat  more  frequently  in 
some  parts  of  the  subway  than  in  others,  but  the  exchange  was  always 
and  everywhere  abundant  to  satisfy  usual  sanitary  requirements.  We 
must  except,  of  course,  from  this  statement,  the  cars  when  closed,  and 
other  places  where  dense  crowding  occurred. 

The  controlling  condition  which  regulated  the  extent  to  which  the 
air  was  renewed  was  the  freedom  with  which  it  could  move  in  and  out 
of  the  subway.  The  air  was  best  where  the  subway  was  most  open  to 
the  streets,  and,  conversely,  it  was  least  satisfactory  where  the  subway 
was  most  inclosed.  More  blowholes  would  have  greatly  improved 
the  conditions  as  regards  heat  and  odor. 

The  movement  of  the  trains  set  in  motion  the  essential  ventilating 
currents.  This  they  did,  first,  by  forcing  subway  air  out  and  bring- 
ing street  air  in  at  openings;  and  second,  by  moving  the  air  through 
the  subway  between  openings. 

It  was  fully  demonstrated  that  there  were  no  pockets  or  other  places 
where  air  stagnated.  Diffusion  was  everywhere  rapid,  complete,  and 
satisfactory.  I  except  the  cars  in  these  statements,  as  already  indi- 
cated. 

The  fact  that  there  were  only  about  half  as  many  bacteria  found  in 
the  air  of  the  subway  as  in  the  air  of  the  streets  under  which  the  sub- 
way ran  gave  ground  for  the  opinion  that  the  bacteriological  condi- 
tion of  the  subway  air  was  satisfactory,  although  too  much  reliance 
should  not  be  placed  upon  this  guide  to  its  condition.  Judgment  on 
this  point  would  have  been  more  conclusive  had  it  been  possible  to 
demonstrate  that  no  more  harmful  bacteria  existed  in  the  subway  than 
in  the  air  outside.  This  was  beyond  the  practicable  possibilities  of 
bacteriological  technique. 

The  odors  of  the  subway,  like  the  heat  and  dust,  were  objection- 
able, apparently,  chiefly  because  they  were  disagreeable.  They  re- 
sulted largely  from  the  operation  of  the  trains.  They  were,  in  my 
opinion,  to  a  large  extent  preventable. 

The  sanitary  signiHcance  of  the  characteristic  black  dust  of  the 
subway,  containing,  as  it  did,  over  61  per  cent  of  metallic  particles, 
remained  to  be  considered  at  the  close  of  the  investigation.  At  the 
request  of  the  board  of  rapid  transit  commissioners,  this  matter  is  now 
being  studied  by  me. 


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Mahceun  BEnTHELoT,  1827-1907. 


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MARCELIN  BERTHELOT.' 


Bt  Cauiluc  HATianon, 

Profettor  of  Mineral  ChemUtry  at  the  ColUge  de  France;  former  Ag»t»tant 

Profeator  to  Berthelot  at  the  ColUge  de  France. 


The  illustrious  scholar  to  whom  all  France  has  paid  a  last  eolemn 
tribute  held  an  extraordinary  rank  in  the  science  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  What  he  accomplished  was  tremendous,  almost  superhuman. 
No  other  man  can  grasp  it  in  its  entirety,  for  in  order  to  comprehend 
it  in  detail  one  would  need  to  have  an  encyclopiedic  knowledge  Such 
as  no  one  in  this  day  possesses.  The  scholars  of  the  whole  world 
bowed  before  this  grand  intellect,  unanimously  recognized  as  one  of 
the  broadest  of  its  time.  This  intellect,  moreover,  was  powerfully 
aided  by  a  memory  no  less  widely  famed.  It  was  by  uniting  with 
these  natural  gifts,  obstinate  and  incessant,  systematic  endeavor, 
that  Berthelot  was  able  to  build  up  an  immense  life  work  in  which  is 
shown  the  universal  scope  of  his  knowledge.  A  man  of  letters,  a 
philosopher,  an  historian,  there  was  no  subject  with  which  he  was  not 
familiar;  he  was  well  and  accurately  informed  on  all  topics. 

Pierre  Eugene  Marcelin  Berthelot  was  bom  in  Paris,  October  28, 
1827,  in  a  house  on  the  place  de  Greves,  now  the  place  de  I'Hotel 
de  Ville.  He  studied  at  the  Lyc6e  Henri  IV,  and  showed  from  the 
start  remarkable  aptitude  in  the  most  varied  directions.  Fouqu^, 
in  recalling  at  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  his  scientific  career  the  old 
fellowship  of  the  Lycee  that  brought  him  close  to  Berthelot,  added : 
"  Even  at  that  time  you  felt  the  lofty  position  in  the  science  of  the 
future  which  awaited  you.  Your  professors,  and  even  your  fellow- 
students,  were  alike  conscious  of  it,  and,  more  than  anyone  else,  I 
bad  faith  in  you."  In  1846  Berthelot  won  the  honor  prize  in  philos- 
ophy at  the  Concours  general.  He  devoted  himself  henceforth  to 
the  study  of  the  sciences  without  passing  through  any  school.  He 
was  selected  as  Balard's  assistant  in  the  College  de  France  in  January, 
1851,  and  for  nine  years  he  filled  this  humble  office  with  its  annual 
allowance  of  500  francs.     During  this  period,  in  April,   1854,  he 

°  Translated,  by  permlsalon,  from  Bevue  GtoGrale  dea  Sciences  pares  et 
appUqutes.    Paris,  18th  7efir,  No.  9,  May  16,  19Q7. 


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670  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  lOffl. 

earned  the  degree  of  doctor  of  sciences  with  a  masterly  thesis  on  the 
"  Reproduction  des  corps  gras  naturels." 

On  December  20, 1859,  he  left  the  CoUige  de  France  for  I'ficole  de 
Pharmacie,  where  he  had  been  chosen  professor  of  organic  chemistry. 
The  following  year  he  brought  together  his  researches  on  synthetic 
chemistry  in  two  important  volumes  entitled  "  Chimie  organique 
fond^  sur  la  synthase."  The  Academy  of  Sciences,  for  his  assembled 
works,  awarded  him  the  Jecker  prize.  Berthelot,  at  33  years  of  age, 
was  known  by  name  to  chemists  throughout  the  world,  and  his  repu- 
tation had  penetrated  even  into  the  Parisian  salons,  as  is  evident  from 
letters  written  in  1860  and  1861  by  Madame  Didier  to  Madame  Edgar 
Quinet :  "  I  must  not  forget  to  have  you  meet  a  very  learned  scholar 
named  M.  Berthelot.  They  swear  by  him  alone  in  the  rue  de  I'Ouest 
[at  Michelet's].  Madame  Michelet  told  me  '  that  he  would  go  down 
to  posterity,'  and  that  he  would  not  rest  satisfied  with  mere  genius. 
He  is,  besides,  full  of  life  and  a  charming  fellow  to  be  with.  She 
drew  me  the  picture  of  an  accomplished  man ;  I  am  curious  about  this 
wonder.  I  must  make  his  acquaintance  and  tell  you  my  impressions 
of  him."  (October  26,  1860.)  After  having  received  him  she  wrote 
(January  19, 1861 ) :  "  He  seemed  shy ;  he  has  a  very  sweet  and  ioter- 
esting  countenance.  I  greatly  enjoyed  the  conversation  of  M.  Berthe- 
lot. If  1  have  one  regret  it  is  in  not  being  able  to  follow  him  in  the 
field  of  science;  he  has  made  great  discoveries  in  chemistry  and  has 
published  two  volumes  that  are  beyond  me ;  I  should  not  be  able  even 
to  understand  their  language.  But  they  say  that  the  synopsis  of  the 
book  is  obtainable  and  it  gives  the  conclusions  of  all  of  his  works  I 
shall  do  my  best  to  get  an  idea  of  it.  Finally,  there  is  nothing  be 
does  not  know  something  about  j  he  has  had  a  thorough  literary  edu- 
cation." 

At  the  initiative  of  Balard,  a  certain  number  of  professors  of  the 
College  de  France  and  chemists  of  the  Institut  requested  of  the  public 
officials  the  establishment  of  a  chair  of  organic  chemistry  in  the  Col- 
lege de  France,  in  order  to  allow  Berthelot  to  develop  his  ideas.  The 
request  was  favorably  received  by  M.  Duruy,  minister  of  public  in- 
struction, and  the  chair  was  created  August  8,  1865.  Berthelot  then 
gave  up  the  £cole  de  Pharmacie  for  the  College  de  France,  which  he 
was  destined  never  to  leave. 

A  member  of  the  Academy  of  Medicine  in  February,  1863,  he  did 
not  enter  the  Academy  of  Sciences  until  March  3,  1873,  at  the  age  of 
46  years,  in  the  section  of  physics,  taking  the  place  of  Duhamel.  He 
developed  at  this  time  a  whole  system  of  calorimetric  methods.  He 
was  not  only  a  chemist  of  the  first  class,  but  likewise  an  eminent 
physicist,  as  was  recognized  by  the  Institut  in  giving  him  tlie  first 
vacant  place  in  the  section  of  physics.  Most  of  the  foreign  scientific 
societies  and  academies  sanctioned  Berthelot's  fame  by  admitting  him 

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MABCBLIN   BERTHELOT — MATIGNON.  671 

to  their  own  membership.  He  was  elected  successively  to  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  the  Society  of  Physics  of  Geneva,  the  Society  of 
Naturalists  of  Moscow,  and  the  academies  of  St.  Petersburg,  Stock- 
holm, Dublin,  Copenhagen,  Munich,  Turin,  Amsterdam,  Hungary, 
Boston,  Lisbon,  Vienna,  Berlin,  etc 

Designated  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  August  13,  1861,  he 
ran  rapidly  through  the  whole  hierarchy  untU  by  the  time  of  the 
fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  beginning  of  his  scientific  career  the  Gov- 
ernment of  the  Republic  had  decreed  to  him  the  highest  reward  it 
gives  in  decorating  him  with  the  Grand-Croix. 

The  interest  that  Berthelot  brought  to  bear  on  the  reorganization 
of  our  method  of  education  led  him  to  the  general  inspection  of 
higher  educational  affairs  in  1876;  to  the  permanent  section  of  public 
instruction,  of  which  he  was  vice-president;  to  the  £k;ole  des  Hautes 
£tudes,  of  which  he  was  president  for  the  section  of  physical  sciences. 
Head  of  the  scientific  committee  for  the  defense  of  Paris  in  1870,  he 
was  named  member  of  the  consultation  committee  on  powders  and 
saltpeters  in  1876  and  president  of  the  commission  on  explosive  sub- 
stances in  1S78.  Elected  perpetual  senator  in  1881,  he  improved  the 
opportunity  by  pleading  on  numerous  occasions  the  cause  of  higher 
education  and  of  scientific  research.  In  1886  he  became  minister  of 
public  instruction  in  the  Goblet  cabinet  and  was  called  later  by  M. 
Lfon  Bourgeois  to  the  quai  d'Orsay. 

Berthelot  succeeded  Joseph  Bertrand  in  the  Academic  Fran^aise, 
and  was  received  there  by  LemaJtre. 

I  do  not  pretend  in  the  few  pages  at  my  disposal  to  estimate  as  it 
deserves  the  work  of  this  teacher;  I  shall  content  myself  with  sketoh- 
ing  merely  its  principal  features. 

Berthelot  not  only  transformed  and  broadened  the  domain  of 
chemistry,  but  at  the  same  time  he  caused  this  science  to  progress  by 
the  side  of  the  exact  sciences. 

Before  Berthelot  most  chemists  considered  the  substances  which 
form  in  living  organisms  as  impossible  of  reproduction  in  the 
laboratory  from  their  constituent  elements — carbon,  oxygen,  hydro- 
gen, and  nitrogen — by  the  sole  play  of  chemical  affinities.  "  In  organic 
nature,"  wrote  Berzelius  in  1849,  "  elements  appear  to  obey  laws 
entirely  different  from  the  laws  of  inorganic  nature."  A  mysterious 
force,  the  vital  force,  is  judged  indispensable  to  their  elaboration. 
The  chemist  can  only  destroy  them,  separate  them  with  the  aid  of 
appropriate  reagents,  and  take  from  them  certain  new  substances, 
isolated  stones  in  the  complex  edifice.  His  role  is  therefore  extremely 
limited,  since  in  the  field  of  organic  compounds  he  has  at  his  dis- 
posal, as  objects  of  study,  only  the  inmiediate  principles  elaborated 
by  animals  and  vegetable  growths.  Berthelot  took  up  the  separated 
products  and  tried  step  by  step  to  put  them  together  agai[i  to  cpn- 


672  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  IMl. 

struct  the  initial  edifice.  It  wa3  thus  that,  in  a  really  masterly 
achievement,  he  reconstructed  fats,  oils,  and  butters  out  of  the  glyc- 
enne  and  the  acids  derived  from  these  fatty  substances.  The  barrier 
which  separated  the  reactions  of  the  laboratory  from  the  reactions 
of  living  organisms  disappeared  from  this  time  on  and  the  identity 
of  biological  and  physico-chemical  forces  was  thereupon  established. 
The  significance  of  such  a  demonstration  may  be  readily  understood. 

This  was  not  all.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  creative  power  of  the 
chemist  began  to  be  manifested.  As  soon  as  Berthelot  had  discovered 
how  to  reproduce  a  fatty  substance,  stearine,  for  example,  he  had  by 
the  generalization  of  the  process  found  the  method  of  reproducing  an 
infinite  number  of  new  fatty  substances.  Thus,  while  most  of  the 
animal  or  vegetable  fats  are  formed  essentially  by  the  mixture  of 
three  or  four  well-defined  chemical  substances,  the  only  ones  found  in 
nature,  the  chemist  can  make  from  them  in  his  laboratory  as  large  a 
number  as  he  pleases.  "  The  synthesis  of  neutral  fats,"  said  Berthelot 
in  1860,  "  permits  not  only  the  formation  of  some  natural  fats  already 
known,  but  it  still  further  permits  one  to  foresee  the  formation  of 
innumerable  analogous  fats,  which  it  will  be  easy  hereafter  to  pro- 
duce in  their  entirety  by  virtue  of  the  general  law  that  governs  their 
composition."  The  domain  of  chemistry  therefore  becomes  unlim- 
ited. The  chemist  himself,  by  synthesis,  creates  the  object  of  his  in- 
vestigation and  in  the  thousands  of  new  substances  that  are  produced 
each  year  in  the  laboratories  of  the  world,  he  distinguishes  those 
whose  properties  can  be  used  in  the  arts,  in  industry,  in  medicine,  etc 

The  synthesis  of  fatty  substances  was  only  a  partial  synthesis; 
glycerine  and  the  fatty  generating  acids  were  themselves  produced 
from  fats  ori^nally  divided  in  two.  In  imitation  of  nature  it  was 
necessary  to  try  to  produce  organic  matters  out  of  mineral  substances. 
Taking  carbon  in  the  form  of  carbonic  oxide,  Berthelot  combined  this 
gas  with  potash  and  produced  potassium  formate.  The  barium 
formate,  heated,  lost  methane,  which  by  pyrogenation  was  able  to  give 
acetylene,  ethylene,  and  ethane.  From  these  carburets  thus  formed, 
Berthelot  passed  to  the  corresponding  alcohols,  methyl,  ethyl,  and 
their  very  varied  derivatives. 

It  is  not,  however,  under  the  form  of  carbonic  oxide  that  charcoal 
enters  into  plants;  these  build  up  the  molecules  of  fatty  matters,  the 
hydrates  of  carbon  necessary  to  their  growth,  with  anhydrous  carbon 
and  water.  Berthelot  tried  in  vain  to  generate  a  primary  carburet 
out  of  these  two  substances,  so  he  replaced  them  with  substances  whose 
functions  were  most  closely  related  to  them,  sulphuret  of  carbon  and 
sulphuric  acid;  then  in  making  both  of  these  pass  over  copper,  he 
obtained  methane.  By  substituting  iron  for  copper  he  obtained  the 
same  reaction  from  sulphuret  of  carbon  and  water. 

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HABCBLIN   BEBTHBLOT — HATIONON.  678 

In  his  work  "  Chimie  organique  fond^  sur  la  synth^,"  Berthelot 
published  the  collective  results  of  his  researches  and  at  the  same  time 
he  explained  the  methods  that  should  be  followed  in  solving  the  syn- 
ihetic  problem  in  the  series  not  then  studied.  He  presented  a  general 
view  of  organic  products,  and  in  order  to  classify  them,  introduced 
the  theory  of  function.  He  had  previously,  in  the  case  of  glycerine, 
shown  that  the  molecule  of  that  substance  possesses  three  times  the 
alcoholic  function  and  likewise  introduced  the  idea  of  polyatomic 
alcohols  and  polyalcohols. 

Berthelot  employed  electric  energy  in  its  most  varied  forms  to 
bring  about  the  combination  or  to  destroy  the  composition  of  sub- 
stances. The  electric  arc  enabled  him  to  effect  the  simplest,  the  most 
unexpected,  and  the  most  fertile  of  organic  s3aitheses,  that  of  acety- 
lene. An  arc  flashing  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen  partially  trans- 
formed this  hydrogen  into  acetylene,  for  the  carbonic  vapor  which 
constituted  the  arc  through  its  high  temperature  of  3,500  degrees 
united  directly  with  the  gaseous  element.  Carburetted  hydrogen, 
stable  at  the  highest  temperature  reached,  became,  on  the  contrary,  un- 
stable at  about  its  ordinary  temperature;  it  only  had  to  be  compressed 
to  above  two  atmospheres  for  it  to  decompose  with  an  explosion, 
under  the  influence  of  a  spark,  into  its  two  elements,  carbon  and 
hydrogen.  If,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  heated  gradually  toward  400 
degrees,  the  same  acetylene  returns  to  its  stable  form,  carbon  and 
hydrogen,  passing  through  a  series  of  intermediate  terms,  benzol, 
toluol,  naphthalene,  anthracene,  etc.,  carburets  poorer  and  poorer  in 
hydrogen,  the  limit  of  which  will  be  charcoal.  These  new  carburets 
constitute  the  starting  point  in  preparing  coloring  matters,  perfumes, 
substitutes  for  sugar,  new  explosives,  etc.  It  is  possible  to  combine 
again  with  acetylene,  by  the  aid  of  simple  reactions,  ethylene,  ethane, 
oxalic  and  acetic  acids,  alcohol,  etc.  Thus  by  heating  the  carburet 
with  its  hydrogen,  ethylene  is  generated,  capable  of  fixing  water  in 
the  presence  of  sulphuric  acid  to  form  alcohol.  The  entire  synthesis 
of  this  immediate  threefold  principle  is  thus  realized  from  its  three 
constituent  elements,  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen. 

The  electric  spark  is  likewise  useful  in  synthetic  chemistry.  For 
example,  the  sparks  produce  hydrocyanic  acid  when  nitrogen  is 
placed  in  the  presence  of  acetylene,  or,  generally,  of  any  hydrocarbon 
vapor  whatever. 

The  electric  current  passing  into  a  conducting  solution  permits 
the  obtaining  of  products  of  oxidation  at  the  anode  and  products 
of  reduction  at  the  cathode.  The  sulphuric  solution  itself  peroxidizes 
in  giving  a  new  substance,  persulphuric  acid,  the  existence  of  which 
was  at  first  doubted  by  several  chemists  who  had  not  experimented, 
until  persulphates  became  industrial  products. 


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674  ANNUAL  KEPOBT   SMITHSONIAN   INSTlTUTrON,  1801. 

Berthelot,  moreover,  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  all  the  secondary 
chemical  reactions  which  were  produced  at  or  near  the  electrodes: 
Upon  these  complex  questions  no  chemist  had  so  comprehensive  a 
knowledge  founded  on  experiment.  Thus  we  may  understand  the 
skepticism  with  which  he  received  all  mathematical  theories  over- 
looking these  secondary  reactions. 

It  was  above  all  through  the  electric  current  that  Berthelot  obtained 
the  most  delicate  syntheses.  He  showed  that  this  current  constituted 
the  form  of  energy  the  most  active  and  the  most  effective  for  securing 
the  combination  of  substances.  By  its  aid  he  was  enabled  to  unite 
iodine  with  oxygen,  to  produce  sulphuric  anhydride  from  sulphurous 
gas  and  oxygen,  to  effect  the  absorption  of  nitrogen  in  considerable 
quantities  by  sulphuret  of  carbon,  benzol,  etc  Everyone  still  recalls 
the  discovery  of  .argon  by  Lord  Rayleigh  and  Ramsay,  who,  after  a 
number  of  years  of  trials  of  different  sorts,  were  unsuccessful  in 
obtaining  a  combination  with  this  new  gas.  These  scholars  sent 
Berthelot  several  cubic  centimeters  of  argon,  and  eight  days  after 
the  eminent  chemist  announced  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  that  he 
had  succeeded  in  uniting  argon  with  sulphuret  of  carbon  by  means 
of  the  electric  current.  The  small  quantity  of  resinous  matter  ob- 
tained under  these  conditions,  when  sufficiently  heated,  in  decompos- 
ing, regenerated  argon  with  its  initial  properties. 

The  contemporaries  of  Berthelot  also  did  their  share  in  developing 
chemical  synthesis.  It  is  sufficient  to  recall  in  particular  his  rival, 
Wurtz,  to  whose  credit  stand  very  important  experiments  on  the 
synthesis  of  compound  ammonias,  of  carburets  of  hydrogen,  and  of 
glycols.  "  It  is  with  respect  to  the  synthesis  of  glycols,"  wrote  Ber- 
thelot in  1884,  "  that  a  productive  rivalry  has  arisen  between  us,  in 
which  each  of  us  has  developed  the  various  resources  of  a  nature  as 
different  from  that  of  the  other  in  its  point  of  view  as  in  its  opera- 
tions. Works  without  number  have  sprung  from  these  theories  and 
in  thirty  years  have  transformed  organic  chemistry.  Wurtz  played 
a  prominent  part  in  this  transformation." 

Convinced  of  the  unity  of  natural  forces,  Berthelot  tried  to  adapt 
the  laws  of  chemical  transformations  to  the  laws  of  mechanics.  He 
devoted  himself  to  developing  a  new  science,  thermochemistry,  from 
which  was  derived  chemical  mechanics.  Lavoisier  and  Laplace, 
Hesse,  Favre  and  Silbermann  had  already  succeeded  in  taking  several 
calorimetric  measurements,  but  the  principle  of  equivalents  in  the 
order  of  chemical  reactions  was  a  new  idea  which  was  to  be  estab- 
lished with  precision  by  the  researches  of  Berthelot.  At  this  time 
Kegnault  had  completed  his  numerous  calorimetric  experiments  and 
had  secured  for  this  division  of  physics  an  accuracy  theretofore  un- 
known. Regnault  obtained  this  accuracy  through  a  more  complex 
apparatus,  by  su{>erimposing  in  a  certain  way  on  the  principal  appa- 


MAECELIU   BEBTHELOT MATIQNON.  676 

ratus  accessory  contrivances  either  to  eliminate  or  to  measure  the 
different  causes  of  error.  Berthelot,  however,  secured  accuracy  by 
more  simple  methods.  The  experimental  technique  which  he  worked 
out  from  beginning  to  end  for  measuring  different  caloriBc  factors 
is  an  admirable  accomplishment,  which  would  suffice  alone  to  make  a 
physicist  illustrious.  Although  I  have  had  occasion  to  initiate  a 
large  number  of  French  and  other  scholars  into  the  calorimetrie 
methods  of  Berthelot,  I  have  never  once  done  it  without  noting  after  a 
first  experiment  their  astonishment  and  their  admiration  for  methods 
so  simple  and  accurate.  These  methods  were  afterwards  to  attain 
perfection  in  the  use  of  the  calorimetrie  bomb. 

Altogether,  Berthelot's  accomplishments  in  thermochemistry  are 
marvelous.  Their  consequences  extend  into  all  domains  of  science. 
Engineers,  experimenters,  and  theorists  are  continually  using  his 
calorimetrie  data. 

In  theory,  Berthelot  shows  that  the  amount  of  heat  is  the  prin- 
cipal factor  upon  which  depend  the  conditions  of  composition  or 
decomposition  of  substances;  but  the  mass  heat  of  reaction  is  con- 
nected with  these  conditions  by  an  extremely  complicated  relation- 
ship. Berthelot  tried  to  disengege  from  this  mass  heat  all  the  calo- 
ries connected  with  reversible  phenomena  and  obtained  a  quantity, 
"  chemical  heat,"  which  approaches  the  heat  not  compensated  for 
in  the  reaction.  From  1866  Berthelot  worked  without  interruption 
to  establish  and  render  exact  the  different  terms  for  expressing  chemi- 
cal heat. 

This  chemical  heat,  especially  in  solutions,  is  not  always  easily 
calculated,  and  so  in  the  secondary  schools  they  have  let  stand  the 
old  rule  of  maximum  work,  which  in  many  cases  can  give  an  exact 
idea  of  the  process  of  reaction. 

The  study  of  electrical  piles,  which  forms,  with  the  working  out 
of  reactions  in  advance,  one  and  the  same  problem,  took  part  of  Ber- 
thelot's time.  As  I  said  above,  he  studied  very  thoroughly  all  the 
secondary  phenomena  which  occurred  in  connection  with  it  in  such 
a  way  as  to  separate  from  the  chemical  mass  energy  all  these  .second- 
ary forms  of  energy  and  to  try  to  give,  if  possible,  an  experimental 
interpretation  of  the  differences  between  the  voltaic  and  chemical 
energies.  M,  Berthelot  has  frequently  called  attention  to  the  im- 
portance of  tliese  secondary  reactions  often  neglected  by  the  theorists. 
For  this  reason  the  pupils  of  Helmholtz  could  verify  the  accuracy 
of  the  relation  between  voltaic  and  chemical  energy  only  by  measur- 
ing the  chemical  energy  directly  on  the  calorimeter,  as  Jahn  did, 
and  not,  like  Brauner,  by  calculating  it  from  the  fundamental 
chemical  reaction  occurring  in  the  pile. 

Moreover,  in  a  general  way,  the  study  of  the  thermo-chemistry  of 
reactions  forced  Berthelot  to  go  into  their  slightest  details  and,  wiith 


676  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INBTITUTIOK,  IBOl. 

his  talent  for  generalizing,  he  knew  how  to  draw  observations  of  a. 
general  application.  It  is  thus  that  the  idea  of  preliminary  work, 
necessary  for  brining  about  reactions,  corresponds  in  the  language 
of  this  time  to  an  elevation  of  temperature  necessary  to  overcome 
chemical  resistance.  He  showed  likewise  that  it  is  not  the  reactions 
producing  the  most  stable  system  that  are  found,  but  unstable,  inter- 
mediary systems.  The  principle  of  the  appearance  of  the  unstable 
forms  before  the  stable  forms  is  found  again  here,  a  principle  which 
has  been  quite  accurately  established  in  these  later  years.  Moreover, 
all  the  modem  physico-chemista  have  drawn  from  the  numerous 
thenno-chemical  documents  accumulated  by  Berthelot,  and  some  of 
them  have  even  at  times  reproduced  his  researches,  but  in  a  language 
corresponding  to  the  physico-chemistry  of  these  later  years. 

I  am  convinced  for  my  part  that  it  is  particularly  through  thermo- 
chemistry that  Berthelot  acquired  that  truly  extraordinary  under- 
standing of  chemical  phenomena  by  which  he  seemed  almost  to  domi- 
nate and  command  them. 

Thermo-chemistry  was  destined  to  lead  Berthelot  to  the  study  of 
explosives.  His  position  as  president  of  the  commission  of  scholars 
organized  by  those  in  command  of  the  national  defense  during  the 
siege  of  Paris  had  given  him  an  opportunity  to  become  initiated  into 
the  knowledge  of  these  products.  The  various  tasks  that  he  accom- 
plished in  this  field  either  alone  or  in  collaboration  with  members  of 
the  commission  on  powders  and  saltpeters,  have  been  brought  together 
in  great  part  in  his  treatise  "  Sur  la  force  des  mati^res  explosibles 
d'aprfe  la  Thermochimie."  I  should  like  to  speak  here  simply  of  his 
"  studies  of  genius,"  to  use  the  expression  of  Nemst,  on  the  explosive 
wave.  In  a  mixture  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  for  example,  the  combi- 
nation propagates  itself  in  the  form  of  a  wave  all  the  factors  of  which 
can  be  defined  in  advance  when  the  properties  of  the  exploding  mix- 
ture are  known.  The  surface  of  this  wave,  which  is  the  seat  of  the 
combination,  propagates  itself  with  a  speed  much  greater  than  that  of 
sound.  2,800  meters  in  the  case  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  so  that  the 
influence  of  the  cooling  of  the  surfaces  has  no  time  to  become  eflfective. 
Besides,  the  speed  itself  is  constant  and  independent  of  the  nature  of 
the  tube  which  contains  the  mixture.  Tlie  surface  of  the  wave  is  at 
an  extremely  high  temperature  and  exerts  a  strong  pressure  in  its 
passage,  a  pressure  which  may  easily  be  registered  by  placing  pres- 
sure gauges  in  the  path  of  the  wave. 

The  explosive  wave  has  been  the  means  of  realizing  the  highest 
temperatures  (4,000  degrees),  but  the  products  of  combustion  remain 
at  this  temperature  for  only  a  very  short  time.  Berthelot  and  Vieille, 
in  some  extremely  remarkable  experiments,  have  used  the  explo- 
sive wave  for  furnishing  quantitative  evidence  on  the  properties  of 
gas  at  temperatures  as  high  as  4,000  degrees.    Among  the^nuinerous 

CtOooTc 


MABCEUN   BEBTHBLOT — MA.TIQNOH.  677 

results  which  follow  from  this  I  may  call  special  attention  to  the 
curious  fact  that  nitrogen,  oxygen,  and  oxide  of  carbon,  up  to  4,000 
degrees,  have  identical  molecular  specific  heats,  which  tends  to  prove 
that  the  molecule  is  not  dissociated  at  this  high  temperature  during 
the  very  short  period  of  heating.  Theoretical  studies  on  explosives, 
on  the  speed  of  Explosions,  were  to  lead  to  the  discovery  of  smokeless 
powder  by  M.  Vieille,  the  pupil  and  collaborator  of  Berthelot.  This 
was  for  some  time  to  give  superiority  to  our  armament. 

In  collaboration  with  P&in  de  Saint  Gilles,  Berthelot,  in  1862,  in  a 
celebrated  memoir,  defined  equilibrium,  and  at  the  same  time  showed, 
by  a  full  series  of  reactions  methodically  worked  out,  the  role  of 
time  in  chemical  phenomena.  He  endeavored  to  translate  into 
mathematical  formulse  the  results  of  his  experiments.  He  introduced 
the  idea  of  active  masses,  and  established  a  relation  which,  slightly 
modified,  was  to  lead  Guldberg  and  Waage,  the  following  year,  as 
they  themselves  acknowledged,  to  the  establishment  of  the  law  of 
mass  action.  For  his  study  on  etherification  the  name  of  Berthelot 
deserves  to  be  inscribed  by  the  side  of  those  ofSaint-Claire  Deville 
and  of  Raoult,  among  the  creators  of  physico-chemistry. 

By  reason  of  his  studies  of  synthesis,  the  role  of  nitrogen  in  the 
organic  world  always  interested  Berthelot.  Some  years  ago  this 
element  was  considered  as  an  inert  body  incapable  of  entering  in 
reaction  and  yet  it  is  indispensable  to  the  life  of  animals  and  plants. 
By  what  process  does  inorganic  nitrogen  pass  into  the  state  of  organic 
nitrogen?  The  problem  is  to-day  in  great  measure  solved,  thanks 
particularly  to  Berthelot's  experiments. 

Under  the  influence  of  electrical  actions,  spark  or  current,  the  nitro- 
gen and  oxygen  of  the  air  enter  into  combination  to  form,  firsl  of  all, 
oxide  of  nitrogen,  and  then,  by  secondary  reaction,  nitrous  vapors. 
Likewise,  all  active  combustion,  like  that  of  charcoal,  for  example, 
quickens  the  combination  of  quantities  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen.  The 
difference  of  electrical  potential  between  two  strata  oi  air  of  unequal 
levels  may  be  employed  to  effect  the  absorption  of  nitrogen  by  the 
most  varied  bodies.  By  exact  quantitative  experiments  Berthelot 
showed  that  exterior  electrical  actions,  storms,  differences  of  poten- 
tial, and  the  combustions  of  charcoal,  going  on  year  after  year  in  the 
world,  are  insufficient  to  calculate  the  total  quantity  of  nitrogen  nec- 
essary for  the  development  of  plant-s.  lOther  causes  must  be  found. 
For  this  reason  Berthelot  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  sun. 
He  showed  that  the  earth  was  enriched  in  nitrogen  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  tiny  particles  that  swarm  here.  The  organic  world  was 
no  longer  considered  inert ;  it  became  a  living  entity  in  which  a  race 
of  the  tiniest  midgets  work  to  introduce  the  elementary  nitrogen  of 
the  air  into  the  cycle  of  organic  reactions. 


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678  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INBTITUTIOK,  IWfl. 

The  ideas  of  the  professor  were  from  the  first  warmly  opposed,  but 
sopn  Hellriegel  and  Wilfarth,  Schltesing  and  Laurent,  Winogradski, 
brought  in  from  every  side  important  contributions  to  the  question  of 
the  absorption  of  nitrogen  and  demonstrated  in  a  startling  manner 
the  truth  of  the  ideas  put  forth  by  Berthelot. 

This,  moreover,  was  not  the  only  occasion  upon  which  Berthelot 
was  actively  disputed  by  opposing  scholars.  A  posthumous  memoir 
of  Claude  Bernard  towards  1878  was  the  text  of  a  most  scholarly  and 
most  earnest  scientific  discussion  between  Berthelot  and  Pasteur. 
The  latter  held,  on  the  basis  of  experiments,  that  the  fermentation  of 
glucose  absolutely  demanded  the  presence  of  leaven  or  barm  of  beer, 
while,  according  to  Berthelot,  the  transformation  of  glucose  into  alco- 
hol could  take  place  through  the  intermediary  of  a  ferment  that  was 
not  living,  of  a  diastase  emitted  by  the  yeast  itself.  The  two  scholars 
maintained  their  positions  without  reaching  a  common  conclusion. 
Twenty  years  afterwards  a  Gierman  scholar,  Buchner,  demonstrated 
that  yeast,  sufficiently  compressed,  furnished  a  liquid  without  trace 
of  living  cells  and  capable  of  continuing  for  some  time  the  fermenta- 
tion of  sugared  juices.  Berthelot's  instinct  of  genius  had  surmounted 
Pasteur's  experimental  skill. 

Having  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  ancient  languages,  Berthelot 
was  exceptionally  well  fitted  to  study  the  history  of  chemistry  in 
early  times.  In  the  "  Origines  de  I'Alchimie  "  he  shows  that  alchemy 
was  founded  on  a  doctrine  of  philosophy,  that  of  the  sameness  of 
matter  molded  as  if  formed  of  four  elements.  Its  practice  rested 
upon  the  actual  experiments  performed  by  the  Greco-Egyptian  gold 
and  silver  smiths  and  metallur^sts.  This  the  author  indisputably 
established  by  the  comparative  study  of  a  papyrus  found  in  Thebes 
and  some  receipts  of  the  pseudo-Democritus,  in  a  second  work  en- 
titled "  Introduction  k  I'^tude  de  la  chimie  des  anciens  et  du  moyen- 
age." 

Berthelot  was  led  in  this  connection  to  publish  the  Greek,  Sjriac, 
and  Arabic  alchemic  texts,  which  up  to  this  time  had  remained  un- 
published, with  the  collaboration  of  distinguished  linguists — Messrs. 
Kouelle  for  the  Greek,  Rubens  Duval  for  the  Syriac,  and  Hondas  for 
the  Arabic.  Thus  was  again  built  up  an  entire  branch  of  the  science 
of  the  early  times,  theretofore  almost  unknown.  Furthermore  he 
pursued  his  studies  up  to  the  fourteenth  century,  in  order  to  ascertain 
by  what  means  the  sijience  of  alchemy  had  penetrated  into  the  Occi- 
dent. He  found  that  these  means  were  two:  First,  by  the  handing 
down  of  the  arts  and  industries  which  had  up  to  that  time  been  almost 
completely  ignored  and  which  nevertheless  had  subsisted  continuously 
since  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  second,  by  the  Syriac  trans- 
lations of  the  Greek  alchemists,  equally  ignored,  which  were  the 

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JiABCEUN   BEETHELOT — MATIGNOM.  679 

sources  of  Arabic  works.  These  latter  were  translated  into  Latin  in 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  ceoturiea. 

Profoundly  patriotic,  Berthelot  always  considered  it  the  duty  of 
every  scholar  to  place  at  the  disposal  of  bis  country  the  results  of  his 
experience  and  of  his  learning.  He  never  refused  his  services,  when 
asked  in  the  name  of  public  interest,  in  any  of  the  most  varied  direc- 
tions, especially  in  matters  relating  to  industry  or  to  the  public  de- 
fense, public  instruction,  or  general  governmental  policy.  He  was 
attached  to  all  the  technical  commissions  connected  with  the  several 
government  departments  and  applied  to  the  solution  of  the  problem? 
presented  all  the  talents  employed  in  work  in  his  own  laboratory. 
This  multiple  activity  of  Berthelot  furnished  occasion  for  various 
articles  or  discourses,  combined  in  four  volumes:  "  Science  et  philo- 
sophie,"  "  Science  et  morale,"  "  Science  et  education,"  "  Science  et 
libre  pens^." 

Like  all  creators,  Berthelot  bad  a  powerful  faith,  a  faith  which 
served  him  as  director  and  guide  both  in  his  private  and  public  life, 
faith  in  science  and  his  methods.  For  Berthelot  science  dominated 
everything;  it  alone  rendered  definite  services,  and  its  domain  was 
not  restricted  to  the  study  of  positive  facts.  Material  progress  due 
to  science  was  the  least  important  product  of  bis  work.  Science  in- 
cluded a  higher  and  broader  field,  that  of  the  ethical  or  spiritual  and 
the  social  world. 

In  bis  letter  to  Renan  on  the  ideal  science  and  the  positive  science, 
after  having  explained  in  a  masterly  way,  by  a  concrete  example,  bow 
positive  science  proceeds  in  establishing  facts  and  in  attaching  one  to 
another  by  immediate  relations,  Berthelot  extended  the  same  method 
to  the  study  of  the  domain  outside  the  material  world :  "  In  the  do- 
main outside  the  material  world,  as  in  the  material  order  of  things,  it 
is  necessary  at  the  start  to  establish  the  f^cts  and  to  control  them  by 
observation,  then  to  marshal  them  by  constantly  bringing  to  bear  this 
same  observation.  All  reasoning  which  tends  to  deduce  them  a  priori 
from  some  abstract  axiom  is  chimerical.  It  is  the  observation  of  the 
phenomena  of  the  world  outside  the  material,  revealed  either  by  psy- 
chology or  by  history  and  political  economy,  it  is  the  study  of  their 
relations  gradually  generalized  and  at  each  step  verified,  that  serves 
as  a  basis  for  a  scientific  understanding  of  human  nature.  The 
method  by  which  each  day  are  solved  the  problems  of  the  material 
and  industrial  world  is  the  only  method  by  which  can  be  solved  and 
will  be  solved  sooner  or  later  the  fundamental  problems  relative  to  the 
organization  of  society." 

Berthelot,  moreover,  recognized  that  truth  could  not  be  attained 

with  such  a  degree  of  certainty  in  the  ideal  science  as  in  positive 

science.    "  It  is  in  a  way  like  a  building  hidden  behind  a  cloud,  of 

41780—08 47  „  , 

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680  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1901. 

which  only  some  outhnes  are  visible."  The  farther  up  you  go  in  the 
order  of  consequences,  the  farther  away  you  get  from  real  observa- 
tions and  the  more  does  certainty,  or  rather  probability,  diminiab.  A 
system  is  true  not  in  proportion  to  the  logic  of  its  reasoning,  but  to 
the  sum  of  positive  facts  introduced  into  it. 

It  is  to  these  philosophical  conceptions  that  may  be  attributed  to  a 
certain  extent  Berthelot's  opposition  to  constitutional  formula.  A 
slave  to  facts,  he  would  not  admit  these  systematized  signs  to  which 
s<Hne  went  so  far  as  to  attach  an  objective  reality.  '*  The  symbols  of 
chemistry  present  in  this  respect  some  strange  allurements  by  the 
algebraic  ease  of  their  combinations  and  by  the  tendencies  of  the 
human  mind.  They  naturally  lead  to  the  substitution,  in  the  place  of 
a  direct  conception  of  things,  never  absolutely  determined,  the  more 
simple  and  apparently  more  comprehensive  view  of  their  representa- 
tive signs.  It  would  be  a  strange  misconception  of  the  philosophy  of 
the  natural  and  experimental  sciences  to  attribute  to  such  mere  ma- 
chinery for  working  a  fundamental  importance.  In  fact,  in  the  study 
of  the  sciences,  all  depends  on  the  discovery  of  general  facts  and  of 
the  laws  that  bind  them  one  to  another."  Berthelot  saw  in  these  for- 
mulfe  only  a  chemical  language,  and  it  meant  no  more  to  him  than  that 
the  facts  could  be  translated  into  one  or  another  language. 

I  may  be  permitted  to  recall  that  on  reaching  the  college  labora- 
tory at  the  close  of  a  lecture,  when  Berthelot  had  explained  his  ideas 
on  notations  and  chemical  formulee,  I  respectfully  suggested  to  him 
that  it  would  be  more  logical  for  him  to  use  a  language  adopted  by 
the  majority  of  chemists.  It  was  following  this  conversation  that  X 
presented  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  the  first  work  from  the  labora- 
tory of  Berthelot  with  atomic  formulte.  Some  time  after,  in  a  work 
performed  in  collaboration  with  my  teacher,  on  the  chlorine  deriva- 
tives Berthelot  definitely  gaye  up  notation  in  equivalents  for  atomic 
notation  (1890). 

Berthelot,  at  least  at  the  time  that  I  knew  him,  attached  only  a 
secondary  importance  to  theories.  This,  moreover,  is  a  trait  com- 
mon to  nearly  all  learned  men  who  have  pursued  a  long  scientific 
career.  They  have  seen  so  many  systems  rise  and  fall  that  they 
arrive  in  the  end  at  skepticism.  I  presented  to  him  one  day  a  short 
paper  containing  some  theoretical  ideas  to  which  I  attached  some 
degree  of  importance  and  I  carried  it  to  him  proud  of  my  theoretical 
explanation  of  the  facts  observed.  Glancing  rapidly  over  my  paper, 
Berthelot  seized  a  pencil  and  quickly  crossed  out  all  that  part  on 
which  I  expected  to  be  complimented.  I  was  sttll  a  beginner,  and 
notwithstanding  all  the  admiration  that  Berthelot  commanded  from 
those  about  him,  I  confess  that  I  consoled  myself  for  my  disappoint- 
ment by  considering  the  act  as  that  of  a  scholar  grown  too  old.  This 
little  incident  springs  to  my  mind  whenever  I  come  across  an  old 


HABCELIN   BBBTHBLOT — ICATIONON.  681 

memoir  from  which  I  have  to  draw  any  references  and  find  the  facts 
b-wamped  in  the  theories  of  the  period,  to-day  of  such  mediocre  value. 
I  am  irritated  at  the  author  who  makes  me  lose  time  in  this  way,  and 
I  understand  fuUy  the  justice  of  Berthelot's  action. 

It  is,  moreover,  a  characteristic  of  youth,  ignorant,  inexperienced, 
and  presumptuous,  to  hold  decided  opinions  on  everything  and  not 
to  acquiesce  on  many  points  in  the  opinions  of  experienced  persons 
and  authorities.  Age  cures  this  fault  quickly,  but  the  memory  of 
it  comes  back  all  the  stronger  when  we  find  it  again  in  succeeding 
generations. 

Berthelot  leaves  a  number  of  French  and  foreign  pupils,  many  of 
whom  are  among  those  who  most  honor  the  chemical  profession.  To 
speak  only  of  the  oldest  ones,  I  may  mention  the  following :  Jung- 
fleisch,  his  collaborator  in  his  "  Traits  de  chimie  organique "  and 
in  his  researches  on  the  coefficient  of  distribution,  of  -which  Xemst 
more  recently  published  a  valuable  generalization;  Barbier,  who 
gave  proof  of  great  experimental  ability  in  assisting  the  professor 
in  delicate  researches  on  the  reductive  properties  of  hydriodic  acid; 
Sabatier,  the  learned  teacher,  well  known  for  his  works,  already 
classic,  on  catalyzers  of  hydrogen  gas;  Andr^,  Berthelot's  devoted 
collaborator  in  his  researches  on  organic  chemistry;  Joannis,  whose 
works  on  soda  ammonium  constitute  good  experimental  models; 
de  Forcrand,  the  distinguished  director  of  the  chemical  institute  of 
Montpellier,  whose  thermic  data  form  a  table  of  figures  of  undis- 
puted accuracy;  Guntz,  who  had  the  honor  of  separating  barium 
and  strontium  in  a  pure  state  and  of  discovering  subsalts  of  silver; 
Recoura,  whose  thesis  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  ever  pre- 
sented before  the  Faculty  of  Sciences  of  Paris,  etc.  In  other  coun- 
tries a  number  of  Berthelot's  pupils  teach  in  universities:  Lon- 
guinine,  Croustschoff,  Ossipoff,  Timof4ieff,  Werner,  etc.,  in  Russia; 
A.  Werner  in  Switzerland;  Fogh  in  Denmark;  Hartog  in  England; 
Bredig  in  Germany;  Paul  Henry  in  Belgium,  etc. 

Berthelot's  activity  never  waned  a  single  instant  Last  year  he 
published  a  very  extensive  volume  on  the  analysis  of  gases.  He 
wrote  out  before  his  death  a  fifth  volume  on  organic  chemistry.  At 
the  same  time  he  kept  up  his  laboratory  researches,  which,  by  the 
way,  were  uninterrupted  for  fifty-five  years.  Berthelot  could,  like 
Hoffmann  or  Beeyer,  have  realized  a  considerable  fortune,  but  be 
never  took  out  a  patent  nor  derived  any  material  profit  from  his  dis- 
coveries. Offers  made  by  groups  of  financiers  to  turn  into  money 
the  results  of  his  researches  were  in  every  case  declined. 

Very  sparing  of  his  time,  it  was  not  always  easy  to  hold  a  desired 
conversation  with  him.  In  order  not  to  rob  him  of  his  leisure  mo- 
ments, it  was  best  to  meet  him  coming  out  of  his  laboratory,  toward 
noon,  and  accompany  him  from  the  CoU&ge  de  France  to  ^e  Insti- 


682  ANNUAL  HEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1901. 

tut.  How  many  times  have  we  thus  walked  together  down  the  rue  de 
I'ficole  de  M^d^in  and  the  rue  Mazarin  while  he  chatted  with  me 
on  the  results  of  his  researches  or  explained  to  me  his  ideas  on  the 
latest  sensational  discovery !  But  it  was  principally  at  the  station  de 
Chimie  v^tale  de  Bellevue-Meudon,  where  he  came  each  year  in 
April  or  May  and  installed  himself  and  his  family,  that  he  willingly 
received  his  pupils  on  Sunday  mornings.  Thus,  during  his  last  so- 
journ at  Meudon,  I  was  chatting  with  him  one  October  morning  ju^t 
before  his  return  to  Paris.  Very  busy  with  his  researches  on  radio- 
activity, he  showed  me  all  the  specimens  of  quartz  he  had  colored 
in  violet  under  the  influence  of  radium,  thus  producing  for  the  first 
time  the  synthesis  of  the  amethyst.  Then  we  passed  to  an  examina- 
tion of  experiments  he  was  conducting,  of  which  he  was  destined 
never  to  Imow  the  results.  Small  glass  tubes  filled  with  different 
substances  had  for  several  days  been  ranged  about  a  central  tube 
containing  a  piece  of  radium.  No  transformation  was  yet  apparent, 
but  he  was  awaiting  some  interesting  modifications  by  the  time  he 
should  return  the  following  spring,  if,  however,  he  added,  he  were 
still  alive. 

Berthelot's  conversation  was  never  trivial;  his  phrases  were  always 
correct,  accurate,  and  simple,  as  those  of  a  scholar  and  thinker  should 
be.  He  gave  immediately  the  impression  of  a  superior  man.  He 
was,  moreover,  a  man  of  delicate  temperament.  "  There  never  was 
between  us,"  said  Renan,  "I  will  not  say  a  moral  relaxation,  but  a 
plain  vulgarity.  We  always  acted  toward  one  another  as  toward  a 
lady  we  respect." 

It  was  a  genuine  treat  to  listen  to  him  at  the  private  receptions 
presided  over  with  such  distinction  by  Madame  Berthelot.  He  would 
then  lay  aside  his  thoughts  of  science  to  devote  himself  entirely  to 
the  interests  of  his  wife  and  his  friends.  The  Goncourts  have  de- 
scribed in  their  "  Journal "  the  dinners  at  the  home  of  Magny,  where 
Berthelot  was  listened  to  with  keen  interest  by  everyone.  "  Renan," 
says  Goncourt,  "  followed  the  trend  of  his  thoughts  without  failing, 
and  I  am  certain  that  many  of  the  ideas  afterwards  uttered  by  the 
philosopher  in  his  volumes  were  collected  in  the  course  of  conversa- 
tions with  the  chemist."  Berthelot  had,  in  fact,  a  powerful  influence 
on  the  greatest  minds  of  hi^j  time.  Both  Kenan  and  Taine  had  a 
deep  admiration  for  the  learned  man.  It  would  be  interesting  some 
day  to  say  more  about  the  share  of  collaboration  in  Kenan's  work 
that  can  be  traced  back  to  the  man  of  science. 

Berthelot  had  six  children — four  sons  and  two  daughters.  He  had 
the  misfortune  to  lose  one  of  his  daughters,  and  more  recently  a 
grandson,  who  was  tragically  killed  in  an  accident  on  the  chemin  de 
fer  du  Nord.  "  No  loss,"  he  wrote,  "  can  be  compared  to  the  loss  of  a 
child  who  has  gron^  up  under  the  eye»  of  its  parents,  surrounded 


Gooylc 


HABCELIN   BEBTHELOT MATIONON.  688 

and  sustained  by  their  love,  and  who  is  taken  away  in  the  flower  of 
its  youth,  leaving  in  the  depths  of  the  hearts  of  its  near  relatives  an 
inconsolable  grief." 

The  dramatic  death  of  the  great  man  of  science  was  a  startling 
proof  of  the  deep  love  that  bound  him  to  his  wife.*  There  was  be- 
twaen  these  two  souls  such  a  close  union,  such  mutual  adaptation, 
that  their  existence  made  a  veritable  "symbiose."  When  we  saw 
him  come  to  the  laboratory  in  those  last  days,  his  appearance  told  us 
of  the  condition  of  health  of  Madame  Berthelot.  Pale  and  worn 
during  the  critical  periods,  he  walked  with  a  step  more  alert  during 
the  periods  of  improvement.  We  knew  that  the  days  of  her  illness 
were  numbered  and  we  had  no  doubt  but  that  her  death  would  shortly  . 
be  followed  by  that  of  her  husband.  Their  mutual  affection  was  even 
deeper  than  we  supposed  it  to  be,  for  Berthelot  was  unable  to  survive 
his  worthy  companion. 

In  all  the  realms  where  the  activity  of  a  human  being  could  be 
exercised,  Berthelot  had  performed  his  whole  duty.  He  was  a 
scholar,  a  citizen,  a  husband,  a  father,  a  teacher,  without  an  equal. 

It  would  seem  that  such  a  fine  nature  should  never  encounter  dif- 
ficulties in  its  career.  But  this  would  be  attributing  to  men  a  rapid- 
ity and  accuracy  of  judgment  to  which  they  are  hardly  accustomed. 
Two  months  ago  I  confided  to  him  some  personal  troubles.  He  placed 
himself,   as   always,   at  my   disposal   to  help   me   overcome   them. 

'>  B«rtbelot  died  at  Paris,  March  18,  1907,  In  the  Palais  de  I'la'stltnt,  very 
Bbortlj  after  bU  wife  bad  drawn  her  last  breath.  For  several  years  Mme. 
Berthelot  bad  suffered  from  a  serious  heart  trouble  which  left  amall  hope  of 
her  reeoverr.  Toward  the  beginning  of  March  she  became  so  much  worse  that 
all  tier  relatives  and  friends  were  very  serioasly  concerned  about  her.  She 
expired  toward  S  o'clock  In  the  afternoon  of  March  18.  About  3  o'elock  on 
that  day  Berthelot,  who  had  an  office  In  the  Palais  de  I'lnstttnt  as  perpetual 
secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  astted  bis  colleague,  M.  Dartoux,  before 
ibe  session  of  the  Academy,  to  look  over  hie  mail,  for  his  wife's  condition 
worried  him.  The  members  of  the  lostltut  saw  blm  cross  the  court  with  bis 
UHuiil  short,  hurried  step  and  enter  the  scientlflc  establishment.  He  went  at 
once  to  his  apartment  to  take  his  place  tteslde  his  wife,  who  was  then  quietly 
[Mssiog  away. 

When  all  was  over  and  while  they  were  b^nniog  to  prepare  the  lM)dy  for 
burial,  M.  Berthelot,  completely  broken  down,  left  the  chamber  and  went  In 
the  next  room  to  He  'on  the  couch  where  be  was  accustomed  during  the 
day  to  snatch  a  few  momenta'  rest.  When  he  went  out  he  was  beard  to  say, 
with  bis  band  on  bis  chest :  "  Oh,  something  here  Is  suffocating  me  ]    *     •     •  " 

Very  shortly  afterwards  they  went  Into  the  room  to  see  how  be  was.  He 
lay  streached  on  the  couch  breathing  hard,  and  everything  that  was  done  for 
him  proved  useless.  He  auccuml>ed  almost  Immediately,  following  a  severe 
checking  of  the  heart  action  caused  by  bis  emotions,  and  It  was  in  vain  that 
the  physicians,  called  bach  with  all  baste,  tried  to  restore  htm.  The  great 
chemist  was  dead;  he  could  not  bear  np  under  the  loss  of  his  dlstlngolahed 
wife,  with  whom  he  had  lived  for  so  many  years  tn  such  a  perfect  jmlon. 


684  ANNUAL  BEPOBX  8MITHBONIAH   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

Then  he  added :  "  I  was  talking  last  night  of  the  past,  with  Madame 
Berthelot,  and  we  aniTed  at  the  conclusion  that  I  had  not  lived  a 
year  without  having  a  struggle  to  keep  up."  Sincerity  always  ends 
in  triumph.  On  Xovember  24,  1901,  in  that  memorable  meeting  on 
the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  professor's  scientific  career,  the  scholars 
of  the  whole  world  came  to  pay  their  respects  in  recognition  and  ad- 
miration of  Berthelot. 

After  having  listened  to  several  of  the  two  hundred  addresses   ' 
coming  from  all  comers  of  the  civilized  world,  Berthelot  arose  and  in 
the  midst  of  the  general  emotion,  in  a  clear  and  distinct  voice,  made 
a  memorable  speech,  of  which  I  shall  try  here  to  recall  the  beginning: 

I  am  profonndly  touched  and  completely  overcome  by  the  honors  that  jw 
bestow  npoD  me  at  thla  moment.  Tbeae  honors,  I  know,  are  not  dne  atone  to 
your  peraanal  regard  for  me;  I  shoald  attribute  them  also  to  my  age,  to  dv 
long  labors,  and  to  such  services  as  I  have  been  able  to  render  to  our  connOr 
and  our  fellow-men. 

To  my  age  first  of  all.  Yonr  eympathy  mahee  It  shine  like  the  last  burst  of 
tight  from  a  lamp  on  the  point  of  being  extlugutahed  In  eternal  night !  Tbe 
respect  that  humanity  pays  to  the  aged  Is  the  expression  of  the  binding  fom 
that  unites  the  present  generations  with  those  that  bare  preceded  os,  and  with 
those  that  are  to  follow. 

What  we  are  is  due  but  In  small  measure  to  our  own  labor  and  to  our  pe^ 
Bonal  Individuality,  for  we  owe  It  almost  entirely  to  our  ancestors — anceston 
by  blood  and  ancestors  of  our  character.  If  any  of  us  add  anything  to  the  com- 
mon good  In  the  realm  of  science,  of  art,  or  of  morality.  It  Is  because  a  long  llw 
of  generations  has  lived,  tolled,  thought,  and  suffered  before  ns.  It  is  the 
patimt  efforts  of  our  predecessors  that  has  created  thie  sclaice  that  you  honor 
to^ay. 

Bach  one  of  us,  whatever  has  been  his  Individual  Initiative,  should  likewise 
attribute  a  considerable  part  of  his  success  to  contemporary  scholars  competing 
with  him  in  the  great  common  task. 

In  fact,  for  the  brilliant  discoveries  of  the  past  century,  for  these  discoveries, 
let  us  proclaim  it  boldly,  no  one  person  has  at  all  the  right  to  claim  exctasire 
merit.  Scl^ce  is  essentially  a  collective  work,  pursued  during  the  course  of 
time  by  the  efforts  of  a  multitude  of  workers  of  every  age  and  of  every  nation, 
sncceedlng  themselves  and  associating  by  virtne  of  a  tacit  understanding  tor 
the  search  for  pure  truth  and  for  the  applications  of  that  truth  to  the  contlnoons 
betterment  of  the  condition  of  all  manMnd. 


.y  Google 


,  Google 


,  Google 


UNN^AK  MEMORIAL  ADDRESS.* 


By  EtoWAU  L.  Gbkuib. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

The  personality  of  Linmeus  and  his  luminous  career  as  a  scientific 
man  make  a  topic  much  too  large  to  be  presented  even  in  mere  out- 
line within  the  limits  of  an  hour.  If  this  were  an  assemblage  of 
botanists  exclusively,  still  would  the  time  be  too  short  for  the  worthy 
consideration,  not  only  of  Linneus  as  a  botanist  in  general,  but  of 
his  services  to  any  one  only  of  the  several  departments  of  the  science 
which  it  is  his  glory  greatly  to  have  advanced.  But  then,  a  botanist, 
a  very  great  botanist,  he'  was  also  much  more  than  that.  I  have  a 
fancy — it  may  be  more  and  deeper  than  a  fancy — that  a  great  man  in 
whatsoever  profession,  a  man  of  power  in  any  branch  of  science,  ia 
greater  than  the  science  to  which  he  devotes  himself;  that  he  him- 
self personally  is  of  more  moment,  and  ought  to  be  of  deeper  interest 
than  bis  science ;  yes,  than  all  the  sciences  that  are  or  ever  shall  be. 

If  we  could  in  thought  divest  Linnteus  of  his  systematic  botany 
and  zoology,  we  should  still  find  ourselves  in  the  presence  of  a  man 
of  the  highest  educational  accomplishments  and  general  culture, 
clear-headed  and  original  as  a  thinker,  a  philosopher,  religionist, 
ethnologist,  evolutionist,  traveler,  geographer,  and  a  most  able  and 
polished  man  of  letters.  These  are  many  different  aspects  of  a  great 
character,  the  presentation  of  which,  one  by  one  in  a  discoiirse,  might 
interestedly  engage  the  attention  of  others  besides  nature  students. 

Confronted  by  so  very  much  that  may  be  said,  and  which  it  mi^t 
seem  ought  to  be  said  on  this  day  dedicated  to  Linnaeus,  and, 
checked  by  the  consideration  that  only  a  few  selections  from  out  the 
whole  mass  may  at  this  hour  be  taken,  where  shall  one  begin? 
Whither  shall  one  proceed}     What  thrilling  passages  in  a  career 

■Delivered  at  a  Joint  meeting  of  the  Washington  Academy  of  Sciences,  the 
Biological  Sodetr  of  Washington,  and  the  Botanical  Society  of  Washington,  held 
at  Hnbbard  Memorial  Hall,  aa  the  occasion  of  the  two  hundredth  anniversary 
uf  the  btrtta  of  Carl  von  Unn£  (Carolns  Llnmens),  May  23,  1907.  Reprinted 
by  pemtlsslou,  from  the  Proceedings  of  tbe  Washington  Academy  of  Sciences, 
Jnly,  1907. 


.yGO®gl< 


686  ANNUAL  BEPOHT  SMITHSONUN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

SO  almost  marvelous  shall  be  left  unnoted  for  want  of  time,  and  of 
what  few  of  them  shall  the  rehearsal  be  attempted?  Or,  reducing 
these  questions  down  to  two:  Shall  the  Tnan  be  presented  with  cita- 
tion of  his  struggles  with  adverse  circumstance,  and  of  the  almost 
incredible  patience,  industry,  zeal,  and  resolution  with  which  he 
conquered  and  rose  to  high  renown!  Or  shall  one  consider  rather 
the  work  of  the  great  master  of  botanical  theory  and  taxonomic 
abstraction  ?  There  will  not  now  be  time  for  both ;  not  even  though 
attempted  in  mere  outline.  My  own  inclinations  favor  choice  of  the 
latter,  especially  for  to-day;  yet  circumstances  indicate  that  such  a 
choice  would  here  be  also  inopportune.  Our  Washington  botanists 
at  this  season  of  the  year  are  mostly  far  afield,  in  the  service  of  t^e 
Government.  Only  a  fair  delegation  of  my  colleagues  in  this  science 
is  here  present;  and  this  enlightened  audience  as  a  body  I  am  per- 
suaded would  much  rather  hear  something  more  about  the  tnan 
of  whom  all  the  world  of  education  and  of  culture  has  heard  more 
or  less.  Even  on  my  own  part  I  have  already  expressed  the  view 
that  the  man  should  first  be  known,  that  we  may  the  better  compre- 
hend his  deeds. 

UNEAOE  AND  CHILDHOOD  OF  UMN-SITS. 

When  Linnieus,  on  the  23d  of  May,  two  hundred  years  ago,  was 
bom,  I  think  it  had  long  been  predetermined  that  he  should  be  a 
botanist,  and  one  of  high  distinction.  When  I  say  predetermined,  I 
do  not  use  the  word  in  any  sense  of  theological  predestination  or  of 
astrological  forecast  I  have  but  the  recognized  principles  of  natural 
heredity  in  mind.  And,  unless  I  err,  there  was  more  inherited  by 
LinnEeus  than  his  biographers  seem  to  have  guessed.  They  all  repeat 
it  that  the  father,  the  Rev.  Kils  Linnaeus,  a  Swedish  country  clergy- 
man, was  fond  of  plants,  and  had  a  choice  garden  wherein  he  took 
his  daily  pastime,  and  that  in  this  garden  his  first-bom  child  devel- 
oped those  predilections  which  at  length  became  the  despair  of  the 
father,  yet  led  the  son  eventually  far  up  the  heights  of  fame.  AH 
this  is  authentic,  and  well  told  by  the  several  biographers ;  but  there 
is  more  in  that  history  which  to  me  seems  well  worth  telling,  and 
will  give  light  upon  the  derivation  of  Linneeus's  genius  as  a  botanist 
and  upon  his  accomplishments  as  a  man  of  learning  and  of  letters. 
Let  us  go  back  to  the  second  generation  of  his  ancestry  and  glance 
at  men,  women,  and  social  conditions. 

The  grandfather  of  Linnteus,  on  his  father's  dde,  was  a  Swedish 
peasant,  by  name  Ingemar  Bengtson.  His  wife  had  two  brothers 
who  became  university  graduates,  were  afterwards  clergymen  of  some 
distinction,  and  men  of  reputation  in  the  world  of  learning.  These 
granduncles  of  our  Linuseus  interest  us  because  of  their  having  &g- 


■■iGoot^lc 


UNN^AN  ADDBEBS — QBEEKE.  687 

ured  somewhat  conspicuously  as  stars  of  destiny  in  relation  to  him 
long  before  his  birth.  They  even  had  somewhat  to  do  with  the  origi- 
nating of  the  family  name  Linnnus.  But  for  their  influence  in  this 
direction  it  is  probable  that  their  grandnephew,  then  unborn,  if  he 
had  distinguished  himself  as  he  did,  would  have  been  known  in  his- 
tory and  to  fame  not  as  Carolus  Linneeus,  but  as  Karl  Nilsson.  That 
both  these  granduncles  of  Linnaeus  were  Greek  scholars  seems  attested 
bj'  the  fact  th^t,  in  assuming  a  new  family  name,  after  the  medifeval 
usage  of  those  who  arose  from  the  humble  estate  of  peasantry  to  the 
aristocracy  of  learning,  they  choose  the  Greek  name  Tiliander.  They 
were  Karl  and  Sven  Tiliander.  In  their  boyhood  they  had  been 
known  simply  as  Karl  and  Sven  Svenson,  and  if  they  had  remained 
uneducated,  and  in  the  same  lowly  and  simple  e«itate  in  which  they 
were  bom,  they  would  have  been  toiown  by  those  names  to  the  end  of 
their  lives.  Karl  Tiliander  rose  to  wealth  and  station,  adopted  a  coat 
of  arms,  in  a  word,  was  an  aristocrat,  but  died  childless.  His  grand- 
nephew,  however,  bom  ten  years  after  his  death,  was  named  in  his 
honor.  In  fact,  Karl  Tiliander  and  Karl  Linnaeus  are,  in  meaning, 
the  same  name  precisely.  Now  the  other  great  uncle,  Sven  Tiliander, 
was  a  minister,  had  a  family  of  minister's  sons  to  educate,  and  was 
generous  enough  to  receive  as  one  of  his  own  sons  his  sister's  son  Nils, 
to  be  educated  with  them.  This  peasant  boy,  Nils  Ingemarsson,  re- 
member, is  the  predestined  father  of  our  Linneeus.  But  this  boy's 
school  scene,  lying  away  back  almost  upon  the  edge  of- mediaeval  times, 
and  afar  in  the  north  of  Europe,  well  toward  the  country  oi  the  mid- 
night sun,  is  a  pleasant  scene,  before  which  we  must  pause  a  moment. 
It  is  in  midst  of  a  time  when  great  people  may  lead  simple  lives,  and 
when  a  family  group  of  boys,  destined  if  possible  to  the  intellectual 
life — and  at  least  to  one  of  the  learned  professions,  are  not  at  lirst 
to  be  sent  away  from  home.  They  live  under  the  parental  roof,  and 
their  Latin  tutor  lives,  there  with  them.  That  is  the  language  in 
which,  later  at  college  and  at  university,  lectures  on  all  subjects  will 
be  given ;  it  will  be  the  language  in  which  most  of  the  books  there 
used  are  printed,  the  language  of  recitation  and  of  student  debate. 

So  these  small  boys  at  home  begin  Latin.  They  also  so  begin  it 
as  if  they  were  to  become  interested  in  it,  and  really  to  learn  the  lan- 
guage, and  not  to  end  with  a  mere  smattering  of  it.  They  are  to 
speak  it,  as  well  as  read  and  write  it  Therefore  it  becomes  at  once, 
in  as  far  as  possible,  the  medium  of  spoken  intercourse  between  tutco* 
and  pupils,  the  father  of  the  family  himself  incidentally  aiding  the 
tutor  by  addressing  the  youngsters  at  mealtime  or  recreation  in 
Latin,  and  requiring  them  to  answer  in  that,  and  not  in  the  mother 
tongue.  It  was  a  serious  business ;  the  entrance  to  college,  the  ma- 
triculation at  any  university,  the  rising  to  any  learned  profession 
even,  are  dependent  upon  the  boys  having  made  good  progress  in  the 


688  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1907. 

acquisition  of  this,  at  that  time  the  universal  language  of  the  edu- 
cated. The  Swede  or  Finlander  even,  if  a  college  man,  mi^t  visit 
every  country  of  Europe,  and  converse  with  the  men  of  the  coll^ies 
and  universities  everywhere,  without  learning  one  of  the  modem 
languages.  Liniueus  even,  two  generations  this  side  of  the  epoch 
of  his  great  uncles,  the  Tilianders,  did  this.  Now,  among  this  aristo- 
cratic caste  of  the  learned,  in  medieval  timee  and  later,  it  was  almost 
the  universal  custom  with  men  of  lowly  origin  to  drop  the  ancestral 
family  name  and  assume  a  Latin  one.  It  was  a  fashion  of  the  time; 
and,  as  I  have  said,  the  time  lasted  through  many  centuries.  When 
Latin  was  the  language  of  a  certain  social  caste  and  the  language  of 
almost  all  authorship,  the  canons  of  good  taste  seemed  to  require 
that  the  author  of  a  book  in  Latin  should  put  his  name  in  Latin 
on  the  titte-page,  and  not  in  some  barbaric  Teutonian  or  Russian 
or  Scandinavian  or  English  form,  to  which,  as  to  a  plebeian  in- 
'  heritance,  he  might  chance  to  have  been  bom.  Such  is  the  origin 
of  the  general  circumstance,  familiar  to  all  botanists,  that  nearly 
all  the  thousands  of  volumes  of  botanical  literature  that  antedate  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  are  by  authors  whose  names  are 
plainly  Latin  names.  The  same  is  true  of  the  earlier  literature  of  all 
our  sciences.  It  was  all  in  Latin,  and  Uie  authors'  names  are  lAtin 
names. 

The  greatest  name  in  astronomy,  but  for  the  man's  Latin ization  of 
it  on  the  title-page  of  his  immortal  book,  would  have  come  down  to 
posterity  as  Kupemik.  But  all  astronomers  and  all  other  people 
besides  should  be  grateful  that,  the  book  being  in  Latin,  he  wrote 
himself  not  Kupemik  but  Copemicu&  The  most  illustrious  of  old- 
time  Chinese  sages  was  and  is  known  to  his  countrymen  as  Kung-fu- 
tsee;  but  the  Latin  scholars  who,  some  centuries  ago,  first  brought 
him  to  the  notice  of  the  western  world  wisely  and  tastefully  Latinized 
Kung-fu-tsee  to  Confucius.  A  single  generation  earlier  tiian  Lin- 
neeus  there  flourished  in  Germany  one  of  the  greatest  botanical 
celebrities  which  that  country  has  produced.  His  splendid  folios  are 
now  so  rare  that  only  the  choicest  botanical  libraries  of  to-day  are 
able  to  catalogue  a  set  of  them,  and  they  were  very  helpful  to  the 
young  Linnteus.  This  famous  German,  as  a  boy,  and  before  his  col- 
lege days  rejoiced  in  the  plain  everyday  Teutonian  name  of  August 
Bachman.  Afterwards,  as  professor  of  botany  at  Leipzig  and  the 
author  of  immortal  books  of  botany  in  Latin,  he  assumed  the  most 
perfect  counterfeit  of  an  ancient  classic  Latin  personal  name  which 
I  can  recall.  This  August  Bachman  is  known  in  history  and  to  fame 
as  Augustus  Quirinus  Sivinus.  The  name  Kivinus  was  arrived  at  in 
the  simplest  kind  of  a  way,  for  it  is  nothing  but  Bachman — the  man 
who  dwells  by  a  rivulet  or  brook-^toindated  into  Latin.  Now  just 
as  Rivinus — in  German  Bachman — ^recalls  a  stream  bank  where  the 


LINNSAN  ADDRESS GREENE.  689 

Bachman  family  lived,  so  those  forebears  of  Limueus  who,  on  rising 
to  the  rank  of  gentry,  tod£  the  Greco-Latin  name  Tiliander,  chose 
that  improved  appellation  in  allusion  to  an  object  in  the  landscape 
neartheir  home.  That  object  was  a  remarkably  large  and  ancient 
linden  tree,  a  tree  of  special  note  all  over  that  part  of  the  country. 
Tiliander,  Lind-tree-man,  or,  more  in  brief,  Linnman.  In  Swedish  it 
would  be  Lindman.  So  these  two  learned  brothers,  who  became  the 
head  of  the  Swedish  family  of  the  Tilianders,  chose  a  botanical  name, 
incidentally  presaging  the  botanical  halo  that  was  to  glorify  a  future 
scion  of  their  stock  under  the  same  name  somewhat  altered.  Now  if 
the  name  Tiliander  was  prophetic  incidentally,  it  had  not  been  chosen 
accidentally. 

The  Rev.  Sven  Tiliander,  uncle  and  foster  fattier  of  the  father 
of  LinnKus,  was  a  devoted  lover  of  trees  and  plants.  It  was  that 
passion  for  botany  which  determined  his  taking  the  new  and  classic- 
sounding  family  name  from  the  great  linden  tree.  At  the  time  of  his 
taking  his  nephew  Nils  Ingemarsson  into  his  family  to  make  of  him 
if  possible  a  scholar  and  a  Lutheran  priest,  he  had  extensive  orchards 
and  gardens  to  the  care  and  improvement  of  which  he  was  enthusi- 
astically devoted.  This  enthusiasm  for  such  things  became  con- 
tagious in  the  case  of  his  nephew  Nils,  insomuch  that  the  boy  found 
delight  in  going  with  his  uncle  and  helping  him  in  orchard  and 
garden.  Twenty  years  or  so  afterwards,  when  this  nephew,  now  a 
learned  graduate  and  assistant  minister  of  a  parish,  as  the  Rev.  Nils 
Linneeus — no  longer  Nils  Ingemarsson — he  was  so  deeply  imbued 
with  the  love  of  the  beautiful  things  of  the  plant  world  that  he  began 
the  establishment  of  orchard  and  gardens  on  the  parish  farm  when 
his  residence  was  established.  A  word  here  as  to  his  new  name 
Linnceus,  which  had  now  displaced  that  peasant's  name,  Ingemarsson, 
to  which  he  had  been  bom.  Reared  and  educated  along.with  his  first 
cousins,  the  Tiliander  boys,  it  may  be  assumed  the  whole  family  may 
have  thought  it  better  that,  as  scholar  and  gentleman,  he  should  take 
some  other  name  than  Tiliander.  At  all  events,  and  quite  as  if  in 
grateful  love  of  his  uncle  and  cousins,  he  took  a  name  precisely  the 
equivalent  of  theirs — the  name  of  Linnieus.  It  is  not  quite  as  elegant 
in  its  construction  as  Tiliander,  but  its  meaning  is  just  the  same. 
It  is  another  way  of  turning  Lindman  into  Latin.  And  so  Nils 
Ingemarsson,  by  changing  his  name  to  Linmeus,  paid  hi^  compli- 
ment to  that  uncle  and  benefactor,  Sven  Tiliander,  to  whom  he 
owed  so  very  much,  commemorated  again  that  ornament  of  the 
northern  landscape,  the  great  linden  tree,  and  supplied  to  all  scientific 
posterity  the  illustrious  and  immortal  name  Linnaeus.  In  view  of 
this,  that  the  most  signal  and  lasting  service  that  the  greatest  Lin- 
neus  rendered  botany  was  the  reform  he  wrought  in  the  Latin 
nomenclature  of  plants,  the  derivation  of  his  own  name,  ite-botai^it^ 


690  AKNHAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  1007. 

origin  and  character,  can  not  fail  to  be  of  interest  to  all  who,  on  this 
his  two  hundredth  Datal  day,  unit«  in  celebrating  his  imperishable 
fame. 

The  Rev.  Kils  IJimseus  was  no  sooner  married  and  setUed  in  the 
charge  of  a  parish  than  he  began  the  creation  of  an  orchard  and  gar- 
den, following  the  inspiration  he  had  received  in  boyhood  while  under 
the  benign  influence  of  his  uncle,  the  Kev.  Sven  Tiliander.  When 
Nils  Linnseus's  garden  had  been  four  or  five  years  established,  the 
proprietor  began  ta  lead  within  its  precincts  his  first-bom  child,  a 
small  white-haired  boy,  active  and  intelligent  beyond  the  average  for 
his  years.  Flowers,  beyond  all  things  else,  were  this  small  child's 
delight  Even  at  the 'age  of  four  years  he  knew  the  names  of  all  the 
familiar  kinds.  On  a  May-day  picnic  excursion  that  the  pastor  gave 
the  children  of  the  parish,  to  a  wild  and  beautiful  spot  some  few 
miles  away,  this  botenical  nomenclator,  that  he  was  to  be,  nearly 
monopolized  the  pastor's  time  with  questions  of  plant  names.  Many 
kinds,  to  him  until  now  unknown,  and  therefore  nameless,  he  must 
have  names  for.  Some  of  them  were  forgotten  within  an  hour,  and 
were  brought  again.  The  father's  patience  gave  way  a  little,  and  the 
threat  was  made  that  unless  Master  Karl  Linnseus  was  more  careful 
to  remember  them  he  would  get  no  more  plant  names  at  all.  If  the 
Rev.  Nik  Linnsus  had  thought  it  time  to  begin  to  check  his  child^s 
extraordinary  zeal  for  plant  knowledge,  this  was  the  wrong  way  to  go 
about  it.  That  threat,  though  a  mild  one,  would  be  sure  to  have  the 
opposite  effect.  If  the  infant  had  inherited  the  father's  temperament, 
the  matter  would  have  been  unimportant.  I  may  rather  say  that,  if 
the  child  Linnseus  had  been  of  the  father's  temperament,  this  restless 
activity  and  burning  zeal,  whether  for  plants  or  for  anything  else 
tmder  the  sun,  would  not  have  been  there,  and  that  small  white-haired 
Scandinavian  child's  birthday  would  not  have  been  celebrated  on  two 
or  three  continents  after  two  hundred  years. 

If  a  paradox  like  this  may  be  ventured,  one  may  say  that  the 
fatherhood  of  a  great  man  must,  in  many  an  instence,  be  credited  to 
the  mother.  The  man  of  power  and  influence  may  have  for  his  male 
parent  one  of  quiet,  retiring  manner,  unaggressive,  unambitious,  and 
even  slow,  if  the  mother  be  very  decidedly  of  the  opposite  temperament, 
active,  energetic,  ambitious,  ardent,  and  also  young,  strong,  and  in  per- 
fect health.  Just  these  conditions  prevailed  at  the  nativity  of  Lin- 
nieus.  The  strong  character  in  that  household  was  the  mother,  Chris- 
tina Broderson  Linnseus.  It  is  safe  to  infer  from  her  antecedents 
that  she  was  a  woman  of  refinement  and  perhaps  unusual  mentelity. 
She  may  almost  be  said  to  have  had  none  hut  cultifred  men  among 
her  ancestry  for  three  generations  back.  We  have  already  seen  that 
her  husband  was  her  father's  successor  in  the  Stenbrobult  pastorate. 
Her  father  had  not  only  been  pastor  there  all  his  official  Uje;  he  had 


LINII.SAN   ADDKG&& — OBEBNE.  691 

been  bom  there,  as  the  son  of  the  pastor  whom  he  in  turn  succeeded ; 
BO  that  her  father  and  her  grandfather  had  been  pastors  of  that 
parish  all  their  lives — so  to  speak — while  the  priest  who  preceded 
her  paternal  grandfather  in  that  same  church  had  been  her  great- 
grandfather on  her  mother's  side.  Realizing  now  that,  when  in  the 
nineteenth  year  of  her  own  age  Christina  Linnseus's  first -bom  arrived 
at  the  parsonage  where  both  she  and  her  father  before  her  had  been 
born,  where  a  grandfather  of  hers  and  even  a  great-grandfather  had 
held  life-long  pastorates,  we  pardon  the  ambition  of  the  young 
mother  who  set  her  whole  heart  and  soul  upon  the  plan  of  having 
this  her  first-born  trained  and  fitted  to  inherit  that  pastorate  already 
historically  so  remarkable,  of  which  history  she  could  not  hut  be 
proud. 

SCHOOL,  COLLEOE,  AND  UNIVERSITT  TEAKS. 

The  mental  training  of  the  child  Linneeus  was,  of  course,  begun  at 
home.  At  7  years  of  age  he  was  well  enough  advanced  to  have  a  tutor. 
At  10  he  was  sent  away  to  a  Latin  school  and  theological  preparatory 
at  Wexio,  not  many  miles  from  home.  After  eight  years  there,  the 
progress  made  in  studies  looking  to  the  office  of  a  Lutheran  ecclesiastic 
seems  not  to  have  been  satisfactory;  and  now  the  Rev.  Nils  Linneus 
came  journeying  to  Wexio,  Tlie  instructors  whose  duty  it  had  been 
to  train  the  boy  in  Hebrew  and  biblical  learning  had  failed  to  interest 
him,  and  they  said  to  the  father  that  they  could  not,  on  their  con- 
wiences,  advise  him  to  continue  the  youth  at  school.  In  their  view  it 
would  be  better  at  once  to  apprentice  him  to  the  learning  of  some 
handicraft,  that  of  carpenter  or  tailor,  for  example.  Doubtless  this 
counsel  would  have  been  followed  biit  that  Pastor  Linnseus  had 
another  errand  at  Wexio  that  must  be  attended  to  before  the  disheart- 
ened return  to  Stenbrohult,  whether,  as  it  now  seemed,  he  would  have 
to  convey  his  son,  now  18  years  old,  as  withdrawn  from  college 
because  of  his  having  no  taste  for  learning ;  that  is,  theological. 

Pastor  Linnieus's  other  errand  was  that  of  placing  himself  under 
the  direction  of  an  eminent  physician  of  Wexio  as  to  an  ailment  of 
his.  The  physician  was  Doctor  Rothman,  who  was  also  a  lecturer  on 
medicine  at  the  college;  and  this  man,  as  it  happened,  both  knew  and 
was  much  interested  in  the  youthful  member  of  the  Linnseus  family. 
When  the  father  confidingly  mentioned  his  deep  grief  over  his  son's 
failure  at  school,  Doctor  Rothman  was  able  to  cheer  him  with  a  very 
different  account  of  his  boy's  proficiency.  He  was  so  confident  that 
out  of  this  bright  youth  a  great  physician  might  be  made  that  he 
proposed  to  receive  him.  with  the  father's  consent,  into  his  own  house 
for  a  year  and  give  him  s{>ecial  instruction,  free  of  all  charge;  and 
this  was  done. 


.y  Google 


693  ANKUAL  BEPOBT  BMITH80NIAN   INSTITUTION,  19(0. 

Now,  while  making  himself  the  despair  of  his  tutors  in  Hebrew  and 
theology,  what  had  the  young  Linnseus  been  accomplishing  all  these 
years?  The  idler  which  these  thou^t  him  he  had  not  been.  In 
mathematics  and  physics  he  was  quite  distinguished;  moreover,  his 
student  comrades  called  him  always  the  little  botanist,  thus  by  chance 
conveying  the  information  that,  as  a  youth  of  18  years,  LJnnaeus  was 
small  of  stature,  and  as  much  as  possible  given  to  botanizing.  He  has 
told  us  himself  that,  during  all  his  years  at  Wexiii,  the  red-letter  days 
were  those  of  his  occasional  walks  across  the  country  30  miles  to  the 
home  at  Stenbrohult,  which  gave  opportunity  to  study  the  wild  plants 
of  the  waysides.  He  had  also  acquired  certain  books  on  botany — 
Swedish  local  floras — in  the  study  of  which  he  had  busied  himself 
day  and  night  until  he  almost  knew  them  by  heart,  as  he  assures  us. 
The  titles  of  at  least  three  of  those  books,  and  especially  their  au- 
thors' names,  must  needs  be  given  on  a  Liniuean  bicentenary  that  is 
celebrated  in  America.  The  fitness  of  this  mention  you  shall  see. 
One  of  the  books  was  Budbeck^s  Hortus  Upsaliensis  (1658) ;  another 
was  Tillandsius's  Flora  Aboensis  (1673) ;  the  third  Bromelius's  Chloris 
Gothica  (1694).  It  was  to  the  grateful  memory  of  these  Scandi- 
navian botanists,  Rudbeckius,  Tillandsius,  and  Bromelius,  all  of  them 
dead  before  Linnaeeus  was  bom,  that  he,  in  the  days  of  his  own  fame, 
consecrated  those  fine  American  genera,  Rudbeckia,  TiUandsiay  and 
Bromelm.  These  men,  by  their  books,  had  been  his  teachers  of  botany 
while  he  dwelt  at  Wexio  between  the  eleventh  year  of  his  age  and  the 
nineteenth.  It  is  true  that  the  works  of  these  men  were  not  of  the 
nature  of  what  would  now  be  called  scientific  botany;  that  is,  the 
plants  discussed  were  not  arranged  according  to  any  notion  of  their 
affinities.  The  order  followed  was  either  that  of  the  alphabetic 
order  of  their  names,  as  in  a  common  dictionary,  or  else,  if  they  were 
grouped  at  all,  the  grouping  was  according  to  their  medicinal  prop- 
erties or  other  economic  uses.  All  these  books,  so  much  beloved  and 
revered  by  the  youthful  Linn^us,  had  been  published  before  Toume- 
fort,  who,  practically,  and  at  least  for  the  time  immediately  ante- 
cedent to  Linnseus,  was  the  father  of  natural  system  in  botany. 

It  was  as  an  inmate  of  Doctor  Rothman's  household,  and  while 
preparing  under  his  direction  to  enter  some  university  as  a  candidate 
for  the  doctorate  in  medicine,  that  a  new  day  dawned  upon  Linna^us's 
horizon  in  respect  to  his  botanical  recreations  and  pursuits.  The 
botanical  system  of  Toumefort  had  now  been  before  the  public  for 
some  thirty  years.  His  work  was  the  most  complete  and  signal  suc- 
cess that  ever  had  been,  and  I  may  almost  say,  that  ever  yet  has  been, 
in  the  field  of  botanical  authorship,  because  it  seems  to  have  capti- 
vated the  whole  botanical  world  without  arousing  a  jealous  enemy  or 
eliciting  a  line  of  adverse  criticism  for  twenty  years,  save  only  a  mild 
protest  from  the  gentle  John  Ray  in  England,  who,  clearly  superior  to 


UNN.XAN   ADDBESS — OBEENE.  Q9S 

Tournefort  as  a  botanist,  never  measured  half  the  latter's  success  as  an 
immediate  and  popular  influence.  Viewed  without  bias  or  prejudice, 
and  in  the  perspective  of  two  centuries,  Tournefort's  Institutes  be- 
comes the  most  conspicuous  landmark  in  the  whole  history  of  botany. 
By  no  other  one  author's  help  did  the  science  make  a  stride  in  advance 
equal  to  that  made  under  Tournefort's  influence  between  the  years 
16M  and  1730.  It  is  important  that  these  things  be  taken  note  of  here. 
On  the  day  when  Limueus  was  bom  two  hundred  years  ago,  Tourne- 
fort's dazzling  star  was  high  on  the  botanical  horizon.  It  was  at  its 
meridian  when,  at  18  years  of  age,  Liunffius  fell  under  the  benign  in- 
fluence of  Doctor  Rothman  at  Wezio:  This  man  made  no  pretensions 
to  botany,  beyond  what  any  Brat-class  practicing  physician  of  that 
period  had  to  know;  but  he  had  full  knowledge  of  the  great  fame  of 
the  Parisian,  Tournefort,  and  had  in  his  library  the  German  Profes- 
sor Valeotini's  <  abridgment  of  Tournefort's  Elements.  Doctor  Roth- 
man had  evidently  studied  Tournefort  and  been  fascinated  with  his 
system.  Linnnus,  the  youth,  away  in  the  distant  north,  the  pupil  of 
none  but  theologians,  had  not  so  much  as  heard  of  Tournefort.  Roth- 
man told  him  frankly  that  all  his  recreations  with  plants  were  little 
better  than  wasted  time  unless  he  should  begin  to  recognize  them  as 
interrelated  by  characters  of  their  flowers,  as  Tournefort  had  tau^t. 
From  the  day  when  Doctor  Rothman  placed  in  his  hands  Valen- 
tini's  key  to  the  twenty-two  Toumefortian  classes  of  plants,  the 
young  Linnaeus  bent  his  energies  in  botany  to  ascertaining  by  their 
organographic  marks  to  what  one  of  the  classes  of  Tournefort  each 
plant  that  he  found  belonged.  It  was  a  day  that  completely  and 
most  happily  revolutionized  this  brilliant  youth's  conception  of  the 
plant  world,  as  well  as  his  method  of  investigating  it.  It  was,  in 
fact,  the  day  when  Linnaeus,  according  to  his  own  testimony  about  it, 
tirst  began  to  be  a  botanist;  and  thenceforward  the  illustrious  Pari- 
sian had  never  a  more  zealous  disciple,  until  after  some  years  the 
nrdent  disciple  began,  and  in  some  respects  deservingly,  to  supersede 
the  master.  It  is  hardly  to  the  praise  of  Linnaeus  that  in  after  life, 
when  at  the  height  of  his  own  resplendent  fame  he  was  dedicating  a 
genus  of  plants  to  each  of  his  chief  benefactors  of  earlier  days,  he  for- 
got good  Doctor  Rothman.  This  man  had  been  the  first,  and  perhaps 
the  most  important  of  them  all,  even  from  the  view-point  of  botanical 
training.  It  was  certainly  he  who,  as  far  as  one  can  see,  saved  the  boy 
Linn^us  from  oblivion  when  his  own  father  had  resolved  to  appren- 
tice him  to  a  cabinetmaker  or  a  tailor.  It  was  he  who,  having  as- 
sumed, as  it  were,  sponsorship  for  Linnaeus  as  candidate  for  a  career 
in  science,  placed  in  his  hands  the  first  book  of  real  botany  that  the 

'Valentlni   (Michael  Bcmhard),  protesaor  In  Oleeaen.     Tonniefortlus  Con- 
tractuB,  Frankfurt  uin  Main.    1715,  folio,  pp.  48,  4  tab. 


..Google 


694  AMNDAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1801. 

youth  had  ever  seen,  and  taught  him  how  to  begin  to  be  a  botanist; 
introduced  him  to  the  illustrious  Toumefort,  vho  at  once  became  the 
lode  star  of  Linneeus's  own  genius  for  years  to  come.  Yet  to  the  end 
of  Linnteus's  days  there  was  no  genus  Sotkmania.  Professor  Thun- 
berg,  once  a  pupil  of  Linneeus  st  Upsala,  and  long  afterwards  a  suc- 
cessor of  his  in  the  chair  of  botany  there,  made  tardy  reparation  to 
the  neglected  memory  of  Doctor  Rothman  after  both  benefactor  and 
beneficiary  were  dead. 

After  one  year  under  Doctor  Rothman's  patronage  and  instruction, 
it  was  thought  advisable  that  Linnseus  should  enter  the  university  at 
Lbnd.  In  connection  with  the  transfer  from  Wexio  to  Lund  there 
was  an  iUustration  of  how,  in  the  extremities  of  their  need,  fortune 
favors  at  every  turn  the  men  of  genius  and  of  high  destiny.  It  was 
requisite  that  the  candidate  should  carry  a  formal  letter  of  transfer 
from  the  head  master  of  Wexio  Academy  to  the  rector  of  the  Uni- 
versity at  Lund.  The  head  of  the  Wexio  school,  a  professor  of 
divinity,  must  have  been  the  selfsame  who,  one  year  before,  had  coun- 
seled Nils  Linnseus  to  abandon  all  hope  of  Karl's  ever  becoming  a 
clergyman,  to  take  him  home,  and  apprentice  him  to  the  learning  of 
some  useful  handicraft.  To  this  man  young  Linnesus  had  to  make 
application  for  the  necessary  credentials.  As  a  matter  of  routine 
duty,  the  letter  was  indited  promptly,  and  handed  t«  the  applicant. 
It  was  brief,  and  rhetorical ;  and,  whether  by  chance,  or  of  deliberate 
purpose,  the  figure  of  speech  employed  was  botanical.  "  Boys  at 
school,"  he  writes,  "  may  be  likened  to  young  trees  in  orchard  nurs- 
eries, where  it  will  sometimes  happen  that  here  and  there  among  the 
sapling  trees  are  such  as  make  little  growth,  or  even  appear  like  wild 
seedlings,  giving  no  promise,  but  which,  when  afterwards  trans- 
planted to  the  orchard,  make  a  start,  branch  out  freely,  and  at  last 
yield  satisfactory  fruit." 

On  reaching  Lund,  Linnaeus  first  of  all  paid  his  respects  to  Prof. 
Gabriel  Hoek,  who  some  years  before  had  been  an  esteemed  tutor  of 
his  in  the  earlier  days  at  Wexio.  This  gentleman  was  so  much 
pleased  at  seeing  young  Linn^us  there  as  a  postulant  for  admission  to 
the  university  that  he  at  once,  and  in  complete  ignorance  of  that 
humiliating  letter,  proposed  to  himself  the  pleasure  of  introducing  in 
person  bis  former  pupil  to  the  Rector  Magniflcus  and  also  to  the  dean, 
and  asking  that  he  be  registered  as  his  own  former  pupil.  This  done, 
good  Prof.  Gabriel  Hoek,  like  a  veritable  angel  guardian  and  helper, 
nnd  knowing  the  indigence  of  Linneeus,  went  further  and  procured 
for  him  free  lodgings  under  the  hospitable  roof  of  one  Dr.  Kilian 
Stobseus. 

Doctor  Stobieus,  at  the  time  only  a  practicing  physician  to  the 
nobility  and  gentry  at  Lund  and  the  regions  round  about — though 
afterwards  one  of  the  head  professors  at  the  university — at  first  saw 


,Gooylc 


UNKiBAIf  ADDRESS — GBEBNE.  695 

in  young  Linneeus  nothing  but  an  indigent  student  with  the  profession 
of  medicine  in  view,  his  only  possessions  seeming  to  be  a  few  hooks  of 
medicina  But  the  student,  on  the  other  hand,  found  the  Stobseus 
domicile  a  wonderful  and  fascinating  place.  There  was  a  library, 
evidently  precious,  because  it  was  kept  locked.  There  were,  however, 
open  to  any  one's  inspection  a  nimiber  of  cabinets  of  natural  history, 
collections  of  minerals,  shells,  birds,  and — what  Linnseus,  though  he 
was  now  20  years  old,  had  never  before  seen — an  herbarium,  a  collec- 
tion of  pressed  and  dried  botanical  specimens.  On  this  suggestion 
Linneeus  at  once  began  making  an  herbarium  of  his  own,  its  contents 
being  the  plants  of  Lund  and  its  vicinity.  But  what  he  wished  for 
beyond  anything  else  was  access  to  the  library,  though  he  did  not  dare 
ask  for  the  privilege.  There  he  would  be  sure  to  find  the  works  of 
Tournefort,  original  and  unabridged,  and  even  older  and  rarer  stand- 
ards of  the  best  botany.  The  privilege  came  at  last,  and  in  a  re- 
markable manner,  by  a  chain  of  circumstances  that  demonstrates  the 
young  Linnseus's  irrepressible  zeal  and  most  unexampled  industry  in 
acquiring  knowledge  of  botany. 

Doctor  Stobeeus,  the  owner  of  the  first  museum  of  natural  history 
that  Linnseus  had  beheld  was,  by  Linnieus's  account  of  him,  not  only 
of  great  learning  and  of  surpassing  skill  in  the  healing  art,  but  ako 
himself  a  feeble  sickly  man,  having  but  one  eye,  being  also  crippled 
in  one  foot,  and  a  gloomy  hypochondriac,  A  student  or  two  in  his 
household  was  a  necessity.  Much  of  his  medical  practice  was  by  cor- 
respondence, and  on  some  of  the  professional  visits  the  student  must 
be  sent  At  the  time  of  Linnseus's  coming,  a  medical  student  from 
Germany  bad  long  been  Doctor  Stobeeus's  main  dependence  for  help; 
was  thoroughly  trusted,  and  his  right-hand  man.  This  older  student 
the  magnetic  young  LinrCseus  In  an  innocent  way,  and  half  uncon- 
sciously, appears  to  have  at  first  captivated  and  then  bribed  into 
helping  him  in  respect  to  that  which  he  now  most  desired. 

An  old  and  honored  inmate  of  the  doctor's  household  was  his 
mother.  She  was  a  nervous,  fretful  old  lady,  much  troubled  with 
sleeplessness.  A  window  of  young  Linnteus's  room  was  visible  from 
where  she  tried  to  sleep,  and  she  observed  that,  after  this  newcomer 
had  been  in  the  house  some  weeks,  a  light  seemed  to  be  left  burning 
in  his  room,  if  not  all  night,  at  least  until  well  toward  morning,  whra 
presumably  it  had  burnt  itself  out.  She  reported  the  case  to  her  son, 
and  insistently,  as  a  thing  that  ought  by  all  means  to  be  stopped. 
The  whole  house  was  in  danger  of  destruction  by  fire.  Doctor 
Stobeeus  had  knowledge  of  students  and  their  ways.  In  his  own  mind 
he  doubted  that  this  was  a  case  of  sleeping  with  the  candles  burning. 
He  entertained  a  suspicion  that  the  two  companion  youths  would  be 
found  there,  recreating  themselves  with  cards  in  the  small  hours  of 

Digilized  by  Google 


696  A.KNUAL   REPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INBTITUTIOM,  1907. 

the  nig:ht.  At  2  o'clock  next  morning,  the  room  of  young  Liniueus 
being  illmninftted,  the  doctor  quietly  made  his  w&y  to  the  door,  opened 
it  and  went  in.  The  young  man  vas  found  alone,  at  bis  study  table, 
which  was  covered  with  open  books.  A  step  nearer  the  table  disclosed 
the  interesting  and  not  readily  accountable  fact  that  all  were  books 
of  botany,  and  out  of  Slobeeus's  own  library  that  was  always  kept 
securely  locked.  To  the  question  how  he  obtained  those  books  from 
the  locked  library  LinuKUS  answered  in  brief,  and  very  frankly,  that 
the  other  student  had  desired  of  him  a  course  of  instruction  in 
pliysics;  that  he  had  begun  the  course,  and  was  continuing  it,  upon 
the  stipulated  condition  that  he,  who  had  free  access  to  the  library, 
should  ni^tly  bring  him  books  of  botany,  which  he  himself  would 
study  late  at  night,  so  that  they  might  be  returned  to  the  library 
Selves  in  the  early  morning  before  the  household  should  be  astir. 
Doctor  Stoba^us,  suppressing  the  pleasure  and  approbation  that  were 
mingled  with  his  amazement,  said,  "  Go  to  bed,  and  hereafter  sleep 
while  other  people  are  asleep."  The  next  morning  he  sent  for  lAn- 
nseus  to  come  to  his  study,  asked  him  to  rehearse  again  the  story  of 
how  he  obtained  those  books,  then  gave  him  a,  duplicate  key  to  the 
library,  together  with  permission  to  use  it  as  freely  as  if  it  were  his 
own.  Moreover,  as  he  had  hitherto  nothing  but  his  lodging  with 
Stobffius,  he  was  now  invited  to  take  his  meals  at  his  table ;  was  often 
sent  to  visit  patients,  and  in  every  way  treated  with  affectionate 
regard. 

When  nearing  the  end  of  his  year  at  Lund,  Linnsus  fell  danger- 
ously ill.  At  the  beginning  of  a  slow  convalescence  they  sent  him  to 
the  parental  home,  the  parsonage  at  Stenbrohult.  Here  his  admiring 
first  patron,  Doctor  Rothman,  of  Wexio,  visited  him.  He  was  now 
ambitious  that  his  former  pupil,  instead  of  returning  to  Lund,  should 
enter  the  great  university  at  Upsala,  where  men  of  renown  occupied 
professional  chairs,  Roberg  in  medicine  and  Rudbeck  the  younger  in 
botany.  The  parents,  in  view  of  the  quite  marvelous  successes  of 
their  boy  during  the  two  years  that  tiiey  had  left  him  without  finan- 
cial aid,  seem  to  h«ve  relented,  and  partly  forgiven  his  having  disap- 
pointed their  wishes  as  to  a  vocation,  and  he  was  given  some  money 
with  which  to  procure  conveyance  to  Upsala  and  make  the  beginnings 
of  a  career  at  that  celebrated  seat  of  learning;  this,  however,  with  the 
stem  assurance  that  this  was  all  they  would  be  able  to  do;  that  no  re- 
mittances from  home  would  be  forthcoming.  Before  the  first  year 
at  Upsala  was  completed  Linneeus  was  penniless  and  almost  bare- 
footed, being  obliged  to  line  his  shoes  with  birch  bark  and  pasteboard, 
and  his  clothing  was  worse  than  threadbare.  He  was  now  in  the 
twenty-third  year  of  his  age,  and  in  his  distress  he  still  consoled  him* 
self  with  studies  botanical.  In  the  midst  of  the  botanic  garden  at 
Upsala  he  sat,  one  autumn  day,  drawing  up  descriptiops  of  some  raie 


LINN.aAN   ADDBES8 QBEENB.  697 

plants  that  were  in  bloom.  An  ecclesiastic  of  distinguished  bearing, 
in  passing  through  the  garden,  paused  before  him,  asked  him  what 
he  was  describing,  if  he  knew  plants,  was  a  student  of  botany,  from 
what  part  of  the  country  he  had  come,  and  how  long  he  had  been 
at  the  university,  tested  his  knowledge  of  botany  by  asking  him  the 
names  of  all  the  plants  that  were  in  si^t.  This  ecclesiastic  was  no 
less  noted  a  personage  than  Olaus  Celraus,  a  man  then  some  60  years 
of  age,  eminent  as  a  theologian,  an  orientalist,  and  mora  than  an  ama- 
teur in  the  natural  sciences;  even  now  beginning  to  be  a  botanist;  for 
some  two  years  before  the  date  of  his  chance  meeting  with  the  student 
Linnieus,  he  had  been  assigned  by  a  council  of  Lutheran  clergymen  the 
task  of  writing  a  treatise  on  the  plants  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  His 
classic  Hierobotanon  was  the  result  of  his  attempt  to  fulfill  that'com- 
mission;  and,  by  the  way,  none  will  ever  know  how  largely  he  may 
have  been  indebt«d  to  the  young  student  Linnseus  in  the  preparation 
of  that  work.  The  examination  that  he  had  given  the  youth,  there 
in  the  botanic  garden,  had  filled  him  with  wondering  admiration. 
Celsius  saw  that  he  needed  him ;  saw  also  in  his  worn  clothing  and 
almost  bare  feet  the  evidence  of  a  worthy  student's  grinding  poverty. 
Within  a  few  days  Linneeus  was  comfortably  housed  with  Professor 
Celsius,  having  been  commanded  to  bring  with  him  that  herbarium 
of  600  Swedish  plants  which  he  said  had  accumulated  with  the  last 
three  years. 

Celsius  was  to  write  a  botany  of  Palestine  by  and  by,  and  was 
now  devoting  as  much  time  as  he  might  to  the  botany  that  was  at 
hand,  that  of  his  own  country;  and  he  had  augmented  his  great 
scholar's  library  by  the  acquisition  of  all  the  standard  and  many  rare 
books  of  botany.  Linnseus  was  again  in  the  enjoyment  of  great  good 
fortune.  Yet  all  this  was  not  for  long,  Celsius's  very  zeal  and 
benevolence  on  his  behalf  brought  the  young  man  into  trouble.  By 
his  great  infiuence  he  procured  for  Linneus  an  examination,  which 
was  followed  by  a  license  to  lecture  publicly  in  the  botanic  garden. 
The  candidate  had  not  been  three  years  in  residence,  and  Professor 
Roberg  expressed  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  precedent  was  a  dangerous 
one  to  have  established.  The  lectures  were  begun,  and  Linmeus  had 
a  throng  of  students  of  the  best  class,  among  them  sons  of  some  of  the 
university  professors,  and  he  was  now  able  to  clothe  himself  com- 
fortably. This  all  happened  at  a  time  when  a  promising  instructor, 
Nils  Ros^,  had  lately  gone  abroad  on  a  two  years'  leave  to  obtain  th? 
doctorate  in  medicine.  A  less  competent  young  man  had  been  dele- 
gated to  take  Rosen's  work  during  his  absence.  Linnseus,  by  his  supe- 
rior learning  and  personal  magnetism,  appears  quite  innocently  to 
have  drawn  away  his  students.  There  would  be  trouble  in  store  for 
Linnseus  whensoever  Ros£n  should  return.  It  is  a  sad  truth  that,  in 
science  as  elsewhere  in  this  poor,  foolish  world  the  mediwan  man  in 


698         aKnual  bepobt  Smithsonian  institution,  lan. 

higher  position  must  hate  and  if  possible  persecute  the  superior  man 
in  lower  station,  and  that  for  his  very  superiority,  if  for  nothing 
else.  Ros^D,  on  his  return  from  abroad,  with  the  doctor's  degree  won, 
besought  of  old  Professor  Rudbeck  permission  to  t«ach  botany  him- 
self, hoping  thereby  to  draw  from  docent  Linneeus  all  his  students. 
Rudbeck  declined  to  consider  such  a  proposition,  stating  frankly  that 
Doctor  Ros^n  was  hardly  very  well  prepared  to  instruct  in  botany. 
Rosen's  next  move  was  successful.  He  procured  the  passage  of  an 
official  regulation  to  the  effect  that  no  undergraduate  should  be  per- 
mitted to  lecture  publicly,  to  the  prejudice  of  a  regularly  appointed 
instructor.  Such  an  instructor  there  was,  in  the  person  of  the  young 
man  who  had  been  appointed  to  teach  in  Rosen's  place  while  he  was 
absent.  Thus  was  Linnteus  deprived  of  the  means  of  living  any 
longer  at  Upsala. 

JODBNEr    TO    UiFUiVD. 

Inasmuch  as  his  lecturing  in  the  botanic  garden  had  been  under 
Rudbeck's  jurisdiction,  and  the  latter  had  become  much  attached  to 
the  young  man,  he  had  taken  him  into  his  own  household.  Rudbeck 
himself  had  been  the  earliest  botanical  explorer  of  Lapland,  and, 
by  frequent  rehearsal  of  the  wonders  he  had  seen  in  that  wild  hyper- 
borean realm,  he  had  enkindled  in  the  young  Linnteus  a  keen  desire 
to  go  there.  The  Swedish  Government  had  long  thought  its  own 
territorial  possessions  there  to  be  worth  investigating  from  scientific 
and  economic  points  of  view. 

It  was  now  soon  arranged  t^t  Linnteus,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Upsala,  should  make  an  expedition  to  Lap- 
land for  purposes  of  scientific  exploration.  He  set  forth  from  Upsala 
on  the  I3th  of  May,  1732,  returning  late  in  autumn.  It  had  been  a 
journey  of  some  2,600  miles,  made  alone,  for  the  most  part,  and  almost 
everywhere  on  foot;  but  this  was  one  of  the  most  fruitful  seasons  of 
his  whole  life,  though  he  was  now  but  25  years  of  age.  His  Flora 
Lapponica,  together  with  the  narrative  of  the  journey,  are  among 
the  most  instructive  and  fascinating  reports  of  a  scientific  expedition 
ever  written.  In  the  day  when  they  were  new  they  were  unequaled 
in  the  literature  of  scientific  travel,  and  the  Flora  Lapponica  would 
have  secured  a  deathless  fame  to  any  botanist,  even  if  he  had  written 
nothing  else. 

JOURNSY  TO   OERSUNT   AND   HOLLAND. 

After  the  retom  from  Lapland,  the  next  two  years  were  passed 
in  teaching  publicly  and  privately,  at  one  place  and  anotiier  in 
Sweden,  mostly  at  Fahlun;  but  also  at  every  spare  hour  of  time 
working  industriously  at  the  manuscripts  of  several  books — the 
Flora  Lapp<xiica  and  others — which  he  was  alt  the  while  hoping 


hilS-SMATS   ADDBE68 — QBEENE.  699 

soon  to  be  able  to  give  to  the  public.  At  Fahlun  he  won  the  esteem 
and  friendship  of  the  Eev.  Johan  Browallius,  at  that  time  private 
chaplain  to  a  certain  nobleman,  subsequently  a  professor  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Abo,  and  Lutheran  bishop  of  that  diocese.  This  man 
urged  Linmeus  to  circumvent  his  powerful  antagonist  at  Upsala 
by  going  abroad,  and  taking  his  degree  in  medicine  at  some  foreign 
university.  Following  this  counsel,  Linmeus,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  year  1735,  sailed  for  Germany  and  the  Netherlands,  taking  with 
him  a  finished  medical  thesis  for  presentation  at  some  st^ool  of  medi- 
cine and  also  the  manuscripts  of  several  books  of  botany.  Before  the 
end  of  June  he  had  passed  the  examinations,  successfully  defended 
his  thesis,  and  obtained  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine;  this  at 
Hardewyk  in  Holland. 

The  primaty  object  of  his  trip  abroad  having  been  attained,  tJiere 
were  reasons  why  he  might  have  been  expected  to  take  advantage 
of  the  first  opportunity  that  should  present  itself  for  his  return  to 
Sweden.  Before  leaving  his  native  land  Linmeus  had  acquired  what 
is  said  to  be  easily  gained  by  even  a  poor  young  man  when  he 
happens  to  be  of  good  presence,  polite  accomplishments,  and  some 
personal  magnetism;  he  had  provided  himself  with  a  rich  and  elderly 
prospective  father-in-law.  Said  prospective  father-in-law  had  re- 
turned the  compliment  by  providing  Linnaeus  with  some  traveling 
funds  and  the  needful  university  fees.  Before  bidding  the  pros- 
pective son-in-law  farewell.  Doctor  Moneus,  as  if  endowed  with  some 
of  that  wisdom  that  men  say  comes  with  years,  and  as  if  doubting 
that  the  prospective  bride  would  surely  speed  the  young  man's  early 
return,  enjoined  it  upon  him  that  he  must  come  back  and  be^^  the 
practice  of  medicine,  whensoever  he  should  have  gained  the  doctorate. 

But  that  which  had  long  been  uppermost  in  Linnseus's  mind  had 
been,  not  medicine,  but  systematic  botany.  In  the  direction  of  the 
latter  all  his  ambition  led  him.  The  manuscripts  of  what  he  hoped 
would  be  immortal  books  of  botany — and  they  became  such — he  had 
brought  with  him.  No  one  in  Sweden  would  have  published  them. 
In  Germany,  in  Holland,  and  in  France  there  were  many  and 
splendid  botanical  establishments,  and  several  learned  botanical  pro- 
fessors of  world-wide  fame.  His  books  if  published  must  have  the 
approval  of  these  in  order  to  insure  for  them  success.  He  muat  see 
these  men,  ingratiate  himself  with  them  personally,  show  them  his 
manuscripts,  discuss  with  them  the  merits  of  his  system,  for  it  was 
new,  and  in  its  leading  characteristics  altogether  revolutionary. 
His  money  was  now  almost  all  gone,  but  what  of  that!  He  had 
often  been  in  such  straits  before,  but  some  provieicHi  had  always 
liitherto  been  made  for  him. 

Leyden  was  the  seat  of  what,  at  the  time,  was  the  most  celebrated 
university  in  Holland,  and,  for  botanical  gardens  and  botfuucal  eeiUb- 


700  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   ISSTTTUTION,  19OT. 

rities  who  had  taught  there,  was  hardly  second  to  Paris  itself  with 
its  tradititHis  of  Tournefort  and  his  successor,  Vaillant.  In  Prof. 
Paul  Hermann's  time,  little  more  than  a  generation  anterior  to  Lin- 
nsus,  the  Leyden  Garden  had  been  confessedly  the  finest  and  richest 
in  the  world.  After  Paul  Hermann,  Dr.  Hermann  Boerhaave  had 
presided  there.  He  had  retired  from  the  professorship  three  years 
before  Limueus's  arrival  in  Holland,  and  was  now  at  once  the  most 
famous  physician  in  Europe  and  without  a  rival  as  an  authority  upon 
systematic  botany.  He  was  living  in  age  and  retirement  not  far  from 
Leyden,  and  there  was  not  another  man  upon  the  face  of  the  earth 
whom  Linuffius  so  much  wished  to  see.  He  could  not  endure  the 
thought  of  returning  to  Sweden  without  having  visited  this  great 
Mecca  of  botanists,  Leyden.  Once  there,  he  found  friends  in  learned 
botanists  nearer  his  own  age,  who  had  not  yet  published  books,  and 
of  whom  he  had  not  heard,  among  these,  Adrian  van  Royen,  professor 
at  the  university  in  succession  to  the  illustrious  Boerhaave,  also  Doc- 
tor Gronovius,  a  well-versed  and  ardent  botanist.  Others  at  Leyden 
who  became  Linnseus's  cordial  and  helpful  friends  we  must  not  stop 
to  name.  Both  van  Soyen  and  Gronovius  became  enthusiastic  over 
the  young  man  and  his  manuscripts.  Gronovius  was  so  charmed  with 
his  Systema  Natune  that  he  proposed,  with  Linnteus's  permission, 
to  have  it  published  at  once,  and  the  printing  of  it  was  begun.  It 
came  out,  as  a  mere  outline  sketch  of  a  new  natural  history.  It  was 
a  folio  tract  of  but  fourteen  pages,  but  it  was  everywhere  received 
with  the  greatest  applause.  Meanwhile  Linnsus  had  used  ever>- 
endeavor  to  see  that  great  oracle  of  medicine  and  of  botany,  old  Boer- 
haave, but  in  vain.  Provided  with  a  letter  from  Gronovius,  he  had 
called  every  day  for  a  whole  week,  but  to  no  purpose.  Ambassadors 
and  princes  bad  found  him  accessible  with  some  difficulty.  Even 
Peter  the  Great,  of  Russia,  had  been  obliged  to  wait  two  hours  in  an 
anteroom,  to  take  his  turn  in  getting  a  conference  with  this  busiest 
and  most  imperious  old  prince  of  learning  and  master  of  the  healing 
art.  Linnfeus  now  bethought  himself  to  send  a  copy  of  the  new 
Svstema  Naturse.  A  letter  came  back,  naming  the  day  and  the  hour 
when  he  should  be  admitted  to  an  audience.  The  interview  was  pro- 
longed and  was  carried  into  Boerhaave's  own  private  botanic  garden, 
a  place  well  stocked  with  almost  all  plants  and  trees  that  had  been 
found  to  endure  the  climate  of  Leyden.  One  beautiful  tree  which 
Boerhaave  thought — was  even  very  certain — had  never  been  described, 
Linneus  gave  him  the  name  for ;  also  the  volume  and  page  of  one  of 
Vaillant's  folios  in  which  it  was  described  fully  and  clearly.  When 
they  returned  to  the  library  the  place  was  found,  and  the  truth  was 
admitted.  The  venerable  doctor  advised  the  young  Swede  to  settle 
in  Holland,  where  he  felt  certain  that  his  learning  and  talents  would 
insure  him  wealth  and  great  renown.    But  since  Limueus  could  not 


LINNiEAN   ADDEES8 — GBEENE.  701 

now  prolong  his  stay  at  Leyden,  Boerhaave  desired  him  to  take  a 
letter  from  himself  to  his  friend,  Professor  Burmann,  at  Amsterdam, 
the  port  whence  Linnseus  had  proposed  to  sail  for  Sweden.  He  found 
Burmann,  then  much  engaged  upon  his  Botany  of  Ceylon,'  so  over- 
whelmed with  work  of  several  kinds  that  courtesy  seemed  to  require 
that  he  should  make  the  call  short.  It  was  evident  that  nothing  but 
the  letter  from  that  great  scientific  potentate,  Boerhaave,  at  Leyden, 
had  procured  him  admission  to  Burmann's  presence'.  On  withdraw- 
ing, however,  he  was  invited  to  call  again.  At  the  second  call  he 
found  the  Amsterdam  professor  less  preoccupied.  They  went  into 
the  botanic  garden.  At  the  end  of  this  interview  Burmann  was  over- 
whelmed with  a  sense  of  the  unexampled  skill  of  this  young  Swede 
in  botany.  He  had  learned  so  much  of  him  in  that  one  hour  as  to 
see  that  he  must  secure,  if  possible,  his  help  in  the  finishing  of  his 
great  book  of  Ceylonese  botany.  Linnieus  was  invited  t«  take  up  his 
abode  with  Burmann  for  the  period  of  his  sojourn  in  Amsterdam, 
and  he  accepted  the  bidding.  He  had  been  there  about  two  months^ 
when  he  received  a  call  from  one  of  the  merchant  princes  of  Amster- 
dam, Greorge  Cliffort.  He  was  a  gentleman  of  culture  as  well  as  of 
great  wealth,  and  had  a  very  noble  garden  and  conservatories  abound- 
ing in  rare  plants  from  the  Indies  and  other  remote  places.  But  his 
errand  with  Linnseus  was  not  botanical.  He  was  something  of  an 
invalid,  and  melancholy.  His  regular  physician  was  Boerhaave,  at 
Leyden.  On  a  late  visit  to  him,  Boerhaave  had  advised  him  that  his 
ailments  were  chiefly  resultant  from  his  princely  ways  of  living;  that 
he  could  not  do  better  than  employ  the  services  of  a  brilliant  young 
Swedish  physician,  a  specialist  in  dietetics,  at  present  the  guest  of 
Professor  Burmann,  He  advised  him  to  take  Doctor  Linnteus  for 
body  physician  into  his  own  house,  and  place  himself  under  his  direc- 
tion as  to  diet.  This  was  Cliffort's  motive  in  calling  upon  Linnteus. 
The  outcome  of  it  was  an  agreement  between  them;  and  the  young 
physician  botanist  was  soon  quite  luxuriously  domiciled  with  CHflort, 
and  under  good  pay.  Charmed  with  the  Gliffortian  garden  and  con- 
servatories, and  seeing  there  many  a  plant  unknown  to  botanists, 
Linneeus  counseled  the  preparation  and  publication  of  an  illustrated 
folio,  that  might  fitly  be  entitled  the  Hortus  CHffortianus,  in  which 
the  rarities  and  novelties  growing  there  should  be  brought  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  world  botanical.  Of  course  the  proposition 
delighted  Cliffort  and  the  work  was  done.  That  most  luxurious  of 
all  Linnieus's  works,  the  Hortus  CHffortianus,  he  assures  us,  was  writ- 
ten in  nine  months.  It  was  published  in  Amsterdam  in  1737,  when 
Linnteus  was  30  years  old.  But  besides  this,  there  had  already  been 
published,  since  Linnaeus  had  come  to  Amsterdam,  the  Bibliotheca 


"  Tbeaaurus  ZeylantcuB,    4to.    1737. 


..Google 


70S  AifNTTAL  BEPOBT  BUITHSORIAH   tKBTITDTION,  1901. 

Botanica,  and  the  Fundamenta  Botanica,  m  the  year  1736,  and  Hiere 
now  followed  the  Flora  Lapponica,  the  Genera  Plantarum,  and  the 
Critica  Botanica,  all  in  the  year  1737,  aoaiB  of  them  issaed  at  Amster- 
dam, others  at  Leydui.  This  represents  the  most  wonderful  begin- 
ning at  botanical  authorship  of  which  there  is  any  record.  Ifere 
were  seven  learned  and  forceful  books,  two  in  folio  and  five  in  octavo, 
all  given  to  the  public  within  two  years,  almost  a  library  of  botany, 
and  that  a  new  botany,  and  so  easy  to  comprehend,  that  almost  any 
educated  person  could  now  acquire  proficiency  in  botany  by  these 
books  alone  as  a  guide.  The  system  was  a  new  one,  evidently  a  rival 
system  to  that  of  Toumefort,  which  had  now  been  dominant  for 
forty  years.  All  the  botanical  world  was  in  amazement,  and  the 
author,  having  now  been  three  years  abroad,  and  having  made  his 
personal  impression  upon  nearly  aU  the  botanists  of  London  and  of 
Paris,  as  well  as  upon  those  of  Germany  and  Holland,  went  home  to 
Sweden,  there  at  first  to  suffer  the  adverse  consequencee  of  &me  and 
afterwards  to  enjoy  its  benefits. 

PRACnCBS    UEDtCTME    n4    BTOCKBOIM. 

To  suffer,  I  say,  the  consequences  of  renown,  for  Linnnus  had  now 
to  realize  the  truthfulness  of  what  was  said  by  the  Great  Master  of 
long  ago,  namely,  that  "  a  prophet  is  not  without  honor,  save  in  his 
own  country  and  in  his  own  house."  At  the  University  of  Upsala 
now,  as  aforetime,  there  was  no  hope  of  preferment  for  Linnieus. 
His  books  did  not  as  yet  bring  him  income.  He  must  settle  down  to 
the  practice  of  medicine,  and  he  chose  Stockholm,  the  capital  and 
chief  city  of  the  Kingdom.  There  he  was  a  stranger.  There  was 
not  one  friend  to  recommend  him,  and,  as  he  himself  records  it,  no 
one  would  employ  him,  even  by  committing  a  sick  servant  to  his  care. 
His  system  of  botany  began  also  to  be  assailed  in  public  vigorously 
and  tellingly.  Just  across  that  arm  of  the  sea  that  separates 
Sweden  and  Russia,  at  St  Petersburg,  Professor  Siegesbeck  had  writ- 
ten and  distributed  a  book  in  which  the  Linniean  system  of  botany 
was  arraigned  severely,  and  with  so  much  point  that  many  people 
in  Sweden  thought  that  Limueus  had  been  philosophically  and  botan- 
ically  annihilated.  He  admits  that  he  almost  believed  that  himself; 
and,  as  now  the  tide  had  set  strongly  in  his  favor  as  a  medical  prac- 
titioner at  Stockholm,  he  had  resolved  to  abandon  forever  the  service 
of  Flora  and  devote  himself  wholly  to  that  of  .i^sculapius.  The 
latter,  said  Linnvus,  brings  all  good  things,  while  Flora  rewards  me 
only  with  Siegesbecks.  And  the  tide  of  Linnseus's  fortune  in  medi- 
cine rose  higher.  One  and  another  of  the  nobility  became  noipbered 
among  his  patients,  and  at  last  the  queen  herself;  and  now,  as  be  said 
in  a  letter  to  a  friend,  no  one  who  was  ill  could  get  >veU,  it  seemed, 
without  his  help. 

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LINN^AN   ADDRESS QBEENE.  703 

APPOINTED  PB0FEB80R  AT  UP8ALA.  * 

Court  influence  now  procured  him  the  comfortable  position  of  phy- 
sician to  the  admiralty.  After  that  the  death  of  Doctor  Roberg, 
professor  of  medicine  at  Upsala,  opened  the  way  to  Linnseus's  pro- 
motion to  a  professorship  at  that  university.  It  was  that  of  medicine, 
and  that  of  botany  was,  at  the  time,  held  by  Linnseus's  former  antag- 
onist, RosSn.  The  two  professors,  now  equal  in  official  rank,  be- 
came reconciled,  and,  with  the  full  consent  of  the  authorities,  ex- 
changed professorships.  Linnteus  was  now  again  a  botanist.  He 
was  still  a  young  man,  only  some  34  years  of  age,  and  had  lived  out 
not  quite  half  his  days.  The  after  years,  those  of  his  fruition,  did 
not  produce  as  much  of  importance  to  botany  as  the  earlier  period 
had  yielded.  There  came  out  in  1751  the  Philosophia  Botanica, 
partly  of  the  nature  of  a  recension  and  enlargement  of  two  of  his 
early  boohs,  the  Fundamenta  Botanica  and  the  Critica  Botanica.  It 
is  one  of  his  most  important  and  imperishable  books.  In  1753 
appeared  the  largest  and  most  comprehensive  of  his  works — the 
Species  Plantarum.  During  the  remaining  years  of  his  life  Linneeus 
was  largely  occupied  with  the  preparation  of  new  editions  of  almost 
all  his  works,  the  public  demand  for  which  was  very  great. 

INFLUBNCE  OF  LINKAUS  UPON  BOTANY. 

It  is  not  possible  to  convey  an  idea  of  what  Linnteus  accomplished 
for  the  advancement  of  botany  without  presenting,  in  brief  outline, 
a  view  of  what  had  been  done  before  him.  That  there  was  not  much 
botany  before  Linn^us  is  a  fable  that  gained  popular  credence  in 
rural  districts  a  half  century  ago.  One  of  the  earliest  books  which 
our  Linnteus  published  was  the  Bibliotheca  Botanica.  It  contains 
the  titles  of  1,000  volumes,  by  almost  as  many  different  botanists, 
most  of  which  books  he  thought  an  indispensable  part  of  a  working 
botanist's  equipment;  and  his  own  works,  on  almost  every  page, 
abound  in  citations  of  those  of  his  predecessors.  The  Grst  founda- 
tions of  scientific  botany  had  been  laid  by  Caesalpino,  an  Italian 
physician  and  university  professor  of  botany,  124  years  before  Lin- 
neeus was  bom.  He  selected  his  granite  blocks  of  principle  so  well, 
and  laid  them  so  securely,  that  the  superstructure  of  modem  system- 
atic botany  rests  upon  them.  Every  variation  of  botanical  system 
that  has  been  builded  in  the  last  324  years  has  rested  on  the  Csesal- 
pinian  foundation,  i.  e.,  that  in  the  fruit  and  seed  of  plants  we 
have  the  key  to  their  affinities.  Not  one  of  the  great  geniuses  botan- 
ical in  later  times  who  have  most  advanced  the  science  has  questioned 
the  validity  of  that  principle.  Not  one  has  yet  dared  to  predict  that 
the  Ciesalpinian  foundations  are  likely  ever  to  be  abandoned  as  in- 

'"""■  , ,., Google 


704  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

The  earlier  disciples  of  Cffisalpino  made  many  amendmeats  and 
signal  improvements  of  his  f^stem,  through  further  study  of  floral 
structure,  as  furnishing  yet  other  clews  to  plant  affinities.  The 
summing  up  of  these  many  improvements  was  made  by  Toumefort. 
whose  Elements  of  Botany,  published  in  1694,  111  years  after  Csesal- 
pino's  great  work,  and  13  years  before  the  birth  of  Linneus,  took 
the  whole  botanical  world  captive,  and  held  undisputed  sway,  until 
everywhere  but  in  France,  the  native  land  of  Toumefort,  they  were 
superseded  by  the  system  of  Linnaeus. 

To  the  botanists  present  who  are  unread  in  the  history  of  our 
science  nothing  will  be  more  surprising  than  the  information  that, 
with  the  great  Toumefort,  who  founded  upon  the  flower  the  most 
universally  approved  system  of  botany  which,  up  to  that  time  had 
been  presented,  the  flower  was  hardly  anything  more  than  what  we 
know  as  the  corolla.  Of  the  functions  of  stamens,  stigmas,  and  styles 
be  was  ignorant,  confessed  his  ignorance,  and  regarded  them  as 
wholly  insigniflcant  things,  hardly  to  he  seriously  taken  note  of. 
The  flower  and  the  corolla  were  with  him  almost  synonymous;  and 
yet  so  uncertain  was  he  in  his  identification  of  the  corolla  that  where, 
as  in  all  the  Aracese,  it  is  absent,  be  took  the  spatbe  for  the  corolla, 
while  in  such  apetalous  things  as  the  castor  bean  he  regarded  the 
bristly  colored  stigmas  as  the  corolla.  Such  extremely  crude 
ideas  of  floral  structure  were  those  of  Toumefort  to  the  end  of  his 
career;  and  he  died  when  the  infant  Linnieus  was  1^  years  old. 

Now  the  Linntean  doctrine  of  the  flower  and  that  of  Toumefort 
represent  opposite  extremes.  To  be  more  specific:  While  Toume- 
fort's  conception  of  the  flower  as  an  organism  is  about  as  crude  and 
imperfect  as  can  well  be  imagined,  that  of  Linneeus  is  almost  perfect. 
In  the  view  of  the  former  the  one  important  organ  is  the  corolla,  the 
stamens  and  stigmas  nothing,  or  next  to  nothing;  according  to  Lin- 
meus,  the  stamens  and  stigmas,  with  the  ovary,  are  the  only  essential 
organs  of  the  flower,  the  corolla  relatively  unimportant.  All  the 
world  botanical  now  understands  that  the  philosophy  of  floral  struc- 
ture upheld  and  most  effectively  promulgated  by  Linnteus  was  the 
right  one.  The  actual  discovery  and  demonstration  of  this  new  and 
revolutionary  anthology  are  not  attributable  to  Linnseus.  In  the  year 
that  the  small  boy  Linneeus  left  home  for  the  Latin  school  at  Wexio 
a  new  incumbent  was  installed  into  that  professorial  chair  at  Paris 
which  Toumefort  had  occupied.  The  new  professor  had  been  one  of 
the  pupils  of  that  celebrity.  His  name  was  Sebastian  Vaillant.  The 
subject  of  his  inaugural  address  was  The  Structure  of  Flowers.  In 
this  address,  soon  afterwards  printed,  Toumefort's  anthology  was 
completely  undermined,  and  what  was  offered  in  the  place  of  it  be- 
came the  accepted  anthology  of  the  remaining  80  years  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  of  the  whole  of  the  nineteenth,  and  is  thus  far  that  of 

.,Gooylc 


IJIIN£AN   ADDBB8S GREENE.  705 

the  twentieth.  In  other  phrase,  that  doctrine  of  the  organization 
and  the  functions  of  the  flower  which  Vaillant  set  forth  as  new  in 
the  year  1717  has  held  undisputed  sway,  without  significant  aug- 
mentation or  amendment,  for  now  190  years.  Every  botanist  will 
readily  perceive  that  this  is  a  very  rare  encomium.  Every  one  will 
realize  that  to  very  few  can  it  have  been  given  to  lay  down  the  funda- 
mentals of  plant  taxonomy.  Those  fundamentals,  as  we  have  al] 
been  taught,  and  as  our  forefathers  were  taught,  are  really  only  two, 
namely,  carpology  and  anthology.  Csesalpino  in  the  year  1583  estab- 
lished the  true  carpology ;  Vaillant  in  1717  the  true  anthology.  These 
were  the  two  great  things  to  be  done  before  there  could  be  a  true  and 
philosophic  system  of  botanical  classification.  Now  which  of  these 
two  names  is  greatest  in  scientific  botany  may  be  open  to  learned  dis- 
pute; but  so  long  as  the  accepted  foundations  of  botany  remain  in 
place,  successful  competitors  for  their  exalted  rank  there  can  be  none. 

Five  years  after  having  published  this  masterpiece  of  plant  or- 
ganography Vaillant  died.  His  death  occurred  on  his  fifty-third 
birthday.  He  also  died  unthanked  for  the  greatest  of  several  great 
things  that  he  had  done  for  botany.  All  the  world  botanical  still 
idolized  the  memory  of  the  great  and  popular  Toumefort,  and  it 
resented  that  virtual  overthrow  of  his  whole  system  which  this  re- 
markable former  student  of  his  had  accomplisdied.  Universally  and 
bitterly  they  charged  him  with  ingratitude.  And  so  that  inaugural 
address,  in  which  this  far  greater  man  than  Toumefort  had  given  to 
his  science  the  very  best  that  was  in  him,  became  an  offense  to  the 
blind  invidious  multitude.  When  they  should  have  praised  him,  they 
blamed  him;  and  he  lay  down  and  died. 

But  afar  in  the  north,  in  the  land  of  giants  mythical  and  giants 
real,  there  was  an  ungigantic  youth  of  great  mind  and  of  noble  soul, 
who  would  champion  most  successfully  the  cause  of  Sebastian 
Vaillant,  and  in  so  doing  create  a  new  system  of  botany  that  should 
supersede  that  of  Toumefort. 

It  was  in  the  year  1729,  when  Linnaeus  was  in  his  twenty-third  year, 
and  a  student  at  Upsala,  that  he  first  became  acquainted  with  Vail- 
lant's  great  tract,  learning  from  it  that  those  obscure  and  long 
neglected  stamens  and  pistils  were  sexual  organs  and  the  only  really 
important  parts  of  any  flower.  This  being  true,  it  was  plain  to  him, 
as  it  had  been  to  Vaillant,  that  Toumefort's  classes  of  plants  estab- 
lished upon  the  corolla  as  the  essential  organ  were  unphilosophically 
and  untenably  based,  and  must  fall.  From  that  day  Linnteus  deter- 
mined to  work  out  a  new  system  of  classes  and  orders  of  plants,  on 
the  basis  of  stamens  and  pistils  as  the  most  important  floral  organs. 
The  result  was  24  classes  of  plants  established  upon  characteristics 
of  the  stamens,  instead  of  the  22  classes  of  Toumefort  distinguished 

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706  ANNUAL  REPOBT  SHITHBONTAN  INSTITUTION,  IWl. 

by  differences  in  the  structure  of  the  corolla.  The  Linnsean  classes 
were  very  much  more  easily  learned  than  the  Toumefortian.  His 
Class  I  embraced  all  genera  of  plants  the  flowers  of  which  have  but  a 
single  stamen ;  Class  II  those  which  have  two  stamens,  and  so  on  up 
to  Class  X,  when  other  considerations,  still  in  part  numerical,  were 
seized  upon.  Any  mere  beginner  in  botany,  with  a  plant  in  flower 
before  him,  could  determine  its  class  without  even  opening  the  book. 
If  the  flower  exhibited  five  stamens  the  plant  was  sure  to  belong  to 
some  genus  of  Linnasus's  Class  V.  If  the  same  flower  showed  also 
two  pistils,  that  indicated  as  unmistakably  Order  2  of  Class  V.  Xo 
other  sys'tem  of  plant  classification  ever  invented  made  the  beginnings 
of  botany  so  easy;  no  other  ever  was  so  immensely  popular.  But 
what  is  much  more  to  the  credit  of  the  Linnsean  classes  and  orders 
than  the  popular  applause  with  which  they  once  were  hailed  is  the  fact 
that  the  determination  of  plants  under  them  necessitated  close  inspec- 
tion of  all,  even  the  minutest  and  obscurest  parts  of  every  flra^l 
structure,  trusting  that  in  these  minute,  obscure,  and  hitherto  neg- 
lected organs  there  would  be  found  some  of  the  very  best  indexes  of 
affinity.  This  line  of  investigation,  so  important  to  ^all  taxonomy, 
Linnseus  was  the  very  first  to  carry  into  practice  and  make  universal. 
It  will  be  difficult  to  bring  the  average  botanist  of  to-day  to  a  realiza- 
tion of  how  great  an  epoch  in  botany  Linnseus  created  when  he  began 
examining  the  stamens  of  every  plant,  with  the  purpose  of  ascertain- 
ing into  what  one  of  his  23  proposed  classes  of  flowering  plants  each 
generic  type  must  fall.  And  though  it  be  true  that  the  classes  and 
orders  of  Linnseus  fell  into  disuse  three-quarters  of  a  century  ago,  it  is 
true  to-day  that  every  botanist,  from  the  mere  beginner  in  taxonomy 
to  the  most  accomplished  master  of  it,  if  he  have  a  new  and  unknown 
plant  in  hand  for  determination,  makes  his  final  appeal  to  stamens 
and  pistils.  These,  by  peculiarities  of  structure,  will  tell  the  plant's 
relationship  in  many  an  instance,  both  promptly  and  decisively.  In 
this  procedure  every  botanist  who  lives  is  distinctly  a  disciple  of 
Linnteus;  for  he,  putting  Vaillant's  principles  into  taxonomic  prac- 
tice, first  inaugurated  the  method,  and  eventually  brought  to  pass  its 
universal  recognition  and  its  permanent  establishment. 

When  in  the  year  1735,  with  those  manuscripts  of  his  new  botanical 
system,  Linnseus  went  to  Germany  and  Holland,  he  had  now  for 
seven  years  been  scrutinizing  carefully  and  industriously  the  stamens 
of  everything  that  had  come  to  hand.  By  dint  of  those  seven  years  of 
industrious  investigation  of  these  organs  he  had  not  only  become 
very  expert  in  this  line,  but  he  was  the  only  man  in  the  world  who 
knew  anything  about  the  morphology  of  stamens.  He  was  now,  to  the 
oldest  and  most  experienced  systematists  of  Europe,  a  perfect  marvel 


.y  Google 


LINN£AN   ADDRESS QBEENE.  707 

on  account  of  the  readiness  with  which  he  could  solve  for  them  some 
of  their  most  perplexing  taxonomic  puzzles.  I  can  not  stop  to  cite 
more  than  a  single  instance.  In  one  of  the  larger  Dutch  herbaria 
there  was  a  rare  s[>ecimen  of  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  a  certain  ori- 
ental tree.  The  bark  of  this  kind  of  tree  had  been  known  in  Europe 
as  a  commercial  importation  for,  I  think,  some  2,000  years.  They 
called  it  cinnamon.  As  a  generic  type  the  tree  had  been  named  in 
Latin  Cinnamomum.  The  professor  gave  Linnteus  the  information 
that  these  were  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  cinnamon  tree;  but  what 
were  the  natural  affinities  of  the  tree  ?  Had  it  consanguinity  with  any 
other  known  tree?  To  what  was  it  related^  These  were  questions 
which  not  the  most  expert  botanists  could  answer.  The  fruit  of  the 
tree  was  not  yet  known,  and  therefore  could  not  be  appealed  to. 
The  flowers  were  small  and  insignificant.  Linnceus  took  one  of  those 
small  dried-up  flowers,  subjected  it  to  moisture,  so  that  he  could  get  a 
view  of  the  anthers  without  breaking  them,  then,  looking  at  these 
alone,  was  able  to  answer,  with  the  most  perfect  assurance,  that  this 
cinnamon  tree  is  a  very  near  relative  of  the  familiar  sweet  bay  of 
southern  Europe ;  a  species  of  the  genus  Laurua.  The  man's  frequent 
solving  of  enigmas  like  this,  in  the  presence  of  the  most  learned  and 
capable  botanists  of  the  world,  brought  it  to  pass  that  he  was  spoken 
of  everywhere  among  the  Germans  and  Flemish  as  the  little  oracle, 
for  when  he  gave  a  decision  about  the  affinity  of  any  imperfectly 
known  plant  he  was  admitted  to  be  correct.  It  was  as  if  an  oracle 
had  spoken.  These  brilliant  pronouncements  must  also  have  prepared 
the  way  for  that  great  success  which  his  publications  met  with  and 
that  ready  adoption  of  his  new  system  which  followed  almost  every- 
where, despite  its  character  as  radical  and  revolutionary. 

If,  then,  Linnieus,  at  the  time  when  he  began  publishing  the  funda- 
mentals of  his  new  Eastern  occupied  a  place  wholly  unique  among 
botanists  then  living  as  to  knowledge  and  understanding  of  floral 
structures  of  all  kinds,  so  that  the  oldest  and  ablest  among  them 
stood  in  speechless  admiration  of  his  superlative  attainments,  there 
was  forthwith  exerted  by  him  a  most  salutary  influence  upon  the 
important  art  of  plant  description.  The  revolution  which  he  at 
once  brought  about  in  the  art  of  generic  diagnosis  was  perhaps  the 
most  priceless  of  his  several  strong  contributions  to  phytography. 
In  his  Genera  Plantarum  of  the  year  1737  every  genus  is  so  well 
characterized  in  words  that  plates  and  figures  illustrating  them  are 
not  needed.  The  group  which  Linnteus  takes  for  a  genus  is  even 
more  clearly  defined  by  his  few  descriptive  sentences  than  is  a  genus 
of  Toumefort,  in  which  the  defects  of  its  description  are  eked  out 
by  a  fine  quarto  plate  representing  the  type.    And  the  reason  why 


.y  Google 


708  ANNUAL  BEPOBT  SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION,  1907. 

Linnieus  surpassed  immeasurably  every  author  who  had  preceded 
him  in  the  practice  of  generic  diagnosis  was  that  he  had  all  their 
understanding  and  appreciation  of  caljx,  corolla,  and  fruit,  and 
added  to  that  his  mastery  of  stamens,  stigmas,  and  styles,  the  very 
names  of  which  were  unknown  to  the  generations  that  had  preceded 
him,  and  hardly  yet  known  to  the  most  celebrated  of  his  contempo- 
raries. In  the  later  editions  of  the  Genera  Plantanim  no  improve- 
ment is  to  be  noted  in  his  diagnoses.  They  were  models  as  he  gave 
them  out  at  first,  at  least  as  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  Linnieus's 
acknowledged  greater  master,  Ctesalpino.  They  are  still  essentially 
the  models  of  generic  diagnosis  with  all  who  still  hold  the  Csesal- 
pinian  doctrine  that  flower  and  fruit  are  to  supply  the  only  recognized 
data  for  the  establishment  of  classes  and  genera  of  plants.  Even 
George  Beutham,  who  lived  more  than  a  century  after  the  time  of 
Liniueus,  and  was  the  supreme  master  of  generic  diagnosis  that  the 
nineteenth  century  knew,  was  strictly  a  Linntean  in  this  regard;  so 
that  here,  as  at  many  another  important  point  in  the  most  recent 
botany,  the  genius  of  the  great  Linnteus  rules  and  directs. 

Fellow-members  of  the  Botanical  Society  of  Washington,  if  this 
had  been  a  meeting  of  our  own,  and  not  that  of  two  other  learned 
societies  in  joint  session  with  us,  I  should  have  preferred,  as  I  said  at 
the  beginning,  to  discuss  some  one. of  Linnseus*s  greater  books,  taking 
it  as  a  text  from  which  to  set  forth  his  deeds,  his  many  benefactions 
to  our  science.  To  some  it  will  doubtless  appear  anomalous  that  here 
not  so  much  as  the  briefest  abstract  of  his  various  reforms  in  nomen- 
clature should  be  given ;  especially  since,  in  the  minds  of  so  many  bot- 
anists of  recent  decades,  those  reforms  are  thought  to  be  the  most  im- 
portant service  that  Linneus  rendered  to  botany.  Several  of  the 
most  commonly  received  opinions  about  him  as  nomenclator  are  abso- 
lutely groundless.  Several  principles  of  nomenclature  now  almost 
everjTvhere  approved  were  under  his  severest  reprehension.  Inas- 
much as  I  myself  was  the  prime  mover  in  the  direction  of  what  has 
now  come  to  be  well  known  abroad  as  the  Neo-American  school  of 
nomenclature,  I  may  be  permitted  to  say  that  during  more  than 
twenty  years  past  I  have  steadily  and  unwaveringly  been  of  the  opin- 
ion that  to  attempt  to  legislate  upon  nomenclature  is  but  futility,  if 
not  folly,  until  every  participant  in  every  nomenclatorial  condave 
shall  have  familiarized  himself  with  all  that  Linnseus  said,  and  said 
with,  such  commanding  authority,  upon  this  subject.  So,  then,  the 
discussion  of  LimiKus  as  nomenclator,  at  least  in  my  understanding 
and  appreciation  of  him,  could  not  alone  be  done  within  the  time 
allotted  us  to-ni^L    To  omit  it  altogether  was  imperative. 

The  same  limitations  have  precluded  my  calling  attrition  even 
briefly  to  Linnseus  as  evolutjonist,  as  ecologist,  as  medical  botanist,  or 


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.C 


IJNN.£AN   ADDBBSS — OBEENE.  709 

as  one  who  contributed  much  to  the  adTancement  of  what  is  now  com- 
monly spoken  of  as  applied  botany  in  general. 

Of  the  real  merits  of  Linnnus  they  know  little  who,  observing  that 
his  classes  and  orders  are  become  obsolete,  and  that  neither  his  idea 
of  a  genus  is  that  of  more  recent  botany,  nor  bis  conception  of  a  spe- 
ciee,  conclude  that  his  figure  must  by  and  by  grow  dim  on  the  horizon 
of  botanical  history.  I  say,  they  who  know  little  of  his  real  merits 
may  give  place  to  such  forebodings.  But  they  who  fully  realize  what 
he  accomplished  in  so  many  different  directions  to  the  great  and  last- 
ing advantage  of  our  science  will  be  rather  disposed  to  wish  that  an 
equal  of  Linneeus  might  soon  be  bom ;  and  might  think  it  well  that  - 
the  natal  day  of  the  matchless  Swede  should  be  held  sacred  not  only 
ODce  in  each  century,  but  a  hundred  times  in  every  hundred  years. 


.y  Google 


,  Google 


INDEX. 


Abbe,  C IS.  19 

(Progress  and  scloice) -      28T 

Abbot,  C.  O 6, 22, 87. 7e,  89 

Abbott.  W.  L 46 

Abel,  O.  (genealogical  history  of  marine  mammals) 473 

Aberdeen  University,  fonr  hnndredtb  snDlTersary  of 20 

Acknowledgement  of  resolutions xnn 

Acting  Secretary  Smithsonian  Institution si,  xiii.  xvi,  7 

Adams,  Bepresentatlve  Robert,  Jr.  (Regent)  Death  of xi.xu 

Adams,  W.  I _ -- 22.60 

Adier,  Cyrus X,  0,  22,  28,  60,  83,  86 

Advisory  committees: 

Art  matters 33 

Printing  and  publication 21,94 

SmlthBonlan  table  at  Naples  station 17 

Aerodromlc  reBearches 13 

AgaSBlz,    Louis _   28,464 

Agriculture,  Department  of 6 

Secretary  of  (Wilson),  Member  of  Bstabllsbment _.     ix,2 

Alt  of  the  New  York  Subway  (Soper) 647 

Air  pump  (Abbe) - 203 

Air  sacs  of  pigeons 16 

Air  temperatures  at  great  heights IB 

Alaslcan  expedition 10 

Alligator,  Florida,  breeding  habits  of  (Reese) 88 

Alphabet,  Canaanlte,  origin  of  (Prstorlns) r>95 

Alps,  geolc^y  of 11 

Aiunilntum    (Kershaw) 215 

Aniprlcan  antiquities,  preservation  of xxvi,23,D2 

Amerk-an  ARSoclatlon  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 6 

American    HlBtorlcal    Association 6,20,04 

American  minister  at  Chile 12 

American  Revolution,  Daughters  of 20,04 

American  School  of  Classical  Studies,  Athens 58 

Americanists,  Congress  of 28 

Andrews,  B.  A _ 18,87 

Andrews,  Edward  M 88 

Andrews,  Wallace  G.  (bequest) xiv,  xviii 

Angell,  James  B,  (Regait) x,  xiii,  2 

Appropriations  by  Congress xiv,  & 

Aramaic  papyri  from  Elephantine,  Egypt  (Sacban) 605 

Architect's  fee.  National  Museum _ xrx 

41780—08—40  711 


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ArgoD    (Abbe) 297 

Arizona  meteorites- 11 

Art  coliectlonB: 

Gifts iv,xvin,31,42 

Ijoana 31,42 

Assistant  Secretaries  of  SmltliBoniaD  iDstltutlon x,  6, 47, 69. 83. 86 

Astronomical  work  with  Inexpensive  apparatus  <Hale) 267 

Astropbysical  Obseriatoiy  of  Institution: 

Annals,  preparation  of  second  Tolume 77 

Apparatus 74 

Appropriations  for uv,  6 

Boobs 7fl 

Building,  etc 76 

Batlmate  for  approprlatloa 9 

Financial  staleineDt xxxt 

Observations  at  Mount  Wilson _,_ __  37,7«,78 

Olwervations  at  Wasblngton 77 

Personnel 6,76 

Publications  of--_ _ 77 

Report  of  Director 76 

Report  of  Secretary-- - 37 

Solar  radiation. _ 77 

Summarf  of  work 77 

Atmosphere lA 296,298 

Attorn ejr-Oenern]  (Bonaparte)  Member  of  Ebtabllshment ix.2 

Audit  of  accounts  semiannually xix 

Autochrome  process  (Smlllfe) 234 

Avery,  B.  S.  (bequest) xi» 


Bacon,  Senator  A.  O.  (B^ent)— x,  xi,  xii, xvn, xvin, 2 

Baelz,  a  (prehistoric  Japan) S23 

Balrd,  Spencer  F.  (second  Secretary  Smithsonian  loBtltutiou) 3 

Research  worlt xxv,4 

Organized  Fish  CommlssloD xxv 

Baker,  Frank.. _ „. 6,22,76 

Balfour.  Henry  (the  fire  piston) __ _ 565 

Balloons  In  atmospheric  researches  (Abbe) 301 

Barber.  Miss  C.  V 7« 

Barometer  (Abbe) 298 

BartBcb.  Paul 45 

Bassler,  Dr.  Eyiwido - __ 35,58 

BasHler.  B.  S. _ 45,46 

Bates,  J.  E--- - _ _    xxxi 

Bean,  B.  A 45.46 

Belgium,  Zoological  Gardens  of  (Lolsel). 40T 

Bell,  Alexander  Graham  (Regent) x,  xi,  xin,  xvn,  ui,  2,  IS 

Bell  ft  Co.,  claim  of - _-_ XTin 

Bequests  and  gifts  xm,  xiv.  xv,  xti.  xnn,  xxix.  8 

Berliner,  Emile _ 44 

Berthelot,  Marcelin  (Camilte  Matlgnon) 669 

Berry,  F.  V ...  09 


..Google 


Page, 

Birds,  air  sacs  of 16 

Blodgett,  Eleanor 31, 42 

Boas,  Franz Bl 

BoltoD,  Herbert  B tS2 

Bonaparte,  Cbarles  J.,  Attorney-General  (EBtabllahmeiit) ix,  2 

Bonaparte,  Cbarles,  Prince  of  Canlno  (GUI) 469 

BonoJa  Bey,  Dr.  F 35,08 

Bordeaux  Exposition 28,  *r 

Bororo  Indians  (Coob) - 89 

Botany,  paleozoic  (Scott) SIl 

Bragg,  W.  H.  (electric  radiations) __ _ 196 

Branner,  J.  C 11 

Brazil  (fossil  flsbes  of) 11 

Brockett.  Paul 82 

Bronze  In  Soutb  America,  etc.  (de  MortlUet) 261 

Butterfly  wlng-venatlon  (Headlee) ^ 88 

C. 

Cactus  Maxonil  from  Guatemala  (Rose) ' 89 

Cajal,  S.  R.  (Llppmann's  beliocbromes) 239 

Calcium  (Kersbaw). _ 218 

California  Academy  of  Sciences ^ 29,69 

Canaanlte  alphabet,  origin  of  (Prsetorlus). B96 

Canals,  rivers,  and  lakes  (Chlsbolm)  : 

American _ 360 

England  and  Wales 365 

European 34T 

Carborundum  (Kerebaw) 220 

Carnegie  Institute,  Pittsburg  (Inauguration  of)_ 20 

Carnegie  InetltutloD  of  Washington S 

Casa  Grande  ruins _ xxxvii,  9,  26,60, 53,80 

Casanowicz,   1 45 

Caudell.  A.  N- „ _ „ 46 

Cbanca,  Dr.  Diego  Alvarez 80 

Chancellor  Smithsonian  Institution  (M.  W.  Fuller),  Chief  Justice  United 

States _ IX,  XI,  sii,  svn,  2, 40 

Chanute,   0„ 40 

Cblef  Jnatice  United  States   (Fuller)    Chancellor  Smithsonian   Institu- 
tion  IS,  XI,  xn,  xvn,2, 40 

Chile,  enrtbquahe  at  Valparaiso 12 

Chlsholm,  George  G.  (Inland  waterways). 347 

Clvil-servlce  laws T 

Clark,  A.  Howard 22,28,94 

Clark,  Austin  H _ _ _ _. 46 

Clark,  Hubert  Lyman 18,88 

Clarke,  Frank  W 29 

Clayton,  J.  B— 51,63 

Clouds  (Abbe) __ - 306 

Cielostat  (Hale)  ___ 276 

Color  photography  (Smlllle) _ 231 

Color  Ttsion,  problems  of  (Dane) 618 


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Conunerce  and  I^bor,  SecieUry  tgtniu).  Member  of  EstablUiBieDt ix,2 

OooiDilttees: 

Art,  adrlaMT 8S 

EliecatlTe x,  ^m,  rr,  xix,  zxn 

Naples,  adTiacnr 17 

PemMnent mi,zxTO 

PrtntlDS.  adriacHT 21,  M 

Ctongreas,  I'alted  State*: 

Acta  and  remlotloDS  relatlTe  to  SmiOwcmlaD  Inatltntloa un 

Annual  report  tranamltted  to m 

Approprtattoaa  by zxit.B 

EattmatM  anbrnltted  to 9 

Prtnling,  binding,  and  lllnatratlMtB un.Lvi.Zl 

CongrtMca.  international ,_ 28,29,47 

CootriliDtlMis  to  Knowledge 18,  87 

Cool^,  W.  A_. — __         SB 

Cooperation  wltb  GoTemment  Departments 6^12,23.44.45,52,53,54,56 

Cooperation  with  sdeotiflc  sodetlea. 6,58 

Corcoran  tialler;  of  Art.. 32,42 

Correspondence  of  Smltbsonian  Institution 27 

Cortelfon,  George  B^  Secretary  of  tbe  Treasnrr  tEstabllsbmeDt) ix.2 

Cones.  Elliott xn 

CrayOsbes.  yonng  of  (EL  A.  Andrews) 18,87 

Cmstacea  (Stimpson) 90 

Cnllom,  Senator  S.  H.  (Begent) i, xi, xii, xvn, xmi, 2 

Cortis.  Heber  D 12 

CuTler,  Georges   (GUI) 4G8 

CyprinMs.  extra -Enropean   (Gill) 88 


Dall,  W.  H 29.46.88.88 

Dalzell.  Representative  Jobn  (Begent) x,xi,xu.ui,2 

Dane,  J.  SI.  (the  problems  of  color  tI^od) 61S 

Darwin,  Charles   (GUI) 467 

Danghlers  of  American  Hevolntion  (annnal  reports). 20.94 

Deaths: 

Adams.  Robert.  Jr.   (Regent) _ xi,xn 

Beckwith.  Paul 40 

Gatechet.  A.  8 38.65 

Hltt.  K.  R.  (Regent) xii,2,38 

Rhees.  W.  J _ 38 

Defalcation  of  Smithsonian  funds «vn 

De  Uorttllet,  A.  (bronze  In  South  America) __ 261 

De  Peyster.  John  Watts - —        82 

Diamantine  (Kershaw) —      221 

District  of  Columbia  supreme  court,  decree  In  re  National  Gnllery  of  Art.        42 

Dohm,  Dr.  Anion,  director  Naples  Zoological  station M 

Dolphins   (Abel) — - *TJ 

Dorsey.  H.  W.,  chief  clerk,  Smithsonian  Institntlon 7 

Dust  In  subways  (Soper) 682 

Dwyer.  J.  C - 76.77 

Dyar,  Harrison  G 2^46,46,88 


,Gooylc 


IHDEX.  715 

Bartti  (Inner),  geology  of  (Gregory) Sll,314 

Temperature  ot  (Gregory) 319 

Eartb's  atmoepbere,  mecbaalcs  of 16,298 

EbrtliquakeB,  catalogue  of 19,90 

,San  FraDcleco  and  Valparaiso 12 

Editor  of  SmItbBonlaQ  Institution,  annual  report 87 

Egyptian  civilization,  origin  of  (Navllle) 649 

Electric  trunli-llne  operation  (Sprague) 181 

Electric  radiations,  properties  and  natures  of  (Bragg) IBS 

Electric  wave  telegraphy  (Fleming) 163 

Electro-metallurgy,  progress  In  (Kersbaw) 215 

Blectrotypograpb  (Turpaln) 122 

Emmons,  S.  F 28 

EstablletiDient.  tbe  Smltlisonlaa ix,l 

Btlmology,  Bureau  of  Atoerlcan: 

American  antiquities xxvi.  C2 

ADDuat  allotment  for  printing. 21 

Appropriation  (or — Ltv,  9 

CollectioDS - M 

Editorial  work 68 

Estimate  (or  appropriation 9 

Financial  statement - - —  xzxm 

Oatscbet,  Dr.  A.  (deatb) _ :_ _ 6S 

Gl(ts.- - —        64 

Handbook  of  Indians — 54 

Illustration  a 64 

Library - -        54 

Linguistic  manuscripts 63 

PublicatloDB- 54,94 

Report  of  Chief. 48 

Report  of  Secretary 33 

Researcbee  .__ — - 48,  51 

Evans,  William  T - --- - -  82.42 

Evermano,  B 46 

Executive  committee: 

Annual  report - xiu,  xxix 

Audit  accounts  semiannually. _.      xix 

Membership - --    x,  xv 

Bxploratloas,  etc 10,45 

Expositions,  congresBea,  and  celebrations 27,28,29,47 


Fairbanks,  Charles  W.  (Vice-President  of  tbe  United  States),  Member  of 

the  EstabllBhment  and  Regent ix.  xi,  xii,  1, 2 

Parlow,  William  O —        28 

FerguBson,  S.  P 15 

Ferroalloys  (Kersbaw) 222 

Pewkes.  J.  Walter 28,45,50,52,53,54,80 

Financial  statements: 

Astropbysical   Oiiservatoty xxxv 

Casa  Grande,  ruins  of — - xxxvn 

Ethnology,  Bureau  of- - - xxxra 

Intematlonal  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Literature xxxvi 


716 

Flnaacial  statements — Coatloaed. 

iDtematlonal  excbanges 

National  Museum 

National  Zoological  Park 

Smithsonian  Institution 

Fire  piston  (Balfour).. 


Flscber.  Tlieobald   (Mediterranean  peoples) 472 

Fisheries.  Bureau  of 44 

Fishery  Congress,  International 29 

Fltzinger,   Leopold    (Gill) - - 469 

Fleming,  J.  A.  (electric- wave  telegraphy) 163 

Flexnert  Simon  (Immunity  In  tuberculosis) 627 

Flight  (Insect),  organs  of. _ _ 16 

Fowie,  P.  B 76,77 

Frachtenberg,  Leo  J_ 51 

Freer.  Charles  L xv,31.42 

Fuller.  Melville  W.  (Cblef  Justice  of  the  United  States),  Chancellor  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution u,  xi,xn,zvii.  2,40 

G. 

Garfield,  James  R..  Secretary  of  the  Interior  (Establishment) ix,xxvi,2 

GalBchet  Dr.  A.  (death  of) 39.65 

Geological  Congress,  International 28 

Geological  Society  of  London _  29,.S11 

Cieologlcal  Survey,  United  States xxvi,  45 

Geology  of  inoer  earth  (Oregory) 311 

Gidley.  J.  W— 46 

Gilbert,  C.  H„ 46 

Gill,  De  I^ncey -.        55 

Gill,  Dr.  Theodore. 28,29,88 

(Systematic  zoology;  Its  progress  and  purpose) 449 

GUI,  W.  H 54 

Gllmore.  C.  W 10,45,46 

Glaciers  of  Canadian  Rockies  and  Selklrks  (Sherzer)— 87 

Glover,  C.  C H 

Government  Departments,  cooperation  with 6,12,23,44,46,52,53,54.06 

Grants: 

Hodgklns  fund 13, 14, 15. 89 

Smithsonian  Institution 13,29 

Graves,  F.  A 77 

Gray,  (Jeorge  (Regent) _  x,  xi,xui,  2 

Great  Britain,  Zoological  Oardensof  (Lolsel) ^      407 

Green,  Bernard  R xix 

Greene,  Edward  Ij,  (LInntean  address) 685 

Gregory,  J.  W.  (Geology  of  the  Inner  earth). 311 

Gunneil,  L.  C 86 

Gurley,  Joseph  O 53 

Gwyer,  A.  G,  C 90 


Habel,  Simeon  (bequest) xxix.S 

Hackett,  F.  W xvui 

Hneckel,  Ernst  (Gill) 464 

'igue,  Arnold 29 


INDEX.  717 

P«ge. 
Habn,  W,  L 45 

Hale,  George  K.  (aatronomlcnl  work,  etc.) -      267 

Hamilton,  James  (bequest) .1 _„ ixii.S 

Handbook  of  IndlauB 61,  64 

Hnrrlman,  E.  H.  (Newell) 340 

Headlee,  Thomas  J ■. 88 

Helfochromes,   LtppmanD's    <Ca]a]) 239 

Henderson.  John  B.  (Regent) x,  xi,  siii,  xvit.  xviii,  ui.  2, 31, 42 

Henry.  Joseph  (first  Secretary,  Smitlisoalan  InstltutloD) 3 

Light-House  Board  work xxv 

Meteorological  work xxv,  290 

Research    work xxv. 4,290 

Hewett.  E.  L— - - 52 

Hewitt,  J.  N.  B 60 

Hitchcock,  Ethan  Allen 26 

Httt.  Representative  R.  R.  (Regent),  death  of xii.2,  39 

Hodge.   F.   W-. -_ - _ 22,61,64 

Hodgktns  fund : 

Bonds,  sale  of Tv.zvui 

Financial   statements xxii,8 

Grants  from 13,14.80 

Reports  on _      xm 

Holden.  B.  8 19,90 

Holmes.  Wllllaai  H 6.28.32.55 

HolothorlanB,  Apodous  (Clark) 88 

Hornblower  &  Marshall xix 

Hough,   Waiter „_  28,45,52 

Howard,  Representative  W.  M.  (Regent) '. x,xi,xin,2 

Brdliektt,  Ales 46,51 

Huxley,  Thomas  Henry  (GUI) 488 

Hymenoptera : 

Clasping  organs  (Walter) 80 

South  American   (Schrottky) 88 

Hymenopterous  Insects,  wings  of 16 

I. 

Ichthyosanms  qnadrlscissns  (Abel) 482 

Igneous  ores  (Gregory) __ _  311,323 

Indians,  American _ _  20,48,51,54 

Inland  waterways  (Chlsholm) 347 

InaectB,  wings  of _     .     16 

Interior.  Secretary  of  (Garfield),  Afember  of  Establishment ii,2 

Intematlonal  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Llteratare: 

Appropriation   for _ _.     lv,9 


Financial  statement _ xixvi 

Report  of  assistant  on _ __   .       84 

Report  of  Secretary _ _ .18 

Intematlonal  congresses. _ 28,29,47 

Intematlonal  eiccbanges: 

Acknowledgments _ __ 60 

Agencies. .  67 

AppropriattoDB  for ^^TT-„-_(xxiy,Liv,9,66 


718  INDEX. 

lutematlonal  exchanges — Cootlnued.  Pifc 

CorTespoDdents 62 

Depositories ., 62 

Bstlmate  for  approprlatloD 9,69 

FlnaDciiil  Btatement xzzn 

Publications   transmitted _.  68 

Report  o(  Assistant  Secretary 56 

Seport  of  Secretary 34 

Scope  of  work _ 56  ■ 

Staff,  cbanges  In 69 

Iron  and  steel  {Kershaw) 224 

Iron  ores,  futnre  suppi;  (Gregory) 321 


Jamestown  Expositfon lv,1,27 

Japao,  Prehistoric  (Baels) 628 

JohnstoD,  Harriet  Lane 81,42 

Jordan,  David  Starr 11,46 

Justice,  Department  of,  Attomey-Qeueral  (Booaparte),  Member  of  Estab- 
lishment  IX,  2 


Kershaw.  J,  B.  C.  (electro-metal  lunn') 216 

King,  Charles  A TO 

King.  C.  B - - 42 

Kites  In  atmospheric  researches  (Abbe) 302 

Kaab,  Frederick 88 

KnowltoD,  F,  H 8» 

Koch,  llobert  (Fleiner) J 028 

Kootanic  plimts  (Kuowltou) 8ft 

KSr6sy,  Joseph  vod _ 68 


I^cepMe    (Gill) - - 489 

I,aiDBrck,  Jean  Baptlste  (GiU) 467 

I^Dgley,  S.  P.  (third  Secretary  Smithsonian  Institution) 3 

Bolometer,  Invented  hy xxv 

Death  of _ _ _ xvii.7 

Election  of  successor xii,  xvii 

Girt  of  uieduis  and  physical  apparatus s't.xvui,44 

Gift  of  scientific  library 82 

Memorial    meeting 40,90 

Kesearch   work ssv,  4, 13,78 

Leary,  Ella M 

Lendenteld.  Dr.  R,  von 16 

Leveriitlhn,  Dr.  Paul __ 35,57 

Library  of  Congress mi 

Library  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution : 

Accessions 22,81 

Aeronautics,  blbllt^rapby  of 82 

De  Peyater  collection 23,82 

Employees'  library.- __ _ __ 82 


INDEX.  719 

Library  of  tbe  Smltbsoiilaa  Institution — Continued.  Pate. 

Gifts 82 

International  Catalogue  Scientific  Literature 82 

Ligbt-HouBe  Board,  gift  o(  books 82 

National  Museum  Library Ki 

Beport  of  Assistant  Secretary 82 

Report  of  Secretary 22 

Secretary  Langley's  sclentlQc  library 23,82 

Sectional    libraries — 23,81 

Llght-Honae  Board : 

Gift  of  books 82 

Secretary  Henry's  work , xxy 

Llnnfcau  memorial  address  (Greene) 68B 

Llnnieus  celebrations 28 

Llnnfe  Carl  von   (Gill) - 4B1 

T.ippmBDn's  Heliocbromes  (Cajal) 239 

Lodge,  Senator  Henry  Cabot   (Regent) z,  zi.  zn,  xtii,  2 

Lolsel,  Gustave  (zoological  gardens  of  Great  Britain,  Belgiam,  and  the 

Netherlands).- — — 407 

I^on,  M.  W.,  Jr.. 88,88 


McAdle.  Alexander  0 19,90 

Manatee    (Abel) 482 

Manly,  Charles  M IS 

Mann,  Representative  James  R,  (Regent) z,  zi,  zii,2 

Marine  mammals  (Abel) 473 

Harsh,  George  P 41 

Hason,  O.  T 45.82 

Ha  them  nt  tela  ns,  Eiourth  International  (Congress 29 

Matlgnon.  Camllle  (Berthelot) 669 

Matter,  propertlea  of 14 

Maion,  W.  R 46,46 

Maynard,  George  C 28 

Meams,  E.  A._ l _ 44,4(S 

Mediterranean  peoples   (Fischer) 497 

Meetings  of  Board  of  Reg«it8 sij,  2 

Merrill,  George  P 11,45,46 

Metcflit,  M.  M 17 

Metciilf,  Victor  H„  Secretary  of  the  Navy  (Establishment) ii,2 

Meteorologlciil  Tables  of  Smithsonian  Instltntlon 90 

Meteorology.  Illustrating  progress  of  science  (Abbe) 287 

Mexican  plants  (Rose) 89 

Meyer,  George  von  L..  Postmaster-General  (Establlshmeot) ix,  2 

Mllllgan.  Mrs.  J.  N 45 

Mining  geology   (Gregory) S28 

Miscellaneous  Collections,  Smithsonian -^  18,88 

Monetary  terms  of  United  States— archaic— (White) 89 

Mooney,  James _ 51 

Moran,  Edward .__ 32 

MorkilllH-Obltonia  (Rose;  Painter). 89 

Morris.  S.  H 04 

Mosquitoes  of  Genus  Megarhlnua  (Dyar;  Knab) 88 

L,,,_,  ikGoo^^lc 


720  XNDBZ. 

Pact. 

Hotint  Rainier  mammals  <L7oa) 8& 

Mount  Wilson  Observatory . 87,76,78 

MOller,  Bruno 16,88 

Mflller,  Johannes  (GUI) 464 

MuBsey,  Ellen  S m 


Naples  Zoological  station,  Smltbsonian  table 16 

National  Academy  of  Sciences 6 

National  Gallery  of  Art: 

Advisory  committee  suggested 33 

Blodgett,  Eleanor 31,42 

Corcoran  Qallery  of  Art,  courtesies  of 32 

Estimate  for 32,42 

Evans,  William  T _.. 32,42 

Freer,  Charles  L zv,31,42 

Gifts  and  loans . 31 

Henderson,  John  B.  (Regent) iviti.31,42 

History  of 41 

Holmes,  W.  H 32,48 

Johnston,  Harriet  Lane 31,42 

Moran,  Edward 32 

Rathbun,  Richard ___        32 

Report  of  Assistant  Secretary svii,41 

Report  of  Secretary 31 

Supreme  Court  decision 42 

Sntro,  Theodore .    32 

Temporary  quarters 42,47 

Tuckerman,  Lucius 31,42 

Natictnal  Museum ; 

Accessions 43 

Appropriations  for i.v,9 

Books  XUT 

Building  repairs i-_ xuv,  48 

O3llectlons 4S 

Estimates  for _ 0 

Explorations 4S 

Elzpositlons 47 

Etnanclal    statement zxxvn 

Furniture  and  flitures xxxm 

Heating  and  lighting xxxix 

Library _ 47,82 

Preservation  of  collections n. 

Printing  and  binding XLVI 

Postage — JXT 

Publications 47.98 

Rent  of  worliBbops ._ xlti 

Report  of  AsBlatant  Secretary 41 

Report  of  Secretary —  xvi,  80 

'  Researches 48 

Specimens,  eets  of. - 4T 

Transportation  of  exhibits jati 


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National  Maseum  (new  building) :  '       page. 

Appropriation  for _ xxiv.B 

Architect's  fee _  xiz,  zzin 

Emergency  euperlntendent  ot  conBtrncUon xxm 

Estimates  for 9 

ProgresB  on _  xvi,30,41 

Report  of  Acting  SecrelaiT ■ xvi 

Rqmrt  of  Becretar; 30 

National  Zoological  Park: 

Accessions  and  losses 72 

Animats  In 76 

Appropriations   for Lvi,  ft 


New  booses,  roads,  etc TO 

Report  of  Secretary _ 36 

Heport  of  superintendent _ 70 

NavUle,  Edouard  (origin  of  Egyptian  civilization).. — 549 

Navy,  Secretary  of  (Metcalf),  Member  of  Establishment ix,2 

Netherlands,  Zoological  Gardens  of  (Lolsel) 407 

Newcomb,  Simon _.  29 

Newell,  F.  H.  (Salton  Sea) 331 

New  York  subway,  air  of  (Soper) 647 

Nichols,  E.  L 14 

Nightingale,  Robert  C 54 

Nitrogen  and  oxygen  (Abbe) 297 

Norway,  Atlantic  animals,  etc.  (Stejneger) 88 

O. 

Gberbolzer,  H,  C 46 

Olney,  Richard   (Regent) i,xi,2 

Ores.  Igneous  (Gregory). 311,324 

Osbom,  Henry  Fairfield zii,  zm 

Otters    (Abel) 481 

Owen,  Richard   (Gill) 464 

Oxygen  and  nitrogen  (Abbe) 297 


Fainter.  Joseph  H 46,89 

Paleozoic   Botany    (Scott) __ 371 

Papyri  from  Egypt  (Sachau) __ 605 

Parsons,  Charles  A.  (steam  turbines) 98 

Paton,  Stewart 17 

Peale,  A.  C 45 

Pearson,  Dr.  Leonard    (Fleiner) 648 

PennsylvanlH,  ruiverslly  of 28 

Permanent  committee  of  Institution xm 

Photography,  color  (Sulllle) _ 231 

Pickering,  E.  C - -  _ 40 

Pigeons,  air  sacs  of  (Bruno  MUller) ._  89 


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Plkler.  JulluH 58 

PilBbry,  H.  A 46 

PluDiacber,  B.  H 72 

Pollard.  C.  L. 82 

PoBt-Offlce  Department,  Poetmaster-aeDernl  <Meyer).  Member  of  B«tab- 

liBbmeDt - ix,2 

Prwtorius,  Fnaz  (origin  of  Canaanlte  alphabet) 595 

President  of  the  United  States  (Theodore  Hooeevelt).  presiding  officer  of 

the    Institution tx.  1,  340 

Press  abstracts  of  publications. 5,94 

Printing,  development  of  mechanical  composition  (Turpaln) 118 

Printing  and  publication  (advisory  committee). 21,04 

Printing  act,  general - lti 

Prise  for  flsbery  essay 20 

Publlcatlcms B,  17,  ST,  »4 

Q. 
Quarterly  Issue,  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collectloas 18,88 


R. 

Radium   (Abbe) 208 

Ralph.  W.  L 82 

Rathbun.   Mary  J 19.46.00 

Rathbnn.  Richard i.  xi,  im.  xn,  6.  7.  29.  32,  47 

llaveiiel.  W.  de  C 28,30 

Ray,  John   (GUI) 449 

Reclamation  Service,  United  States xxvi.331 

Reese.  A.   M ___   ___ 1... 88 

Regents  of  tbe  Institution  : 

Appointment  of sii,  xin,  xmi,  2 

Destb  of xi,xn,2 

Executive  committee.  x,  iui.xt,  xix,xxix 

List  of 1X.2 

Meetings    zi,2 

Reld   (bequest) _ _ xir 

Reports  (annual): 

Acting  Secretary  of  the  InBtitutioa. _ _     xni 

American  Historical  Association., _-_ 20 

Astrophyslcal  Observatory T6 

Boitnl  of  Regents..- iii.TV,19,9I 

Daughters  of  American  Revolution 20,94 

Editor 87 

Ethnology.  Bureau  of  American 20,48 

Executive  committee xin 

International  Catalogue  of  Sclentlflc  Literature. ^.  38,84 

International  Exchanges S0 

Library 81 

National  Museum 41 

National  Zoological  Park 70 

Permanent  committee ..     xni 

Secretary  of  the  Institution : 1 


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Beports  (special) : 
Bequests — 

Andrews JtiT 

Avery   XIT 

Hodgklns  - 3tm 

Reld — XCT 

Spragoe siv 

Freer  collection _ — _.  xv 

Naples  Zoolc^cal  station  (Smithsonian  table) IS 

Besearcbes - - - xxv,46 

Reeolutloaa: 

Accounts  to  be  andlted  semiannually zix 

Aothority  for  Secretary  to  Indorse  checks xiz 

Bell  *  Co.'s  claim _ _  xviu 

Cooes  portrait  accepted xvi 

Deatbs— 

Adams,  Representative  (Regent) zi 

HItt,  Representative  (Regent) xn 

Emergency  superintendent  of  construction xxiv 

Hodghlns  (sale  of  bonds) _ _ - _  xv 

Income  and  expenditures xni 

I^ngley  medals  accepted ly 

Regent  Henderson's  gift  of  painting  accepted XTm 

Scbans  gift  of  I.epldoptera  accepted xvi 

To  pay  architect's  fee zxui 

Rbees,  William  J.  (death  of) SB 

Rbodesia   (southern),  "Webster"  ruin  In   (B.  M.  Andrews) 88 

Blchardson.  Harriet -..  46 

Richmond.  C.  W 82 

Hldgway.  R. 46 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  President  (presiding  officer  of  Inatltutlon) ix,  1.340 

Boot,  Bllhu,  Secretary  of  State  (Establishment) ix,2 

Rose,  J.  N— - 46.46,89 

Rotch,  A.  Lawrence 16 


Sachau.  Eduard  (three  Aramaic  papyri  from  Elephantine.  Egypt) 606 

Salton  Sea  (Newell) _  381 

San  Francisco  earthquake 12 

SchaUB,  WlUlam,  gift  of  Lepldoptera _ __ ^  zv,44 

ScWeWen,  Matthias  Jacob  (Gill) 468 

Schrottky,  C .,- 88 

Schwann,  Theodor    (Gill) 468 

Science,  progreax  of,  etc,  (Abbe) 287 

Scientific  societies,  cooperation  with 6,58 

Scott.  D.  H.  (Paleozoic  boUny) 871 

Seale,  Alvln _ 46 

Seels  and  sea-cows  (Abel) — - —  479 

Searles,  Stanley _ 54 

Secretaries  of  Smithsonian  Institution __ in, 

XII,  XT,' XVII.  XVIII.  XXV.  1,  3, 4, 7, 13, 28. 20, 40, 44. 78.  82, 290, 313 

Sberaer.  William  H _ 18,87 


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734  INDEX. 

p«et 

silicon  <Kersbaw)— t 228 

SmllHe,  T.  W.  <color  photograpby) 231 

Smith,  H.  M 2» 

Smith,  Theobald  (Pleiner) 632 

Smithsonian  InatltutEon  : 

Acting  Secretary. _ zi.ziii,  xri 

AdmlnlHtratlon  .. 6 

American  aotlgnltlcs 23 

Appropriations  and  eetlmatea xsiv,  ssin 

Assistant  Secretaries x,  6 

Bequests  xxix,^ 

Congressional  action  relative  to mi 

Cooperation  with  Oovemment  departments  and  scientific  societies 6, 68 

Correspondence   27 

Establisliment    --. ii,  1 

E^ipedltlons  suggested xxvt 

Explorations 10 

Expositions,  congresses,  and  celebrations 27 

Financial   statements xxix,  lii.S 

Gallery  of  Art 32 

General  conslderatlous 3 

Gifts - 23 

Grants 13,29 

Grounds  of 29 

Hodgklns  fund xiu,xv,xtiii,xxix,  8, 13, 14,89.97 

International  Catalogue  Scientific  Literature i.v,9,88,84 

Library    22 

Officers  of x 

Press  abstracts  of  publications 6.94 

Printing,  allotment  for 21 

Publications  _._ 17,87 

Regents  of ix,  2 

Researches  xxv,  10 

Reports  „ in,  iv,xiu,  1, 19,91 

Representatives  at  congresses,  etc 38 

Table  at  Naples  station. 16 

Snake  from  rbillpplne  Islands  (Stejneger) 89 

Solar  constant 77 

Soper,  George  A.  (air  of  New  York  subway) 647 

Sound,  absolute  measure  of 14 

Spectrohellograph    (Hale) _ 269.279 

Sprague   (bequest) xi» 

Sprague,  Frank  J,  (electric  trunk  line  operation) 131 

Squalodons    (Abel).. ^ 487 

Squirrels  from  Borneo  (Lyon) 88,89 

Stanley,  J.  M 42 

State,  Department  of,  Secretary  (Root)  Member  of  EetabllsbmeDt 11,2 

Statement  of  Acting  Secretary,  Executive  Committee xn 

Of   Secretary ^ —     xuv 

Stenm  turbines  on  land  and  sea  (Parsons)— 88 

Stejneger,  Leonhanl 22,29,45,46,39 

Stellar  spectroscopy  (Bale) - 28! 

Stevenson,  Mrs.  M.  C— - 49.M 

Stlmpson,  WUllam 19,90 


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