Skip to main content

Full text of "Annual report of the Regents"

See other formats 


eee 
olan em nem 
ae 


23 


a - . 
FCPS : ~ eee - - : ~ . 


Sect 


VERT SET 


: een en nt ee ey YY SO TTS reper era 


» Ate TOL ee 
om. rf) \ 


See 


—- a 


Bs 


6. S 
ae 
+ ace 


ed 
a 4 


Ses 


—- 


“a 


i 
Ste 
ie 


= . | OS FS 
NY N72 


NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 


48TH ANNUAL REPORT 


REGENTS 
1894 


Volume II 


TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE MARCH 1, 1895 


ALBANY 
UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 
1895 | 


COME NTs. 


PAGE 
es bs sce BSS GRR SR gn PP isk 1 
eee LEATINIMISSION. .. idee ce sess cen tmen sce denen ened ees 3 
EERE sn fol a a) is 5 oH ins Sy nol elgle Sis eras vavals DeWeese aids 5 
Me tcteemerstate Geologist ........cc.ccc.cccoscs cececceeceedevecnceues 7 
Geoheopoemer ihe State Geologist -...).6 0.6.50 50 wees cece else ed aeedecs 9 
6. Preliminary Description of the Faulted Region of Herkimer, Fulton, 
Montgomery and Saratoga counties; by N. H. DaRTON BO Jae aatatha ays 30 
7. Report on the Structural and Economic Geology of Seneca County; by 
D. F. LINCOLN, M. [ys 4g he, 9 Ce re 57 
8. The Principles of Palaeontology; by FELIX BERNARD ............ we hee 
9. Development and Mode of Growthjof Diplograptus; by R. RUEDEMANN, 
2), Doh SOS ae tia. ccd itgceaitere barric iat a gy b/s he eRe cr 217 
10. A Revision of the Sponges and Coslenterates of the Lower Helderberg 
Group of New York; by GmorGe H, GIRTY.. ..2. -..-..0-ceceeces 279 
11. New Species of Brachiopoda described in Paleontology of New York, 
Wotume VII, Parts and 2... .6..$s606. 05 Natata asic waves wicisncts Brae 323 
12. A Handbook of the Genera of North American Palaeozoic Bryozoa; by 


REE SEMEN coer 5 10M ehics sonia 'e aleve & PERS che wie bral dele -sncs vada dele Giese 403 


ie 
i 


te 5 Se 


STAFF OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


State Geologist and Palaecontologist, 


JAMES: HALL. 


Assistant State Geologist and Palacontologist, 


JoHnN M. CrarKeE. 


Draughtsman, Lithographer, 

GrorGE B. Simpson. Puiurp Ast. 
Confidential Clerk, General Assistant, 
Jacop Van Des too. Martin SHEEHY. 


Special Assistant in Economic Geology, 


D. Dana LUTHER 


Ree PO RF 


OF THE 


mers tTeE GEOLOGIST. 


er ad 
es sr he A eA ES, 3 = 6g 
ans “4! 


REP ORT: 


Room 32, Statm Hatt, 
Axpany, N. Y., March 5, 1895. 


To His Excellency Levi P. Morton, Governor of the State of 
New York: 3 


Sir.—I have the honor to submit the annual report of the 
State Geologist, embracing an account of the work done by him- 
self and assistants both in the field and office, including the 
- work upon the geologic map and the Palzontology of New York. 

In the absence of any appropriation from the Legislature very 
little work has been accomplished during the past year toward 
the completion of the geologic map. A small area in Oswego 
and Lewis counties has been surveyed and the results incorporated 
with the general geology upon the map of the State. 


OFFICE oF THE SraTE GEOLOGIST, | 


Preliminary Geologic Map of the State of New York. 


Through the generosity of Major Powell in the outset, and the 
continuation of the same disposition on the part of his successor, 
Mr. Walcott, present Director of the U.S. Geological Survey, 
copies of the geologic map will be distributed to all the 
colleges and normal schools and to schools of higher education in 
the State, without cost-to the State of New York. Although the 
map is incomplete in the representation of the geologic forma- 
tions in some portions of the State, it is yet sufficiently perfect to 
serve the purpose of a student’s map for general reference as to 
the limits and distributions of the geologic formations within its 
area. The map is designated asa ‘ Preliminary Geologic Map of 
the State of New York,” and it will require the labor of many: 
years in the field, before the word “Pprutiminary,” now standing 
at the head of the title, can with propriety be erased and the 
map appear as a completed geologic map of the State of New 
York. I would most earnestly recommend that some law be ‘ 

2 


10 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


passed authorizing the completion of this map and appropriating 
a small sum annually for defraying the field expenses of a com- 
petent assistant or assistants for determining the limits of certain 
formations which are now imperfectly delimited. Moreover, such 
a work may well be done as field exercises by a professor and his 
students during the college vacations, the whole being carried on 
under competent direction with a definite purpose for a final con- 
summation of the work. The description of the geologic forma- 
tions of the State as represented upon the map will form a part 
of a future report, and it is intended that separate copies of this 
description shall be sent to all the institutions and individuals 
who shall receive copies of the map. 

I would, moreover, earnestly recommend that in the continua- 
tion of the work upon the geologic map especial attention be 
given to the economic aspect of the science. For many years the 
Legislature has liberally supported the publication of the Palzeon- 
tology as a part of the Natural History publications of the State, 
according to the original plan of that work. There has been no 
organized plan for developing a knowledge of the mineral 
resources of the State, as might have been done through annual 
reports and local geologic maps of the counties, had there been 
some small appropriation for field work. Among intelligent 
people there is, at the present time, an urgent demand for practi- 
cal geologic work, and I believe it should be most seriously con-, 
sidered in connection with the completion of the geoloyic map. 

During the past twenty years: the State of Pennsylvania has 
expended an amount of more than $1,500,000 in her second geo- 
logic survey, which has been chiefly carried on with a view to 
economic results. The State Atlas contains colored geologic 
maps of every county in that State, each county map being 
accompanied by a special report given to the geology and eco- 
nomic resources. 3 

I have endeavored to introduze a similar plan in my work upon 
the geologic map of New York, and the report of last year 
contains a description of the geology and an account of the eco- 
nomic resources of Albany and Ulster counties. 

We have now on hand, waiting for publication, certain colored 

maps of portions of the State, especially the maps of Albany and 


ReEportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. at! 


Ulster counties, together with the Helderberg escarpment, which 
it is very desirable to publish for the full illustration of the geol- 
ogy and economic resources of these portions of State. 


Faulted Region of the Mohawk Valley. 


A paper* entitled “A Preliminary Description of the Faulted 
Region of Herkimer, Fulton, Montgomery, Saratoga and 
Adjacent Counties,” communicated by Mr. N. H. Darton with 
this report, will give information in detail of this region of 
country, which was originally described by Mr. Vanuxem in his 
report on the Ge logy of the Third District. The paper by Mr. 
Darton is the result of work done in the field during the season 
of 1893, as a part of the work: preparatory for the geologic map 
of the State. The results of this work, and of all his other 
field work up to i184, have already been transferred to the 
geologic map which is being prepared for publication by the 
U. 8. Geological survey in Washington. | 

This paper gives an account of the general relations of the 
faults, and describes in detail those at Little Falls, on the East 
Canada Creek, St. Johnsville, the Noses, Fonda, Tribes Hill, 
Broadalbin, Hoffman’s Ferry, Saratoga and Lake George. Some 
of these had been previously described by Vanuxem in his 
Report on the Third Geological District, but are here discussed 
at much greater length. This region of country was explored 
by the writer and Prof. W. J. McGee, of the U S. Geo- 
logical Survey, in the autumn of 1834, and the field notes of 
these investigations, combined with farther observations by Mr. 
C. E. Beecher and Mr. C. E. Hall, were incorporated iv the Report 
of the State Geologist for 1885 in a paper of three pages, accom- 
panied by a map of the Mohawk Valley. This paper is here 
inserted as a note tu show the state of our knowledge previous 
to the work of 1893.+ 

The region is a general monocline, with sediments of slightly 
varying dip, and the faults traversing this monocline, accom- 
panied by certain features of local disturbance, have considerably 
modified its regularity. As a rule these displacements do not 
make conspicuous features in the topography, but one of them, 
" «Being accompanied by a colored map which could not be published at that time, this paper was 


deferred till the present report. 
+ See note at end of this paper. 


LD REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


at Little Falls, gives rise to one of the most striking features 
in the scenery of the Mohawk Valley. 

Two faults of small throw and not great extent on the East 
Canada Creek, recorded by Vanuxem, are re-described. The 
writer finds, that of two previously described dislocations at St. 
Johnsville, one branches and curves in a remarkable manner. | 
The great uplift at the “ Noses,” just east of Canajoharie, gives 
rise to a great ridge of calciferous sandrock rising abruptly from 
the moderately elevated Uticaslate region on the east. The faults 
at Fonda and Tribes Hill bring up the limestones of the Trenton 
group, but appear to be neither very profound nor of great 
extent. The Broadalbin fault is not very clearly pronounced ; 
that at Hoffman’s Ferry is the easternmost in the region and 
brings up the Calciferous, Birdseye and Trenton limestones over a 
wide area, extending up the river as far as Amsterdam. 

The faults at Saratoga are of much interest, as it was long 
ago recognized that the mineral springs at this place issue along 
a line of dislocation which brings up the Calciferous sandrock to 
a moderate altitude above the plains to the eastward. One of 
these faults extends to the Lake George region. 

These descriptions recount all attendant phenomena and are 
illustrated with twelve figures, two plates and a map. 


Geology of Seneca County. 


In continuation of the plan of county surveys I communicate 
the accompanying report on the structural and economic geology 
of Seneca county by Dr. D. F. Lincoln. The subject is covered 
under three general divisions: 1. Surface Geology; 2. Strati- 
graphic Geology; 3. Economic Geology. Under the first head 
are given detailed accounts of the topography and also of super-_ 
ficial accumulations, their nature and distribution. Under the’ 
latter are notices of the general character of the plateau, hills, 
ravines; of the alluvial belt, drumlin belt, sand ridges, kame 
district, delta deposits, old channels, glacial deposits and striation, 
springs, etc. | : 

The stratigraphic geology considers each formation in succes- 
sion, from the Salina beds to the Portage group of rocks, 
the highest in the county. The local development and vari- 
ation of each is given with fulness and precision. Faunal char- 


Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. -13, 


acters are touched upon to some extent, no wide difference in 
these respects from adjoining regions being noted. The writer, 
however, describes a calcareous layer at the very base of the 
Portage shales, not elsewhere observed, but of especial interest 
from the fact that it contains species of the typical Portage 
fauna commingled with those of the Ithaca group. The dip of 
the rocks is considered at some length and shown to be quite 
variable from local or general disturbances. 

Under the head of economic geology are considered all the 
rock products of the county, their mode of exploitation, treat- 
ment and economic value. These are clay, brick, tile, limestone, 
sandstone, plaster, road metal, natural gas and water power. 

The paper is abundantly illustrated with photographic views, 
sections and maps. 


General Palaeontology. 


It has been considered desirable to incorporate in this report a 
translation of the work of Felix Bernard, the nature of which i 1s 
indicated by the following brief synopsis. 


THE PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 


By Ferrx Bernarp. 
[Extracted from Bernard’s Eléments de Paléontologie, Paris, 1895.] 


This lucid and full presentation of the principles and objects 
which inspire palaeontologic investigations of the present day 
has been translated by C. E. Brooks, and is incorporated in this 
report for the benefit of American students to whom Bernard’s 
entire work may not be accessible. No other writer has suc- 
ceeded in setting forth so clearly the actual condition of the 
science, its relations to other departments of knowledge and the 
inherent importance of the problems with which it is wholly 
concerned. The subject is treated in five chapters, each with its 
subordinate divisions, and the following statement of contents 
will convey an idea of the scope and importance of the work: 


Chapter 1. The Object of Palaeontology. Historical Sketch. 


Sec. 1. The Relations of Palaeontology to the other sciences. 

Definition; Palaeontology and Biology; Palaeontology and 
Geology. 

Sec. 2. History of Palaeontology. 


14. Report oF THE State GEoLoaist. 


Chapter 2 Palaeontology and the Doctrine of Evolution. 

Sec. 1. The Species; its Variations. 

Definition of Species; Natural Selection ; Passage Forms ; 
Transitions between Genera and between the Grand Divisions ; 
Saltation. 

Sec. 2. Causes of Variations. 

Insufficiency of the Theory of Selection ; Influence of the Me- 
dium ; American Neo-Lamarkism. . 

ahs, 3. Effects of External Causes. 

Adaptation ; Correlation; Rudimentary Organs; Parallelism 
and Convergence ; Aberrant Types and Synthetic Types. 

Sec. 4. General Tendency of Evolution. } 

Hypothesis of the Vital Force ‘ep Various Groups; Law of 
Improvement. 

Chapter 3. Phylogeny. 

Sec. 1. Natural Classification and Phylogeny. | 

Definition ; Principles of Classification. 

Sec. 2. The Method of Comparative Anatomy. 

Evolution of Organs. 

Sec. 3. Embryogenic Method. 

Law of Parallelism of Ontogeny and Phylogeny; Embryogeny 
of Fossil Forms ; Instances of Regression ; Embryogenic Accele- 
ration ; Acceleration of Regression ; Geratology. 

Sec. 4. Method of Geologic Continuity. 

Application of the Principle of Continuty ; Order of Appear- 
ance of New Forms; First Fauna; Origin of Life, — Precam- 
brian Deposits. 

Chapter 4. Distribution of Organisms in Geologic Time, with 
reference to the conditions of the Medium. 

Sec. 1. Definition of Facies. 

Sec. 2. Influence of the Depth of the Sea. 

Littoral Facies; Pelagic Facies ; Abyssal Facies. 

Sec. 3. Influence of the Nature of the Aquatic Medium. 

Freshwater Facies; Brackish-water Facies; Muddy water 
Facies ; Coral Facies. 

Sec. 4. Influence of Climate. 

Liffect of Temperature ; Climate of the Silurian and Devonian ; 
Climate of the Carboniferous ; Climate of the Jurassic ; Climate 


_ Report ofr THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 15 


of the Cretaceous ; Climate of the Tertiary ; Climate of the Plio- 
cene and (Quaternary. 
Chapter 5. Process of Fossilization. 

Conditions necessary for Fossilization ; Fossilization of Ani- 
mals; Fossilization of Plants. 


Graptolitide. 


Mr. R. Ruedemann, of Dolgeville, has communicated a very 
interesting and important paper on the Development and Mode 
of Growth of the Genus Diplograptus, McCoy. 

This paper covers the author’s detailed investigation of the 
structure and mode of development of species Diplograptus pris- 
tis, Hall. The observations are based upon material in a remark- 
ably perfect condition of preservation, obtained from the Utica 
slate of Dolgeville, N. Y. It is shown that these graptolites, 
generally occurring as isolated stipes, were actually colonies com- 
posed of a large number of such individual stipes, growing radi- 
ally from a center. The structure of the central part of the 
colony is shown to consist in, (1), a central floating sack or pneu- 
matocyst, demonstrating that the colony was unattached; (2), a 
verticil of spherical gonangia, within which are found masses of 
young graptolites or sicule attached to a central axis; beneath the 
zonangia are, (3), the radiately-arranged graptolite stipes attached 
by long, bare extensions of the axial rod or virgula of each stipe. 
The mode of yrowth of the stipe is such that the thece or indi- 
vidual cells are, in their normal position, directed inward. This 
is due to the fact that the first theca forms at the distal extrem- 
ity of the young stipe or sicula, and in all later growth the 
increase in cells is at the proximal extremity of the stipe. The 
sicule may either become wholly free of the present stock and 
commence the growth of independent colonies or may remain 
attached to the original stock. Some of them seem to always fol- 
low the latter course, and hence successive generations of gonan- 
gia give rise to the successive generations of stipes apparent in 
every well-preserved colony. Individual sicule departing from 
the parent, as soon as their independence is attained, are shown 
to be provided with minute floating disks which eventually 
become the pneumatocysts of adult colonies. The paper is illus- 
trated with three plates of highly instructive drawings. 


16 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Revision of the Sponges and Ccelenterates of the Lower Hel- 
derberg Fauna. 


Mr. George H. Girty, of Washington, has communicated an 
interesting and important paper under the title, A Revision of 
the Sponges and Ccelenterates of the Lower Helderberg Fauna 
- of New York. 

In this paper the known species of the groups ented are 
redescribed and some important additions are made of heretofore 
undescribed forms. Opportunity is taken to elaborate certain 
structures, as the genera Hindia and Receptaculites, some new 
features of: significance with reference to the latter being brought 
out. The following list of species considered will convey a con- 
ception of the contents of the paper. 


SPONGLAL. . _S. microporum, sp. Nov. 
HInpIa. S. Barretti, sp. nov. 
Hindia spheroidalis, Duncan. S. consimile, sp. nov. 
LYsACTINELLA, gen. nov. Clathrodictya Jewetti, sp. nov. 
Lysactinella Gebhardi, sp. Duncanella rudis, sp. nov. 
nov, Streptelasma strictum, Hall. 
es pereleguns: Sp. nov. _ Laphrentis Roemeri, Edwards 
IscHADITES. and Haime. 
Ischadites squamifer, Hall. Favosites Helderbergice, Hall. 
RECEPTACULITES. | Ff. Conradi, sp. nov. 
Receptaculites infundibulifor- Alveolites explanatus, Hall. 
mis, Eaton. Pleurodictyum lentaculare, 
CCELENTERATA. Hall. 
Dictyonema crassum, sp. nov.| . Striatopora Issa, Hall. 
Monograptus Beecheri, sp. Cladopora Clarkei, sp. nov. 
nov. ; C. Halli, sp. nov. 
Syringostroma centrotum, sp. _Aulopora subtenuis, Hall. 
nov. A, Schoharie, Hall. 
S. foveolatum, sp. nov. A. tubula, Hall. 


The paper is accompanied by seven plates of drawings, giving 
figures of all new species and illustrations of structural details 
in the genus RecepracvLires. 


Brachiopoda of Vol. VIII, Palaeontology of New York. 

The new species of Brachiopoda described in Palaeontology of 
New York, Volume VIII, Parts 1 and 2, 1892-1894. 

During the progress of the work upon Volume VIII of the 
Palaeontology of New York, it became necessary to describe or 


Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. LT 


incidentally refer to a considerable number of new species of 
Brachiopoda. The volumes of the Palaeontology are not acces- 
sible to a large portion of students in Palaeontology, and Volume 
VII, Part 2, has been published only in 100 copies. In order 
to make the descriptions and figures more accessible, it has been 
thought advisable to republish them in this report. 

These species to the number of 106 are here brought together, 
with descriptions and illustrations. They are as follows: 


Lingula compta. 

LL scutella, 

LT. flabellula. 

LL. paracletus. 

LL. teeniola. 

L. linguata, 
Lingulops Granti. 

- Monomerella Greenei. 
M, Kingi. 

M. Ortoni. 

M. Egani. 
Rhinobolus Davidsoni. 


Siphonotreta (?) Minnesotensis. 


Orbiculoidea ovalis. 

O. numulus. 

O. Herzeri. 
Lindstroenella aspidium. 
Schizocrania Schucherti. 
S. (2) Helderbergia. 
Crania agaricin4. 

C. pulchella. 

C. granosa. 

C. favincola. 

Craniella Ulrichi. 
Pholidops calceola. 

P. patina. 

Orthis Panderiana. 

O.? glypta. 

O. flabellites, var. spania. 
O.? Holstoni. 

O. loricula. 

O.? Saffordi. 


O. arcuaria. 


O. superstes. 

O. Oweni. 

O. senecta. 

Orthostrophia dolomitica. 
Strophomena Conrad. 

S. Wenchelli. 

Orthothetes desideratus. 
Derbya ruginosa. 

D? costatula. 

D. Broadheadi. 

D. Bennetti. 

D. cymbula. 

Dp: affinis. 

D. (2) biloba. 
Streptorhynchus Ulrichi. 
Triplecia Neugarensis. 
Christiania subquadrata. 
Leptaenisca adnascens. 

LL. tangens. 
Chonostrophia Helderbergia. 
Strophalosia Rockfordensis. 
S. cymbula. 

Strophonella costatula. 
Plectambonites producta. 
Spirifer crispatus. ; 
S. Canandaigue. 

S. mucronatus, var. posterus. 
S. disjunctus, var. sulcifer. 
S. Walliams. 

S. Newberry?. 

Cyrtia radians. 


Cyrtina umbona.a, var. Alpenensis. 


C. lachrymosa. 


18 Report oF THE StatE GEOLOGIST. 


Syringothyris Missouri 
Athyris densa. 

Seminula Rogers. 

S. Dawsoni. 

Turynifer criticus. 
Rhynchospira scansa. | 
Trematospira Tennesseensis. 
Meristella Walcotti. 
Merista Tennesseensis. 
Clintonella vagabunda. 
Zygospira putilla. 
Atrypina Clintoni. 
Glassia Romingeri. 


Camarophoria rhomboidalis. 


Parastrophia divergens. 
P. Greenei. 

P. multplicata. 

P. latiplicata. 
Liorhynchus robustus. 
LL. Lesleyt. 


Conchidium exponens. 

C. scoparium. 

C. obsoletum. 

O. Greenei.  * : 

C. crassiplica. 

C. Georgie. ; 

Pentamerus oblongus, var. Maquo- 
keta. 1 

P. oblongus, var. subrectus. 

Capellinia mira. 

Barrandella Areyt. 

Gypidula Komingeri. 

Sieberella Roemeri. 

Rensselaeria Cayuga. 

av. ovatum. 

Oriskania navicella. 

Selenella gractlis. 

Cryptonella sub Uliptica. 

Beecheria Davidsoni. 

Dielasma obovatum. 


Bryozoa. 


Mr. George B. Simpson has communicated a memoir contain- 
ing descriptions of the genera of the North American Palaeozoic 
Bryozoa, with an introduction upon the structure of living spe- 
cles, intended as a hand-book for the use of students, illustrated 
by 26 plates and numerous text illustrations. 

The first portion of this work is devoted to the recent Bryozoa 
and contains the history of observations upon these organisms 
from 1599 to the present time, followed by a bibliography in 
which 135 titles are cited, and an illustrated detailed account 
of the anatomy under the headings, 1, the Cell; 2, Opercula; 
8, Avicularia and Vibracula; 4, the Animal; 5, Alimentary 
Canal; 6, Lophophore and Tentacles; 7, Perigastric space; 8, 
Muscular system ; 9, Nervous system; 10, Reproductive organs; 
11, Embryology; 12, Statoblasts. 

The second part is devoted to the fossil forms from the Palaeo- 
zoic rocks, and contains a scheme of classification, the bibliogra- 
phy of the Palaeozoic species of America, a list of all the genera 
and species described, with references to authorship and the geo- 


Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 19 


logic formations in which they occur. The genera described 
number 156 and the species enumerated are about 1,100. The 
main portion of this second part is devoted to diagnoses of the 
genera, illustrated by about 200 figures in the text and by 25 
plates. 

This paper was originally commenced by the writer, at the 
request of the Secretary of the Board of Regents, to fill the 
place of Bulletin No. 1 of the State Museum publications by the 
Regents of the University. The plan of the work, at that 
time proposed, was mainly a description and illustration of 
the Palaeozoic genera of Bryozoa which had been illustrated in 
volume 6 of the Paleontology of New York. This work was 
carried on at my personal cost nearly to completion; 22 of the pro- 
posed 24 plates having been prepared for the lithographer, with the 
manuscript essentially complete, but when offered to the Secre- 
tary for publication it was declined, and the matter left on my 
hands. The work has since been turned over to Mr. Simpson to 
be completed in his own way, while the generic descriptions and 
the explanation of plates of the original paper still remain in the 
writer’s possession. 

In completing this memoir Mr. Simpson has elaborated the 
work, adding thereto the discussions upon the recent Bryozoa, 
with full illustrations, and the entire work in its present form is 
communicated as a part of the report of the State Geologist. 


The Palaeozoic Reticulate Sponges of the Family 
Dictyospongide. 


A Family of Palaeozoic Hexactinellid Sponges, with Descrip- - 
tions of the Genera and Species. _ 

This work is a monograph of a single family of thin-walled 
reticulate silicious sponges whose life was restricted to Palaeozoic 
time. These fossils were early described as remains of marine 
algz and afew species from the latter Devonian rocks became 
pretty well known to the collectors of New York State fossils- 
Their true sponge nature was recognized about fourteen years ago 
by Prof. R. P. Whitfield, from the study of specimens found in 
the soft calcareous shales of Crawfordsville, Indiana, which 
retained the pyritized spicular skeleton of the sponge. 


20 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


In several preliminary papers published in the Annual Reports 
of the State Museum or of the State Geologist, beginning in 
1863,* the writer has described a number of species from the 
Devonian and Carboniferous rocks; many of these descriptions, 
however, being brief and incomplete. and without illustration. 

In this memoir all known species of this family from American 
rocks are brought together; the previously described species, 
forty-six in number, are re-described, and a large number of new 
forms are added, sufficient to.make the total number of known 
species of this single family something more than one hundred. 
The work opens with a chapter on the general and spicular 
structure of these organisms, their relation to other sponges, 
their mode of growth, distribution and preservation. Following 
this is an extended bibliography of these fossils and the detailed 
descriptions of the genera and species, those of each principal 
geologic formation being considered by themselves. . 

The 108 species now known are divided among 27 genera, 16 
of which are new. The paper is illustrated with many text 
figures showing spicular structure, and with 64 lithographic 
plates. 


* 1863. Sixteenth Annual Report of the State Cabinet of Natural History. Ten species were 
described and illustrated. 

1884. Thirty-fifth Annual Report on the State Museum of Natural History. A brief description of 
the genera Cyathophycus, Walcott, and Dictyophyton, Ectinodictya, Lyriodictya, Thamnodictya, - 
Phragmodictya, Cleiodictya and Physospongia, Hall, and Uphantznia, Vanuxem, were given, 
together with a revision of the species described in ‘the Sixteenth Annual Report, and including 
those described by Professors C. D. Walcott and R. P. Whitfield, T. A. Conrad and L. Vanuxem. 

1890. In the Ninth Annual Report of the State Geologist two new genera of this family, viz.: 
Actinodictya and Cryptcdictya, together with 10 new species of this family of fossils, were described ; 
thus making the entire number of species recognized up to that date, 46. 


PALAEONTOLOGY OF NEW YORK. 


VOLUME Vill) PAR DT.1?, 


Of the titles of works communicated in my report of last year 
as being then in progress, the following has been completed : 

Volume VIII, Part 2, being an Introduction to the Study of 
the Genera of Palaeozoic Brachiopoda, has been completed and 
published. This volume contains 420 pages with 65 plates, and 
the text is illustrated by 232 wood-cuts, showing the interior 
_structure and other characteristics of the several genera described. 

Since this volume brings to a close the publication of work in 
this Department as a part of the series of Natural History publi- 
cations of the State, I take the liberty of communicating, with 
this report, the preface as already published. 


PREFACE. 


The present volume brings to a close the publication of the 
“Palaeontology of New York,” as a part of the “ Natural His- 
tory of the State of New York,” according to the plan proposed 
and inaugurated by Governor William H. Seward during his 
administration, 1839-1842. 

At the time of the organization of the survey the question of - 
publication had not been seriously considered ; the annual reports. 
made to the Governor and communicated to the Legislature were 
necessarily published in the ordinary octavo document form. 

Hon. John A. Dix, in his report preceding the organization of 
the Geological Survey, had stated that “it is supposed that the 
entire account of the survey may be contained in three octavo 
volumes of 700 pages each,” together with an atlas, which should 
contain the maps, “with the necessary drawings of fossil 
remains.” This was the only suggestion regarding the final pub- 
lication of the results of the survey. In November, 1839, the 
Board of Geologists made a special communication to the Gover- 
nor, calling his attention to several matters of interest to. the 


22 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


Geological Survey, and concluding as follows: “The Board 
would also suggest to the Governor, as matters which will soon 
require attention, the mode and manner in which the final reports 
are to be published, and the number and style of maps, geological 
sections and diagrams.’’* 

Ata later period it was decided that the entire work should 
be published in quarto form. 

The order of the several departments, as set forth in the first 
published volume of the Natural History, was as follows: Gen- 
eral Introduction, by William H. Seward; Part I, Zodlogy, by 
James E. De Kay; Fart II, Botany, by John Torrey; Part III, 
Mineralogy, by Lewis C. Beck; Parts IV and Vt, Geology and 
Palaeontology, by Wiliam W. Mather, Ebenezer Emmons, Lard- 
ner Vanuxem and James Hall. 

Agriculture was not prominent in the original plan of the sur- 
vey, and representations coming from the State Agricultural 
Society, in 1842, led Governor Seward to recognize its import- 
ance in this relation. He decided that Agriculture and Palaeon- 
tology should be considered as departments to be continued and 
completed as a part of the Natural History of the State of New 
York. 

The Department of Agriculture was placed in charge of Dr. 
Ebenezer Emmons, who retained his position as State Geologist, 
and was also the custodian of the entire collections of the 
Geological Survey, which constituted the State Cabinet of Natu- 
ral History; to the latter position he had been appointed by 
Governor Seward. 

Mr. Timothy A. Conrad, who occupied the position of Palaeon- 
tologist to the Geological Survey from 1837 to 1842, had pub- 
lished only such preliminary annual reports as were required of 
each department. At the latter date (1842) so little progress 
had been made in the work that only a small portion of the 
characteristic fossils had been named or described The geolo- 
gists, therefore, found it necessary to give names to most of the 
fossils used in illustrating their reports, these species being the 
more common and characteristic forms of each group of the New 
York geological series. 


* Assembly Document 50, January, 1840. 
+ After 1842 the Department of Geology was designated as Part IV, Agriculture as Part V, and 
Palaeontology as Part VI. 


Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 93 


In the spring of 1843 the writer was placed in charge of the 
Palaeontology of the State, while still retaining his position as 
State Geologist.* At that time there were practically no collec- 
tions of fossils available for use in the work, nor appropriations 
of money for making such collections. There were no artists, 
either for original drawings or for lithography, and there was 
very little in the way of books on Geology and Palaeontology. 

Mr. Conrad had estimated that a volume of 1 0 quarto 
plates would be required to properly illustrate the fossils of all 
the formations in the State of New York. After the first year 
of exploration by myself and personal assistants, covering the 
entire series, from the Potsdam sandstones to the Chemung 
group inclusive, it was found that no satisfactory account of the 
fossils of the whole series could be given in a single volume, and 
that it would be necessary to confine attention to those coming 
~ from the lower rocks.+ From that time forward efforts were 
directed to the prepazation of descriptions and illustrations of 
fossils characterizing the lower division of the ‘‘ New York sys- 
tem,” which appeared in the first volume, published in 1847, con- 
taining 362 pages and 99 plates of illustration. 

In that volume due recognition was made of the sources from 
which material had been obtained for illustrating the work. 
Since that time acknowledgments have been duly expressed, not - 
only to amateur collectors of fossils, but also to professors in 
colleges and scientific gentlemen generally, both within the State 
and beyond its borders, for their willing aid in the progress of 
the work. Without such aid some portions could not have been 
properly illustrated (as I was compelled to depend solely on my 
own purse for collections made in the field during the prepara- 
tion of the earlier volumes). These volumes (I, II, III), there- 
fore, present a less complete illustration of the faunas of the 
geological formations to which they refer, than do the later vol- 
umes, which were published after the State had furnished means 
for making field collections. 

Volumes [ and II should be revised and republished with all 
the added knowledge of these faunas obtained during the past 
third of a century. 


* See preface to Volume I, Palaeontology of New York. ; 

+ At the end of the first year (in 1844) the question of continuing the Departments of Agriculture 
and Palaeontology was brought before the Legislature, and an extension of time allowed for the 
completion of the work, but no appropriation beyond the salaries of the officials was granted. 


Q4 ReEporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


This work, from its commencement in 1843, has been prose- 
cyted amid many difficulties, and often under conditions which 
would have justified its final abandonment. These hindrances 
have been overcome, and a series of volumes has been published 
and accepted as a contribution to the scientific literature of the 
world. ( 

The work in the agricultural and palaeontological departments 
was carried on in the old State Hall (State Cabinet of Natural 
History) on State street, until 1845, when the authors were com- 
pelled to remove themselves and their work from the building. 
This requirement proved seriously burdensome to the Palaeon- 
tologist, necessitating at once the erection of a building of mod- 
erate size with ordinary working rooms; and afterward (when 
the Legislature began to make appropriations for collections of 
fossils), two extensive buildings were found necessary; these 
were erected at my own cost and fitted up with about 4,000 
drawers, for the proper disposition of the immense collections 
brought in from the field, together with rooms and conveniences 
_for the preparation, study and arrangement of fossils, and offices 
for draughtsman and lithographer; and they were occupied as a 
museum and laboratory till the end of 1886. Prior to 1871 the 
Legislature made no provision for the expenses of these or any 
other working rooms, nor for clerk‘hire and incidental outlay. 

From 1850 onward for several years no appropriations were 
made for carrying on the work, and even the author’s small 
salary was discontinued. From 1850 to 1§55 the work, except 
the printing and lithography, was carried on entirely at the 
author’s personal expense, and it was abandoned early in the lat- 
ter year.* Afterward, in the same year, Hon. E. W. Leaven- 


* The following extract from the preface of Volume III will give a more clear idea of the then exist- 
ing conditions: : 

“‘This department of the Geological Survey of the State was committed to my charge in 1843; Vol- 
ume Iwas completed and published in 1847; and Volume II, so far as regarded my own labors, was - 
completed in 1850, and the work of the third volume was at that time in progress. In the*spring of 
that year legislative enactment removed the direction of this work from the Governor of the State, 
and placed it in the hands of the Secretary of State, who was ‘authorized and directed to take charge 
of all matters appertaining to the prosecution and publication of the Geological Survey of the State ; ’ 
and in the third section of the same law it was*made ‘the duty of the Secretary of State and the Sec- 
retary of the Regents of the University to report to the next Legislature a plan for the final comple- 
tion of the said survey, and to submit the estimate of the cost of such completion.’ 

“Tn the report from this Commission to the Legislature ajproposition was made to pay the Palaeon- 
tologist ‘two thousand five hundred dollars’ on the ‘ presentation of each successive volume, com- 
mencing with the third, to the Secretary of State ;’ which volume was to ‘contain the manuscript 
letter-press ready for printing, and be accompanied with the very fossils described.’ 

“This ‘ proposition’ was ‘deemed a just and liberal one,’ and it seems to have been anticipated that 
the work would go on under such conditions. The sum of money here proposed to be paid to defray 


REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 25 


worth, Secretary of State, undertook to re-establish the work 
upon a proper basis, and the author was induced, by an appeal to 
his patriotism, to take it again in charge. To do this he declined 
a position which would have insured him security of place and a 
life of quiet investigation in geological science. Under the new 
arrangement, for the first time in the history of the work, means 
were provided for the collection of fossils to illustrate the volumes 
still to be published. Because of these collections the work was 
necessarily much extended, and Volume V, originally planned as 
a single volume, including text and plates, has been expanded to 
four volumes. Volumes VI and VII and all subsequent work 
have profited by the collection of fossils made from 1856 to 1865 
inclusive, when appropriations for such collections ceased. 

This final volume (VIII, Part II, Brachiopoda), after being held 
back for one year through want of an appropriation, was printed 
to page 317 in the autumn of 1893. At that point the printing was 
again suspended. In order to have a record of the date of the 
completed work there was issued, in July, 1893, a fascicle con- 
taining the text, from page 1 to 176; embracing descriptions of 
the spire-bearing genera; and a second fascicle in December, 
1893, carrying the text to page 317, including descriptions of the 
rhynchonelloids, pentameroids and terebratuloids. At that time 
the concluding chapter or summary was in type, but the appro- 
priation having been exhausted the printer was compelled to sus- 


the entire expense of collecting the fossils and the study and description of the same, together with 
the labor of superintending the drawings and engraving, was in fact entirely inadequate to pay 
for the collection of the fossils necessary for a single volume, and left, besides this, more than four 
years of labor to be performed by the Palaeontologist without any remuneration whatever. Under 
these circumstances the work could not go on, and it became by this act virtually suspended in the 
early part of 1850. 

“ From the commencement of the work the expenses of making the collections had been borne by 
myself. These collections, made up to that time, not only embraced most of those of the first and 
second volumes, but the greater part of the third volume, as well as extensive collections in the 
higher rocks of the New York series for the succeeding volume. Besides these I had made large col- 
lections of fossils in the same series of strata in the West, for the,purpose of comparison with the 
New York species. In this way, as well as in examinations of the rock formations in situ over a large 
part of the Western States, for the purpose of determining the parallelism of the formations, I had 
already made great pecuniary sacrifices in carrying on the work. Under these circumstances, there- 
fore, and with the new aspect presented by the law of 1850, and the action of the Commission relative: 
thereto, I could no longer devote myself to its prosecution, and consequently made other arrange- 
ments for the occupation of my time, which, however, left me still some opportunity to continue 
my investigations in this work, As the contracts between the State and the engravers continued in 
force, the engraving, after 1851, was carried on somewhat slowly; my frequent and protracted 
absence rendering it impossible for me to give that personal attention to it which a work of this kind 
so fully demands. In order to prevent its entire cessation I employed a person as an assistant (who: 
afterward became my draughtsman) ; the lithographer volunteering to contribute to pay a portion 
of the expense of such assistant, that his own work might not cease entirely. In this way the work 
was continued till 1855, no compensation whatever being paid to the author during this period.” 


4 


96 | Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


pend all work upon the volume; so that this chapter, bringing 
the text up to 350 pages, together with accompanying and con- 
cluding matter, was laid over to the present year. 

In the original scheme of the work on the Brachiopoda the 
generic descriptions were to be accompanied with illustrations of 
the microscopic structure of the shell, but it was found incon- 
venient to accomplish this plan during its progress; though a 
large number of sections were prepared for microscopic study., 
This part of the work is postponed for the present, and probably 
will not be taken up again by the writer. 

The great length of time since these studies were resumed in 
1888 has enabled those assistants. who were with me in the earlier 
preparation of the work to advance their investigations in the 
same line of concept, and to anticipate some of the results which 
have been reached in these volumes. While the final result in’ 
this direction is still distant, it is encouraging to see the work 
advancing in what the writer believes to be the only true method 
of studying every class of organisms. _ 

In the preface to Part I of Volume VIII the author made 
acknowledgments to many personal friends, to collectors of fos- 
sils, to museums and geological surveys; he wishes to repeat 
these acknowledgments in the preface to Part LI, since this will 
probably be his last opportunity of connecting their names with 
the progress of the “ Palaeontology of New. York.” 

During the 51 years which have elapsed since the com- 
mencement of this work, I have had many assistants who directly . 
or indirectly have aided in, or have contributed to, its progress. 
Among the earliest of these was Mr. Fielding B. Meek (after- 
ward Palaeontologist to the United States Geological Survey: of 
the Territories), whose services were largely given to the draw- 
ings for the plates of Volume III, which were lithographed by 
Mr. Frederick J. Swinton, the latter continuing his connection 
with the work till 1872, enriching the volumes by his excellent 
artistic work. During the early part of the same period Mr. 
Ferdinand V. Hayden, who subsequently became Director of the 
U. S. Geological Survey, was my assistant, and, together with 
Mr. Meek, made a survey of the Mauvaises Terres of Nebraska, 
at my personal expense. Dr. Charles A. White, now of the 
National Museum at Washington, who had been my assistant in 


Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. Oi. 


the Iowa Survey, was, for one year, engaged in the service of the * 
Palaeontology of New York, in making field collections and 
obtaining geological data. Mr. Robert P. Whitfield, now Curator 
of Geology in the American Museum of Natural History, was 
associated with me as preparateur, draughtsman and general 
assistant in the work for 20 years (1856 to 1876). After this 
date Mr. Charles D. Walcott, now Director of the U.S. Geological 
‘Survey, became my assistant for two years. In the final revision 
and publication of the four volumes, which constitute Volume V, 
I had the assistance of Mr. Charles E. Beecher, now professor in 
Yale University, from the commencement of the Cephalopoda to 
the completion of the Lamellibranchiata, from 1878 to L885. 
Mr. George B. Simpson, who has served the work for many years 
as draughtsman, has made himself very familiar with the Bryozoa 
and Corals of our geological formations, and has given very 
essential aid in the preparation and publication of Volume VI, 
as well as in other work connected with the Palaeontology. In 
the capacity of my private assistant, the services of Mr. Charles 
Schuchert, now of the U. S. National Museum, were given to the 
forwarding of Volume VIII, as already stated in the Preface to 
Part I. Professor J. M. Clarke, who came into the work in 
1886, has given essential aid in the preparation of Volumes VII. 
and VIII, as already related in the former volume, and also in 
Part I of the present volume, and has remained with me to its 
conclusion. 

From the beginning of the work it has been the ambition of 
the author to secure accurate and artistic illustrations of the sub- 
jects under discussion. In the earlier part of the work these 
conditions could not be obtained, but in later years the style and 
accuracy of the representations has left little to be desired. In 
the preface to Part I of this volume, I made acknowledgments 
to the draughtsmen and lithographers who have been engaged 
upon this work. The original drawings have been continued by 
Mr. Ebenezer Emmons and Mr. George B. Simpson, and the 
lithography by Mr. Philip Ast, who have attained a degree of 
perfection in their work of which it is my duty as well as my 
pleasure to speak in praise. My thanks are due to the printers, 
Messrs. Charles Van Benthuysen & Sons, now the veteran print- 
ing house of the country, with an uninterrupted intercourse to 


28 Report oF THE Stare GeroLoGist. 


' the fourth generation; covering a period of more than 50 
years. 

To the many successive Legislatures of the State of New York, 
as well as to the Chief Executives, the scientific public is 
indebted for the volumes which have been published under the 
title of Palaeontology of New York. In every. Legislature the 
author has found gentlemen who were interested ‘in science, and 
who were in sympathy with this work. Not only among mem- 
bers of the Legislature but among those who had previously held 
legislative and executive offices, as well as other prominent citi- 
zens of the State, the work has found encouragement and 
support. The people of the State may have the satisfaction of 
knowing that no other State Legislature has sustained, through 
so many years, a scientific investigation carried on for the sake 
of science itself, and without anticipating direct economic 
results. For all this good will and liberality to science, the 
writer desires to express, for himself and_his scientific eels 
the most.profound acknowledgments. 

JAMES HALL, 
State Geologist and Palaeontologist. 

Axpany, N. Y., December 5, 1894. 


It is a great satisfaction to the author to report this work exe- 
cuted according to the plan originally conceived, but which is 
nevertheless incomplete owing to the large amount of material 
which time and experience has accumulated, and which, at the 
outset, could not have been anticipated or included in any plan. 
The completion of this volume will still leave a large amount of 
material in other departments than those already discussed and 
published, and it is proposed to publish the results of the investi- 
gation in the annual reports, or as memoirs, in such manner as 
may be considered most desirable. As an earnest of such work 
to be continued in the future a memoir upon the reticulate fos- 
sil sponges, as already stated, is in a forward state of prepa- 
ration, and more than 20 imperial quarto plates have been 
lithographed, still leaving more than 30 plates to be done. 
The manuscript is in an advanced condition and can be put 
to press during the present year. After the Dictyospongide 
the most important subject for consideration and publication is 


Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 29 


_ that of the fossil Corals from the several geologic formations, 
and especially of the Devonian, of which New York affords a 
remarkable development and an abundance of species in the 
great limestone formations extending from the Hudson to the 
Niagara rivers. “Although work upon these fossils has been sus- 
pended from 1881 to the present time, it is still the hope of the 
writer that some plan may be adopted by which these interest- 
ing and important fossils may be published for the benefit of 
science, for the scientific prestige of the State of New York, and 
as a contribution toward the completion of the publications of 
the natural history of the State, which now number 30 quarto 
volumes. 


| Very respectfully, 
Your obedient servant, 
JAMES HALL, 
| State Geologist and Palaeontologist. 
March 5th, 1896. 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 


(GEOLOGIC MAP.) 


A PRELIMINARY DESCRIPTION 


OF THE 


Faulted Region of Herkimer, Fulton, Montgomery and 
Saratoga Counties. 


JAMES HALL, ~— N. H. DARTON, 
STATE GEOLOGIST. ASSISTANT, 


1896. 


er 


eat 
a teleie a 


. 


REPORT ON 
FULTON, MONTGOMERY, HERKIMER & SARATOGA cties 
PLATE No | 


=ASi~ =! 
SAS ez 
SRY 


¥ 
I 


Wi 
RIA 


PRELIMINARY GEOLOGIC MAP 


OF PORTIONS OF 
HERKIMER, FULTON,MONTGOMERY, SARATOGA 
AND ADJACENT COUNTIES, 
Showing the distiibution of 


Laurentian, Cambrian and Lower Silurian Formations 
and the Faults of the Mohawk Valley . 


Prepared nnde the direction of 


JAMES HALL, State Geologist . 
by N.H.DARTON, Assistant . 


Trenton to Birdseye St 


Limestones 


“Calciferous” 


Potsdam Sandstone 


Laurentian 


Faults 
Uncertain Boundaries - 


SCALE OF MILES 


Hof) 


CHC B. Colton & Co. New-York. 


*GMW.8 C.B.COLTON & CO.N.Y. 


MS : 


3 


in 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 


(GEOLOGIC MAP.) 


\ Preliminary Deseription of the Faulted Region of Herkimer, 
Fulton, Montgomery and Saratoga, Counties. 


By N. H. DARTON. 


ConTENTS: INTRODUCTORY. GENERAL RELATIONS. Fautts. -- Little Falls 
fault, Faults on East Canada Creek, St. Johnsville faults, The ‘‘ Noses” 
fault, Fonda fault, Tribes Hill fault, Broadalbin fault, Hoffman's Ferry 
fault, Saratoga faults, Lake George faults. 


Introductory. 


This report is an account of studies made during the summer of 
1893 of the relations of the faulted Lower Silurian and Cambrian 
members in eastern Central New York. The primary purpose 
of the work was to determine the distribution of the forma- 
tions for the recently published geologic map of the State, but 
data were also obtained bearing on the relations of the faults, 
and the stratigraphy. 

The principal faults cross the Mohawk river between Schenec- 
tady and Little Falls. These faults appear first in the Utica 
slate at no great distance south of the river and extend north- 
ward with a gradually increasing throw, bringing up the Trenton, 
Calciferous and crystalline rocks. Several of them continue into 
the Adirondacks. 

Vanuxem* described the principal features of the faults in the 
immediate vicinity of the Mohawk river, but gave little informa- 
tion regarding their northern extension. On the New York > 
geologic map of 1842, some of the more general effects of these 
faults are represented, but their nature was not indicated Some 
further light was thrown on the relations along the Mohawk 


ee aes a 
* Geology of New York, Part III, comprising the Survey of the Third Geological District, 1842. 
5 


34 Report oF THE Strate Geroxoaist. 


river in a brief report and map by Mr. C. E. Hall, published in 
1886.* | 

Besides the faults which extend to the Mohawk, there are a 
number of others northward, of which several are important, and 
there is a series of prominent dislocations in Saratoga county. 
It has been known for many years that the springs at Saratoga 
rise along a fault plane, and some features at this locality were 
described by Mathert and Emmons.t 


General Relations. 


The sedimentary formations of the region are a succession of | 
sandstones, limestones and shales lying,§ on a floor of crystalline 
rocks. They dip to the southward and southwestward at a very 
moderate rate, constituting a general monocline. The amount 
and direction of the dip is not uniform, but the variations do not 
materially affect the general relations. The faults traverse this 
general monocline and give rise to wide offsets in its regularity, 
and local tilting of greater or less amount. Adjacent to the 
fault planes there are also certain features of local disturbance, 
such as upturning of the beds on the down-thrown sides. The 
distribution and relations of these faults are indicated in the map 
and in plates 2‘and 3. In plate 2 I have attempted to represent 
the relative positions of the fault blocks restored or bared at the 
ideal surface of the Trenton limestone. In A and B, plate 3, 
cross-sections are given, indicating the principal features along 
the Mohawk Valley and along a zone about eight miles north, 
_ respectively.. From these illustrations it will be seen that the 
faulting seems to have taken place along vertical planes, and to 
have been accompanied by a sharp drag of the strata on the 
- down-thrown side of the blocks. In the following pages the 
evidence on this point will be given in detail, with a description 
of the features of the several faults. 

The occurrence of crystalline rock at Middleville has given 
rise to a supposition that there is a fault at this locality. Owing 
to the existence of this view I have made a careful examination 


Ry SP I ee ee See 

* Field notes on the Geology of the Mohawk Valley, Fifth Report of the State Geologist for 1885, 
pp. 8-10. (See note at end of this paper.) 

+ Geology of New York, Part I. Comprising the Geology of the First Geological District, 1843. 

+ Agriculture of New York, by Ebenezer Emmons, 1846. 

§ A description of these formations was published in the Report of the State Geologist for 
the year 1893, pp 409-429, plates 1-14. Albany, 1894. 


“O3SLVYEZOOVXA ATLVIYS AIVIS TVOILYZA ‘HLYUON SNINOO7 
eo OOT 


SALLNOOD VOOLVYHVES CN * MENDTESH KATIN Heated ik 
Roe o> - 


7 ¥ 

vi 
y , 

, 

f 
1 _ are 
2 : 
ae 
ne 


= == 
pS | 


NO suousy 


I SMOOTH GAHLTLE CXV CUTIOV.T Mee 
é Rul 


i 


tae 


= =—= 


oe 


—_—— $< —__-__.. 


oe 
| Sas 


Ra 


aS ola 
i 
ip 


a : 
i nes 


a 
ge LE 


eee = 
a 


he 


“eee 
ads 


/ Ae 


ieee 


Ss ie 


FAuLtep REGIon oF THE MoHAawk. 35 


of the relations, and find that no fault exists. The overlying 
formations are continuous around the valley, and they are 
exposed in many outcrops. The supposition that there is a fault 
at this point may be due to the fact that in the bank along the 
east side of the stream there are clays containing a very large 
amount of Utica slate débris which might be mistaken, on casual 
observation, for Utica formation in place. At a short distance 
east, however, there are continuous vertical outcrops from the 
Calciferous to Utica beds, matching those on the west side of the 
valley. The presence of the small inclosed area of crystalline 
rocks is due to a slight anticlinal in this vicinity, which has 
brought the crystalline rocks within reach of the creek for a few 
hundred yards. Down stream the southwesterly dips carry 
the formations beneath the surface in regular succession. To 
the northwestward there is first a slight downward slope in the 
strata and in the underlyiny surface of the crystalline rocks, 
beyond which the stream runs along the strike, so that in 
ascending the valley we finally rise high into the Trenton 
formation at Trenton Falls. 


Faults. 


The Little Falls Faults—The nature of the uplift at Little 
Falls is shown in the following figure. 


“7274 far 


Te 
ace ARE RT INE vac 
Ave, ered 


FIGURE 1.— Cross section of faults at Little Falls, N. Y., north side of the Mohawk, looking north. 
U. Utica slate. 7. Trenton and Birdseye limestones. C. Calciferous sandrock. A. Archean. Verti- 
cal scale somewhat exaggerated. 

This uplift gives rise to the most conspicuous topographic 
feature of the Mohawk Valley. Approaching Little Falls from 
the east the long gentle slopes of the hills of Utica slate are 
abruptly terminated by a high ridge crossing the valley from 
south to north. The river cuts through this ridge in a deep, 
relatively narrow gorge, lined with high cliffs of Calciferous 
sandrock and crystalline rocks. In the eastern end of the gorge 
the crystalline rocks rise in cliffs 100 feet high, to a high terrace 
surmounted a short distance back by cliffs of Calciferous sand- 


BO! es Report or THE State Groxocist. 


rock 200 feet high. This formation constitutes another terrace 
surmounted in turn by a low terrace of Trenton and Birdseye 
limestones and rounded slopes of Utica slate. These terraces all 
slope southwestward with the dip of the formations and 
merge in succession: into the bottom of the valley above Little 
Falls. The terrace on the surface of the crystalline rocks is 
wider on the north side than on the south side of the gorge, and 
it is on this wider terrace that the village of Little Falls is built; 
about midway through the gorge. The following section is 
through the central portion of the village, and illustrates the 
relations of the terraces, although they are here somewhat 
diminished in altitude above the river. In figure 3 they are 
shown in their maximum altitude. 


ae; ee ee? ee 
Cer See emo S270 shy 


—— 
eee a a ote ; i 
Svat naira elke DE BION a mh ict MON , BC lays Re ReS Tel SO . am Cc 
‘es Bl ra ee Bites Cea aBS rarecrnR ec icp oe, YO Co 
aiiae ; ee peut Msi sicace i . MMM 5 eso se 
Alp airinh ice ects a0 1G) aly nD pss OO SSE “TLAVETT IV SEATS >A 
o/s oe PE NS TN . F ENN EF NED Te AYO EN bee NA ES AS LES. 
= Po, > SR, FEA ET TOAD EA OgvaALIea dy pia tg > 
PSSA SS vee 7 Ved Bars Sey EMS “SL GL WES GLY TNE Leg TS APS AY, ge Ze S 
eT REN GT EN AUT SAS OS BLN TEMG TARA LET INS LENG A EV AER EN CRUE SWLSSS 
PES nL VRS Le PS ISN AMA 7 SAE TL ANG AMAT AV AVET LA VILS OW IE WG AADC CVS 


FIGURE 2.— Sections across the gorge of the Mohawk at Little Falls, N. Y., looking westward. U. 
Utica slate. JT. Trenton and Birdseye limetones. CO. Calciferous. A. Archean. Vertical scale some- 
what exaggerated. j 

About two miles above Little Falls the Calciferous terrace and 
cliff gradually disappear beneath the river, the valley widens 
and the slopes of Utica slate extend to its bottom.- The 

relations along the fault plane are shown in figure 3. 


Sector . 
afetege ‘ 5 ‘ 
we oy are Pat, 
oe 
re VLY & 


aDeS 7 
Devgan 


‘ v} 
Sei ZT 
‘ . a oatas ‘eV rot 
wid yaar AcaD eS rE he SAne 
ROE kT I ee 


FIGURE 3.— Sections along the fault plane from southeast of Little Falls to north of Salisbury 
Centre. U. Uticaslate. 7. Trenton and Birdseye limestones. C. Calciferous. A. Archean. S. Salis- 
bury Centre. J. Eastern face of uplifted block. JI. Western face of downthrown block from the 
east. Vertical scales somewhat exaggerated. : 


a a a eS ee 


+ 


6 “oirgse 2¢089 =| +a 


u 


we, 


A drrose €.2059, 


nt elaine weve thei) aa Alles A Mags alba me — 


~ 


VITALS ara THAUOOT ACM: APL SA as 
re Bali (Pes een) BeOS eo Scie B -ewyrH werteict. 1 feb 


. ' 4X 


ienareonet maserc? PM ewoetinis: 9% nc vowed 


4 
ae" 
: ’ 
vey rp 
e - % 
Pe 
ie ‘ 
= 7 a ae ’ 
% 
ee, oe 
et Ay Oh . 
=. ee 


REPORT ON 
FULTON, MONTGOMERY, HERKIMER & SARATOGA C Ties 


PLATE RO 3 


SECTION B 


= 
he 
| 
{ 
1 
H 
i 
1 


GME Gm 


CROSS SECTION A 


CROSS SECTIONS OF FAULTS OF HERKIMER,FULTON, MONTGOMERY ann SARATOGA COUNTIES 
Looking North , A.along the Mohawk River: B.along a zone from 8 to10 miles north of A. 


Horizontal Scale about tive mites to an inc, Vertical Scale greatly exaggerated 


Laurentian 


Trenton to Birdseye Limestones| St Calciferous fo Potsdam Sandstone | 


Utica Slate 


FAULTED REGIon oF THE MoHAwkK. 37 


At the eastern entrance of the Little Falls gorge the crystalline - 
rocks and overlying Calciferous sandrock present a precipitous 
front to the eastward. Ina short distance to the south and to 
the north this front becomes flanked by slopes of Utica slate 
which rapidly rise to above the level of the upper surface of the 
crystalline rocks. A short distance south of the river the Cal- 
ciferous and Trenton dip beneath the Utica slate and the fault 
is lost in the high hills of the Hudson river formation to the 
southward. 

The actual fault plane is obscurely exposed at several points 
on the north side of the river and if not vertical it is very nearly 
so. The shales in thé adjoining slopes are bent up against the 
fault at angles from 40°—70°, averaging 60° in greater part. This 
steep eastward dip rapidly decreases to the east, and in exposures 
a half mile below the mouth of the gorge a gentle southwest dip 
is observed at several points near the river. 

Northward from the river valley the presence of the fault is 
marked by a cliff of Calciferous, rising to greater or less height 
above the rounded hills of the Utica slate region eastward. 

Three miles north of the Mohawk the fault is crossed by a 
small depression which cuts through the Calciferous and a short 
distance into the crystalline rocks on the west side of the 
fault, and through Utica, Trenton and Birdseye beds to the top 
_ of the Calciferous on the east side. The relations at this point 
are shown in longitudinal section in figure 3. The upturn of the 
beds here is very moderate as the dips are not over 6°. The 
actual fault plane is not exposed but there are outcrops 
within a yard or two of it. At Little Falls there are no means 
for estimating the amount of the uplift for we do not know the 
thickness of strata lying against the thrown side of the fault. 
At this locality the presence of the Trenton on both sides, and 
the moderate dips, afford all necessary data. An estimate made 
from fairly accordant aneroid readings with the estimated allow- 
ance for dip, gave an average of 310 feet. 

On the north side of this depression the Utica slate lies against 
the fault, with the usual cliff of Calciferous on the west side of 
the uplift. A short distance west of the crest of the cliff are the 
low terraces of Trenton limestone surmounted by rounded hills 
of Utica slate. A mile and a half farther north the fault has 


38 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


‘ Increased considerably in amount and the crystalline rocks are 
brought up. Thence northward they constitute the cliff along 
the fault scarp and the Calciferous and Trenton extend to the north- 
westward by Salisbury Village and Diamond hill as terraces 
surmounted by high hills of Utica slate. 

A typical section of the relations near the point at which the 
scarp of crystalline rocks begins is shown in figure B, plate 3. 
Farther northward the crystalline terrace widens greatly and 
increases in height. The fault plane was not observed in this 
region, but its presence is everywhere characterized by cliffs and 
steep slopes of crystalline rocks over which, at Salisbury Center, 
a branch of Kast Canada creek falls in a series of cascades aggre- 
gating nearly a hundred feet in descent. The adjoining Utica 
shales are seen at several points west of Dolgeville within fifty 
yards of the fault, dipping to the eastward from 10° to 380°. 
Just north of Salisbury Center the northward pitch of the 
monogline east of the fault brings up the crystalline rocks as 
shown in II in figure 3, and northward the fault is entirely in 
crystalline rocks. I followed it to a short distance above 
Devereux where its presence is marked by a continuous line of 
cliffs and steeper slopes. 

Faults on Hast Canada Creek.— There are two faults on and 
near East Canada creek, and although their throws are not great 
nor the effects particularly conspicuous, their features are so - 
clearly exposed that they are of special interest. They were 
both described in considerable detail by Vanuxem in his report on 
the Third Geological District. 

The southernmost fault crosses the Mohawk river at the 
mouth of East Canada creek as shown in plate 2. On the north 
side of the river there are, on the east bank of the East Canada 
creek, nearly horizontal beds of Utica slate, and the west bank is 
a cliff of Calciferous. On the south side of the river the Utica - 
slate on the thrown side of the fault abuts against Birdseye 
limestone. A short distance south, the Birdseye and Trenton 
limestones pass beneath the Utica slate and the fault is lost in 
the hills near Minden. The fault extends up East Canada creek 
for about a mile when its trend changes to a course slightly more 
eastward and it passes into the eastern bank of the creek. Here 
the fault plane is superbly exposed at the foot of a long series of 


FAULTED REGION oF THE MoHAWE. 39 


rapids and falls over the Calciferous which the fault has brought 
up. In plate 4 the character of the exposure and some of the 
relations are shown. In the following figure an explanatory 
diagram is given. 


mS SERRE 
SS SSS SSN 

‘ > < SS te Di 

=A SSSsx ; 


SN 
SS 


Se SS 


RES RRS 
Se 
RSS LSS ~ ey 


~ aS 


~ 


FiGuRE 4.— Diagram of fault phenomena and dike shown in plate 4. East Canada creek, N. Y., 
looking north-northeast. U. Uticaslate. 7. Trentonlimestone. D. Dike. B. Birdseye limestone. 
C. Breccia. CA. Calciferous. 


In these illustrations there should be noted the vertical fault 
plane, the presence of the dike along the fault plane, the typical 
unbending of the Utica slates and Trenton beds against the fault, 
and the breccia which includes a large fragment of Birdseye 
limestone. : 

The Calciferous wall on the west side of the dike is consider- 
ably fractured and the general southerly dip of the formation, in 
the fine series of exposures up the creek, gives place to gentle 
undulations shown in part in plate 4. The breccia comprises 
angular fragments of Calciferous sandrock (some but slightly 
out of place) and of Birdseye limestone, in a matrix of sand 
from the Calciferous beds. The thickness of this breccia varies 
from three to eight inches. The relations of the large fragment 
of Birdseye limestone are not clearly exposed, but it appears to 


be in the breccia and not in regular sequence with the Trenton 
beds cut off by the dike. 


40 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


The dike was recently described by C.H.Smyth,* who incidentally 
refers to some of its relations. Its thickness in this exposure is 
from eight to ten inches, and it is accompanied by a thin adjoin. 
ing vein of calcite, carrymg pyrite and galena. An adit was run 
in on the vein some years ago in the hope that it might be found 
metalliferous, and, according to Smyth, it was found that the 
dike ends at about sixty feet. Its extension along the surface 
southward was not found owing to drift and débris. The rock 
is described by Smyth, and in a supplemental papert is stated to 
be alnoite, containing the rare mineral melilite in considerable 
amount. : : , yet 

The amount of displacement of the fault is about sixty feet, 
not counting the upturn of the beds on the downthrown side. 
This upturn extends for about 100 yards from the fault and 
gradually gives place to gentle southwest dips. The Trenton 
limestone exposed is nine feet in thickness, in layers three to eight 
inches thick. It is abruptly terminated by Utica slate beds with 
a six-inch layer at their base. In its extension northward, the 
fault diverges from the creek at a small angle and appears to be > 
lost in Utica slates in the hills west of Crumb creek, but owing 
to heavy drift cover, it could not be followed any great distance. 

Ascending the creek above the fault, there is the fine series of 
exposures of Calciferous shown in plate 8, with others extending 
to Ingham’s Mills, all dipping gently southwestward. Above 
the mills the Birdseye, Trenton and Utica formations extend 
across the creek in succession. “Half way between Ingham’s 
Mills and Dolgeville, the dips suddenly change to northeast, and 
increasing rapidly in amount, bring up the Trenton, Birdseye 
and Calciferous beds in succession on the east bank of the creek ; 
a fault also developing which increases rapidly northward. This 
fault is shown on plate 2. 

In the following figure the four sections illustrate the develop- 
ment and relations of this uplift. It will be noted that this fault 
differs from the two others described, in having the uplift on the 
eastern side. The upturned Utica slates are finely exposed along 
the high eastern bank of the creek to the high falls below Dolge- 
ville. North of the falls there is a low cliff of Calciferous which 


* Am, Journ. Sci., 3d Series, vol. 43, pp. 322-327. 
+ Am. Journ. Sci., 3d Series, vol. 46, p. 104. 


‘AIO OY} WO YOOLPUBS SNOLOJIOTVD “4USTI oy 
WO Speq UOJUELY, pus vOIAN “AOA MON “WroyUBY[ TSU FOolH vpwusy ysvVey JO AUVq 4Svo UT ITpB plo 48 oxTP puy 4[nBq 


‘y GALV Id 


FAvuLTED Region oF THE Monawk. 41 


may be traced for a short distance, but the relations east and. 
north from Dolgeville are hidden under a wide area of heavy 


drift cover. 


FIGURE 5.— Cross sections along East Canada creek, below Dolgeville. U. Utica slate. 7. Trenton 
and Birdseye limestones. C. Calciferous. 


St. Johnsville Faults — Vanuxem described some features of 
the St. Johnsville region and recognized two, if not more, series 
of uplifts, but stated that there was considerable obscurity in 
their relations which he had not had time to unravel. Itappears 
that there is one fault which branches and curves in an unique 
manner for a dislocation that is apparently not due to overthrust. 
The relations are fairly well exposed, and I believe the true nature 
of the dislocation is shown in plate 2. 

6 


42 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


The relations of the fault which branches to the southward, 
are plainly exhibited particularly along the road and in quarries 
three miles east of St. Johnsville, and also in the slopes and in © 
an old quarry south of the river. This dislocation brings the 
middle beds of the Calciferous up to a horizon about 100 feet 
above the base of the Utica slate. 

The Utica slate east of the fault dips cana at angles 
averaging about 20°, but this upturn dies out rapidly in a few 
rods. The river valley is cut across the eroded block into the 
Calciferous with Trenton and Birdseye beds lying on the higher 
terraces, and the Utica slate above. Along a portion of the 
north side of the block the latter has been removed and the 
Trenton and Birdseye beds abut against the Calciferous along 
the main fault. The following section illustrates the relation of 
this inclosed block: 


FIGURE 6.— Section across the Mohawk river, two miles below St. Johnsville, looking west. U. Utica 
slate. J. Trenton and Birdseye limetones. C. Calciferous. Vertical scale slightly exaggerated. 
The beds in the inclosed block dip westerly, and at St. Johns- 
ville the Utica slates come in and underlie the upper portion of 
the village. These slates are penetrated by a well at the con- 
densed milk factory on Zimmerman’s creek, and according to 
Vanuxem they were once exposed, together with upturned edges’ 
of Trenton and Birdseye limestones, in the creek, near the side 
of this factory. The Calciferous rises abruptly in cliffs just 
beyond and curves around to the west and south on the upthrown 
side of the fault. Vanuxem states that “the slate was also | 
exposed at the little bridge near by, in the bottom of the creek, 
inclining away from the Calciferous, which rises 100 feet above 
it. The slate dips to the south at an angle of about 45°. It 
shows much white carbonate of lime and some pyrites. The 
Calciferous at its junction with the slate is in one part fractured, 
the parts cemented forming a breccia.”* Below this are heavy 


a eater ie AN eee es eee 
* Geology of New York, Part III, comprising the survey of the Third Geological District, 1842, p. 206. 


PLATE 5. 


Fault and dike at old adit in east bank of East Canada Creek near 
Manheim, New York; near View. 


FAULTED REGION oF THE MoHAwk. zie 


beds of clay and boulders. This exposure is now covered and is 
no longer accessible. The course of this main fault is very clear 
nearly to the point at which it bends to the southeast to cross the 
Mohawk, where it is covered by drift. The relations in this 
Vicinity, so far as known, are shown in the following section 
which crosses the loop in the main fault. 


FIGURE 7.— Section across the Mohawk just above St. Johnsville, N. Y., looking west. U. Utica 
slate. TZ. Trenton and Birdseye limestones. C. Calciferous. 


The relations of the recurved portion of the fault on the south 
side of the river are clearly exhibited in every detail. The fault 
plane is not exposed, but the Utica slate and Calciferous are 
seen within a few feet of each other in the west bank of a small 
brook, and the course of the fault is seen to be due north-northeast 
down to the mouth of this brooklet. The slate is tilted back to 
the eastward in the usual manner, for several rods from the 
fault. The Trenton and Birdseye limestones on the uplifted side 
dip to the southwest, which carries them from an altitude of 150 
feet above the river near the fault to below the river a short 
distance east of the East Canada creek fault. Both the main and 
branch faults are lost in the high region of Utica slate a short 
distance south of the crest of the southern bank of the Mohawk 

To the northward, the principal fault increases in amount and 
brings up the crystalline rocks in an area which widens and rises 
rapidly in the next few miles. Along by Garoga the scarp of 
crystalline rocks is very high and precipitous. The Utica slate 
east of the fault underlies the depression eastward. North of 
Rockwood the crystalline rocks come up on the east side of the 
fault. North of this vicinity the fault was not traced, but it 
probably extends far into the Adirondacks. 

The “Noses” Fault.— This great uplift crosses the Mohawk 
river five miles below Canajoharie. It is very similar to that of 
Little Falls, giving rise to a great ridge of Calciferous, rising ab- 
ruptly from the moderately elevated Utica slate region eastward. 


44 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Through this ridge the river has cut a narrow gorge with high 
walls of Calciferous, which are seen to be underlain for a short 
distance by crystalline rocks. The river winds slightly in the 
eastern portion of this gorge, and the short, sharp spurs of the 
‘high cliffs have given rise to the appellation of the “ Noses,” 
which is well known to travelers along the Mohawk as a particu- 
larly wild and picturesque part of the valley. This dislocation 
is shown in plate 2. The fault is not so great in amount as that 
of Little Falls, and the crystalline rocks are not so extensively 
exposed, but owing to oscillations in dip, the walls of Calciferous 
extend much farther up the river. The Trenton and Utica 
formations extend continuously along the south side of the 
gorge, beginning in an upper terrace lying a short distance back 
from the crest of the Calciferous cliff. On the nort side of the 
river these formations extend to nearly opposite Spraker’s Basin, 
below which the Calciferous extends widely to the north, and 
eastward to the fault, where it ends in a prominent scarp. This 
scarp is elevated high above the rolling surface of the Utica slate 
region eastward. The crystalline rocks at the ‘“‘ Noses” on the 
Moha-vk do not extend quite to the fault, but, as shown in sec- 
tion A, plate 2, rise in a low anticline just west, to an extent of 
about forty feet above the river on the south side, and seventy- 
five feet on the north side. Possibly in the river trough, where 
the Calciferous is deeply eroded, the crystalline rocks may extend 
to the fault. 

South from the river the relations of the fault are well exposed 
on the road to Currytown, which crosses it three times. The 
Calciferous rises as a wall or steep slope, with the Utica 
slates abutting against it and dipping away at angles, for the most 
part averaging 50°. This dip rapidly decreases eastward and 
finally gives place to the gentler general southwesterly inclina- 


tion. The essentially vertical position of the fault plane is clearly 


exhibited between Currytown and the river, not only in many 
small exposures of a perpendicular fault scarp but in its straight 


course up the long slope, aggregating over 200 feet in ascent.. 


Half a mile north of Currytown the Trenton and Birdseye lime- 
stones are seen overlying the Calciferous and, in a short distance 
‘up the slope, the Trenton limestone passes beneath the Utica 
slates. The Calciferous along the fault is often considerably 


FAULTED Rercion oF THE MonHaAwk. 45 


broken and crushed. Its usual dip at and near the Mohawk is 
gently to the east; near Currytown it is west, for the most part 
gently, but at one point 40°. The amount of dislocation along 
the fault is about 300 feet at the Mohawk river. 

North from the river the great scarp to which this fault gives 
rise extends for many miles as a high wall along the west side of 
the great Utica slate area of Johnstown and Gloversville. For 
the first six miles this wall consists of the Calciferous sandrock 
with underlying crystalline rocks occasionally exposed where 
brooklets cut into the Utica slates. With. the general upward 
pitch to the north and some increase in the throw of the fault, 
the surface of the crystalline rocks gradually increases in alti- 
tude, and southwest of Johnstown it extends to the crest of the 
fault scarp. The Calciferous then trends off to the west as a ter- 
‘race and the crystalline rock area expands into a wide high 
plateau capped by afew small outliers of Potsdam sandstone. 
The Utica slates lying to the east of the”fault are exposed at 
many points with the usual sharp dip to the eastward in the 
immediate proximity of the fault plane. On the turnpike, at a 
point about three miles west of Johnstown, the average dip of the 
shales is 40°, and in several exposures south of here dips of 60° 
were noticed. This disturbance was found to extend from 5 0 
to 8v0 yards from the fault, the eastward dip gradually dying out 
and giving place to the general monoclinal inclination to the 
southwest. Although the fault plane was not observed in this 
region, there are several exposures in which it is clearly seen to 
be vertical or very nearly so. One is in the banks of a creek 
which falls over the fault scarp of crystalline rocks in a long 
succession of cascades. Near the bottom there is a bank in which 
a sheer wall of crystalline rocks is seen along the fault plane. 
There is much debris banked against it but the Utica slate out- 
crops at several points near by in the gorge and within a few 
inches of the contact in the road above. : 

In the region west of Johnstown, I found a branch fault ex- 
tending southwestward from the main dislocation to a point 
south of Ephratah. Its relations are shown in section B, plate 3, 
just under the B and also on plate 2. The downthrow is on its 
western side and it gives rise to a conspicuous scarp of crystalline 
rocks and Calciferous, facing northwest. Its maximum throw is 


46 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


near the centre of its course, at a point about due east of Ephra- 
tah, where the amount is 250 feet, and the Utica slate is seen 
abutting against the crystalline rocks South of this point the — 
crystalline rocks dip beneath the Potsdam sandstone and Calcifer- © 
ous, the throw decreases gradually and the fault dies out in the 
overlying Trenton limestones, a mile north of Stone Arabia. To 
the northward the Trenton and Birdseye limestones, the Cal- 
ciferous, the Potsdam, and the crystalline rocks are clearly ex- 
posed, coming up in succession along the dip on the west side of 
the fault. The continuation of the fault through the crystalline 
area to the main fault is not clearly exposed and the amount of 
throw appears to diminish in the interval. 

West of Gloversville the course of the “ Noses” fault gradually 
curves around to northeast and near Mayfield its trend is nearly 
due east. Then it turns to the northnortheast again and extends 
up the Sacandaga valley. Along the fault scarp in this region a 
high cliff and steep slopes of crystalline rocks are presented to 
the eastward and southeastward rising high above the plain on 
which Gloversville and Mayfield are located. 


a { 
peg. ‘DB 
it Dan F Et (a 
= > = DUT 
Ww lg oe tp a Eilen el Ltr ties 
A Aen == c. = UT 
-o8 E Z f 
“Y"-CREEK STA. I 


1 Mite 


FIGURE 8.— Sketch map of region north of Mayfield, and sections illustrating the relations of the 
faults. Horizontal scale two miles to oneinch. U. Uticaslate. JZ. Trenton limestone. OC. Calcifer- 
ous. P. Potsdam sandstone. A. Crystalline rocks. Ff. Faults. 


‘44 SII OT} 0F ,, SOSON,, 0} “A 'N ‘WISVE StoxVIdg vou WOT JOATI YMBYOW! OY} WMOP SUIyoo'yT 


‘9 HLV Id 


FAvuLtep Rzecion oF THE Monawk. 47 


North of Mayfield the Trenton, Birdseye, Calciferous, Potsdam 
and crystalline rocks are brought up in succession by the south- 
erly dip, east of the fault and the wide Utica slate area ends. 
In this vicinity it- was found that there is ‘a branch fault to the 
southward from the main dislocation, and a parallel fault which 
‘is intersected by this branch fault. Some.of the relations are 
shown in plate 2. The amount of these minor faults is not 
great and they appear to affect a relatively smallarea. The out- 
crops upon which my knowledge of their relations is based are 
not as numerous as could be desired, for there is considerable 
drift over the region. The outcrops observed and the structural 
deductions are represented in the map and sections on page 46. 

There are some indications in the topography that the minor 
parallel fault extends across the Sacandaga and up the depression 
in which Hope Falls are located. North of Northfield both faults 
are entirely in crystalline rocks and their courses were not 
specially studied. Two miles west of Northfield there is a small 
area of Calciferous apparently completely surrounded by crystal- 
line rocks and abutting against the “Noses” fault on its west 
side. | 

Fifteen miles north of Northfield, at Wells village, in the 
Sacandaga valley, an area of Paleozoic rocks was found lying 
against a fault scarp on its western side, and possibly faulted on 
the east side also. Its relations are shown in the following 
figure. 


P_awe 
4 


FIGURE 9.— Cross section of Sacandaga valley at Wells, Hamilton county, N. Y., looking north. 
U. Uticaslate. JT. Trenton limestone. C.Calciferous. P. Potsdam. A. Crystalline rocks. D. Drift. 


The Utica and Trenton formations are characterized by an 
abundant fauna. The Calciferous and Potsdam formations have 
their usual characteristics. The Utica slate and Trenton lime- 
stone are exposed very near the crystalline rocks on the west 
side, and they dip gently westward. 


48 REport oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Fonda Fauwt—The small uplift east of Fonda brings up a 
small area of Trenton limestone in the Mohawk valley, mainly 
in the north bank, where the formation rises thirty or forty feet 
above the river. The fault plane was not precisely located nor 
were any attendant phenomena observed. Its relations were 
shown in section A, plate 3, and on plate 2. The upthrow is on 
the western side, and the displacement amounts to about 125. 
feet. Heavy drift hides its northern extension. It may pass 
through the Utica slate area northward, and possibly be con- 
tinuous with the fault at Mayfield, but I have no positive 
evidence on this point. 

Tribes Hill Fault.— This fault is not of great prominence, but 
the limestone beds which it brings up have been extensively 
quarried, so that it is of considerable economic importance. The 
relations of the fault are shown in section A, plate 3, and in 
plate 2. The exposures are quite clear in the vicinity of the 
river and for some distance northward. To the south it is soon 
lost in the drift of the Schoharie valley or the adjacent hills of 
Utica slate and Hudson river. The Utica slate is exposed in the 
immediate vicinity of the fault at several points along its course, 
with the usual narrow zone of upturned beds varying in dip from 
40° to 60°, which die out gradually to the eastward. The amount 
of the displacement on the Mohawk river is about 200 feet. In 
the high hills about Perth the fault is heavily covered by drift, 
_and its northern extension could not be traced. It appears to die 
out in this region. 

Broadalbin Fault.— This fault is similar to the uplifts east of ~ 
Ephratah and near Dolgeville, in having the downthrow on the 
northwestern side. Its location is shown in plates 1 and 2. It 
is somewhat north of section B, plate 3. It trends east-north- 
‘east and west-northwest, passing half a mile north of Fonda’s 
Bush, and apparently it soon dies out to the east and west. 
Owing to heavy drift along its scarp its relations are for 
the most part concealed. In the creek, a half mile north of. 
Fonda’s Bush, the slate is seen tilted northeastward or obliquely 
away from the fault at an angle of 40°. The amount of disloca- 
tion at Fonda’s Bush is about 200 feet. The Calciferous is 
exposed on the hill a few rods to the southwest of the village, 


‘punorso10y ur Aydvsrdodo, 4yIIp ‘eouv_sIp s[PpIuU 9Y4 UI UIVyUNOy| youes,7 
{9Jel OJ MO IOSOIHOW “VAL JO Opis ysvo Suolv yne_ “AN ‘ssulidg vsoywrsg JO YOU WIJ 9dI00H OHV pAVMo, SUTYOOT 


. P ‘4 GLV Id 


FavuLtep REGion oF THE MonAawk. ) 49 


over an area of about half an acre, and the fault scarp is dis- 
tinctly traceable in the topography for a short distance to the 
northeast. The Calciferous appears again at Steven’s mill, and 
. the overlying Birdseye and Trenton limestones are exposed in a 
quarry a few rods east, and again at the next bridge above. 
Hoffman’s Ferry Fault.— This is the easternmost of the faults 
on the Mohawk. It brings up the Calciferous, Birdseye and 
Trenton formations over a wide area which extends up the river 
to two milesabove Amsterdam. The prolongation of the uplifted 
beds so far up the river is due to exceptionally low dips and a 
number of undulations, as in the case of the “ Noses” fault in the 
Canajoharie region. Neither the eastern front of the uplifted 
block nor the cliffs of Calciferous -along the river gorge are so 
_ prominent as at the “ Noses,” or about Little Falls, but they are 
conspicuous features. A series of gentle arches in the Calcifer- 
ous is finely exposed along the railroad and canal on the south 
side of the river, a mile below Cranesville. The Calciferous does 
not extend far south of the river, but is capped a short distance 
back by a low terrace of Trenton limestone, with high hills of 
Utica and Hudson river slate just behind. On the north side of 
the valley the Calciferous extends up the dip to a somewhat 
greater altitude than on the south side, and occupies a wider 
area. Behind Amsterdam, and for some distance east, it is capped 
by Trenton limestone in a relatively narrow tongue, which slopes 
southward. Near the fault there is an outlier of Trenton lime- 
stone bearing a low mound of Utica slate of small extent. To 
the north of these areas the Calciferous is bare over many square 
miles in a wide plateau which extends to the Sacandaga. The 
fault plane was not observed, but its course is clearly marked. 
It crosses the river just above the mouth of the little creek which 
empties from the north, a few hundred yards west of Hoffman’s 
Ferry. This creek flows over Utica slates which here dip 
steeply away from the fault. A mile and a half from the river 
the fault scarp is exhibited by thick-bedded Trenton limestone, 
with a small showing of Calciferous below. In a short distance 
farther the Trenton area ends, and the Calciferous gradually 
rises into a cliff which is sharply elevated above the Utica slate 
country eastward. The Calciferous continues for the next ten 


7 


50 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


miles in a line of cliffs and steep-slopes of considerable promi- 
nence. At a point about eight miles from the river, the mono 
clinal dip, aided possibly by the increased amount of the fault, 
brings up Potsdam sandstone. This formation emerges to a. 
thickness of 100 feet near Galway, but the fault then decreases 
somewhat in amount and extends into the crystalline area east 
of Galway, where it becomes obscure. It is largely marked by a 
heavy drift cover in this vicinity, and its relations are not well 
known. A short distance south of Galway the fault sends off 
three successive branches to the northeast. They are of the 
same type as the main fault, with uplift on the western side, and 
are clearly exhibited in the relations of two wedges of Trenton 
limestone, the easternmost of which rises above the Utica slate 
to the east along the scarp of the first fault. These relations 
are shown near the left-hand end of section B, plate 3, and also 
on plate 2, in both cases on a considerably exaggerated scale in 
order to render them distinct. These faults appear to finally die 
out to the northward. but there is much obscurity in this country 
due to heavy drift cover. Just south of East Galway there is a 
small inclosed area of crystalline rocks with cliffs of Potsdam 
sandstone just north, which is probably cut off by a continuation 
of one of these faults. 3 

Saratoga Faults.—The fact was long ago recognized that the 
springs at Saratoga issue along a line of dislocation which brings 
up the Calciferous to a moderate altitude above the plain east- 
ward. The Calciferous occupies a considerable area about Saratoga 
and dips beneath the Trenton limestones to the southward. To 
the northwest the dip brings up the Potsdam sandstone and 
crystalline rocks in succession, but to the northeast these are cut 
off by another fault along which the Calciferous abuts against 
the crystalline rocks. Farther west there is another fault of 
smaller.amount which somewhat offsets the belts of the several 
formations. : 

I am informed by Mr. Walcott who is familiar with this region 
that there is another fault in the western part of the village of 
Saratoga which breaks the continuity of certain Calciferous 
members for some distance, and Mr. McGee, who made a visit to 
the region some years ago, states that, at that time, there was evi- 
dence of a small branch fault extending from the Spring fault at 


‘YOOIPMVBS SNOTOJIO[VO JO PIO PUBSTIVA “A ‘N ‘WIoyUVT 1v08U 4[NVJ oY} EADGB HoorHN VpeuBH sua dn 3uryoo'y 


"8 ALV'Id 


Fauttep Recion oF THE MonAwkE. 51 


an angle of 60°, along the base of the cliff of Calciferous just 
north of the point at which the railroad crosses Broadway. 

The following three sections show the principal peed in the 
Saratoga region. 


nO Sevan cea ive 0viaus os bTEIETS OYTO 


FIGURE 10.— Cross sections through the Saratoga region, looking north. U. Uticaslate. JT. Trenton 
limestone. C.Calciferous. P. Potsdam. A. Crystallinerock. fF. Faults. 


The fault planes are not exposed so far as L could find, but in 
outcrops in their immediate vicinity no evidence of upturning of 
limestone or sandstone was observed.. East of the Spring fault 
the country is covered by drift, and there are no outcrops of 
Utica slate until in the vicinity of Saratoga lake. 

The faults of the Saratoga region trend approximately north- 
east and are essentially parallel. Their northern extension has 
not been fully determined, but the one which passes west and 
north of the village appears to follow the base of the steep front 
of crystalline rocks which crosses the Hudson river five miles 
west of Glens Falls and extends to Lake George. There are sev- 
eral exposures in this belt in which the Calciferous is exposed 
abutting against the crystalline rocks, although the precise con- 
tact was not found. It may be an overlap along a steep shore 


52 Report oF THe State GEOoLoGIstT. 


line, but its relations and the known presence of the fault south- 
ward strongly suggest a long dislocation. To the southward it 
gradually dies out a short distance southwest of Saratoga. The 
easternmost, or Spring fault, appears to extend southward to 
Ballston, if the continuation of the line of springs is an.evidence — 
of its existence, which is probable. It is entirely in Utica slate 
south of the Kissingen spring of Saratoga, for at that point the 
Trenton limestone on the west side of the fault dips beneath the 
Utica. slate. The westernmost fault in the Saratoga region is 
prominent for about three miles, as shown in the sections in 
figure 10. It extends into the crystalline rocks northward and 
into the Utica slate area southward, but these extensions were 
not followed. Bs, 

Lake George Fault.— The middle fault of the Saratoga region, 
as stated above, appears to extend to Lake George and along its 
eastern shore. For many miles its prominent scarp of crystalline 
rocks rises abruptly from the great sand plain eastward. For 
some distance south of Lake George the dislocation is entirely in 
crystalline rocks, but at the south end of the lake a small area of 
Calciferous is seen, and farther up the lake at Hill View and Bol- 
ton there are other small outliers of sedimentary rocks. The 
lower part of the lake basin appears to be excavated in the Cal- 
ciferous, for several outliers along its sides and others constitut- 
ing the southern islands indicate an extensive area of this forma- 
tion. There is a long strip of Calciferous on the east side of 
French mountain, probably cut off on the east by a fault which 
continues along the east shore of Lake George from Kattskill 
bay. Ata point two miles south of the East bay a small area 
of Trenton limestcne also abuts against this fault. The follow- 
ing section is intended to show the relations in this region. 


L- 
4 
Y 
ALIS HVGTS 


FIGURE 11.— Section from the south end of Lake George, eastward through French Mountain, looking 
north. 7. Trenton limestone. C. Calciferous. A. Crystalline rocks. #. French Mountain. 


Holland Patent.— There is a small fault exposed east of Hol. 
land Patent, which extends to a short distance west of Trenton. 
The amount of displacement is not over sixty feet at greatest, 


‘puNnoIsyOVq ut O4BIS BOI9N JO STIID Spunorse10jJ UI YOOIPUBS SNOTOFIOTVH 
JO sytjo {e8103 Jo w10430q UT sHOOI ouTTTVysAIO “A ‘N ‘SI[VA OTF JO JAvd Uslsysve oY} WIZ JOATA YMVYOY oy} dn suryooT 


6 ALVId 


FAuLtED REGIon oF THE MoHawk. | 53 


and the fault brings the middle beds of the Trenton limestone 
against the Utica slates, probably not far from their base. The 
relations are shown in the following figure: 


FIGURE 12.— Cross section, one mile north of HollandjPatent. U. Uticaslate. T. Trenton limestone. 
Looking north. Horizontalscale, one mile to one inch. Vertical scale exaggerated. 
2 . 


54 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


NOTE 
field Notes on the Geology of the Mohawk Valley, with a Map. 


(From the Annual Report of the State Geologist for 1885, pp. 8-10.) 


At Little Falls there are two parallel faults extending 45° 
east of north. One of these intersects the village and crosses 
the New York Central railroad at the high stone wall built | 
up from the river at the lower end of the village. The same 
fault: crosses the West Shore railroad just above the deep cut 
through the Labradorite, and this point is also occupied by an 
extensive filling and stone wall built up from the river level.* 

The second fault forms the eastern termination of the escarp- 
ment of gneiss and Calciferous below the village and is a mono- 
clinal. . 

Another monoclinal fault crosses the valley of the Mohawk 
river above the mouth of East Canada creek and brings up the 
Trenton limestone dipping to the west. } 

An anticlinal fault occurs just above Fort Plain. The Calcif- 
erous dips to the west, and across the line at Fort Plain the Birds- 
eye limestone is found dipping to the southeast. Just below the 
bridge at the last-mentioned locality is an exposure of Birdseye 
limestone, which preserves the remains of former pot-holes at a 
level of ten feet above the river, showing that at one time there 
was a natural dam and fall at this point. 

From Fort Plain to the “Little Nose” the strata lie in a broad 
synclinal with Canajoharie situated nearly in the center. 

Sections of the strata at Canajoharie and Spraker’s Basin are 
presented and make an interesting comparison. 

Section along creek entering the Mohawk river at Canajo- 
farce, N.Y. 


At Canajoharie the Calciferous is comparatively thin, bringing 
up underlying beds of limestone as shown in this section. Upon 
the undulating and worn surface of the Calciferous there is a 
very thin bed (1-3) of Trenton limestone without any intervening 


*The significance of the artificial structure mentioned may not be apparent at first sight. A line- 
of fault isa line of weakness. The rocks along such lines are usually much broken and eroded ; and 
the place of many faults in New York is indicated by lines of swamps, lake beds and river valleys. 
At Little Falls the strata are nearly everywhere exposed, and only along the line of this fault has it 
been necessary to fill in extensively and build secure foundations for the roadbeds. = 


FauLtep Rrcion oF THE MoHAwk. 55 


formations. The limestone is followed by the Utica slate, which 
is well developed. 3 

At Spraker’s Basin the Calciferous is quite extensive, forming 
the major part of the section, and is followed. by a thin bed of 
limestone, which represents the Chazy limestone. Following this 
is the Trenton limestone, reaching a thickness of from ten to fif- 
teen feet. 3 

Section along creek entering the Mohawk river at Spraker’s 
Basin, N. Y. 


i ma as 
Between Spraker’s Basin and Randall there is a very marked 
anticlinal fault, bringing up the gneiss in the bed of the river and 
giving origin to the “‘ Noses.” On the east side of the fault the. 
gneiss is found more than 150 feet above the river, rising as high 
as the Calciferous does on the opposite side of the fault line. 

Near the eastern line of this fault there is a cutting on the 
West Shore railroad, at a point known as the “Little Nose,” 
through the gneiss and Calciferous, showing the line of junction 
between these formations. This absolute line of junction is very 
interesting, geologically, on account of the great rarity of such 
exposures. 

The interval from the gneiss to the Calciferous represents the 
Huronian, Primordial and Potsdam, and is, comparatively speak- 
ing, one of great duration. These formations, represented else- 
where by many thousand feet of sediments, are here represented 
by from a few inches to several feet of breccia and loose chloritic 
and ferruginous material 

The material occupying this interval is derived from the 
decompusition of the gneiss and from some slight sedimentation, 
and contains a small per cent. of gold and silver, and is the first 
authenticated discovery of these minerals in the Mohawk valley. 
The amount of the metals is much too small to be of any particu- 
= importance, but their cccurrence is an interesting geological 

act. 

Following this loose material is a bed of breccia of variable 
thickness carrying fragments of crystalline limestone and Pots- 
dam sandstone. 


56 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


The details of the junction of the gneiss and Calciferous are 
given in the following section: 


Section in cut of West Shore railroad, at the “ Little Nose,” 


Randall, Montgomery county, N. Y. 


The Calciferous sandstone at the “ Little Nose” has a consider- 
able thickness and carries some small beds of hornstone, and 
contains many cavities, lined with quartz crystals similar to those 
of Little Falls, but not in such abundance or perfection. Some 
of the crevices in the rock have been filled with lime, by infiltra- 
tion, forming a calcareous tufa, and contain many bones of small 
animals and the shells of recent species of Helix. 

From the “Noses” to the escarpment crossing the Mohawk 
above Hoffman’s Ferry the rocks he in a broad synclinal, with 
some minor folds. This synclinal includes, al ng the river, the 
Calciferous sandstone, Trenton limestone and Utica slate It is 
terminated at Hoffman’s Ferry by a line of fault parallel to the 
other faults here described. 

Further details of the occurrence and distribution of the rock 
formations are given in the map accompanying this report, which 
records the observations made during the past season, no attempt 
having been made to incorporate it with the published geological 
maps of this region. 


Geological Survey of the State of New York— Geological Map 


“Ee OR T 


ON THE 


STRUCTURAL AND ECONOMIC GEOLOGY OF. - 


SENECA COUNTY 


JAMES HALL, he EENCOUN. NM De. 


StatE GEOLOGIST ASSISTANT 


REPORT. 


James Hatt, State Geologist : 


Srr.— In accordance with the request which you addressed to 
me last July, I have prepared an account of the Geology of 
Seneca county, from both a scientific and economic point of view. 
This I now have the honor to present. | 
In treating of geological matters proper, I have given much 
attention to topography and drift phenomena. In studying the 
palaeozoic rocks, the determination of boundaries of formations 
has been the principal object. Economic resources are spoken 
of under the heads of Quarries, Clay industries, Gas wells, 
Water-power, etc. 

A geological map is added, and original photographs, sketches 

and sections are employed in illustration. 
I desire to tender thanks to the Hon. A. M. Patterson, Hon. 
D. H. Evans, Hon. Diedrich Willers, Messrs. King and Robinson, 
Harrison, Chamberlain and others, who have rendered essential 
service to my work. 

I remain, very respectfully, 
Your obedient servant, 


D. F. LINCOLN. 
Guneva, N. Y., Movember 12, 1895. 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 


(GEOLOGICAL Jl 


Report on the Structural and Economic Geology 
of Seneca County. 


By D. F. LINCOLN, M. D. 


CoNTENTs : 


INTRODUCTORY. SURFACE GEOLOGY.— Topography of plateau, hills, ravines, 

- alluvial belt, drumlin belt, sand ridges, kame district, delta terraces, drift- 
filled channels, till, glacial striation, springs, Seneca lake. STRATIGRAPHIC 
GEOLOGY.— Salina group. Lower Helderberg group. Oriskany sandstone. 
Marcellus shales. Hamilton shales. Tully limestone. Genesee shales. 
Portage group. Thickness and dip. Economic GEOLOGY.— Clay, brick, tile, 
limestone, sandstone, plaster rock, road metal, gas wells, water power. 

The county of Seneca, selected for the present report, is fairly 
representative of central New York in point of geological devel- 
opment and in respect to its economic resources. 

Geologically, it presents the upper number of the Silurian 
formations, with the lower, middle and part of the upper Devo- 

nian. The formations exposed are the following: 


Devonian, upper: Portage sandstone and shale; Genesee | 
shale. 
‘. Devonian, middle: Tully limestone; Hamilton shale and 
limestone; Marcellus shale. 

Devonian, lower: Upper Helderberg limestone. 

Silurian: Water lime; Salina. 


Map of the County. 


The map here given is reproduced from a wall map of Seneca 
and Cayuga counties, published in 1859 by A. R. Z. Dawson, 
Philadelphia. ; 

In the copy, roads are denoted by single lines. Except in the 
northern part of the county, they are introduced sparingly, for 
the purpose of marking geological points. Hamlets are marked 


GroLoay or Seneca County. 61. 


with a doubled cross. Dotted lines are used to outline two of 
the swampy districts,and the kame district. The direction of the 
meridian is given by the western boundary of Junius. Quarries, 
with slight exceptions, belong either to the Upper Helderberg or 
the Portage; they are marked with across. Special marks are 
used for other outcrops of the Lower Helderberg, Marcellus, base 
of Hamilton (H), Tully, Genesee, and Portage; those for the 
Marcellus and Genesee shales being parallel lines, those for flag- 
' stones being oblong figures. Dotted lines mark supposed bound- 
aries of formations. The outlines of the Upper Helderberg, 
in western Waterloo, are hypothetical, being drawn straight 
in the direction of the marsh exposures in Phelps. Many streams 
are omitted; cataracts are not marked. 

The Portage, Lower Helderberg and Salina groups do not dis- 
play their whole thickness in Seneca county. The fauna of the 
former is intermediate between that of Ithaca and that of the 
Genesee region, but is essentially a part of the former. 

Glacial geology is well represented by drumlins, sheet till, 
striations, eskers, kames, delta-terraces, and large deposits of clay 
and sand. : ) . 

The economic resources comprise building stone (limestone, 
flags), cement-rock, rock for the lime-kiln, gypsum, gravel and 
sand, road material, clay for making brick and tile, gas wells, 
water-power, mineral springs, swamp deposits. 

The section of Seneca county (fig. 30) illustrates (1) the 
changes in angle of dip; (2) position of Seneca lake, beginning 
at the outlet; (3) the inferential position of strata at a distance 
below the ee bottom, assuming that the Hamilton formation 
remains of uniform eee 


Topography of the Plateau. 


The land surface of Seneca county comprises somewhat over 
300 square miles; the length from north to south is 32 miles, the 
breadth from 7 to 14. On the north and south the boundaries 
are artificial; on the east and west they are formed by Cayuga 
and Seneca lakes with their northward extensions. 

Seneca county does not compose a geographical unit, but 
embraces parts of the New York plateau and of the low plain 
which stretches to Lake Ontario. The passage from one to the 
other of these two geographical features is at this point exceed- 


LEG? REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


ingly gradual. Farther eastward they are sharply demarcated by 
the Helderberg escarpment, of which the western extremity may 
be conceived as reaching to Union Springs, Cayuga county. In 
Seneca county the change occurs by a slow and equal rise of 
about 400 feet along 14 miles of nearly plain country between 
Seneca Falls and Ovid. The first great rise occurs at Ovid vil- 
lage, where the Portage rock forms an escarpment of 150 feet, 
without cliffs, but sloping steeply to the north and west. 

The country may also be considered as a section of the Pinger- 
lake region (fig. 1). This name is applied to that portion of the 
plateau which extends from Lake Conesus on the west to Lake 
Otisco on the east, and is bounded southward by the divide 
between the St. Lawrence and the Susquehanna watersheds. 
The divide is marked more or less continuously by masses of 
moraine material, filling the valleys in places to the depth of 
many hundreds of feet, but becoming inconspicuous on higher 
ground. The moraine, as a whole, has been considered by some 
as corresponding to a “second glacial period.” 

The region thus indicated is deeply cut by a series of ancient 
(pre-glacial) river-valleys, roughly parallel and converging to 
some northern point. Seneca county lies between the deepest of 
these, Seneca and Cayuga lakes..-It occupies the middle or 
axial part of the Finger-lake region, which is also the lowest. 
Its outlines appear to indicate great erosion during the Ice Age, 
with general flattening, which has probably removed all distine- 
_ tions of relief and depression north of the outcrop of the Cor- _ 
niferous limestone, though a few hills remain, greatly flattened, _ 
on the south. 

The mean depth of Seneca lake valley, measured from the 
Lodi plateau, is 1,000 feet, of which one-half is below the water 
of the lake. 

The distinction between plateau and valley is striking when 
one stands on high ground. From the surface of the lakes the 
valley alone is visible; this is especially true of Seneca lake. — 


Hills. 

The trough-like appearance of the lake-valleys of this region 
has often been remarked. They appear destitute of side-hills; 
or rather this feature does not come in sight except by close 
study. 


ee ee on) 


eg 
SS ?e 
SSS “ 


: XK 
a) 
Figure 1. Map of the Finger-lake Region, the d 


otted line showing the 
water-shed. 


Grotogy or Seneca County. } 63 


Such hills as exist scarcely rise more than 100 feet above the 
level country anywhere in this county, and their forms are so. 
flattened that they make little impression on the eye. There is 
an exception to this at the southern border of the county, where 
the topography changes; great flat hills rise several hundred feet 
above the table land, with fine valleys, leading south to a series of 
_ interlacing valleys, which characterize the country back of Burdett, 
and are repeated east and west beyond the lakes, adding greatly 
to the picturesque beauty of Schuyler and Tompkins counties. 


FIGURE 2. 


The sketch (fig. 2) represents the east side of Seneca lake, 
_ southern half. It was taken from a high point above Watkins 
village. The apparent point of land on the left is formed by the 
descent of Lodi and Ovid townships to the lake. Three or four 
long hills, from 400 to 600 feet high, are seen occupying the 
plateau ; their valleys are high above Seneca lake, and do not 
communicate with it as valleys, but send their streams down the 
steep lakeside in thread-like gorges, too small to be drawn here. 
The hill farthest to the left projects (as just stated) into Seneca 
county under the name of Prospect, formerly Butcher’s, Hill. 

Collectively, these large hills indicate a second lift in the level 
of the plateau. The formation continues to be Portage. The 
flatness of their summits is characteristic. Prospect Hill com: 
prises about one-third of a mile of ascent on each side (E-W), 
with half a mile of almost dead level on top, the outlines being 
essentially formed of rock. The hill is a type of the southern 
half of the county, which is like a house-roof, flat over the topand 
pitching rapidly toward the eaves. The lakeward slopes each 
way occupy two miles or less of the breadth of the county. 
They are in many places subdivided into several terraces or steps, 
each with a nearly perfect level surmounting a short rise. 


64 ReEportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


The smaller hills, lying south of the “Outlet” (Seneca river), 
- deserve attention, as representing an extreme degree of glacial 
action. As a rule, they are not of drift, but of the country rock; 
those of the Canoga region being probably an exception. A 
_ number are composed of Marcellus shale, e. g., the one on which 
the Swan farm stands, near the outlet of Seneca lake, which is 
_ rather steep northward, with a thin coating of till, while southward 
it has but a slight descent, emerging into a tract with heavier drift. 
There are several hills of Marcellus shale to the eastward, with 
a tendency to the ridge form, bluff northward, and merging into 
levels southward; they are hardly continuous enough to be called 
an escarpment, though occupying an alignment along the north- 
ern limit of theformation. They project much more prominently 
than the Corniferous limestone exposures, which lie to the 
northward. | 
_ Marcellus shale, capped with basal Hamilton limestone, forms 
the elevated mass (200 feet above the lake) two miles south of 
the Swan hill. It is steep northward, with a long fall of 100 
feet to the south. Both of these hills form on the west broad, 
low slopes of rock running to Seneca lake, where they are cut 
off in cliffs. 


A large hill of Hamilton,shale lies southeast of the latter hill, 
near MacDougal’s. Its base is about 170 feet above the lake. 

East of these three hills the flat valley of Kendig’s creek is an 
obvious feature, bounded on the east. by continuous table land, 
chiefly rock. The table rises into several hills, peculiarly 
grouped, on the west of Bearytown (Fayette) village, composed 
in part of moraine (2). 

The very large and striking hill of Hamilton shale which rises 
‘at the side of Cayuga lake, northeast of Hayt’s Corners, belongs 
in the present category ; there are also a few slight ridges in the 
central table land, but nothing more of special note north of the 
outcrop of Tully limestone. 

As before hinted, these hills, with Kendig’s valley, appear to 
form the remains of a topography which may have existed in a 
much bolder form previous to the Ice-Age. Their distribution is 
not inconsistent with a drainage topography. 

The forms are all so flattened and the breadth so great as to 
make photographic representation difficult. Seen as a whole, 


GroLocy or Smnreca County. 65 


from high points in Geneva, the county presents a continuous 
horizontal sky-line as far to the south as Ovid. 


' ~) ’ 
' NV : 
! &3 2 
: SE ! 
! cee 
° : =e ‘ W 
en ae ist 
: ce ; ——— 
; LO Reet 1° 
’ Lak z 
: WW) 
. Weds it AZ, 
‘ P = F] = = 
r) au : a 
, NQ 
' Ni} 
4! S 
t a 
alli , sf 
a | im 
‘ ee ol | 
‘ Hj ~ ie ape 
‘ 38 i 
‘ 2 a4 ANP QU, 
} = Ss 
: 4,B= 
a Se ie 
ro fy luff \ 
v i MY 
= es 
Sie ae ty a= 
wh ELIA 


f¢ 


Ca 


whee Wis, 


* FIGURE 3. 


66 REPORT. OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Let figure 3 represent the neighborhood of the northern end 
of Seneca lake. G — Geneva village. On the west the lake is 
filled with drift, found by borings to be 212 feet deep; but on 
the east the floor of the lake is here mostly rock. Opposite A 
and B, on a still day, one may see the flat surfaces of shale, with 
geometric joints, under the water, at 350 feet from shore, the 
water being there three and five feet deep in the present low con- 
dition of the lake (October, 1895). The rock bluffs are 20 and 30 
feet high, respectively, indicating a slope of 1:15 and 1:10 prior to 
the modern lake erosion which gave rise to the cliffs. 

The summits of A and B are elongated north and south: 
Their lower bulks of rock run down into the lake, with axes 
more E-W, which is a normal attitude of side hills toward the. 
main valley, i.e. the lake bed. The supposed ancient valleys of 
side streams tributary to the river occupying the lake bed are 
indicated by “ Drift,” between A-B and B-C. One still carries 
a stream; the other does not. The drift is of moderate thick 
ness, reaae a couple of feet, on the lifts of rock, and exceed- 
ing 80 feet in places in the sags. | 

This case is not isolated, but presents the key to the excessively 
flattened lakeside topography. All along the lake the rock alter- 
nately forms low lifts and depressions of a mile or two in length, 
rising from 5 to 60 feet and more, and sinking correspondingly 
beneath the lake. The dip eee may equal the rise above the 
lake, northerly ; but from Willard, south, the only important aap 
is at Lamoreaux, the rest being a wall of cliff. 

There are no bends, synclinal or anticlinal, of sufficient import- 
ance to account for these hills. Farther to the south there is a 
slight anticlinal of 15 feet in the heavy green shale of the “hog 
back” in the eastern part of the Willard Hospital property, west 
of Ovid. This ridge runs E-W, and is divided by a 30-fvot cut . 
through which the Lehigh Valley road passes. . 

Other E-W hills occur west of Bearytown. In this curious 
group the eastern half consists mainly of shale. There is a 
very good exposure of the basal Hamilton limestones in the 
creek which bisects the group; and roadside exposure of shale 
(with glacial strie) farther west, on the N-S ridge. The 
three-branched cluster has the aspect of being composed of drift; 
and its S-E prolongation to and across the brook strongly — 


‘S[[Bq Yoouuvysnvy, ‘fF omsrqz 


RM IR 


oe mre 


E 
.$. 


‘T “LV Id 


Soe ee 


GroLocy or Smnrca County. Gr? 


reminds one of a moraine ridge: the material where exposed 
being till. 

At Ovid village there are several drift hills, taking more or less 
the form of ridges (not N-S). Some six or seven miles 8S. E. of 
the village there are a number of till ridges running approxi- 
mately N. W.—S. E.; with a general excess of drift material 
along the eastward slope of the country. i 


Ravines. 


The most striking and beautiful natural features of this region 
are the ravines, formed by the rapid descent of a great number 
of short streams to the lakes on each side. They are, of course, 
of post-glacial origin, and the comparative shortness of their 
existence is seen in the retention of vertical sides, in the shales 
equally with the sandstones. The joints traverse all the forma- — 
tions alike, from the Corniferous limestone upward; being, for 
the two main directions, N. 20°-30° W., and N. 75°-85° E., and 
nearly vertical; these joint planes often delimit the entire wall 


_ of aglen, aided by minor and less constant ones. Their effect 


upon the rock scenery is shown in the views of Taughannock and 
Lodi glens, and King’s Ferry cliff. (igs. 4, 5, 6.) 

The height of the unbroken fall of water at Taughannock is 
given at 215 feet. Until recently it fell over a straight edge of 
rock, but this has been broken in the manner shown in the view. 
There is a considerable and picturesque fall just above the main 
one, but concealed from sight. ‘ihis, being the highest fall of 
water in the State (Niagara — 165 feet), should not pass unmen- 
tioned, although it lies a mile or two outside of the boundaries of 
Seneca county. 

A still more remarkable effect is produced where the stream 
falls over the Tully limestone, with a good thickness of Hamilton 
shale beneath. In such cases the stream is often hardly more 
than a sloping ditch in the field above, and would attract no 
attention ; it has been unable to excavate the limestone. Its fall 
is most unexpected; the limestone is broken into a square face, 
jutting corniee-like overa deep jug-like chasm hollowed inthe shale 
beneath. This is repeated in many streams on the Cayuga lake 
side of the county. The type for the Portage formation is a high 
vertical wall, as at Taughannock, with a small ravine above 


68 ReEport oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


The basal limestone of the=Hamilton is marked by a high fall — 
40 feet) at Big Hollow creek and several smaller ones elsewhere. 

The photographs were taken during the dry season of 1895, 
and for that reason fail to give a just impression of the beauty 
which many of the glens display at other times. 

The view of the rock-wall (Portage shale and sandstone) at 
Lodi (fig. 5) was taken from the top of the‘opposite wall, looking 
south. It includes a great part of the height or near 150 feet. 
The fissures of the joints may be seen traversing equally the 
upper (Portage) and the lower (Genesee) rock. The front of the 
waterfall, which is not given here, is so divided into blocks and 
steps that when dry it can be ascended_to the top. The change 
in tint from light to dark at a certain distance from the top indi- 
cates the occurrence of shales resembling the Genesee in the 
lower Portage. 

The cliff at King’s Ferry (fig. 6), though outside of the county, 
represents more perfectly than any other view known to me the 
vertical cleavage of the Hamilton shale. The surfaces are not 
weathered, but are fresh exposures made by widening the road- 
bed of the railway. With these should be compared the view of 
the Portage shales near North Hector ae 7), which show long 
weathering. 

Alluvial Belt. 


The preceding descriptions apply only to the southern half of 
the county, including the township of Varick. The Cornif- 
_erous tract presents no ravine scenery; the Salina only in 
the lower part of Seneca river and a little of Black Brook. | 
In the north these districts are covered with drumlins, while 
Waterloo, Seneca Falls and Fayette are chiefly an alluvial plain, 
covered with clay, sandand swanp. _ 

The clay belt is two miles wide at East Geneva at the foot 
of the lake, increasing to twice that width as it goes eastward. 
Seneca river runs obliquely through it. Where exposed by sec- 
tions the clay does not seem to exceed 10 or 12 feet in depth, and 
is often much less. 

Sand is found interstratified between upper and lower beds of 
clay at Waterloo and near Geneva. It bounds the clay on the 
north, covering a great part of Waterloo, except such tracts as 
are swampy. Near its southern limit it may often be observed 


‘Ipo'yT ‘ues resivyl {speq esey1og puw seseuey JO youJuUOH ‘G oINnSIT 


‘6 ALVId 


GroLocy or SENECA County. 69 


to overlie the clay-sheet. It is disposed in irregular ridges and 
low hills, which are conspicuous as one travels by rail from 
Waterloo to Geneva, and, in fact, over most of Waterloo; but 
southward, near the Seneca river, its contours are chiefly due to 
local drainage (swales and ridges). These sands are continuous 
with kame deposits on the north. 

Further remarks on the clays are deferred to a later section. 

The northern half of Seneca Falls township is neither clay nor 
sand in the main, but largely till or “loamy and moderately 
a. 

| Drumlin Belt. 

To complete the account of the sand deposits, it would be 
necessary to describe those surrounding the kame and those 
fringing the drumlin belt along its southern edge. These will 
be mentioned in place. 

The two townships of Junius and Tyre are nearly covered with 
long ridges of till for the most part, straight and narrow, with 
axes nearly N-S. They belong with the series described by 
Johnson in 1882, and which is well known as covering a large 
part of Monroe and Wayne counties. They extend much farther 
west, however, than Monroe, and form an important part of the 
geology from Auburn to Syracuse. | 

When observed, the material of these ridges consists of till of 
a buff-brown color, containing striated subangular stones as is 
usual. A thin layer of sand is sometimes seen on the top. 
Much of the level ground is also stony, with evidence of till, 
though clay is found in many spots and a moderate amount of 
vegetable deposit or muck. 

The country, irrespective of these ridges, is nearly level, but 
has a slight fall to the north and a moderate fall in all directions 
from the West Junius kames. 

The largest of these ridges is much inferior to those of Wayne 
county, but may reach 80 to 100 feet in height. From this they 
_ grade downward to little ridge-like elevations of five feet in 
height and a furlong in length. Even these are quite distinct to 
the eye, rising from the uniformly level plain. The north ends 
are often bluff and the south ends tail off to a general equality 
with the plain. When they happen to be short this justifies the 
name of “tadpole hills.” Some, however, by their length sug- 


70 ReEport oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


gest that they belong rather to the esker class. The post-road . 
at McGee’s Corners runs north over a low ridge of this sort, just 
wide enough at top for a road, and very gradually increasing in 
height to about 30 feet, when it descends suddenly. South from 
the Corners it runs another mile. This ridge appeared to be of 
till, however. 

Fig. 8 shows the north end of a ridge, rising directly from - 
a clay plain, and displaying correctly the steep angle which the 
sides often take. Fig. 9 is not over 15 or 20 feet above the plain. 
Fig. 10 gives “ Whisky Hill” (a title now inapplicable), with 
ruined tavern and well kept schoolhouse. The ridge is hard to 
distinguish from the rest of the landscape, but forms a wall 
across the picture; a slope at Ene left (north) and right may be 
noticed. 


FIGURE 11.— Drumlin or ridge seen from Kame, in north-west corner of Junius. Left hand, north; 
line of sight, north-east. 


The absence of drumlins south of the southern boundary of 
Junius and Tyre requires an explanation, which I have not to 
offer. Westward, across Seneca lake, they push into and far to 
the south of Geneva. Eastward, they run along Cayuga lake in 
- Seneca county, until opposite Cayuga village, where again there 
are many east of the lake, on the road to Auburn. The theory _ 
that the drumlin belt is the remains of a moraine does not seem 
to coincide with this geographical distribution, for a moraine 
ought to have pushed farther south, along this meridian of low 
levels, by probably 20 miles, and should have left plain residua 
in Varick and Romulus. 

The southernmost drumlins in the county are these: One of 
large size two miles N. E. of Seneca Falls village, north of the 
canal bridge, and another of less height, south of the bridge, 
three-fifths of a mile long and 30 feet or less in mic over 
which the road to Bridgeport runs. 

The prolonged valley of Cayuga lake runs as marsh land 
northward between walls of drumlins on either side. 


‘Ayanoo vsndvep ‘Arsaq sSuryz ‘OSBVABETO [BOI}IOA Surmoys 


SWE TS Sec chee 


eae | Coe nao 


‘€§€ MLV Id 


‘SO[BYS UOPIUIBA ‘9 OINSTT 


GroLoagy or Seneca County. 71 


The map of the drumlins here given (fig. 12), is a reproduc- 
tion from a map of Seneca county, made in 1852, by William T. 
Gibson, surveyor, known by repute as a careful, painstaking and 
accurate man. So far as I have been able to compare his work 
with observations of my own, it is correct; and asa whole it 
certainly gives a clear and faithful idea of the singular topog- | 
raphy of the country. The meridian line crosses the ridges at a 
small angle. It is not asserted that all these hills are of till. 
Of many that have been inspected, one has been found to consist 
of sand and gravel along its southern half, as indicated. The 
kame hills are omitted; they are very complicated and are not 
well given by Mr. Gibson. 


Sand Ridges. 


The association of sand with these ridges deserves attention. 
Light deposits of sand and gravel are frequent on their summits, 
as is the case in New England, and would suggest that at some 
stage (probably quite late in the disappearance of the ice sheet) 
super-glacial streams flowing southwards frequently occupied - 
crevasses in the ice coinciding with the tops of the ridges. 
Physical reasons might be suggested for the preference of ice- 
crevasses for the tops of earth ridges. 

At Mr. David H. Evans’s, in the northeast corner of Tyre, is 
a ridge, proved by the cutting, to consist of till, at least at that 
point. The outline of the ridge is unlike that of a typical drum- 
lin, it being carved deeply and irregularly by water to the north; 
but southward it develops to a straight ridge, becoming very 
sandy and yielding, with a parallel ridge adjoining, of similar 
nature, quite humpy and irregular, with axis about N. 5° W. 
magnetic. 

A couple of miles north of Seneca Falls village, west of Black 
Brook, the road partly follows a train of sand deposits which 
runs two miles to the State road, east of Magee’s. The direction 
taken, on the whole, is N. 5° W. magnetic. It begins southward 
in low sand hills, nearly continuous, which diverge from the line 
of road and become higher at a point where excavated for sand 
and gravel. Here they form a group of hills some 20 fet 
above the plain. The continuity is interrupted northward for 


72 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


short distances, but at last the line changes from hillocks to a 
straight single ridge, which becomes more abundant in stones, 
and after crossing the State Road presents a top soil well 
filled with typical drumlin material. Smaller sand trains lie 
parallel to this, east and west. A mile to the eastward les a 
large ridge of similar material and extent (see Gibson’s map), which 
near its southern end develops into a veritable little kame-group of 
’ sand hills, covered in parts with several feet of gravel dipping at a 
high angle from the center. Here is another “sand quarry”, — 
used for many years to supply building material for the neigh- 
boring country. Farther to the east there are undulations for 
‘a mile or two, of the same character. Westward, the plain 
toward Waterloo looks unbroken, but other exposures of sand 
(probably similar) exist on the westward line north of that 
village. . 
Kame District. 


The above series of ridges of modified drift, forming a fringe 
to the drumlin district, must probably be connected with that 
much larger group of kame hills which lies at the western bound- 
ary of Junius, opposite Mitchell’s station on the Geneva and 
Lyons railroad. : 

This latter group is about two miles in diameter in either 
direction, consisting of gravel and sand hills, 0 to 50 feet 
high, embracing deep basins which contain several lakelets. 
. The topography is very irregular and is well shown in the view, 
Figure 13, which gives only-one of the ponds. Around the region 
of hills lies a belt of sand on the east, south and west, which 
evidently belong to it. In many places the sand is gullied very 
deeply, especially on the steep slope westward to the outlet of 
Canandaigua lake, which runs in a rather deep valley for these 
parts. The rise from the surface of the stream to the high 
gravel hill at the north face of the kame is, by hand-level, 150 
feet. Several other high points are of nearly equal elevation. 
Figure 14 shows a part of the sand-slope toward the outlet. 
To the east the descent is much less, and the swales are of lesser 
size. Southward, the sand runs about six miles, stopping a 
couple of miles before reaching Seneca lake; it is continuous 
S. E. to Waterloo and W. to Oaks Corners. The large sand hills 


‘10P9H UWON :spoq ysemoy ‘sytpo eSvqrog@. ‘2, oanS1qz 


y ALVId 


"2 
* 


Rates. tm 
i erie - "ACM 
i> 


GEOLOGY oF SenEcA County. 73 


in and immediately around the kame diminish to hillocks farther 
south. 

The sand is a buff red, of various shades, quite fine, composed 

of angular and partly rounded grains of quartz with reddish 
clayey matter adhering to them. Its fertility is variable. 
Rather numerous stones are found on the surface and in sections, 
in the main portion, growing scarce at the border. 
_ Mr. Boughton, surveyor, of Waterloo, informed me of a belt 
of “ white sand” running E—W in the low ground north of Black 
Brook. “The Pines” is a popular name for a part of this dis- 
trict; its scenery suggests the southern Atlantic cvast. Thesand 
is gray from admixture of vegetable matter; its loss of color is 
probably due to the deoxidizing action of the latter upon the iron 
of the red sand. It is commonly considered very poor land, but 
it has good crops of vegetables if well treated. 
_ The scenery of the kame district is very irregular. The gravel 
is mostly in the north center, in ridges and humps. The sand 
hills on the south are in part high E-W ridges, occasionally two 
or three running parallel with narrow valleys between. The 
features are morainic ; except where drainage has evidently gov- 
erned, as is the case in the westerly sand-slope with its parallel 
channeling. | 

We may assume that this group of deposits marks the debouche- 
ment of some ice river at the edge of the ice-sheet, into an 
enlarged and deeper Seneca—Cayuga lake. If so, the signs of the 
river must be sought in fluviatile deposits on the north. 

Two lines of such deposit are traceable, running nearly N-S, 
and ending in or near the kame. Sand and.gravel are found in 
each ; the deposits of the two materials being distinct and un- 
mingled. 

Beginning two miles north, the eastern line begins with rolling 
hills of small height, followed by an abrupt hill of gravel, of 
morainic shape, much higher. This gravel-bluff pushes south as 
a high, flat ridge of very sandy till-material, or sand with many 
till-stones; the sides very much incised with channels of drainage; 
descending to the plain just before reaching the kame. 

The western line comprises one or more drumlins coincident 
with trains of sand and gravel. Beginning two miles north and. 


tracing it south : 
10 


74 Report oF THE State Groxocist. 


1. A railway cut of afew feet in depth traverses the ridge 
at a low point. The narrow ridge rises rapidly to the south; 
barely wide enough for a wagon; gravelly. Reaching the 
height of 50 (?) feet it becomes very sinuous and humpy, with 
steep sides; wanders a short distance about on a table- like hill 
(20-300 feet wide), and is lost. 

2. The table, some way southward, descends; contin as a 
straight, well-rounded ridge 25 feet high, appaliae composed ; 
of till, S. 5° E. for a quarter of a mile; ae widens and becomes 
knolly for half a mile. 

3. A long, straight N-S valley splits the ridge in two. The 
west branch becomes much higher and takes on the habit of a 
till-ridge, descending when near the kame, and marked on its 
well-rounded top with a longitudinal groove 2U0 feet long. The 
east branch diverges very slightly, remains low (30 feet ?), has a 
sandy soil with a number of stones, and a rolling surface. 
Finally it changes at once to a very narrow, tortuous ridge 
of heavy gravel, which runs (with a short break in the swamp) 
half a mile to the central parts of the kame. 

The gravel ridge begins exactly where the sand vided ceases, 
with a partial disconnection of continuity, and indications as if 
the former emerged from the pond just at that point. 


Delta Terraces. 


The “ points ” at. Sheldrake and Lodi afford excellent examples 
of the formation of modern deltas. They correspond with two 
of the largest local streams, and represent the drift and rock 
brought down by the streams since the lake has stood at its 
present level. Projecting a quarter of a mile into the respective 
lakes, with a greater breadth, at points where the descent of the 
bottom is steep, they indicate a very large amount of filling. 

Along the sides of these and most of the other streams. we find 
important accumulations of the same materials that compose the 
modern deltas. In part, these masses form low walls or embank- 
ments running continuously for long distances on both sides of 
the gullies. This may be seen in the region of steep slopes south 
of Kidder’s ferry. The streams here run parallel and very near 
each other, so that there is but a moderate space between two 


‘sniung ‘y410u 07 puso SutAv{dsip esprit prourjmniq ‘g ernst 


‘S MLV Id 


GroLocy or Seneca County. | 5 


neighboring embankments; a space which at first and for a 
moment suggests the notion that one has to do with a valley, the 
embankments being its walls. 

In other places the gravel is accumulated in terraces like 
cushions to the right and left of the ravine, having steep slopes 
crowned with little plains. In the section of the: main ravine at 
Lodi falls this is seen to occur several times, while the upper - 
deposits are more irregular and run together. (Fig. 16 ) 


Lodi 
StaTion 


34 


Saneca lake £4 | d 


—_oet 2s ws = = @ ~ © ®& &® 6&6 os © «© & &F & @ eoeoemCUmW@lmlCUC HCO 


FIGURE 16.— Levels of raised delta terraces on north side of Lodi glen. (The elevation of Lodi is 
785.1’ A. T., or 844/ above lake.) 


The photographs (figs. 19, 20), taken at Willard a few years ago, 
represent sections of terrace-masses of this description. Those 
here given are on the lake front, and rise to the height of 50 feet 
above the water. The main bulk is made up of gravel and sand, 
with two or three thin strata of clay. - The excavation, made 
for obtaining sand, was then recent. 

A very large section of one of these delta-terraces has been 
recently made along the main line of the Lehigh Valley railway, 
at North Hector. The station at that point is 872.7 feet above 
mean high tide—432 feet above Seneca lake. The deposit, | 


78 Report oF THE Strate Groxocist. 


which is in full view and close to the station, rises 100 feet 
higher — 973 ft. This is decidedly above the divide at Horse- 
heads, near Elmira, and probably nearly corresponds with the 
highest point that the lake attained. it should be compared 
with the level of the country at Watkins, given by Fairchild as 
Joo Baia 

The terraces consist mainly of esis, with some sand and 
clay. Amorg the pebbles are many which retain the form and 
to a slight extent the markings of till- RIDES having been trans- 
ported but a short distance. 7 

The most acceptable theory of the origin of these delta- 
terraces is that which refers them toa former higher level of the 
water of the lakes. The highest deposits of this class attained an 
elevation which would imply that all of the county north of 
Ovid was under water (or ice), so that the two lakes may have 
formed one body of water. 

The period to which this is referred is the close _ the Ice Age, 
while the ice-sheet was melting back from its southern limit, the 
moraine. At first the water would be confined to the valleys 
south of Ithaca and Watkins; the outflows occupying independ- 
ent channels by which they were led to the Susquehanna valley. 
With the-recession of the ice, a point would be reached where the 
two lakes could communicate with each other; as soon as this 
occurred, a rush of water from Cayuga to Seneca lake would 
occur, reducing the level of the former by 140 feet, since the out- 
let for Seneca lake at Elmira was 900 feet above tide, while that of 
Cayuga (Fairchild, Gilbert) is 1,040, at Spencer Summit. At this 
stage Seneca lake would be even higher than when it had only 
its own drainage to provide for. The mass of water derived 
from the melting ice was incomparably greater than that now 
known to us; sufficient to have converted the lake into a flowing 
stream three miles wide. 

A third stage began when the recession of the ice front had 
carried it so far north that an outflow became possible to the 
eastward into the Mohawk valley. During this stage the lakes 
appear to have sunk, sometimes by a continuous slow depression, 
at other times with stages of rest. To the continuous sinking 
would correspond the lateral ridges of deposit fringing the 
streams; to the stages of rest, the terraces with nearly level tops. 


‘sniung ‘4yS1ey [Teus Jo eSprix prlouryumnzaq ‘6 WNIT 


‘9 ALVId 


je, 
a 2 
y 


oe oe 


| Aviacsa GroLogy or Seneca County. UT 

Each stream has cut through its own terraces successively in 
seeking lower levels, carrying away large amounts of drift to 
add to the new delta. | 

It is probable that, during the latter part of this (third) stage, 
- toward its close, there was one rather protracted period of rest 
or equilibrium, with the water 100 feet above its present level, or 
not much higher. For this view there are several coinciding 
bases. 1. The clay at Geneva rises to the level of 100 feet, 
scarcely more, and then thins out or disappears.. Traced west- 
ward along the Lehigh Valley railroad, it rises to about the same 
_ height, giving place to sand hills about half a mile S. E. of Oaks 
Corners station. (This station is 564.3 A. T.; that at Geneva is 
491.1, making a rise of 7.3 feet; Oaks Corners is 123 feet above 
Seneca lake.) 2. The elevation of the kame deposits is very near 
100 feet above Seneca lake. These deposits represent the dis- 
charge of a glacial river at a late period into the conjoined 
Seneca—Cayuga lake. 3. The lowest terrace at Lodi is 110 feet 
above the lake. 

The delta-terraces are confined to the southern half of the 
county. On the west side of Seneca lake they run much farther 
north; there is a well-marked one four miles south of Geneva 
(mouth of Slate Rock Glen). 

Lines of beach connecting the delta terraces have been sought 
for by various observers with little or no success. Wave action 
is of subordinate effect in narrow waters. Beach ridges fringing 
delta-terraces are not found, as far as | know, in Seneca county 
but are handsomely shown at Kashong creek, eight miles south 
of Geneva. Elevated lines of cliff have not been found as yet. 

A study of the terraces, limited to Seneca county, would have 
comparatively little value. In their best development they 
occupy the upper half of both lakes and extend south up the val- 
leys of inlet. Their relations to each other and to the points of 
outflow require much study, based on complete and accurate 
measurements, which have yet to be made. 

The section of the Lodi terraces is based on hand-level measure- 
ments, the total error of which was small, the estimate being 347 


feet of elevation above the lake, while that of the L. V. R. R. is 
344. 


78 Report oF THE Strate GEOLOGIST. 


Drift-filled Channels. 

The most important are the channels of the two lakes, which 
are evidently choked with deposits. The Nester well, sunk at 
Geneva three years ago, about five feet above the lake, along the 
north shore, one-sixth of a mile from the proper border of the lake 
valley, struck rock at 212 feet. The mixed deposits comprised 
blue and other clay, sand, gravel, till-stone and large bowlders. 

The Seneca river, leaving the lake of the same name at its 
N. E. part, flows over Corniferous rock for a mile at Waterloo; 
and again for two miles over Salina rock at Seneca Falls. There 
is some reason to believe that a much deeper ancient channel, 


parallel with Seneca river, or crossing it in places, is concealed — 


under the drift. | 

The evidence consists in the statement of those under whose 
care the gas wells at Seneca Falls were drilled; to the effect that 
the three wells, Nos. 7, 5 and 6, lying nearly in a straight line in 
the north part of the village, struck rock at 70, 60, 75 feet 
respectively. This line protracted eastward strikes a part of the 
river where the cliffs of plaster rock disappear, reappearing 
farther east. To this add, that in well No. 7 it is said that gravel 
was encountered at intervals below 70 feet, until a depth of 200 
feet was reached. | 


Till, in general. 


The character of the till varies in correspondence with that of 
the underlying rock, as is usual. This is most plainly shown in 
the till which covers the Upper Helderberg rocks, where the 
amount of limestone is sufficient to give a decided blue tint to 
the clayey mass seen in gross. The shales mostly disappear in 


the till. The high lands near the southern border of the county 
begin to show impoverishment, due to the presence of large quan- 


tities of sandstone. 

Bowlders do not form a conspicuous part of the scenery; stone 
fences are rare. Gullies cut through till display a fair assort- 
ment; the large ones either belong to the Archaean formations, 
or to the Upper Helderberg limestone. The largest seen were 
two, both of the latter class, each 11 feet long, in a ravine south- 
east of Bearytown, three miles south of the outcrops. 


caer 


‘sntunyg TItH AYSIUM ‘OT emn3tq 


GEOLOGY or Srnzca County. 79 


The distribution of the till is rather irregular. The presence of 
drumlins in the northern part does not, however, imply a great 
excess of deposit. Their materials, equally distributed, would 
not produce a layer more than 10 feet thick over the surface of 
Junius and Tyre. This must be added to a considerably greater 
amount in the form of a sheet, which may be 20 feet thick on the 
average. 

The Seneca lake section has a very thin deposit for most of the 
distance; thick drift occurs only in the depressions, described 
under the head of Topography. On Cayuga lake, in the towns 
of Fayette and Varick, the rock is concealed by heavy deposits. 
The eastern shore of the lake shows rock exposures much more 
freely. The agreement in this respect between the lower part of 
- Seneca and Cayuga lakes is quite worth notice; it is necessary 
in both cases to go inland a long distance on the west shore to 
find exposures, while the east shore is cliff-lined. 

The presence of a large amount of drift in the high land south 
and south-east of Ovid per has been noted as an obstacle to 
quarrying. 

The process of the Foran of till is well illustrated in sec- 
tions at the side of the Lehigh Valley railroad, south of Willard. 
The cut passes through a bed of shale, five feet thick at most and 
_ 600 feet long, on which lies a confused mass of blocks of the 
same shale, piled up to the thickness of five feet, the blocks measur- 
ing up to three or four feet in size, wedged together in all posi- 
tions. Over all is a layer of two or three feet of common till. 


Glacial Striation. 


The following unpublished notes, though few in number, may 
properly be recorded here : 

Top of hill north of Prospect hill, three miles from county 
line ; slab of sandstone 25 feet long covered ; N. 40° W. 

Steep lakeward slope, north of Lodi station, 340 feet above 
lake, sandstone in roadside, N. 20° E. 

Beach opposite Geneva, Marcellus shale freshly stripped of till, 
1,000 feet south of the outlet; N. 45° E. 

Directly north of: outlet, freshly uncovered Marcellus shale, 
N. 40-50° E. 


80 _ Report oF THE StatE GEOLOGIST. 


f Compare the following: Lehigh Valley R. R., one-half mile 


south of Oaks Corners station, Corniferous, N. 5° W. and E-W. 


Beyond Oaks Corners, north. Beyond Flint Creek, N. 20°+ E. 


for a considerable distance. 


Thomas’ quarry near Waterloo, N. E. end, all, N. 12° E. N. 


W. end, mostly N. 41° E., very regular; also some N. 12° E., 
deeper cut. West side, N. 5-10° E., smoothly and well cut. 
Frank’s quarry, N. 5° E.- 
Emmet’s quarry, N. 45° E., coarse, not parallel. 
Rorison’s quarry, N. 6° E. 
Roadside shale west of Bearytown, N. 10° E. 
The readings are magnetic. Allow about 5° westerly deflec- 


_ tion. 


Swamps and Marshes. | 
Three considerable tracts of land are comprised under this 
head ; the Montezuma marshes, the Black swamp and the Cran- 
berry swamp, besides swampy lands of small extent in various 
other places, notably the Canoga shore. 
The Montezuma marshes occupy a broad space on the eastern 
border of Tyre, and farther down along the Seneca river to the 
distance of over 40 miles from the foot of Cayuga lake. Near 
the lower end, at Jack’s Reefs, there is a fall of 4.3 feet in the 


stream. The money of the State has been used on several occa- - 


sions for the procuring of a better outlet, but the result is not 
yet attained. 

The:town assessors of Junius (which at that time included Tyre) 
in 1825 reported the amount of land of this description within 
the town limits, as follows: | 


i EV rk 5 ri oo Qe 4,449 
DWAMILD os co oe | oly co nists eee EREMtsiniels + > s+ ss a were eae . 2,468 
Tntermediate. 2 22°02) SU ee In Gs ss 5 cw co te ee oe 1167 

8,079 


The amount is probably nearly the same at present. 
This land was then assessed at 25 cents an acre for marsh 
and $1 for swamp. Delafield, in 1853, wrote that “not less than 
6,000 acres” were then “useless” in Tyre. This adjective gives 
an incorrect impression for the present day. Marsh land is 


* es 
re 


‘sniunye 4som ‘Qor4gsIq owvy ‘eT OINST AT 


‘8 GALVId 


GEoLoGY or SENECA CouNTY. 81 


now assessed in Tyre at $2 an acre; swamp land at $3 to $10, 
according to the amount of timber upon it. 

My correspondent, Hon. D. H. Evans, defines marsh as locali- 
ties in which flag and coarse grass grow, but no trees; swamp is 
where elm, soft maple and ash trees grow, though seemingly as 
low as the marsh. Flag is cut in large quantities along the 
streams running through the marsh, and sold at good prices, so 
that men make from’$2 to $4 a day at it. The marsh is also 
used for pasture. Much of the coarse hay is cut; hundreds 
of tons this year. It is pressed and shipped, and used largely 
for bedding for stock and for packing earthenware ; much is also 
used for feed. The value of the swamp depends on the amount 
of timber, large quantities of which are cut every year. 

There are a good many bits of ill drained land in the drumlin 
region of Tyre and Junius, some of which are named in Gibson’s 
map from the trees which abounded in them—cedar, pine, 
hemlock, black-ash swamps. 

The report of the State Commissioners, in 1825, stated that 
the water of Cayuga lake used to rise from July to the time of 
frost, owing to the summer’s growth of weeds in the stream 
choking the outlet.’ This is not now the case, for the streams 
supplying the lake are mostly dry during this time of the year. 
It is certain that the introduction of drain tile has caused the 
water to flow off from the tilled lands much more rapidly than 
was formerly the case after rains and during the spring floods. 
Deforesting has contributed to the same result. In great floods 
the water sometimes stands three feet deep over the marshes 
from Mosquito Point up to Cayuga lake, a distance of 16 miles; 
but this continues only a few days at a time. 

It appears that the region was formerly subject to malaria. 
The Commissioners, in 1825, state that not only was this true of 
the immediate borders of the stream, but that for many miles 
the air was injuriously affected. Mr. Evans, however, living in 
a tract surrounded by these marshes, writes me that at present 
the neighborhood of the marshes is not at all subject to fevers. 

The “Black Swamp” is drained to a considerable extent. 
Much of the soil is a deep layer of pure vegetable mold. A 
large part is still covered with trees. Further improvement in 

drainage could doubtless be effected. 
11 


82 ReEportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


The “ Cranberry Swamp” is almost entirely a forest, growing 
in black muck, into which I easily thrust a stick three feet; it is 
said to be much deeper in places. The timber is that character- 
istic of such places —elm, soft maple, etc. By consent among 
the owners it might doubtless be drained at a reasonable expense. 

In connection with this subject it may be added, that beneath 
the layers of muck a heavy deposit of marl is often found, com- 
posed éntirely of minute fragments of modern shells. In the 
Montezuma marshes, it is found along river beds, in places, 10 or 
12 feet thick; its thickness diminishes on receding from the 
rivers, and at last only the underlying bed of clay remains. 
Valuable as this material is for a fertilizer, it has been found that 
the expense of seeking it under four feet of muck is sufficient to 
prevent its extensive use. | 


Springs. 

The writer has not found recorded analyses of any spring in 
Seneca county, excepting the statement that the gas esc 
from the Canoga spring is pure nitrogen. 

This spring forms a pool occupying a long oval basin of 30x 90 
feet, more or less sunk six feet below the plain. The bottom is 
covered with sand, through which the water boils up with occa- 
sional bubbles of the gas. The taste is that of other good well water - 
of the region, viz.: slightly limy, like Seneca lake water. Withina 
stone’s throw a ledge of Upper Helderberg limestone crosses the 
road. A considerable flow was noticed at the dryest time of the 
severe drought of 1895. The stream has supplied power to two 
mills, one of which is disused. Springs.of iron and sulphur are 
found inthe low grounds at Canoga. 

A spring of sulphurous odor was tasted in a ravine half way 
between Willard and Lodi, north of Highland station. Other 
than the slight odor there was little ts remark; the taste was 
pleasant. This spring is reported to have been formerly used 
for medicinal purposes by.visitors resorting to the place. 

The taste of iron is noticed in isolated cases in the country 
well water. Good water is characteristic especially of the Port- 
age and the Upper Helderberg districts. In the northern part of. 
the county the water is occasionally brackish. 


‘SnIUNE 4SOM “JOITYSIP OWL YAIM poeqoouuoo ‘urvid-puvs ysSeMIeEAQ ‘HT WINS 


‘6 HLV Id 


GroLocy or Sreneca Country. 83 


Several mineral springs have proved to have ‘a commercial 
value on the west side of Seneca lake and on the east side of — 
Cayuga lake. The possibilities are equally good for Seneca 
county. 

Seneca Lake. 

This body of water as far south as North Hector lies within 
the boundary of Seneca county. The greatest depth, 618 feet, - 
given by the Cornell University survey, is at the southern part 
of the county ; a depth of 400 feet or over is maintained for 28 
miles. Its surface is 441 feet above tide; its bottom, therefore, 

‘is 177 feet below the surface of the sea. The depth and volume 
of the water maintains it at a comparatively equable tempera- 
ture. It is usually open all winter and is cold in summer. 

The water partakes of the character of its sources, containing 
rather large amounts of gypsum, with carbonates of the earthy 
bases, giving it a “hard” character and causing the formation 
of crusts on the inside of boilers. 

Dredging, undertaken for the purpose of recovering the bodies 
of drowned persons, was carried on to a slight extent this 
summer at points near.the middle of the lake opposite Willard. 
The water there’ is 530 feet deep. It was reported that the 
dredge encountered no opposition from unevenness of the surface ; 
that there was a foot of very soft ooze, under which was blue clay. 
The ooze contains a variety of diatoms, of species known to 
inhabit the fresh waters of the neighborhood. | 

Superficial currents of very. moderate rapidity and changeable 
direction were observed in places near shore. A more important 
current is indicated near Geneva, by the muddy streak which it 
makes at a distance of from a quarter to half a mile off shore. 
The peculiarity of this current is, that it pushes southward in 
the face of the violent and continued south winds which are of 
frequent occurrence in winter in this part of New York. On 
the first day of such a wind the north end of the lake is muddied 
by the breaking of the waves on the shore; on the second day 
a patt of the muddy water moves slowly southward in a narrow 
column or streak on the surface, requiring many hours to accom- 
plish the distance of about two miles, beyond which I have not 
observed it to extend. Accompanying this southerly movement 
is a northward flow of the muddy water from a brook just 
south of the village; this streak being rather near the shore. 


84 REpPoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Salina Group. 


The tract of country north of the valley of the outlet (Seneca 
river) is within the outcrops of the Salina or Onondaga salt 
group, and embraces about one-half of the width of its exposure. 

This group was divided by Prof. James Hall (Report Geology 
N. Y., 4th District, 1843) into four sections, viz, 1, and lowest, 
‘red shale of Wayne county ; 2, green and ashen marl with small 
quantities of gypsum; 3, gray or ash-colored marls and shales, 
with thin-bedded shaly limestones, usually of the same color, 
containing gypsum and salt beds; 4, silico-argillaceous limestone 
or cement-rock. Nos. 1 and 2 are not seen in the county; No. 3 
is seen in Black Brook (Tyre) and at Seneca Falls; No. 4 at 
Seneca Falls at two points. 


The exposures in Black Brook contain only the third variety. — 


A short distance south of Tyre Center it forms the bed of the 
creek for a considerable distance, with one cliff 15 feet high. 
The rock is in rather firm slabs of the usual grayish tint. 
- The most important exposures are at Seneca Falls along both 
sides of the canal east of the village, where it forms cliffs 20 
feet high. In many places the face of .the cliffs displays the 
peculiar method of quarrying for gypsum, by gouging into the 
rock to secure the lumps of the mineral. Much of the rock has 
in late years been taken out to lay on the roads, where it forms 
a solid bed in summer, but in wet weather “turns to slush.” 
The gypsum is found in the lower part of the cliff, forming 
irregular whitish masses; there are also thin seams of satin spar 
and minute crystals of selenite. The shale in which it occurs is 
of a grayish drab color, weathering into small pieces with a 
dusty look. The upper layers are more solid, but they have 
become softened by weathering and break readily in irregular 
bits. They contain small narrow cavities arranged horizontally. 
The best exposure is found on the south side of the canal, west 
of the cemetery, where an unusual dip of 5°-10° exist. Here 50 
feet may be exposed, beginning with the layers already described 
and closing with some 15 feet of rock belonging to the upper or 
fourth division, the cement-rock. This isin part a slab-shale, but 
there are thick courses which fracture irrespective of bedding 
and expose fine conchoidal surfaces. The rock is very tough and 
rings under the hammer; it is an argillaceous limestone, dark 


“PIVITIM “WOTz{Oes BITE “ET omns1 


‘OT HLIV Id 


GEOLOGY oF SrenrecA County. 85 


buff and bluish, with some lamination streaks. When compared 
with the exposures at Phelps, Ontario county, it appears to cor- 
respond with a series found in the bed of Flint creek at the 
dams, where contact with Lower Helderberg limestone is found, 
which is wanting at Seneca Falls. | 

A very similar rock, in slabs of an inch or two in thickness, 
has been newly exposed by the roadside, half. way to Waterloo, 
500 feet west.of Kingdom bridge, on the south side. This is the 
most southern exposure known to me. It is doubtless very near 
the southern limit (see Upper Helderberg). ) 

A gas well in the southern part of Seneca Falls village is said 
to have struck Niagara limestone at 980 feet. If we allow 16 
miles for the width of the formation, and a northward fall of 
the land of 60 feet, we have an average dip of 574 feet per mile to 
the south. (@>" — 574). 

This well, known as No. 2, is the southernmost, and is probably 
not far from the border of the formation. It may be compared 
with that described by Prosser (Amer. Geologist, Oct., 1890), 
which is half a mile to the north and considerably east. 


No. 2.  Prosser’s. 


Pee Eee 5, gn iter etree eee 445 — 385 = 60 
Seber TOCK... 6... ek ee ek ee ees 980 — 950 = 30 


If these data are reliable the dip is here northward. 

A comparison of well No. 2 with one three miles north of the 
village at nearly the same elevation gives a local dip of 40 feet 
per mile southward. The well in question reached Niagara rock 
at 860 feet = 120 feet less than well No. 2. 


86 


Report OF THE STtaTE GEOLOGIST. 


The following is Prosser’s statement in full: | 


“ Section oF WELL DRILLED .... 
IN THE HKasteRN Part OF THE VILLAGE. 


IN THE SenrcA RivER VALLEY 
ALTITUDE, APPROXI- 


MATELY, 385’ A. T. 


200’ | Drab colored, impure limestones. 
(BOO PN cre cease . 
100’ | Blue marls with an’ occasional red and green chip. 
a, 
= ! 
Bilt B00" tay kieta | 
&N , 400' | Greenish-gray marls and drab-colored limestones. 
cS 
q |! 
me) MOON te ceeaen 
w : 250' | Mostly bright red shale, but some mottled red and 
green shale. 
CRCHOR eke 
400’ | Dark blue limestone in the upper part, with green- 
ish shales at the base. Niagara and Clinton 
groups. | 
TAO A eget 
150’ |. Red shales and sandstones of the Medina group. 
1500 Theat 


Bottom of well.” 


SECTION OF WELL DRILLED at JrHaoa, ‘Tompxins County, N. Y. 
LocaTION IN THE VALLEY, ONE-FOURTH OF A MILE SOUTH OF 
Irgaca. AntitopE 396’ A. T. 


Se 


Depth. | Thickness. 
| 340’ | Portage shales and sandstones. 
S24 een ea ate as ; 
100’ | Genesee black shale. 
HEE () fa) hulle ss z 
30’ | Tully limestone. 
BOS wier. 2 ois 
1142’ | Hamilton shales and sandstones. 
Gwe | oo ; 
82’ | Marcellus black shale. 
MGA Wexeusaes anes : 
, 78’ | Corniferous limestone. 
NET Ne ete 
13’ | Oriskany sandstone. | 
7 EER ie ge ' 
115’ | Lower Helderberg limestones. Approximate top of 
the Salina group. ; 
MI AA's sees ais. 6 
1285’ | Salina group, a part. 
BUGS Gal ack v's Bottom of well according to the contractor, Mr. 


Rust 


‘PIBTILM ‘WOTZOOS BITE ‘OS oanSrgz 


‘Tl HLVTd 


GroLtocy or Seneca County. 87 


It should be noted that the gas wells struck salt water in the 
Salina group, and that one well, three miles north of the bank 
struck a 15-foot layer of salt at 565 feet. 

Contact with the succeeding formation is nowhere seen. The 
width of the interval between the respective exposures is a 
quarter of a mile N-S. The line of contact lies in the valley 4 
the outlet of Seneca lake, covered with till and sediment. 


Lower Helderberg Group. 


This important series of rocks, prominent among the forma- 
tions of the eastern part of the State, mostly disappears before 
' reaching the longitude of Seneca county. For an enumeration 
of the components of the series, reference is made to the Report 
on the Geology of New York, Fourth District. The only mem- 
ber of the series of which mention need be made is the Water- 
lime group. This is found, as stated in the report, in the bed of . 
Flint creek, at Phelps, about four miles west of the border of 
Seneca county. It there consists of a black, shaly, hard lime- 
stune, about three feet in thickness. No fossils were observed. 
_ In Seneca county reference should be made to the description 
of strata underlying the Onondaga limestone at McQuane’s 
quarry. The waterlime is to be found here, if at any place in 
the county. The rock is a very argillaceous limestone, in parts 
very finely laminated and splitting readily in thin sheets; it was . 
not observed to contain fossils. 


Oriskany San dstone. 


This formation is well marked at Flint creek, Ontario dgtatioe 
and in several localities in Cayuga county. In Seneca county its 
absence at the base of the Upper Helderberg limestones is to be 
noted at the only point where the base is exposed, viz., McQuane’s 
quarry. 

Upper Helderberg Group. 

This term, as here applied, includes as subdivisions the lime- 
stones known as Onondaga, Corniferous and Seneca, this being 
the order of superposition, with the Onondaga at the base. 

The Onondaga limestone is found at one spot, a few feet in 
area, in Seneca county, with characteristic appearance. 


88 Report oF THE SrarE GEOLOGIST. 


The Corniferous limestone is of a darker color, less abundant in 
fossils, and contains much hornstone in courses, from which 
it derives its name. It is sufficiently distinct in appearance to be 
separated from the-Onondaga, though the latter also often 
contains hornstone. | 

Seneca limestone is a term given to those courses which overlie 
the Corniferous layers in Onondaga and Cayuga counties 
(Vanuxem) and Seneca county (Hall). It is nearly free from 
hornstone, though certain layers contain it,.and the upper tier 
abounds in it. The presence of certain brachiopods (Chonetes 
lineata) in large numbers is the mark originally proposed as 
diagnostic. The term is now scarcely used. 

Since all these parts of the Upper Helderberg formation occa- 
sionally contain hornstone, the word “ Corniferous ” may properly 
be applied to the whole. But as hornstone occurs in other 
geological periods, the preference is given to a geographical 
MAINE: shy? 

The Onondaga limestone is described in the Report for the 
Fourth District as of a light gray color, often approaching white, 
more or less crystalline in structure’: and containing numerous 
fossils; in many instances it seems almost entirely composed of 
broken and comminuted fragments of crinoidea and corals. 

The only exposure in the county is a piece, now reduced to the 
length of five feet, forming the top layer at McQuane’s quarry, 
two miles S. W. by W. of the centre of Seneca Falls village. It 
' is two feet thick, covered with a few inches of dirt. . It corre- 
sponds in every réspect with exposures at Phelps; is very tough 


(more so than the Seneca limestone); its surface is weathered to ~ 


a deep rusty brown, and is roughened by the projection of great 
numbers of fragments of crinoids, etc. It contains many entire 
cyathophylloids, and is destitute of flint nodules. 


The exposure is apparently an isolated one, scarcely rising above 


the level of the clay plain, at an approximate elevation of 465 feet 
A.T. The quarry has been worked in the subjacent rock a length 
of 150 feet, and a depth of 20 feet, giving favorable exposures. 
Beginning at the lowest exposed layer there are (A) two feet of 
a strong limestone, described as of a good quality for building, 
in one course, which has a tendency to split horizontally ; next 
(B), six and one-half feet, containing considerable impurity, not 


eS 


‘IIlg pus suohvy Aquig z9ddn Sutmoys ‘ Arrenb 


SBULOY YL ‘euoJsowT]T sno1ejyIu10H 


‘IS enstg 


GEOLOGY OF SENECA CoUNTY. 89 


separable in layers, breaking transversely and finally crumbling 
into small blocks, like the Tully limestone, when exposed to the 
air. C is two feet of tough, fine-grained limestone, somewhat 
earthy in its upper part. A and B abound in large coral forms, 
plainly showing in outline on the surface of blocks, but hard to 
identify and ill-preserved. They are most abundant in the upper 
two thirds of B, and hardly occur in C, which, however, presents 
a few forms of small size. This gives 103 feet of blue limestone 
in three courses. 

Above this is seven feet three inches of a highly argillaceous 
‘limestone (D), not found to contain fossils; readily separating 
into flat pieces an inch and upwards in thickness, especially in 
the upper parts. When fresh much of it is clear dark blue, some- 
times ringing when struck. Weathering givesa buff tint, softens 
the surface at joints to an earthy consistency, showing the 
laminz in earth, and has reduced the top layers (one to five 
inches) to a sort of yellow ochre. The owner says that C and D 
are good for making cement. 

The junction of D and E was carefully searched, but not a 
fragment of material resembling the Oriskany sandstone was 
found. Its absence from this county was noted by Prof. Hall 
(Rept. 4th Dist., p. 456). The upper layers of D are in thin 
slabs, weathered to ochreous dirt to different depths, and in places 
displaying their form up to the level of contact with E. The 
under side of E is also badly weathered, crumbled into small 
pieces of an ounce or two. It seems important to have some- 
thing positive or negative as to the relation of these blue 
limestones to the Lower Helderberg. They have in part the 
lithological aspect of that rock as found by S. G. Williams, at 
Union Springs, but the total difference of fauna is noteworthy. 

The Onondaga limestone (E) is unquestionably in situ, and 
quantities lie about among the other rock. evidently recently 
removed. 

The strata dip moderately S. W. 

The Oriskany sandstone, an abundant and prominent compo- 
nent of the drift south of Auburn, derived from well-known 
exposures, is certainly not at all common in the drift of Seneca 
county, though easily recognized on account of its peculiar 
aspect. 

12 


90 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Corniferous and Seneca Limestones. The outcrop of this 
rock is near the southern part of the alluvial plain of the 
outlet, and consists chiefly of a line of quarries, running 
nearly straight 8. E. by E. for seven miles. The rock forms 
a level sheet near the surface for a considerable space in 
two or three places. Northward it mostly descends in a slight 
escarpment to the clay levels. The exposures represent the same 
strata, or nearly so, in all the quarries. The easternmost, near 
Canoga (but on higher ground), may be estimated as standing 
470+ feet above tide; the westernmost, the same, at the top 
layer. This is consistent with the supposition of a general dip 
S. W. by S., the rock being cut off level on the line of strike. 

Little can be inferred from the local dips in the quarries ; some 
are to the north, others southerly, while small synclinals of four 
feet with N-S axis occur in Frank’s quarry, and a dip to N., 8S. 
W., and S. E., diverges from a common center in Thomas’ 
quarry. ? 

Contact with the Marcellus shale on the south is not observed ; 
exposures approach each other within moderate distances. Onthe 
north the only determining point is at McQuane’s quarry, which 
gives a probable width of two and one-half miles on the meridian, 
or two miles southwest to the nearest Marcellus exposure. 

The layers of truly Corniferous rock, rough and ugly with 
protruding masses of hornstone, which appear near the base of 
this division in the well-known section along Flint creek, in 
Phelps, Ontario.county, and which may be seen in bowlders 
abundantly to the westward, are not visible at any section or 
exposure in Seneca county. The quarries here represent a section 
of 32 feet, apparently at or near the top, all showing the same 
horizon ; they are practically free from flint in the lower two- 
thirds of the section. <A strip of one and one-half miles of ter- 
ritory lies north of them, unrepresented, except by one exposure 
at the Waterloo falls. 

The Waterloo rock has been largely uncovered during the late 
drought, in the bed of thestream. The upper two or three feet are 
tolerably firm, in thick courses with some hornstone, and cavities 
showing weathering out of fossils. The five feet next below are 
mostly a disintegrating mass of worthless shaly material; with 


‘SulIyIOM Tenyoy ‘Arrenb svum0yy, ‘euoJSOTAIT SNOIEJIUIND “se OINSTT 


“Sl ALWId 


GEOLOGY oF SENECA CounrTY. 91 


thin layers of flint in the upper part, near which was found Sty- 
liola fissurella and a small variety of Ambocalia wmbonata in 
abundance. The lower part of the five feet was comparatively 
firm, in part pyritiferous and with vermicular cavities. 

The geographical site of this exposure would refer it to the 
lower layers of this formation. 

It seems desirable, in connection with this exposure, to place 
on record those which lie in a direct line north of Geneva village, 
comprising three quarries, as seenon the map. The northernmost 
contains a fine exposure of the Onondaga limestone crowded 

‘with many species of coral. The middle one isa close counterpart 

of that at Waterloo falls, being a very black shale, varying from 
heavy to fine, with Styliola and Ambocelia umbonata, small 
variety, in near association. Other fossils hardly recognizable. 
The lower layers become tough, retaining a tendency to split, and 
at about five feet below the level of the above fossils it contains 
various forms of Orthoceras and Cyrtoceras, including C. trivolve 
(or wndulatum, Conrad); not found elsewhere in Seneca county, 
and lying below the Waterloo stream exposure. The southern 
quarry presents nothing unusual. 

The system of quarry joints was nearly N. 25° W. and N. 75° 
E., with slight variations, and nearly vertical. The courses differ 
in er ices, but maintain their individuality remarkably from 
one quarry to another. 

The position of the courses is conveniently referred to an 1 eight- 
inch layer of light greenish gray material, called “marl” by 
the workmen, which is constant; it is found also at the Union 
Springs quarry. It has somewhat the look but not the feel of 
soapstone; breaks in‘small flat, thick bits, and cuts easily. It is 
not plastic. It is a nonhydrated aluminum silicate; a clay, con- 
taining small quantities of lime and magnesia. 

Besides the marl, there are one or two thin shaly bands; and 
a number of layers of hornstone, in part forming sheets of one to 
six inches in thickness, in part separate. nodules. 

Thin beds of avery small Zaphrentis.and other small cup- 
corals are found at different levels, well displayed by weathering 
and forming good horizons for observation. Lozonema laxum of 
an amber tinge is characteristic of certain levels. Chonetes 
lineata ranges through most of the beds, in varying amount. 


92 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


The correspondence of the beds in five principal quarries along 
line of five miles is shown in figure 23. 


& 


= 


eet 
&) 
“eb 


Emmett Frank Uae 


| ! 
' ') 
' ] 
} j 

i] 
| 
6 ' 

) 


~ 
y 
+f 
% 
§ 


—_—_ pe @& S| =D = «ss 


mn 
Lit ELE 


FIGURE 238. 


Marcellus Shale. 
The nearest approach to a contact of these shales with the 
limestone is found in a brook running north, one and one-half 


GroLocy or SenEcA County. 93 


miles south of Waterloo. Following the stream downward 
toward the limestone we find (in descending order), 

1. The usual black shale (? 20 feet). 

2. Crossing the road, eastward, a foot of hard limestone. 

3. Blue-black shale, finely jointed, with immense numbers of 
Liorhynchus limitaris, and some Styliola fissurella, a few trilobites 
and orthocerata. Large concretions. 

4, Very black shale, sooty in look, with whitish deposit (sul- 
phate of iron); delicate fossil impressions, in part gilded with 
pyrite. A very fine-grained, tough, nonfossiliferous limestone, 
_ two and one-half inches thick, divides this shale in two. 

After losing the exposure for some distance, limestone appears 
in the bed of the brook, in three tiers; the upper two 11 and 4 
inches; the lower can not be measured. Upper surface marked 
with slender curving light streaks, probably of concretionary 
origin, an inch or two in length; lower tier with hornstone. 

This section is typical of the base of the Marcellus in this 
region. The divisions 3 and 4 could not be measured, but repre- 
sent only a few feet each. 

The thickness of this formation is suggested in several ways. 
At the northeast corner of Seneca lake it forms the whole base 
of the hill and rises probably 70 feet along the hill side. The 
large hill farther south rises 200 feet above the lake; its west- 
ward foot in the lake displays cliffs of this rock 30 feet high; its 
eastward slope of 5v feet is of the same rock. 

Two stretches of cliff, previously mentioned, are found along 
the lower part of Seneca lake, which, with Kendig’s creek, form 
the chief exposures of the Marcellus shales. The belt of country 
covered is from three to six and eight miles wide — the latter 
being the distances between extreme exposures on the lake fronts, 
where for geometric reasons the exposures are prolonged, 


Hamilton Shales. 


This division comprises two thin beds of limestone and four 
shales, as follows, beginning at the lowest. 


1. Transitional shale. 
2. Basal limestone. 
3. Olive shale. 


94. Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


4, Ludlowville shale. 
5. Encrinal limestone. 
6. Moscow shale. 


This follows the original division of the reports as regards 
numbering, with a change of name for the first two, upon which 
a few remarks are offered. 

(a) The Marcellus shale retains its character as a dark blue, fis- 
sile, handsomely-jointed rock with Liorhynchus limitaris, to the 
top of its beds. The physical character of the shale changes 
rather quickly to a lighter-colored and more calcareous shale, 
with a substitution of the Hamilton series of fossils, which 
becomes so decided as to leave no difficulty in the way of classify- 
ing the stratum at six or eight feet above the Liorhynchus beds. 

(0) “ A compact, calcareous blue shale, often passing into an 
impure limestone.” (Report of 4th Dist.) The designation 
“basal limestone,” proposed by J. M. Clarke for the strata as 
observed by him in Ontario county (directly west for 25 miles) is 
also of practical value for Seneca county. It forms a horizon not 
easily overlooked by even the inexperienced, on account of its 
physical contrast with the weak shales among which it occurs. 
The rock thus designated is physically the same as the transition _ 
shale, with increased power of cohesion, and a tendency to form 
massive blocks, cleavable in clumsy chunks rather than lamine. 

As described in Ontario county it is largely a coral reef. To 
some extent it retains this character in Seneca county, displaying 
scattered specimens of Heliophyllum, Favosites, and other large 
corals, which do not belong elsewhere near its horizon. Its quali- 
ties as a material for road-making have been mentioned to me by 
farmers. As a geographical factor it is of importance as causing 
the first series of limitary cataracts, practically mie the com- 
mencement of a geological series. 

Two such falls have been examined by the writer in the south 
part of Geneva, in State Rock creek (25 feet fall) and Benton’s 
run (about 10 feet), thus connecting Olarke’s observations with 
the present set. 

In Seneca county seven exposures are noted, viz. 

1. For half a mile along the shore of aunene ie north of 
Dey’s Landing. One or two feet exposed. Impure, easily broken 


4 


PLATE 14. 


Ag sya! 
Bat ae es 


Fed a 


oy 


a 


a 


>: 
%, 
i 
4 


‘: 


Figure 22a. Corniferous limestone, Avery quarry. 


GEOLOGY OF SENECA CoUNTY. 95 


limestone, containing various Zaphrentis, Heliophylla, etc.; above 
it, shales with typical Hamilton fauna. 

2. Reeder’s creek, about 1,000 feet from the latter lake, similar, 
8-10 feet thick, with 5-10 feet of transitional shale beneath, and 
Marcellus at base of bank. Heliophyllum Halla frequent. Large 
favosite. A furlong or so up the stream a fall of four or five 
feet occurs over this rock. 

8. Large hill, N. W. of West Haretts station (MacDougal’s 
P. O.). Here it forms a flat surface on the summit (200 feet above 
the lake), and an escarpment to the north; numerous corals are 
_ to be found in the field, but there is no direct exposure of the 
ledge. | | 

4. Gully of Kendig’s creek, one-quarter mile east of MacDou- 
gal’s. The underlying Marcellus well displayed in bed. Steep 
fall of nearly 15 feet with mill (now run by steam). Large favo- 

site; heavy blocks. 

5. Creek, a mile west of Bearytown (Fayette P. O.), Hamilton 

fauna; heavy rock, rapids descending 10 feet. 

6. Creeka mile S. E. of Bearytown; an old mill site.. Directly 
above Marcellus exposures are 12 feet of limy rock breaking in 
irregular conchoidal masses, large and small, with horizontal 
tendency. Sparse Hamilton fauna. Heliophyllum Halli and 
another coral. Fall about 10 feet. 

7. Big Hollow creek, eastern Romulus. Fall of some 30 feet 
vertically over heavy limestone ledge. Marcellus below down to 
lake. Hamilton fauna. 

The northern boundary of the Hamilton shales is drawn upon 
these data. Exposure 3 may be insular; it is covered with drift 
to the southward. The Tully done lies seven miles to the 
southward, which is the width of the Hamilton exposure along 
the plateau. Along Seneca lake, on and quite near the shore, 
the Hamilton runs 124 miles—from Reeder’s creek to the land- 
ing next south of Lodi Point. 


Tully Limestone. 


This highly developed limestone formation, lying between the 
shales of the Hamilton and Genesee divisions, acquires great 
importance as a geological horizon. Its outcrops have, therefore, 
been studied with care. (See fig. 26.) 


96 REPORT OF THE STaTE GEOLOGIST. 


The first one to be mentioned, being the northernmost, is 
rather more than a mile west of Hayt’s Corners, on a rise of 
ground facing north, and forming a low escarpment. It is rep- 
resented in figure 24, which is taken looking westward. The 
impression is correctly conveyed of the level prairie country in 
which the hill occurs. 

‘Lhe elevation of Hayt’s Corners above mean high tide, fur- 
nished by the kindness of Mr. Esser, Sup’t of Division, Lehigh 
Valley R. R., is 791.3 feet. The road ascends westward for 
a half mile, descends slightly and reascends to the same height. 
With a hand-level the elevation of the top of the rock was esti- 
mated at 50 feet above the station, or 840 A. T. There isa . 
chance of an error of a few feet (perhaps five) in this statement. 
Thickness less than 11 feet, resting on Hamilton shale. The 
upper part may have suffered loss from erosion. The rock has 
been quarried to furnish road material. 

‘he next exposure westward is at Willard Hospital, where a 
cascade falls over Tully limestone near the reservoir. Here the 
contacts are perfect above and below; thickness at fall 114 feet. © 
The rock displays a considerable dip, east, west and south, and 
has been largely quarried for road building. From data obtained 
at the Hospital the top of the reservoir appears to be 599 feet 
above tide; top of quarry-rock 45 feet, less, say 554 feet. There 
is no indication of rock in the conformation of the country 
between these two exposures, nor between this and following 
ones, for which we have to depend on cliff and stream exposures. 
The thickness, measured at Highland station in creek, was 114 
feet; at Lodi, main glen, 184; Deer Lick Run, 124. ; 

The rock appears at the Seneca lake front about a mile south 
of Willard Landing. When first seen it is emerging from the 
lake, reaching the height of 15-20 feet in one quarter of a mile 
southward and fully displayed. The dip beneath the lake can - 
be but slight, as Hamilton shale is found 200 feet north of the 
emergence. In the next creek (Highland station) it is found in 
a waterfall 900 feet from the lake and 50 or 60 feet above it. It 
caps the cliff for one-half mile, beginning some way south of 
Highland; height, 40-50 feet. In-the next deep glen it is 40 
feet above the lake at 400 feet from the shore. At Lodi it comes 
within a few feet of the lake level. 


‘(qurlod 4ysOWULEeY4LIOU) PIAG JO 44A0U ‘ouo4sowT] A[[NY Jo yuowdIvOSy “PFS oins1z 


“St HLIVITd 


GroLocy oF SENECA CounrTY. 97 


A very interesting exposure occurs in the main (southern) 
glen at Lodi. Near the mouth of the ravine it begins in 
full thickness, with Hamilton shale below. It forms the bed 
of the stream for a quarter of a mile, dipping on the average 
N. W. The view shows the upper beds eroded by the stream, 
with: Genesee shale above. When last visible it presents its 
upper surface as the bed of the brook with Genesee upon it, 
having risen about 40 feet. | 

This anticlinal is seen in the next hollow, its top 55 feet above 
the lake at 400 feet from it, and in the hollow, a mile south of Lodi 
- landing (at a small wharf), it is again seen at 50 feet at a greater 
distance back. The shore is here composed entirely of drift. 
This was the last distinct exposure noted. Genesee shale appears 
half a mile farther south in the cliff. 

Returning to the high point whence we started, we find a low 
swell of land running E. by S. from the quarry, for some dis- 
tance very full of the pieces of the rock. Toward Hayt’s Corners 
it has been opened in places. I was told the drift was not thick. 
At the Corners the Ovid branch railway cuts across the lime- 
stone and Hamilton shale a few rods south of the station. 

Its further course is determined by a quarry a mile S. E. of 
the Corners, thence by considerable falls in Grove’s creek, Shel- 
drake creek, the stream next north of Kidder’s and the series of 
streams for two miles south of Kidder’s. In-two of the latter, 
the formation is 134 feet thick. It comes within a few yards of 
the lake at Bergen’s Point, where it forms a fall, about 25 feet in 
height, in Shepson’s gulley. Thence it slowly descends, reaching 
the level of the lake in about three-fifths of a mile, and entirely 
disappearing beneath the lake at two and one-half miles, or a mile 
south of Little Point. The Genesee shale is visible in one or 
more places on the shore. 


Genesee Shale. 


This is well displayed in most of the gullies of Ovid, Lodi 
and Covert. Its base is defined by the Tully limestone. Its 
upper limit is fixed by two feet or more of harder material, 
forming the base of the Portage system, to be described here- 
after. 

13 


98 ReEpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


The thickness of the formation in the well at Ithaca, as given 
by Ashburner and Prosser, is 100 feet. Along Seneca lake there 
is opportunity to allow a larger figure, but owing to the difficulty 
of determining dip in this rock its precise thickness remains a 
matter of conjecture. In the creek at Highland Landing, the 
entire height of the bank (about 120 feet) is exposed in one spot 
by a road descending into the ravine; the entire section here is 
within the Genesee. Addition must be made to a moderate but 
uncertain extent, corresponding with exposures in the bed of the 
brook for a furlong or more, down toa cascade formed by the 
Tully limestone. 

The exposures in Lodi glen present the same difficulty as 
regards dip. The Tully limestone dips between N. and N. W. 
for the great part of its exposure, and the Genesee a little 
west of (D) the main fall, dips in the same direction for a short 
distance, but the reverse may be true in the interval C-D. The 
data of elevation were obtained as follows: 


A-B, 20 feet, hand-level, somewhat uncertain. . 

B-C, 50, the same, more reliable. 

C—D, 90, three aneroid observations agreeing closely. 

Height of falls, 125, Gibson’s map. Includes 7 feet of Genesee. 

Chasm above falls, fon rails on bridge, 60, aneroid repeated. 
Total, 338. 

Elevation of track at station close by, 785 A. T. Seneca lake, 
441; track above lake, 344; error, 6. | 

The lake side exposures are poor on Cayuga lake. Those on 
Seneca lake (fig. 25) begin one and one-half miles south of Lodi 
Point and disappear under the Portage beds at Faucett’s Point, 
a short distance north of the county line. They do not define 
the thickness. 

In the “ Higher Devonian Faunas of Ontario County, New 
York,” by J. M. Clarke, a peculiar layer is described as occupy- © 
ing a position near the middle of the Genesee shale from 
Canandaigua lake westward. This layer consists of a hard lime- 
stone, more or less schistose, a foot in thickness, composed 
almost entirely of shells of Styliola jissurella, and hence named 
the Styliola limestone. Search was made for this rock along the 
Seneca lake exposures, but without success. The exposure of 


‘IpoT ‘ojB[s cosoueH puv ouoysourty AT[NY, JO youyu0D ‘eg ounsrz 


‘9T HLV Id 


GrEoLocy oF Seneca County. 99 


120 feet in the bank of Highland creek (‘‘ Sixteen-mile creek” of 
Gibson’s map) is an advantageous one, and was attentively 
scanned, but with negative results. The possibility remains that 
it exists in the lower layers in the stream-bed, but its presence is 
not indicated by any falls, in this or other ravines. 


Portage Beds. 


The transition from Genesee to Portage in Tompkins county is 
effected, according to H.S. Williams (Fossil Faunas of the 
Upper Devonian, p. 10), by “two thick sandstone layers 
separated by a few inches of shale, the whole about four feet 
thick ; in these sands and shales there are great numbers of 
pyrite nodules from the size of a pea, or smaller, to an inch and 
over in length. No fossils were observed in these first beds. 
Following the sandstone are the sandy shales, characteristic of 
the Portage group,” etc. 

The corresponding layers are well shown in the base of the 
cliff just south of Faucett’s Point; also in the two Lodi glens, 
especially the southern one. At Faucett’s, the layersin question 
are covered with water in some stages of the lake, and hence the 
rock displays chemical erosion, with cavities marking the disap- 
pearance of pyrite. They comprise a mass of heavy gray and 
_ green sandy:shale, two feet and more in thickness, which is 
sometimes compacted in nearly solid courses, and sometimes is 
indistinguishable from the shale above it. The upper part (one 
foot or more) was not observed to be fossiliferous. The lower 
foot varied from point to point; now consisting of large con- 
cretions of very tough limestone with pyrite nodules (above 
noted); now embracing considerable masses of small branching 
coral (cladochonus), which serves to identify the corresponding 
layers in Lodi glen; and again, consisting of only a thick bedded, 
irregular sandy shale. The band here described was traced for 
1,000 feet north of the Point; still further north its presence 
was indicated by large fallen blocks containing the coral. 

At Lodi the band runs some six to eight feet above the base of 
the falls. It is difficult to trace it along the wall of the ravine; it 
varies in apparent thickness and becomes merged in the other 
shales. | | 


100 Report oF THE State GEOLoGIsT. 


For a description of the fauna of this basal rock the reader is 
referred to a note kindly furnished by J. M. Clarke.* No distine- 
tion was found between the different localities, in respect to 
fossils. , 

The “Transition shales,” of wide distribution in Ontario, 
Yates and Livingston counties, are faintly indicated in three or 
four feet of shale at the foot of the Lodi fall, and a little at the 
top of the bank in Highland creek. At Faucett’s they are 
absent. 

Above this layer there is green sandy shale with a few layers 
of thin hard sandstone. This material, however, is replaced 
twice within the first hundred feet, as may be seen in the sec- 
tions (figs. 26, 27) — first, by 10 feet or more of excessively frail 
black shale, stained brown by iron, and second, by a 40-foot 
layer of less fragile black shale quite like the Genesee. Sand- 


* NorEe.— This irregular concretionary and impure calcareous stratum which Dr. Lincoln describes as 
occupying a well-defined position at the top of the Genesee shales carries a fauna of considerable 
interest. The preservation of the fossils is execrable, and it would be highly difficult to get any 
conception of the faunafrom an examination of the stratum without artificial helps, but a simple 
process which I have long used for the elucidation of fossils from just such argillaceous limestone as 
this, has served to bring out a pretty full illustration of the fauna so far as represented in the 
material which has come into my hands. It may be of use to others if this process be briefly 
explained. The given condition is an impure argillaceous or arenaceous limestone with the sub- 
stance of the fossils a semicrystalline calcite. To any manual process employing tools, the elucida- 
tion of the fossils in such a matrix would be insolvable. Let small fragments exposing fossils in 
section be placed in dilute muriatic acid until the calcareous matter is removed to a sufficient depth 
from the surface to leave all impressions. of fossils at the surface perfectly clear. The argillaceous or 
other impurity of the matrix left after the reaction will be exceedingly soft, but retain the 
impression, whether external or. internal, with exceeding delicacy of detail. The fragments may 
then be carefully removed from the acid and washed by placing for a moment in pure water. They 
should then be thoroughly dried, and afterward hardened by cautiously soaking in a very weak 
solution of glue, care being taken that this solution be sufficiently thin to enter all the ornamental 
or structural cavities and interstices of the impressions. After again drying, sharp, clean and clear 
squeezes are to be taken with soft gutta-percha. To preserve the hardened matrix such squeezes 
must be taken rapidly lest the heat of the gutta-percha soften the glue and cause adhesion. If, how- 
ever, the destruction of the matrix is not of moment, the gutta-percha may be withdrawn at will 
and the adhering dirt soaked and washed off at leisure. In my own experience this process has 
given extremely happy results, detail being reproduced with surprising delicacy. In illustration I 
may especially quote the calcareous shales of the Hamilton group from which have been obtained 
many such replicas of well-known species which portray a surface ornamentation in some instances 
barely suggested in the published illustrations. The following species have been recognized by the 
use of this method, in this limestone at Lodi Falls. : 


(cc=abundant; c=common; r=rare.) 


Goniatites Patersoni, Hall, smailform. oor. a2. case neeeecee eee nieeele ceaivieienn sie sieleiele/e) eee ewe 
G@. sp.,a small form with sutures Like G.) S27 WOSUS. «.o.c vesicisicivisra« secs cls cele. sclss sles slvley sle(elnienieiercieisalsts r 
BOGIES BP... s65. 1% bia w eie\e ie 6:l\ sve w ois BiG arm Bula /eye,wre aha le ww: of Bic Loiale levers abateiarerotere eta imetetsia\e o/siais wis 6) 6'v\e.n/0 eis /sin/ols\enieletstetteteniaians Se cae 
Gomplocerads cl Manes, Hall oo. jade ks cues sicucteadedtaes Delleattoet acute ctnelsrains sje eines ole ov u's(s sclera ete ania r 
PAULOCROCRUS DVCCCUTSOT:, (CVATIEO: «x. as'orscie-a/sicicie clo cinicjsialalole e/a ahrokome oteleateialtelmiarsielelele wie’e,0/e1s.a(o\s\wloictulefulsicieietl SS tata ciated c 


Pleurotomaria capillaria, Hall. 

There. are two varieties present of this species, one of which surpasses in size that prevalling in 
the Hamilton shales, while the other is considerably smaller. They are quite distinct in aspect 
though not separable from the species. Both are abundant......... ceeeeeceeec cee eeseeeeeereceseees cc 

LOLONKCIMNA NOE, Clarke. ....-ceescvacincccccsve ee since sivieie occ ee alni sd vieisinisisivisieiss pis elvleju sis ss oslesia\uisinelsni¥iviaiain/eiaiie ce 


GEOLOGY oF SENECA CounNTY. 101 


stone in considerable quantities occurs after the first 100 feet ; 
sparsely below. Rows of concretions occur at frequent intervals 
in the cliff. 

The lower sections, as seen in Ontario county, exhibit a like 
recurrence of material lithologically similar to the Genesee 
shale —itself a recurrence of the Marcellus shale. As described 
by J. M. Clarke they comprise, 1, green shales and a little 
flagstone, 10 to 15 feet; 2, black bituminous shales, the 
“lower black band,” about 40 feet; 3, greenish soft or sandy 
shales with flags and many concretions, not less than 150 feet; 
_ 4, black shales, 5 to 10 feet; 5, flagstones and sandy shales, 150 
feet. Above this lie 600 feet of heavy-bedded gray and greenish 
sandstones, with some flags near the base. 

H. 8. Williams estimates that the Portage fauna in the merid- 
jan of Ithaca is distributed through approximately 1,300 feet of 
strata. Clarke estimates the Portage rocks for Ontario county 
at 600-700 feet. 

We may assume 1,200 feet as a large allowance for the thick- 
ness of the Portage beds in the western part of Seneca county. 


RR ROU TUTE NET Y7 FTLG) CLGIS a cicteiars cla\aele a v'e-ojs.os)o0 els a cio alee sieiuie esos ecie visi sie: oi apiece weleeeeeaie cases (is 
I EEE oe Sih chr nad aed ine acs wise ceaoie en's dances ose can wecactmaveb cr betce vsup ete ce 
EMEA EAT Uo ES UL TB aac cain on) o'nw os ota a aleinicia sinie nisin sie h einlers os aivia,ore <.0,01a/0.0'e individ usec Weave cieveineus Re a; 
ME SE RI ee Ses Soe SIG ai nici sioioaiota'e , ws aiclain. a) sale (cle wid al vte aicleie S slcte.e.elate,e sr aiolnreve viw/ciere(are's wis’e e's ieitrelevs vis Cc 
P. sp. 
ITER TSUNNT ETC CET UN eoai arc oice vice falate cere Reine a ce acie siete wie cide ani sutiicee acjs cme sen: eciece Sueur koees c 
SE TU Reo Gat BIRO P arn Sn COR Oc DEE CGE CUCU: DC Or COBOT OCS TESE BOC CoA DOSS oOCTOUnT OnOL ae ce 
ETE LPE A SERTED DESL eo. 2' feo ov cia Pa) eo ajetaiclokeYe. ove eiavels,b n/a araletajaysle™ elpieisinis. oad clecaie/sisiwle so ete | OCR ROMEBOATISOU UC Cc 
Spirifer like S. subumbona with minute, erect spinules on the concentric surface lines............ r 
TREE TORS ora gie coteiclced doiew (sien 6 rave coe eee eevee eee sleaiaetdecivecs's: Coe sacevead esetieosesies G 
TEE PEERS ELLE TELE U LO sino oisicicias de/e stance cs ots cere vlis'e cisiaic Sivigeicin cis peioleisie si0.g 0 enieislen eee a tusleagvseete r 
Orthothetes, a small species occurring in the Portage fauna of the Naples section .................. or 
ERM TEMSSELEIEL CE OUI 02717, Dene sod ors oie ve olla sic. cies Se a a o)ale Colslvic’s Ua deeisle iioeeleabepe sdueds se lseedecesets 7 
ae CREME STOUT eos rm roc os nieejalaycin/uin dee wisie ee aicigre mie dine dle. vio albia\vle alesis ocwa'e Rs) few viajes. (eels veslac'eep'a G 
Cladochonus, a species occurring throughout the central New York sections at the base of the 
Portage; in the Canandaigua lake section also in the Styliola limestome................0- cee ceeeees ce 


After careful examination Dr. Lincoln reports no evidence in Seneca county of the Styliola 
limestone which seems to appear first in Yates county and extends thence westward nearly to Lake 
Erie; alayer lying in the midst of the Genesee shales and containing many fossils which characterize 
and herald the fauna of the Portage group. 

The fauna of this Lodi limestone is especially to be noted for the following points: 

It shows the incoming ofa true Portage fauna (fauna with Goniatites intuwmescens), as evinced by 
Gon. Patersoni, Paleotrochus precursor, Loxonema Noe, Pleurotomaria capillaria, large form. 
It also carries certain brachiopods which show the continued influences and presence of the Ithaca 
fauna or eastern representative of the Portage group: Atrypa reticularis, Liorhynchus mesacostalis, 
Spirifer cf. subumbona, species which do not appear in the true Portagefauna. In view of the 
earlier appearance of aconcretionary limestone layer in the Genesee shales (Styliola limestone) 
in more westerly meridional sections where the normal Portage fauna is developed, in which a true 
intumescens fauna appears, similar to that here noticed except in the absence of the certain 
brachiopod elements, as well as the pre-eminent absence of calcareous layers from the arenaceous 
Portage beds, I should be disposed to regard this layer as the final stratum of the Genesee division. 


J. M. CLARKE. 


102 ReEportT oF THE StTatE GEOLOGIST. 


The highest points in the county are about Prospect hill, and — 
may be estimated (no data being on record) at 1,200 or 1,300 feet 
above tide = say 800 feet above Seneca lake. From this it 
appears probable that the highlands of the southern part of the 
county fall short of the uppermost Portage beds by several hun- 
dred (400?) feet. The thick-bedded sandstones of the highest | 
beds do not appear on these hills. | 


Thickness and Dip of Rocks. 


The necessity of revising our estimate of the thickness of the 
formations of central New York has been pointed out by Prosser 
in the American Geologist for October, 1890. 

For the Salina group we have the evidence of several walle 
drilled for gas, which give a probable thickness of about 1,000 
feet, the southernmost well indicating an actual 980 feet. At 
Geneva the Nester well went 1,400 feet to the Niagara; from 
which must be subtracted the thickness of the Corniferous and 
part of the Marcellus, say 100 feet, leaving a probable 1,100 
feet. 

The thickness of the Upper Helderberg, as far as exposed, is 
32-+8+2=—42 feet, but is doubtless considerably greater. These 
figures represent the Avery quarry, the Waterloo river stone and 
the Onondaga limestone at McQuane’s. 

_ The Corniferous limestone measured at the Ithaca well 78 
feet. 


The Marcellus can not be closely estimated. Clarke considers 
it about 100 feet thick in Ontario county, but farther west its 
upper limit becomes very uncertain. Ithaca well, 82 feet. The 
Hamilton was estimated by Hall at “ not less than 1,000 feet” in 
this region. The Ithaca well gave 1,142 feet. The distance 
from a mean point in the Hamilton to Ithaca is 25 miles; that 
from a mean point in the Salina to Ithaca is 42 miles; and the 
change in the thickness is very great, being perhaps at Ithaca 
twice what it is at Seneca Falls. ) 

The Tully limestone is not far from 12 feet in thickness. In 
Ithaca well it was 30 feet, with which compare S. G. Williams’s 
statement that the thickest outcrop at Cayuga lake measures 183 


(48 F974405) 
»FEE Zot 
Steer AS 7p°T 


; O9/ LP PZUMOD 
2bo720/ - ikea 


,0L L?PLuez 


me 77 ~ AYA 


207 LrPPLyeg 
Ayyray ~ Hogs Poy 


a em oe ew ed ef we ee es <= ee 


——i6 
a 


ca 


Figure 27. Section of the larger glen at Lodi. 


GroLogy or Seneca County. 7 1038 


feet; that it is generally thicker in the Owasco valley, one section 
being 23 feet thick. | 
For the Genesee shale the Ithaca well gives 100 feet. It 
appears to be thicker at Lodi and Highland. 
The following is a part of the table given by Prosser for the 
Ithaca well, quoted from Ashburner. It is in the valley one- 
quarter mile south of the town, 396 feet, A. T. 


Depth. Thickness. 


‘rigarat ecutam ie - 340 | (lower) Portage shales and sandstones. 
oo, ee 
ye) SS 100 | Genesee black shale. 
er 
eae care 30 | Tully limestone. 
0). 9 
Behe ig as 1,142 | Hamilton shales and sandstones. 
a ; 
ee ee 82 | Marcellus black shale. 
ae 
ORE 85 6K 78 | Corniferous limestone. 
Ea 
7 See 13 ; Oriskany sandstone. 
S| 
gee se 115 | Lower Helderberg limestones. 
neon). ....... 
Patties v's 1,285 | Salina (not through). 
So Bottom of well. 


The dip of the strata is also more steep than has been sup- 
posed. | 

Instances of local disturbance and reversal of dip are frequent. 
Examples: Seneca Falls, river, excessive to S.; Corniferous quar- 
ries, dip in all directions; Tully, two anticlines on Seneca lake; 
quarry at Willard; Genesee, small anticline of 15 feet height in 
railroad cut at Willard. 

A general inclination to the S. W. is commonly noticed by 
quarrymen in the east side of the county, among the sandstones. 
The same may be assumed with probability as the cause of the 
oblique position of the Upper Helderberg beds across level 
country. 8S. G. Williams assumes it as representing the dip of 


104 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


the Tully; in which I must concur with him. The leading facts 
in the case of the Tully are these: 

From the most northern exposure the Tully descends 400 feet 
in four miles, into Seneca lake; then runs four and one-half miles 
practically on a level; 2. ¢., with two bends of 50 feet, ending at 
the lake level again. rom the northern exposure to a point near 
Cayuga lake equivalent in altitude to Seneca, brings us to the creeks 
just south of Kidder’s Landing, two miles farther south than the 
foot of the western dip: It is nearly level for three miles south of 
this. A line connecting these points runs about W. 15° N., and 
may be taken as the axis of the fold. A line drawn from the 
northern exposure vertical to this line would be three miles long, 
which would give adip of 42° = 133 feet to the mile, at this 
point, succeeded southerly by nearly horizontal strata for a few | 
miles The important anticlinal south of Trumansburg does not 
affect the county. 

Subordinate in magnitude, but scien aroenn is the dip of the 
Hamilton in the western part of Fayetteand Varick. The single 
exposure of the base of the Hamilton, in the form of a coral bed 
or reef on the summit of a hill, 200 feet above Seneca lake, is 
rediscovered at the lake level four miles 8. 15° W.; and at two 
and one-half miles, perhaps 25 feet above the lake in Reeder’s 
creek. The latter corresponds to a dip of 70 feet per mile. 

The general average of thickness for the Hamilton group may be 
taken between West Fayette station (608 A T.)and Willard quarry, 
eight and one-half miles due south (555 A. T). Allowing 53 
feet in addition to 1,144 (Ithaca well), we have, in round num- 
bers, 129° = 141 feet dip to the mile. Using Hall’s estimate we 
have 123° = 123. Measurement along the supposed axis of dip 
N. 15° E, does not materially alter the result. 

It is evident that the dip of the Marcellus and the Upper Hel- 
derberg is at a very different angle from tle above, unless our 
estimates of their thickness are altogether wrong. It is uncer- 
tain where their upper limit lies. There isa distance of 8 + miles 
between known exposures, from Waterloo to bluffs north of 
Reeder’s creek, on the same level. Ona N-S line 10 miles is not 
improbable, giving 45° = 16 feet of dip per mile. 

It is easy to play in figures; but perhaps the fairest average 
tate ment is the following, which is based on exposures at the 


‘qoouuvysney, ‘e1oys oxvT vsnAveg wo ouoysomiy AINE, ‘gg cans 


“Al GLV Id 


GroLoagy or Seneca Country. 105 


water’s edge, as near as ascertainable, along the western line of 
the county: 


FORMATION. Thickness. | Distance. | |, ee 
ee BO 1,000 | 6 (+10) 62 
Upper Helderberg..... Mins shai 2 > x 160 er: 16 
oa Ee ae ee ae 
EM ae oie WN eee ote ayia sie | 1, LOO 9 122 
Per UGVONIEN .. 6 ennai ticle ss. +> 250? 7% 33 

eo sa soe aga Mere Peete: gs; 2,510 424 60 


Omitting the Salina and measuring obliquely from McQuane’s 
(Upper Helderberg) to the S. W. corner of the county, we have 
the same result, viz.: 4549 = 60 feet dip per mile. 


Clay, Brick, Tile. 

Most of the clay in the county is included in the belt previously 
described, and is of glacial origin. It was deposited when the 
lakes were much higher than at present; a condition generally 
referred by geologists to the closing periods of the Ice-Age. In 
a wider sense, all the clay of this region, including late deposits 
in isolated hollows, is “glacial,” inasmuch as its particles must be 
derived from the general covering of till. 

A distinction is necessary between the clays of the Hudson 
River region and those of central and western New York in 
this latitude. Of the former it is noted that the upper layers are 
yellow ; from fri to Buffalo the same layers are deep red. 

The under ¢lay, in Seneca county, is called “blue” by those 
who make brick and tile, but the name is applicable only by a 
technical fiction. The color is simply a lighter red, varying in 
shade. When burnt, however, it turns a light buff, while the 
top, or “red” clay, turns red, increasing in darkness as it is 
longer baked. This difference doubtless arises from the presence 
of a considerable amount of lime carbonate (and magnesium 
carbonate), which has been removed by leaching from the upper 
layers. 

14 


106 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


The most interesting section of clay lies a few rods beyond the 
county limits, to-wit, in the north part of Geneva near the Lehigh 
Valley station. The top of the bankis here 50+ feet above the lake. — 
As this is a part of the clay sheet of Seneca county, I take leave 

to describe it, using “red” and “ blue” in their ordinary meaning. 


SrcTion oF Ciay, Torrey Park, GENEVA. 
Feet. 
Red clay at top, not showing lamination, not effervescing with 
H cl 


Red clay, well laminated. Reaction to H Cl, in the lower 14 

feet. Some little stones at 34-44 feet ........0- eeu ceeces 4 6 
Sand with some folia of red clay, mostly level stratification .. 9 14 
Purplish-blue and dark blue clay (running 60 feet), 6 inches 


thick. SandyGanehes: ....°.J2). teehee eee. ee te 
Purplish blue clay 4 inches, runs 90 feet. Mostly sand, 
BDOUL 5S LECH. GK nis jw 0s wins o cid aa me hatehe nage cee atl er 5 20 


The blue clays and the sand between them reacted to HCl. 
This is the only blue clay in the belt from Geneva to Cayuga 
lake, as far as seen, except at Thomas’ quarry. Another typical 


section gave the following: 
Inches. 
Clay of upper part unstratified in appearance. 


Lamination broadly seen at............... “eee 00 ey Se 20 
Reaction to H Cl, none, down to......... WR oe 24 
Lamination quite plain, reacts well ....... w'oie Goin sje ee 26 
Concretionary layer (clay dogs) begins..............++ seereee _ 380 
Tough quality of clay COmtiImUeS 10. ...o6S6s.e. . gue one ee 34 

Change to a lighter, buff clay Soneeuine much sand, reacting at 
All POUNtS jess cm eeeerere one tue Dist aaa later ele) Ge alert gd; aaa See 44 
Contino 104. ie 2 cus os a scopes ph sini ‘+ aaah 75 


-These sections illustrate the effect of oxidation and leaching, 
in the following points: 

Color, due to formation of hydrated iron peroxyd. 

Decalcification, to depth of two to three feet, indicated by 
loss of reaction to HCl. 

Concretions, a usual phenomenon, at a little way below the 
limit of decalcification. They are mostly from one to four inches 
in size; soft and impure; of a very light chocolate color; in the 
form of disks, oddly grouped, placed horizontally, or of fingers, 
placed vertically. | 

Loss of lamination, the upper clay becoming a uniform dark 
chocolate mass, breaking in cubic forms. 


GroLocy or Seneca County. 107 


Pebbles of limestone generally disappear from the decalcified 
part. 

The channel of a rivulet, 15 feet deep, occurs at this place, 
bringing the section to an end. The oxidation changes follow 
the slope down; the physical changes and the reaction-point 
keeping at the same distance as usual from the surface. 

The lamination of the lower or “blue” clay is often marked 
by delicate fclia of the finest sand; by alternations of chocolate, 
brownish and bluish tints; and by a beautiful alternation of 
shades from brick red to cream color in the clay when burnt 
without kneading. By selecting the proper layers of “blue clay ” 
a cream-colored brick of great hardness and good appearance has 
been produced at Geneva. It is worth while to ascertain whether 

such material can be used for making ornamental pottery. 

A peculiar section was shown at Seneca Falls in excavating for 
the cellar of the new hotel, about 440 feet A. T., in 1894. Total 
thickness, 6-7 feet. | 

1. Loose top-soil, moderate depth. 

2. A whitish clayey layer. 

3. Chocolate-colored clay in places, not laminated. 

4, A whiter clay with distinct lamination. 

5. For the lower foot or two the material resembled disinte- 
grated till, being composed of sand, gravel and stones, many of 
,which have the characteristic shape and striations of till-stone. 
Too little compact for till, and not considered as “hard-pan” by 
the diggers. . 

At Thomas’ quarry, south of Waterloo village, two sections of 
clay, etc., upon the limestone knoll, 50 feet (7) above the level of 
Seneca river and lake. (1) Till, 5 feet; red clay, handsome and 
well stratified, 18 inches; tawny fine sand, 6 feet. (2) Till 
absent; darkish, purplish clay, interlaminated with blue, 16 
inches; red clay, 30 inches. 

The clay at Willour and Pontius’ tilery, five miles south of 
Waterloo, is classed with the other clays of the red belt. It lies 
in the valley of Kendig’s creek ; at 100+ feet above Seneca lake. 

Rorison’s quarry, two miles south of Seneca Falls, is covered 
with 30 inches of the red upper clay. 


108 Report oF THE State Geoxoaist. 


The clay at Yerkes’ tilery, in Romulus, is a slate blue, asso- 
ciated with vegetable matter and shell deposits. | 

The eight-inch layer of gray, fossil clay, described as occurring 
in the Upper Helderberg limestone, is in too small amount for 
practical uses. It was tried with poor success at the Waterloo 
tilery; it burns to a light color. 

Much clay exists in local sheets and patches, in the oe aplea of 
which I have not been able to take account. In Covert, near the 
lake, are stated to be thick deposits of yellow clay. The choco- 
late clay of the delta-terraces has been mentioned ; some of that 
kind was once used for making brick at Willard, but it is not 
found in sufficient quantity, and their present supply of bricks is 
made elsewhere. In Tyre there are scattered deposits of clay ; 
bricks were formerly made at Tyre City, but the clay is said to 
be too sandy, not sufficiently stiff, and not abundant. 

Four establishments produce drain tile, two brick (one idle), 
and one combines the two manufactures. The tile is of excellent 
quality. The brick is serviceable rather than ornamental. 

A. Whartenby, of Waterloo, makes Agricultural Tile. — 
The first manufacture of this article in New York was com- 
menced by Benj. F. Whartenby, at Waterloo, in 1839-40, using 
Scotch tiles as models. They were at first made on a wheel, and 
with his son’s assistance in mixing and preparing clay, he was 
able to make 300 or 400 na day. This manufacture was begun 
at the instigation of Messrs. John. Johnston and John Delafield, ' 
who subsequently (1842-9) imported an English tile machine for 
Mr. W.’s use, by which 2,000-3,000 could be made in a day. 
The figures are given from memory by the son, A. Whartenby, 
who now runs the establishment. ‘This machine was worked by 
hand; it was used 10 or 15 years, and is now preserved in the 
Agricultural Museum at Albany. Previous to its purchase the. 
tiles were made by rolling clay into a sheet and wrapping it 
around a wooden pin. 

The work is done at present with an Abr. Latourette’s ma- 
chine, run by horse power, capable of turning out 2,500-3,000 
in a day, according to sizes. The kiln holds 10,000-12,000. The 
men are on reduced time, so that 10 days are required to fill 
the kiln. Burning takes three days and nights; cooling two 

days; removal one day. The average product is 50,000—75,000 


| Grotocy or Seneca County. aA 109 


in a season. Two patterns are used, the horse shoe (from 2} to 
12-inch diameter), and the flat-bottomed (2 to 6-inch). The clay 
is got from a field on the north bank of the canal, in the western 
part of the village. The beds run a foot below the water level. 
'’hey comprise two feet of red clay on top, separated from five feet 
of blue by a few inches of alternate sand and clay. The strata 
dip toward the canal, the sand becoming very thick. The clay 
rests on quicksand. The “blue” is red with a purplish tinge. 
A portion of red clay is also found five feet below the surface, 
under the blue. The blue is said to be too “strong,” 7. e., tena- 
_ cious and adhesive, by itself, and is improved by admixture of 
the red. 

The clay is a into a bin and used as fast as wanted. It is 
mixed by hand in the bin, shoveled into the drum of the machine, 

-where it is cut and “tempered” with knives, forced through a 
screen to remove stones, and at last pushed through a die upon 
revolving rollers. 

The fuel is wood, as is usual in these parts. 

It is claimed as an advantage for this tile, that it is more 
porous than some others. 

Wm. M. Culley, successor to Dixon & Whitwell, Geneva Tile 
Works, address Geneva. Located in Waterloo, near the Geneva 
boundary, in low land at foot of lake. The red clay at top is 
three feet thick, the blue is of unknown thickness, and for reasons 
connected with drainage has been cut only five feet. It is cut in 
the fall and weathers until required in the spring. The season © 
for making tile is from May 1 to the beginning or middle of 
September; the moist unbaked tile is spoiled by frost. The two 
clays are mixed, wet, in a pugging machine run by one horse. 
No sand isadded. Next season it is intended to cut only four feet 
of blue clay. Stones have to be removed by hand. The tile is 
made in two Dunning hand machines, each run by two men. It 
is piled in a Dixon’s kiln, holding 30,000, the process requiring 
two or three days. Burning takes four days and three nights; 
cooling, three or four days; unloading, two or three days. 

There are two kinds made, pipe and horse-shoe;.the latter is 
liked for low-lying grounds, and is set on boards in the trench; 
is thought not to break. The diameters of the pipes are of five 
grades, ranging from two to five inches; of the horse-shoes, 


110 Report OF THE STATE eats: 


two and one-half, three tad four ee The length of all is the 
same, 154 inches before baking, 144 after. The total product of 
the current year is 160,000 of all sorts, nearly two-thirds of the 
whole being two inch (round) pipe. The average value of all is 
two cents a piece. The sale is local. 

Mr. Whiteside, Waterloo village, makes brick. The yard is 
east of the village on rising ground. The clay is “red” only, 
z.é., dark chocolate without lamination, four feet thick, resting on 
“ eel ” is said to extend two miles back from stream, where 
it is succeeded by what appears to be till. The owner claims 
that the clay is superior to that of Geneva, retaining its shape 
better; it is very “strong” (tenacious), and one-fourth sand is 
added to make it workable; contains a few striated pebbles and 
traces of lime concretions. The sand is “red” (buff), and fine, 
occurring in scattered knolls on top of the clay; not building 
sand, but equivalent to that of West Junius. A pug engine and 
crusher are used, which “grinds as fine as coarse meal; a stone 
as large as a finger nail causes air-slaking and splits the brick.” 

Production this year, 800,000; none for three years previous; . 
can make 25,000-27,000 in a day, requiring 18 men. 

A brick yard was seen at the western boundary of Waterloo, 
adjoining Geneva, not at present in operation. 

Frank Seigferd, Seneca Falls, just outside village on north, 
ground level, not elevated. Two kinds of clay; upper six feet 
red, exclusively for brick, the rest down to 10 feet, blue, for 
_ tiles only. They are not mixed. Top layer of 10 inches is dark 
from vegetation ; it is included and worked up with the red clay. 
Brick shrinks one-half inch in “each dimension;” blue clay 
“ shrinks too much for brick making, and is too sticky, adhering 
to the mould.” A machine for tile making and one for brick, 
horse power; three men. Product not over 225,000 this year. 

Willour & Pontius have made tile in Fayette for 25. years. 
Their plant is in the valley, west of West Fayette station. 
There is one or two feet of red clay on top, and an unknown 
depth of blue below it, the drainage allowing only a few feet of 
excavation. .They make “15 kinds of agricultural tile.” They 
state that the possession of two sorts of clay is an advantage, 
the red being tougher and better adapted to making horse-shoe 
tile. They employ three hands; were off six weeks this year 
for farming reasons, and made five kilns = 150,000 tile. 


GEOLOGY OF SENECA Counrty. His bal 


John M. Yerkes, Jr., has a tile works a short distance south of 
Romulusville, in a very level country. The field was found to 
be opened in shallow cuts, not deeper than three feet. The clay 
is dark blue, containing vegetable matter and specks of lime from 
fresh-water shells; under it is some quicksand and marl. It 
reacts to H Cl freely. No information obtainable by conversa- 
tion or letter. 


Limestone. 


- The limestone of this county, quarried in Fayette from the 
“ Seneca” (Upper Helderberg), has a good reputation and may be 
seen in the walls of many public buildings in the neighborhood. 
The dam at Waterloo is of this material. The greater part is 
good stone; weathering from ae has more or less affected 
some of the upper tiers. 

The commercial value of this excellent stone is impaired 
by the want of direct railroad connection. At the time of 
writing, four quarries were found in actual operation, but with 
few men. Several at the east end of the line have been long 
since abandoned owing to their distance from railroad The dip 
is not sufficient to injure the prospects of the quarries. 

The quarried rock is sufficiently handsome for architectural 
uses. It gradually weathers from dark blue to a whitish gray 
or lead-color, but its effect is not injured by the change. It is | 
described as ‘‘a strong, uniform, hard, ringing stone, containing 
few fossils; easily trimmed and squared, and adapted to most 
uses where strength and durability are desired.” Many of the 
layers are free from hornstone, but its presence has not 
injuriously affected the walls of public buildings erected during 
the present century in the neighboring towns. The shaly layers 
described in another place are of bad quality. 

The business of lime-burning was once pursued in many places 
on a small scale; for example, along the line of outcrop of the 
Tully formation. I found one in operation (Seneca Falls), using 
the refuse of a quarry in Fayette; there may be others. I 
heard of no cement manufacture. The increasing scarcity of 
wood fuel has had much to do with this neglect. It is still pos- 
sible, doubtless, in some glens to make use of wood cut on the spot 
for burning the Tully limestone, if farmers care for the trouble. 


ia? REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Sand. 


Building sand of good quality is found at the pits north of Seneca 
Falls, as previously described. Itissaid that still better is found 
at Oaks Corners, Ontario county, where very large excavations 
of 20 feet in depth have been made in the alluvial plain, east of 
the New York Central station. In connection with the gravel pits 
at West Junius there are sand deposits used for this purpose and 
for plaster. For the high lands supplies of sand can be found in 
the delta-terraces. That near the water’s edge at Willard seems © 
to have been used for building within the Hospital grounds, 
but at present it is found advantageous to draw the supplies 
from a vast deposit at the lake side, un sand bluffs at Long 
Point, which lies opposite Willard. 

The very extensive deposits of buff sand' which cover many 
miles of land in Waterloo and Junius are not useful for mortar- 
making. The sand is altogether too fine, and lacks “sharpness,” 
or the quality of setting quickly and strongly. It is used in 
brick making for coating the inside of moulds. The sand is 
ferruginous; some of it is highly so, and would bake to a deep 
cherry red on the surface of the brick. The sand used for mak- 
ing moulds by the iron founders at Geneva is brought from a 
distance; that of the vicinity does not serve, although similar in 

appeamineeien does not hold together well. Lake sand is 
- dredged from the shallow water of the north end of the lake for 
making cores for castings; this would also make a fair mason’s 
sand, though not quite coarse enough. 


Sandstone. 


The sandstone of the Portage group takes the form of slabs 
or flags. Flagstone quarries have been largely developed, chiefly 
on the eastern side, and have proved a source of considerable 
profit in former time, though at present few are worked. 

The lower layers, up to at least 100 feet, are not worth work- 
ing. This is obvious on inspecting the exposure at Lodi falls. 
A quarry at 140 feet above the base of the formation was men- 
tioned to me as giving stone of insufficient strength for bridges. 
The disused quarries in Ovid village may be at even a lower 
level. At Faucett’s Point, 200 feet above the base of the forma- 


‘Sinqsuvumniy, ‘euoyspuvs osvyztog ‘Arrenb uosurqoy pus sury oy, “6g oins17 


‘Sl ALWI1d 


GroLtocy oF SENECA CouNTY. 113 


tion, the product seemed to be what it was claimed to be, very 
tough and suited to cover culverts in roads. 

A series of 14 or more quarries extend along the east shore 
of Covert for nearly six miles, at the distance of half or 
three quarters of a mile from the lake, and probably 400 feet 
above it, which would be 250 feet above the base, if 150 is 
allowed for the Genesee shale. This, with the neighboring 
quarries at Trumansburg and Taughannock, forms the district 
of typical development of the industry. At. present only one 
quarry is worked at this point in Covert, and another is expected 
to open next season. Those at Taughannock, with some advan- 
tages of position, are working. © 

The quality of the stone varies and much poor material has 
formerly been disposed of at cheap rates. Some layers, appar- 
ently solid, go to pieces under the hammer. Scaling sidewalks 
and splitting wall stones may be seen. But when well chosen 
the flags retain their position among the very best materials for 
walks. The stone is of a very high degree of tenacity and dura- 
bility, and does not become slippery by wear. Sills and cap- 
stones are also made of it. It is found of’sufficient thickness 
for basement story work with rough face, for which it is now 
being used at Willard’s Hospital, and makes a handsome wall. 

Quarrying is facilitated in the Covert district by the compara- 
tive lightness (1-8 feet) of the drift layer. In the more elevated 
and central parts the drift is much heavier and has proved a 
barrier to operations. The largest quarry in the district is the 
Ogden. There are also some large quarries near Ovid Centre. 

Cleaved surfaces are slightly uneven; sawing, for the produc- 
tion of smooth surfaces, has not been put in practice to my 
knowledge in this county. 

The accompanying view gives the quarry of King & ees 
who state the following in regard to it: The flags range in thick- 
ness from two feet two inches down to “nothing.” Thethick layers 
are liable to split; in order to anticipate this they are artificially 
separated by wedges into convenient thicknesses for slabs. The 
thickest layer that. can be relied on not to separate spontaneously 
is eight inches through. Most of the good flags are furnished 
by one 20-inch layer; at its greatest thickness this measures 22 
inches and runs 40 rods each way (N. and §.), gradually thinning 

15 


114 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


until it is lost, but reappears at one-quarter of a mile farther and 
increasing to 28 inches. This thickness was found at the Ogden 
quarry, which was the first opened in the locality. ) 

Above this layer comes six feet of shale (“shuck”); then 4-16 
inches of stone divisible in. two to six layers, and then 20 feet 
of shale, flying in fine pieces when blasted, which contains hard 
streaks (not of much value) from one inch to two feet in thick- 
ness. 

The marketable slabs are found of almost any length, and in 
widths varying from 1 to 20 feet. The largest quarried here 
was, Mr. King thinks, 12 feet 9 inches by 13 feet 9 inches, and 
was used in the vault of a bank. The largest ever quarried by 
him were three flags 9 feet 6 inches by 13 feet, which received 
a premium at Philadelphia in 1876 for strength, texture, natural 
surface and edges. 

A §. W. dip of one and one-half inches in 100 (three inches to 
a rod) is found here and in other quarries for some miles to the 
north. | | 
The joints are nearly vertical. A main joint runs N. 15° W. 
(magnetic), but it récurs at very irregular intervals (6 to 40 feet), 
and gives very varying dimensions to the slabs. No reliable 
cross seam exists. Subordinate cleavages (“ back seams”) tra- 
verse the main joints in places, running about N. 10° W. extend- 
ing not over 100 feet each way from the main seam. Back 
seams are confined to the lower beds in the quarry. They are 
well shown in the view. Much injury to the market worth of 
the pruduct is caused by their: presence, but they are fortunately 
not common. ; 

Another form of objectionable cleavage is found, usually run- 
ning parallel with the main joint, and limited to a few inches 
(not over 20) in the thickness of beds. Between two main 
seams that are, say 30 feet apart, there may be from one to ten 
such, at from | to 10 feet apart. A whole block may be so cut 
up that the widest piece is not over 20 inches across. 

Another source of injury is found in “burl,” a formation of 
concretionary origin, whose presence is shown by saucer-shaped 
protuberances and depressions and circular discolorations.* 
Around the perimeters of burl the stone is of excessive hardness, 


*It turns brown against the greenish sandstone when weathered. 


“9UOJSPUBS OSBIIOg UI yooZo ATVUOTJOIONOD IO ,,“JING,, “VES WINS 


‘6T ALV Id 


GEOLOGY oF SrnrecA County. 115 


and there is a strong tendency in the stone to crack or break in 
a ring at this line. No marked change in composition is appar- 
ent in the rock at these points. | 

Among the causes for the abandonment of quarrying in this. 
region are the following, in order of importance: Competition 
of cement pavement and of Ohio flags; increased difficulty of 
quarrying as the work progresses landward (it has been carried 
in as far as 350 feet); seams and burl; difficulty of drainage ; 
distance from railroad. The latter is not of prime importance, 
perhaps, but its bearing is seen in the continuance of work at the 
Taughannock quarries, which are directly on the line of railroad. 
At the latter point, also, the waste is easily dumped into the 
chasm. — 

The product of the quarries of Seneca county has ee been 
consumed locally, 7. ¢., within 5°-100 miles of production. The 
qualities of the stone are still appreciated, for sidewalks, but it 
appears that for its production on a large scale greater facilities 
are offered at Taughannock. I have, however, met several pro-— 
prietors who were working small quarries in connection with 
some farming. The enterprise of the King’s Ferry proprietors 
(Cayuga county) iscommendable. They are sending out picked 
flags of large size, accompanied by their own workmen, 108 the 
purpose of fitting and laying them. 


Plaster Rock. 


The report of the fourth district (1843) states that at that time 
five or six thousand tons of rock were annually quarried as a 
fertilizer at Seneca Falls. The memory of this once thriving 
business has passed from the minds of this generation. I found 
but one man who knew of its former existence, his father having 
been engaged in quarrying 55 years ago. The industry still 
exists at Springport (now Union Springs) and Phelps, but the 
“phosphates” of commerce have largely superseded plaster. 

A word in regard to the uses of plaster may be here in place. 
Only the impure article is likely to be obtained from these beds, 
if reopened ; its only use, that of a fertilizer. In this capacity it is 
at present mainly employed to give bulk to substances which in 
themselves are too concentrated for use, as nitrogen compounds, 
potash and the phosphoric acid of phosphates, which are the sub- 


116 ReEporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


stances mentioned in the New York law regarding fertilizers. It 
appears that the plaster per se no longer exercises the beneficial — 
influence upon the soil that it formerly did ; its function being to 
liberate potash from combinations, its application for a number 
of times exhausts the capacity of the soil for yielding its pete 
and the beneficial effect is no longer observed. 


Road Metal. 


From a strictly practical point of view Geology offers no 
results of more immediate concern than those bearing on the ques- 
tion of road building. Attention has been constantly directed to 
this point in the course of these investigations. A large part 
of the county, even in the elevated tracts, has a clayey soil, on 
which the attempt to make good roads has proved a failure. 

It must be confessed that the true principles of road-making are 
seldom if at all followed. It is well known that deep side ditches, 
culverts for prompt discharge of side water, under-drainage and 
arching of the roadbed, are at the basis of all success in road 
construction; but in practice they are quite neglected. One 
seldom sees a properly made dirt road; and good road metal is 
commonly wasted by laying it on a poor} basis, and by neglecting 
to crush to size. 

The best road metal is trap, granite and the like, which are out 
of the question for country roads here. 

Gravel is rather a rare product in this district. Lake gravel is 
usually shale worn round, and is then little better than shale. It 
is here suggested that river gravel can be found in considerable 
quantities in some of the ravines, some of which may prove suit- 
able for roads. 

The country north of Seneca river has no rock, not even shale. 
That on the south has at least two belts of limestone, much shale - 
and at the south sandstone. 

The application of the well-known black shale to the roads has 
a good effect for a time, but the material eventually becomes 
reduced to its original element, mud. I have known a fine 
road kept in good order by frequent coats of common Hamilton 
shale (Moscow shale) applied until a great thickness was accumu- 
lated; this was at Kidder’s Ferry, where no heavy produce teams 
pass. In general this material may safely be recommended for 


GEOLOGY oF SENECA CouUNTY. a iy 


avenues. No deliberate and well-conducted experiments upon 
the value of this very common material seem to have been made ; 
if successful they would confer a great benefit ; but the probabil- 
ity seems to be against success. 

Shale, the refuse of quarries of Portage sandstone, has been 
applied to roads near Trumansburg by Mr. King, but, as he 
informs me, with no great success. It grinds up to sand and 
mud. 3 

The sandstone of that region is expensive to quarry; nor is 
sandstone recommended as a, road material. 

Certain parts of the Hamilton formation consist of a heavy 
rock intermediate between shale and limestone. Such rock is 
found at one or two points along the northern border of the 
formation ; it is what has been termed the “ basal Hamilton lime- 
stone.” . At or near Bearytown, I am informed, this material has 
been employed successfully in mending roads. The experiment 
deserves-to be repeated. Failure at one locality need not dis- 
courage a trial at another, as the amount of lime in the rock 
doubtless varies from point to point. The material is much 
firmer than the common black shale or “slate.” Exposures are 
marked: H on the map. , 

The belt of quarries in “Seneca” stone would furnish excel- 
lent material. The “stone road” between Geneva and Ovid is 
roughly macadamized with this stone, and is certainly a fair 
road. In the quarries which have been discontinued, owing to 
distance from transportation, a limitless supply of serviceable 
material is ready to the hand, which at present is practically 
worthless. For road metal, blasting answers as good a purpose 
as the slow and expensive use of bars and wedges. A plant for 
stone crushing would be absolutely necessary. 

The Willard Hospital has constructed on its own premises, at 
practically no expense, a mile and a half of Telford road, using 
as sole material the Tully limestone quarried in the ravine, a few 
hundred feet from the lake. This bit of road is of importance 
-in several ways. It illustrates the value of hitherto unused and 
wasted forces — the work, both of quarrying, transportation and 
road-building, having been performed by the patients, with the | 
aid and direction of the hospital assistants. it forms, a perma- 


118 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


nent addition to the property of the State. And it is hoped that 
it may prove an object lesson, productive of direct benefit to 
the neighboring population, by calling attention to their own 
resources. 

Two points are of capital importance here. rst, the road is 
a perfect success. Five years of constant use, in the main ave- 
nue of a population of 2,500, has not injured it; the work is 
sound, and the material is perfectly adapted to its purpose. It 
forms an unbroken, probably water-tight arch. It is not slip- 
pery. It produces a moderate amount of dust, which is the case 
with all limestone. The impurities of the rock appear to be of a 
similar nature to those found in hydraulic limestone, and proba- 
bly aid in establishing compactness by consolidation of stone 
with stone. 

- Second, the material can be had in almost unlimited quantity, 
with but a light covering of dirt, on high ground, centrally situ- 
ated, and with a railroad running over a mile of it. It is of 
small value as a building stone. The rock forms an outcrop at 
the Thompson Johnson farm, where, as we have seen, it is nearly 
11 feet thick. Thence to Hayt’s Corners it forms a shoulder of 
land, known to neighbors as concealing limestone ; in places it 
has so little covering of earth that its crumbling has completely 
filled the soil with bits of stone. No close estimates have been 
made of the amount of soil to be removed; it doubtless varies. 
There is enough material just in this spot to pave the roads of 
the county. 

Something may properly be said in this place in regard to the 
manner of using road material. The Telford is a perfect road; 
but its cost may deter others from imitating the details of its 
construction. Before entering upon that matter be it permitted 
to say that exceedingly good results may be had from very simple > 
methods. The rock must be broken to a nearly uniform size. 
The bed must be properly leveled. A sufficient thickness of 
material must be used, and as of absolute importance, good drain- 
age must be insisted upon. 

No reasonable man can claim or predict anything in favor of 
roads in which these points are neglected. 

A rock crusher will be required. It is now needed, irrespective 
of theory of road building; for who can have seen the heaps of 


OS puUw’ TWON ‘OS sins 
3 OYS ‘e0By ULojsoMm SqI SuOTe ‘AyuNod Booueg YSno1Y4 UOT40es Y4yNOS p 
UTM ; I 
‘dip jo ojduv ur sasuvyo gut 
OS vo) 


OC] 


oz vt 09 
(e] 
: ~evfins fo ay IU «vd dag 


<< Se 


mu Oe Haak 
s PINAW OTE LO 7 
Mae gi iy age a ay! Ww 9) 
aS Se i ‘ 
OLE AND 2 aA an 
-—- > ‘ 
<i ‘; t w, 
<0 Ae) = 7 < : 
: b e 5 
3 2 ; e : SG ss (7 Ce 
° Pane : + : é 
ree 
; ; ; x e . < 
~ e . 
: ie 
“ 


Grotocy or SrenECA County. 119 


angular quarry refuse of all shapes and all sizes up to 20 pounds 
that I have seen on a road in this country this summer, and not 
have wondered whether such road-cobblers knew the value of a 
horse’s feet and legs? 

In places where the roadbed has a good natural drainage to 
both sides, the simplest possible use of proper-sized material in 
liberal amounts will produce a good road in two or three years 
by repeated application of small stones in a thin top layer. 

Where drainage is impossible, the only resource left is to build 
a bridge. Where a road lies in a swamp (¢. g., Cranberry 
swamp), a deep ditch on each side will hold the surplus water in 
summer; but drainage of the swamp solves the question for the 
year round. 

A clay road, if allowed to remain wet, is plastic, and lets road- 
metal sink into it; if drained dry it is as firm a foundation as 
can be needed. The solidity of dry clay is shown by adobé 
houses; or, to take an illustration near at hand, by the new 
embankments supporting the Lehigh Valley railroad tracks 
across the low grounds east of Geneva. 
The Telford road, at Willard, was built in the following man- 

ner: A flat bed was first dug 15 inches deep, 214 feet wide; on 
this were laid, in shallow trenches, lines of drain tile, placed 
lengthwise, four feet from each side; these were connected by 
cross-drains every 25 feet, and outlets were made of tile every 75 
feet each side to the edge of the road wnder the gutter and away 
to some point of discharge. The first layer of stone is of largish 
pieces, fitted together-and made 12 inches high in the crown, three 
inches high at the sides. Thesecond layer is of stones of the size 
of an egg, roughly ; four inches everywhere. Thethird, four inches 
of much smaller stones. The second and third courses were 
of crushed stone. The road was, therefore, 20 inches thick in 
the middle, 11 inches at each side. It consists entirely of the 
Tully limestone, and has become so compact as to be “all one 
stone,” to use the words of my informant, Mr. Kitson, who 
superintended its construction. It is not unlikely that the 
impurities of the rock, which cause it to split and crumble in the 
ledge at the surface, contribute somewhat to the compactness of 
the structure; for it has been found that when burnt, it behaves 
like cement-rock, hardening too quickly and becoming too hard 


120 Report oF THE Strate Gerouoacist. 


for brick masonry or for plaster work in houses, but making a 
good stone mortar. The road was two years in building (the 
peculiar conditions of an asylum permitting it), and has stood 
five years on a steep grade with very little wear, being slightly 
guttered in places, owing to the steepness of the grade. Mr. 
Kitson informs me, however, that it has not been mended in 
these five years. A steam roller was not used in making it. 

In illustration of the hydraulic properties of the Tully lime- 
_ stone, analyses are here’ appended. No.1 was taken from the 
northernmost exposure (quarry of Thompson Johnson); No. 2, 
from locality of the quarry at Willard; while No. 3 represents 
the best “Seneca” limestone (Giarebevon quarry). They are 
taken from the Transactions of the N. Y. State Agricultural 


Society, 1850, p. 611: 


No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 
insolublessand and ‘clay.'.. A.Viroh. ese 15. 4, 627 
Alumina and peroxide of iromice% se 226 oe 23, | 26. 1.4 
Carbounte ol slime ;. .... .:)s,.b 4 cao Aah mews | 58.5 || 60. gl aap. 
BGT 1g le ee ig 4 je 9 Weegee. abe (oy 6 laaedjott eam ns 1.5 
Oxide manganese 03/5 2a eo oa een els cee 1. rad 
Soluble saline matter ........ aa CELE Meee! L228) Gee 1.4 


Gas Wells. 

A considerable number of wells has been bored in and agate 
Seneca Falls village, with the object of striking gas in the 
Medina sandstone. The example was set at Waterloo several 
years ago; a single well was bored with moderate success. In 
Geneva two were put down (1888, 1892), but neither was turned 
to account, though the later one was doubtless worth the eacules ! 
of saying. 

At Seneca Falls the enterprise was begun in 1887 by the 
‘Phoenix Gas Co.” This failed to meet obligations, and the 
property was transferred. ‘The present holders now furnish heat 
and fuel to 150 families. The illuminating powers are inferior. 
The daily product may be set down at 30,000 feet, sold at 25 
cents a thousand. A cooking-stove heated without intermission 
would, it was estimated, burn 500 feet of gas in 24 hours. 


Figure 31. Location of gas wells at Seneca Falls. 


‘x * 
aes 
bets 


GroLocy or SENECA County. Ft 


The company own 11 wells, five of which are unproductive 
There is a market for a much larger supply, but the results of 
the present experiment do not seem to justify an extension. 
The attempt to reach Trenton rock is under consideration. 

Wherever gas has been found in the Medina, in this vicinity, 
it comes from the “ white sand,” about 100 feet below the top of 
the Medina, or a little lower. The layers above this are charac- 
teristically, but not always, a strong red, furnishing superior 
building stone. The “ white sand” itself is successfully quarried 
at Gasport, though in some other places (as Medina) it softens to 
incoherency under the action of the sun and weather. The oil- 
bearing rock presents no ‘marked characters; it is a sandstone of 
medium coarseness, not specially porous, but lacking the firmness 
_ of -quartzite. 

No complete records have been kept. The few data presented 
are obtained from notes kept by Mr. Frank Westcott. The 
depth at which the Niagara, Clinton and Medina were first 
struck are points not hard to discriminate, owing to the marked 
character of the changes. 

Well No. 2 is the property of the brothers Westcott. It is 
described as going 1,540 feet to gas; giving 8,000 feet in 24 
hours, which is 2,000 less than at the start, six or seven years ago. 

This well, in the southern part of the village, may be compared 
with one driven three miles north of the village, on ground not 
differing much in elevation: 


Southern. Northern. 
fie er 480 860 
EO Wet PCMAG. ieee ee Acca ewe 445==1,425 | 445—1,305 
De Wes ad vow w detdslesies 115—1,540 | 155—1,460 


One of the northern wells (No. 4) is reported as passing 
through 15 feet of salt at 565 feet. Other wells near this did 
not strike salt. Salt water was encountered at various depths in 
most of the wells, in the Salina. No. 2 struck it at 2,040 feet in 
Medina shales. 7 ; 

16 


122 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


To these meagre data may be added the following statement 
from Mr. Horsley: 


| Well 10. | Well 11. 
Pibuck Medina. ...... s+ sole eee es aa ie serene 1,400 | 1,860 © 
Duck Tht Cas... ... 1 os see co kk 7 oo Ci 1,527) Lone 
DURE ReCONG ‘Oas.... .'. /s sees ot hea ee 1,578 | 1,565 
in ee Pe is eee 1,624 | 1,620 


Mr. Westcott states that he has bored for gas “successfully ” 
in the Medina at Corfu, Genesee county, striking gas 115 feet 
below the top of the formation. At Alden, Erie county, in five 
wells, gas was struck at 102, 110, 114, 104 and 141 feet below 
top. The first discharge of gas was so violent as to throw out 
the tools; but thesupply soon failed. At Allen’s Hill, Richmond, 
Ontario county, 100 feet. 


Water Power. 


Streams capable of furnishing power to grist and saw-mills are 
numerous, especially in the southern part of thecounty. A large 
number of mills were formerly maintained. Gibson’s map desig- 
nates 50, exclusive of Waterloo and Seneca Falls; all but one or 
two are placed on streams. Very few continue in use. 

Waterloo.— The source of the water power at the above-named 


villages is Seneca river. Between Waterloo and Seneca Falls— 


the stream forms a part of the Cayuga and Seneca canal. Above 
Waterloo the same is the case to within half a mile of the lake, 
where the canal diverges, finally entering the lake at Geneva. 


The fall is 62 feet (441379) between the lakes, of which 14 (dis- — 


regarding fractions) occurs at Waterloo, and most of the 
remainder at Seneca Falls, a few feet occurring between the latter 
and Cayuga lake. 

The canal was incorporated in 1818. When first opened it ad- 
mitted boats of three feet draft, but between 1825 and 1857 this 
was successively increased, and at present it accommodates those 
of six feet draft, the depth of channel being seven feet. The 


oi 


Gronoay or Seneca County. 123 


stream-bed has also been deepened throughout, including the 
point where it connects with the lake, which is not the original 
point of outlet. The effect of this enlargement has been the 
lowering of the level of the lake. The dam at Waterloo is at 
present the first obstruction to the outflow. It was built in 1795, 
antedating that at Rochester. There are several concerns using 
the power at Waterloo, obtaining at times of high water an 
actual maximum of probably about 450 H. P. The canal is State 
property, and has a first claim upon the water as far as required 
for lockage; but the water required for this service is at present 
~ but a comparatively small part of the total amount, and is exclu- 
sive of the above figure. The amount of power varies greatly 
with the season, and may fall to about one-half of that named, 
in times of drought like the present summer, when the level is 
three feet below that of flood. The wheels are not constructed 
to make use of the full possible power, as in that -case they 
would be at a disadvantage during low water. Estimates of 
power capable of being used are necessarily only approximate; 
the high-water power which mzght be used for short periods 
may be double the 450 H. P., and is certainly much greater than » 
that figure. There is a natural dependence of the flow upon the 
season of the year ; yet, there may be dry winters, with continu- 
ous low water. <A great deal of steam power is used to supple- 
ment the water power. _ | | 

Seneca Falls.— Mr. Harrison Chamberlain, of the Phcenix 
Mills, gives me as the estimate usually adopted by mill-owners 
and hydraulic engineers, the amount of 1,000 horse power, for 
the total average flow of the stream, with a fall of 16 feet, at his 
mills. Formerly the State used nearly one half of the flow for 
navigation purposes, but of late years the amount has been con- 
siderably less in consequence of falling off in canal tonnage. 
Below this mill there are three lesser falls, at as many locks, in 
this village, but the lowest fall has not yet been made available 
for mill power and privileges. The total turned to account in 
Seneca Falls is considerably over double the figure given above. 

Seventeen concerns were named to me as drawing power from 
the stream, including three flour-mills; malt and marble works; 
manufactories of fire engines, pumps, paint, paper, knit goods, 
etc. 


124 Report oF THE State Gronogistr. = |. | , 


References. 


Ashburner, C. A.— Petroleum and Natural Gas Wells in New 
York State. Trans. Amer. Institute of Mining Engineers, 
vol. 16, 1887. 

Brigham, Albert T. — Finger Lakes of New York. - Bull. Amer. 
Geol. Soc., 1893. 

Chamberlain, T. C.— Terminal Moraine of the Second Glacial 
Period. U.S. Geol. Survey, Third Annual Report. 

Clarke, J. M.—On the Higher Devonian Faunas of Ontario 
County. Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 16, 1884. 

Id.— A brief outline of the Geological pape ae in Ontario Co., 
N.Y. Report of the State Geologist of New York for the 
year 1884. 

Delafield, John.— A general view and agricultural survey of the 
county of Seneca. Trans. N. Y. State ee Society, 
vol. 10, 1850. 

Fairchild, H. L.— Glacial Lakes of Western New York. Bull. 
Geol. Soc. of America, April, 1895. 

Gibson, Wm. T.— Topographical map of Seneca es made 
for John Delafield, 1852. (Wall map.) 

Hall, James. ae of New York, Part IV, comprising the 
Shiver of the Fourth Geological District, 1843. 

. Johnson, Lawrence. — The Parallel Drift-hills of Western New 
Yorke Annals of N. Y. aout of Sciences, vol. 2, Noyes: 
1882. 

Lincoln, D. F.— Ginpinson in the Finger Lake Region of New 
York. Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 44. 

Id.— The Amount of Gtk Erosion in the Finger Lake Revie 
of New York. Ibid., vol. 47. 

Prosser, C. §8.—The Thickness of the Devonian and Silurian 
Rocks of Central New York. Bull. Geol. Soc. of menses! 

| vol. 4, p. 91, 1893. 

Id.— The TPhidlctiss of the Devonian and Silurian Rocks of West- 
ern-Central New York. American Geologist, vol. 6, p. 199. 

Ries, H.— Clay Industries of New York. Bull. N. Y. State Mu-— 
seum, vol. 3, No. 12, March, 1896. 

Vanuxem, L.— The Geology of New York, Part III, Third Dis- 
trict. 


Pea | Grotogy or Seneca County. | 125 


Williams, H. S. — On the Fossil Faunas of the Upper Devonian, 
along the meridian of 76° 30’ from Tompkins county, N. Y., 
to Bradford county, Penn. Bull. U. 8. Geol. Survey, No. 3. 

Id. —On the Fossil Faunas of the Upper Devonian — the Genesee 
Section. Bull. U. 8. Geol. Survey, No. 41. 

Williams, S. G.— The Westward Extension of Rocks of Lower 
Helderberg Age in New York. Amer. Jour. Sci., vol. 31, p. 
139. ; 

Id.— Dip of Tully Limestone. Amer. Jour. Sci, vol. 26, p. 308. 

Id.— The Tully Limestone, its distribution and its known fossils. 
N. Y. Assembly Document, No. 72, 1887. (Contributed to 
the Report of the State Geologist for 1886.) 

Id. — Geological Relations of the Gypsum Deposits in Cae 

county, N. Y. Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 30, p. 212. 


_ THE PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 


BY 


FELIX BERNARD. 


(Extracted from Bernard’s Elements de Paleontologie. Paris, 1895.) 


The Principles of Palaeontology. 


By FELIX BERNARD. 


(Extracted from Bernard’s Eléments de Paléontologie. Paris, 1895.) 


CHAPTER I. 


Object of Palaeontology. 


§ 1. Rexations or PaLaEonToLocy To OTHER SCIENCES. 


Definition.— Palaeontology is the study of the animals and > 
plants which existed on the earth in epochs anterior to the 
present; these have become known to us by their remains, which 
are buried in the crust of the earth, and which are called fosszs. 
As an independent science Palaeontology dates only from the 
beginning of this century; it may be said to have been founded 
by Cuvier. Before the time of that great naturalist, fossils had 
frequently attracted the attention of philosophers, but had never 
been the object of any profound researches. The immense field 
in the domain of living nature was still but little explored, and 
afforded materials easy to obtain and study. The appellation of 
- the science which we are now considering dates from the same 
epoch, and was proposed by de Blainville. Since that epoch, 
Palaeontology has progressed with an uninterrupted rapidity. 
For many years past successive discoveries in all parts of the 
world have constantly augmented and given precision to our 
knowledge of the subject. All nations, even those which have 
most recently attained civilization, possess learned men who 
count it an honor to themselves to make known to the world the 
precious remains of the fossil fauna and flora of their own 
countries. The Rocky mountains, the Pampas of South America, 
Australia, British India and Siberia are now classic regions of 
Palaeontology, and have furnished, no less than have the famous 

17 


130 Report oF THE Strate GEOLOGIST. 


strata of France, Germany, England and Italy, materials for 
the most interesting investigations. 

Palaeontology, the new comer in the group of natural sciences, 
to day counts illustrious adepts, but it has had for a long time to 
follow step by step the progress of the two sciences with which 
it is most intimately connected, Comparative Anatomy and 
Geology. It is due to the efforts of zodlogists, botanists and 
geologists that it has been enabled to reach an epoch where it is 
accorded the unquestioned right to rank as a distinct science with 
distinctive followers — palaeontologists. The interest of this 
science is twofold; the history of the creatures which lived in 
" past times is intimately connected with the knowledge of those 
now living; and on the other-side, Palaeontology is in close rela- 
tion with the succession of phenomena which, at different geologic 
epochs, have modified the configuration of lands and oceans. 

Palaeontology and Biology.—As a branch of Lzology Palaeon- 
tology, for various purposes, requires constant comparison 
between fossil remains and living creatures. The former can 
never be known with the precision which attends the anatomical 
and histological analysis of living forms. With rare exceptions, 
only the hard parts are preserved in fossilization, and even where 
the soft parts have left certain impressions, the inferences that 
can be drawn from them are evidently much less exact than 
those which are afforded by an animal or a plant whether living 
or preserved in alcohol. In order to interpret the organization 
of extinct creatures the palaeontologist must have constant 
recourse to the inductive method. By carefully comparing the . 
material in his hands with the corresponding parts of living 
creatures, he is often enabled to draw conclusions from the 
known to the unknown, and to reconstruct the entire organism 
with all its essential characteristics. It is thus that a palaeontolo- 
gist, even moderately expert, is able, by examining a shell, to 
decide whether the animal which inhabited it was, for example, 
a Pulmonate or Prosobranchiate, terrestrial or aquatic; a simple 
tooth suffices to show to what group of mammals an animal 
belongs; a section of vegetable remains will enable him to deter- 
mine whether the plant was a Cryptogam, a Gymnosperm or an 
Angiosperm, and he can thus ascertain, without having seen 
them, what were the characteristics of the reproductive appara- 


9° 


Tur PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. 413i 


tus. The palaeontologist should then be, before all else, a zo6lo- 
gist or botanist ; he must be capable of discerning characteristics 
which, though trivial in appearance, have often a prime import- 
ance, since they enable him to refer the object of his investiga- 
tion to such or such a group of existing and well-known forms. 
The interest of Palaeontology would be but mediocre if this 
science only led to the discovery of forms identical with those 
at present existing, or at least analogous to these. But, on the 
contrary, it has revealed to us an immense number of beings 
which at present are wholly extinct. Those extinct types are in 
truth not fundamentally different from those which have survived; 
and we know, for example, no subkingdom, hardly any class 
indeed which is represented eaclusively by fossils. Put there 
are.entire orders which are not represented in living nature, and 
it may be said that if animated nature has not undergone an 
absolute revolution, it has at least experienced profound modifi- 
cations. This is precisely the most important fact brought to 
light by the study of fossils It is well known what an import- 
ant role the doctrine of Evolution plays at present among the. 
natural sciences. A few students, whom we must in truth count 
among the foremost, still maintain that living species are immuta- 
ble, and can in no case be modified and so originate others. But 
the great majority of naturalists have rallied about the transformist 
idea. If it is true that both in the animal and vegetable world, 
species are derived from one another, if there really exist between 
species, genera, and larger groups veritable ties of derivation, 
Palaeontology should present us with the best proofs in support 
of this filiation. The proofs derived from living nature still 
leave many things uncertain; innumerable gaps occur among 
the animal and vegetable forms, for these in no wise arrange them- 
selves in strictly continuous series. May we hope to find in 
Palaeontology new arguments in favor of the doctrine of trans- 
formation? Do there exist among the fossils terms of passage 
which facilitate the establishing of genealogical trees? Can we 
discover, in fine, in ancient types, the progenitors of these forms 
whose origin seems still problematical? These are, in fact, the 
important problems. which engage the attention of all natural- 
ists, without exception, who devote themselves to the study of 
Palaeontology. 


132 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Despite the immense increase of material brought to light 


throughout the world during the last half century, we are far 
from able to state that extinct beings are known in their entirety. 
It would be illusory to suppose that all the questions propounded 
in regard to the origin of created beings have received a satis- 
factory solution. It may even be observed that new problems 
have arisen from the discovery of creatures entirely extinct and 
whose nature or origin remains doubtful. But despite these diffi- 
culties, notwithstanding the gaps which still exist, Palaeontology 
has brought to light almost unexpected solutions of problems 
already existing, and it may be asserted, without fear of contra- 
diction from any of the students engaged in this science, that it 
produces every day convincing testimony in support of the 
doctrine of Evolution. 

Palaeontology and Geology.— The relations of Palaeontology 
with Geology are of another order, but not less close. . The 
knowledge of the phenomena which have modified the surface 
of the earth, the determining of the relative age of the layers 
-which compose the terrestrial crust, evidently imply a simulta- 
neous study of the beings which have inhabited the lands and 
the seas, of all the organisms indeed which have been found in 
the various deposits. The principle on which stratigraphical 
studies have lately been almost exclusively carried forward, con- 
sists in this, that the deposits of the same age contain in general 
the same kinds of fossils, which isto say that the same beings 
- simultaneously inhabited the various seas during the same 


periods. As there is no region where the succession of beds is_ 


presented without interruption, we are obliged, in order to estab- 
lish the age of a newly discovered formation, to compare care- 
fully the fauna and flora of any stratum with those of a:correspond- 


ing stratum of other regions. The formations which contain the | 


same kinds of fossils are considered as dating from the same 
epoch, and are given the same names, and this principle of the 
identity of the fauna at any epoch has long been considered as 
absolute. We shall see further on, that some restrictions are to 
be admitted, but the result of these is not to lessen the suggestive 
importance of Palaeontology, but rather to augment ‘it and 
give it greater precision. The variations of faunas, as they 
become better known, are found to be closely connected with 


Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 133 
variations of physical conditions; from the groupings of forms 
which are found in certain layers, a conclusion can be drawn 
regarding the conditions in which the deposits were made; the 
fauna of a deep sea is distinguisnable from that of shallow 
water, shore, estuary, or coral reefs. We can gain some infor- 
mation regarding climatic conditions and can even, for some 
epochs, form charts to indicate equal atmospheric temperature. 
It is then easily seen what services Palaeontology has already 
rendered and still continues to render to Geology, and if this last- . 
named science now possesses other methods of investigation, if 
it engages in the study of phenomena of a purely physical order, 
such as the displacements and formation of rocks, it nevertheless 
constantly profits by the incessant progress which has been made 

by the study of fossils. 

Inversely, Palaeontology can not exist without Stratigraphy, 
and looks for support to the data of this science. In studying 
the relationships between organisms, it is requisite to ascertain 
with the greatest possible precision the epochs at which they 
have lived. This is no reasoning in a circle, for the relative 
age of layers is determined primarily by their order of strati- 
graphical superposition. The geologist discerns in the order in 
which they present themselves on the same vertical line, the age 
of the deposits with the faunas they contain. 

Palaeontology serves then, so to say, as a bond of union between 
Biology and Geology, between the study of living beings and 
that of inanimate nature. Its limits in regard to these two 
sciences are very difficult to fix. But if the object of palaeon- 
tologic researches seems to make this science appear rather as a 
branch of Biology, various circumstances have led most natural- 
ists to hold a contrary opinion. Geologists have a good right to 
claim most of the discoveries which were made in Palaeontology 
until within the last few years. 

-This fact explains itself; it has been for the purpose of exam- 
ining the geologic deposits and ascertaining the stratigraphic 
characters of a region, that naturalists have undertaken the 
often long and painstaking researches which have resulted in the 
discovery of fossils. There are geologists who, after having 
secured from the rocks, often with great labor, the fossils 
discovered therein, have furthermore carefully prepared them 


134 Report oF THE StaTE GEOLOGIST. 


so that no character which could possibly be preserved should 
elude their investigation. Even in our days it is the geologists 

who have made the most numerous discoveries in Palaeon-~ 
tology, but many signs indicate that in France as well as in 
other lands, the time has arrived when pure Palaeontology must 

occupy the best energies of students devoting themselves exclu- 
sively to it. 

§ 2, History or PaLanonroxoey. 


Division of the subject.—The history of Palaeontology has been 
written at various times by eminent students: Brocchi,* 
ad’ Archiact and Lyell,t have successively recounted the gradual 
efforts by which this science was created. Up to the close of the 
last century its progress was vague; the profound study of fos- 
sils was neglected and essays in that direction often lost them- 
selves in purely theoretical discussions. Cuvier brilliantly 
inaugurated a new period, and must be considered as the true. 
founder of Palaeontology as well as of Comparative Anatomy. 
Half a century later the acceptation of the ideas of Darwin by 
the great majority of the learned world gave a new direction to 
palaeontologic studies; the end to be attained became better 
defined, the investigations were pushed farther, and adepts in the 
long neglected science became more and more numerous. 

The history of Palaeontology may then-be divided into three | 
periods of unequal length and importance. We shall be very . 
brief about .what concerns the first essays before the time of 
Cuvier. 2 

first period.— lt is necessary to go back to Hrroporus to find 
the first mention of fossils. It is curious to verify the exactitude 
of the opinion formulated by that ingenious historian; he says 
the priests of Egypt were acquainted with fossil shells; attributed — 
to them a marine origin, and drew the conclusion that Egypt was 
formerly under water. This conjecture of ages so long past 
is at the present day an evident truth. Some scientists have 
thought to find also in Anaximanper the first indication of the 


—_—_—_——$ 


* Brocchi, Conch. Foss. Subap.; Disc. sui progressi dello studio... .1842. 
+ d’Archiac, Histoire des Progrés de la Geologie de 1834 & 1835 (1842). 
+ Lyell, Principles of Geology, Ch. I-IV. 


Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 135 


idea of transformation. Cuvier, following Eusebius, cites a curi- 
ous passage on this subject : 

“ Man must be descended from creatures of an eapecial form, for 
while other animals procure their food without difficulty, man 
alone requires a long time to attain to the power of caring for him- 
self, necessitating a prolonged education ; any creature in the 
beginning who resembled him must have.been wholly unable to 
maintain its existence.” And Cuvier takes advantage of this 
occasion to ridicule these modern scientists who, like Lamarck and 
Geoffroy Saint-Ililaire, seek to revive the reveries of a Greek 
poet. ? 

ArisToTLy, XxNopHON and Srraso were acquainted with fossils 
and had correct ideas in regard to their origin. 
_ The middle ages and the modern epoch down to the end of the 
eighteenth century, are filled, especially in Italy and in England, 
with interminable discussions on the nature of fossils. The cur- 
rent opinion was that these remains could have nothing in 
common with the animals and plants of our days. The boldest 
of the learned men, however, advanced the opinion, that the 
shells had indeed been the habitations of living creatures, and 
had been deposited on the mountains at the time of Noah’s 
deluge. The principal efforts of the philosophers were directed 
toward making their theories accord with the Holy Scriptures. 
From time to time some more singular explanation was put 
forth. Some imagined a sort of fermentation of fatty matter; 
many saw in fossils only freaks of nature, or essays more or less 
successful in creating new forms of life; others saw disturbed 
movements and exhalations of the earth; and still others sup- 
posed the intervention of some plastic power. 

Some scientists, distinguished in other branches, had the 
merit of discovering, in a laborious way it is true, and in connec- 
tion with some fantastic contradictions, a reasonable explanation 
of the facts which at the present day appear so simple. We will 
cite, as a matter of curiosity, a sentence of Lionarpo pa Vinct: 

“Tt is said that the shells have been formed on the hills by the 
influence of the stars, but I ask where at the present day are 
stars which form on hills shells of diverse age and aspect? And 
how can the petrifaction of leaves, plants and sea-crabs on these 
same hills be thus accounted for?” 


136 ReEportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Frasoataro (1517) is the first’ who affirmed that fossils had 
really been living creatures. Carpan, Ctsatpi«, BerNarD 
Patissy (1580), admit that the ocean must formerly have covered 
the mountains. Cotonna had the merit of making a distinction 
between marine and land shells. Steno, a famous Danish 
anatomist who lived in Florence, pointed out the identity of the 
teeth of living and fossil sharks, and discovered a fresh-water 
fauna (1669). All these learned men are pronounced defenders 
of the diluvial theory. Their tendencies are clearly explained, 
as Lyell ingeniously suggests, by the character of the fossils — 
which are found in the museums of Italy; these, in general, 
belong to the upper Tertiary, and are very analogous to the 
animals at present living on the sea coast of Italy. Opinion 
in England, on the contrary, took an entirely different direction ; 
the fossils found there belong in general to more ancient deposits, 
and the writers of the time saw no analogy between them and 
any living species. Thus Hooxs (1668) for example, is one of the 
defenders of the theory of the extinction of fossil forms. 

With the beginning of the eighteenth century Palaeontology 
enters a new phase of existence; the rocks containing fossil 
remains were everywhere made an object of especial study, and 
were classified according to their order of superposition; cata- 
logues were made of the fossils characteristic of each deposit, 
and an attempt made to form an idea of the relative epochs of 
the appearance of each type. Woopwarp (1695) has the merit 
of being the first in England to essay a methodical study 
of this kind. ~The same work was done in Italy by Vat. 
IsNERI. The example of these men was afterward followed 
in Germany by Leamann, who established the difference between 
the azoic and the fossiliferous deposits (1756). In 1780 Soxtpant 
conceived the first idea of the distinction between the deep- 
sea fauna and the littoral fauna. He separated the marine 
and the fresh-water fossils in the Paris basin. Finally Wini1am 
SmitH (1790) established an excellent classification of the deposits 
of England according to the fossils they contained. 

In Germany geologists were ‘urned away from the study of 
fossils by the brilliant teachings of Werner, which acquired 
great repute. This scientist and his followers occupied them- 


Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 137 


selves with examining minerals and rocks, to which without 
exception they attributed a marine origin. The contest between 
the Vulcanists and Weptunists occupied the end of the eigh- 
teenth century, and palaeontologic researches were relegated to a 
secondary place. 

The real progress achieved during that, century was due 
principally to a return to more correct ideas in the domain 
‘of geogenic theory.. Vaisnert sought to separate scientific 
data from the interpretation of Genesis. But the principal 
honor of the change effected belongs to Mor» (1740) and 
his commentator Gunerriu (1749). This latter recapitulates 
and admits whatever correct ideas had been suggested before his 
time. He demands that no one shall invoke divine authority for 
the. support of his own ideas, or suppose miracles for the sole 
end of confirming his hypotheses. 

It is easy to see under what a clear horizon the epoch of Cuvier 
dawned. The path of the great naturalist was prepared, serious 
writings on the subject were at hand; still it can not be asserted 
that Palaeontology was as yet firmly established as an independ- 
ent science; the fundamental principles which authorize the 
comparison of fossil remains with existing creatures, were not yet 
stated. Their discovery is one of Cuvier’s greatest titles to 
honor. | 

Second Period.— It may be said that the precise and dogmatic 
genius of Cuvier created Palaeontology and, furthermore, that he 
for a long while gave it an impulse and an attraction that has 
with difficulty been modified. It was mainly through the appli- 
cation of the principle of the correlation of forms that Cuvier 
arrived at his interesting conclusions. He studied in detail the 
fossil remains taken from the gypsum beds of Paris and its envi- 
rons, and pointed out the resemblances and diversities between 
these types and the living forms of our period. He discriminated 
those forms which we at present consider as ancestral ones, Palao- 
therium, Xiphodon, Dichobune, etc., and pointed out how each of 
these reveals characteristics peculiar to-diverse groups at present 
distinct. The discovery of marsupials in the gypsum of Paris 
was a most important event in the history of Palaeontology and 
Comparative Anatomy. It inaugurated a new method which 
was destined to give the happiest results for the study of fossil 

18 


138 Report ofr tHE State GEoxoaist. 


remains. Cuvier had discovered (1812) part of a skeleton, the 
Jawbone of which seemed to him very analogous to that of a 
marsupial. By virtue of the principle of the correlation of 
forms which he had established, he affirmed that bones of a 
marsupial animal must be found.in the deposit. He caused the 
rock to be excavated in the presence of a large number of per- 
sons, in order to disengage the posterior part of the body, and — 
his hypothesis was verified to the great admiration of the contem- 
porary scientific world. | 

A fact not less important in the history of Palaeontology was 
the determining, by Cuvier, of the character of a jawbone found 
in the Bathonian of Stonesfield. He demonstrated in 1818 that 
this remnant appertaining to the genus Thylacotheriwm belonged 
toa mammifer of the group of marsupials. This discovery over- 
threw the theory of the naturalists of that epoch, who were un- 
willing to believe that a mammifer could be of such ancient date. 
It was not until thirty years later that marsupial remains were 
found in the Triassic deposits. 

Cuvier devoted himself before all else to establishing the 
true zoologic nature of fossil animals, especially the mam- 
malia. He proved definitely that before the existence of the 
present fauna, there existed rnany successions of diverse faunas. 
The disappearance of pre-existent forms, and their replacement 
by new ones was believed to have taken place abruptly, caused by 
cataclysms which affected the entire surface of the earth. For 
the hypothesis of a single creation, Cuvier thus substituted that of 
several creations following each other at longer or shorter inter- 
vals. Itis unnecessary to add that Cuvier was a firm partisan 
of the theory of the immutability of species. Incorrect though 
it was, still the theory of cataclysms was the one that would 
most naturally present itself to the mind to explain the profound 
diversities existing between the faunas of successive layers, at 
least in the regions explored previous to the epoch we are now 
considering. tay 

The influence of Cuvier was felt during his lifetime, and even 
his errors proved a point of departure for a progressive move- 
ment. Since his time fossils have been studied with a deeper 
interest, as an idea can now be formed of the living creatures 
they represent, and attempts be made toward reconstructions, 


Tur PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 189 


-which are frequently most unquestionable; furthermore, it is 
well understood that variations of detail are of considerable 
importance since they are characteristic of different horizons. 
Thus the palaeontologic works of that epoch were carried on 
with a precision and care, as they continue to be in their entirety 
at the present day, and are a point of departure for effectual 
researches in each group. 

The progress of Palaeontology during the first half of this cen- 
tury is due to the efforts of scientists who prosecuted their re- 
searches in two different ways. On the one hand the theoretic 
discussions among zoologists which have made'so great noise in 
the world, have for their object the problem of the species, and 
have given rise to the doctrine of Evolution. On this account 
they are of direct interest to the palaeontologist. On the other 
hand, the geologists are engaged in exploring with the greatest care 
the deposits of all the countries of Western Europe, and describe 
minutely the fossils they contain. Moreover, scientists applied 
themselves at an early date to purely palaeontologic investiga- 
tions, several described from a given geologic division all the 
material known up to their time, while others devoted themselves 
to the study of asingle group. It will be easily understood that 
_we can not here cite names. The period of which we are speak- 
ing is closely connected with the contemporary period, when 
researches are becoming more and more numerous. In the 
beginning of his great work, entitled Hnchainements du monde 
animal, M. Gaudry enumerates, by the side of each group, the 
names of the scientists who contributed most to make it known. 
“Although these lists contain more than 500 citations, they are 
far from being complete. . . I should never finish, did I 
undertake to recount all the intellectual labors that have been 
expended since the death of Cuvier, to bring to light the genera- 
tions of living creatures which existed in days gone by.” 

We shall have occasion, in the course of the systematic part 
of this work, to mention the most important of those labors. 

The problem of the origin of variations in faunas continued 
to preoccupy the most eminent geologists. The prevailing opin 
ion was that species are absolutely characteristic of the horizons 
in which. they are found, and that no one of them passes from 
one formation to another. In 1850, p’Orsiewy, following the ideas 


140 - ReEportT oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


of Cuvier, formulated the conclusion that animated nature must 
have become extinct and been again renewed twenty-seven times. 
He divided the fossiliferous deposits into twenty-seven stages sep- 
arated into groups of unequal value and each characterized by its 
special fauna. This classification was made with such care that 
in its general terms it has remained to the present day; its 
denominations have for the most part been retained, although 
new researches and new ideas have brought some changes into 
the stratigraphic groupings. The same can not be said of the . 
theories which led d’Orbigny to his conclusions. As early as 
1813, von ScHiorHeim refused to admit that each particular 
layer was the result of a new revolution of nature. Bronw 
demonstrated that certain species indeed really passed from one 
formation to another, and though stratigraphic boundaries are 
often barriers confining the persistence of some form, still this is 
not an absolute. rule, since the species in no wise appear and — 
again disappear in their entirety. Lyetx (1832) forever destroyed 
the hypothesis, up to his time generally accepted, of cataclysms 
and universal revolutions of nature. His theory of existing 
causes consists in this, that all the phenomena which have 
occurred on the surface of the globe during past times are of the 
same nature with those which are occurring at the present time. 
We see in the whole, and in parts also, the results of those phe-- 
nomena, but we must admit that their occurrence must have 
required -considerable time. These new ideas, unreservedly 
adopted by the whole learned world, opened a most propitious 
way for the theories of transformation. The changes effected 
in faunas must have been slow and long continued, as are all 
geologic phenomena ; and it was but one step farther to arrive 
at the admission that faunas were.derived one from another. 
Sir Charles Lyell, at the beginning a partisan for the immu- 
tability of specics, rendered, with an impartiality rare among 
scientists of that opinion, full justice to the essays of Lamarck. 
The exposition of the doctrine of transformation by Darwin 
quickly convinced him, and the theory of Evolution has not 
found among geologists a warmer or more eloquent ae tisan than 
the great English scientist. 

The theory of Evolution received at first a very unfavorable 
reception, and was consequently unable to exert any great influ- 


Tur PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. 141 


ence on the progress of Palaeontology. Lamarck had, moreover, 
only a very imperfect knowledge of fossils; still he was suffi- - 
ciently acquainted with them to be enabled to draw from the 
- order of their appearance in the strata an argument in support 
of his theory of progressive development, which was at that time 
a novelty, and which overturned the most deeply rooted philo- 
sophic ideas. But this does not lessen the importance of the 
ideas of Lamarck, which were. of the very highest order. He 
was the first who was bold enough to advance the theory that 
species are not immutable entities, but that they are derived 
one from another as individuals are, and that fossil creatures 
are the ancestors of those now existing. The teachings of Gxor- 
FrRoY Sarnt—Hixaire on the point of which we are treating, tends 
by different arguments to the same conclusion. 

In 1844 there appeared in England an anonymous work enti- 
tled Vesteges of Creation, which made a great sensation. The 
- author of this, since known (Cuampers), brought, together all 
the arguments in favor of the doctrine of the mutation of 
species, and laid especial stress on the palaeontologic changes 
which had taken place at various epochs; the author pursuing 
the subject still farther made a comparison between the stages of 
development of the higher animals and those reached by the 
inferior classes which appeared before the former and character- 
ized extinct faunas. Some relative extravagancies, as, for 
example, the ideas of Lamarck concerning spontaneous genera- 
tion, were the subject of severe criticism which brought unde- 
served reproach on the entire book. 

It is doing no injustice to the genius of Darwin to recall how 
much his predecessors had done to open the path for him and to 
make ready for his labors. Writings capable of serving as 
supports for the new ideas were much. rarer at the beginning 
of the century than they were toward the middle of it (1850); 
so that Lamarck and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire were entitled 
to greater admiration for having originated so bold a theory, 
in the face of the violent opposition to which they were 
exposed. Darwin merits some censure for having failed to do 
justice to Lamarck, whom he confounds in his preface with more 
obscure predecessors. Many of the adherents of the transformist 
school of the present day render to the illustrious scientist the 


142 ReEport OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


honor he deserves, and adopt, along with the new data, the 
greater part of his ideas, even those which Darwin rejected. To 
this latter belongs the honor of having discovered one of the 
most important factors of Evolution, namely, the phenomenon of 
natural selection. He has furthermore this advantage, that he 
fortified his theories with very numerous observations, with 
long and patient experiments, that he presented them in a deduct- 
ive form without the intervention of hypothesis, and that he 
developed them with unanswerable logic. All this, in our opin- 
ion, explains the success of Darwin in a matter where his prede- 
cessors failed. He certainly followed the best method, since he 
proved himself able to overcome all opposition, and to him is due 
the great transformation which the purpose of biologic and 
palaeontologic researches has everywhere undergone. 

Third period.— It would be impossible for us here to cast even 
a rapid glance over the progress realized during this last period, 
which, beginning toward the year 1857, continues to the present 
day. The two following chapters will be devoted. to the explana- 
tion of the present state of ideas admitted by the transformist 
school of scientists, in so far as these ideas are confirmed by 
palaeontologic testimony, or give to the data furnished by this 
science an especial synthetic character. But it must be said that 
purely descriptive researches have not ceased to be held in honor, 
- and that the number of types described increases with a rapidity 
of which it is difficult to form an idea. The Annwazre Geolog- 
ique mentions 735 palaeontologic publications which appeared in 
1889, and to this must be added the enormous number of 
descriptions contained in works especially devoted to Geology. 
One of the most striking characteristics of the present period is 
the precision and minuteness with which observations are carried 
out; efforts are made to derive from the examination of a fos- 
sil all that can possibly be known of its morphology, structure or 
development. A delicate method by thin sections is employed in 
order to push as far as possible the descriptive analysis, the » 
younger forms are compared with the adults, and no technical 
difficulty is able to daunt the investigator. 

On the other side stratigraphy has made such great progress 
that the reappearance of forms both in time and place is better 
understood. Variations of the same species in different localities 


Tue PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. 143 


of the same age can be distinguished from the mutations the 
species has undergone when found in more recent deposits. The 
association of faunas is taken into account in reconstructing the 
average conditions in which they existed,7and we can form an 
idea regarding the zoologic and botanic geography of the diverse 
epochs of geologic periods. 

Finally, scientists at the present day much prefer the synthetic 
method in treating of the results acquired, and endeavor to 
affiliate the countless forms of extinct creatures which are con- 
stantly being brought to light. This new science, Phylogeny, 
rests in great measure on palaeontologic data, and in return sup- 
plies these with their greatest attraction. Its importance in the 
present condition of our knowledge is such that we are obliged 
to examine in some detail the principles on which it is based and 
the problems which it solves. 

This brief historic ‘sketch makes manifest the fact that 
Palaeontology, like every other science, but in a more pronounced 
- degree, remained for long centuries in an almost rudimentary 
state. Some men of genius, in the early part of this century, 
‘stated the principles which have raised the study of fossils to an 
independent science. At the present day Palaeontology is pro- 
gressing with rapid steps. It proceeds, by successive approxima- 
tions, as its object naturally indicates. We shall have occasion, 
in the course of this work, to make manifest the importance of 
the results achieved, and to point out the problems which still 
remain to be solved. 


CHAPTER IL 


Palaeontology and the Doctrine of Evolution. 


$1. The Species. Its Variations.* 


The profound change which Palaeontology has undergone 
since the transformist ideas have been so almost universally 
adopted, is due to two causes: On the one hand the doctrine of 
Evolution has occasioned a very rapid progress in the study of 
fossils, and on the other this study has supplied new arguments 
in support of the new doctrine, whose upholders are naturally 
led to push paleontologic researches farther and farther. We 
have now, therefore, to point out how the fundamental principles 
of the theory of Evolution both receive confirmation from the 
study of extinct forms, and also throw new light on the history - 
of the succession of these forms. The relations of Palzeontology 
to the study of the Varzations of forms will then be the subject 
of this chapter. — 

Definition of species.— The definition of species is founded on 
current observation made in all countries, of the evident resem- 
blance of certain forms among themselves and the marked dif- _ 
ferences between them and forms most closely allied to them. 
Up to the time of Lamarck, it was held that a species was an 
immutable entity, limited by an absolute law. The clearest defi- 
nition was that of Cuvier: ‘A species is an assemblage of all - 
organized creatures which have descended one from another- 
or from common ancestors and of all those which resemble them | 
as closely as they resemble each other.” 

In treatises on Zoology and Botany details may be found 
relating to the difficulty encountered in giving precision to these 
definitions and in applying them to living creatures. Works on 
Zoologic Philosophy discuss also the various criterions proposed, 
such as the fecundity of hybrids, etc. 


* EK. Perrrier, Traité de Zool. fase 1, 1890 Wallace, Darwinism, ch. VII. Huxley, Evolu- 
tion in Brit. Encycl. vol. VIII, and Hvolution and the Origin of Species. Geddes, Variation, 


idem vol. XXIV. . 
‘ 


Tur PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. tah 


It was Lamarck who first conceived the idea that species are 
not immutable but were derived from one another. Philosophers, 
such as Chambers, G. Saint-Hilaire, Grant, von Buch and some 
. others, considered by Darwin and Wallace as the precursors of 
transformism, occupied themselves in demonstrating, not the non- 
existence of species, but their variability. We know that Darwin 
and Wallate were the first who accumulated numerous prooft 
of variation in living species and demonstrated how arbitrary as 
times is the distinction made between species, races and varieties. 

In Palaeontology the problem of the limitation of species is still 
more difficult. We no longer have at our service the criterion, 
which, moreover, is rarely used in Biology, that is the sterility of 
hybrids, as a proof of difference in species ; and we have no 
means of ascertaining whether the individuals observed come 
from the same parents. We are forced then to take for our 
guidance the principle of continuity; we bring together in one 
species those individuals which resemble each other in essential 
characters and differ only in secondary characters, such as 
among living creatures determine varieties and races. We 
appreciate how profoundly arbitrary such a definition is. One 
variation may seem fundamental to some palacéontologists while 
to others it may not appear of sufficient consequence to justify 
the creation of distinct species. The particular tendencies of 
each one will exert their influence, just as in Zoology and 
Botany the discussions up to a recent epoch have been incessant 
‘between students who were inclined to multiply specific denomi- 
nations and those who, on the contrary, wished to restrict them. 

Practically, we generally endeavor to group under the same 
specific denomination those forms which show among themselves 
gradual transitions. Wien the passage forms are wanting we 
make a division. This presupposes that we have under consider- 
ation a considerable quantity of material, whilst in fact most 
species were originally established after the examination of but 
few specimens, and this is the case now in regard to many new 
species. 

Continuous series of forms.— While the examination of these 
questions is the order of the day, biologists are constantly dis- 
covering many instances of continuous transitions between 
extreme forms which have hitherto been considered very dis 

19 


146 - Report oF THE StTatTE GEOLOGIST. 


similar. Examples abound in actual nature. Palaeontologists 
have resolutely entered on this path and the results they have 
obtained are most interesting. 

The first works in which large numbers of Piel specimens 
were brought under notice are those of Hilgendorf and of 
Waagen. ‘The former of these writers* took up the study of the 
minute shells belonging to the genus Planorbis, which are found 
by myriads at various horizons in the calcareous rocks of the 
Upper Miocene of Steinheim (Wiirtemburg). These shells pre- 
sent forms so varied that they seem entitled to be classed in 
different genera. They are smooth, carinated, umbilicated, 
turriculated, rounded, furrowed, etc., ete. Bronn had united 
them all under the name of Paludina multiformis. Hilgendorf 
and, following him, Hyatt discovered.all the transitions between 
the diverse forms and assert that they were derived one from 
another. It must, however, be stated that these two writers did 
not group them in the same manner. 

Not less important is the memoir of Waagen on “The Series 
of Forms of Ammonites subradiatus.” The author here describes 
a great number of related forms which he groups under the 
generic name of Oppelia, and he calls attention to an import- 
ant distinction not hitherto remarked. The variations of one of 
these forms are of two kinds. The one kind extend from one 
locality to another in deposits of the same age; Waagen calls 
these variations. The other kind make their appearance in 
successive deposits of the same locality ; he calls these mutations. 
In describing diverse species, Waagen establishes the filiation of © 
all these species in time, and their variations according to 
_ localities. | 

As a third example of classification, we may cite the history — 
of the Paludinas of the Upper Miocene, studied by Neumayr,t 
to which we shall have occasion to again refer. 

These works were a point of departure for a marked reaction 
against the former tendency, which was to multiply illimitably 
the number of species. If many scientists still persist in -over- 
loading scientific nomenclature with a multiplicity of specific 
denominations difficult of practical application, the greater num- 


* Monatsber. Berl. Akad.. 1866. 
+ Neumayr und Paul, Die Congerien und Paludinen-Schichten Westslavoniens. (Abhandl. Geolog. 
Reichsanst., VII.) 


Tue PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. iely¢ 


ber of palaeontclogists of the present day are other wise engrossed. 
When they possess a sufficient quantity of materials, they study 
minutely the variations exhibited by each separate form, and es- 
tablish “series of forms,’ keeping in view both variations and 
mutations. The analysis is carried farther than it formerly was, 
but the synthetic conclusions are what complete it successfully. 
The denominations and divisions may afterward undergo some 
change, according to the preferences of authors, but the import- 
ant facts remain. established, and the evolution of the group with 
all its important details is understood. 

These delicate researches recorded in works of difficult read- 
ing, but whose conclusions are of the greatest interest, have been 
carried on thus far principally in the class of Mollusks. We 
shall farther on point out the significance of the recent work of 
Hyatt on an important family of Ammonites. Buckman has 
gradually brought into notice the Ammonites of the Bajocian stud- 
ied from the same point of view. Analyses of a similar nature 
have had an especial bearing on the following groups: Among 
the Mollusks, the Cancellarias (Hoernes), the Inocerami, alobia, 
the Unionidz of the Slavonic deposits (Penecke), a very great 
number of Brachiopods (Davidson, Cihlert);. among the sea- 
urchins, the genus Ananchytes; the plants considered as the pro- 
genitors of living forms (de Saporta). These researches are more 
fertile in results than those which confine themselves to distin- 
guishing more than a hundred species of- /nzo in French waters, 
or to creating unconsciously several species out of two branches 
of the same plant. 

What conclusion is to be drawn then from all that has been 
said on the subject of the limitation of species in Palaeontology ? 
At the present hour every criterion is at fault. The limitation 
of species is, as has often been remarked, a matter of apprecia- 
tion. We group under one denomination the most closely related 
forms, those which are united by many degrees of transition, but 
all separable from different forms by an appreciable interval. 
Frequently the transitions are defective between the forms which 
are found in different layers of the same locality, whilst most. 
horizons are characterized by especial species for every group of 
fossils. We shall presently see the cause of this phenomenon, 
which everywhere presents numerous exceptions. 


148 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


Natural Selection.— The principle of natural selection, dis- 
covered by Darwin and Wallace, explains how individual varia- 
tions accumulate and intensify among the descendants of one 
and the same form until they produce at first varieties, and in 
the end distinct species. This principle, so well known at pres- 
ent that it is unnecessary to explain it in detail, consists in this: 
that the struggle for existence permits the survival and _per- 
petuation only of those forms capable of resisting changes in 
their environment which are often disadvantageous; the varia 
tions which are of utility, transmitted by heredity, will result in 
the preponderance of the form which exhibits them, and will 
become more pronounced with each succeeding generation. — 
When the differentiation is pushed far enough, the new form can 
no longer cross with that from which it sprang, and a species is 
established ; the primitive form may either entirely disappear, 

or may persist without modification, or may evolve in several 
different directions. . hl 

Palaeontology can bring no direct argument in support of the 
principle of selection. But this principle is the foundation of 
the entire transformist doctrine, the various propositions of 
which constantly receive from Palaeontology demonstrative 
verifications. 

Intermediate forms:— We must pause here to consider an 
objection which is made to the hypothesis of the evolution of 
forms. It has been observed that if species are derived grad- 
ually, one from another, one ought always to find intermediate 
types, and the two extremes must-embrace a series of forms 
- strictly continuous. To this it may be replied that the very 
principle of natural selection supposes that the intermediate - 
forms could not be of very long existence, since they lie, so 
to say, between two fires. It is then a natural consequence that 
in existing nature there should not be found any transition forms 
between different species, unless in the case of a new form whose 
evolution is not yet completed. This occurs in fact in Cases 
which the progress of observations has shown to be more and 
more frequent. 


* Wallace. Darwinism, 1891. Weismann, Essay on Heredity and Natural Selection. Fr. trans., 
1892. 


Tue PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. 149 


But a new objection presents itself which brings us back 
directly to our subject. In the examination of successive geologic 
beds, we ought always to be able to find transition types 
between two distinct species, either under the form of local 
varieties, or else under the form of mutations. But, on the con- 
trary (as it is claimed), Palaeontology fails to furnish any such 
indications. | 

Darwin replied to this argument by laying stress on the insuf- 
ficiency of geologic documents, an insufficiency concerning both 
the difficulties of fossilization and the relative scarcity of 
materials acquired. Since that period, attention having been 
directed toward this class of studies, the transition types 
discovered have become more and more numerous. We have 
cited some of these, and in the course of the following chapters 
we shall, little by little, give descriptions of them. Still it 
remains an indisputable fact that in the most thoroughly explored 
regions, those where the fauna is best known, as, for instance, the 
Tertiary of the Paris basin, the species of one bed often differ 
widely from those of the preceding, even where no stratigraphic 
gap appears between them. This is easily explained. The pro- 
duction of new forms usually takes place within narrowly 
limited regions. It may happen in reality that one form evolves 
in the same manner in localities widely separated from each 
other, and farther on we shall see examples of this; but this is 
not generally the case, the area of the appearance of species is 
usually very circumscribed. This fact has been established in the 
case of certain existing butterflies and plants.* The diversity 
having once occurred, the new types spread often to great dis- 
tances, and may be found near the present form without crossing 
with it or presenting any trace of transition. 

The same phenomenon must have taken place in former epochs. 
It is then only by the merest chance that geologists are able to 
locate the origin of the species they have under consideration ; 
if, furthermore, the phenomena of erosion or metamorphism 
have destroyed or changed the locality in question, direct obser- 
vation will not furnish any means of supplying the missing links 
of the chain. Nevertheless in certain places rich in fossils, where 
the superposition of the deposits is without interruption, some 


* Bates, The Naturalist on the Amazons. London, 1863. 


150 ReEport OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


special localities have been found where the appearance of new 
forms have been carried forward with a certain intensity. Thus 
Hyatt*, after having studied thousands of individuals from the 
principal deposits of Europe, decides that the cradles of the 
various branches of the Arietidz are the basins of the Cote d’Or 
and of Southern Germany. 

Transitions between genera and between the larger groups.— 
The preceding remarks relating to the causes of the insufficiency 
of palaeontologic documents are applicable also to the terms of 
transition which must have existed among the more extensive 
groups, as genera, families, orders and classes. If the principle 
' of evolution is correct, forms the most isolated in appearance, the 
most specialized types, must be connected by transition stages with 
ancestral forms, whence other groups were derived. Palaeon- 
tology brings to light a great number of these intermediate 
types which have at the present day entirely disappeared. ‘Thus 
among the Echinoderms, the group of Cystidians embraces forms 
which must have given rise to the types so well defined at the 
present epoch, Asteroids, Echinoids and Crinoids. Among the 
Vertebrates we recognize transitions between the Reptiles and 
the Batrachians; the most ancient of the Crocodilians, Lacer- 
tilians, etc., differed less than do the living forms, and approach 
nearer to the lowest type of the class, represented at present by 
the genus fHatteria. The most ancient birds known had very 
marked reptilian characteristics. Palaeobotany furnishes also 
conclusive examples in plants; the primitive forms of the 
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms are at present known. 

Palaeontology thus furnishes important arguments in support 
of the continuity of animal or vegetable forms. Nevertheless, _ 
considerable gaps still exist. As in the case of species, these 
gaps are gradually narrowed by the recent discoveries of exotic 
beds. Thus, until the last few years, it was a matter of surprise 
to see the Ammonites suddenly appear in the Trias, in forms 
already very complicated, and with no apparent connection with 
the Goniatites of the Carboniferous. But the recent investiga- 
tions of Gemmellaro upon the fauna of Sicily, those of Waagen on 
the fauna of India, have made known transition forms in the 


* Hyatt, Genesis of the Arietide (Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Cambridge, 1889.) 


Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. g sy 


Permo-carboniferous age, and have demonstrated that the evolu- 
tion of the Ammonite type must have taken place in the southern 
and eastern Mediterranean zone. 

Whilst acknowledging the importance of the new results with 
which Palaeontology has enriched the history of the evolution of 
organisms, it must be allowed that this science so far has not 
done all that was expected of it, especially as to what concerns 
the origin of the great subdivisions of the animal kingdom. Thus 
the Brachiopods, Insects and Mammals appear isolated, notwith- 
standing that their remains have been found in more and more 
ancient deposits; the representatives of the ancestral forms of 
these groups thus far have notappeared: Frequently some especial 
cause for each particular case can be assigned for these gaps. 
Thus, for instance, the ancestors of the Vertebrates were proba- 
bly soft animals, as seems’ to be proved. by the existence of 
Amphioxus ; naturally they would not leave any traces in the 
rocks. The same may be said of the progenitors of the Batrach- 
ians, which were cartilaginous. Or, again, the group in its 
entirety is not aquatic, and leaves but few representatives, as is 
the case with birds and insects. Lastly, it may happen that the 
hard parts which are of much importance in affording us an 
acquaintance with a large number of individual fossils, still do 
not permit of any precise determination of anatomical details, 
as in the case of the Crustacea, the eee noae and many of 
the Coelenterata. 

Saltation.*— The insufficiency of materials, so often invoked, 
partly explains then the gaps observed, and weakens the im- 
portance of the arguments deduced from those against evolution. 
Nevertheless, this idea is not sufficient ; it does not explain, for 
example, why the Acephala are never fed in the Cambrian,t 
while the Gasteropoda are numerous there; and why they appear 
suddenly in the middle Silurian in various forms and bearing all 
the essential characteristics of a group. Neither does it explain 
why, in more recent epochs, important gaps exist between fami- 
lies in groups whose representative fossils are very numerous 
and well preserved. If we examine the succession of life in 
time, or study the contemporaneous forms of any given epoch, 


* Eimer, Entstehung der Arten, Jena, 1887. 
+ Later studies of these faunas by Walcott and others, show the presence of Acephala in the 
lower Cambrian.— Ep, 


152 . REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


nature everywhere seems to give an emphatic denial of the cele- 
brated formula so long considered an axiom, natura non facit 
saltus. The continuity is sometimes manifest, evident to the 
point of rendering it almost impossible to form distinct groups, 
for example, of those contained in a large genus; but the interme- 
diate forms are more and more rare between genera, families, 
orders and classes. There are times when evolution seems to 
have proceeded by leaps more and more abrupt. There is a 
much greater difference between the Acephalate and the Gaster- 
opod which resembles it the most closely, than there is between 
the two extremes of the series of, Acephala, or between the two 
extremes of the series of Gasteropoda. Between the Reptiles and 
Mammals only two or three intermediate forms are found, and ~ 
these are doubtful and aberrant. But if the appearance of this 
last type had been as gradual as its ulterior evolution, millions of 
transition forms must have existed in a long series of geologic 
beds, and it would have been impossible for them to have left. 
so. few traces. ) 

A great majority of the transformist school of the present day 
interpret these important facts by admitting that evolution must. 
have taken place sometimes very rapidly ; this is the hypothe- 
sis of Saltation, especially maintained by Cope and Haldeman. 
It is incontrovertible that the rapidity of evolution in the same 
group presents extreme variations; thus, on the one side we see 
the type of Zengula existing without any important modification 
from the Cambrian [Ordovician] epoch to the present, while among 
the Terebratulas and Rhynchonellas the species is constantly 
losing its bearings, as Vilmorin has picturesquely expressed it. It 
~is well known also that the essays of experimental transformism 
have demonstrated that very appreciable variations can be ob- 
tained in the course of afew generations. Saltation consists in 
this, that these rapid variations of a given type may be continu- 
ously produced in one and the same direction, so as to effect a 
notable modification of the primitive type. There must have 
been, in some sort, an accumulation of “ progressive forces” and 
the ‘ conservative forces ” yielding suddenly, finally permitted the 
production of the evolution, for which preparation had been 
made during the course of generations. This idea of the discon- 
tinuity of the effect despite the continuity of the effort has. 
abundant illustration in all the physical sciences. 


Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 153 


Advocates of the transformist doctrine had this hypothesis long 
in mind, but only recently has it been definitely formulated, 
and it is still at the present day difficult to give any very precise 
proofs of it. We have thought it desirable to make particular 
mention of it for the reason that it adapts itself in a remarkable 
manner to palaeontologic data, and explains many difficulties. 


§ 2. Causes or VARIATION.* 


Insufficiency of the theory of selection.— Without recanting 
any of the doctrines which he had so firmly established, Darwin, 
toward the close of his life, became convinced that natural selec- 
tion, all sufficient for the fixation of variations and the production 
of divergencies, was not sufficient to explain the cause of these 
variations, and was not the sole phenomenon which played a part 
in the mechanism of evolution. More of a Darwinist than Dar- 
win himself, Wallace has always attributed to natural selection 
an exclusive influence; he admits that individual variations are 
spontaneous, multifold and produced in every sense at hazard, and 
that a very small proportion of them are transmitted by selec- 
tion, and are of no utility in introducing any other force. 

One of the most interesting questions on the subject under 
consideration is this, whether individual variations are really 
spontaneous or whether they are due in some degree to the 
direct action of the medium in which the organism exists. We 
‘know that Lamarck attributed a preponderating influence to 
the conditions of the surrounding medium. MHe found the 
explanation of the mechanism of variation in the development 
of those organs which were frequently exercised, and the reduc- 
tion of such as were not used. This is the phenomenon which 
Ball calls, for the sake of brevity, the heredity of exercise. This 
idea was, from the outset, ridiculed by prejudiced adversaries, 
and judgment was passed on it, as is expressed by Isidore Geof- 
froy Saint-Hilaire, “without any study having been made of the 
sources themselves, and following unreliable accounts which are 
to the views of Lamarck only what a caricature is to a portrait.” 

Darwin, and especially Wallace, at the outset rejected the 
ideas of Lamarck without much investigation’of them, but they 
have recently been revived with distinguished success by Herbert 


* Riley, On the Causes of Variation in Organic Forms. (Proc. Americ. Assoc. Adv. Sc. 1888.) 


20 


154 Report oF tur State Groxoeist. 


Spencer,* by Semper,+ by Copet and the American school of 
Neo-Lamarckians. Spencer insists on the effects of use and 
disuse and shows that very small variations in the force of an 
organ can be of no service to the individual nor thus preserved by 
natural selection. These objections appear to have much embar- 
rassed Wallace, who replies by the enunciation of a new law due to 
Galton — the law of the retwrn to the mean: When any part has 
been increased or diminished by selection, there is among the 
progeny astrong tendency to return to the mean condition when- 
ever the influence of selection ceases to act. The degeneration 
of the atrophied parts might also be explained by a utilitarian 
purpose; an organ too weak becomes a source of danger and 
should disappear by selection. | | 

The whole question becomes reduced to two terms which are 
easy to define. | 

1. Are there really individual modifications which are due 
directly to variations of the medium ? 

2. If the modifications in question are produced, can they be 
transmitted by heredity ? 

Influence of the medium.— The affirmative answer to the first 
question has been given in particular by Semper, who supports 
it by numerous examples drawn from the Mollusks. The recent 
experiments made on plants, particularly by the Botanical School 
of France, show in the structure of plants important and strictly 
determinate variations as conspicuous in the higher types as. 
in lower forms, like the Mushrooms. Facts of this kind form 
the basis for the methods everywhere applied for the transforma- 
tions of pathogenic microbes in vaccinations. Accurate experi- 
ments have been made on beings of much higher organization. 
Whitfield, Semper, Locard, Clessin, Dall, Baudon, etc., have shown 
that important variations were effected among Mollusks by 
changes in the dimensions of the medium, in its agitation, in its 
pressure.§ 

These observations are not very easily explicable by the — 
theory of Weismann, which Wallace has accepted, of the non- 


*H. Spencer, Factors of Organic Hvolution. 1886. 

+Semper, The Natural Conditions of Existence as they Affect Animal Life. London, 1883. 

+ Cope, The Factors of Organic Evolution; The Natural Conditions of Existence as they Affect 
Animal Life. London, 1883. The Origin of the Fittest. 1887. 

§ See Locard, L’influence du milieu sur le développement des Mollusques, 1892. 


Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 155 


heredity of acquired characteristics.* Still it is certain that 
variations produced directly and artificially are not generally so 
strongly fixed that the modified type may not return to the primi- 
tive type by areturn tothe first conditions. This notably happened 
in the famous experiments of Schmankewitz on Artemia salina.t _ 
This Phyllopod Crustacean normally lives in brackish waters, 
but being raised in waters more and more fresh, it evolved. gradu- 
ally, and at the end of some generations was transformed into a 
very different form which had been described under the name of 
Branchipus stagnalis, and which lived normally in fresh water. 
On the contrary, by augmenting the saltnessof the water, Artemia 
salina can be transformed into A. Wilhauseni, a species which 
habitually lives in marine waters. But. in the case under con- 
sideration it is to be seen that, on the one hand, the variation is 
not sufficiently fixed to prevent the return to the primitive type 
(whichever of the three species that may be); whilst, on the 
other hand, the acquired characteristics are highly hereditary, 
since in a given medium each of the three forms respectively per- 
petuates itself with a persistency sufficient to form a veritable 
species. 

The direct or indirect influence of the medium on variation is 
moreover an indubitable fact, but it remains to be determined 
whether the variations thus transmitted are acquired by exercise 
or disuse, or whether they are spontaneous variations of the ger- 
minative plasma, accumulated through natural selection. 

Experimentation alone can furnish a conclusive solution of this 
problem, which at the present day engages the attention of so 
many naturalists. Palaeontologists, moreover, have entered into 
the discussion, and have brought forward arguments more or less 
theoretic, drawn from the study of fossils. 

American Neo-Lamarckism.— The theories of Copet and of 
Hyatt are enveloped in some metaphysical obscurities which 
struck Darwin himself.g The most important points are, first, | 
the acceptation of the influence of the medium; and, next, the 
*On this theory (theory of the continuity of the germ-plasma) and its consequences see 
Weismann, Essay on Heredity and Natural Selection; Ball, Are the effects of use and disuse hereditary? 
Numerous articles by Vines, Turner, Weismann, Osborn, Mivart, Ryder, Lankester, etc., in Nature 
and American Naturalist. 1889, 1890, 1891. 

+ Schmankewitz, Zeitsch f. w. Zool. 1877. 


+Cope, Origin of the Fittest. Essays on Evolution. New York, 1887. 
§ Life and Correspondence of Darwin. 


156 Report oF THE StatE GEOLOGIST. 


intervention of a force, not well defined indeed, called Bathmism, 
which appears to be nothing else than a generalization of the 
laws of acceleration and retardation, a subject which we shall 
consider farther on. The interest of these works, abstracting 
. from them the purely metaphysical portion, is the application of 
the theory, just explained, to Palaeontology. Admitting that 
frequent exercise strengthens organs, Cope points out an easy 
explanation of cases of interesting variations. The most striking 
example is furnished by the origin of the structure of the foot in 
the hoofed animals, Cope admits that the parts which compose 
the members may become lengthened, under the influence either 
of reiterated shocks or of tension. Hence originates the length 
of fingers in the Digitigrades, the length of the tibia among the 
Plantigrades, the development of the hind feet of the Jumpers, 
such as the Kangaroos and Jerboas, and the fore feet of the 
Sloths. 

The soldering of the bones and the development of the joints 
receive a simple explanation, as does also the presence of 
horns in the Ruminants. The evolution of these organs is fol- 
lowed, step by step, in the fossil types down to the present forms, 
and is well developed in the sense indicated by the theory. It is 
noticeable how emphatically the American school reverts 
to the ideas for which Lamarck was so bitterly reproached, 
and explains them in almost the same terms. But Cope goes 
still farther, and considers animal will and intelligence to 
be primordial causes of these variations ;* thus, at the outset, 
it was because the aquatic animal sought to keep its legs 
stiff, that those organs lost the power of flexibility in any 
‘great degree; so too the Artiodactyls would intentionally 
draw back the two extreme fingers behind the others in order to 
protect them, and so oh. It is unnecessary to insist on the 
numerous and definite objections which are raised against these 
exaggerations. The American school has, moreover, rendered 
many other services to the transformist. cause, and’ we shall 
presently see how the works of Hyatt put us in possession so far: 
as one extensive group is concerned, of the mechanism of the 
production of new forms. 


* Cope, Origin of the Fittest. 


Tur PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 157 


§ 3. Erreots or ExTeRNAL CAuvsEs. 


Adaptation.— The adoption of the hypothesis of the influence 
of the medium furnishes an immediate explanation of the 
innumerable cases of adaptation which are observable in the two 
organic kingdoms. Natural selection alone would, moreover, 
' furnish, in many cases, a sufficient See e of the phenom- 
ena observed. 

Adaptation is the fact that types which, in the sum of their 
characteristics, manifestly belong to the same group, present dif- 
ferences which are in direct relation to their especial mode of 
life. Thus the Cheiroptera differ from all the Mammals by their 
adaptation to aerial locomotion; the Pulmonates are the only 
Mollusks (with three or four exceptions) adapted to respiration 
in the air; the limbs of the Cetacea permit only aquatic locomo- 
tion, etc. 

The phenomena of adaptation have been particularly eluci- 
dated by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, who demonstrated that in the 
same group the organs adapted to diverse functions are referable 
to one and the same type. He established, for example, the 
homology of the parts of the skeleton of the vertebrates, what- 
ever the functions to which they are applied in the diverse 
forms. From this it is but one step to a reasonable explanation 
of those diversities by the hypothesis that modifications are act- 
ually and gradually produced at the expense of the primitive 
type. This step Geoffroy unhesitatingly took. 


We must include in this order of phenomena all cases of 
mimicry, premonitory coloring, etc., on which Darwin and 
Wallace so urgently insisted. 

Zoology and Botany display at every step examples of this 
important phenomenon. Palaeontology places it within our 
power to grasp this phenomenon of function, and in many cases 
shows how the gradual transformations are produced. 

The most celebrated example is that drawn from the study of 
the fossil forms which are considered as representing the series 
of progenitors of the horse. It is well known that among those 
animals the cubitus and the radius are rudimentary, that each 
limb presents but a single finger, by the sides of which are two 
small stylets, which represent, in the rudimentary state, the 
fingers 2 and 4 of the other Mammals. These fingers are very 
much elon gated. 

But there has been found in Europe, and especially in 
America, at a period later than the Lower Eocene, an entire 


158 ReEporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


series of types in which these characteristics of adaptation are 
more and more strongly, marked. The first of these types, 
HLohippus, has one cubitus, and one fibula very distinct, four 
fingers, and one rudiment on the fore foot, three on the hind 
foot. This animal, small of size, presents in but a slight degree 
the differential characteristics of the horse, but through all the 
succeeding generations the characteristics in question make their - 
appearance little by little, by a very moderate’ gradation 
(Marsh, Huxley).* | 

The adaptation to flight of the anterior limbs of birds is 
brought avout by a process of evolution, several terms of which 
are known.to us. Among ordinary birds the fingers of the 
anterior extremity are shortened in such a manner that one of 
the fingers is only a weak stump; the remainder of the hand 
is reduced to three metacarpals united and bearing one or two 
phalanges. The extremity of the wing can only execute move- 
ments of flexion of small scope. But the most ancient bird 
known, the Archeopteryx of the Upper Jurassic presents a much 
less degree of regression; three fingers are well represented and 
separated; the middle finger has three phalanges, the others two, 
and the fingers terminate by claws so that the hand is adapted 
to prehension. The embryos of the ostrich possess character- 
istics between thesetwo extremes. Other details relating to the 
power of flight are also seen in other organs, and to a less 
degree in Archwopteryx which is closely related to the reptiles, 
than in the living birds. In the course of this work we shall 
refer to numerous cases of the same kind. 


The organs most apt to undergo modifications are naturally 
those which serve the animal in its relations with the external 
world; such especially are the members which are employed in 
prehension, progression, flight, leaping, swimming, and in the teeth 
which are adapted to the food of the animal. 

But in many instances the entire form of the animal may be 
modified by causes of the same kind, and Palaeontology some- — 
times leads to the discovery of the gradual progress of this 
evolution. : 

Correlation.— Generally speaking, the adaptation of any type 
to a determinate mode of existence is not confined to the modifi- 
cation of a single organ; for example, the transformation of a 
terrestrial vertebrate into an aerial type supposes simultaneous 
modifications in various parts of the skeleton, in the muscular 
system of the limbs, and also in other parts of the organism. 
Thus among adult birds the anterior and posterior extremities 


* Marsh, Lecture on the Introduction and Succession of Vertebrate Life in America. (Nature, vol. 
XVI, p. 471.) 


Tur PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 159 


undergo the modifications already mentioned, but furthermore, 
the three bones of the pelvis are closely joined, and the caudal 
vertebra are united in one bone (coccyx). Inthe Archzopteryx, 
on the contrary, the bones of the pelvis are separated, and the 
tail is formed of 21 vertebrz; the transition. manifests itself 
in young birds, where the bones of the pelvis are very weakly 
united, and where the vertebre of the tail are clearly distinct, 
especially in the Ostrich. | 

This is a clear example of variations in correlation. The 
principle of correlation was enunciated by Cuvier, and applied by 
him with a success which has remained a lasting triumph. 
According to Cuvier, “The parts of a living organism are so 
closely related, one with the others, that no one can be changed 
without necessitating change in the others.” Hence, given the 
form of one organ of an animal, it js possible to deduce the form 
of all the others. This is a consequence of another principle, 
that of the conditions of existence, according to which an animal 
especially created to live in certain conditions, must have all its 
organs adapted to this end. 

Cuvier, a strenuous partisan of the creation and immutability 
of species, did not seek to investigate the cause of the principle 
he enunciated, but confined himself to illustrating it by examples. 
He showed, for instance, how among the carnivorous mammals 
‘the teeth are incisive, and the jaw so articulated that only 
vertical motion is possible; among the herbivora, on the con- 
trary, the teeth are cuspidate, adapted to grinding, and the 
articulation of the condyle of the jaw is so elongated as to favor 
a lateral motion. These characteristics with others are always 
associated in the same individual. 

We shall presently see what estimate we should make of the 
~ general application of this law. . 


The question here concerns, as is understood, different organs 
adapted to the accomplishment of the same function. : 

But it frequently happens also, that variations appear in correla- 
tion without the preceding condition being realized. Let us 
consider, for example, the series of fossils of which the horse is 
the last term. 

The study of the dentition shows a series of progressive dif- 
ferentiations from the molars with omnivorous tubercles in 
EHohippus to the molars with herbivorous lamelle in the living 
horse. There exists a correlation between these variations and 


160 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


those of the framework of the extremities, and it furnishes a 
new proof applicable to other animals. Among the Ruminant 
Artiodactyls there exists a quite analogous series of fossils in 
which the number of fingers passes from four to two by a 
gradual regression of the two lateral fingers, while the molars 
exhibit modifications entirely analogous to those in the horse. 
There is then a correlation between the adaptation of the mem- 
bers of the ungulates to running, and the specialization of their 
teeth to an herbivorous diet. pe Se 

in both the cases mentioned, each of the characters separately, 
distinguishing a perfect condition for the species, is explainable 
by the theory of natural selection; whilst some other instances 
of correlation, perfectly authenticated, are more difficult to 
explain. Certain characters which are apparently useless to the 
species, present sometimes a great variability; these are the 
characters which the Darwinian school calls Morphologic char- 
acters. But it is undeniably established that they are in correla- 
tion with characters of recognized utility to the species, varying 
as these vary, and thus coming under the law of natural selec- 
tion. Such,. for example, are the secondary sexual character- 
istics, such as the beard of men, the long hair-of women, etc. 


Rudimentary organs.— According to Cuvier the principle of 
correlation of forms was in contradiction to a great number of 
facts which find their explanation only in the theory of selection. 
If the animal possesses all that is necessary and nothing that is 
superfluous for its existence in the condition in which it lives, 
one can not conceive that it can possess organs which are mani- 
festly of no service to it, and which are found better developed © 
and ina functional state in allied groups. Thus there sometimes 
exist in man certain muscles which are at other times wanting, 
but which are found well developed in the monkey. These rudt- 
mentary organs are innumerable both in the animal and the 
-vegetable kingdoms. 

Palaeontology often explains to fus the significance of these. 
The two stylets which are found on either side of the foot of the 
Horse correspond to the two fingers, provided with all their parts, 
of the Tertiary Equides. The Parrot possesses in the alveolus: 
embryonic teeth which never develop. But the three birds so 
far known from the Secondary Epoch, Archeopteryx, Ichthyornis, 
and Hesperornis, had conical, sharp-pointed teeth like those of rep- 
tiles. We are acquainted, too, with instances of limbs, in a rudi- 
mentary state, hidden under the skin of certain serpents, and 
the existence of a very reduced pelvis in certain Cetacea, which 
are furthermore, like the others, destitute of posterior limbs. 


Tue PrincrpLes oF PALAEONTOLOGY. 161 


A curious instance, recently brought to light, is that of the 
pineal eye of Reptiles There is found among certain Lacer- 
tilians, on the top of the head and on the median line, an organ 
which in cases of the greatest differentiation has the structure of 
an eye, with retina, crystalline humor and optic nerve which passes 
through a perforation of the parietal bone. But this organ is 
concealed under an opaque scale, and in no case can be used for 
sight. It is, moreover, generally very small. 

But anumber of Reptiles of the Primary and Secondary epochs, 
especially those of the lower groups, present a parietal opening 
situated exactly like that of the Lizards, with a much larger aper- 
ture. It appears then almost certain that at that epoch the 
pineal eve must have fulfilled the function of an eye, and its 
presence is quite inexplicable in actual types where its situation 
is such that it can not serve for seeing, unless we allow the 
admission that these existing forms have descended from ancient 
types where this organ served a useful purpose. Itisa curious fact, 
moreover, that the animal in which the pineal eye is the least 
reduced, the genus /atterza, belongs to the most ancient group 
known in the whole class of Reptiles (Rhynchocephala). 

‘To sum up this subject, the existence of rudimentary organs is 
one of the most conclusive arguments in favor of the theory of 
Evolution. 


‘Parallelism and Convergence.— The attentive study of the 
variations of organs among forms living or fossil, has brought to 
light another important phenomenon which in a marked degree 
restricts the importance of the principle of Cuvier regarding the 
correlation of forms. It has been observed that in some groups, 
whether allied or very diverse, the series of modifications was 
produced in the same method and along parallel lines. Further, 
in certain cases, if we examine through successive strata forms 
originally dissimilar, we find that they evolve in such a manner as 
to diminish their differential characters, so that the derived forms 
of each series resemble each other much more than do primitive 
forms. These are the phenomena of Convergence. 

In regard to forms very closely allied, it is natural that we 
should find similar conditions producing similar modifications. 
Natural selection, or the direct influence of the medium, suffices 
to explain this. Thus, in very extensive basins, the Paludinas, 
though smooth and with inflated. volutions, have, at various 
epochs and different points, evolved into carinated and tubercu- 
lous forms. | 

21 


162 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


It frequently happens that an analogous process induces modi- | 
fications in the same direction in very distinct animals. For 
example, one of the flying Reptiles of the Upper Cretaceous, 
Pteranodon, is toothless and has a sharp beak, which probably 
was covered with horn. If Cuvier had seen this head he 
would, without doubt, have considered it that of a bird; and he 
would, on the other hand, have assigned the two toothed birds 
of the same deposit to the Reptilia. The disappearance of teeth 
and the presence of a beak are then characters which have 
affected in the same manner very different types, Pterosaurians 
and Birds, both adapted to the same mode of life. - 

Among the primitive Batrachians of the group of Stegocephala, 
we find the first tendency of the four-footed type to elongate the 
body, multiply the number of vertebre, diminish or lose limbs, 
to assume, in a word, the aspect of Serpents (Dolichosoma). But 
the serpentiform types appear in very different groups. Among 
living animals, true Batrachians (Cecilians), animals which have 
throughout the anatomical characteristics of the Lacertilians 
(Amphisbene), also assume the same vermiform appearance. 
There existed in the Cretaceous epoch, among the Lacertilians, 
gigantic swimmers possessing more than a hundred and thirty 
vertebre, and with very small limbs, thus evincing a tendency in 
the same direction. The Ophidians also form a branch of the 
Lacertilians, in which modification has- affected the external 
organs. 

An instance often cited is the profound analogy in limbs 
transformed into swimming expansions almost identical among 
Reptiles such as Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus, and the Mam- 
majia such as Cetacea. : 

The invertebrates furnish numerous examples of convergence. 
Among the Ammonites, for instance, the shell often presents a 
considerable difference both in form and ornamentation between 
the first volutions of the spiral, and those which appear later 
when the animal has reached aconsiderable size. But frequently 
the differential characters of species, genera, and even of families, 
disappear when the animal attains its full size, so that sometimes 
it is nolonger possible to determine by external appearance, for — 
the Ammonites of the Cretaceous for example, to what group the 
animal belongs, without breaking’ the shell and examining the 
internal volutions. We shall see what bearing this fact has on 
the establishing of the genealogical tree of the Ammonites. 

Among the Gasteropoda the form of the shell usually cor- 
responds as a whole with the exterior form of the body. But we 
must beware of drawing any conclusions from the variations of 
the form of the shell as to the variations of the internal organs. 
A classification founded on the shell would bring together the 
most heterogeneous types. Still variations of the shell are 
produced only in very few directions, and the modifications 
follow the same law in groups anatomically farthest removed 


Tur PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 163 


from each other. A shell normally spiral or turbinate may in 
developing become simply conical, making the transition by a 
cowl-shaped form; orit may uncoilso as to becomea straightened 
‘tube, or again the later volutions may entirely cover those 
preceding as is the case in the Cypraidex. Lastly the shell 
passing beneath the mantle may regress and more or less com- 
pletely disappear. These same phenomena are found in all the 
types of Gasteropoda; Prosobranchia, Opisthobranchia, Pulmo- 
enata, and Heteropoda. | | 

These processes of evolution may be compared to those which, 
in the Cephalopoda, manifest themselves at notably different 
epochs, in the two very distinct groups of the Tetrabranchiates 
and the Dibranchiates. Forms more or less completely uncoiled 
and precisely parallel have appeared among the Tetrabranchiates 
of the Silurian, and the Ammonitide toward the Cretaceous 
epoch. It is thus that the Baculites of the -Maestrichtian 
reproduce the Zituites of the Silurian. It would seem that the 
same law of deformation of the normal type presided over the 
evolution of these forms and announced their approaching 
decadence. re 

Of the irregular Echini some are provided with jaws, others 
are destitute of them. No transition term exists between the 
two types as regards these important organs. But in regard to 
the exterior form, gradual modifications appear in the two 
groups to such a degree that for a long time the groups of the 
Gnathostomes and Atelostomes were confounded. 

The Corals, both the perforate and the imperforate, between 
which no transition exists, display also a certain number -of 
simple or colonial forms which are reproduced in the two groups 
with a parallelism sometimes so complete as to make us doubt 
whether the division should be made thus between the perforate 
and imperforate, or whether we should consider as allied to 
each group of imperforate corals a corresponding group of 
perforate forms derived from them, perhaps, by regression. 

The same remark is applicable to the Horaminifera, perforate 
a imperforate, which often present exactly the same exterior 
orms. 


It may be seen from the foregoing remarks, that when 
we seek to establish the real affinities of the various groups, 
that is to say, their genealogical tree, great attention must be 
paid to these phenomena of convergence and parallelism, and it 
must be kept in mind that the same causes have sufficed to 
produce the same modifications among beings which in other 
respects had no immediate kinship one with the other. 

Aberrant and synthetic types.—A second important exception 
to the principle of correlation is drawn from the fact that the 


164 Report oF THE Strate GEOLOGIST. 


various series established by taking into account only the varia- 
tion of a given structure, do not often fuse into a single series, 
as the principle of correlation would require. This fact leads 
us to a new conception of great importance. Rt 
We say that an animal of a certain group is aberrant as to one 
of its organs, when this organ, through its structure, cannot be 


admitted into any of the morphologic series constituted for homo-, 


logous organs in the group in question. It is best to restrict, as 
we have done, this term, which is somewhat misused; the evolu- 
tion of an organ can take place in divers directions, ai we are 
not to consider as aberrant a series which, though .less extended 
than another, may be quite as normal. 

Of the forms which are well represented in a fossil state, we 
may cite among Crinoids the genera Barrandeocrinus, Hucalyp- 
tocrinus; among the Echini, the Dysasteride; among the Mol- 
lusks ie Teredine, the Rudiste, the Trigoniidz, the Anomize. 
The Arthropoda will furnish the Limuli; the Fishes, numerous 
types as the trunk-fishes, the genus aie etc. Among 
Reptiles we find 77iceratops; among the Mammalia, Dimoceras and 
many others. Comparative anatomy shows many examples of 
animals which by nearly all their characteristics are naturally 
ranged in a determinate series, but which in one or more organs 
differ widely from the forms nearest to them. 

Among these aberrant types the most interesting are those 
which present in association the characters of several distinct 
groups, without on that account taking a place precisely intermedi- 
ate between any two of these groups. The fossil Echinoderms 
present very instructive examples. The exclusively palaeozoic class 


of the Cystidize is a polymorphic group, which presents instances . 


of transition more or less distinct with the Asterias, Echinoids, 
Crinoids and Blastoids. These four classes, oh the contrary, are 
very clearly defined among themselves, and it is almost impossible 
to maintain that they are derived one from another. But there 
exists a curious type, Ziarechinus, which presents at once the 
characteristics both of the Blastoids and the Echinoids. This 
type, entirely isolated, is limited to the Trias; that is to say, it 
appears long after the extinction of the Blastoids and after the 
type of the Echinoids has undergone an important evolution. It 
is a synthetic type of the most singular kind. 


Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 165 


The existence of such forms which can not be assigned to any 
of the natural series, often causes a complication in the relations 
we suppose to have existed among organisms in the course of time, 
and often, too, explains the divergencies manifested in the views of 
different aiabar: It brings in evidence a principle which at first 
appears diametrically opposed to the principle of the correlation 
or simultaneous evolution of organs. It proves, in effect, that 
there exists, to a certain degree, a relative independence m the 
evolution of organs; in other terms, a system of organs in this type 
will be manifestly either behind or in advance of the stage of 
evolution which it will have acquired in the majority of the group. 
to which the type in question belongs; or indeed the organ in 
question will present characteristics entirely isolated. 

A simple remark will enable us in many cases to refer these 
phenomena to principles already known and demonstrated. 
Frequently aberrant forms constitute terms of transition between 
. two groups well marked and defined by the sum of their charac- 
ters. This is the case in regard to the Prosobranchia monoto- 
cardia and diotocardia, Which are delimited by important differ- 
ences in the nervous system, the gills, the kidney, the heart, the 
pallial sensory organs, etc. There are at least five or six forms 
which are intermediate between the two groups in one or more 
of these organs; but, in these transition forms, one at least of the 
organs which does not possess these characteristics of transition 
is aberrant in regard to both groups. 

Another example may be drawn from types known only ina 


fossil state. In the living world there is no term of transition. 


between the Arachnids and the Crustaceans. In the palaeozoic 
epoch lived the Gigantostraca, of which the Limuli are at present 
the last and much modified representatives. These animals 
are in many characters intermediate between the Crustaceans 
and the Scorpionide, but at the same time they differ from each 
of those. Between the Gasteropoda and the Acephala there is no 
type of transition known, either extinct or living; the only type 
which presents indifferent characteristics is Dentaliwm, which is, 
moreover, very ancient, and is so aberrant that an especial class 
has been erected for it. 

We will also mention the three types of the family, Gnetacea, 
intermediate between the Gymnosperms and the Angiosperms. 


166 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


The genus Welwitchia, in particular, with its two peculiar large 
leaves, is one of the most curious types of the vegetable kingdom. 
From the Darwinian point of view, these facts, provided they 
are general enough to claim consideration, are capable of an easy 
explanation. It is known that the intermediate types in general 
disappear rapidly in cases where the evolution determines a 
marked superiority of the new types over those from which they 
are derived. These latter may, however, subsist, provided the 
difference between them and the new forms is sufficiently great, 
so that the vital concurrence is not too unfavorable for them, that 
is to say, provided the evolution takes place so rapidly that the 
new forms soon become distinct. As to the intermediate forms, — 
placed, so to say, between two destructive causes, they must, in | 
order to maintain themselves, undergo a special evolution, in a 
sense peculiar to themselves, and that will occur only if variations 
appear in an organ which has-not been already affected by the 
evolution of the principal type. Thus protected, so to say, they 
may persist during long periods without any important modifica- 
tions; this is the case with all the types we have just cited. 
Such modifications will the more readily occur, as we have seen, 
as the evolution is more accelerated during the periods when the 
new types are in process of formation. 


- § 4. GenreRAL TrenpEency or Evo.vtion. 


Hypothesis of the vital force in different groups.— We have 
already planned to pursue still farther this philosophic synthesis 
of the phenomena of evolution. The mechanism of Evolution is 
considered sufficiently known to justify us in turning attention 
to the determination of its general significance. 

One of the most interesting hypotheses which has been pro- 
posed is that which considers the various groups, such as the 
species, genus, family, as having a peculiar individuality, and as 
presenting the same vital phenomena as do single individuals. 
A given group must then, according to this theory, necessarily 
come into existence, grow, reach a climax, decrease and finally 
die, after having in some cases reproduced themselves in some 
way, by giving origin to other groups of the same value and a 
little different, so perpetuating the form with a slight modifica- 
tion. This ingenious hypothesis would explain why, with no 


Tur PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 167 


apparent reason, groups flourish and then irrevocably disappear, 
after having presented characteristics which have been compared 
to the degeneration of old age. There would then be a wtal 
force for the species and higher groups as for the individual, and 
the lifetime of such a form would be limited, as is that of an 
individual. 

Against this hypothesis serious objections can be raised. The 
characters compared are not of the same order. Instead of look- 
ing to the higher races of animals where reproduction takes 
place by means of the egg, it would be more reasonable to look 
for our terms of comparison, for example among the Zoophytes 
or Protozoa, where increase takes place by the division of the 
individual itself into two parts. It is indeed just in this way, 
by a sort of division, that species multiply. Nothing is more 
indefinite than the notion of old age among such animals, where 
death seems only to arrive through some accidental cause. 
(Weismann, Neumayr.) | 

But at the same time there exist groups which seem endowed 
with an indefinite longevity ; from the most ancient epochs they 
have perpetuated themselves with very slight variations. The 
Brachiopoda, for instance, have changed so little that the genera 
fromthe Cambrian [Ordovician]are still existing. The differences 
between the oldest form known, Lingulella, and a Lingula of the 
present day, are quite insignificant, and the Lingulas, properly so 
called, together with the Discinas, have existed’ almost without 
modification since the Cambrian [Ordovician] epoch. The same 
may be said of the articulated Brachiopoda, such as the Tere- 
bratulas and the Rhynchonellas. There is no Brachiopod, in 
fact, at the present epoch which has not had almost identical 
representatives from the earliest palaeozoic periods.* 


*[ Recent study of the generic evolution of the Brachiopoda does not confirm these statements. No 
evidence cculd be more conclusive than that now public of the rise, culmination and decline of a 
very large number of generic groups both of the inarticulate and articulate Brachiopods. Lingula, 
Crania and perhaps Rhynchonella do, indeed, represent types of great stability and vigor, which 
have perpetuated themselves through geologic time with the minimum of variation; they are not 
merely remarkable cases among the Brachiopods, but they are exceptional instances among organ- 

‘isms generally. But it is not difficult to point out structural features wherein the recent forms of 
these genera differ from their early representatives, even though such differences be not now 
regarded of generic consequence. The final statement of the above paragraph could not be more 
erroneous, and itis most unfortunate to find it promulgated here. Noneof the existing types of 
Brachiopods were present in the earliest palaeozoic periods; not more thantwo generic types have 
continued from the palaeozoic to the present, and it issafe to say of existing Brachiopods generally 

hat they are for the most part highly complicated culminant forms or simple decadent expressions 
of types introduced during the post-palaeozoic and later periods of the earth’s history.—ED. ] 


168 — REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


The examples of these persistent forms, which have remained 
unchanged from the Cambrian, lessen the value of the argument 
in question. [See foot-note.] In reality any form may sometimes — 
carry within itself some source of weakness ; it may be doomed to 
disappear soon or late, conquered in the struggle for existence ; but 
this fatality seems to depend in each particular case on special 
causes, often discoverable, and not to an irresistible law, an 
universal fatality which embraces all the individuals beyond 
a certain organic level. | 

Finally we will add, that so far as species are concerned, the 
problem seems of little interest. If a form undergoes a rapid | 
transformation, are we justified in saying that it dies? On the 
contrary is not the process itself the very condition of life? 

Law of improvement.—A more exact idea is obtained by a 
simultaneous examination of the order of appearance and of the 
degree of organic elevation of the. leading types in the two 
kingdoms — animal and vegetable. From this examination there 
results, at first sight, a fact which has made a strong impression 
on naturalists of every era; organisms have been constantly 
improving from the first periods in which they are found in a 
fossil state. | | 

This general law finds immediate application when we consider 
the order of appearance of the large groups of the animal king- 
dom. In the Cambrian are found Sponges, Cystideans, Brachio- 
pods, Worms, Gasteropods, Crustaceans. In the Ordovician 
appear the Crinoids; in the Bohemian [Silurian], Arachnids, 
Insects, Fishes; the Batrachians, not yet of high degree, are 
found in the Devonian ; and the Reptiles, still represented by the 
lower forms of the group, in the Carboniferous. Not until we 
arrive at the Trias do we find the first Mammals, and no birds 
appear before the Upper Jurassic. | 

The first Mammals are all Marsupials, and it is only in the 
Eocene epoch that the first Placentals appear. If we consider 
a smaller group, for instance, the Cephalopoda, we see that the 
Tetrabranchs precede the Dibranchs; the succession of the Gas- 
teropoda and the Acephala shows, as we shall see in detail, an 
analogous phenomenon. 

Some remarkable exceptions have been found to this rule 
otherwise so general. These exceptions are precisely those 


‘ 


THE PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 169 


which, as we have seen, present the comparison of groups with 
individuals. Very many ancient forms have remained without 
modification, so that if we confine our attention to the charac- 
teristics of families or large genera, the ancient epochs are poor 
in special types. The ancient types have indeed put forth many 
progressive branches, but a vast number of their descendants 
have remained without important evolution. There is then in 
this nothing absolutely fatal, and the gradual improvement of 
one form of a group in no way implies the disappearance of the 
lower form. | , 

Another objection against the generality of this law is drawn 
from cases of evident regression, which are so well known that 
it is unnecessary to cite them in detail. The majority of para. 
sites are, in the adult state, in marked regression to a deter- 
minate stage of their embryogenic development; it is the same 
with many attached animals, like the Ascidians. The regression, 
moreover, is not in general anything more than the result of an 
adaptation to a peculiar mode of life. 

The palaeontologic objection to the hypothesis of improvement 
drawn from the simultaneous appearance of forms of unequal 
grade in very ancient epochs, does not appear to us conclusive, 
on account of the insufficiency of evidence concerning the 
Silurian period. In fine, if we confine our attention to the grand 
lines, Palaeontology on the one side elucidates the general law 
that the most differentiated forms have almost always succeeded 
the others, and on the other side it makes known the fact that 
certain types have persisted without any important modification, 
and that consequently improvement does not necessarily imply 
the disappearance of the ancient forms inferior in organization. 
Some forms then remain unchanged, but the greater number 
evolve in a progressive direction. 

In order to explain this general tendency toward improvement 
which thus manifests itself in all groups and affects all their 
organs, some have thought it necessary to suppose an especial force, 
a force innate in the living creature, a wital phyletic force, the 
effect of which would be precisely the gradual and final progres- 
sion of the organisms which are derived one from the other. 
The advantage of this theory is that it supplies a solution of the 
difficulties which the doctrine of selection fails to solve, an 

22 


170 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


explanation of these phenomena of the correlative progress of 
organs, of these modifications parallel and forced, as it were, in 
distinct groups, of these laws of improvement which are in fine 
few and constant. 

To sum up a phenomenon in one word is not to explain it, and 
the objection to this new idea is that it announces in brief terms . 
a known fact, but does not elucidate it. Furthermore, the 
existence of this force is not constant, since on the one hand we 
are acquainted with groups in whieh no tendency toward 
improvement has ever shown itself, while in other cases improve- 
ment has only manifested itself in a portion of the individuals 
which have undergone evolution, and again another portion may 
have existed for long periods wihoue appreciable modifications. 

At the present day we are often obliged, in studying the 
problems connected with evolution, to confine ourselves to seek- 
ing through synthetic approaches the enunciation of phenomena, 
leaving their explanation to a future day when more conclusive 
facts shall be known, which will throw light on whatever 
remains obscure in these difficult questions. 


CHAPTER: Iii. 


Phylogeny. . 
§ 1. Natura Cuassirication anp- PayLocerny. 


Definition.— Since the idea of the evolution of species is no 
longer a simple conjecture, but is based on certain scientific data, 
the investigation of genealogic trees of living organisms or of 
fossil forms has acquired considerable importance, and there is 
scarcely any systematic work either on Zoology or Palaeontology, 
which does not conclude with a more or less extended essay in 
that direction. Darwin contented himself with establishing 
on a solid basis the principles of the doctrine of transformation, 
and left to his successors the task of deducing the consequences. 
He demonstrated that species are derived one from the 
other, and that consequently there exist between all organisms, 
both living and extinct, veritable relations of parentage more or 
less removed. Phylogeny is the determination of these ties; it is 
the investigation of the descent, not only of allied species, but 
also of the most extensive groups, in fine of every form, both of 
the animal and vegetable kingdoms. 

Principles of classification.— The problem of Phylogeny is 
only a new form, due to new ideas, of the problem of natural 
classification, which has confronted us from the time when living 
organisms first began to be objects of serious study. Buffon 
opposed every idea of classification, while Linné, the first who 
established a substantial classification, considered the taxonomic 
method simply a convenience for abridging the exposition of 
characters and for facilitating researches. Nevertheless toward 
the close of his life he indicated the path to be followed in order 
to arrive at a more rational principle. Jussieu was the first to 
establish in an authoritative manner the principles of a natural 
classification. He devoted his energies to presenting as faithfully 
as possible a demonstration of the relations which exist among 
all the types of the vegetable kingdom. In order to realize this 


172 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


idea of natural classification we must no longer allow ourselves 
to appeal to any single characteristic no matter how convenient 
or easy of observation it may be; we must take into account as 
far as possible the entirety of the organism. Classifications 
where the divisions are founded each on a single character may 
afford a certain means for facility in quick determinations; these 
are systems. The word method should be reserved for the 
natural classification. This could only be finally established if 
all organisms, both living and fossil, were completely known, but 
we can strive toward its attainment by successive approximations, 

The transformist doctrine has suddenly thrown much light on 
the problem of classification; it has freed the idea of natural 
classification from whatever was obscure and metaphysical. 
The principle of descent once established, affinities explain them- 
selves by the relations of parentage, and natural classification is 
nothing else than Phylogeny. | 

Itis easy to understand the interest which attaches to the dis- 
covery of the genealogic tree of organisms which exist or have 
existed in remote epochs. One of the most illustrious teachers 
of the transformist school, Haeckel, has won great distinction by 
his essays in this direction, and his principal works, “ Anthropo- 
geny” and “ Natural Creation,” raised polemic discussions, the 
echoes of which have not yet ceased. 

Palaeontology stands in the first rank among re natural 
sciences which have advanced our knowledge of Phylogeny. 
At every page we shall have occasion to indicate to what point 
we have actually attained in the connection of extinct forms either 
with each other or with forms now living. We must, therefore, 
bestow some attention on the processes whereby the relations of 
parentage among organisms are determined. These processes 
may be referred to three general methods, two of which apply 
equally to living or extinct types, while the third, founded solely 
on the relations of Palaeontology and Stratigraphy, is conse- 
quently applicable only to fossil forms. 


§ 2. MerHop oF ComparaTIVE ANATOMY. 


Evolution of organs.— If there really exists a filiation between 
the creatures of the present day and those of former times; if, 


Tuer PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 173 


as is supposed by the fundamental hypothesis of the transformist 
doctrine, there is a continuity existing between all forms, including 
those which are extinct, this continuity should appear in the dis- 
position and structure of all the organs in the various types of 
one and the same series. Oonsequently the gradual variations of 
the same organ in forms sufficiently near to each other, are in 
direct relation to the filiation of the animals or plants of the 
group in question. In order to apprehend this evolution of 
organs, we often find it necessary to recur to the principle of 
the unity of structural plan. The celebrated theory of Geof- 
froy Saint-Hilaire, stripped of its exaggerations, applied and 
restricted carefully in the limits of groups which are not too 
extensive, thus becomes a point of departure for a method rich 
in important results. 

From this may be seen how Comparative Anatomy can furnish 
a solid basis for the construction of phylogenic systems. It 
appears, even at first sight, that the problem demands only the 
examination of an organ sufficiently characteristic and variable, 
and that from the relations between the forms of such an 
organ a conclusion can be arrived at as to the filiation of the 
types themselves. If this were the case nothing would be 
easier than to convert an artificial system into a natural and 
consequently phylogenic classification. This is what many natural- 
ists are still doing, attributing to organs or systems of organs 
which they have studied, a preponderating importance, sometimes 
employing it exclusively for the establishing of genealogical 
trees. Unfortunately the essays in this direction are often far 
from being in accord with each other, nor can we always explain 
these divergencies by insufficiency of material or faults of 
interpretation. 

We must indeed appeal to those phenomena which we have 
already cited and which have often complicated the laws of 
organic evolution. We know that organs may undergo parallel 
modifications in groups sometimes widely separated from each 
other, and much more may they in series near each other yet 
independent, and this may give rise to phenomena of convergence. 
In this case, if we take as the basis of our estimates one ef the 
systems of organs in question, we incur the risk of confound- 


174 Report oF THE State Geroxocist. 


ing in the same series forms quite distinct. Thus, if we should 
rely exclusively on the form of the limbs in Quadrupeds, we 
would be led to associate Reptiles like the Ichthyosaurus and 
Plesiosaurus with the Mammalia like the Whales and Seals, on 
account of the fact that in them the limbs are transformed 
into swimming organs. In many cases the inexactitude in the 
result is less evident than in the example just cited. 

It will then often be found difficult to determine which are 
the organs whose diverse aspects are a decisive indication of all 
the stages of the evolution of a group. We should, therefore, 
turn our attention not to one single organ, but to the whole 
assemblage of the more important organs. We shall often see a 
type which, belonging to a determinate group by the sum of its 
characters, is at the same time separated from it by some one 
character which we call aberrant. In this case the difficulty 
can sometimes be easily explained; in determining the general 
expression of the evolution we can deduce the particular history 
of a given organ which presents especial difficulties. 

This method is applicable in Palaeontology only at the cost of 
great labor. The organs preserved in a fossil state are usually 
few in number, and it is well understood that it is not always 
possible to conclude from the external form what the internal 
structure is. The question of the state of preservation holds an 
important place, and even under the most favorable circum- 
stances, great skill is required in order to study, for instance, the 
brachial organs of the Brachiopods; the masticatory organs 
and ambulacral zones of the Echini; the ventral surface of 
the Crinoids. The discoveries made in this direction, in other 
words, the application of the method of Comparative Anatomy to 
fossil forms, has effected a marked progress in Phylogeny. We 
shall see a striking example of this in the chapters which treat of 
vegetable Palaeontology. The knowledge of the organs of repro- 
duction, the simultaneous study of the stems and roots of the 
plants of the Carboniferous epoch, have made possible the com- — 
plete anatomical study of these plants; has filled an important 
gap between the vascular Cryptogams and the Gymnosperms, 
and has marked out with an almost absolute certainty the general - 
progress of the evolution of vegetable forms. 


Tue PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. 175 


' § 3. Emsryogento Meruop. 


Law of the parallelism of Ontogeny and Phylogeny.— The 
second method appeals to researches still more delicate and in 
which less advancehasbeenmade. Hmbryogenyis a recent science, 
‘whose progress must necessarily follow our knowledge of adult 
forms. But already in many cases it has enabled us to elucidate 
questions which Comparative Anatomy left unsatisfied. Even 
palaeontologists have for some years past been earnestly seeking 
for the results which this science furnishes. © 

The importance of Embryogeny rests entirely in the appli- 
cation of a law which has been the point of departure of most of 
the researches lately made on the subject of the development of 
organisms. Discovered by Kielmeyer and Geoffroy Saint- Hilaire, 
formulated by Serres in regard to the human species, defined 
more precisely and generalized by Haeckel, this law, verified and 
restricted by later researches, is still: one of the most fecund 
principles of the transformist doctrine. It consists in this, that 
in a general manner, before arriving at the adult state, animals, 
in the course of their development, pass through the diverse 
stages which marked the progress of the evolution of their 
ancestors. In other words, according to the celebrated formula 
of Haeckel, ‘Ontogeny is the abridged reproduction of Phy- 
logeny.” If this law is strictly true, it is evident that no other 
criterion is needed to reconstruct the entire genealogic tree of 
the animal, since the diverse “forms constitute a gallery in minia- 
ture of the portraits of their ancestors.” 

In default of a direct verification, which, in the present case, is 
evidently impossible, this law may be considered as proved by 
numerous facts which admit of no other explanation. Many 
animals reproduce in the course of their development the series 
of the lower forms of the group. Such are, to confine ourselves to 
classic examples, the anourous Batrachians, decapod Crustacea, 
the Comatulas, etc. Examples of analogous facts are innumer- 
able; we shall give in detail only a few selected from the 
domain of Palaeontology. 

Embryogeny of fossil forms.— The earliest results in this order 
of ideas are due to Wiirtemberger who, in 1873, applied these 
principles to the Ammonites. 


In examining the forms of the group of Perisphinctes we see in 
the oldest types the shell ornamented with ribs, two or three times 


176 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


branched; among the somewhat more recent forms the points of 
the ramification swell out into tubercles. Latera second range of 
interior tubercles appears, and at the same time the ribs show a 
tendency to disappear. The interior range of tubercles, and 
afterward the exterior range diminish in turn, and the shell be- 
comes almost smooth. ‘Lhis last stage is attained in Aspzdoceras 
cyclotum. If the external whorls of an adult specimen of this 
species are removed so as to bring to light successively the more 
and more elementary whorls, we see that the same individual has 
presented successively all the preceding aspects, and even on the 
earliest whorls we find bifurcated projections which finally dis- 
appeared. The Ammonite then has passed in succession all the 
stages attained in the adult state by species which formerly 
existed. 

Metamorphoses such as these are absolutely general in the 
group of Ammonites. The ornaments are constantly modified 
with age and the youngest stages are always identical with the 
adult forms of more ancient epochs. It 1s quite necessary, there- 
fore, in order to determine exactly to what group an Ammonite 
belongs, to be acquainted with all the stages through which it 
has passed, for it frequently happens that forms notably different 
in youth lose little by little their differential characteristics in 
virtue of the phenomenon of convergence which in this group 
manifests itself with a peculiar intensity. This embryogenic 
method is now in current use for the study of this class, one of 
the most important for palaeontologists; by means of this method 
light has been thrown on the mass of writings accumulated by 
the former researches of both earlier and later authors, and 
Phylogeny is now the only process of classification employed on 
this subject. | 

This order of ideas is carried even farther, and, in examining 
the most primitive stages, we have in many cases come to know 
in what way a determinate series of Ammonites descended from 
the more ancient and more simple forms known as Gonzatites. 
The successive septa which, as the shell increased in size, bounded 
the living chamber of the animal, were attached to the shell 
itself by Hines of sutwre, the shape of which is very important. 
But the sutures of the earliest septa among the Ammonites are 
extremely simple, and bear a strong resemblance to these of the 
Goniatites of various families. The forms of the most ancient 
Ammonites recently discovered in the Upper Carboniferous, 
establish precisely in the adult state the transition between the 
two groups. 

A similar attempt has been successfully made by Jack- 
son in regard to the Acephala. This author has seen in 
living species the young forms of the Oyster and Pecten, 
and has shown that these forms were provided with organs 
such as the byssus, the anterior muscle, etc., which are want- 
ing in the adult, and the disappearance of which is accom- 


Tre PrrncirLes oF PALAEONTOLOGY. ws 


panied bv considerable modification in the general shape of the 
body. Ile has followed out the modifications in diverse types 


and demonstrated that these temporary stages were attained in 
@ permanent state in extinct forms which must be considered as 
ancestral. 


The embryogenic study of fossil forms is still in its infancy, 
and presents always greater difficulties than does the study of 
living organisms. It is impossible, indeed, to take a direct view 
of the development of the embryo, and the organism seldom 
bears traces of the forms it has passed through in its embryonic 
state. We are obliged, then, to content ourselves with carefully 
comparing the forms which are considered as successive phases of 
the development. Despite these obstacles the path is so fertile 
in results that palaeontologists do not hesitate to enter on it; we 
shall see, even in the Vertebrates, that many types deseribed as 
separate species, are now considered to be embryonic forms of 
organisms which are found in the adult state in the same layers, 
and that this discovery has furnished valuable conclusions for 
phylogenetic data. 

Cases of regression.— The law of the parallelism of Ontogeny 
and Phylogeny makes possible, then, the elucidation of many 
questions left undecided by Comparative Anatomy. This law, 
indeed, is able to indicate the right explanation of variations 
which may admit of various interpretations; for instance, we 
are often perplexed in comparing various forms of unequal grade 
of organization to decide whether their filiation marks progress 
or, on the contrary, regression; in the latter case the form the 
most simple in appearance may bear traces in the embryonic 
state of primitive complication ; we have just shown this to be 
so in regard to certain Ammonites. 

The same remark applies also to the evolution of each organic 
system individually considered. The embryogenic development 
displays in many cases organs which at first develop according to 
the rules normal-for the group under consideration, then the 
development is arrested, and the organ retrogrades. Thus are 
formed the rudimentary organs of which we have spoken in the 
preceding chapter. The existence of these organs in no way 
implies an inferior rank for the animal itself, but it may lead to 
specialization, to the adaptation to some particular mode of life. 

23 


178 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


In this case the regression may be simply explained by the action 
of natural selection. As a striking example, we may cite the 
case of birds. The wing and the foot of the bird are in a state 
of regression in relation to the normal type of the limbs of Ver- 
tebrates; various bones are found ina rudimentary state, the teeth 
do not exist in these animals in an adult condition. But phylogenic 
evolution demonstrates clearly how this regressive adaptation 
gradually established itself. The most ancient bird known at the ~ 
present day, the Archwopteryx, possesses limbs much nearer ~ 
these ancestral type, and teeth of the same kind as do the birds of 
the Cretaceous, which are even more specialized than the Arche- 
opteryx. If now we take into consideration the results furnished 
by embryogenic development, we see that the limbs of the 
ostrich in the young state show characters resembling those of 
these ancient forms; we see that very young parrots have in the 
alveoles teeth which do not develop and which among other 
birds seem never to have existed at any period. In this case the 
parallelism of Ontogeny and Phylogeny is striking, and furnishes 
a clear conception of the mechanism of regression. 

After the discovery of the law of parallelism it appeared 
as though the definitive method of phylogenic classification had 
been found, and numerous. systems have been. proposed, founded 
exclusively on the characters of development, for example, on 
the position or nature of the vitellus and of the coverings of 
the egg. If one of these systems rested on a basis strictly exact 
in theory, we ought to put aside the inconvenience it might 
present of being always difficult or impossible of application in 
Palaeontology, and do our best in our endeavors to conform to it. 

But this is not the case, and the bearing of the law of Serres. 
and Haeckel is restricted by other phenomena, which we will 
now consider. me 

Embryogenic acceleration.— Very often two proximate forms, 
for instance, two species of the same genus (or more frequently 
two proximate genera) develop in very different modes. No per- 
son would for a moment conclude from this that the ancestral 
series of these two forms were distinct, the more so as the differ- 
ences appear most generally in the earlier stages. It must 
indeed be admitted that in these cases the normal development, 


Tur PrincreLes or PALAEONTOLOGY. 179 


which should faithfully reproduce the phylogenic evolution, is 
modified by the intervention of a new force distinct from 
heredity. 

It is evidently for the advantage of the species that the embry- 
ogenic development should take place as rapidly as possible, since 
during the embryonic stages the young individual is more 
exposed than in the adult state. The law of embryogenic accel- 
eration is then a consequence of natural selection. It consists in 
this, that the highest forms in each group develop with more and 
more rapidity ; the stages corresponding to ancestral forms nota- 
bly differing from the definitive form, may in some cases be 
skipped. This occurs more especially in the first stages of develop- 
ment. In species. even very closely allied these stages present 
such a diversity that we are often unable to utilize them in seek- 
ing for remote ancestral forms. Accessory circumstances, such 
as the greater or less quantity of accumulated nutritive materials, 
or the appearance of protecting membranes, or the structure of 
the temporary larval organs, allowing transient adaptation to the 
medium where this period of development is passed, alter the 
normal succession of the phases, and conceal the normal 
embryogeny. : 

In Palaeontology, embryogenic acceleration has been espec- 
ially proved among the Ammonites, for the embryonic stages are 
so preserved that the successive volutions represent the different 
stages through which the animal has passed. The characters of 
a given form will be reproduced, in the development of the 
descendants of this form, in stages more and more precocious, and 
may end by never appearing again. We may notice the argu- 
ment which Hyatt has drawn from these facts for the filiation of 
the Arietide. In this class of Ammonites the septum of the 
primary chamber is seen to resemble exactly that of the lower 
forms of Nautilus; in the higher forms this first septum presents 
a slight curve which, in the immediate ancestors, appears only in 
the second septum; finally, higher still, to this first curve now 
become more accentuated, there is added on each side a lateral 
angulation which reproduces the third septum of the ancestral 
forms (Branco). 

The embryogeny of the Trilobites, studied by Barrande, shows 
that the acceleration in this order attains a very variable degree 


180 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


according to the genera considered. The normal development of 
a Crustacean is at present well known and has been determined for 
very different groups; the animal grows by the successive ap- 
pearauce of new segments in front of the last segment. But 
among the Trilobites the three divisions of the body — head, 
thorax and pygidium — undergo differentiations more or less rap- 
idly according to the cases, and often consist each of one piece. 
Acceleration takes place in very various degrees. 

Acceleration of regression.— It is easy to understand that the 
existence of such a phenomenon does not result in simplifying 
the phenomena of Phylogeny already so complex. 7 | 

The theory of embryonic acceleration, when applied to organs 
greatly modified, can be pushed too far in considering forms re- 
mote from the ancestral type. And if the form under considera- 
tion is a regressive form, such as we have seen examples of, it 
may happen that the most recent animal has the semblance of 
being the most ancient. We will add, however, that in most 
cases the acceleration of regression only occurs in a determinate 
organ or system of organs; the rest of the organism may enable 
us to reconnect the links of the chain and to arrive at a knowl- 
edge of the meaning of the evolution. 7 

An interesting example of the embarrassment resulting from 
the existence of such phenomena is furnished by the group of 
Chelonians. The osseous carapace which covers the body of the 
Turtle is formed of different pieces; some of these constitute the 
independent dermal bones, not homologous, whilst others are 
only flattened expansions of the ribs and spiny apophyses of the 
vertebra, uniting one with another. The existence of this cara- 
pace, which at the maximum of its development is continuous 
and without interruption, constitutes the principal trait of spec- 
jialization of the Chelonians, and distinguishes them from all 
other Reptiles. It is natural to look for the primitive forms of 
a group among those in which this process is most slightly ind1- 
cated. Butinone group of Turtles, both living and fossil (Atheca), 
the costal plates are but little developed and are far from being 
united; the dermal plates, which form the ventral plastron, are 
also separated from each other, there lying between them empty 
spaces or fontanelles. Among more specialized forms, the Z7rton- 
ychide, the Chelydrida, etc., we find the ossification of the cara- 
pace more pronounced ; among the Emyda, the Testudinida, etc., 
it is fully attained in the adult state. It is an interesting fact 
that among the large fresh-water Turtles and others also, the 
closing of the buckler takes place very late, the fontanelles re- 


Tue Principles of PALAEONTOLOGY. 181 


maining for several years. The tendency of the evolution shows 
itself here without a possibility of ambiguity. Unfortunately 
the data of Palaeontology do not seem to be in accord with 
this evidence. All the living families of Turtles are rep- 
resented in the fossil state by forms but little differing from 
those existing. But the most ancient of all, the Psammochelys, 
of the Trias of Wiirtemberg, belongs to the group of the 
Pleurodira, which is the most differentiated and farthest removed 
from the modern type of Reptiles. 2 

The Turtles of the Jurassic and Cretaceous epochs would appear 
to be less and less ossified, the oldest of the Atheca dates from 
the Upper Cretaceous, and the lowest type of the group 
(Dermochelys) is at present existing. TAN 

Consequently, Riitimeyer, Baur, and after them Zittel, believe 
that the evolution of known forms must have been produced in 
an inverse order. All the known forms which have the carapace 
partially developed, whether in fossil state or living, would be 
regressive, derived from specialized types. According to this, 
the true progenitors of the Turtle would be unknown to us. 
If this is really so, Embryogeny can scarcely demonstrate it, for 
it is difficult to conceive that an osseous carapace should exist in 
an embryonic state, then be absorbed, and the development be 
forcibly arrested. Nevertheless, the sum of the anatomical 
characters tends to prove that the Atheca are really a lower form 
of the Turtles; many traits of their organization bring them 
near to other Reptiles, for example, the Rhynchocephala. If 
these are not primitive types, regression has at least so influenced 
various parts of the skeleton that the entire animal would very 
. mauch resemble its remote progenitors. 


Geratology.— Acceleration not only influences the earliest 
stages of development, but its action extends also to later acquired 
characters. It may happen that the definitive adult state of cer- 
tain species is only a temporary condition for other allied species. 
This state will exist for a considerable time, during which the 
animal continues the functions of reproduction. Later, when the 
animal has attained an advanced age, modifications will appear. 
These generally consist, in a more or less marked regression, in a 
suppression of the highest characters recently acquired, and in a 
general simplification. Cases of senile degeneracy are frequent 
in living nature. Generally they exert no influence on the 
evolution of the group, though this is not always the fact. 

Late-acquired or geratologic characters, to use an expression of 
Hyatt,* assume a great importance when they affect, not a few 


— EE 


* Hyatt, Genesis of the Arietide (Mem. Mus. Compar. Zool. Cambridge), 1889. 


182 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 
4 


individuals, but the entire species, and come thus under the law 
of acceleration. They appear at first sporadic, and seem related 
to pathologic phenomena; they indicate a change unfavorable to 
the average conditions. But presently, in formations imme- 
diately above, the geratologic alterations become very frequent, 
which is explicable by the fact that the same physical modifica- 
tions will produce identical effects on animals of the same 
species (law of morphogenetic equivalence of Hyatt). The gera- 
-tologic form, at first exceptional, thus becomes normal, and showsa ~ 
constant tendency to manifest itself earlier; thus a distinct species 
is established. The evolution of fixed forms or parasites seems to 
find its explanation in this phenomenon. But it is particularly 
striking in the Cephalopoda, where it has undergone a thorough 
investigation. It is seen both in the Tetrabranchiata in the Silu- 
rian, and among the Ammonitide, in the course of the secondary 
period. From it are deduced important conclusions concerning 
the evolution of the group. 

In general, forms thus modified are affected with a sort of con- 
genital weakness which renders them less fit for the struggle for 
life, and deprives them of any long line of descendants; this 
occurs in the uncoiled Cephalopoda, which attain considerable 
magnitude, and then suddenly disappear; this phenomenon is 
observable at diverse epochs and at the expense of distinct 
groups. It is especially noticeable during the Cretaceous period. 
It seems, at the close of that period, as though the entire group 
had been affected with some malady; the unrolled forms multi- 
ply ; the septa are simplified and frequently present the appear- 
ance of those of the Ceratites of the Trias; the ornaments 
become heavy, thick, and often disappear in the adult, and the 
entire group ends by dying out and leaving no descendants.: 

But this is not always the case. Geratologic phenomena 
sometimes produce simplifications not always unfavorable to the 
species; they may cause a convergence toward the primitive forms 
of the group, and the types thus constituted may in turn be the 
point of departure for new series in regard to which they will 
hold the relation of primitive forms or radicles. In this event 
the law of embryogenic acceleration will strongly come in force. 
All the stages which have led to the constitution of the new 
radicle form will be passed through with a celerity proportionate 


Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 183 


to the distance gained from that form; this is readily under- 
stood. The radicle form being itself regressive, finds itself 
situated by its characters near a form much more primitive; 
matters are conducted thus as though nature, seeking to econo- 
mize time and force, avoided the circuitous route through forms 
which, though higher and more complex, are not enduring. But 
the earlier types of this new series still may show, in the history 
of their development, some traces of this complicated evolution. 

The history of the various branches of the Ammonitide pre- 
sents a certain number of these radicle forms with simplified 
characters; thus Psiloceras planorbe is an Ammonite destitute 
of ornaments, with rounded volutions not embracing. This is 
the primitive stock of the long series of Arietide. But the 
suture lines of the adult are less complicated than those of the 
young (Neumayr). 

If these phenomena allow us to separate, in "certain Cases, 
relationships within the limits of a given series, and to connect 
the series one with another, they also leave us confronted by new 
difficulties in the solution of the problem. ‘The apparent resem- 
blance between regressive geratologic forms and the simple 
primitive forms sometimes gives rise to a perplexity in the deter- 
mination of radicle forms, the point of departure for new series. 
This is the condition at the present day in regard to the Ammon- 
ites of the chalk, which only recently have been studied in 
their entirety with as profound analysis as have the Ammonites 
of the Jurassic. 


§ 4. Mrrsop or Gxrotogio Continurry. 


‘Application of the principle of continuity. — The third method 
applies perhaps less than the other two to objections of a specu- 
lative order, but in practice it also presents numerous difficulties. 
It consists in the investigation of the correlation of the series of 
fossil forms with the order of succession of the layers containing 
them ; in other words, it is the historic and chronologic study of 
the group. If we have sufficient material at our disposal, and 
if, on the other side, the chronologic order of the deposits is well 
established, we ought to be able to follow the transformations 
of all the types through the epochs, to determine whether any 
one form is derived by progression or regression from a more 


184 RePort oF THE Strate GEOLOGIST. 


ancient one, to discover at what epoch and by what process the 
distinct groups, between which passage forms are wanting in 
living nature, came into existence. It will be understood that 
when the question concerns the establishing of relationships 
between genera and families, and especially between species of 
the same group, such a study can only be entered on with some 
chance of success, when the materials for comparison are very 
abundant, when they come from numerous localities and are in 
a good state of preservation. 

For a group where any one of these conditions is wanting, it 
would be illusory to seek to draw from the stratigraphic succes- 
sion conclusions of phylogenetic order. This, for example, is 
the case for the Crinoids. These Echinoderms are abundant 
only in very few regions, and it is improbable that they were 
everywhere evolved on the spot. For the Ammonites, on the 
contrary, the method of which we are speaking, combined intelli- 
gently with the preceding two, has already succeeded in giving 
interesting results, for the specimens collected up to the present 
are innumerable and gathered from all parts of the world; 
moreover, they can be collected any day, as many as are desired 
for any especial object. The Echini also are common fossils and 
present numerous characteristics which can be utilized for affili- 
ation. M. Munier-Chalmas has for many years followed step by 
step their evolution, and has made a study of all the terms of 
transition which have come under his observation. He has seen 
that sometimes continuous modifications can be followed through 
a long series of forms, while the heads of certain series appear 
suddenly, making it impossible to form any judgment as to their 
origin except a hypothetic one. On these points of strati- 
graphic and morphologic discontinuity, he established the great 
divisions of his classification. The result of these researches, 
which have not yet been published, we are authorized to present 
in the chapter which treats of the classification of these animals. 

Continuity is then our principal guide in synthetic researches 
of this kind. Unfortunately in a great number of cases the 
evidence to be had is not sufficient to warrant the attempt to apply 
this principle. We have seen in the preceding chapter, that in 
consequence of the very progress of the phenomena, we shall 
never possess the intermediates between all the species. 


Tur PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 185 


But naturalists are less ambitious, and often evidence even 
wanting in precision is sufficient for nearly. exact conclusions. 
They would be extremely fortunate to ascertain the terms of 
transition which must have existed between the grand divisions, 
and which would permit the establishment, otherwise than by 
theoretic inductions,. of the origin of classes and orders. But 
it is precisely these interesting forms which are oftenest. want- 
ing. This is the case with the Birds, Chelonians, Lamellibranchs, 
Cephalopods, Brachiopods, Trilobites, Corals, Sponges, not to 
mention those whose ancient types are known with some detail. 
The method of geologic continuitv is, in such instances, 
altogether defective. 

Order of appearance of new forms.— The difficulty is some- 
times even still greater, and the chronologic order of appearance 
is in complete discordance with what we might be permitted to 
expect from the method of Comparative Anatomy applied to 
- Palaeontology. If the ontogenic evolution is unknown, and if 
we can not bring in evidence any fact of regression, we are 
obliged to reserve our conclusion for the epoch when new evi- 
dence shall permit us to elucidate the question; until then we 
should formulate hypotheses with great reserve. Thus the suc- 
cession of forms among the Brachiopods, the appearance of the 
orders of Mammals, etc., raise difficulties of this kind. 

In a general way, the result of recent discoveries has been 
to cause us to refer to epochs more and more remote the pre- 
sumable date of appearance of the various groups. To confine 
ourselves to facts most recently brought to light, we will cite 
the discovery, by Brady, of Nummulites in the Carboniferous; 
that of Ammonites in the Permo-carboniferous system (Waagen, 
Gemellaro); that of Sponges, belonging to the types of Hexac- 
tinellids and of Tetractinellids in the Cambrian (Hinde); of the 
Arachnids and Insects in the Silurian; of the Myriapods in the 
Carboniferous (Scudder, Hagen, Ch. Brongniart, Fayol); Fishes 
have lately been found in the Middle Silurian (Rohon). 

It can be seen how dangerous it is to attach an exclusive. im- 
portance to the order of appearance; every theory which in any 
way rests on these data, when the question concerns the pri- 
mordial forms of large groups, incurs the risk of being ere long 
contradicted by some unexpected discovery. 

24 


186 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


_ The uncertainty grows in measure as we approach the more and 
more ancient deposits. The fossils of the primary epoch which 
are known at the present day are, it is true, very numerous, yet 
various circumstances should convince us that the palaeozoic 
faunas are still less completely known than those of the Sec- 
ondary, and still more, those of the Tertiary epochs. The pri- 
mary strata have naturally undergone more changes than the 
others; erosions at successive epochs have removed considerable . 
extents of the deposits, and displacements have frequently modi- 
fied the nature of the rock and occasioned the disappearance or 
alteration of the fossils contained in it; so much so, that for 
many years primary fossils in a good state of preservation have 
been found only in ‘few localities; it is only recently that the 
discoveries made in America, Russia, India, etc., have made pos- - 
sible the definition of the analogies and differences between the 
faune of those countries and those of western Kurope already 
known. Furthermore, many groups which had appeared at 
remote epochs were represented at first by individuals few in 
number and of a lower organization, the remains of which are 
rarely found. 

The first fauna.— As has been said, uncertainty increases as 
we approach more and more ancient deposits. It reaches the 
maximum when the question concerns the most ancient fossilifer- 
ous beds, those from which we might hope to draw some knowl- 
edge regarding the actual origin of organisms. The earliest depos- 
its in which fossils are positively known to occur are the Cambrian. | 
The fossils found there are a few Mollusks, belonging to three 
classes of the group; Trilobites, belonging to diverse families 
(Paradoxide, Olenide) ; Crustacea (Leperditia, Hymenocaris) ; 
Brachiopoda (Lingulide, Discinide, Orthis), some Cystids, some 
Hydroids ( Dictyonema), Medusze, Hexactinellid and Tetractinellid 
Sponges (Archeoscyphia, Protospongia). We must add also the 
impressions of organisms whose determination is uncertain 
(Oldhamia, Eophyton, Bilobites, Fucoides, etc.). This .fauna, 
rich: both in genera and in species, embraces a small number 
of groups, which in reality are not high types of the animal 
kingdom; but nevertheless they are far from representing the 
primitive ancestors of animals. The Brachiopoda, in particular, 
are organisms which must have undergone an extremely compli- 


Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 187 


cated evolution, as is proved by the embryogeny of the existent 
forms, some of which are almost identical with the Cambrian 
species. The well authenticated animal discovered in one of 
the oldest layers is justly ranked as a Lingulid, Lengulella 
primeva.* Ata yet more remote epoch are found traces which 
have been attributed to the Annelids. I do not speak at present 
of the bodies called Hozoon, which probably have not an organic 
origin. , 

It is then very evident that we do not really know the true 
primordial fauna. That which characterizes the lowest Cambrian 
has, it is true, an expression of decided simplicity, for no Mollusks 
are found there except shells of doubtful relationship (Zeca), 
neither are Echinoderms, nor Corals nor Vertebrates ; these forms 
which appear suddenly and without apparent preparation, in the 
upper Cambrian or the Ordovician, may perhaps have existed in the - 
_ lower Cambrian, but they were then destitute of the hard parts 
(shell, test or skeleton), which would prove their state of inferi- 
ority, or they existed in regions which possessed a different facies 
not yet discovered. | 

Origin of life. Precambrian deposits—— We know nothing 
whatever in regard to the origin of the Cambrian fauna, found 
to be almost identical in every part of the globe. 

The Cambrian deposits nevertheless are not the oldest of the 
sedimentary formations. At a lower horizon there exist, in 
diverse regions, layers which have been formed in the sea; such 
are the enormous deposits of Canada formed by the Laurentian 
and Huronian stages, which together are more than 20 kilometres 
in thickness. The Precambrian terrane of the country of Galles, 
also very thick, is found under the Lingula flags. In Canada, in 
the Laurentian period, besides the famous Eozoon, Dawson found 
carboniferous matter and tubules which he attributed to the worms. 
The presence of thick masses of bitumen and graphite in the 
Precambrian beds has a considerable importance. Among the 
chemical phenomena which living nature presents, the only ones 


* * [See previous foot note. Lingulella is always a distinctly more primitive type than Lingula, as 
shown not only in its ontogeny, but also in the close relations of its actual characters to Qbolella. 
Beecher’s determination of the radicle of the Brachiopod shell, Paterina, in the Cambrian, and its 
close relation to such pre-eminent members of this fauna as Obolus, Obolella and Lingulelia indicate 
that the evolution of these forms may have been more simple and direct than the author here 
supposes.—ED. ] 


188 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


which effect the separation of carbon from the bodies with which 
it is combined are carried on in living organisms. Carbon, in all 
its forms, except perhaps the diamond, results always from the 
modification of materials of organic origin. It is then possible 
that the carbon and the carburets of the Precambrian deposits 
represent all that remains of that ancestral fauna whose exist- 
ence is proved by the most simple process of reasoning. 

It remains now to explain how it happens that no relics of 
those primitive organisms have remained to our day. It is 
because the deposits of that epoch, once formed, were subjected 
to great modifications, both mechanical and chemical, which 
constitute the process of metamorphism. The sedimentary lay- 
ers were pierced with eruptive rocks, among others granite, 
which spread over them or extended under them and filled their 
interstices. Either by direct contact or more frequently by the 
action of water superheated and charged with salts in solution, 
the sedimentary rocks underwent a sort of baking, which devel- 
oped numerous minerals not before existing therein, and which 
sometimes give to them the appearance of eruptive rocks. It is 
easy to understand how the schists thus metamorphosed pre- 
served no traces of the fossils they may have contained. 

A purely mechanical overturn also sometimes suffices to make 
the discovery of fossils impossible. Thus M. Gaudry tells us 
that the English. geologists, Sedgwick and Murchison, explored 
the Cambrian beds for a long time without discovering fossils. 
They observed that almost every part of the rock was fissured 
or at least cracked perpendicular‘to the direction of the stratifi- 
cation. In examining places where, on the contrary, the cracks 
were parallel with this direction, they found numerous fossils 
well preserved.. We should not give up the hope that at some 
future time geologists may succeed in finding in the Precambrian 
layers places where metamorphism has not made itself felt. 
Until that time arrives we can draw no conclusions from geologic 
data concerning the origin of life, and we must content our- 
selves with the theories which embryogenic and comparative 
studies furnish. 4 

In conclusion, it is seen that the study of the filiation of organ- 
isms rests on methods the precision of which increases with the 
increase of our, knowledge of the laws of evolution. These 


Tuer PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 189 


laws are complicated, and their application presents considerable 
difficulties. We have sought to place these difficulties in a clear 
light, in order that the student may not be surprised at the un- 
certainty which still exists in regard to many points of this great 
problem; the discussions which still constantly arise, and the 
discordance among the theories propounded, should not be in- 
voked as an argument against the doctrine of evolution itself. 
The method of the natural sciences is unfortunately subordinate 
to the acquisition of the necessary materials, and in Palaeon- 
tology more. than in any other science, progress depends on the 
increase of collections. | | 


CHA CER ..1V. 


Distribution of Organisms in Geologic Time, with 
Reference to Their Physical Environment. _ 


§ 1. Derinirion or Factzs. 


‘We have now to consider a new category of problems resulting 
from palaeontologic studies, problems which pertain more espe- 
cially to the relations of that science with stratigraphic Geology ; 
they arise from the comparison of fossils of different groups 
which have existed at the same epoch in different localities. It 
has long been admitted as a fundamental principle of Strati- 
graphy that, in a general sense, deposits of the same age present 
the same fossils. But it is evident that at the present epoch such 
a principle could not be applied; the faunas and floras are local- 
ized in more or less extended regions, and there are only a few 
forms whose distribution is universal. It has been thus at all 
epochs; never have the fauna and flora of the globe been 
identical over its whole surface. | 

Biologic provinces are defined for any given epoch by the con- 
dition that at least one-half of the fauna and flora be distinct. 

The term faces is applied to the entirety of the lithologic and 
palaeontologic characteristics resulting from the external condi- 
tions which determine the existence of any particular fauna or flora 
for a given region. These characters are defined by physical con. 
ditions, such as climate, altitude or bathymetric depth, the geo- 
logical or chemical nature of the medium. We may add, also, 
indirect factors relating to the preceding. By virtue of the laws. 
of the struggle for existence, the variations of every living being 
depend in a certain measure on the nature of the entire assem- 
blage of the beings which live with it; the general characteristics 
of the fauna or flora of aregion therefore influence the conditions 
of existence of each of the organisms which compose it, so that 
the differences which, in consequence of the influence of the 


Tue PrincieLes oF PALAEONTOLOGY. 192 


medium, appeared in a slight degree among the progenitors, 
increase more and more in consequence of the biologic reactions 
which exist among organisms. 

We may find, for ‘instance, for anyone epoch, a littoral, 
pelagic, fresh water, estuary, lacustrine or corallic facies; so 
also we may find an arctic, temperate, tropical, etc., facies. We 
shall briefly investigate what indications Palaeontology furnishes 
for the determination of these facies; in other words, we shall 
show how the study of the associations of fossil forms often 
enables us to attain a knowledge of the conditions of the 
surrounding medium. 


§ 2. InrLuENcE or THE DeptH oF Szsas. 


The distribution of animals in the present seas is classed 
according to five zones, which are pretty clearly defined.* 

1. The Littoral zone, which is covered and uncovered with 
_ each tide. 

2. The Zone of Laminarians (0 to 27 or 28 metres). 

8. The Zone of Nullipores and Corallines (calcareous Alge) 
(28 to 72 metres), also inhabited by large Gasteropoda. 

4. The Zone of Brachiopoda and Corals (72 to 500 metres), to 
which descend the Corals such as Dendrophyllia and Oculina, 
the Echini, such as Spatangus, Brissopsis, etc. 

5. The Abyssal Zone, below 500 metres. 

It is seldom possible to determine with precision these zones 
at different geologic epochs; but the indications with which 
this excellent classification furnishes us may be utilized for the 
research of the bathymetric facies in geologic deposits. We 
can, in general, distinguish from this point of view three principal 
faltlags the littoral, the pelagic and the abyssal. 

Littoral facies.— The littoral facies is often indicated by the 
lithologic nature of the rock; conglomerates and coarse sand- 
stones, can only be formed in the immediate vicinity of the shore. 
But the palaeontologic characteristics are also very important in 
determining ancient sea- bottoms. 

_ An excellent criterion is furnished by the boring shells. It is 
known that at the present epoch, Lamellibranchs belonging to 
various groups can pierce the hardest rocks; these forms exist, 


* Fischer, Manuel de Conchyliologie, chap. III. 


~ 


192 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


moreover, only in shallow water, mostly in the zone alternately 
covered and uncovered by the tides. Such are the Pholads, the 
Teredos, the genera Saxicava, Venerupis, Lithodomus. But all 
these forms have representatives in the fossil state; the holes 
formed by them are frequently met with either with or without 
the shell in their interior (for example, in the Bathonian of the 
Ardennes, the Faluns of Pontlevoy, etc.). Their presence isa cer- 
tain indication of the existence of a littoral zone of a rocky 
character. This particular facies presents also numerous forms 
which pertain to it exclusively, as the Patellas, Littorinas, 
Balani and various forms of Trochus. ~ 

Oysters, Mussels, Plicatulas, etc., which live attached to the 
rocks, either directly by one of their valves, or by means of their 
byssus, are associated with forms which characterize the highest 
marine zone; they may, indeed, descend deeper in a zone which 
is never exposed, and where they are accompanied by the Echini 
and Brachiopoda. The great majority of deposits of this nature 
contain animals which have lived fixed, or which crept on the 
bottom, mixed with the remains of swimming animals which 
could live in the deep sea and also approach near the coast, and 
whose shells fall to the ground after death; such are the 
Cephalopods. The Nautilids, the Ammonites and the Belemnites 
are found side by side with the Gasteropoda, the Acephala and 
the Echini. | 

The expression Littoral facies has then, in Geology, a broad 
signification, and is applied to a more extended zone than that 
which at the present epoch is called the littoral zone. It indi- 
cates simply that the formation in question was produced in the 
vicinity of a coast. It may present pelagic elements, but it is 
characterized by the presence of the littoral elements which we 
have cited. . 

Pelagic facies.— We call pelagic animals those which are 
adapted by their structure to the function of swimming in the 
deep sea without resting on the bottom or on the shores. Of 
this class there are at present the Cetacea, Fishes, Cephalopoda, 
Pteropoda, Meduse, many Foraminifera and Radiolaria. In many 
regions deposits of great depths have furnished organized 
remains of only such as belonged to these groups, and derived 


Tue PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. 193 


from animals which lived either at the surface or at various 
~ depths. 

The expression Pelagic facies, in Geology, should not be under- 
stood in the same sense; there are no ancient deposits in which 
the fauna consists exclusively of swimming animals. A pelagie 
fauna at the present day might inhabit seas whose bottoms are 
very variable in depth; it might reach to the vicinity of the 
ccasts or, again, might extend over the deep abysses ; it is evident 
that in geologic deposits such a fauna might ‘be associated with 
the elements-of all the zones. 

The idea then of the pelagic facies is broadened, and we refer to 
this facies the deposits formed in the deep sea, at a considerable 
distance from the shore, but not in the abysmal depths; they 
are characterized by the absence of the elements of the fauna of 
the littoral zone, and by a mixture of forms adapted to swim- 
ming, such as Cephalopods, Pteropods, Fishes, with creeping or 
- fixed forms (Echinoderms, Brachiopods, Gasteropods, Lamelli- 
branchs), the species of which differ from those living near the 
shores. 

Pelagic forms, well adapted for swimming, have naturally an 
area of distribution much more extensive than the littoral forms, 
and very much more so than the fixed and sedentary forms. 
This results not only from the fact that these animals being able 
to traverse large areas become distributed more easily, but also 
from the fact that the seaward conditions are much more con- 
stant than those near the shores. Thus it is that the species of 
Ammonites and Belemnites, in the secondary epoch, are found at 
the same horizon in places far distant from each other, and con- 
sequently hold an important place in the chronologic correlation of 
deposits. The European and American forms are almost identi- 
cal, whilst the reverse occurs as regards the Lamellibranchs of 
the same epoch. 


Abyssal facies.— Submarine explorations which have every- 
where been matters of much attention, have resulted in clearing up 
the mystery of the conditions of life in the great depths.* It is 
now known that there exists at the bottom of the sea a very rich 
fauna, with special characteristics, but without close relations to 


* Reports of the Challenger Expedition; Narrative of the Cruise. E. Perrier, Les Explorations 
sous-marines. 1886, chap. VIII. 


25 


194 ReEportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


the littoral fauna. . There is scarcely any form, indeed, which 
can not be referred to families already known. Representatives - 
of forms considered. extinct have been found there, but thus far 
efforts have not brought to light any remains of the palaeozoic 
faunas which it was hoped would be discovered. 

The fauna of the coast, in its most extended sense, descends to 
- about 400 meters. It embraces the calcareous sponges, Gorgonia, 
Comatula, Cidaris, Diadema, Bryozoans, Oysters, Cytherea, 
Gasteropoda of every group. It is this which is the most gener- 
ally represented in preceding geologic epochs. 

Lower down, from 400 to 1500 metres, are found the siliceous 
Hexactinellida, the Sea Stars with great marginal discs (Pentago- 
naster), the soft Hchini; special forms of Crustacea, such as 
Gnathophausia and the Polychelide. Among fishes, Hury- 
pharyne and Bathypterois. The Hydrocorallines and the Aley- 
onaria disappear toward 1000 metres. 

_ From 1500 metres to 8000 metres occurs the transition from — 
_ this fauna to the real abyssal fauna. The sample Polyps and the 
Pentacrini dominate, whilst the silicious sponges become more 
and more rare; toward 2500 metres the simple Polypi in turn 
disappear, and. beyond 3000 metres the fauna is represented 
exclusively by the symmetric Holothurvans, with ventral flatten- 
ing, the large Pycnogonide and the blind decapod Crustaceans. 

The most important zone as regards the object of our present 
consideration is that which extends from 400 to 200 metres. 
This is the Verticordia zone of M. Fischer. It contains, with 
types clearly affihated to the actual littoral types, forms 
which seem peculiar to the secondary period; these are, for ex- 
ample, the peduncled Crinoids, belonging to genera well repre- 
sented at this epoch, as Pentacrinus or other genera which are 
very Closely allied to extinct forms. The soft Echini, as Calverza, 
recall with exactitude the Echinothuride of the Chalk ; the Sal- 
enidw, characterized by the presence of a centro-dorsal plate 
quite exceptional among the Echini; the vlasteride,_repre- 
sented by Powrtalesia, which recalls the genus /nfulaster, and 
especially the Crustacea such as Willemoesva which represents 
the Hryon of the Jurassic, are manifestly the last remains of a 
part of the secondary fauna which, on our coasts, has completely 
disappeared or has been radically transformed. Most naturalists 


~~ 


Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 195 


have at once concluded from these facts that the {basin ,of the 
Atlantic has not emerged since the Cretaceous period, and that 
the fauna of that epoch had maintained itself there in part with- 
out transformation. In other words, the bottom of the sea has 
remained, to a certain degree, since the Cretaceous period. 

This induction is justified to a certain extent, but we must add 
furthermore, in order to form an exact idea of the fauna of that 
zone, that it contains numerous elements of much more recent 
origin, and that forms which evolved on the littoral zone must 
have migrated toward the deep sea at various successive epochs ; 
this is especially proved by the entire absence of transition types 
between the archaic types and the others in the region in 
question. 

It would be natural to suppose, a priori, that the extreme 
depths of the ocean would reveal phenomena of the same order. 
It was expected that the zones lately explored below 3000 
metres, would show us forms recalling the most ancient 
types. It is not so; not only is the abyssal fauna destitute of 
palaeozoic elements, but even the mesozoic types have disap- 
peared. The inhabitants of the deep abysses are representatives 
of some of the most specialized types of diverse classes. These 
forms, few in number, bear marks of a special adaptation. It is 
manifestly a fauna which has migrated fromarecent epoch. As 
to the types which have persisted since the palaeozoic period, as 
Lingula, the Arcas, the Aviculas, the siliceous sponges, the Gas- 
teropoda diotocardia, the Nautili, etc., it is at a much shallower 
depth, and even on coast; that they are to be sought. 

From what precedes it is evident how difficult it will be in 
Palaeontology to find a solid basis on which to rest an estimate 
of the characteristics of the deepsea fauna; the middle zone, 
from 1500 to 3090 metres has, as a principal characteristic, a 
mixture of very ancient forms, (the littoral excepted), with recent 
forms. One can conceive how perplexing this criterion is for 
the older geologic epochs. 

Another and a more suggestive characteristic is furnished by 
the especial adaptation of the organisms to the conditions of 
light below a certain depth. It is known that the solar rays 
do not traverse the thickness of a body of water of more 
than 400 metrés. Below this depth, however, there does 


196 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


not exist complete obscurity, since many animals are phos- 
phorescent; some, like the Fishes, have even special luminous 
organs which enable them to illuminate themselves. But the 
light in certain regions is often very feeble. In these conditions 
a double adaptation may intervene; sometimes the organs of 
sight assume a considerable size, as is the case for the Fishes of 
the genus Jpnops, and among the Crustaceans of the genus Cysto- 
soma where the eyes cover the entire upper surface of the head; 
sometimes, on the contrary, the eyes are rudimeritary, or even in 
some cases disappear altogether after having been represented 
in embryonic life; this occurs with Pecten, various Gasteropods, 
and a great number of decapod Crustaceans. These last-named 
animals supply the absence of the visual organs by an extreme 
development of the appendages which transform themselves into 
organs of touch. 

But these interesting facts are oo sr ithiotet analogies in the 
ancient epochs. The Trilobites of the Cambrian period show 
this same mixture of almost or quite blind forms (Agnostus, — 
Trinucleus), and of forms provided with unusually large organs 
of sight (Zglina). 

Barrande has even shown that a species blind in the adult state 
(Trinucleus Buckland?) possessed normal eyes in its early age; 
sometimes even (various forms of Puradowides) the ocular 
peduncle remains while the sensorial part is wanting, which actu- 
ally occurs in the deep water Cymonomus. This proves at 
least that the forms in question existed in conditions where the 
light was distributed in the same way as it is at present in the 
profound depths Still other particularities, as the absence of 
strictly littoral forms and also the absence of the primordial — 
forms of the diverse groups which appeared later Suddenly and 
in an advanced condition of differentiation, lead us to think that 
the marine forms of moderate depths were very clearly defined, 
and that we do not as yet know what was the the littoral facies 
of the Cambrian, or at least the fauna which characterized it. 
(Suess, Neumayr.) This opinion, it must be stated, is not 
accepted by the majority of French palaeontologists. 


It has been supposed that in the chalk deposits the formations 
of the deep sea would be found; but we have seen that the anal- 
ogy of certain fossils of that age with the fauna of the present 

Verticordva-zone proves nothing ; the organisms of that epoch 


Tur PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 197 


have a clearly pelagic character, and they must have ulteriorly 
descended into the depths, as did those which appeared later. 

One of the most interesting characteristics of the Cretaceous 
epoch is the abundance of siliceous. sponges of the type of the 
Hexactinellida which now exist in deep water. Close study of 
the actual distribution of these organisms shows that they occur 
in very different zones, one of which is not very deep, as it reaches 
from 60 to 400 metres. | 


§ 3. Inriuence or THe Nature or Aquatic ConpitTions, 


Fresh water facies— The most precise characteristics of 
fresh water faunas are furnished by the Mollusks. The genera 
Paludina, Bithynia, Planorbis, Limnea, Physa, Succinea, among 
_ the Gasteropoda; the genera Unio, Anodonta, Dreyssentia among 

the Lamellibranchiata, have been associated in fresh water forma- 
_ tions from the beginning of the Jurassic. But to this list must 
be added also all the terrestrial or aerial animals, whose remains 
‘have been carried down by the water courses, or which have been 
deposited on the shores; the lacustrine beds of the Tertiary con- 
tain as much of //eliw and Cyclostoma as of Limnea; in the lacus- 
trine deposits, also, are found the great majority of the skele- 
tons of known birds, as well as many reptiles and mammals, 
which were not necessarily swimming animals. . 

Most fossil plants also belong to formations of the same nature ; 
not only the aquatic species, but all those which grow near 
water courses, are associated in the same deposits. This is almost 
the only way in which the purely terrestrial fauna and flora have 
been, in certain cases, preserved to our day. 


As an example of weil known lacustrine formations may be cited 
the little coal basins of the Central plateau (France); the lake of 
Commentry with its fauna, its flora and its shores has been, s9 to 
say, restored by M. Fayol. At the commencement of the Eocene 
the lake of Rilly occupied avast area east of Paris; a watercourse 
fell there in cascades, and M. Munier—Chalmas has reconstructed all 
the detai's of that singular locality; plants which love moist 
places, such as Marchantia, Asplenium, there covered banks over- 
shadowed by lindens, laurels, magnolias and palms; there also 
were found the vine and the ivy; mosses (/ontinalis) and 
Chara sheltered the cray fish (Astacws Edwards?) and the Edri- 
ophthalmas (//eterosphwroma). Insects and even flowers have left 
their delicate impressions in this travertine. Among other 
lakes also well known, we may cite the lakes of Armissan 
and of Aix, at the Oligocene epoch, where the succession of 


198 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


deposits isso clear, that by studying the plants and insects, we 
can form an idea of the alternation of the seasons. Again, we 
may cite the lakes of Beauce and of Limagne during the Oligo- 
cene, those of (Eningen and of Radoboj during the Miocene, ete. 

Brackish water facies.— The same phenomenon of transporta- 
tion, the effects of which have just been mentioned, has often 
resulted in the mingling of the terrestrial and fresh water fauna 
and flora with the salt water fauna. This mingling is one of the 
essential characteristics of the facies of estuaries and lagoons. 
Everywhere at the mouth of rivers, and wherever marshy lands 
or lagoons border the sea, shells, bones and vegetable remains 
even though not inhabitants of those localities, have accumu- 
lated and been fossilized. These places have generally a special 
fauna which. we call a brackish water fauna, consisting of 
species which are able to bear great variations in the saltness © 
of the water, and to exist in a muddy medium. Various 
forms of Cardium, Mya, Cyrene, Cerithium, particularly 
those of the genus Potamides, and Crustaceans near to Sphwroma, 
are the principal types of this brackish water fauna. In these ' 
localities are often found skeletons of mammals and reptiles, 
sometimes also of birds. The return of the sea from time to 
time brings marine forms whether or not these could live 
in such localities, while the descending rivers drag down the 
remains of the fresh water and terrestrial flora and fauna. From 
these changes result frequent alterations in the character of the 
deposits which, moreover, were accumulated with great rapidity. 

As an example we may cite. the Franco-Belgic coal basin, 
where the coal beds with the fresh water bivalve genus 
Anthracosia, often alternating with marine sediments, indicate 


the frequent return of the sea in the lagoons where the vegetable 
remains accumulated. 

The. London clay, the Upper Eocene of the Paris basin, the 
Oligocene and Miocene south of Bordeaux, etc., also show char-: 
acteristics of these brackish water or estuary deposits. 

In the Sarmatic beds, which in France are referred to the 
Upper Miocene, we find the best type of brackish water 
deposits. At that epoch a vast sea extended from the neighbor- 
hood of Vienna to Turkestan. The Black sea, the Caspian sea, 
the sea of Aral, are the feeble remains of that immense sheet of 
water. The saltness seems to have undergone considerable vari- 
ation; it may have varied also in different parts, and numerous 
lagoons must have occupied the borders of this interior sea. 


Tuer PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 199 


The earliest deposits are clearly marine (beds with Cerithiwm pie- 
tum), with Buccinum, Tapes and Mactra; they constitute the 
Samartian stage. Higher (Pontian stage) are found enormous 
quantities of Congeria or Dreissena and Melanopsis, fresh water 
forms able to exist in waters slightly salt; they are associated 
with Cardiidz o! peculiar genera (Adacna, Monodacna), which 
have continued to exist in the Caspian sea and the sea of Aral. 

The most abundant representative of the Gasteropods is an 
aquatic Pulmonate provided with plications, the genus Valen- 
ciennesia, Which attains a considerable size. 

These beds show, throughout a considerable extent, a curious 
mixture of marine types capable of withstanding a diminution of 
the normal] saltness; and of fresh water forms capable of adapt- 
ing themselves to a somewhat salt medium. Mammals also are 
found there, such as Dinotherium and the Mastodon. 

A little later, the waters become less and less salt, and the fresh 
water types more and more preponderate. The Congerias and 
Cardium retire into the narrow basins, and almost the entire 
region is occupied by an immense lagoon, inhabited by Paludinas, 
_ Melanopsis, the Unionidae, and other fresh water types. But it 
is a curious fact that the Unios, Paludinas and Melanopses, living 
over a very extensive area, assume the angular aspect of marine 
forms, and acquire plications or tubercules. 


Muddy facies.— Corallic facies.— Let us now return to the 
clearly marine formations, and see what varieties they present.. 
A factor, almos: as important as the condition of the water 
holding salts in a state of solution, is the nature of the substances 
held in suspension; this.characteristic is naturally connected with 
the geologic nature of the sediment, and the direction of the cur- 
rents. for example, we know that at the present epoch the 
presence of Mussels on a rock indicates in general, muddy 
waters, and that many forms which abound not far away in 
clear waters, vanish as soon as the Mussels appear. 

The nature of the bottom is one of the causes which produce 
great changes in the facies, and that in localities often quite near 
each other. The best example can be deduced from the study 
of coral reefs. This study will demonstrate how an entire and 
complicated fauna, formed of the most diverse elements, is wholly 
modified under the influence of the same variations of the 
medium. | 

The conditions which the reef-constructing polyps actually 
require for their development are well known: These are a mod- 
erately high temperature, a depth not more than 40 metres 


200 7 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


and lastly the presence of a very pure sea water, that is to 
say, not mixed with fresh water and free from mud. It is 
proved that whatever may be the differences of the groups to — 
which these animals belong, these conditions remain the same 
through all the different geologic epochs. The calcareous masses 
where coral structures are found are always very pure and 
saccharoidal in texture, and the interstices of the polyps show no 
trace of marl or clay. The same conditions are requisite for the 
existence of numerous forms belonging to all the classes of the 
animal kingdom which live on the corals and appear and 
disappear together with them. : 


The coral formations of the Upper Jurassic are found mostly 
within the circumference of the Paris basin, in the Jura, in Switzer- 
land and inSuabia. Wherever those deposits are not represented, 
there exist deposits of marl or clay rich in Ammonites or 
Lamellibranchs. The earlier school of geologists admitted that 
all the deposits of coral origin were contemporary, and united 
them under the name of terrain corallien, the formations of other 
origin were referred either to an anterior epoch (Upper 
Oxfordian) or to a more recent epoch (infra-Cretaceous). The 
works of Oppel, Niosch, and more especially of the Abbé Bour- 
geatu* have demonstrated that these reefs were formed at various 
epochs, and that for every different coral facies are always found 
corresponding muddy facies and pelagic facies, of the same age, 
but very different in the character of the fossils. 

‘The reef of Valfin, which dates from the Pterocerian epoch, 
may be taken as the type of these formations. It extends for 
about 30 kilometres; its form is very irregular in every sense; 
on one vertical line are found lateral expansions which rest on 
successive deposits, like caps and columns. The mass of the 
reef is a limestone of corallic origin; here and there in the 
irregular mazes is found the especial fauna cf the reefs, 
which is here very abundant. The polyps embrace no less 
than 62 species; toward the center arborescent forms predom1- 
nate, sometimes over one metre in height, such as Aplosmilia, 
Stylosmilia, Calamophyllia, etc. Massive asteriate forms are also 
found, as Thamnastrea, meandrinoid forms (Pachygyra, Den- 
drogyra). Lastly the simple polyps, represented by Wontlivaultia, 
are especially abundant in the rocks with the rest of the fauna. 
This fauna is particularly rich in forms having a thick test, 
which is in accordance with the fact that the corals, grow- 
ing in regions beaten by the waves, must necessarily be pro- 
vided with a strong power of resistance. Small sized species 
having a thinner covering are only found in well sheltered places. 


*E. Bourgeat, Recherches sur les formations coralligénes du Jura méridional, 1887. 


Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 201: 


These forms are altogether characteristic of the reefs; there are 
of the Gasteropods, numerous Nerineas, Cerithiums, Naticas,. 
Turbos, Pleurotomarias; of the Acephala, Diceras (13 species), 
Lima, Pecten, Trigonia, Corbis; regular Echini of the family of 
Cidaride. Altogether more than 260 species of fossils. | 
If we leave the reef of Valfin and go eastward, we find the 
Oolitic coralligenous facies changing, and passing by intercala- 
tion into marls more and more mixed with clay. We arrive at 
deposits formed of marls and rough calcareous matter whose 
fauna is quite different; no more polyps are found; Verinea 
and Diceras also have entirely disappeared; in place of these 
we find fossils characteristic of the Pterocerian of the Boulonnais 
or of the Calvados, as Pteroceras Oceani, Thracia, Pholadomya 
and Ceromya. Some fossils common to the coral zone and the 
muddy zone, such as Crdaris glandifera, Ostrea pulligera, indi- 
- cate, nevertheless, as is proved by the remainder of the strati- 
graphic arrangement, that we have here contemporary deposits. 
The intermediate zone shows the gradual modification of the 
fauna. When we approach the reef the Pholadomyas give place 
to the Trigonias and Cardivum,; Pteroceras and Cidaris become 
more rare, whilst the Nerineas, Diceras, and finally the Polyps 
appear. | (ig 
This region corresponds to the lagoon region extending from 
the barrier reefs to the shore, which was not far to the east- 
ward. This muddy lagoon is not favorable to the development 
of the Polypi nor the fauna which accompanies them; the latter, 
on the contrary, develop with vigor on the side of the open sea, 
and their maximum of vitality is found westward of the reef, 
There they disappear suddenly. We are in the presence of the 
abrupt boundary of the reef; immediately after commences a 
facies altogether different, which extends far toward the south 
in the open sea; this is the pelagic facies, characterized by Am- 
monites (A. polyplocus, A. trachynotus), Belemnites, Brachiopods 
and Kchini, a facies which persisted in these regions for some 
time without modification. | : 
Upon examination of the succession on a vertical line at the 
center of the reef, we see that the advent of the muddy. waters 
is In correlation with the sudden disappearance of the coral facies ; 
this last, moreover, may reappear later, but in its entirety it is 
carried farther toward the west of the deep-sea side. | 


What has been said would apply equally, changing the name 
of the species, to the other reefs of the Jura; everywhere we find 
the threefold facies; the lagoon facies of marl, which is repre- 
sented in other regions, as in Charente, Normandy, Barrois; the 
corallic facies, which has also its equivalents in Normandy, in 
Yonne, etc.; lastly, the pelagic facies, especially developed in the 

26 


202 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


south and east of France. Thecoral horizons of the Upper Juras- 
sic are now distributed in five zones, which present all these 
three facies; these zones characterize the Rauracian, Astartian, 
Pterocerian, Virgulian and Portlandian deposits. : 

The same phenomena present themselves later in other local- 
- ities. The Neocomian and the Gault have a corallio facies called 
Urgonian ; the Turonian is represented in the south by the facies 
with Hippurites, for which also a distinct horizon has been named. 
Finally, if we turn our attention to the more ancient deposits, 
we see that the corallic horizons, formerly referred to the Devon- 
ian and Carboniferous as especial zones, have been recognized as 
the equivalents of the schistose formations which surround them. 


§ 4. LyrLtvEnce or CLimates. 


Effect of temperature.— Temperature exercises a considerable 
influence on the distribution of animals; the factor which at the 
present epoch seems the most important in this regard is the 
maximum of cold attained during the winter.* We have, there- 
fore, drawn on the terrestrial maps lines called Zsocrymal, which 
mark the mean temperature of the coldest 30 days of the year. 
The distribution of animals is in direct relation to the lines so 
determined, which notably diverge from the geographic paral- 
lels. In this way principal zones are established, which can be 
enumerated for each hemisphere; the arctic, the boreal, the cold 
temperate, the warm temperate and the tropical zone. The limits 
of these zones are more clearly indicated than would at first 
sight be believed. 

Effect of natural barriers.—It is a known fact that the lati- 
tude is not the only factor which determines the climate 
of a region.. Every one is aware that the climate is much more 
uniform and temperate on the sea coast than in the interior of 
the great continents. But in regard to the sea itself, the mean 
temperature may vary considerably in places quite near each 
other, consequent upon the presence or absence of a barrier 
furthering or impeding communications with colder or warmer 
waters. This is the reason why at present the Red Sea and the 
Mediterranean have very differing temperature, notwithstanding 
their proximity. The presence of barriers of solid ground, either 


* This factor is more important from the biologic point of view than the mean temperature of the 
entire winter which determines the Isochimenal lines. 


Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 203 


complete or incomplete, is then, in different degrees, an indirect 
cause of the specialization of marine faunas. But it is evident 
. that it is also a direct obstacle to the diffusion of a fauna already 
specialized through the action of other factors. 

The currents have also a double effect which opposes that of 
barriers; on the one hand every current established between two 
regions of different climates will result in producing a sort of 
mixture between the bodies of water influenced by different 
temperatures, and it will affect ‘also the erial climate; the 
example of the Gulf Stream is too well known to make it neces- 
sary to emphasize this point. But on the other hand these cur- 
rents will bring with them the larvae of various animals which 
will penetrate more or less into a zone where they were before 
unknown. This migration of faunas may occur without any 
very notable change in the general climate, provided the current 
does not put in motion any considerable masses of water; thus 
the current of Gibraltar introduced into the Mediterranean dur- 
ing the Pliocene epoch, forms belonging to the Atlantic, and 
those forms have remained in the Mediterranean, although the 
mean temperature there is now much higher than that of the 
Atlantie. 

It is easy to understand that in studying geologic eras it is 
very difficult to form an exact idea of the influences of barriers 
and currents. When we haveestablished the presence of two dis- 
tinct faunal zones which display no differential characteristics in 
the respects mentioned above; when in the same region we note 
the appearance of a fauna which before this period existed in 
other basins, we are sometimes perplexed as to the influence to 
be assigned to variations of climate, or to barriers and cur- 
rents. We may succeed sometimes by closely comparing the 
results furnished by the marine fauna with those afforded by the 
study of the flora and of the fresh-water, terrestrial or even 
eerial fauna. 

The problem of the determination of climates at ancient 
epochs through the data of Palaeontology is by no means insolu- 
ble; it has been the object of profound and ingenious researches, 
the results of which already attained deserve our attention for 
a moment.* 


cane 


* Neumayr, Erdgeschichte, vol. II. Heer, Le Monde primitif de la Suisse. 


204 REporT oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Climate of the Silurian and the Devonian.— Since the epoch of 
the Cambrian we can distinguish in Europe, as demonstrated by 
Barrande, two different zones — a northern and a southern; the 
fauna is almost identical in Russia, in Scandinavia, as well as in © 
the regions farther toward the south, such as southern Poland, 
Galicia, Thuringia and England; a distinct fauna is found in the 
Montagne Noire, in Sardinia, in Spain and in Portugal. This 
second facies is identical with that of Bohemia. The same 
genera are represented in the two bands; but the species differ. 
In America, where the Cambrian covers considerable areas, in 
Siberia, in China, the northern facies alone has so far been 
discovered. i 

These facts prove incontestably the existence of climatic zones 
at the most remote epochs; to undertake to explain them by the 
existence of natural barriers is to carry back the problem with- 
out explaining it, for if the fauna possessed this difference during 
the Cambrian, it is because it acquired the difference from the 
Precambrian, and it is at that time that the temperature would 
have exercised its influence. 

It is probable that the climate was warm at the beginning of 
the Palaeozoic epoch. This seems to be proved by the existence of 
coral reefs which make their appearance after the Middle Silurian, 
and which are particularly abundant in the upper part of the 
stage, in Gotland, in the Baltic provinces of Russia, in the United 
States and in Canada. The groups which form the present reefs 
had not yet appeared; in their place we find Tetracorallia, Favo- 
sitids and Stromatoporas. It would be somewhat hazardous to 
suppose that these forms required precisely the same conditions 
of temperature as do those of the present; but the other conditions 
of depth and purity of water appear to have been palpably the 
same. 

At the Devonian epoch we find again two facies; the ordinary 
marine facies and a northern facies, the Old Red Sandstone, which 
characterizes the north of England, Scotland and to some 
degree the northern part of America. But here other consid- 
erations besides that of temperature must intervene; the Old 
Red Sandstone presents the character of a coastal or interior 
basin deposit, which forbids our insisting here on points as yet 
obscure. | | 

We may add that the corals of the Devonian are found also in 
very high latitudes; in the Ardennes, Eifel, Canada and the 
State of New York. nas ON 

Climate of the Carboniferous epoch.— At the Carboniferous 
epoch a new factor makes its appearance The terrestrial flora, 
which has already representatives in the Devonian, assumes an 
importance which warrants our introducing it into our present 
- argument. : 

It is known that the geographic distribution of plants is strictly 
related to the divisions of the climatic zones. But the area of 


Tuer PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 205 


the distribution of species at the Carboniferous era is, so to say, 
universal. The same forms exist in the most widely separated 
localities, where they appear and disappear simultaneously. 

The flora of Europe, of Siberia, of North and South America, 
of. the Polar regions and of Tasmania present the closest analogy. 
The greater part of the forms which compose this flora attain a 
gigantic size; these are the Lycopodiacea, Equisetacea, Ferns and 
arborescent Cycads. The examination of this flora has led us 
to conclude that the temperature at the Carboniferous epoch was 
considerably elevated and uniformly distributed through all the 
regions where the deposits of that age exist. But we no longer 
hold to the hypothesis that that temperature was precisely torrid ; 
neither is it necessary to suppose, as has been advanced, that the 
atmosphere at that time was charged with vapor. An elevation 
of some degrees suffices to explain the presence of arborescent 
- forms. The entirety of the characteristics of the coal flora, 
which has its maximum of importance between 30° and 50° north 
latitude, appears to indicate a maritime climate; Europe and 
North America must have been a sort of archipelago, in the 
lagoons of which existed a warm and moist temperature. 

Several indications demonstrate moreover, that the preceding 
data are not incompatible with the existence of climatic zones. 
Still, the coal formations disappear south of 38v° of north 
latitude, and we have no means of judging what transpired in the 
Equatorial zone. Furthermore, there are some slight diversities 
found in the flora of the Arctic regions; the Sigillarias are 
wanting there. 

A new element of discussion has been brought forward by 
Waagen, who has discovered in the upper part of the Carbo- 
niferous system almost indubitable traces of glacier action in 
India, the Cape region, and southern Australia ; the flora of those 
deposits, where are found rocks giving evidence of glacier trans- 
portation, possesses characteristics which bring it into relation 
with the flora of later periods. It is known, moreover, that 
the presence of glaciers does not imply the existence of any 
extreme cold ; elevated areas for condensation and great humidity 
are sufficient. 

The uniformity of the coal flora is, moreover, a fact which 

roves less than would that of plants of a higher organization. 

he wide area of distribution of the Cryptogamia, both the 
vascular and others, is indeed readily explained by the fact of the 
lightness and abundance of their spores; it is known also that 
according to the law of the struggle for existence, localization is 
much less pronounced in a flora of little variation than in a flora 
of more varied forms, and that it is especially striking in types 
of the highest organization. But the Dicotyledons and Mono- 
cotyledons, which are the most perfect and most delicate plants, 
and consequently the most restricted in locality, are wanting at 
the epoch of which we speak. 


206 ReEporT OF THE STaTE GEOLOGIST. 
* 


But these Cryptogamia are not the only plants of the Carbo- 
niferous epoch; the Gymnospermia, already represented by the 
Cycads and Cordaites, furnish us with more exact information 
regarding climate.* It is known that the Dicotyledons and 
Gymnosperms in the structure of their stems and roots present 
traces, recorded continuously, of the influence of annual climatic 
variations. . 

Every yearly deposit of wood consists of an interior porous 
layer, formed in the spring, and a more dense external one, pro- 
duced in the autumn; the thickness of the entire layer varies 
moreover, according as the year was favorable or otherwise. 
The differences of the annual layers are slight when the climate is 
uniform, and they indicate nothing more than periods of humidity 
and dryness. , 

But in examining the trunks of the Conifers, at epochs more 
and more remote, we find that the tissue becomes more and more 
homogeneous, and at the coal epoch, the lines of demarcation are 
‘scarcely indicated ; it is then especially at that epoch that the 
climate must show the greatest uniformity. 7 | 

Tosum up; actual researches reveal a strongly marked tendency 
to reduce the great differences which were thought to have 
existed between the coal epoch and the present. Nevertheless, 
it remains conceded that the climate must have been very 
warm, as is shown by the coral reefs which exist in the same 
localities as during the Devonian, and which are also found as 
far north as Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen. 

Climate of the Jurassic.— At the Permian and Triassic epochs, 
the differences in the faunas are mostly in the pelagic and littoral 
facies. Little is known concerning the climate of those periods. 
It is during the Jurassic that we find, for the first time, certain 
proofs of the existence of climatic zones. The marine fauna 
is distributed in seas, the contour and facies of which are 
relatively well known, so that we know how much to aittri- 
bute to the influence of temperature. An arctic zone is indi- 
cated principally by the absence of Ammonites of the groups 
of Lytoceras, Phylloceras and Simoceras, by the presence of 
Acephala of the genus Avwcella, by the frequency of certain 
Belemnites (3B. excentricus) and the absence of Corals. This cold 
sea sends arms toward the south, the most important of which 
is the basin of Moscow, which communicates by straits with 
a vast mediterranean sea, in which the terranes of Western 
Europe appear as an archipelago. ‘This interior sea is divided - 
into two parts by the limit of the climatic zones. The northern 
portion forms the transition between the arctic zone and the 
southern region. This latter presents the facies called Alpene, 
extending through southern France, Spain, Italy, the Alps, the 
Carpathians, and the Dobroudja; it has its southern limit in 


a 


*Renault, Cours de Botanique fossile. 


THE PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 207 


Algiers and in Asia Minor; it extends through Egypt as far as 
Mozambique, Madagascar and the Indies. It is defined by the 
abundance of Ammonites already mentioned and by the develop- 
ment of coral reefs. These diverse facies extend throughout the 
entire globe, in corresponding latitudes, notwithstanding the 
barriers formed by vast continents. Toward the south, in the 
southern hemisphere, the temperate facies reappears, and we find 
even the Aucellas in New Zealand; the Cape country, South ~ 
America and Australia belong to this antarctic temperate facies. 
(Neumayr.) 

The Corals more and more approach existing forms, and 
seem to require the same conditions of temperature to form 
considerable reefs. 

Their northern limit notably trends toward the south; the 
phenomenon is a very general one, and does not depend, as might 
be thought, solely on the elevation which is apparent, for instance, 
in the basin of Paris at the close of the period, and the result of 
which is the appearance of a muddy condition unfavorable 
to the building of reefs. Toward the Kauracian epoch, the 
Coral reefs are already much farther to the south than during 
the Carboniferous. They abound around the Paris basin, in 
the south of England, in Switzerland, in Suabia and in Galicia. 
During the Tithonic period they are found in the region of the 
Jura and the Alps. 

Climate of the Cretaceous epoch.—The Cretaceous, and espe- 
cially the Upper Cretaceous, shows, in all that regards the 
marine fauna, precisely the same climatic zones as the Jurassic, 
but still more clearly defined ; the boundaries are the same in 
their general lines, but their contour becomes more regular, and 
tends to approach the geographic parallels. 

The zones of distribution of the flora, also, are no less clearly 
defined; this, as has been seen, had given no very interesting 
results later than the Carboniferous ep ch. Now, on the con- 
trary, the evolution of vegetable forms becomes more marked, 
and their distribution becomes important. The Firs make their 
appearance in Greenland, at 70° of latitude, and the first Angio- 
sperms, as yet but little differentiated, appear in the Cretaceous 
of Portugal (de Saporta, 1891). 

The Coral reefs continue to recede toward the south; the 
Turonian limestones with Rudistes, where they are represented in 
their finest development, appear in the Corbiéres, in Provence, in 
the Salzkammergut and the Styrian Alps. They are not found 
at the end of the Cretaceous period, since the regions in question 
are occupied by lacustrine or salt water formations. 

Climate of the Tertiary epoch —In the Tertiary the evidence 
becomes more and more abundant and precise. 

During the Locene and Oligocene the northern limit of the Corals | 
remains sensibly the same as during the Cretaceous; they are 
found in the Corbiéres, in Switzerland, in the Vicentin, etc.; they 


208 . Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


gradually approximate exististing forms. The plants which are 
‘considered characteristic of a tropic climate, as Palms and 
the Banana, do not extend beyond the northern parts of Eng- 
land and of Germany. 

The Oligocene and the Miocene have been the object of pro- 
found discussions from the point of view which we are consider- 
ing In central Europe, the Mammals and Corals show tropical 
characteristics. The marine Mollusks are tropical with forms 
-which have remained in the present Mediterranean ; the fresh 
water and terrestrial Mollusks, the insects and the plants are sub- 
tropical in the Oligocene and the Lower Miocene, then they 
assume the characteristics of the fauna of southern Europe; the 
birds differ little from the present species, but include also tropi- 
cal forms. To sum up, the climate was warm, and the winters 
were mild, as is proved by the distribution of the fossil plants 
in the annual deposits of the lakes of the south. } 

The northern regions possessed at this epoch a temperate 
climate; the plants of Grinnell land, 83° of north latitude, those 

of Iceland, Spitzbergen, etc., studied by Heer, are Pines, Elms, 
Nymphacea, Cyperus, Carex and Potamogeton. In Spitzbergen, 
at 70°, we find even Magnolias and the Gingko, which are char- 
acteristic of the warm temperate flora. Heer has pointed out 
that this flora requires a moderately high temperature, from 17.5° 
to that attained at the present day, and the difference reaches 
even as far as 28° for Grinnell land. 

But, as is demonstrated by Neumayr, these conclusions hold 
good only for Europe. The lowering of the temperature at the 
Miocene epoch is much more marked in North and South 
America; Europe at that time had probably a much milder 
climate than existed in other parts of the world. In the 
central portion of North America, and in Chili especially, the 
‘temperature appears to have been very little higher than it is at 
present. 

After the period of the Upper Miocene the reef corals defini- 
tively disappeared from Europe; the last of them are found in 
-Malta and in Asia Minor. During the Plzocene they are found 
only in the Red Sea, that is to say, they reached the limit which 
has been their boundary to the present day. The Pliocene flora 
of France, with its Bamboos and Laurels, is still a warm flora; 
.the plants which at present do not pass beyond 35°, reached at 
that time to 40°. But the temperate elements which exist now 
In the same regions are already abundantly represented... 

Climate of the Plhocene and Quaternary.— We now come 
to an epoch very near our own, where the elements of comparison 
are directly drawn from living nature, and thus allow more pre- 
cise inductions. 

In England, the marine deposits succeed each other uninter- 
ruptedly at certain points, starting from the Pliocene. But on 
the one hand almost all the marine shells of the Pliocene and 


Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 209 © 


Quaternary are identical with, or at least very similar to forms 
actually existing. Of these forms, some are now localized in 
‘the northern seas, which they already inhabited at that epoch, 
others have persisted on the same coasts; lastly again, others 
have migrated southward. A most interesting point for con- 
sideration is the order of succession of these forms. At the 
beginning of the Pliocene epoch in the Coralline crag, the species 
Balaniing to the warm seas had already entirely disappeared ; 
in their place are found the temperate forms (Terebratulina 
caput-serpentis, Voluta Lamberti, Astarte Omaliw). Gradually the 
Arctic forms make their appearance with Trophon antiquum in 
the red crag, Cyprina islandica in the Norwich crag, and at 
the same time such forms as Cardium edule, Turritella commu- 
nis, Which have continued to exist in the same seas. 

The crag of Anvers, with forms of the present temperate seas 
such as Chenopus pes-pelicani, Isocardia cor, Saxicava artica, 
shows also speeies of cold seas, such as Lucina borealis. The 
existence of cold currents coming from the north, and bringing 
progressively arctic forms, can not, therefore, be questioned. 
Still, notwithstanding the gradual cooling, the temperature of 
the solid land was yet, at the epoch of the Forest-bed, quite as 
warm as at present; this is proved by the study of the flora 
and terrestrial shells. 

There are found at a still higher horizon deposits of the glacial 
epoch. The raised beds of Yorkshire, of Scotland, of the Galles 
country, the bowlder-clay which covers a great part of Russia 
and northern Germany, contain marine fossils, some of which 
are identical with the present forms of the same regions (Cardium 
edule, Ostrea edulis, Buccinum undatum, Murex erinaceus); 
others have a clearly arctic character, such as Leda rostrata, 
Fusus carinatus, Yoldia arctica. . 

The phenomenon of the recession of pre-existing forms toward 
the south, and the arrival of new forms from the north, becomes 
progressively accentuated during a great part of the Quaternary 
period. It seems an almost evident conclusion from these facts, 
that a sensible cooling of the climate and the existence of cur- 
rents from the north, have brought down the arctic fauna into 
temperate latitudes. Some naturalists, nevertheless, have thought 
the facts justified a contrary opinion, namely, that the Quaternary 
fauna was autochthonic, and by emigration toward the north 
had produced the actual arctic fauna. This phenomenon, then, 
would be in accord with that which would people the great 
depths through colonies from the littoral fauna, and would 
explain the presence of forms common to the boreal and abyssal 
zones, such as Lehizocrinus, Brisinga and numerous Mollusks. 

_But these ingenious views are not confirmed; they are contra- 
dicted by numerous facts. The cooling of the earth at the gla- 
cial Quaternary epoch is a fact so general and so well proved 


27 


210 - REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


that Penck has been able to trace the limit of perpetual snow in 
the principal mountain regions, and to show that that line was 
much lower than at the present epoch. The invasion of temper- 
ate regions by arctic forms applies not only to the marine fauna 
but also to the terrestrial forms, especially the flora which here 
furnishes valuable data; the plants of the glacial epoch, as 
Betula nana, Hypnum groenlandicum, Hypnum sarmentosum, 
are arctic plants, successors of the Firs, Yews, etc., which con- 
stitute a temperate flora, and which migrated temporarily 
toward the south to return afterward into our regions. 

The hypothesis of the local formation of the arctic fauna 
could not, in any way, explain the southward migration of the 
preceding fauna and flora, and the return of a portion of those 
forms at the end of thé period of the great glaciers. The arctic 
fauna must have begun its existence in the boreal regions. 


The conclusion from what precedes is evident and absolute. 
The study of faunas and floras demonstrates that the surface of 
the earth has been subjected to a gradual cooling process from 
the most ancient periods. The climatic zones, at the beginning 
so indistinct that their existence might be doubted and still is 
matter for discussion, have become more and more pronounced 
to the present day. With regard to Europe, the period imme- 
diately preceding the one in which we live has been the only one 
which was some degrees colder. 

This law is well known; it has been frequently formulated. 
But we have thought it interesting to point out that in these 
last years the palaeontologic comparisons which had for their 
object. the inductions relating to the climatic conditions of 
ancient epochs, are conducted with minute care by the most 
experienced observers. 1t is not deemed sufficient to indicate 
in general with what expression the phenomena have manifested 
themselves; the endeavor at the present day is to push pre- 
cision as far as possible, and to form an idea of the multiplex 
circumstances which have brought about the constitution of the 
varied faunas and floras found in the diverse formations of all 
the regions of the globe. 


CHAPTER V. 


The Process of Fossilization. 


Conditions requisite for fossilization.— Fossilization is the 
sum of the phenomena by which the remains or impressions 
of animals or plants are preserved in geologic deposits The 
first condition required, in order that the organic remains may 
_ leave some traces, is that the living organisms to which they 
belonged should not be too long exposed to the atmosphere 
during the time immediately following their death. The 
decomposition of all protoplasmic substances is a matter of cur- 
rent observation which it is unnecessary to discuss. 
There is only one instance known of extinct animals having 
been procured intact with their soft parts; that is the example of 
the Mammoth (Hlephas primigenius), found in Siberia in a block 
of ice which had preserved it from all change. 
_ Matter possessing greater power of resistance than does the 

protoplasmic, such as bones, shells and the cellular parts of 
plants, also decomposes in the air after sufficient exposure. 
Neumayr cites as an example the interesting fact noticed by 
Marcou: The Buffaloes are little by little disappearing from 
the prairies of North America, and are retiring before the 
increasing population of those countries. But there are still 
found scattered over the soil skeletons of those animals through- 
out the regions which they have abandoned during the last twenty 
years, while from those portions of the country which they left 
before that time, their remains have almost wholly disappeared. 

The condition essential for the finding of organisms in a fossil 
state is that the remains should have been either speedily buried 
in the earth or preserved in water. 3 

The second of these conditions is not in itself sufficient. The 
cellular parts are exposed in the water to the attacks of bacteria, 
and may finally decay without leaving any vestiges. The same 
may be said of the chitinous or horny parts of animals. On 


219 REporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


the other hand, the carbonate of lime in the calcareous parts 
of these skeletons, being dissolved by water containing car- 
bonic acid, bones and shells finally disappear, whether in 
fresh or salt water. . Thus, at present, it may happen that the 
great depths may be found destitute of the shells of Mol- 
lusks and Foraminifera, which are abundant at the surface, 
the remains having been dissolved before they reached the bottom 
of the sea, though found in great abundance in deposits made at 
a lesser depth. | 

It follows, then, that the remains found where they have been 
deposited from the water, were covered by sediments in a rela- 
tively short time, and even thus they are not entirely guarded 
against destruction. When the fossiliferous deposits are elevated 
above the water, they are exposed anew to the action of rains, 
whose dissolving properties are extremely active, and calcareous 
matter runs another chance of disappearing. We have indicated 
in fine, that as to animals of the Precambrian epoch the thermic 
and chemic phenomena have so altered the nature of the rocks 
that every trace of living creatures has disappeared. 
- These conditions being understood we will proceed to a rapid 
exposition of the processes which permitted the fossilization of 
animals and plants. | 

Fossilization of animals.—Under the most favorable con- 
ditions, the entire organism, including the soft parts, has left 
impressions which allow the re-establishing of the form, and even 
the investigation of some points of its organization. The 
favored localities where these conditions have been realized 
are celebrated. The best known case is that of the lithographic 
schists of the Upper Jurassic in Bavaria. At Kellheim, Hich- 
stadt and especially at Solenhofen, there have been found, along 
with multitudes of the fossilized hard parts of animals, impres- 
sions of Medusae of various species, and of naked Cephalopoda, 
whose ink-bag with its canal is perfectly recognizable, the sepia 
being transformed into a mass of fine coal-like granulations. 
The rock consists of a laminated lithographic limestone of very 
fine texture, which must have been deposited in the form of soft 
mud in tranquil waters. The lithographic limestone of Cerin, 
in Ain, has furnished splendid specimens of the same kind. In 
England the soft parts of Belemnitidz have also left some im- 
pressions. 

Ordinarily traces of the hard parts only are found imbedded 
in the rock. Such substances are divided into two groups. 


Tue PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. : GAS 


The first group contains matter of purely organic origin, 
as chitine and conchioline. These substances are eventually 
attacked by disintegrating agents, but they resist these long 
enough before they disappear to leave hollow casts, or else they 
change into carbonaceous deposits which faithfully reproduce 
their forms. 

The localities in Bavaria already cited, contain Crustacea, 
Arachnids and Insects in excellent state of preservation. These 
last named are: found also by thousands in the lacustrine de- 
posits of Aix, Armissan, dating from the Oligocene, of Oeningen 
(Baden), of Florissant (Colorado), (Miocene). Among the impres- 
sions of chitinous substances we must cite the Graptolites, 
hydrozooid colonies which abound in the Silurian beds of 
Bohemia, Sweden and America. 

Shells, the covering of Echinoderms, and the bones of Verte- 
brates are composed of calcareous salts mixed with an organic sub- 
stance, conchioline or ossine. The mineral part consists of 
carbonate of lime in the state of arragonite or calcite, or of 
mixed carbonate and phosphate. The organic substance, as a 
general rule, decomposes quickly after the death of the animal. 
The remains found, whether shells or bones, then sometimes 
remain porous. But usually water charged with calcareous salts 
penetrates into the interstices thus produced and the salts 
(carbonates or phosphates) are deposited in such a manner that 
the remains become homogeneous. 

Very frequently, during deposition on the bottom where the 
organic remains lie, the sediment penetrates into the cavities 
which remain between the hard parts; the interstices in the 
skeleton of the corals, the visceral cavities of the Sea-urchins, the 
shell cavities of Mollusks and of Brachiopods are thus frequently 
filled with a substance identical with the contiguous rock ; 
this may be carbonate of lime, clay, sand, more rarely flint, oxide 
of iron or phosphate of lime. The original shell may also be 
preserved, but it often disappears, being dissolved by water 
charged with carbonic acid. In this case the fossil pre- 
sents itself in the form of an internal mold. If the cover- 
ing is thin, the examination of the mold may suffice to give an 
idea of the shell itself; this is the case notably among the 
Ammonites, which are generally found in this state; but it often 
happens, on the other hand, that the interior of a fossil cavity 
gives only a vague idea of the details of the exterior, and a 
decision regarding its external features presents great difficulties. 
Such is the case with many Acephala and Gasteropoda. 

A fossil naturally leaves an impression on the rock which con- 
tains it; this impression represents the external mould of the fos- 
sil. There is often an internal mould together with the external 
one; in this case the original form of the fossil itself can often be 
artificially reproduced. In order to do this the space left vacant 
must be filled with soft plaster or wax, and the rock then can be 


914 REporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


dissolved by an acid or otherwise removed. Thisdelicate manipu- 
lation requires great precaution. Such moulds ascan be produced 
by a foreign substance are sometimes made naturally. Waters 
charged with mineral substances may deposit these in the 
place of the carbonate of lime which has been dissolved. The 
fossil, then, is essentially restored in flint or in oxide of ir n. 
This result is produced, for example, in calcareous Sponges whose 
spicules are often converted into silica; also in some Mollusks, 
Polyps, and particularly in the Brachiopods. 

In these various cases, by dissolving slowly and carefully the 
surrounding rock by means of a weak acid, splendid preparations 
may be obtained displaying details which otherwise would have 
eluded observation. In the Brachiopods, in particular, when the 
brachial apparatus is silicious, it can be disengaged in this 
manner. 

An interesting case, and altogether an exceptional one, is that 
of the preservation of fossils in the amber of the Oligocene 
period. This substance is resinous, and is secreted by a species 
of pine (Pinus succinifer). It was produced in great abund- 
ance in such a state of fluidity that it enveloped immense 
numbers of Insects, Arachnids and Myriopods, which are 
thus preserved with the minutest details of their organization. 
Amber forms important deposits in the Baltic provinces, and has 
been worked there from very ancient times. 

Fossilization of plants.—— The fossilization of plants takes 
place by quite different processes, a fact explained by the differ- 
ent nature of their tissues. The cells of plants have their mem- 
branes formed of cellulose, either pure or impregnated with 
various substances, or even more or less completely changed ; 
but only in very rare cases is it encrusted with calcareous matter 
or silica (Alga, Equistacea). In the surface of the soil, or in 
water, these substances decompose, and the plant gradually 
disappears unless it becomes fossilized. 7 

Moulds of fossil plants are-often found. The plants, when 
they fall on a soil sufficiently plastic, make an impress there. If 
the vegetable remains are then removed and a new deposit of 
sediment a little different takes its place it will give a mould in 
relief of the object that has disappeared. Very frequently, on 
the contrary, the vegetable remains persist while the deposit goes 
on. In this case a double impression is found, one concave and 
one in relief. Between the two it may happen that no remnant 
of the vegetable matter is left, but frequently also it is trans- . 
formed into a blackish substance rich in ulmic acid, which, under 
the most favorable conditions, preserves the structure of the pre- 
existing tissues. At other times, if the surrounding rock is porous 
the vacant space left by the decomposition of the organic matter 
is filled by mineral substances dissolved or held in suspension in 
the waters which have penetrated the interstices; this is a phe- 
nomenon identical with that which we have already considered 


Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 915 


in the case of fossil animals. The substance in question is usually 
carbonate of lime; sometimes silicate of magnesia, bisulphide of 
iron, carbonate of copper, etc., or sometimes of argillaceous or 
sandy particles. The fossil is found in a much higher degree of 
preservation when the water holding in solution the mineral sub- 
stances has been able to penetrate into the interior of the tissues. 
The silica, the carbonate and phosphate of lime fill all the spaces 
made by the cavities of the anatomical elements. Sych petrifac- 
tion takes place sometimes in plants remaining still in their place 
of growth, sometimes in their remains which are transported 
and accumulated in lacustrine waters strongly impregnated with 
mineral substances. In such specimens the cellular parts and 
their derivatives are sometimes preserved with all their orna- 
mentatiun, and thinly-cut sections present precisely the same 
details as do sections cut from living or dried tissues. If, on the 
contrary, the fossils have been exposed to the air, decomposition 
has more or less completely destroyed the organic matter, and 
there only remains a very porous mould of the cavities of the tis- 
sue. In this case, before making sections, it is necessary to fill 
the cavities with some fluid substance which will harden and 
render the specimen compact. 

Plants are often preserved in considerable quantity without 
the agency of mineral matter, in the state of lignite, peat or coal. 
These products are made by the incomplete decomposition of the 
vegetable matter. The microscopic structure in this case is often 
preserved in a remarkable manner; in order to study this it is 
necessary to make thin sections which are cleared by chemical 
processes and studied in transparency under the microscope. 
Details concerning the technicalities of this process, too compli- 
cated to be explained here, may be found in the works of M. 
Renault and others. 


Development and Mode of Growth of 
Diplograptus, McCoy. 


By R. RUEDEMANN, Ph. D., 
Dolgeville, N,. Y. 


(COMMUNICATED FOR THE REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST, FOR 1894.) 


28 


Development and Mode of Growth of Diplo 
oraptus, McCoy. 


By R. Rugvemann. 


In the picturesque gorge of the East Canada creek, near Dolge- 
ville, N. Y., is found, intercalated in typical black bituminous 
Utica slate, a very thin brown argillaceous layer which has 
' proved to be covered so densely with the compound fronds 
of Diplograptus Ruedemanni, Gurley,* that those which I have 
obtained by taking off the overlying shale are counted by hun- 
dreds. Some very complete fronds of the same species were 
found in a piece of limestone on the talus of the cliff, appar- 
ently derived from one of the limestone beds which are associ- 
ated with the shale. The colonies from this rock are especially 
instructive, because they are not much compressed and show the 
formation of the frond in relief. 

Since this discovery I have given special attention to the search 
for complete fronds of Graptolites, for such have been described by 
Prof. James Hall from the Quebec epoch (Monoprionide). I was 
rewarded by finding another, unfortunately only temporary, 
exposure in the Utica slate at Dolgeville, which was very rich 
in compound fronds of Diplograptus pristis, Hall. The fossils 
of both localities are in such good state of preservation that they 
reveal many facts regarding the organization and development 
of Graptolites. 

Until the classical memoir of Prof. Hall on the Graptolites of the 
Quebec group, only simple linear stipes, or stipes which differed 
little from the linear ones, were known. Hall made us acquainted 
with numerous species, the fronds of which are connected in the 
center by a common stem, the “rontoite,” from which they 
branch by bifurcation. The simplest forms with the funicle have 
four stipes. Continued dichotomy of the four branches pro- 


* This form, which the author, in a preliminary note (cf. The American Journal of Science, 1895, 
vol. XLIX, p. 453) had identified as Diplograptus pristiniformis, Hall, has been since described as a 
new species by R. R. Gurley (cf. The Journal of Geology, 1896, vol. IV,). 


220 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


duced at first eight branches, as in Dichograptus octobrachiatus, 
Hall, sp., and then 16-32 stipes as in Loganograptus. In a form 
from the Hudson River group, Hall counted as many as 40 stipes 
branching from a common funicle. 

In all species, except some of the four stiped ones, the bases of 
the stipes were found to be united by “a more or less expanded 
disc ox cup of the same substance as the body of the Graptolites.” 
Hall called it the “crntTraL pisc.”* It is described as a thick 
corneous test, which, in the simple forms, is quadrangular, nearly 
square, with straight margins, ‘sometimes extended along the © 
margins of the stipes, as if to give strength and support to the 
bases of the stipes. In forms with eight branches, Hall found 
an octangular central disc, and in higher forms it becomes a 
round disc. This keen-eyed observer found also that the central 
disc is composed of two laminz which, at least in the central 
portion, are not conjoined; the spaces between the two, he sup- 
poses to have been filled by some soft portion of the animal body. 
We may still add that Hall observed that the bifurcation always 
takes place within the central disc; that the disc is not uniform 
in its proportions; that it dces not always appear to bear the 
same proportions to the strength of the stipes; and that it is 
often striated parallel to the margins, which are thinner, the sub- 
stance attenuating from the center. This is about all that is 
known of the central disc, for, since Hall, 40 years ago, was 
able to make his observations on the Quebec Graptolites, and to 
give us a picture of the perfect form of some of these tiny fossils, 
only few species which show such a growth have been found, and 
these did not furnish any new facts regarding the composition 

of the frond. : 

The genera which are known to have grown in compound 
colonial stocks belong to the Monoprionidze with single rows of 
thecze, except two, 2. ¢, Phyllograptus typus, Hall, with four 
united basal stipes, and Retiograptus eucharis, Hall, from Blue 
Point Lake, St. John, in which the stipes are united by “slender 
basal extensions” without the presence of a central disc. The 
occurrence of a compound frond in this abnormal genus is 
especially interesting. 

The genus Dzplograptus, however, has hitherto been regarded 

as producing only simple stipes, because some species which are 


*It is absent in s.me of the sub-bifurcated forms ‘‘apparently by accident.” 


DEVELOPMENT AND Mops or Growts oF DipLograptus. 221 


found in countless multitudes in shales on both hemispheres only 
dppeared in single stipes. The specimens which ‘I have found 
show that this genus also grows in compound fronds. The 
extension of the axis at the growing end of Déplograptus has 
presented unsurmountable difficulties to the eiforts of explana- 
tion. The corneous cup which was observed by Nicholson* on 
Climacograptus bicornis, Hall, the vesicular dilatations of 
Diplograptus physophora, Nich., and of Diplograptus pristis, 
Hall, are at the sicular end and are, therefore, other organs 
than the central disc from which the stipes branch. Neither can 
the prolonged vesicle in the antisicular prolongation of the axis 
of Diplograptus vesiculosus, Nich., be compared with the central 
disc. | 
General Form of the Frond. 


Typical views of the complete fronds are given in Pl. I, fig. 1, 
D. pristis, Hall, and in Pl. I, fig. 2, of D. Ruedemanni, Gurley. 
As figure 1 shows, there are in a frond stipes of very different 
lengths. In this specimen, in which some of the ‘stipes, seem 
from their dimensions, to have attained their full growth, we 
notice stipes of three different lengths. Four stipes, lying in two 
diameters, perpendicular to each other, are the longest. They 
are accompanied on each side by shorter ones. Stipes of about 
the same length as the latter bisect the right angles. Between 
the others, we find the shortest stipes in varying number. The 
original specimen for figure 1 has 26 stipes; but fronds with as 
many as 40 stipes have been found, in which most of them have 
reached the normal length. Very often we find fronds with 
only one or a few stipes of the first, and numerous stipes 
of the third length. It is probable that these very different 
lengths of the stipes in the frond indicate different age and not 
that it grew out asa whole, thus maintaining always the same 
proportions in the stipes, as Dr. O. Herrmannt asserts in regard 
to the frond of the compound Monoprionide. 

The number of stipes of D. pristis, Hall, is considerably 
greater than that of D. Ruedemanni, Gurley; the former 
showing between 20 and 49, the latter only about 12 stipes. 
The fronds of D. pristis, Hall, therefore, are usually crowded 


* Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., 1868, vol. I, p. 55. 
+ On the Graptolitic Family Dichograptide Lapw., The Geol. Magazine, 1886, p. 18. - 


222 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


With stipes, the same covering each-other, while those of D. 
Ruedemanni,. Gurley, appear rather plain. 


The Funicle and the Central Disc. 


In all known compound fronds, where the branches radiate 
from a center, their bases are connected by a common branch 
which has been termed by Hall the “funicle.” He found that — 
this connecting stem within the points of bifurcation is not cel- 
luliferous, more cylindrical and apparently more solid, the test 
being, probably, thicker and the common canal less developed 
than in the other parts of the axes. The figures of Hall and 
Herrmann represent the funicle as a short cylindrical body, 
slightly thicker than the axes of the branches Only in Grapto- 
lithes octonarius, Hall, we see a small expansion of the funicle and 
a small round node called a “rootlet,” by Hall. 

The funicles of the two Diplograptide appear, if strongly com- 
pressed, as small, oblong, black spots with round ends, from which 
most axes spring (cf. Pl. I, figs. 1,9; Pl. LU, figs 3, 4); m a few 
cases they are extended to cylinders, similar to those described by 
Hall. In some specimens, however, the funicle is so well preserved 
that I have been able to make out its finest details (cf. Pl. I, figs. 
4,6). By these it is made evident that the funicle of Dzplograp- 
tus was a chitinous vesicle, tapering to the two opposite initial 
points of the main bundles of axes (PI. I, fig. 6). Vertically to 
this main extension, where two other bundles leave, the funicle is 
more or less expanded, sometimes so much as to appear quadran- 
gular (PI. I, fig. 4). In the excellent specimen represented in Pl. 
I, fig. 4, and PI. II, fig. 3, the funicle is burst open and the inside 
of the almost square base becomes visible. The pits, scattered all 
over it, apparently lead into axes. The chitinous test must have 
been very solid, as the excellent state of preservation of this small 
organ proves. The latter attracts attention by its deep black 
color in compressed fossils and by its strong aaa in speci- 
mens preserved in relief. 

The funicle has been found to be surrounded by a more or less 
expanded chitinous disc or cup, the “central disc,” of Hall. We 
have observed that Hall regarded this organ as formed of two 
laminae. He finds it obviously adapted to give strength and 
support to the bases of the stipes, as in some forms it extends 


DEVELOPMENT AND Mops or GrowrTsH or DietogRaAptus. 223 


- along the axes, but suggests, at the same time, that it may have 
served still other purposes of the animal economy. In concord- 
ance with the first supposition is his observation that the 
central disc is found where the divisions at the base become more 
numerous, while it is absent in some of the four-stiped forms ; 
but on the other hand, its “greater or less development is not 
always corresponding to the size and extent of the stipes.” 
Huxley has compared this organ with the basal plate of Defran- 
cia, a Bryozoan, while Nicholson thinks it to be homologous to 
the “float or pneumatocyst” of the Physophorida, an order’ of 
the Stphonophora. 

The central disc of the two species of Diplograptus which I 

have before me appears as a nearly square chitinous plate, some- 
times drawn out a little at the corners. It is relatively small in 
regard to the diameter of the whole colony, but must have been 
avery strong and solid organ as it is mostly distinct, even in 
poor specimens, where other organs can not be distinguished. 
That this plate is formed by two laminz is demonstrated by 
such specimens as reproduced in Pl. I, figs. 4, 6, 8; Pl. I, 
fig. 4, where the raised edges and the depressed middle part of 
the organ prove that it has been burst open. LEspecially in the 
specimen represented in fig. 8, the central disc is preserved so 
distinctly in relief that it can easily be studied with the naked 
eye. It is here a deep concave chitinous trough, inside of which 
lie the funicle and the bases of the branches. In Pl. I, fig. 4, 
we are able to see that the axes, which here give unmistakable 
evidence of having been canals, pierce the vesicle which incloses 
the funicle. Where the central disc is not broken, as in Pl. I, 
fig. 7, its upper side is convex. Funicle and central disc have 
in our species similar forms, parallel margins and their diagonals 
coincide ; the funicle is always distinctly inclosed in the central 
disc. , 

The form, solidity and connection of the central disc with the 
stipes agree with Hall’s suggestion that this organ served to 
support the bases of the'stipes. It was also certainly a protec- 
tion to the funicle, but probably these were not its only func- 
tions. Nicholson’s supposition that it was a “ float” seems very 
acceptable indeed, if we regard the large central discs of some 


994 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


of the Quebec forms or of Dichograptus Kjerulf, Herrmann, 
from the Norwegian Phyllograptus shales; but the central discs 
of the two species of Diplograptus seem to me to be relatively 
much too small to carry the whole colony.* ae 


The Basal Cyst. 


In a preliminary notet a basal organ, appearing in most fossils 
only as a subquadrate impression, has been described as a “‘ pneu- 
matocyst.” The latter is often so large as to overlap the other 
central parts and even the proximal ends of the rhabdosomes. 
It appears only as an impression in specimens which have the 
central disc and funicle well preserved as chitinous bodies (cf. 
Pl. I, figs. 6, 7, 8, 10; Pl. II, figs. 1, 2, 3,5); im very; fair spear 
mens it exhibits only a filiform chitinous border, while in a few 
(cf. Pl. III, figs. 9, 19) the test itself is visible. It must be in- 
ferred from these observations that the test was comparativély 
thin. The impressions or the scant remains of the periderm 
would naturally not have been sufficient to be made the object 
of a description if there had not come under observation, in a 
number of specimens, large prominences which show that the 
organ consisted of two segments resting in the middle on both 
sides of a subquadrate base. This base is formed by a neatly fur- 
rowed plate represented in Pl. II, fig. 1. The prominences con- 


* T have used so far, on account of some citations from the first authors on Graptolites, the old 
nomenclature, especially as introduced by Hall. As there are now, however, terms in use which 
are taken from the Zoology of the Hydrozoans, such as hydrotheca and hydrosoma, I intend to use 
more zoological terms which, I believe, will facilitate the description and prevent misunderstandings. 

There is no doubt that the use of the term hydrotheca, if the comparison of the Graptolites with 
the Hydrozoans is accepted at all, is proper, though the term thecais preferable. Thetermhydrosoma, 
however, means in the terminology of the Hydrozoans, as introduced by Allmann (George Q. Allmann, 
A Monograph of the Gymnoblastide or Tubular Hydroids, vol. I, 1871), ‘‘ the whole colony.” This 
hydrosoma includes the trophosoma, i. e. ‘the entire assemblage of zooids with their connecting 
basis destined for the nutrition of the colony,” and the gonosoma, the entire assemblage of zooids 
destined for the sexual reproduction of the colony. As we shall see, the compound colony of Dipio- 
graptus contains a central vertici] of gonangia which constitutes the gonosoma, the remainder, 7. e., 
the centra! organs and the assemblage of stipes, ‘branches or polyparies, constitutes the trophosoma. 
It is evident that the use of the term ‘‘hydrosoma” for a stipe would be a synecdoche, the 
putting of the name of the whole for apart. This difficulty could be avoided by using the term 
‘‘rhabdosoma,”’ now used generally in the excellent papers on Graptolites of the Swedish palzon- ~ 
tologists. 5 

Another misunderstanding may arise from the useof the terms avis and virgula for the stem 

which fastens the rhabdosome tothe funicle. In the description of the single rhabdosome it is 
usually mentioned that the virgula is prolonged ‘‘ distally,” or toward the center. This prolongation 
forms the connecting stem, and is a canal containing, as we shall see in another chapter, in young 
stages, the virgula of the rhabdosome inclosed inits distal part (cf. Pl. II, fig. 6). The stem is, there- 
fore, not the prolongation of the virgula alone. The application of the zoological term hydrocaulus 
for this canal would dispense with the necessity of referring the latter to any part of the rhabdosome. 

+ American Journal of Science, loc. cit. e 


DEVELOPMENT AND Mover or Growrs or Dietoeraptus. 225 


sist of shale and are apparently the casts of large vesicles. In 
the original of Pl. II, fig. 2,a smooth segment projecting from 
the center of the colony is visible; in the specimen represented 
on Pl. I, fig. 10, a plate is visible, which has a diameter of 6 mm., 
and is raised in the middle to about 1 mm. Figure 7 (Pl. IJ) is 
taken from a specimen in which the cyst is broken out, leaving 
only its outline and a wide pit. The central organs are visible 
at the bottom of the pit, while the rhabdosomes proceed from 
the base of the little projection of sediment. It must be inferred 
from this and other specimens that the vertical order of the 
organs was as follows; basal cyst, gonangia and rhabdosomes, 
both of the latter aha from the central disk and enclosed 
funicle. 

Whether the large vesicle’ 1 was the upper or undermost of the 
organs is a problem of great interest on account of its bearing on 

the question of the function of that organ. The fact that most 
specimens found on the surface of the shale, show it only as an 
impression, while on the original of Pl. I, fig. 10, which was 
taken from the under side of the Graptolite-bearing layer, it is 
preserved in relief, led the writer to the conclusion that it repre- 
sents the topmost part of the colony. This conclusion and the 
fact that the vesicle is often found filled. with sediment, and, 
therefore, may have been hollow, have suggested the comparison 
of the vesicle with a “ float,” such as certain Ta a ah VizZ., 
the Discoidew, p ssess. 

There are other observations which would seem to be in con- 
cordance with the assumption that the colony of Diplograptus 
had a floating habit : 

1. The extreme length and thinness of the hydrocaulus in cer- 
tain specimens of Diplograptus Inthe State Museum at Albany, 
N. Y., the writer has observed a rhabdosome of Diplograptus 
with a length of 4 cm. and a breadth of 3 mm., while the hydro- 
caulus has a breadth of only 0.1 mm.’ It is difficult to imagine 
how such an extremely thin stem could have supported the long 
and broad rhabdosome in any other than a suspended position .* 


* Carl Wiman (cf. Ueber die Graptoliten, Bulletin of the Geol. Instit. of Upsala, No 4. Vol. II, Part 
2, 1895, p. 68) has pointed out that the virgula could have served only to strengthen the rbabdosome. 
This rod extended also, as will be shown later, into the hydrocaulus. An effort at strengthening the 
latter, however, is strongly suggestive of a sessile mode of life of the colony. 


29 


996 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. - 


2. If the colonies were sessile, one would expect to find in the 
great number of colonies observed, some at least attached to 
shells, pebbles, etc., for the colonies would probably have pre- 
ferred fixation to foreign bodies to a mooring in the soft ooze, 
as do the recent Sertularians.* 

3. The wide horizontal distribution of the Graptolites and their 
limited vertical range has made them the basis of a very detailed 
and persistent division. into zones of the Cambrian, Ordovician 
and Silurian strata such as only the widespread Ammonites have 
furnished in other ages. Barroist accounts for this, as well as 
for their distribution in shale, sandstone and limestone, by their 
having been floating organisms at an early stage. The writer 
has observed a few specimens which seem to indicate a floating 
habit in the sicule. One of these, reproduced in Pl. III, fig. 2 , 
shows two siculz which give the impression of having been ar- 
rested by the hydrocaulus, the surrounding surface of the slab 
being free from sicule. But if the sicule floated, the colonies 
most probably floated also, as there has not been found any 
change in the development of Diplograptus which would indi- 
cate a change in the mode of life of these organisms. 

On account of these observations, the writer held the opinion 
which he expressed in the preliminary note, that Dzplograptus 
was a floating colony. A short time ago, however, a discovery 
was made which shows evidence not compatible with a floating 
mode of life. The specimen is a large slab exhibiting at one end 
upward of a hundred colonial stocks of D. L’uedemanne. The 
latter are all in a fair state of preservation, spread out regularly, 
about equally distant from each other and arranged in a well- 
defined area, outside of which only a few broken rhabdosomes 
are found (cf. Pl. V, which is a representation of part of the 
slab). The improbability of such an array of nicely ordered, 
apparently undisturbed stellate groups having been drifted to- 
gether, is obvious. | 

It is further worth mentioning that ‘most of those ‘colonial 
stocks which show only the central disc and funicle, are sunken 
in the center, a feature which, it seems, could be easily explained 


* Allman (op. cit., Vol. I, p. 27) says: ‘“‘In almost every case the general colony, as hydrosoma, is at- 
tached to some foreign body, such as rocks, shells of mollusca and crustacea, seaweeds, floating 
timber, etc., to which it is fixed by some part of its surface.”’ 

+ Memoire sur la Distrib. des Graptolites en France. 


DEVELOPMENT AND Mopz or GrowtTu or Dretogrartus. 227 


by assuming that the sediment which gathered around the cen- 
tral organs and under the ascending rhabdosomes, caused the lat- 
ter to be buried finally at a somewhat higher level than the 
central disc. This explanation, however, presupposes that the 
central parts were attached to the ground. There have also been 
observed quite a number of sicule, the basal appendages of which 
lie in another level of the matrix and appear, therefore, on the 
surface of the slabs in a pit or on a little node. 

The argument has been repeatedly advanced that because of their 
rigidity the Graptolites can hardly have been adapted to a pelagic 
mode of life. The profuse occurrence of broken rhabdosomes of 
Diplograptus throughout the Utica slate is sufficient proof that 
the hydrocauli and rhabdosomes of Diplograptus possessed only 
a very slight flexibility. Such a lack of flexibility must have 
endangered the colonies wherever the water was moved. But 
there must have been motion in the depths in which the sedi- 
ment constituting the Utica slate settled, for the broken rhabdo- 
somes on most slabs lie in a parallel direction ; hence the relative 
scarcity of entire colonial stocks in comparison with the enormous 
multitudes of broken rhabdosomes. The two localities near 
Dolgeville which furnished the colonies of the two species of 
Diplograptus would then represent areas which were free of dis- 
turbing bottom-currents at the time of the formation of the thin, 
colony-bearing intercalations. 

If the colonies of Diplograptus were indeed moored in the 
mud, the organ which I compared with Hall's central disc, would 
Hee been much too small to serve as an apparatus for fixation. 
The question of the means of fixation and the function of the. 
vesicle described in this chapter and termed the “basal cyst,” 
would arise. May the latter, perhaps, not have been the top- 
most part of the colony, as supposed by the writer, and the ver- 
tical order of organs, from below upwards, have been; basal cyst, 
gonangia, rhabdosomes? May it, further, have been a con- 
trivance, which, by being buried in the detritus, served to pro- 
cure that stability for the colony which otherwise only a large 
disc like the central disc of the Monoprionide could have pro- 
vided on the soft, loose ooze? Since the discovery above men- 
tioned, the writer has not had opportunity to study the material 
of Diplograptus so’ thoroughly peeks reference to this problem 
as will be necessary. 


REporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Na) 
Io 
CO 


THE GoNANGIUM. 


Among the complete colonies of D. pristis, Hall, found in the | 
shale, I happened to notice one of more than common interest. 
It is a rather small specimen, the rhabdosomes of which are very 
_ short, but, although much compressed in the rock, it reveals all 
details with remarkable clearness. Moreover, the chitinous sub- 
stance remains on both slabs; the exact observation of each 
detail can, therefore, be tested by the counterpart. 7 

This specimen, one-half of which is represented in Pl. I, fig. 5, 
shows, besides five rhabdosomes and a very small central disc, 
an oval group of siculze (g), all of which have their broad ends 
directed outward. The proximal ends of the siculz radiate from 
an axial club-shaped projection, which is surrounded by a groove. 
The basal sicule are very distinct and well developed; they make 
their connection by thin hair-like processes, such as are observed 
on well-preserved detached sicule. . Toward the distant end of 
the group they become more crowded and apparently smaller. 
On the sicule lies. a thick oval chitinous ring, which forms the 
margin on one side of the group, whereas, on the other side, it 
overlies the sicule. It is apparently the remainder of the capsule 
which inclosed the sicule and.burst in becoming compressed, 
allowing the siculz to be pressed out. 

There is no doubt that we have here an organ in which the 
sicule originated, the details all being so clear that they can be 
seen by the naked eye. After this discovery I searched all com- 
pound fronds in my possession for these organs, and was rewarded 
by finding them in numerous colonies, both of D. pristes, Hall, 
and of D. Ruedemanni, Gurley. 

One of the best specimens observed is represented in Pl. I, 
fig. 8. It is especially interesting, because the “gonangia,” as 
these organs are provisionally termed, are very large (they 
have a diameter of 4 mm.) and because the fossil is not 
so much compressed but preserved in relief. It isa compound | 
frond of D. pristis, Hall, the rhabdosomes of which are mostly 
crowded on one side. In a deep pit in the center, we notice the 
base of the chitinous central disc with the funicle. Around 
the central disc there are four, subcircular remains of gonangia, 
which are as distinct as the rhabdosomes. In the center of 
the gonangia, projecting on three sides, are round nodes, on 


DEVELOPMENT AND Mopr oF GrowtTH oF DipLtocraptus: 229 


the fourth (right-hand side) is a corresponding impression. 
They are surrounded by a deep furrow, from which, in one of the 
gonangia (g@), the surface rises in a projecting ring. The latter 
_is apparently the section of a central vesicle which did not con- 
tain any solid substance at the time of the burial of the colony, 
_ therefore has been filled with sediment and is now preserved as 
the solid central node, whereas the test of the vesicle became 
flattened and separated from the matrix. Outside the central 
node we see radiating sicule. Near the left gonangium is a 
group of impressions of sicule which apparently sprung from it. 
The right gonangium shows radial and concentric wrinkles, the 
former of which are probably impressions of siculz, the latter 
may have been wrinkles of the gonangial test. 

Another specimen which aids essentially in obtaining a com- 
plete conception of these organs is reproduced in Pl. I, fig.9. It 
_ shows seven, more or less oval, not very, distinct impressions of 
gonangia, and is remarkable for the multitude of siculee. covering 
the slab in the near neighborhood of the center. The position 
of these siculz gives evidence that they came from the center of 
the colony, and were apparently set free shortly before the bury- 
ing of the colony by sediment. 

I have before me a great number of complete colonies with dis- 
tinct gonangia. The number of the latter organs ranges from 
four to eight, the majority of the hydrosomes, especially the 
younger ones, bearing only four gonangia. 

In older colonies the chitinous test is rarely distinctly perceptible 
because of the crowding of the hydrocauli and rhabdosomes 
toward the center. Only in specimens like that represented 
in Pl. Il, fig. 4, where the parts above the gonangia are 
broken away, are the test and form of the gonangia clearly 
visible. Young colonies, in which the center is less obscured by 
overlying rhabdosomes, show the still closed gonangia as oval, 
concentrically wrinkled, chitinous plates. (cf. Pl. III, figs. 15g, 
20g, 21g, and the chitinous rings in fig. 24, which probably are 
remains of gonangia.) 

Some specimens of JD. Ruedemanni, (Pl. Il, fig. 3g), show 
avery nice preservation of the form of the gonangia. The 
proximal parts of the rhabdosomes are covered by round plates 
which have somewhat raised edges and a lighter color than the 


230 REporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


surrounding rock. They consist of compressed sediment of finer, 
grain than the matrix. The sediment apparently entered 
the space between the gonangia and the stipes and preserved 
thus the impressions of the gonangia. 

An indication of the original form of the gonangium in its 
uncompressed state is given by a very excellent specimen (PI. I, 
fig. 3), where-the gonangia left deep, almost globular pits, which 
the eye can not fail to see in looking at the frond-covered slab. 
These impressions suggest a globular form of the gonangia, an 
indication which is confirmed by a frond on a piece of limestone 
(Pl. il, fig. 2) from the débris of the cliff which furnished the 
fronds of D. Ruedemanni. The piece comes from a layer of 
limestone, interpolated in the shale. The fossil shows two 
gonangia preserved as solid globular projections. 

Observations as to the proximal end of the conan could be — 
made in only a few specimens. 

From the originals of Pl. I, figs. 5 and 8, we might infer 
that the gonangia were poner with the hydrosome by the 
central vesicles. An excellent insight into the construction 
of the gonangia and their connection with the hydrosoma is 
given by the original of Pl. I, fig. 4. Three gonangia are visible 
as deep impressions of dark color, from the bottom of which rise 
club shaped projections. The proximal ends of the latter are 
connected by a disc, which overlaps also part of the funicle. 
Both the projections and the disc are not chitinous, but consist 
of shale. Therefore they are fillings of hollow organs, the test 
of which has not been preserved. The disc is apparently the 
filling of a tubular organ from which the gonangia radiated, its 
cavity being directly connected with the central vesicles of the 
gonangia. The tube itself was apparently connected with ‘the 
central disc and funicle, and by this with the system of somatic 
cavities. 

The result of the study of all these specimens is that there were 
in the species D. pristis and L’uedemanni, around the center of 
the compound frond, globular or oval vesicles, numbering from 
four to eight or more, the test of which was horny. 

Each vesicle inclosed a capsule varying from oval to club- 
shaped, which had a rather solid test and did not contain any 
obstruction to its being filled by the sediment. But the most 


DEVELOPMENT AND Mopr oF GrowtTsH oF Dietograptus. 231 


important fact is that the vesicles contained the so-called “ siculee.” 
Since J. Hall discovered these tiny fossils and demonstrated that 
they are the initial points of the growth of the rhabdosomes, 
there has been no doubt that they represent a very young growth- 
stage. It is, therefore, obvious that the described vesicles are 
reproductive organs. 

It remains now for us to see how they compare with the repro- 
ductive organs of the Sertularians, which have been regarded as the 
living relatives of the Graptolites.* A glance at the reproductive 
organs of the Hydroza is sufficient to demonstrate the great 
similarity between them and those of the two Diplograptide. 
The gonophores and sporosacs of the Hydrozoa appear in just 
_ such verticils of spherical or oval vesicles as the gonosome of the 
two Graptolites, and they contain in the “spadix” an organ simi- 
lar to the central vesicles, from which the sicule radiate. But 
the gonophores, which directly produce the generative elements, 
are only covered by a thin pellicle, and are found only in those 
Hydrozoans which have a thin, not chitinous perisarc; whereas 
the Sertularians, like all those Hydrozoans which are provided 
with protective receptacles for the hydranths, inclose their sexual 
buds, the gonophores or sporosacs, again in peculiar horny recep- 
tacles, the gonangia. The latter are mostly oval capsules, formed 
by a layer of ectoderm which secretes an external chitinous 
investment, that varies greatly in thickness. ‘“ Inevery instance,” 
says Allmann, “ where a gonangium exists the hydranths also are 
protected by a hydrotheca, while the absence of a gonangium is 
always associated with the absence of a hydrotheca.” As we 
have in our Graptolites, just as in the Sertularians, chitinous 

thece and also a chitinous gonosome, we must term their 
reproductive organs “ gonangia.” The gonangium of the Sertu- 
larians contains a cylindrical column, the “blastostyle,” bearing 
the gonophores as buds upon its sides, and being generally 
expanded at its summit into a conical plag or disc by which the 
gonangium is closed. We have a very similar organ in the club- 
shaped hollow central vesicle of the gonangia of Diplograptus. 


*Cf. George J. Allmann: A Monograph of the Symnoblastide or Tubular Hydroids. Vols. I and 
II., 1872. 

G. J. Allmann: Report on the Hydroidea of the Gulf Stream. Museum of Comp. Zoology, Harvard 
College. Vol. V, 18877. 

Challenger Reports. Hydroidea, by Prof. G. J. Allmann. 


932 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


It is true it does not show the conical plug or disc on top, but 
neither is this always present in the recent Sertularians. 

I have not been able to find how the gonangia opened. The 
clusters of sicule which appear on young colonies (PI. III, figs. 
15, 16, 17, 40) lead to the supposition (as we shall see more 
extensively later) that the basal sicule remained attached to the 
colony, while the more distal ones were detached. This, in its 
turn, would suggest an opening at the top of the gonangium. 

The gonangia of Dzplograptus resemble in all more important 
features, 7. ¢., the shape of the gonangium, the substance of the 
periderm, the possession of a blastostyle, its shape and position, 
the gonangia of the Sertwlarians so closely that we must regard 
not only the possession of these organs but also their structure as 
arguments for the hydrozoan nature of the Graptolites. 

Gonangia were described as long ago as 1859, when J. Hall pub- 
lished his fundamental researches on the Graptolites of the State 
of New York. (Geol of the State of N. Y. Pal., vol. IIL) The 
author describes stipes of Diplograptus Whitfieldi, Hall, bearing 
appendages, which are regularly or alternately arranged in two 
Opposite rows on the stipe, the thecze being suppressed or 
the vesicles proceeding from their axils. The appendages appear 
at first as buds of oval shape, which become later on, apparently 
by dehiscence or decomposition and absorption, irregulary trian- 


gular. They have scarcely any substance except a filiform . 


border. Although there are upon the surface of the slate, where — 
these bodies occur, numerous sicule, no germ could be found 
within a sac, and only one apparently attached to such an append- 
age. Hall compared them with the gonangia of the Sertulariz 
and Campanularie. eS 
Other appendages have been found and described in England 
by H. A. Nicholson.* They were found in the Graptolite rocks 
of Dumfriesshire, attached, in some instances, to the stipes of Gr. 
Sedgwicki, Nich. They differ from those noticed by Hall in 
being free in the later stages of their growth. -They are: 
described as “ oval or bell-shaped, provided with a mucro or spine 
at one extremity and surrounded by a strong filiform border, 
which ultimately ruptures.” Nicholson found these bodies, which 


* Cf. Ann. & Magaz. of Nat. Hist., 1868, vol. I, p. 55. Nicholson gave a brief description before this 
publication in a paper which I have not been able to obtain. 


DEVELOPMENT AND Mopzr or Growrs or Dietoarartus. 233 


he called “ Dawsonie,” in many instances attached, when small, to 
the cellules of Gr. Sedgwicki; sometimes to the apex of a 
theca, while sometimes they appear to spring from the 
common canal’or from the under surface of a theca. The 
author compares them with the “gonophores” of the recent 
Hydroids, on account of their external processes and their like- 
ness in form, while they differ in having a corneous envelope. 
He believed that they were attached to the sides of polypites or 
to gonoblastidia, although he admits that they have not been cer- 
tainly detected. in direct communication with the polypary of any 
Graptolite. 

The gonangia described by Hopkinson in Ann. & Mag. of Nat. 

Hist., 1871, vol. VII, p. 317, resemble closely the appendages 
made known by Hall. Hopkinson states, on this occasion, that 
the connection of Nicholson’s eee with the Grapto- 
lite is not proved. 
_ Alimann, who had an opportunity of studying English speci- 
mens sete resembling the American ones, denies their having ~ 
been capsular bodies. They appear to him rather to be hollow 
laminz; but, on account of the regularity of their disposition, 
he does not regard them as accidental growths. He thinks that 
their connection with the gonosomal system is probable, and 
compares them with the leaflets which compose the corbule of 
certain Plumularide, where the gonangia’ are developed in 
groups, and each group is sustained in a common, basket-like 
receptacle, which is a metamorphosed ramulus. He finds his 
view supported by the fact that in each case where they have 
been satisfactorily observed, the thecz became suppressed in 
that part of the fossil which carries the appendages. 

I have not yet found any appendages similar to those discovered 
by Hall. 

As to the “ovarian vesicles,” which Nicholson found associated 
with the Graptolites, Allmann thinks their connection with the © 
Graptolites to be purely accidental, on account of their origin 
from the walls of the thecz. Indeed, the fact that Nichol- 
son describes them as being attached to different parts of the 
rhabdosome, makes it very probable that these vesicles came only 
accidentally in contact with the rhabdosome. On the other 
hand, I would like to remark that Allmann himself described 

| 30 


934 ' Report oF THE State GEoLoGIst. 


later on (in the second volume), in Syntheciwm elegans, Allm., a 
form from New Zealand which stands apart from all other 
Hydrozoa in bearing the gonangia upon peduncles springing 
from within the hydrothece, and these nyse e do not differ 
in a single point from the others. 

A highly interesting form has been described “0 G. Holm * 
in Dectyonema cervicorne, bearing, alternately on the two sides 
of hay-forklike spines, cup-shaped bodies, “ by theeze,” which the 


author supposes to have been gonangia. The-regularity of their — 


distribution on the thece and the complete development 


of the by-thecz bearing thece, are not quite in accordance. 


with the appearance of the recent gonangia and seem to me to 
be rather suggestive of a comparison with the nematophores or 
nematocalyces of the Plumularide. These latter appendages, to 
which Allmann refers all the thecz of Graptolites, are mostly 
tube or cup-shaped offsets of the thecee, containing a sarcode 
mass which can extend itself in the form of single or branched 
processes. The latter are, as their thread-cells indicate, adapted 
to catching food for the colony. 


Tue SICULA. 


Professor Hall succeeded in finding the embryo shells, or sicule, 
as they have been called by Nicholson, not only detached but also 
in connection with the rhabdosome. They have been found in 
very widely separated spots, sometimes covering the rocks in 
enormous multitudes. I, too, have obtained slabs densely cov- 
ered with sicule and various young stages of D. pristzs, Hall, 
while I have only one slab with free sicule of D. Ruedemanne; 
these tiny fossils evading detection in the field, although they can 


be easily seen at the ends of the rhabdosomas, and sometimes. 


even within the gonangia. (PI. I, fig. 4.) 
Hall’s description of these embryos was so complete and his 
interpretation of their nature obviously so correct, that both 


have been only confirmed by later investigations. He saw 
them, when flattened upon the rock, asa prolonged triangular 


film, containing a very fine rod, the virgula. Their real form 
he supposed to be that of a conical sac. He regarded them as 


*Gotlands Graptoliter. Bighang K. Vet. Akad. Handl. Bd. 16, Afd. 4, No. 7. 
See also: Review by R. R. Gurley in The American Geologist, July number, 1891, p. 35. 


DEVELOPMENT AND Mopr or Growrs or Dietocgraptus. 235 


primary thece and found that those of Diplograptus throw off 
buds from approximately opposite sides near the broad end, and 
form thus the two series of thece characteristic of the Dip- 
lograptide. He stated that the sicula remains embedded in 
the so-called proximal end of the rhabdosome, projecting with 
its broad end, and that the virgula grows out to the central axis. 

An interesting contribution to our knowledge of the sicula of 
Diplograptus, has been lately furnished by Carl Wiman.* The 
author found in a piece of limestone, from Bornholm, half car- 
bonized ‘chitinous siculz, which he was able to make transparent 
‘by means of Schulze’s maceration medium. With the aid of 
his excellent material he was enabled to state that the sicula has 
the form of a conical tube and consists of two parts, a very thin 
and transparent “ distal,’ and a thicker and less transparent 
“proximal” one. 

My material has not given me any opportunity to study the 
details of this cone, but has furnished valuable information 
regarding the relation of the sicula to the complete colony. 

While the profuse covering of certain slabs with sicule and 
the crowding of siculz around some colonies (PI. I, fig. 9) give 
conclusive evidence that numerous sicule left the gonangia, it is 
suggested by sicule and by very young stipes attached to adoles- 
cent colonies that some sicule did not sever their connection with 
the parent colony but grew out into new rhabdosomes. The 
original of Pl. I, fig. 5, shows one sicula (s,) with two thece and 
a young rhabdosome (s,) with a still distinctly visible sicula. 
Young colonies bear whole bundles of siculee (Pl. III, figs. 15, 16). 

The free sicula generally bears only a very delicate, filiform 
process, like that by which it is attached to the blastostyle. 
After I had found that this process on young free rhabdosomes 
connects with a square chitinous plate, I also examined the 
free siculz for these appendages and found them in fair number 
(Pl. III, figs. 1-3) even on some of the sicule which apparently 
had only shortly before been liberated (PL. I, fig. 9). On the last- 
mentioned specimen they are visible only outside of the dense 
crowd of siculz, the latter obscuring the details about the center. 
The study of this specimen leads to the conclusion that the 


* Ueber Diplograptide Lapw. Bull. of the Geol. Inst. of Upsala, vol. I, No. 2, 1893. Translated by 
Ch. Schuchert in the Journal of Geology, 1894, p. 267. 


236 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


square appendages were formed either inside of the gonangium 
or immediately after the detachment of the siculae. ) 

Some of the best specimens bearing these plates are figured on 
Pl. III. Figure 1 represents the most common appearance of the 
appendage as the impression of a square plate, slightly raised 
in the center and sometimes with chitinous test; at the under 
side of the plate is a small round node, from which the sicula 
springs with a process of varying length. While the sides -are 
mostly convex, some specimens, in later growth stages, show 
concave sides (fig. 2), perhaps the result of shrinkage of the still 
tender organ. 

Figure 3 represents a specimen which is remarkable for show- 
ing to the naked eye broad radial ribs, and for displaying under 
the glass a series of fine concentric furrows and wrinkles around 
the central node. The same regular concentric furrowing can be 
observed on some older and larger plates (Pl. III, figs. 9, 13, 14). 
It excludes, by its regularity, the idea that it might be the result 
of shrinkage, or of the flattening of the bladder-lke body. 

In seeking an homology of the h«rny cone or sicula, among - 
the growth. stages of a Sertularian colony, we shall be embar- 
rassed by the very fact of the chitinous nature of this embry- 
onic sheath. The horny receptacle of the Sertularians, called 
gonangium, produces embryos without a horny perisarc, while 
that of Diplograptus produces such with a horny perisare.. And ~ 
yet, there is a more than superficial similitude between the 
sicula of Diplograpius and the primary polypite of the Sertu- 
larians, which is borne on a short hydrocaulus, fastened by a 
round disc to the bottom and produces the first hydrotheca, 
whence the whole colony arises by lateral budding (cf. Allmann, 
l.c.). Supposing this polypite and its disc to be clad from the 
beginning in the horny perisarc by which the colony begins 
to protect itself in a little more advanced stage, there would 
result a first stage of growth strikingly similar to that of 
Diplograptus ; there would be a primary theca, a hydrocaulus, 
a basal appendage and a lateral budding of the he hydrotheca. 
The earlier beginning of the secretion of the perisarc with 
the embryo of Diplograptus can not be regarded as of princi- 
pal importance, but there exists a distinctive feature of great 


DEVELOPMENT AND Moper oF Growrs oF Dretoaraptus. 237 


importance in the existence of the virgula in the sicula of Déplo- 
graptus. But even with this difference the homology of the 
sicula and the primary polypite of the calyptoblastic Hydrozoa 
is such as to justify its being regarded as an indication of 
relationship. 


Devetopment or Dirtogerartus pPristis, Hall. 
Plate III. 


When the shale which contains the compound colonies of D, 
pristis was exposed last year, I failed to pay sufficient attention 
to collecting slabs with sicule. As I found later on, however, 
some slabs which preserved sicule and young colonies with 
attached base, I took advantage of a renewed but unfortunately 
very brief exposure of the same layer, by the construction of a 
road, to collect young colonies. The study of these tiny fossils 
furnished the material for Plate III, in which I have arranged 
the numerous various appearances of the young colonies of D. 
pristis, Hall, according to supposed successive stages of growth. 

Figs. 1-3 are representations of sicule with their basal ap- 
pendages. The next stage are sicula with the first theca (figs. 
4-7). The theca buds at the distal wide end of the sicula from a 
round hole which is sometimes perceptible. The “connecting 
canal” of Tornquist and the growth lines, described by Wiman, 
could also be observed on some specimens. 

Figure 4 represents a specimen,’the basal plate of which has 
concave outlines, similar to fig. 2. The sicula is distinctly 
attached to the central round node, as it is also in the following 
- specimens. 

Figure 5 belongs to a specimen in an excellent state of preser- 
vation. The sicula is preserved as a tube and the basal append- 
age as a segmental projection with a filiform chitinous border, 
which is a section of the test. The central node lies on the top - 
of the projection. In fig. 6 the base is broken out, leaving a 
deep square impression ‘The central node is preserved as an 
oval chitinous body with a central pit; the latter probably repre- 
sents a connection between the node and the basal cyst (cf. fig. 6a). 

Figure 7 is interesting in several regards. It not only shows 
the “connecting canal” of the first theca and the hole from 
which the former sprung, but also the central node on top 


238 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


of an inner plate. The latter is surrounded by four oval pro- 
jections which are probably the casts of budding sacs represent- 
ing the gonangia. This would indicate a very early beginning 
of the development of the reproductive organs. 

As the next stage of growth may be regarded those rhabdo- 
somes which bear two thece (figs. 8 and 9). 

In fig. 8 the basal appendage is preserved as an impression 
only, darker than the surrounding rock. 

Figure 9 represents a primary rhabdosome, the basal cyst 
of which is preserved as a plate with a chitinous filiform border 
and part of the chitinous test in the lower right corner. The 
concentric furrowing observed before is also distinct here; the 
furrows surround a high square chitinous projection which ap- 
parently develops from the original little central node and is 
the central disc of the grown colony. 

A further stage is represented by a rhabdosome on which three 
thecz can be counted (fig. 10). The central disc appears as a 
deep square pit; the basal cyst as a less me but very smooth 
impression with a chitinous film. 

In figure 11 we have a rhabdosome with four thece, and con- 
nected by a rather short hydrocaulus to a central, strongly chit- 
inous node, evidently the “funiculus” of the compound colony. 
The node lies inside the central disc, a deep impression filled | 
with carbonaceous matter and surrounded by the larger impres- 
sion of the basal cyst. Besides these impressions, there are pres- 
ent four strongly projecting oval bodies. If these are again 
traces of gonangia, the latter have already extended beyond the 
cyst. 

The next represented stage (fig. 12) with seven thecz shows 
the oval organs still more developed. In one of the latter (at g), 
there are radiating impressions perceptible, perhaps those of 
young sicule. 

Figures 13 and 14 show primary rhabdosomes with respectively 
11 and 13 thece. Both are remarkable for the distinct concen- 
tric series of furrows and the great prolongation of the basal 
part of the hydrocaulus. 

The next stage (fig. 15) appears very different from the pre- 
ceding, because the primary rhabdosome is broken off (the basal 
part of the hydrocaulus is still preserved at p). This specimen 


DEVELOPMENT AND Mops or GrowtTH or Dirtograptus. 239 


shows two oval wrinkled chitinous plates, the gonangia, and 
between them two bundles of radiating sicule, which are prob- 
ably part of the contents of two other gonangia. The appear- 
ance of these bundles and of others similar to that represented. 
in fig. 16, suggests the idea that the basal sicule were not 
detached, and perhaps, by shrinkage of the blastostyle, gained 
connection with the central disc and funicle. The existence of 
bundles of hydrocauli (cf. Pl. Il, fig. 3) springing from the base 
of grown colonies, is in favor of this view. The dense bundles 
of sicule on young colonies indicate that most, if not all, of the 
sicule remained in connection with the parent colony, while the 
_ appearance of the older colonies leaves no doubt that multitudes 
of sicule became detached. 

These bundles of sicule now begin to develop, at first, by 
extending the hydrocauli (fig. 17), after which the production 
of hydrothece sets in (fig. 18). It may be concluded from figs. 
17 and 18 that the young rhabdosomes did not all develop alike. 
While in fig. 17 most sicule do not yet bear a theca, others have 
already one and a few have still more, even as many as five 
thece. In the specimen represented in fig. 18 the majority of 
the sicule has produced one theca, and in the original of fig. 19 
most of the rhabdosomes bear about half a dozen thece. In 
this excellently preserved specimen the hydrocauli no doubt take 
their origin from the central disc and the inclosed funicle; 
funicle, central disc and cyst are here preserved with their chitin- 
ous tests. The upper rhabdosome is so far advanced that it 
probably is the primary one. There is no primary rhabdosome 
preserved on the original of figs. 17 and 18. In such specimens 
as are represented in figs. 20 and 21 is a more advanced stage. 
On the former specimen may be observed, besides the young 
rhabdosome, a complete chitinous gonangium (g), a dense multi- 
tude of radiating sicule at the right and some single siculee at 
the lower side. Because of the great difference in age between 
the sicule and the young rhabdosomes I am inclined to regard 
the gonangia and sicule as a second generation, produced after 
the first generation had reached a certain age. The basal cyst is 
preserved in this specimen as in many others as a strong plate 
with a chitinous border, apparently the result of the filling of the 
empty bladder with sediment. 


240 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


The beginning growth of a second generation is more clearly 
visible in the excellent original of figs. 21 and 21a, where the 
hydrocauli of the already highly-developed first generation of 
-rhabdosomes are turned to one side, thus uncovering. the well- 
preserved little chitinous gonangia (g). The latter with their 
interior radiation, which probably is to be referred to sicule, are 
easily perceptible to the naked eye. The primary rhabdosome 
is turned to the right. 

A more advanced stage is that shown by fig. 22, where the 
gonangia, preserved as impressions only, are larger than the cyst, 
and afew sicule of the second generation are still connected 
with the apparently incomplete colony. This specimen shows . 
the two different kinds of sicule: the detached sicule, two of 
which have been arrested in their motion by the hydrocaulus, 
and the nondetached sicule. 

A similar stage of growth is represented by fig. 23, which is 
remarkable for its having two generations of rhabdosomes, for 
the chitinous basal cyst, which is separated from the center, and 
for its central disc, which shows a central pit. 

The difference betweeen the two generations of rhabdosomes 
is very obvious in the specimen represented of natural size in 
fig. 24. The three longest rhabdosomes are left from the first 
generation (the one on the left side is perhaps the primary 
rhabdosome). The verticil of rhabdosomes, marked II, is evi- 
dently the second generation, and a third generation is indicated 
by the oval chitinous rings, the apparent traces of .gonangia. 

The original difference in size between the rhabdosomes is later 
on obliterated by their unequal growth, and perhaps also by 
the loss of the older rhabdosomes. The beautiful specimen, 
represented in Pl. I, fig. 1, still exhibits three generations of 
rhabdosomes and one generation of gonangia. ‘There is a dense 
verticil of almost equally long rhabdosomes found in a few very 
— large colonies. | } 

For the sake of completeness I add the figures (figs. 25 and 26) ° 
of two specimens which seem to stand outside of the line of 
development, as they show two and four siculz on one central 
disc. Three siculz have also been observed. As, however, the 
complete development of the central organs, the presence of 
funicle, central disc and basal cyst indicate, these strange little 


DEVELOPMENT AND Mopr& or Growru or Dietoaraptus. 241 


colonies are most probably the relics of already farther developed 
colonies. There are a few other relics of colonies with a strange 
appearance, as for instance a central disc bearing one large 
rhabdosome and one sicula. 

The following is the development of Diplograptus pristis, Hall, 
given in a more comprehensive form : | 

1. The detached sicula is provided with a basal appendage, 
to which it is attached by means of a little round node. 

2. The node becomes the central disc and funicle. The sicula 
produces at first one theca, then a second, a third, etc. 

8. With the budding of the first thecxz, the growth of the 
gonangia already begins, with usually four small oval capsules. 

4, The further growth is marked by a remarkable lengthening 
of the hydrocaulus and a continued budding of thece at the 
proximal end of the primary rhabdosome, along the hydrocaulus 
-and toward the center. | 

5. At last the gonangia mature and open. Many, or perhaps 
all of the sicule, remain connected to the parent colony. The 
colony consists now of a rhabdosome, about half developed, which 
is the primary one, bearing a basal cyst, central disc and funicle, 
and on these, bundles of sicula. ; 

6. These sicule grow out to rhabdosomes, the process begin- 
ning again with a lengthening of the hydrocauli. 

7. After this first generation of rhabdosomes has reached a 
certain age, a second generation of gonangia begins to grow. 

8. These latter open again and produce a new set of sicule 
around the center. The colony consists now of the primary 
rhabdosome, a verticil of young rhabdosomes, and another of 
siculg. This process is continued, the successive generations of 
gonangia producing siculx, which, in turn, develop into verticils 
of rhabdosomes. 

The different size of the rhabdosomes, in all hydrosomes appa- 
rently still growing (Pl. I, fig. 1); their equal length in the hydro- 
somes with the longest and most numerous rhabdosomes; the 
common occurrence of one mature rhabdosome and numerous 
young ones in the same colony, are all facts giving evidence that 
the hydrosome began to grow with one rhabdosaome, and that the 
‘number and length of the rhabdosomes increased with the age of 
the whole colony. 

31 


949 7 Report oF THE Strate GEoxoaist. 


Dr. O. Herrmann,* in the description of Dichograptus Kjerulfi, 
Herrm., contends that fronds of Dichograptus with a different 
number of rhabdosomes (from 5 to 14) do not represent different 
ages, as it has been thought; on the ground that no difference in 
the thickness and length of the rhabdosomes is to be detected; 
that no younger rhabdosomes are perceptible when they had just 
sprouted and before they reached the margin of the central disc ; 
and that young individuals occur with eight, nine and twelve 
rhabdosomes, just as in full-grown specimens. 

It is certainly not analogous with Dip/ograptus, for the colony 
of Diplograptus does not grow as a whole with a given number of 
rhabdosomes, but the number of the latter is constantly increasing 


_ by the development of new rhabdosomes from sicule. This view is — 


supported by Hall’s observation that the number of rhabdosomes 
is no specific character and that there is apparently no law of 
branching in forms with many rhabdosomes. 

There was no difference in the mode of growth between the 
primary and the following rhabdosomes. In both the sicula lies 
in the oldest part, and both grew, as it were, backward toward the 
center, forming new thece at the basal end. One could compare 
this mode of growth with that of a leaf, the oldest part of which 
is the most distant point, while the youngest part, where the 
leaf is growing, is the base of the blade. 

_ As long as only the detached rhabdosomes of Déplograptus 
were known it was natural that the sicular end, where the 
growth of the rhabdosome begins and which at first was 
thought to be attached to the ground, was called the “ proxi- 
mal” and the opposite the “distal” end. But where we have a 
funicle and central disc, 7. ¢., a point of attachment of the rhab- 


dosome, we must follow, in order to avoid confusion in the nomen- . 


clature, the usage of the authors on modern Hydrozoans and 
define with Huxley “the attached extremity of the fixed hydro- 
soma or its equivalent in the free one as the proximal end, the 
Opposite, as the distal end.” The sicula-bearing end of the rhab- 
dosome of Diplograptus, therefore, is really the “ distal” end, as 
is the point of the leaf. 


Wiman holds that the virgula does not begin to develop its . 


proximal part. until the sicula has been taken into the rhab- 


* Dr. O. Herrmann: On the Graptolitic Family Dichograptide, Lapw., Geological Magazine, 1836, 
D. I8. 


DEVELOPMENT AND Mop or Growtsu oF Dietoaraptus. 243 


dosome, and that the virgula does not protrude beyond the 
proximal end, unless the periderm of the rhabdosome is broken 
away, leaving the virgula free. This, however, is different in 
my material, which shows the virgula to extend beyond the 
proximal point of the sicula into the hydrocaulus, and even 
beyond the proximal end of the rnabdosome into the hydrocau- 
lus. A very interesting specimen bearing on this question is rep- 
resented in Pl. II, fig. 6. The virgula, a shining, chitinous rod, 
contrasts with the thinner film of the hydrocaulus. The latter 
is broken at m; the more solid and inflexible virgula, however, 
has separated from it and lies now partly outside of the canal, 
still preserving its natural position in the sicula. 

Nicholson, too, claims to have seen in Diplograptus pristis the 
common canal “ without denticles ” continued on each side of the 
prolonged rod; and Allmann states that if the virgula, as variously 
observed, extended beyond the young growing portion of the 
stipe, it must have been included in a ccenosarc and this confined 
in a perisarc, “which was probably still so delicate as to be 
incapable of preservation, its thicker rod-like portion being the 
only part preserved.” As the above described specimen shows, 
this thin perisarc, the hydrocaulus, has been preserved under 
favorable conditions. 

Wiman further came to the conclusion that the sicula was 
either open or had avery thin wall at the pointed end. The 
study of my specimens of sicule furnished evidence that the 
sicula was attached with this pointed end by means of a filiform 
process either to the parent colony, or, when the sicula was free, 
to the central node of the basal appendage. In both cases the 
rhabdosome developed-along this hydrocaulus toward the center 
of the colony. That might induce the notion that the hydrocau- 
lus became the common canal of the rhabdosome. Wiman, 
however, has demonstrated that a common canal, as progenitor 
of the hydrothece, does not exist, but that the common canal 
is the result of the growth cf the thece. The results of 
Toérnquist’s* excellent researches agree with Wiman’s observa- 
tions regarding the structure of the distal end of the rhabdosome 
and the growth of the common canal. Both authors assert 
that the formation of the common canal goes hand in hand 
with the budding of the thece. Such a mode of growth 


*S. L. Torqunist. Observations on the structure of some Diprionide. Lund’s Univ. Arsskrift, Bd. 
29, Lund. 1892-93. 


D4 4. REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


of the rhabdosome would exclude the pre-existence of the 
common canal in the hydrocaulus. Therefore the interesting 
question arises: What became of the hydrocaulus of the sicula? 
I hope that my material of young rhabdosomes with hydrocauli 
will permit an answer to this question later. 


GENERAL APPHARANOE OF THE CoLony AnD Its SysrEmatio - 

| | RELATIONS. | | 

The restoration of the colonial stock of Déiplograptus given in 
Plate II, fig. 5, was drawn with the assumption of a floating 
mode of life in Diplograptus. Since then material has been 
found (cf. Pl. V)-which does not justify such a supposition, and, 
therefore, the writer presents this sketch only as an illustration 
of the relative vertical succession of the parts, without regard to 
the question of their absolute position, for there is a possibility 
that the order was the reverse of that given in the figure, and 
that the basal cyst was the undermost part of the colony. 

lt is a fact of special importance that the uniform association, 
stated by Allmann, |. c., of the horny receptacles of the 
hydranths (hydrothece) with the horny receptacles of the genera- 
tive organs (gonangia) among the Hydrozoa, is also found in 
Diplograptus. As this association is the specific character of the 
Calyptoblastea (Plumularide and Sertularide), its observation 
on Diplograptus would seem a strong argument for placing 
_ Diplograptus near the Calyptoblastea. But in spite of this 
homology between Dzplograptus and the Sertularians in par- 
ticular, the former, like the other Graptolites, has to be separated 
from the Sertularians on account of the horny sheath of the 
embryo, and, what seems more important, the horny axis of the 
rhabdosome.* These differences justify the grouping of the Grap- 
tolites into a separate class, the /?-habdophora. 

It is my pleasant duty to express my most sincere thanks to 
Profs. James Hall, John M. Clarke, C. E. Beecher and R. P. Whit- 
field, who, by their kind advice and by generously placing at my 
disposal literature and collections, have enabled me to complete 
this paper. 


* Allmann-states, as another distinction, the differing communication between the hydrotheca and 
central cavity. The living Hydroids have only a constricted point of communication or even an 
imperfect diaphragm, while the point of communication of the Graptolites is regarded as not con- 
stricted, though the latter needs verification. as there are indications of a slight constriction in some 
species. For instance, Tullberg observed, in slides of Diplograptus palmeus, Barr., that “ the thecal 
partitions are in all sections well marked and provided with thickened inner edges.” 


DEVELOPMENT AND Mops or GrowrTsH or DretogrRaptus. 245 


The writer has been highly gratified at having placed in his hands, 
by the courtesy of Prof. James Hall, a large slab bearing a colony 
of Diplograptus. The fossil is not only interesting because it 
adds a new locality and a new horizon — the Hudson River 
group, the slab coming from a railroad-cut near the Abbey, south 
of Albany, N. Y.—but also on account of the remarkable size 
and mode of preservation of the colonial stock. The size of the 
fossil can be taken from the figure on plate IV which is a repro- 
duction in approximately natural size. One rhabdosome measures 
80 mm.; another 70 mm., the latter reaching a length of 40 mm. 
The. diameter of the whole colony, therefore, may easily have 
been 200mm. The slab, however, is covered with broken-off rhab- 
~ dosomes ‘of still larger dimensions, and especially with longer 
hydrocauli. One of these rhabdosomes is 72mm. long and is 
attached to a hydrocaulus 67 mm. in length. This example 

illustrates the remarkable length of the hydrocauli of some 
- rhabdosomes, the bearing of which fact on the questivn of the 
mode of life of the colony has been discussed in this paper. A 
comparison of this rhabdosome with those of the colony makes 
evident that there was a great difference in the length of the 
hydrocauli of nearly equally long rhabdosomes; and the profuse 
occurrence of detached long-stalked rhabdosomes indicates that 
the colony, as we see it now, may have lost a great number of 
them. The latter supposition is supported by the presence of a 
dense intricate mass of hydrocauli near the center of the colony. 
It is probable, therefore, that while the remains of 30 rhabdo- 
somes can be counted now in the colony, the latter, when alive, 
was composed of a considerably greater number. 

The center is so much obscured by the superposition of several 
rhabdosomes that it appears as a solid film in which only the 
outline of the central disc can be discerned with difficulty. 

A remarkable feature of the colony is the great variety of 
aspect presented by the rhabdosomes, according to the direction 
in which they became compressed, and the different states of. 
preservation. Though the majority of the rhabdosomes of this 
colony, from their general appearance, might be identified as 
D. pristis, Wall, it would seem that the dimensions of the rhab- 
dosomes are such as to constitute a difference from the forms of 
D. pristis, Hall, as found in the Utica slate. Moreover, some of 


946 ReEporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


the rhabdosomes, if found detached, would certainly be identi- 
fied as D. guadrimucronatus, Hall; and others approach D. mu- 
cronatus, Hall. It is probable that a closer study of the colonies 
of Diplograptus occurring in the Utica and Hudson River slates 
will necessitate a revision of the species of this genus. The 
strangeness of the appearance of many stipes is still increased 
by irregularly distributed aggregations of pustules which have 
‘their origin in crystallizations of iron pyrite within the 
rhabdosomes. 
Addendum. , 

To my regret, Wiman’s important paper, “ Ueber die Grapto- 
liten,” was received too late to be given the deserved appreciation 
in this paper. I will, however, not miss this opportunity to thank 
the author for the full reproduction of my preliminary note as well 
as for the publication of his highly developed methods of prepara- 
tion, which, I hope, can be applied successfully to my material. 
Besides, the writer wishes to make a few remarks on some objec- 
tions raised by Wiman. | 

Regarding the objection to the use of the terms which Hall 
introduced for the compound colonial stock of the Dichograptide 
(called by mistake compound J/onograptsde instead of compound 
Monoprionide), | think that the development of the colonial 
stock of Diplograptus, published in this Report, will justify the 
application of the terms in so far as it shows that the “central 
disc” of Diplograptus originally lies at the sicular end of the 
colony, for it is among the earliest outgrowths of the sicula. The 
fact that this sicula, in later stages of growth, wanders outward, 
away from the disc, budding thecs between the two, is a later 
complication which, in my opinion, does not materially affect the 
homology of the discs of Dichograptus and Diplograptus. In 
case the thece of the primary rhabdosome would not grow 
in the direction of the initial part of the sicula, but away from 
it, as in Dachograptus, then the primary sicula would remain 


always at the disc; or, in other words, the disc would continue 


to lie at the sicular end of the rhabdosome. The “central discs” 
of Dichograptus and Diplograptus therefore are, genetically, iden- 
tical. The difference between the two comes in when the 
colonial stock of Dzplograptus, by means of “ gonangia,” pro- 
duces new stipes, while in Dichograptide the latter are formed 


DEVELOPMENT AND Mops or Growrn or Dretoaraprtus. 247 


by branching. If the sicula, remaining in connection with the 
parent colony, had developed their own’ central discs, the 
latter must appear, by analogy with the primary rhabdosome, at 
the first central disc, where, however, no indications of such 
secondary central discs have been observed. The antisicular 
ends of the secondary stipes connect directly with the antisicular 
end of the primary stipe, thus forming that connecting stem for 
which I adduced Hall’s term “ funicle.” While the central disc 
of Diplograptus, though not in secondary position, but in origin, 
is identical with Hall’s central disc, Wiman is certainly right in 
disapproving the application of the term “funicle” for the con- 
necting stem of Diplograptus; for, while the latter, in Diplo- 
graptus,is apparently formed by the connection of the antisicular 
ends of the secondary stipes, that of the Dichograptide is the 
product of branching. 

Wiman objects to the comparison of the sicule-bearing capsules 
_ with gonangia, and sees in them gemmating individuals, evidently 
referring to his interesting observation of gemmation within 
individuals among the Dendroidea. In the apparently complete 
series of growth stages of Diplograptus pristis described in this 
report, under the assumption that the “gonangia” were only 
organs of asexual propagation, and the sicule consequently only 
buds; sexual generation would on this supposition be entirely 
eliminated, and this is most improbable. If it be supposed now 
that gonangia, which are not preserved, existed somewhere on 
_ the hydrothecze (the appendages observed by Hall might be ad- 
duced here), and that these sexually produced larve, then it is 
inconceivable that these could have developed anything but 
sicule; for the growth of the whole colony, as well as that of 
the stipes, starts clearly from sicule. Hence we would have 
the same product, sicule, by sexual generation and a sexual 
gemmation, which is improbable again. The capsules agree, as 
their description shows, wholly with the gonangia of the Ser- 
tularians in their general features. The fact, also, that the 
larvee reached such a high stage of development within the 
capsules is not without analogy among the Hydrozoans, e. g., 
Sertularia cupressina discharges larve already ciliated; Tubularia 
coronata even “actinule” with tentacles. Retaining the com- 
parison of the Graptolites with the Sertularians, the budding of 


24.8 ReEporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


the colony of Diplograptus from the sicula is certainly homolo- 
gous to the budding of the Hydroid colony from a sexually pro- 
duced larva. 

While it thus appears that there is a great simnilanee between 
the “gonangia” of Diplograptus and their products, and those 
capsules of the calyptoblastic Hydrozoa which inclose the sexual 
glands and their products, there is none at all between “gonangia” 
and thece, such as the gemmation individuals observed by 
Wiman possess. Neither is the possible objection that the gonangia 
ought toappear on thece sufficient, for there are living forms 
enough among the Hydrozoans in which the sexual glands appear 
on the hydrocaulus. The discovery of sicule only in the gonangia 
does not exclude the possibility that the latter before that con- 
tained male or female generative buds which sexually produced 
eggs, these developing into sicule. Neither the generative buds 
nor the eggs, which are both always very soft, could be expected 
to be preserved, while the blastostyle from which these gen- 
erative glands sprung, and which later gave attachment to the 
sicule, is sometimes observed. There is no need of supposing 
parthenogenesis in the gonangia as the whole difference between 
the recent and the fossilized gonangia may consist in the non- 
preservation of the generative buds within the latter, and the 
longer continued existence of the gonangial test for the purpose 
of brooding the larve. 

I expected that the “pneumatocyst” would be objected to. 
Yet I thought it my duty to publish the supposition which the. 
described organ and its peculiarities so strongly suggest. As 
stated in this report, the pneumatocyst is by no means a heavily 
chitinized organ ; 1t cannot compare in this regard even with the 
gonangia. It is true the rhabdosome was inflexible, but this 
was not in my opinion possible, only because the colony was 
moored, but it was so in spite of the floating habit of the colony, 
because it could not be avoided as long as the animals sought 
protection by a chitin us periderm which was not articulated. _ 
There are Sertularide and Campanularide to-day which are at- 
tached to floating objects, and which have a chitinous periderm. 
The virgula which, according to Wiman, kept the rhabdosome 
in an upright position, may as well have served to protect the 
fragile, because inflexible, rhabdosome from breaking; for if the 


DEVELOPMENT AND Mop or GrowrTsu oF DrenograAptus. 249 


latter was once stiff, it certainly was of advantage to resist 
breaking so far as possible. While Wiman finds it difficult to 
imagine how stiff tufts of Monograptide a meter long could have 
been suspended, I encountered the same difficulty in trying to 
imagine how the long and heavy rhabdosome of Dplograptus 
pristis could have been supported by the very slender and often 
very long hydrocaulus. I may be also allowed to refer here to the 
disproportion between the rhabdosome and the thread-like pro- 
cess of the sicula in Mewandrograptus (Moberg, J. ¢.). The waves 
were of no danger to the little colony, as the latter probably kept 
in deeper water. It also would be strange that complete hydro- 
somes are so rare when they would have been moored and could 
have been buried in situ; and supposing that the fragility of the 
rhabdosome forbade the preservation of the rhabdosomes in con- 
nection with the center, the former ought to be found, at least, 
often in stellate arrangement. 
32 


Explanations of Plates. 


Legend. f. funicle.. 
c. .central disc. 
g. gonangium. 
pn. basal cyst. | 
Types of figures on Plates I-III from the Utica slate of Dolge- 
ville, N. Y. | 
| 7 Paar f. 
Fig. 1.—Dplograptus pristis, Hall. Natural size. 
Fig. 2.—Dziplograptus uedemanni, Gurley. Natural size. 
Fig. 3.—D. [euedemanni, Gurley. 
Gonangia preserved as pits. x 4. 
Fig. 4.—D. Fuedemanni, Gurley. 
Central disc with inclosed funicle; part of the speci- 
men represented on Pl. Il, fig. 1. xX 22. 
Fig. 5.—D. pristis, Hall. x 4. 
g.— Gonangiun, filled with sicule. 
s,—Sicula with two thece. 
s,.— Rhabdosome with discernible sicula. 
Fig. 6.—D. Ruedemanni, Gurley. x 10. 
f.— Inside of funicle. 
c.— Inside of central disc. 
Fig. 7.—D. Puedemanni, Gurley. X 2. 
The basal cyst is broken out. 


pn.— Impression of basal cyst. 
Fig. 8.—D. pristis, Hall. x 3. 


Fig. 9.—D. pristis, Hall. xX 2. 
Fig. 10.—D. euedemanni, Gurley, X $. 
View of the under side. 


PLATE 1. 


wy 


“Fa os 


ew, 


SS 
er 
aN 


SS 
SS 
me 


of 

Ee SS ONCE 
er freezes STON 
eon aty 


Zi 
SEDAN 


d, 


ESSE 


OA SSS 


NNT, 


TT | 


KAD LR ER 


ODED 


SEEDY 


Diplograptus. 


1 Aik ‘ * 


er he AN . a 
’ . x ®, 
= ; . ba , 


a 
int 
, 
f 5 
A 
lf i 
; 
i : 
Vi 
5, AY 
7 4 Py 
, ° 
“ 
te 
a 
% 
: 
4; 
. 
F 
‘5 
7 
: ry 
ul 
: 


Prats II. 


Fig. 1.—D. Ruedemanni, Gurley. x 6. 
Shows middle plate of basal cyst. 
Fig. 2.—D. Ruedemanni, Gurley. x 6. 
Fig. 3—D. Ruedemanni, Gurley. x 7. 
Fig. 4.—D. Ruedemanni, Gurley. x 10. 
b.— Blastostyle. — 
Fig. 5.— Restoration of D. pristis, Hall. Natural size. 
Fig. 6.—D. pristis, Hall. Young rhabdosome. x 
h.— Hydrocaulus. 
v.— Virgula. 


PLATE 2. 


Diplograptus. 


: racge 
“o i pif ae 


OR ) 


i, 


«/ 
! " Fel a 5 ia My ¢ Ge i r 
AD, 4 1 oe \y* 2 ie | ‘, 2 4; Pa 3 - ‘ 7 
Ren is ; i ' 
citi ee ye 8 on i” , : “+ 
Pe baa! Yie't hieti igty’ sta! ‘is ‘iy ii wp me 
4 ) x * a r , ; 
. - : 7 
: i Fi 4 
ar i eo % “a 
at) ere 5 ee TASSP bd i? 
“ ql cote Ns : a 
' ‘ ‘ 
- 7y + 
ee is, r Wy ' i hay t 
‘ c wl * ’ 
yh Mi 
a ie i | rod +) j we. 2 ve ms | 
‘ ; «'s shee ) . 4 % * 
* “ aa c 
‘ P 
* , - 
Fi { Lc v 
4 v ' r 
» } eer t¢ é } vi ] 
w 
+ 3 . a 
. | y 
- . pias ‘ \ ' 4 4 2 . ¥ 
6 / P > 
. . 
tring *s ' fil > hee ‘ Ae 
‘ i ‘+ “ P 4 , he 4. ‘ 
< ‘ oh i - 
eal Lara? y [ bs he / aan 
f rh a 
“ i ' 
<i " ‘ 
} P 
wv - A 
‘ es e i 
> ‘ 7 
, a ‘ 
. ’ 
a | . 2" 
i « 


OAT, ae +“ : : ri 
tig) 2 . ; 
, f ~ 
{ } » 
J di ios. nue Bie | ie 
A ERIE so rnceeb ok -¢ . 
an f ¥ 
rat bin a wisest Bat TOvH i) ws | 
? ea Wh F es (ay 4 é 
-_ Rik Seti: 
PT a etl Lae r } a 
i yi 5) ty >. ‘ 7 « > 6 e 
; AL ; 4 
erg ie - : 


ian Oe 
Diplograptus pristis, Hall. 
Figs. 1, 2, 3.—Sicule. x 2. : 
Fig. 8a.— Natural size. 
Fig. 3b.— Basal cyst. x 6. 
Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7.— Young hydrosomes. x 2. 
Rhabdosomes, with one theca each. 
Fig. 6a.— Basal cyst. x 6. 
Fig. 7a.— Basal cyst. x 4. 
Figs. 8, 9.— Young hydrosomes. x 2. 
Rhabdosomes, with two thece each. 
Fig. 10.— Young hydrosome. X 2. | 
Rhabdosome with three hydrothece. 
Fig. 11.— Young primary hydrosome. X 2. 
Rhabdosome, with five thece. 
Fig. 12.— Young primary hydrosome. x 2. 
Rhabdosome with seven thece. 
Fig. 13.— Young primary hydrosome. x 2. 
Rhabdosome with 11 thece. 
Fig. 14.— Young primary hydrosome. x 2. 
Rhabdosome with 13 thece. 
Figs. 15, 16.— Hydrosome with first generation of siculae.{, x 2. 
h.— Hydrocaulus of primary rhabdosome. 
Fig. 17.— Hydrosome with first generation of siculea. x 2. 
The hydrocauli have grown longer. 
Fig. 18.—do. The sicule have begun to produce thecx. x 2. 
Fig. 19.— Hydrosome, with first generation of rhabdosomes. 
2: | 
a.— Primary rhabdosome. 
Fig. 20.— Hydrosome with second generation of gonangia and 
siculea. x 2. ; opts 
Fig. 21.—do. x 2. 
Fig. 2la.— Center of hydrosome. x 4. 
Fig. 22.—do. Natural size. 
Fig. s.—Sicula, arrested by hydrocaulus. 
Fig. 22a.— x 2. 
Fig. 23.—do. Natural size. : 
| Fig. 23a.—Central disc with pit. x 2. 
Fig. 24.—Adolescent hydrosome. Natural size. 
Two generations of rhabdosomes (I and II) and one 
of gonangia (g). 
Fig. 25.— Central disc with two sicule. x 4. 
Fig. 26.— Central disc with four sicule. x 4. 


PLATE 53, 


Diplograptus pristis, Hall. 


Prats LY. 


Fig.1. Diplograptus pristis, Hall. _ Naturalsize. Hudson river 
shale, Albany, N. Y. 


PLATE 4. 


ek 
PD 


Diplograptus pristis, Hall. 


Prats VY. 


Fig. 1. Diplograptus Ruedemanni, Gurl. Natural size. Part 
of slab with colonies in natural position. Utica shale, Dolge- 
ville, N. Y. 


Tx s, 


WERT « 
Wor s 


S 


Enlarged 14 diameters (explanation of plate in error) 


Diplograptus Ruedemanni, Gurley. 


‘ 
7 TON 
ee ap wg \ 


A Revision. of the Sponges and Ccelen- 
_ terates of the Lower Helderberg 
Group of New York. 


By George Herpert Girry. 


sf a 
Jy’ 
vev & 


A Revision of the Sponges and Ccelenterates of 
the Lower Helderberg Group of New York. 


By GEORGE HERBERT GIRTY. 


Since 1861, when Prof. James Hall published volume 3 of the 
Palaeontology of New York, no systematic review of the Lower 
Helderberg fauna has been attempted. During that time the 
_ fossils of this period have been much studied, not only in New 
York but elsewhere, and many additions have been made both in 
genera and species. 

Specimens from the Lower Pentamerus and Tentaculite beds 
of the New York series are generally difficult to manipulate, on 
account of the refractory nature of the very hard and sometimes 
siliceous limestone which forms their matrix. On the other hand, 
those from the Shaly limestone are usually somewhat crushed. 
However, in certain layers of this horizon exposed at the Indian 
Ladder, in the Helderberg mountain, the fossils occur very per- 
fectly silicified, and at the same time the matrix is more 
calcareous than is usually the case. This fortunate concurrence 
renders it possible to etch the rock successfully, and specimens 
obtained in this way compare not unfavorably with the products 
of recent dredgings. Delicate fronds of Frnzsrexua, arborescent 
Bryozoans and spiny forms of Orania are not uncommon, 
together with sponge spicules, annelid teeth, embryonic trilobites, 
and other minute organisms which could not be obtained by 
ordinary methods, since they would not be observed in the field. 

The fauna itself is remarkable in many ways. In certain geo- 
logical horizons, probably owing tocontrasting physical conditions, 
the different zoological groups were markedly localized. With the 
Lower Helderberg Group it is different. The conditions seem to 
have been congenial for the growth and preservation of nearly 
all kinds of marine life at different periods during the deposition 
of these strata, and in a single locality as many as 500 species are 
known to occur, representing all, or nearly all, the fossil families 


262 REpPoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


then existing. Certain forms also enjoyed a remarkable develop- 
ment, notably the trilobites, in Aormasris and wonderful types of 
Licnas and DaLmanirEs. 

This group of beds is of especial interest in view of its posi- 
tion, transitional between the Silurian and Devonian ages, and its 
possession of strong and very interesting faunal relations with the 
Niagara and Oriskany periods. Recent discussions have brought 
these faunal relations into prominence and have, to a certain 
extent, necessitated a revision of this fauna. 

With a few exceptions the specimens upon which the solace 
observations are based all come from typical localities in the 
Helderberg mountains of Albany county, N. Y. 

In this paper I have covered the ground only as far as the - 
Echinoderms, but have endeavored to include all species described 
up to the present time from the Lower Helderberg strata in New 
York. A few new species are described, and wherever the material 
has afforded data as to unknown or questioned structures, this class 
of facts is also added. This is especially noticeable in the case 
of the genera Hinpra and Reorpracuuires. Of the structure of 
the latter, a remarkable specimen has suggested a new stand- ~ 
point for the interpretation of itsstructure. In the case of Hinpsa, 
nothing is added to our present knowledge, but Raurr’s views 
have been completely corroborated in a few disputed points. 
The work done in this review, while it includes some of the more 
perplexing organisms among invertebrate fossils, does not, from 
its incompleteness, warrant any conclusions as to the geologic 
age of the Lower Helderberg fauna, but may form a starting 
point for investigations which will definitely determine that 
question. 

New Haven, June 1, 1894. 


eee Ge TA. 


Order LITHISTIDA. 
Suborder EUTAXICLADINA. 
Family Hrypupa, Rauff. 
Hindia, Duncan. 


HINDIA FIBROSA, Roemer, (sp.) 1869. 


Calamopora jibrosa (not C. fibrosa, Goldfuss), Roemer, 1860. Fauna des Westl. 
Tenn., p. 20. 


Astylospongia inornata, Hall, 1863. Sixteenth Rept. New York State Cab. 
Nat. Hist., p. 70. 


Spheerolites Nicholsoni, Hinde, 1875. Abstract, Proc. Geol. Soc., p. lxxxviii. 
In Q. J. G.S., vol. 31. 

Hindia spheroidalis, Duncan, 1879. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), vol. 4, p. 84. 

Hindia fibrosa, Miller, 1889. N. Amer. Geol. and Pal., p. 160. 

Hindia spheroidalis, Ulrich, i890. Geol. Surv. Illinois, vol. VIII, p. 226 et seq. 


The first name which this sponge received is Calamopora,. 
Jjibrosa, Roemer. Although the term arose from an incorrect 
identification of one of Go.pruss’s species, this is no reason for 
rejecting the specific name in favor of one of later date, 
especially as these two species belong to widely different genera. 

The structure and position of Hinp1a have .for years been the 
subject of considerable contention, but it may at least be affirmed 
that Hrypia is a siliceous sponge, and belongs to the order of 
Lithistida. Yet this conclusion does not stand without a 
challenge. Downoan asserts the calcareous nature of the sponge, 
and only recently Stzinmann* has denied that it is a sponge at 
all but considers it a Favosite coral. 

As to the nature and mode of union of the spicular elements, 
the later investigations of Hinps “ confirm the careful descriptions 
of Hinpia given in Raurr’s paper in nearly every respect,’+ but 
his conclusions as to its systematic position are not the same. 
While Hryve considers the genus more nearly related to the 


*STEINMANN, 1886. Neues Jahrb. Min. I,1 Heft, p. 91. 
+ HINDE, 1887. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), p. 75. 


264 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Anomocladina (\. c.), Raurr refers it without hesitation to the 
Tetracladina. . 

Uxricx’s observations and conclusions “respecting the minute 
structure of the sponge agree very closely with those of both 
Ravrr and Hinoz,” but he follows the former in placing Hinp1a 
with the Zetracladina. He describes the structure of the sponge 
as follows: : 

“The individual spicules have four rays or arms extending from 
an inflated center. Three of the rays are nearly straight, of 
nearly equal length, with their extremities expanded mostly in a 
vertical direction. By their union a tripod-shaped body is formed, 
from the upper surface of which the short fourth ray projects. 

“The connected structure of the skeleton is easily understood 
after we have once determined the true form of the individual 
spicules. In the first place the spicules form rather regular con- 
centric layers, in which the individuals are arranged alternately 
so that any one portion of each spicule is placed directly over or 
beneath the corresponding portion of the spicules of the third, 
fifth, seventh and ninth layers. Thestumpy fourth ray is always 
directed toward the exterior, while the three tripodal rays extend 
toward the central nodes of three adjacent spicules of the layer 
- immediately beneath. The upper portions of the expanded 
terminations in each case clasp about one-third of the fourth ray 
of the latter, while the lower portion extends downward in a 
recurving manner to the node or fourth ray of the spicule 
directly beneath it.” 

This description differs in two particulars from the structure as 
worked out by Ravrr* and corroborated by Uinpr. Ravrr 
showed that the union of the spicules does not take place by the 
junction of the frilled ends of their rays with each other, as 
stated by Duncan, at first accepted by Hixpsn,t+ and as the above 
quotation certainly implies. Their mode of union is well shown 
in figure 2, plate IT. 

The tripodal rays are smooth on the inner and toothed on the 
outer side.{ ‘The‘union is effected in the following manner: The 


* H. Raurs, 1886. Sitzuagsber. Niederrh Gesellsch. zu Bonn. 

+ HInpDE, 1883. Cat Foss. Sponges of Brit. Mus., p. 57. 

+— ‘‘und dass die Verbindung in die Weise geschieht dass das ausgebreitete und gezaihnelte 
Koépfchen des einen Armes gegen das in derselben Kanalflichen liegende convexe, ebenfalls 
gezihnelte Armmittelstiick dexjenigen seitlich benachbarten Elementes stisst, dessen Knoten- 
punkt nicht mit den Ersten auf demselben Querschnitt liegt, sondern gleichsam in einer halbe 
Knctenentfernung (halbe Miischenhohle) dartiber oder darunter (RauFF, l. c. p. 5). 


Lower HELDERBERG FAUNA. 265 


expanded and dentate terminus of one arm is supported upon 
the central dentate portion of the arm belonging to the spicular 
element laterally adjacent, whose center does not lie in the same 
canal face as that of the first, but half a mesh-length above or 
below it. (Raurr l.c.) He explains Duncan’s figures (Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist., 1879, vol. IV, pl. [X, figs. la, 2, 2) by supposing that 
they have been drawn from a tangential section of the sponge in 
which the real union of the spicules can not be distinguished. 

Neither Hinpr nor Raurr makes any mention of the re- 
curvature of the tripodal ray to the node of the second row 
beneath or toward the center, as described by Uxrion. ' Ravrr 
does say, however, that possibly the aborted fourth ray may, in 
‘some cases, be prolonged outward to join the node of the next 

spicule above, on the same corner of the canal, thus strengthening 
' the connection and materializing the angle. He thinks, in fact, 
that he has observed this prolongation in one instance. On the 
other hand, the atrophy of the fourth ray seems natural, if it is 
considered that the inflated terminations of the arms are often 
so strongly prolonged that they impinge upon the central node 
of the spicule with which they are bound. This lateral 
outgrowth in the course of time must stunt the fourth arm 
(Racrr 1. c.).° 

My own observations on Hinpra confirm those of Raurr in 
every essential particular. The only exception is that the spicules 
in the Lower Helderberg specimens seem a little more slender, 
and the whole spicular net-work more light and elegant in con- 
sequence. Neither have I seen the prolongation of the fourth 
ray above alluded to. 

Upward of 175 specimens of Hindia fibrosa have been 
examined by me, and I have observed the individual spicules 
well preserved in but one instance. In this example, the charac- 
ter of the spicules themselves and of the whole spicular frame- 
work, has been maintained with a fidelity and perfection that 
leaves little to be desired. Thespecimen in question has an outer 
coating of pyrite. The interior is limonite, becoming somewhat 
ochreous toward the center. The sponge skeleton appears as a 
polished and exceedingly perfect cast in which the shape and 
mode of union of the constituent spicular elements are clearly 


portrayed. 
34 


‘966 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


= A few examples exhibit a singular condition of preservation, 
and show a striking resemblance to a minute Favosite coral. The 
radiating canals appear to be bounded by walls of silica, which 
are pierced at regular intervals by pores. The walls, however, 
are seen to be double, preserving between them an imperfect cast 
of the spicular framework. This framework evidently had been 
overlaid by a siliceous deposit, then the colloidal silica of the 
spicules replaced by calcite, and the whole sponge filled in with 
the muddy sediment which now forms its matrix. 

In a large majority of specimens, the original siliceous elements 
of the sponge have been imperfectly replaced by calcite. When 
not decomposed, sections of these show well-developed walls, in 
which the spicular mesh is Pe from the secondary 
deposit. 

All stages exist A Ry cute specimens where the walls of the - 
radiating canals are well preserved and prominent upon the sur- 
face, suggesting a globular form of Camrerrus, to others in which 

the tube walls have been dissolved out, and the shaly matrix re- 
duced to a soft and somewhat ochreous mass. Silicified examples 
exist chiefly as casts. The radiating canals are represented by 
radiating pillars, and these are connected with one another by 
trabecular processes representing the pores which originally con- 
nected the canals into a common system. In a few specimens, 
traces of the original spicules seem to be preserved. | 

I doubt if in any of the Lower Helderberg specimens, there is — 
a true replacement by pyrite, where the iron in solution replaces 
the original material, molecule for molecule, thus preserving the 
minute structure of the organism. However, in specimens com- 
ing from a certain layer of the Shaly limestone, a crude pyritiza- 
tion occurs, and such specimens can be nicely etched. Inasmuch | 
as the pyrite is granular and the structure no better preserved 
than in other examples, it seems probable that small crystals of 
pyrite are really embedded in or-cemented by silica. This con- 
clusion is substantiated by a specimen, half of which is preserved 
in this way as pyrite, and the rest appears as an encrusting shell 
of silica in the manner above described. | 

In a specimen to which reference has been made, and the only 
one which preserves the original structure of the sponge, nearly 
the reverse of this process seems to have occurred. The spicular 


Lower HELDERBERG FAUNA. 267 


framework was probably overlaid with pyrite while it was still 
in a perfect condition. The spicules themselves were then dis- 
solved out, and a deposition of pyrite over the exterior sealed up 
the structure from further alteration. An oxidization of the 
pyrite at the center to limonite finally reduced the specimen to 
the condition in which it is now presented. 

The evidence afforded by the Lower Helderberg specimens as 
to the original composition of Hrnpzra is anything but conclusive, 
and at first sight seems to contradict the siliceous nature of the 
sponge. Specimens of LysactineLia, the undoubted Hexactinel- 
lid genus described below, are represented in the majority of 
cases by amorphous pyrite, while Hrypra, as before stated, is never 
- $0 preserved. On the-other hand, a few examples of Lysacrin- 
ELLA are replaced by crystalline pyrite, and no calcareous tests 
occur pyritized. Thus, while Hinpra differs in preservation 
from most examples of a known siliceous organism, it is also un- 
like the brachiopods and other calcareous forms from the same 
beds which are usually silicified. In view of its structure, which 
is clearly Lithistidan in type, and of the facts adduced by H1npu 
and Raurr, despite its ambiguous preservation-characters, the 
preponderance of evidence is plainly in favor of the position 
taken by those writers, that Hiyp1a is a siliceous sponge of the 
order Liruistipa. 

The smallest specimén observed by me in the collection is 6 
mm. and the largest 64 mm. in diameter. This shows a much 
greater range in size than noticed by H1npr, whose measurements 
are 13 to 45 mm., or by Raurr who gives 10 to 45 mm. 

formation and locality. Lower Pentamerus and Shaly lime- 
stones of the Lower Helderberg group, at Clarksville, Indian 
Ladder, and other localities in New York. The same species is 
cited from the Silurian of Russia, Scotland, Germany, New 
Brunswick, Indiana, Kentucky, western Tennessee and Minnesota. 


Order HEXACTINELLIDA. 
Suborder LYSSACINA. 
Lysactinella, gen. noy. 


The presence in the Lower Helderberg Group of a hexactinellid 
sponge, belonging to the Lyssacine order, was first made known 


268 ReEporT. oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


from casts of spicules in a phosphatic nodule coming from the 
Shaly limestone. For more than four years Professor C. E. 
Beecher has had in his possession such nodules, free spicules, and 
sections of an entire specimen from the same horizon. - 

It has been the custom to place in Hyalostelia dissociated hex- 
actinellid spicules of various forms. The type of this genus is 
Hyalonema Smithi, Young and Young,* from the Carboniferous 
strata of England. ‘The spicules described by these writers are 
of three kinds, “ (a) nail-like, some with four tapering generally 
unequal arms, a fifth projecting at right angles to these, others 
approaching the sexradiate type by the projection of a rounded, 
sometimes stalked process, opposite to the fifth; (6) sexradiate, 
with the arms of various sizes but always projecting, and of vari- 
ous number, either by reduction or by the adhesion of other 
spicules; (c) long, smooth, slender, tubular rods (the Serpula 
-parallela, M’Coy ) tapering toward the extremity and ending in 
the anchoring hooklets, the tip of the rod _ being either not, or 
only slightly inflated.” 

The spicules thus enumerated and described were referred by 
the writers to the existing Lyssacine hexactinellid, HyaLonEma. 
In 1879, two years later, Zrrre.t recognized Hyalonema Smithi 
as a distinct form and proposed for it the name Hyatosteria. In 
1883 Hinprt proposed to limit the type species “to the simple 
hexactinellid spicules, which are the most abundant forms in the 
beds at Cunningham Baidland, and to the spicular rods with or 
without four anchoring hooks at their termination.” The abnor- 
mal spicules were shown to belong to a form, subsequently 
described by Carter as Holasterella conferta. 

The form of the sponge in Hyatosrzxi4 and the range of its 
spicular elements are unknown. The fundamental conception of 
the species by Youne and Youne seems to have been its stalked 
condition wherein it resembles Hyatonrema. The Lower Helder- 
berg species here discussed is from a widely different horizon. 
Since, moreover, there is no evidence that it once possessed 
anchoring spicules, it seems impossible to refer it to HyaLosTE.ta. 


* YOUNG and YounG, 1877. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), vol. XX, pp. 425-432, Pls. XIVand XV. Referred 
to by the same writers in 1876 as Acanthospongia Smithi, Y. and Y. Cat. of West. Scot. Foss. 

+ ZITTEL, 1879. Handbuch der Palzeontologie, Bd. 1, II, Lief. 

+HINDE, 1883. Cat. Foss. Sponges of Brit. Mus. p. 150. 


LowrErR HELDERBERG FAUNA. 269 


Therefore to receive this and allied forms, I have proposed the 
generic name LysacTINELLA.* 

The material on which this genus is established consists of 
spicular casts in phosphatic nodules, isolated spicules, and an 
entire sponge. The free spicules are preserved mostly as pyrite, 
but, in a few examples, they are silicified. Two types of these 
spicules are recognizable ; one extremely ornate, the other simple 
and without spines. The complete specimen mentioned contains 
only the simpler sort of spicules. In the large collection of 
Lower Helderberg sponges examined, no other entire specimen 
of Lysacrinetta was found. This must fairly represent the 
various constituent spicular elements of the sponge, and probably 
its original form. 

In shape it is a flattened sphere, and in this particular is 
indistinguishable from the ordinary Hinpra. <A polished section, 
however, clearly. distinguishes the two types of structure, and 
the regular radiating canals of Hinpra are very characteristic. 

This genus will also include a number of Silurian hexactinellid 
sponges, known only by scattered spicules, especially when there 
is no reason to believe that they were attached by a basal tuft of 
anchoring spicules, as in Parrersonra or Hyatonema. Among 
such would be numbered Utrica’s Yyalostelia solivaga mentioned 
as isolated hexacts accompanying india jibrosa.t This 
species may be identical with Lysactinella Gebhardi, described 
below. ; 

Sponge spherical to subspherical, sessile, i. e., without anchor- 
ing spicules. Spicules (hexacts, pentacts, tetracts, etc.), without 
such modifications as in Holasterella, obscure the systematic 
arrangement and number of the spicular axes. 


LysacTINELLA GEBHARD, sp. NOV. 
Plate I, figures 1-21. 

Sponge flattened-spherical, composed of hexacts, pentacts, ete. 
Arms of the spicules simple rods, without ornamentation of 
nodes or spines. 

As seen in section, this sponge appears as amass of uncemented 
spicules, so great in number that it is difficult to differentiate 
individuals. These vary considerably in size and also in char- 


* bw, I loose, and azr¢v, spicule. 
+ ULRicH, 1890. Geol. Surv. Illinois, vol VIII, p. 232. 


270 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


acter. In dobenmiaine the latter there is a donee of uncertainty 
necessarily dependent on viewing only one plane, which cuts an 
object whose members lie in three. The original arrangement of of 
the spicules has doubtless been Jost, as they lie in great confusion, 
but usually, at or near the outside of the section, a number of 
spicules can be distinguished which may be referred with consid- 
erable certainty to the dermal layer. These spicules are larger 
than the other sponge elements, and appear to be pentacts, which 
rather favors the conclusion that they were | of a 
dermal position and character. 

~ There i is every reason to believe that the remaining spicules are 
3 hexacts or tetracts, and that monacts also are present. As all 
the _Spicules distinguishable in these sections are composed of 
simple, Straight rods, destitute of spines, I have » placed in in 1 another 
species ‘the elaborate and ‘spinose forms found “free, and have 
referred 7 ‘to Lysactinella Gebhardi the simple elements, whether 
occurrin g free or as spicular casts. In section a few Ae the spic- 
ules appear to have five arms in a single plane, with the possibility 
of two others at right angles to them. This may be the case, or 
it may be the result of the imperfect orientation of<the arms’ 
geometrically. This is not uncommon and might permit a sec- 
tion to cut portions of five hexactinellid arms. At all events, the 
number of such abnormal instances is so small that it can not 
affect the systematic position of the sponge. An outline, natu- | 
ral size, of a section taken near the center of the specimen is 
given on Plate II, figure 3. It measures in width 23 mm.; in 
height 9 mm. 

LyYS8acTINELLA PERELEGANS, Sp. NOV. 
Plate I, figures 22-381; Plate II, figure 1. 

Body of the sponge not known. Spicules ornate, with various 
arrangements of spines, thorns, etc. 

Horizon.— Both these species are found in the Shaly limestone 
at the Indian Ladder, Albany county, New York. . 


INCERTAE SEDIS. 
Ischadites, Murchison, 1839. 


IscHapITEs SquamMiFER, Hall, 1859. 
Dictyocrinites, Conrad, 1841. Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. New York, plate, fig. 22. 
Dictyocrinites squamifer, Hall, 1859. Pal. New York, vol. III, p. 135. 
Receptaculites squamifer, Hall, 1888. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pl. 
POT, figs. 1,2. 


Lower HELDERBERG FAUNA. O71 


Tschadites squamifer, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 291, Pl. XXIV, 
figs. 1, 2. . 3 

Receptaculites squamifer, Miller, 1889. N. Amer. Geol. and Pal., p. 164. 

Horizon. Shaly limestone. (Hall, 1859.) 


Receptaculites, De France, 1827. 
RECEPTACULITES INFUNDIBULIFORMIS, Eaton, 1882. 


Coscinopora infundibuliformis (not Goldfuss), Eaton, 18382. Geological Text- 
Book, p. 44, Pl. V, figs. 64, 65, : 

Receptaculites infundibuliformis (Eaton), Hall, 1863. Sixteenth Rep. New 
York State Cab. Nat. Hist., p. 67. 

Receptaculites infundibuliformis (Eaton), Hall, 1883. Rep. State Geologist for 
1882, expl. Pl. XXIII, fig. 10. 

Receptaculites monticulatus, Hall, 1883. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. 
Pl. XXIII, figs. 3-9, 11. Ye 

Receptaculites infundibuliformis, Miller, 1889. N. Amer. Geol. and Pal., p. 
163. 


Receptaculites monticulatus, Miller, 1889. N. Amer. Geol. and Pal., p. 164. 
Horizon. Shaly limestone. Helderberg Mountain, N. Y. 
| Receptaculites monticulatus = R. infundibuliformis.— This spe- 
cies, recognized by Hall as a synonym for R. infundibuliformis, 
is retained by Miller as a distinct form. 
In 1889, a paper was read by Raurr, before the Deutsche Geo- 
logische Beeelschatt, at the August session, giving briefly the 
results of his work on Receptacucirss, [scuapirEs, and Potye@ono- 
SPH#ZRITES, and an abstract of the paper was published in the 
transactions of the society.* This -abstract is summarized by 
Nicwoxtson+ as follows: 7 
“1, The Receptaculitidz are spherical or pyriform bodies, with 
a central closed cavity, the supposed basin-shaped examples being 
only fragments of the base. : 

2. Each of the individual spicular elements forming the mal 
of the bedy is composed of six parts, viz.: an external plate of 
- an essentially rhombic form, four diagonally intersecting tangen- 
tial arms whigh lie immediately below the outer plate, and a 
radial arm or pillar which springs from the tenter of the outer 

plate on its inner side and is directed perpendicularly in wards. 
3. An upper and a lower pole may be distinguished on the 
exterior surface, the arrangement of the plates at these points 
being peculiar. The basal pole (the starting point of growth) 


3 RAuvrFF, 1888. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geol. Gesellsch., Bd. XL, Heft 3, p. 606 et seq. 
NICHOLS ON and LYDEKKER, 1889. Manual of Paleontology, vol. II, p. 1563. 


272 _ Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


is constituted by a circle of eight or four plates. The apical pole 
is closed by a variable, but always large, number of plates. 

4, Hach of the five arms of the skeletal elements or spicules 
is traversed by an axial canal, the canals of the four tangential 
arms having a conspicuously fusiform shape. | 

5. The radial arms or pillars terminate on the inner or ‘gas- 
tral’ side in a conical dilation, which is laterally extended till 
adjoining pillars touch. This internal thickening of the radial 
pillars is not furnished. with a special “plate, corresponding with 
the external plate, and is not penetrated by transverse canals. 

6. The inner or ‘gastral’ wall of the fossil is imperforate, 
the pores described by Brittives being the result of fossilization. 

7. The genus Iscaanprrxs agrees essentially with RecrrracuLitEs 
in structure, but its skeletal elements are more slender. An 
apical aperture is in some cases clearly wanting in IscHaprTxs, 
and probably did not exist at all. 

8. The genus AcantHocxonia is identical with IscHapirTss. 
9. The geological range of TEED: extends to -the Upper 
_ Devonian. 

10. The genus PotyeonospHarites (SpH#ROsroNGIA) is simi- 
larly constructed to Recspracutires as regards the tangential 
arms of the spicules, but the radial arms or pillars are wanting. 

11. The Receptaculitidw are not sikiceous organisms, but the 
skeleton was originally calcareous, and the siliceous examples are 
the result of silicification. The group, therefore, can not be 
referred to the Hexactinellid sponges, and its systematic position . 
is still entirely uncertain.” 

These conclusions, as given by Raurr, embody, in large measure, 
the results obtained by previous writers on RecErTacuLitzEs, and 
furnish a basis for additional investigation. : 

Upwards of twenty specimens, including fragments, of /ecep- 
taculites infundibuliformis have been examined by me, exemplify-. 
ing several <lifferent conditions of preservation. Qf these, one in 
which the original tigsue has been replaced by pyrite, is of unusual : 
interest. ‘The excellence of pyrite as a medium of preservation 
for fossils is shown in the recent discovery, in the Utica slate, of 
Trilobites retaining antennae and other appendages. The speci- 
men in question leaves little to be desired in the way of preserva- 
tion. It displays details of structure rarely indicated, and may 
serve to throw some light on the phylogenetic position of this 


Lower HELDERBERG FAUNA. B73 


perplexing organism. In section, this specimen, described in 
detail below, has the outline represented by the diagram on 
Plate III, figure 1. The edges are ragged, indicating that it is not 
complete, and probably preserves only the basal portion of a form 
which, when perfect, had somewhat the proportion of a pine cone 
(as described by Raurr). The surface structure consists of ridges 
which start from a point, the basal pole (Ravrr), and radiate 
spirally in two directions, after the manner of the engine-rolling 
on a watch. The ridges are thin, solid, high, and usually con- 
tinuous. The rhombic depressions which they form are well 
marked and deep. This description is true of both surfaces, but 
that one which is here called the gastral surface has the reticula- 
_ tion much reduced, perhaps one-fourth the size of the other. A 
comparison of the two surfaces may be made by referring to 
Plate II, figure 4, and Plate III, figure 1. Both faces are retained 
in an equal state of preservation, an unprecedented occurrence 
with the Lower Helderberg Recerracuttrss, the interior of which 
is rarely preserved at all. 

In this incomplete example, the basal pole exists only on the 
gastral sarface, where it is partly covered over. It may be 
inferred with certainty from other specimens, that a similar pole 
existed on the outer basal surface, directly beneath the gastral 
one. In general terms the organism consists of an outer and an 
inner, or gastral wall, connected by perpendicular processes. 
Each of these walls has, of course, an outer and an inner surface. 


The Outer Wall. 
Plate III, figures 2, 3, 4. 

The radiating ridges above referred to, intersect at regular in- 
tervals and form slender pillars at those points. From each of 
these pillars, near its outer end, there projects toward the right 
a peg-like spine, short, cylindrical and blunt. Across the floor 
of each rhomboidal pit, between opposite angles. run two rounded, 
fusiform channels. These channels extend well into the corners 
of the pit, where they make slight indentations. In the middle 
of each pit, at the point of intersection of the channels, is a still 
further depression. This is circular in outline or sometimes 
diamond-shaped, contracting slightly as it descends, and, at its 
base, communicates with a tube which serves to connect the inner 
with the outer wall. 


~ 


35 


274 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


At one time the tubes were probably normal to the two walls, _ 
but in places they now lie nearly tangent to them. This dis- . 


placement, as well as the absence of the lower basal pole from 
the field of the specimen, is apparently due to a skewing of the 
walls as the result of pressure. For the same reason, the spines 
above referred to may have projected longitudinally instead of 
laterally. This is shown by the fact that the spines in this speci- 
men bisect the obtuse angles, and that the long diagonal of the 
rhombus is normally directed horizontally instead of laterally. 

Where the tubes join the outer wall, their diameter is about 
one-half that of the rhomboidal pit,.but they diminish consider- 
ably in size as they approach the gastral surface. Whether the 

tubes taper gradually or. have a fusiform shape, can not be as- 
- serted. They are rather longer and more slender than in R. 
| Oweni, and I think are not fusiform. The character of the inner 
or gastrally directed surface of the outer wall is not presented 
by the Lower Helderberg specimen. | 


The Gastral Wall. 
- Plate II, figures 4 and 6; Plate III, figures 8 and 5. 

The points where the connecting tubes meet the inner wall 
are united longitudinally by low, rounded elevations which a 
fractured surface shows to be hollow. The channels thus formed 
probably connect with the interiors of the tubes. The characters 
of this surface are obscured by the nature of the pyrite which is 
distinctly granular. The inner wall has a vesicular structure, 
composed of labyrinthine canals. Each tube terminates immedi- 
ately beneath the center of one of the gastral rhombic pits, into 
which, however, it does not open directly, but into the canal net- 
work with which the gastral pits connect. Upon the gastral 
side the rhombic depressions are traversed by horizontal parti- 
tions, situated a little below the surface. These are thin and 
continuous, and undoubtedly represent some real feature in the 
original organization. It is probably owing to these structures 
that the radial tubes and the canals of the gastral wall are not 
filled with the shaly matrix, but with a white crystalline mineral 
impossible to confuse with it. | 


Lower Hetprersere Fatwa. 275 


Another feature of this specimen should not escape notice. 
The gastral surface is partly covered, to the depth of 3 mm. in, 
places, by a layer of minute acerate spicules. They lie in a con- 
fused mass and evidently are not in situ, but, since they are pre-. 
served as pyrite, like the test, they doubtless belonged to the 
organism itself. 

Reference has already been made to certain indications of 
crushing exhibited by the specimen in question. In the region 
of the basal pole the walls are held apart by the pillars, more or 
less normal to each. They gradually approach one another and 
their contact forms the limit of the fossil. That this is not the 
original condition is proved by a fracture, which shows the 

tubes lying nearly parallel with the two surfaces. Some of them 
retain a circular section, others are flattened into an ellipse, 
while many are broken‘and biconcave. (Plate III, fig. 8.) Still 
further evidence is afforded by the condition of the outer surface. 
Some of the tubes are there seen to have been forced up to a 
considerable distance through the rhombic pits, and on the same 
surface the ridges are so broken and crumpled in places that it 
is impossible to follow them. 

Another fine specimen iy this collection is that. figured by 
Hall, in Pal. New York, vol. VI, Plate XXIV, figures 3-7.* It 
is probably a cast representing the inner surface of the outer 
wall. Like most Lower Helderberg specimens it gives no 

indication of the nature or existence of a gastral wall. The 
radiating ridges are mostly absent or else represented by low, 
triangular, sinuous elevations which often form circular basins 
about the orifices of the radial tubes, instead of clear-cut 
rhombic depressions. Sometimes the points of intersection alone 
are represented by monticules, to which reference has been made 
by Prof. Hall. The tubes that run from the base of each rhom- 
bic pit, form, from their size and depth, a striking feature. 

A group of individuals which come next in excellence of preser- 
vation were found in the firmer portions of the Shaly limestone. 
On the whole the regular reticulate nature of the surface is more 
- apparent than in that above mentioned. This is partly due tothe 
fact that although the radiating ridges are not prominent, they are 


*This was the type specimen of Receptaculites monticulatus (Hall, 18838. Rep. State Geologist for 
1882, expl. pl. XXIII, figs. 3-9, 11), before Prof. Hall considered the species asynonym of R. infundi- 
buliformis. 


276 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


straight and continuous. Furthermore, these forms under dis- 
cussion are of a comparatively large size, whereas the specimen. 
of the monticulatus type is a small one, representing only the 
circumpolar region, where the reticulations, as they become 
finer, are less distinctly indicated. The radial tubes appear only 
as hemispherical depressions, one in the center of each rhomb. 
No details of structure are well defined. Fractures on several 
specimens show traces of the extension of the tubes upward, and 
one preserves indications of a roofing wall. That it is not the 
inner wall of the basal portion to which it is at present adjacent 
is shown by the fact, that not only does the upward prolongation 
of the tubes fall short of the line that indicates the structure in 
question, but furthermore it is continuous with the outer wall. 
It-is difficult, if not impossible, to determine the exact nature of 
preservation of these specimens. The fact that they are more or 
less silicified suggests that they represent the organism itself. 
Or the other hand, since the portion preserved exists: only as a 
surface, apparently without thickness, it seems credible that they 
are nothing more than casts. Yet this again is contradicted by 
the detail of the outer surface, which, on the whole, is the same 
as that of the pyritized specimen. Perhaps the forms in question 
result from a maceration of the original organism, producing a 
fossil which presents both internal and external characters at the 
same time. 

These specimens have all been more or less preserved by silica. 
The group described below comes from the softer portions of 
the Shaly limestone, and is represented chiefly by casts. Many 
exist only as reticulate, ferruginous markings on a flat shaly sur- 
face, while others have, in addition, rows of rounded elevations, 
which represent the tubes of better preserved examples. Several 
have a circular rim which is detachable. As far as can be ascer- 
tained from the material at hand, this rim uniformly contains on 
both surfaces the same characteristics as the silicified specimens, 
but in a state of poor preservation. The Lower Helderberg 
specimens, all of which, I believe, had a subspherical or conical 
shape when mature and whole, are now flattened so that the 
upper portion is nearly or quite contiguous to the base. Evidence 
relating to this point is scarce, yet it is thought that the truth of 
these statements can be established. The loose rim, then, is the 


Lower Hetperser¢ Fauna. is 


lateral portion of the organism, which, being even at first the 
thickest part of the wall, and now double, proved less destructible 
than the base and the fragile top. 


OxservATIons ON OrHerR Lower Hetprersere Specimens. “| 


The form of Receptaculites infundibuliformis is “ usually 
discoid, sometimes broadly infundibuliform. The upper surface 
is more or less depressed with frequently a small conical projec- 
tion in the center.”* Whether the specimens are regarded as 
entire individuals of an original saucer shape, or, as Ravurr 
claims, are merely basal portions of a cone-shaped test, the 
orientation of the fossil is attended with few difficulties on 
- account of the curvature of the surface and the starting point of 
the radiating-ridges. The surface uniformly preserved, which is 
convex in the better specimens, is either the outer or inner sur- 
face of the outer wall. That this surface is not the inner wall, 
is shown by the curvature and by tubes which are seen in 
traces directed upward from the.concave side. Furthermore this 
circumstance is the natural result of the physical conditions 
which attend the burial of such an organism. The base would be 
more or less protected and preserved by the bottom on which it 
rested, while the upper part, and later, the gastral wall of the 
lower, would lie exposed to the destructive and solvent action of 
the sea until covered over by the gradual deposition of sediment. 
As has been said, which surface of the outer: wall is represented 
can not be determined in all cases. | 

In the case of the pyritized specimen the curvature of the sur- 
faces is misleading. It suggests that the inner wall is in fact the 
outer, and that the outer or concave side bounds the gastral 
cavity. However, the structure of the coarsely reticulate surface 
corresponds in a general way to that of specimens from other 
horizons whose orientation is known, showing that it is the outer 
wall. The reticulations agree in size and character with those of 
the common Lower Helderberg forms. This fact warrants the 
identification of this fossil with R. infundibuliformis, and at the 
same time confirms the orientation of surfaces here adopted. 


* HALL, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 290. 


1278 Report or THE Stare GxEoxoeist. 


Conclusions. 


Specimens of 2. infundibuliformis, as ordinarily preserved, 
are so ambiguous in character that the current views on Rroxp- 
TACULITES would probably have been regarded as satisfactory 
had not a remarkable specimen opened the way to a new 
interpretation of the structure of this genus. : 


I. The Form. 


That Recepracuritzs and Iscnaprres were subspherical, when 
entire, and inclosed, or nearly so, is the position taken by 
Binuines, which Raurr confirms. Hu1nps, however, follows 
SaLtTER, and considers that Iscuapires alone had this form, and 
that Recepraco.ites was a flat, platter-shaped organism, in eee 
condition it at present usually occurs. 

The evidence afforded by the Lower Helderberg Rxronr- 
TACULITES is not of a positive character, but, on the whole, seems 
to support the view of Ravrr and. Bittiyes. The regular 
circular outlines which unbroken specimens maintain might 
appear to indicate an explanate organism. On the other hand, © 
a homogeneous, top-shaped or spherical test, flattened by down- 
ward pressure, would assume the same form. This supposition 
is further borne out by the specimen with traces of a roofing 
wall and those with a detachable rim. If the sides were 
extended so as to completely inclose a central cavity, the upper 
portion must have been of extreme tenuity. 


II. Structural Elements. 

(a) The Summit Plate-—— According to the generally accepted 
construction of Recepracuuites, the radiating ridges should 
represent part of the matrix thrust in between the summit plates _ 
of the spicules, the plates themselves heing subsequently 
dissolved away. The radial tube would be interpreted as the 
perpendicular ray, and there also should be four other rays 
forming diagonals of the rhombus. Two of the rays would 
thus be directed lengthwise or meridionally, and the other two 
at right angles to these. Not only have none of these supposi- 
tious summit plates been observed on Lower Helderberg speci- 
mens, but there is no evidence that they ever existed. Three 
_suppositions concerning them are possible: (1) they were loose, 


LoweErR HreLpERBERG FAUNA. 279 


-and, becoming detached before gradual deposition covered the 
organism, were thus lost; (2) they were of a different composi- 
tion from the rest of the skeleton; (3) they did not exist. 

If these summit plates were detached and lost, some trace of 
them would surely be found either associated with the original 
fossil or as separate bodies. Of the twenty or more specimens 
belonging to the large collection from this horizon, each must 
have possessed many hundred plates, some of which would 
certainly have been found. 

It seems improbable, however, that one ‘ray of the spicule 
should have been different chemically from other rays of the 
same spicule. Furthermore when we consider that the rest of 
the skeleton is preserved (1) as calcite, (2) as pyrite, (8) as silica, 
(4) as shaly casts, (5) as ferruginous shadows on shale, it. seems 
incredible that this eccentric ray should have been of such 
“material as to elude all these phases of replacement. Moreover, 
everything goes to show that the radiating ridges are an integral 
part of the original skeleton, and not an infiltration or an 
impression of the matrix. They are too high and regular to 
warrant this idea, and, furthermore, they are preserved as pyrite 
like the rest of the organism, while the matrix is shale, and the 
filling between the two walls celestite(?). The evidence, there- 
fore, seems conclusive that the spicular summit plates claimed 
for the organism did not exist. 

(6) The Tangential Rays.— The same conclusion is vermeil 
regarding the four tangential rays. A careful examination of all 
accessible specimens shows no trace of such structure. They can 
not be the radiating ridges, for these partake of the nature of 
partitions rather than of spicules, z. ¢., they are solid, thin and © 
high. Moreover, the orientation of the ridges, which are not 
longitudinal and horizontal, respectively, as the spicular rays are 
said to be, precludes such an interpretation. The only features 
that bear resemblance to the missing spicules are the short spines 
which project, one for each rhomb, from the intersections of the 
radial ridges. If these are the tangential rays, there is no evi- 
* dence of the three other rays and the summit plate. Further, if 
this is such aray it has become disconnected from the “ radial 
arm,” and joined to the ridge with which it should have no 
organic union. 


280 ReEportT oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


(c) The Radial Pillar— There can be no question that the 
structure here called the radial tube or canal is the perpendicular 
spicular ray of other writers. Inasmuch as it has been shown 
that the five other rays of the spicule did not exist, it seems 
illogical to denominate this structure in any sense a spicular arm. 
The fact that the central canal is so large in comparison with the 
surrounding integument, taken in conjunction with the relation 
of these bodies to the outer and inner walls, leaves little doubt 
that they were really tubes and did not partake of the nature of — 
spicules. Moreover, the tubes appear to terminate at the bottom 
of the rhombic pits, and this character both argues against their 
original spicular nature, and suggests the probability that they 
were never connected with a summit plate. 


III, The Poles. 


In the Lower Helderberg specimens of 2. infundibuliformis 
the upper part has been destroyed, but the basal portion has, on both 
;ts outer and inner surface, what may be called a polar region. 
Neither the number nor arrangement of the plates which lie 
about the lower pole is indicated in specimens accessible to me. 
If,as Raurr claims, the basal pole is the starting point of growth, 
it seems unwise to deny as he does that Recepraco.tirses and Iscaa- 
DITEs occur as cup-like or saucer-shaped individuals, since they 
must have assumed these forms as intermediate steps toward a 
completely inclosed condition. | 


IV. The Inner Wall. 

It is agreed by Ravurr, Hinpz and Briiiines that the endorhin 
is formed by the dilatation of the inner extremities of the radial 
pillars. The wall is, then, theoretically, composed of plates, but 
these are usually more or less united into a continuous surface, 
and are not equivalent to the summit plates of the ectorhin. 
Hinvz and Brrurwes further agree in ascribing to this wall both 
transverse and longitudinal canals. The latter are excavated in 
the substance of each plate, and run between the middle points . 
of opposite sides. The transverse canals or pores are formed by | 
the truncation of the four angles of each plate. The juxtaposi- 
tion of four plates produces the pore. The canals of adjoining 
plates communicate with one another, thus forming a reticulation 
of confluent channels in the wall. The pores served to connect 


‘ 


Lower HeLpErBere Fauna. ; 281 


the intermural cavity with the surrounding medium. MRavrr 
denies the existence of both pores and canals, and I have been: 
unable to find anything analogous in the Lower Helderberg 
Specimens. 
V. The Chemical Constitution. 


The conclusions to be deduced from the appended table confirm 
those of Raurr with regard to the chemical composition of 
ReoEPTACULITES, at: least so far as to show that it was originally 
calcareous and not siliceous, as claimed by Hinpg. Specimens of 
Reorpracutites from the Helderberg mountain agree with the 
Cephalopods in their mode of preservation, and it seems probable 
that, like them, Recrpracutitss had a test composed of aragonite. 


Bryozoa. | Brachiopods. Hindia. Receptaculites. | Cephalopod , 
NPD UER EU cha nisie'e soo o0ae Calcareous..| Calcar...... SUITOR erence cette C Aragonite. 
Tapes he eee SUICEOUS. .:..() SUIG.< co cues Pytites se Casts (colored)....| Casts. 
Acidaspis shale......... Caleareous..| Calcar....... SGUUIBUGi ee ee VIULCY kids cc'scle<'s Pyrite. 
MGI BUBIC! ccc clcciccaccsss Calcareous..| Calear....... Caleary.c.scs Ferrug. Impress ..| Pyrite. 


IEIAORUONOG 20... ccc. hese SLIGeOUS . 62.) SHies siete Sie: 2s. sec ds Casts (colored)....| Casts. 


In considering the various features belonging to this species as 
stated above, the view that the examples of Ruoxpracu.irss 
which have been regarded as representing the true structure of 
the organism, and studied as such, are probably only casts or 
infiltrations, must have suggested itself. From many considera- 
tions, this seems the inevitable conclusion, yet, if the Lower 
Helderberg specimen is Recrrracoti1Es, it is not a cast, but repre- 
sents the original organism more truthfully than any example 
yet described. 

In some respects the structures referred by different writers to 
REOEPTACULITES are so analogous to those seen in this specimen, 
that it seems more than probable that they are casts; yet certain 
features, as described, are impossible to explain on that basis, 
and the hypothesis must be, in many cases, considerably modi- 
fied. Much, however, can be explained by the mode of preser- 
vation. The processes of replacement and of fossilization are 
known only as results. Noone has been able to study them in 
operation. To make a priori assertions in regard to them is 
impossible, since conditions beyond consideration might at any 
moment change what would seem the probable course. This is 

36 


282 REporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


especially true in regard to RecrrracuLirss, an organism whose 
original nature and composition are not positively known. 
Whether composed of calcite, aragonite or chitine, it is certain 
that it was not as enduring as most animal remains preserved in 
the fossil state. | 

Had the examination of type specimens been possible, many of 
the present difficulties and contradictions which a comparison 
with figures alone has entailed, might not have been met, and 
those still unsolved might be satisfactorily ascribed to preserva- 
tion or specific differences. The conclusions of Hinpu* regarding 
the structure of RecmpracuLirus agree so nearly in every detail 
with those of Briuines,t that it has been possible to unite the 
results of these two authors in comparing them with my own. 
Both writers employed for study representatives of a number of 
different species, probably in several different modes of preserva- 
tion. Briiiines, moreover, seems to have considered IscuapritTEs 
as a synonym for Reorpracuritrs, and studied both genera, 
though his conclusions refer to Recrerraoutitss alone. 

My own observations lead to the opinion that the spicular 
summit plates mentioned by these writers are an infiltration of 
the rhombic pits of the outer surface or of their casts. The fact 
that the summit-plates are admitted to be structureless and of a 
single layer, enhances the probability of their originating in this 
way. The four horizontal spicular rays are casts of the four 
canals or stolons, which, in the Lower Helderberg specimen, run 
from the radiating tubes into each angle of the rhombic pits. 
The fact that these rays are said to be in contact with the summit 
plate coincides with this view. Both Bittines and Hinpz men- 
tion the curious circumstance that one ray, that which points 
away from the nucleus or basal pole, is sometimes not in contact 
with the summit plate. ; 

In addition to the stolons which extend into the angles of each 
pit, a conical spine projects into one angle and above the stolon, 
penetrating that angle. There is, moreover, only one such spine, 
and reason has been given for supposing that it pointed longi- . 
tudinally. The existence of this spine satisfactorily explains the 
separation of one ray of the cast from the summit plate. 


* HINDE, 1884. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. XL, p. 821. 
+ BILLINGS, 1861-65. Geology of Canada. Palaeozoic Fossils, vol. I, p. 378 et seg. 


LowER HELDERBERG FAUNA. . 983 


The radial pillarsare said to be continuous with the summit plates 
and they must be preserved and represented in the same way. 
The summit plates are regarded as casts of rhombic pits. Hence. 
the radial pillars seem only infiltrations filling the radial tubes. 
On this basis, the spicular canals, the presence of which has 
been confirmed by many writers, would be the result of an incom- 
plete process of deposition. 

The character of the inner wall does not appear to be definitely 
made out by any of the investigators who have written on 
Recerracutites. In the case of 2. infundibuliformis, my own 
observations are not wholly satisfactory. The salient features of 
the descriptions given by H1ypr and Briuines are that (1) it is 
probably not composed of separate plates like the outer wall, 
but many examples show a continuous layer; (2) this is pierced at 
regular intervals by round holes arranged in a quincunx order, 
and these perforations are sometimes connected by furrows which 
apparently mark off the surface into rhombic plates similar to 
those beneath, with which they are joined by the radial pillars; 
(3) in the body of each plate lie four canals running from the 
center (the point of union with the radial pillars) to the middle 
of each side, where they join the canals similarly situated, of the 
four plates adjoining. Ravrr regards both perforations and 
canals as the result of fossilization. If Ravrr’s conclusion is cor- 
rect, the endorhin need not be discussed. If, on the other hand, 
the traces interpreted by H1inpr and Briiiines stand for real 
structures, the distinction between the ectorhinal and endorhinal 
canals should be noted. 

“The stolons run along the inner surface of the ectorhin, but the 
endorhinal canals are excavated in the substance of the endorhin.”* 
Since the canals in the Lower Helderberg species run longitudin- 
ally and the endorhinal canals spirally, it is difficult to regard the 
two as identical. Should this, however, be the case, the distinc- 
tion pointed out by Biixrnes corresponds to a difference between 
the canals of the outer and inner walls, as shown in ZR. infundib- 
wliformis. In the ectorhin, the canals are trenches in the 
bottom of rhomboidal depressions; in a cast, they would appear 
like stolons attached to a rhomboidal plate; yet, in the endorhin, 
they are enclosed as described by Bittines and Hinpz. 


* BILLINGS 1861-5. Geol. of Canada, Palzeozoic Fossils, p. 382. 


284 ' Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


Most writers on Recerracuites have reached different eon- 
clusions as to its original composition. Hyp believes that it 
was siliceous; Raurr that it was calcareous; Gumpet that it was 
aragonite, and Birxines that it was calcite or in part coriaceous. 
These variations in results may be explained by the fact that infil- 
tration products only have been investigated, the nature of the 
material being that which at the time was most plentifully 
dissolved in the sea-water of a given locality.. This notion 
naturally modifies conclusions reached under such conditions- 
However, my own conclusions agree either with those of GumsEL 
that RecerTacu.itses was originally composed of aragonite, or of 
Bitiines that it was chitinous. The matrix of the pyritized 
specimen is shaly limestone. The radial tubes and the space 
between them are filled by calcite or (?)celestite. This feature 
is in marked contrast with ordinary specimens, for, as BiLLines 
says, “the space between the tubes is almost always filled with 
the rock of the same kind as that in which'the fossil is imbedded.” 

The majority of examples studied by H1nvx, Bitiines, and 
others, are probably like 7. Owenz, described below, where the 
cavity left by the dissolution of the original organism has been 
filled by a structureless deposition from infiltering waters. It 
seems as if the more unique details of structure may have been 
derived from an infiltration, filling the organism itself, or from 
others where a maceration of the skeleton has left upon the 
cast traces which usually would not be received. Replace- 
ments by silica or calcite may also in some instances have been 
investigated. 

The conclusions of the above writers are of a general character, 
and it has been possible to discuss them only in a general way. 
However, specimens of both f. Neptuns and F&. Owens have 
been examined and afford a definite basis for comparison. ; 


Leceptaculites Owenr. 


This species commonly occurs as tabular fragments of the. 
basal portion of the organism. Specimens from Illinois usually 
have a thickness of 5 mm. near the basal pole, increasing distally 
to 20 mm. or more, and sometimes attain a very large size. The 
material is a granular dolomite, having much the appearance of 
yellowish sandstone. The outer surface is marked off into. 


Lower HELpERBERG FAUNA. 285 


rhombic areas by two sets of intersecting ridges. Shallow 
rounded canals transverse each rhombus and connect the 
opposite angles. Of the four, that which runs between the 
center and one of the obtuse angles.is noticeably on a higher 
plane than the others, the opposite one being lower than the 
rest. Nothing similar to this arrangement has been observed in 
L. nfundibuliformis. From the center of each rhombus a 
radial canal perforates the specimen, opening on the gastral side. 
Just below the surface the canals suddenly expand, then taper 
gradually, until they meet the inner surface. The diameter 
where they terminate is considerably larger than that at the 
starting point. The canals are not terete, but are modified by 
annular constrictions and dilatations like the growth-lines of a 
coral. The inner surface, also, is marked by ridges, which, 
however, do not make a regular rhombic pattern, but wind 
irregularly among the tubular orifices. Sometimes the openings 
.of the tubes are surrounded by shallow, circular depressions ; 
sometimes there is an appearance as if canals ran from the tube 
to the acute angles of the rhombus; and sometimes the inter- 
sections of the ridges are emphasized by monticules. 

Bruurynes calls attention to the fact that in magnesian lime- 
stones, where the hard parts of fossils are in general totally 
removed, so that the cavities once occupied by them remain 
empty, Reozpracutirss is found in the same condition (p. 386 Joc. 
cit.). This is true of 2. Oweni, which bears every evidence of 
being a cast. In most specimens, then, the remains consist of the 
filling of the intermural space, with casts of the outer surface of 
the inner wall, the inner ae of the outer wall and of the con- 
necting tubes. | 

The structures in 2. Oweniand the pyritized specimen of Le. infun- 
dibuliformis correspond very closely, although the former, as a 
cast, represents inner surfaces of the skeleton and the latter 
seems to preserve the outer surface. Details in 22. Oweni are 
imperfect in character, and partly obliterated by the granular 
nature of the matrix. 

Another feature, the configuration of the external surface, has 
been noticed by Prof. Hauu.*. The specimen representing it is 
preserved in the American Museum of Natural History, New 


* HALL, 1861. Rep. Prog. Geol. Surv. Wisconsin, p. 15. 


286 REpPoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


York city.* This specimen is adherent to the matrix along its 
outer wall, but a portion has been broken away, and shows the 
inclosing rock marked off by curving ridges into rhombic figures, 
which have the characteristic intaglio ornamentation presented in 
the diagram, Plate VI, figure 4. The ridges on the specimen are 
Opposite to, and continuous with, those on the matrix. It is evi- 
dent that the outer surface must have had individual opercula or 
a common investment whose cast is preserved on the matrix. 
That something of the sort existed is shown by the pyritized 
specimen also, since the radial tubes are not filled with the shaly 
matrix (as would be the case if the ends had not been closed), 
but by a white, crystalline mineral, probably celestite. 

Why the matrix appears to be continuous with the specimen 
along the radiating ridges is a perplexing problem. Perhaps it 
may be due to the granulo.crystalline condition of the matrix. 

The specimens thus far discussed are casts and have been 
found in the Galena limestone of Illinois and Wisconsin. 
Another example of 2. Oweni comes from the same horizon in 
Iowa, and illustrates a different condition of preservation. It is 
composed of calcite and represents what has usually been called ~ 
the true structure of the organism, but what I consider as only 
an infiltration product of a form like the foregoing. The matrix 
is dolomite, softer than that from Illinois and less crystalline. 
The curvature of the specimen affords a clue to its orientation, 
and the indication thus given is confirmed by the presence on 
the concave surface of gentle elevations covered with a network 
of intersecting channels.t Yet.the pores which are said by Br1- 
Lines and Hinpx to pierce the endorhin between the radial pil- 
lars do not exist in this specimen, but they do exist in the 
ectorhin. 

The outer wall is marked off into rhombic plates by thin par- 
titions of the matrix, which is continuous alike with that around 
the fossil and that between the pillars. The points of intersection 
of the partitions are represented by rounded pillars. A section - 
of the ectorhin showing these features is given on Plate VI, fig- 


* This specimen is the one studied by Prof. HALL, and will be figured shortly in an illustrated cata- 
logue of the Museum. 

+The inner surface of the plate is flat; the upper surface, or that which is exposed in the cup or 
disk, is oftentimes convex and deeply ridged and furrowed.” (Pl. XXXVII, fig. 3, c-g.) HINDE, 1884. 
Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. XL, p. 825. 


Lower HELDERBERG F'AUNA. 287 


ure 8. The summit plates are structureless and the tangential 
rays have not been observed in this specimen. The pillars are 
connected directly with the summit plates, and like them are of 
crystalline calcite. There is no trace of a central canal. A little 
below the summit plate the pillars expand suddenly and then 
taper slightly. They are marked by distinct annular constric- 
tions or lines of growth. At their ixner extremities they meet 
the gastral wall, or expand to form it. At any rate, the wall is 
continuous, and the demarkation of the plates no longer exists. 
Opposite the pillars, and occupying nearly the whole of each 
plate on its outer side, is a rounded elevation covered by anasto- 
mosing channels, as described above. This structure seems to 

be characteristic of the gastral surface. As the inner wall of 
this specimen exhibits neither the canals nor perforations described 
by Hinpz and Bri11nes, it confirms the observations of Raurr, 
who considers these features to be due to preservation. Sections 
illustrating the various structures of the specimen are shown on 
Plate VI, figures 1, 2, 3, 4. 


Leceptaculites Neptuni. 


In the American Museum of Natural History, New York city, 
there is a siliceous representative of 2. Veptunz (the type species), 
which in the structure of its outer wall agrees with the pyritized 
specimen from the Helderberg. The tubes are hollow, their 
wall continuous with the radiating ridges and their central canals 
open into the rhombic pits, which are not occupied by summit 
plates. 

The foregoing comparison illustrates the conflicting nature of 
the evidence afforded by Recsrracutites. It shows that speci- 
mens apparently well preserved contradict others of the same 
genus, and that structures were maintained or obliterated as the 
result of slight changes in the conditions of preservation. The 
specimen of 2. infundibuliformis is certainly more trustworthy 
than any other example of the genus before noticed, and affords 
a more accurate notion of the original structure and its details. 
Still the belief is unwarranted that this specimen represents the 
organism in its entirety, and that nothing further remains to be 
studied. Enough, however, has been preserved to direct aright 
the consideration of the affinities and systematic position of the 
genus. 


COP LCENTERATAg 


HY DROZOA. 

Family Dictyonrmip2. 
Dictyonema, Hall, 1852. 
DioTYoNEMA CRASSUM, Sp. Nov. 
Plate IV, figures 1, 2. 

Shape of entire frond not known. The largest fragment 
measures 7.5 by 7.5 cm. The branches are marked by coarse 
longitudinal striz, or wrinkles, which are not continuous. The 
dissepiments are nearly equal in size and parallel in direction, 
forming with the branches a rather uniform reticulation. Both 
branches and dissepiments are enlarged at their point of union, 
giving the fenestrules a more or less rounded form. Thickness 
of branches, .5 tol mm. Dissepiments of about the same size. 
The specimens examined are casts. 

The zoarium in Dictyonema crasswm is coarser than in D. reti- 
forme, Hall, of the Niagara group, the dissepiments heavier, and 
the ee iy more rounded. 

The quality of the material would hardly warrant the jena 
tion of a new species, were it not that this is the first appearance 
of the genus noted in Lower Helderberg strata. 

Horizon.— Shaly limestone. 

Locality.— Clarksville, Albany county, New York. 


Family Monoprionip#. 
Monograptus, Emmons, 1856. 


Monocrartus BEEcgsERI, sp. nov. 
Plate IV, figures 3-15. 

Stipe linear, minute, with a carination on either side. Surface — 
marked by fine longitudinal strie, which are not continuous. 
Denticulations about the same width as the stipe, acute, distant. 
It is not known whether the stipe is simple or branched. 

This species of Monocraprtus is interesting, not alone as the 
first example of the genus reported from the Lower Helderberg 
rocks, but also as the last known representative of this character- 


LowerR HELDERBERG FAUNA. 289 


istic Silurian genus. Its presence here is important in its bear- 
ing upon the position of the Lower Helderberg Group in the geo- 
logical scale, for similar forms have been found in the earliest 
Devonian faunas of Germany. , 

The stipe is cylindrical, sometimes tetragonally prismatic. It 
is hollow, with thick walls, crossed at intervals by tabulz, one 
for each serration, which bound the zo@idal habitations. On op- 
posite sides, there are projecting ridges, or cost, the plane of 
the latter being at right angles to the plane of the serrations. 
Besides the: costs, there are often fine longitudinal grooves or 
strie. The teeth are rather distant; the upper side is sometimes 
at right angles to the stipe, at others acutely inclined to it. The 
upper surface is somewhat flattened and is pierced by circular or 
elliptical zooidal openings, situated well toward the stipe. The 
under surface of the teeth is sometimes flattened, sometimes 
rounded, the flattened examples at least being provided with a 
' median ridge. The specimens observed are all fragmentary, and 
the nature of the sicula has not been ascertained. No indica- 
tions of branching have been noticed, but the zoarium may be 
bifurcated or even ramose. 

Horizon.—Shaly limestone, Indian Ladder, Helderberg 
Mountain. 


STROMATOPOROIDEA. 


With the exception of Actinostroma Ristigouchense, Spencer, I 
have been unable to find notices of any American Stromato- 
poroids from the Lower Helderberg Group. The species de- 
scribed below constitute only a beginning in the investigation of 
this class of Coelenterates, which is well represented in the life 
of this period. But to make an exhaustive study of this portion 
of the fauna would require a large collection, gathered with that 
end especially in view. — 

All the Stromatoporoids in this collection, with the exception 
of Clathrodictyon Jewett, appear to be formed on one type of 
structure, and I have referred them, but with some hesitation, to 
the genus Syringostroma, Nicholson. This genus (type S. denswm) 
was proposed by Nicnortson* for some Stromatoporoids from 


* NICHOLSON, 1875. Geol. Surv. Ohio, Pal., vol. II, p. 251. 


37 


290 REporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


the Devonian strata of Ohio. The original description contains 
nothing of generic value. S. denswm, however, is said to be 
composed of concentric lamine of very dense, finely cellulose tis- 
sue, traversed by numerous horizontal canals. ‘The upper sur- 
face exhibits two distinct sets of apertures — firsily, a series of 
very minute and crowded perforations, which doubtless corre- 
spond with the cells of the mass; and, secondly, a larger set of 
apertures which are very irregularly distributed, and are like- 
wise very numerous.” These are said to be almost certainly the 
apertures of a series of vertical canals (probably such as fre- 
quently form the center of astrorhizal systems). The presence 
of well-marked astrorhizze is also noticed. The figures accom- 
panying the text appear diagrammatic, and show no new points 
of structure. 

In the Monograph on British Fossil Stromatoporoids, NicHot- 
son has brought together his more careful investigations on that 
group of fossils, and it is to this work that we must look for his 
latest and best considered results. 

Of the genus Syrincostroma, he gives the following descrip- 
tion — “‘Ccenosteum massive, formed of successive ‘latilamine.’ 
Skeleton-fibre minutely porous. The skeletal tissue is, on the 
whole, of the reticulated typ echaracteristic of the Srromato- 
PORID#, but the radial pillars are distinctly recognizable and some 
of them are of large size. Astrorhize are largely developed.” 
He further states, “In the more minutely porous character of the 
skeleton-fibre, as also in the essentially reticulate structure of the 
skeletal tissue, S. denswm quite resembles the species of Stromato- 
pora,Goldf. It has, however, the peculiarity that the coenosteum 
is traversed at intervals by large-sized radial pillars which are 
recognizable in both tangential and vertical sections. I should 
not have been disposed to regard this feature as of generic value, 
except that I have recently had an opportunity, through the 
kindness of Prof. J. W. Spencer, of examining an apparently re- 
lated form which seems worthy of generic distinction. | 

“Tangential and vertical sections of this beautiful type show a 
curious combination of the characters of Srromarorora, Goldf., 
and Aotinostroma, Nich. Thus, the skeleton-fibre has to a 


Lower HELDERBERG FAUNA. 2914 


marked extent the minutely porous structure which is so charac- 
teristic of Srromaropora, properly so called; while the radial 
pillars and their connecting processes are as distinctly and clearly 
developed as in the type-forms of Actinostroma. The radial 
pillars, in fact, are exceedingly large and give off whorls of deli- 
cate ‘arms’ or connecting processes which are emitted at cor- 
responding levels in a radiating manner, and which circumscribe 
rounded pores representing the zooidal tubes. The astrorhizal 
canals are largely developed, and we therefor see in vertical sec- 
tions, as in similar sections of S. densum, the large rounded aper- 
tures which represent cut ends of these tubes, and upon which 
the genus Syrineosrroma was originally based. This latter 
_ character is, of course, one of no generic importance, as, indeed, 
present in all Stromatoporoids with large astrorhizal canals.” 

It may seem unjust to a writer to discuss his work without the 
advantage of consulting identified specimens, but under the cir- 
‘cumstances I have been forced to do so. After a careful study 
of both text and plates, no other conclusion is possible than that 
S. Listigouchense is an Aotrnostroma of no abnormal type, and 
if the generic claims of SyrincostRoma rest on the validity of S. 
Listigouchense, it will have to be united with some other form. 

Nicuotson well says that, in radial section, the structure is 
characteristically Actinostromoid, but the statement that tan- 
gential sections show the minutely porous structure of Srroma- 
ToPoRA seems ill-advised. The skeleton of the latter genus is 
porous, and the tissue itself minutely fibrous or vesiculose. 
Radial pillars are few or absent, and the porous skeletal tissue is 
not formed by connecting processes springing from the arms, but 
by independent anastomosing fibers. According to Nionotson, 
however, this structure is represented in S. Pistigouchense, and 
is also typical of the genus Actinostroma. On this account I 
have placed the species in that genus. The unusual appearance 
in tangential section exhibited by <Actinostroma Listegouchense 
seems to be due to the large size of the radial pillars, to which 
Nionorson has called attention, accompanied by a corresponding 
reduction in the length of the connecting processes. It is owing 
to the same fact that, in vertical section, the laminated char- 
acter of the skeleton is not as striking as in other species of 
AcTINOSTROMA. | 


292 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


On the other hand, Syrrncostroma seems well able to stand as 
a genus without. the support of Actinostroma Listigouchense, if 
the characters attributed to it by Nicholson from a fac. of 
S. densum hold good. 

The Lower Helderberg representatives of this genus, if cor- 
rectly ascribed to SyRrincostroma, agree in many respects with 
S. densum. As far as examined, they are all normal and exhibit 
well-marked Stromatoporoid characters. The division of the 
coenosteum into latilamine is usually conspicuous, as are also the 
large astrorhize often situated on monticules with a tubular axis. 
Tangential sections of well-preserved specimens show a doubly 
porous structure. In the first place, the skeleton is rendered: 
pumicious by the presence of numerous vacuole, usually of an 
elongated or vermicular form. This appearance resembles that 
common in StromarToporA, and is-easily seen when slightly magni- 
fied or even with the naked eye. Further, the skeletal tissue 
itself is of a minutely porous character, and appears to be com- 
posed of a mesh of anastomosing fibers. This structure suggests 
the system of radial pillars joined by horizontal arms character- 
istic of Actrnostroma, but such interpretation is discountenanced 
by a study of vertical sections. Viewed in radial section, the 
skeleton is seen to be composed of laminz and radial pillars, 
which are continuous and usually of large size. Instead of being 
dense and granular, as in Actinostroma, these have the same mi- 
nutely porous structure as the laminz. Moreover, although the 
pillars are usually superimposed and continuous in that sense, 
they are not the controlling structural element as in Aortnos- 
TRoMA. It often happens that the dark lines which demarkate 
different laminze pass continuously through the pillars, cutting 
them into many sections or drums. Each of these is continuous 
with the lower portion of the lamina immediately beneath it, and 
is terminated by the upper face of the lamina above. 

Thus, while Syrrycostroma unites structures characteristic of 
both Actinostroma and Stromaropora, and in an intermediate — 
form between the Hydractinioid and Milleporoid groups of 
SrroMATOPORAS, in typical examples, its separation from any other 
genus is attended with little difficulty, and its validity as a 
separate type seems certain. It resembles Srromatopora in the 
poro-fibrose structure of the lamin, but is without the tabulate 
zodidal tubes of that genus. Neither by implication nor by direct 


LowrER HELpERBERG FAUNA. 293 


statement does Nicuotson refer this structure to S. densum. 
Moreover, the interzooidal spaces are regularly arranged into 
columns, and the more minute division into laminz is conspicuous, 
which is never the case in STROMATOPORA. 

While the radial structure of Syringostroma is suggestive of 
Actrnostroma, the pillars are porous, not granular. They are 
either confluent with, or terminated by the lamine. | 

In most of the Lower Helderberg specimens the laminz appear 
in radial section of a darker color than do the radial pillars which 
support them. In a similar way the monticules are still darker 
than the rest of the laminz, and become prominent to the eye on 
that account. Whether this circumstance is due to a difference 
in density of the skeletal tissue, or is owing to mechanical causes 
governing infiltration or replacement, I have been unable to 
determine. 

The preparation of drawings to illustrate the newly described 
material was attended with some difficulty, for it was almost 
impossible to depict the sections as they appeared with fluctua- 
tions of shade and distinctness, and with the gradations through 
which the dark fibers of the skeletal tissue passed into the nearly 
_ colorless calcite in filtering the vacule or chambers. Conse- . 
quently the annexed figures partake somewhat of the nature of 
restorations, for they are intended to convey the expression of 
the original, without faithfully reproducing its defects or defic- 
iencies. At the same time they do not aim to present the organ- 
ism in the condition in which it perished and became imbedded 
in the marine deposits. 


SYRINGOSTROMA CENTROTUM, Sp. Nov. 
Plate VII, figures 1, 2. 

Coenosteum massive, spheroidal, often attaining a large size. 
Intermittent concentric growth results in the formation of lati- 
laminz, which are usually conspicuous. The surface is thickly 
covered with rounded eminences or “ mamelons,” and astrorhizze 
are numerous but minute. The presence or absence of an 
epitheca has not been ascertained. 

No specimens in this collection are entire, but all evidence 
points to an originally spheroidal form for the ccenosteum. 
One specimen appears to have had a diameter of about 27 cm. 
when entire. The concentric character of the structure is usually 


994. Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


quite striking. Some specimens are readily separated into thin 
sheets or latilamine. In others, more completely infiltered by 
calcite or less weathered, the latilamine are indicated only by 
darker and lighter bands. When in this condition they are not 
disjoined by a blow from the hammer, but the specimen chips or 
fractures like a structureless limestone. Surface characters are 
best studied under the former condition of preservation. Sections 
of many Helderberg Stromatoporoids examined show that the 
original calcareous skeleton of the colony has been replaced by 
some dark material, probably impure limestone, while the spaces 
between pillars and partitions are filled by transparent calcite. 
The definition is nearly always indistinct. 

Tangential sections do not remain parallel to the surface in 
this species, except over small areas, for the curvature is not 
regular but flexuous, and the latilamine are more or less 
foliaceous and imbricating. Thus extended sections cut the 
frequent monticules at all angles and appear like panels of curly 
maple. ) 

In specimens which break along the latilamine the surface 
is seen to be vermiculate and porous, thickly covered with 
prominent conical elevations. This characteristic vermiculate 
structure is shown also in tangential sections, and is not due to 
weathering and preservation. Astrorhize are numerous, but 
small and inconspicuous, as if they were merely the usual porous 
structure intensified. They are distributed over the surface, and . 
are often to be found on the sides of the monticules. The 
monticules, as shown by radial sections, are usually superimposed 
throughout one latilamina, but in two consecutive latilamine 
this may or may not be the case. They are often pierced by 
straight central canals directed radially. These canals often 
extend through one whole set of monticules. They have no 
proper walls and, therefore, cannot be referred to “ Caunopora” 
tubes or tubicolous annelids. When broken transversely the 
mamelons are seen to be distinctly porous. The pores, or canals, 
are often arranged in concentric series, coincident with the cut 
edges of the intersected laminz, and evidently represent sections 
of the astrorhizal canals. 

Weathered fractures and properly oriented sections show that 
the radial pillars are strong, parallel, and continuous through 


LowER HELpERBERG FAUNA. 295 


several layers of the ccenosteum. They are united at more or 
less regular intervals by concentric partitions which have the 
porous structure above described. These concentric laminze 
appear to be composed of inosculating fibers forming a retic- 
ulate skeleton, and not of lateral arms given off in a whorl 
around each pillar as in the genus Aotinostroma. Vertical 
sections through a monticule show that the radial pillars are not 
parallel as elsewhere, but are inclined at a slight angle away from 
the imaginary axis of the monticule. 

This species agrees well with the figures and descriptions of 
Syringostroma densum, except that the cut ends of the radial pil- 
lars are not distinguishable in tangential section. This seems to 
be the common species at Cedarville, N. Y., and is readily 
recognized by the number and prominence of the mamelons. 

fHorizon.— Lower Pentamerus limestone. 

Locality— Cedarville, N. Y. 


SyRINGOSTROMA FOVEOLATUM, Sp. nov. 
Plate VI, figures 8, 9. 


Coenosteum massive and of large size. Outer surface and 
point of attachment not known. Division into latilamine usually 
apparent. In one specimen the latilamine are folded into regu- 
lar hemispherical elevations, having a diameter of about 50 mm. 
Radial pillars continuous and usually large. Viewed in vertical — 
section, the lamine are thick and, the interlaminar space narrow. 
Tangential sections show the laminz to have a dense structure, 
but the organism may still be referred to the Milleporoid type. 
The pores, which in S. centrotum appeared as transparent ver- 
miculate patches, in this species are represented only by minute 
spots, sometimes connected by transparent thread-like bands. 
The skeleton fibers are large, with fine reticulations, giving the 
_ tissue as a whole a dense consistency. The concentric lamina, 
likewise, are unusually thick and heavy, the vacuoles of small 
size and the intercolumnar spaces minute. Astrorhize are fre- 
quent, and well-developed monticules appear to be present, chiefly 
associated with astrorhize. ‘They are indicated in the section by 
a darker shading, but their elevation is so slight that tangential 
sections often show the astrorhizz equally well on all sides. The 
monticules sometimes have tubular axes. When weathered, the 


996 REportT oF THE STatTE GEOLOGIST. 


coenosteum often develops little pits or conical depressions about 
4 mm. apart, which are rather characteristic of the species. S. 
foveolatum differs from S. centrotum in its thick and dense 
laminz, its low monticules and its conspicuous astrorhize. | 
Horizon.— Lower Pentamerus limestone. 
Locality.— Cedarville,N.Y. 


SYRINGOSTROMA MICROPORUM, SP. NOV. 
Plate VI, figure 7. 

Coenosteum massive, latilaminate, shape unknown, probably 
spherical or subspherical. Surfaces parted along the latilaminz 
are covered with numerous monticules, which are, however, of 
small size. They are usually pierced by axial tubes and provided 
with well-developed astrorhizz seldom visible on the lamellar 
partings. In vertical sections the skeleton is seen to be composed 
of persistent radial pillars and the customary concentric lamine. 
Tangential sections show the lamine to have a finely porous 
structure, the skeleton fiber being of the characteristic reticulated 
tissue common to other Helderberg Syringostromas. Tangential 
sections through the monticules show only the cut ends of the 
astrorhize. When the section lies in the lateral slope of a 
monticule, the latter is seen to be provided with an extensively 
spreading astrorhizal system. The thickness and density of the 
' lamine in 8. foveolatum readily distinguishes it from this species 

in microscopic examination. Furthermore, monticules are here 
apparent, and there is no indication of a tendency to weather 
into conical pits, as in S. Soveolatum. 
Compared with S. centrotum, the skeletal tissue is much finer, 
~and the monticules less numerous. 
Formation.— Lower Pentamerus limestone. 
Locality.— Cedarville, N. Y. 


SYRINGOSTROMA BARRETTI, Sp. Nov. 

Plate VII, figures 5, 6. 
Ccenosteum large, hemispherical, spreading. Latilamine dis- 
tinct, more or less labyrinthine toward the center, on the 
periphery flowing in broad folds. They end abruptly on the 
under side, and are attached directly without an epitheca. Lam- 
ine parallel and gently flexuous. Astrorhizz not numerous, but 


LowER HELDERBERG FAUNA. 297 


large and conspicuous. The nucleus of an astrorhizal system is 
sometimes represented by an axial tube, and the laminez at that 
point are often elevated into a low monticule. Skeletal tissue 
finely fibrous, but a little coarser than in S. centrotum. 

This species is characterized by the infundibuliform concentric 
growth and the flat base without an epitheca (7). Without the 
aid of thin sections, the outer surface of the type specimen ap- 
pears dense, fine-grained and structureless, except for latilaminz 
which separate in unusually thin sheets. Sections near the sur- 
face are without monticules, astrorhize, and axial tubes, exhibit- 
ing only the uniform, porous skeleton and fibrous structure. 
The same surface characters are presented by the basal portion 
_ and suggest an epithecate condition, but it has not the polished 

surface and concentric wrinkles characteristic of the epitheca in 
Favositres. The flat base of the specimen is attached to a branch- 
ing form of Dipropuyitium. Syringostroma Barretti is the com- 
mon species at the Indian Ladder. 

Horizon.— Lower Pentamerus limestone. 

Locality.— The Indian Ladder, N. Y. 


SYRINGOSTROMA OONSIMILE, Sp. Nov. 
Plate VII, figures 8, 4. 

Coenosteum massive, large, and subspherical. Latilaminate 
structure shown by sections or on weathered surfaces. Thelam- 
inz are disposed in pointed, wave-like folds, which are not super- 
imposed. Skeleton-fiber finely porous; tissue reticulate; astro- 
rhize few and very large, sometimes provided with a tubular 
axis. 

This species is similar to S. Barretti, but the material examined 
can be separated with little difficulty by the character of the 
lamine, which, in the latter, are gently curved, proximate, and 
parallel, but in S. cons¢mile are angular and independent in their 
flexures. Thus, S. consimile generally lacks the superimposed 
monticules of the kindred form. The reticulations of the skele- 
ton-fiber are somewhat coarser than in S. Barretti, and very 
much coarser than in S. centrotum, while the thinness of the 
laminz is also characteristic. The figure which presents a ver- 
tical section of this species is drawn to slightly too large a scale, 
making the columno-lamellose structure of the cut more open 

38 


998 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


than in the original. Comparative study of a series of speci- 
mens, however, may prove these two types to be identical, but 
for the present, at least, it is necessary to regard them as 
distinct. | 5 
Horizon.— Lower Pentamerus limestone. 
Locality.— Outlet of Skaneateles lake, N. Y. 


CLATHRODICTYON JEWSTTI, sp. NOV. 
- Plate VI, figures 5, 6. 


Coenosteum known only as a small fragment. Latilaminate, 
probably massive. Surface characters not known. Laminz very 
conspicuous in vertical section. Radial pillars persistent through 
one interlaminar space, usually terminating in the laminar parti- 
tion. Tangential sections show the cut ends of the radial pillars, 
which are apparently not connected by arm-like processes, but 
by a continuous wall. Monticules are present, associated with 
astrorhize and axial tubes, but. the character of the astrorhize 
has not been determined. The skeleton does not show the 
“pillar and arm” structure characteristic of AcTINosTRoMA nor 
the reticulated skeleton common in SyRingcosTROMA. 

The species resembles (. striatellwm, Nicholson, in many par- 
ticulars, but the latter is without astrorhize, monticules, etc., 
which form a striking feature in the Actonostromide. It differs 
from Nicuotson’s species, also, in the more normal radial pillars 
and regular mesh. All the sections studied have been cut from 
the small fragment which alone represents this species. In none 
of them do the radial pillars extend systematically through a 
number of interlaminar spaces; and although an apparent pro- 
longation through two or even three such spaces may occasionally 
be observed, the occurrence is too rare to influence the generic 
determination of the specimen. 

Horizon.— Lower Pentamerus limestone. 

Locality.— Cedarville, N. Y. 


Actinostroma, Nicholson, 1886. 
AOTINOSTROMA RISTIGOUCHENSE. 


Caenostroma Ristigouchense, Spencer, 1884. Bull. No.1, Univ. State Missouri, 

4 On : 
Syringostroma Ristigouchense, Nicholson, 1886. Pal. Soc., vol. P.2 8.0 
__... British Stromatoporoids, expl. Pl. XI, figs. 11, 12. 


ee ee 


Lower HELDERBERG FAUNA. 999 


I have not been able to examine specimens of A. istigouchense 
nor to consult Spencer’s description of the species. Fortunately 
it is figured and discussed by Nionorson (/.c.). For reasons given 
above it has been removed from the genus SyRrincostroma where 
Niocxotson places it. 


ANTHOZOA. 
Family CyaTHAXonIDs. 
Duncanella, Nicholson, 1874. 


DouNcANELLA RUDIS, Sp. NOV. 
Plate II, figures 7, 8. 


Corallum simple, straight, turbinate, rather evenly and rapidly 
' expanding. Ruge on the exterior coarse, and not sharply 
defined. 

Horizon.— Delthyris Shaly limestone. 

Locality.— The Indian Ladder, Albany oahe Ney. 

This species of Duncanexra is not a rare form in the higher 
beds of the Shaly limestone of the Helderberg mountains, and 
specimens of it may have been heretofore identified as Strepte- 
lasma strictum. While StrrpreLasmMa was attached like most 
cyathophylloid corals, DowcaneLta was probably in a free con- 
dition. The latter also possessed this unique characteristic, that 
the theca is incomplete at the base, leaving the septa exsert. In 
' Srrepretasma, they meet in the center and are twisted to forma 
pseudo-columella, while this structure is replaced in DuncanELua 
by a sort of tube reaching nearly to the base, and formed by the 
extremities of the septa, which do not extend quite to the center. 
DonoanELLs, moreover, is entirely without tabule or dissepi- 
mental tissue, which seem to be always present in StREPTELASMA, 
although in varying degrees. 

Duncanella rudis differs from D. borealis, Nicholson, of the 
Niagara group, in several particulars. It is erect, not bent or 
uncinate like the latter, while the apical angle is considerably 
greater. The rugze on the surface are much less numerous and 
less sharply defined, while the parallel, horizontal growth lines, 
which are rather characteristic of the Niagara species, are very 
obscure. 


300 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Family ZaPHRENTID#. 
Streptelasma,, Hall, 1847. 


STREPTELASMA STRICTUM, Hall, 1874. 


Streptelasma (Petraia) stricta, Hall, 1874. Twenty-sixth Rep. New York 
State Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 142. 

Streptelasma stricta, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus. 
Nat. Hist., p. 142. 

Streptelasma strictum, Hall, 1883. Rep. State (Geologist; for 1882, expl. Pl. I, 
figs. 1-10. 

Streptelasma strictum, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 1. 


Horizon.— Shaly limestone. Indian Ladder, Catskill Creek, 
Clarksville, Hudson, Schoharie and other localities in New York. 

The genus SrrerreLasma was proposed by Hall* in the first 
volume of the Palaeontology of New York. At the same time, 
also, several species were described, but as no type was desig- 
nated, S. expansum, the first described, should be taken as such, 
although the practice has been to employ S. corniculum as the 
typical form. The original description of the genus is as fol- 
lows: “Turbinate, gradually or abruptly expanding above; form 

ike CyaTHOoPHYLLUM; terminal cup more or less deep; lamellez 

vertical or longitudinal, more or less spirally twisted together 
when meeting in the center.” 

As the type species (S. expansum) still remains uninvestigated, 
and as the description above quoted is insufficient to distinguish 
the genus from other Cyathophylloid corals, Sir TELAsma strictly 
becomes little more than a name. 

Unfortunately, owing to the poor preservation of examples 
from the Trenton limestone where the original specimens of 
S. corniculum were obtained, many investigators, among them 
Epwarps and Harmer, Zitre, and Nicucison,} have used for study 
well-preserved specimens of the species from the Cincinnati group. 
This species was described as Zaphrentis Canadensis. Much 
confusion, therefore, has resulted. Epwarps and Haims, regard- 
ing S. corniculum as the type, say that Srrrpreasma is distin- 
guished from OCyatTHoruytium “by the structure of the wall 


* HALL, 1848. Pal. New York, vol. I, p. 17. 

+ Both ZiTtTEL (Handb. der Pal., Bd. I, 2 Abth., p. 228) and NICHOLSON (Man. of Pal., vol. I, p. 297, 1889) 
figure Z. Canadensis as S. corniculum. On the authority of ROMINGER (Geol. Surv. Michigan, Lower 
Peninsula, vol. III, part II, p. 142. 1886) EDWARDS and HAIME are included. 


Lower HELDERBERG FAUNA. 801 


which is destitute of an epitheca and covered by sublamellar 
coste.”* The statement that S. corniculum, whether from the 
Trenton or Hudson River Group, lacks an epitheca, is incorrect 
(Romincer, Joc. cit.). The best usaget at present regards Strepts- 
- LAsMA as a subgenus of Zarurentis. The two groups pass into 
each other by insensible gradations, but typical forms differ in 
this, that Srrepreiasma has a less complete development of dis- 
sepimental tissue. | 

Since the genus S:repretasma is in honorable usage as repre- 
senting an actual coralline type, it seems inexpedient to abandon 
it at present in view of our inadequate knowledge of S. expansum. 
Should a careful investigation of this species show that it does 
not belong to the Srrerrenasma type, MurriopHyittum, Edwards 
and Haime, will probably have to be substituted. Merriopayrtum 
(type Jf. Bouchard) is one of the new genera published by 
Epwarps and Harms in 1850, four years after StREPTELASMA Was 
established. The original description (Brit. Foss. Corals, p. lxix) 
is elaborated as follows: Corallum simple, turbinate, subpedicil- 
late, inclosed in a complete epitheca. Septa appear as well- 
developed partitions, slightly curved, and extending for the 
most part to the center of the visceral cavity ; they are grouped 
in four bundles, but the cross formed by the four principal septa, 
as it exists in other genera of the family, is indistinguishable. 
Tabulz well developed, simple and horizontal, corresponding in 
the different interseptal loculiin such a way as to form complete 
transverse floors, which are usually marked by the septa, but 
which show plainly when the latter are partially destroyed.t The 
figures of WU. Bouchardi and the description above quoted 
correspond with SrrerrELasma. The only questionable point of 
identity consists in the regularity of the tabula, which in the cut 
is so marked as to appear almost diagrammatic. The figure 
shows that YW. Bouchardi also had acentral axis like a columella. 
Although no specimens of Mutriopayiium have been obtainable, 
I have ventured to regard it as a synonym of SrrepreLasma. 
ZitTEL, however, recognizes both genera, possibly because of their 


* EDWARDS and HAIME, 1850. Brit. Foss. Corals, p. xviii. Thesame idea is repeated Mon. des Polyp. 
Foss. des Terr. Pal., p.398. 1851. 

+ HALL, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. xi, “Streptelasma,” also ROMINGER, loc. cit., p. 141. 

+ EDWARDs and HAImMg, 1851, Mon. des Polyp. Foss. des Terr. Pal., p. 317 et seg., Pl.7, figs. 1, 1a, 1b, 

2, 2a. 


302 '  REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


distribution, as he refers MetriopHyitium to the Devonian and 
STREPTELASMA to the Silurian age. 


Zaphrentis, Rafinesque, 1820. 


ZAPHRENTIS Rormeri, Edwards and Haime, 1851. 


Zaphrentis Roemeri, Edwards and Haime, 1851. Mon. des Polyp. Foss. des 
Terr. Pal., p. 341. 
Zaphrentis Roemeri, Hall, 1883. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pl. I, 
figs. 11-21. 
Zaphrentis Roemeri, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 2. 
Horizen.—- Lower Pentamerus and Shaly limestone. 
Localities.—-- Clarksville and Indian Ladder. 


PERFORATA. 


Family Favosirip2. 


Favosites, Lamarck, 1812. 


FAVOSITES HELDERBERGIZ, Hall, 1874. s 


Favosites Helderbergice, Hall, 1874. Twenty- -sixth Rep. New York State Mus. 
Nat. Hist., p. 111. 

Favosites Helderbergice, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus. 
Nat. Hist., p. 145. 

Favosites Helderbergic, Hall, 1883. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pi. 
IV, figs. 1, 2; Pl. V, figs. 1-3; Pl. VI, figs. 1-8. 

Favosites Helderbergic, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 8. 


FAVOSITES CONICUS, Hall, 1874. 
Favosites conica, Hall, 1874. Twenty-sixth Rep. New York State Mus. Nat. 
Hist., p. 112. 
Favosites conica, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus. Nat. 
Hist., p. 146. 
Favosites conicus, Hall, 1888. Ban, State peee for 1882, expl. Pl. III, ee 
4, 6-18. 
Favosites conicus, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 9. 
Horizon.-- Shaly limestone. 
Locality.-- Clarksville and Indian Ladder, New York ; and Cumberland, 
Maryland. 


A comparison of Favosites conicus and F. Helderbergiw shows 
that these species agree in many important particulars. As 
regards the structural peculiarities and the measurement of indi- 
vidual corallites, the two species as described by Haut are in 


Lower HELDERBERG FAUNA. 303 


almost perfect accord, and it is in the size and shape of the 
coralla that the most striking differences are shown. Both 
forms are covered with a strongly wrinkled epitheca. In / 
Helderbergice the mural pores are said to be in one or two ranges, 
comparatively large, circular, with margins distinctly elevated ; 
the tabule frequent, from ten to fifteen in a space of 10 mm. 
In F. conicus the mural pores are comparatively large, circular, 
with distinctly elevated margins, disposed in one, two, or some- 
times three rows. The tabule vary from eight to ten in a space 
of 10mm. The septa in both forms are represented by longi- 
. tudinal ridges. Hat describes the walls of 7. Helderbergi« as 
sometimes granulose or spinulose on theinnerface. In 7 conicus 
the interior of the cells is said to give evidence of numerous 
spinules or small nodes. 

Of F. conicus, Prof. Haut says, ‘The conical form of this species 
and the irregularity in the size of the cells distinguish it from every 
_ other known species of Favosrrzs in the Silurian rocks of New 
York.”* In the same description the diameter of the cells at 
the surface is said to vary from 1.5 to 3.5mm. This places 
their size as a little greater than in /. Helderbergiav, where they 
range from .66 to2mm. My own measurements show the aver- 
age size of the corallites in either species to be from 1.5 to 
2mm., and in / conicus from about .5to3mm. The collection 
at my command probably does not present the range of speci- 
mens which Prof. Haut studied. It is possible that Favosites 
conicus and F. Helderbergie both refer to the same organism 
_at different stages of growth and preservation. / J/elder- 
bergie is found in and at the top of the Lower Pentam- 
erus limestone, in_ the neutral zone between that and the 
Shaly limestone. /. conzcus is obtained from the Shaly lime- 
stone itself, but, toward the base of that horizon, the specimens 
occur silicified, and of a larger size, thus displaying a great 
resemblance to /. Helderbergiew. The conditions of argillaceous 
sedimentation are unfavorable to the growth of corals, and it 
is possible that /. conicus simply represents immature or 
small forms of the larger species, which a change from favorable 
to unfavorable conditions has uniformly prevented from further 
growth. : 


* HALL, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 9. 


304 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


The smallest corallum of /. conicus in this collection is 
8mm. in diameter and the largest 48 mm: The majority of 
Specimens are discoidal, or flattened hemispherical. A few have 
the characteristic form, being conical or strawberry-shaped. 

formation and locality.— Indian Ladder, Clarksville, Schoharie, 
Herkimer Co., and Cumberland, Maryland. 


Favosires Conranl, sp. nov. 
Plate V. figures 3-5. 

Corallum ramose, branches slender. Oorallites polygonal, 
contiguous, of comparatively small size. Pores large, with usually 
but a single row to a face. Septa represented by spines which 
are close set and regularly arranged so as to give twelve longi- 
tudinal rows, forming at the same time transverse rings. 
Tabule complete, straight, and near. The mature corallite are 
2mm. in diameter, the cells of various sizes. Usually disposed so 
that each large cell is surrounded by a ring of smaller corallites 
of about half its size. Tabule 1 to 1.5 mm. apart, evenly 
distributed. 

Although the tabule are near together, they do not appear so 
when compared with a closely tabulate form like /. Helderbergia. 
The specimens which represent /. Conrad are silicified, and the 
character of the septal spines is not satisfactorily shown. The 
cell walls are thin, but, near the surface, they are somewhat 
thickened by silicification. At this point, the septa are represented 
by parallel coronz of prominent spines, which are less conspicu- 
ous a little below, and eventually nearly or quite disappear. The 


number of septal ridges is regularly twelve. When, through - 


abnormal growth among the corallites, an epitheca is developed, 
it is ornamented with fine radiating strize and delicate concentric 
wrinkles. 

Horizon.— Lower enters limestone. 

Locality.— Indian Ladder, N. Y. 

Favosites sphericus = Chetetes (Ptychonema) spherieus, Hall, 
1874. 

Favosites proximus = Chetetes (Ptychonema) proximus, Hall, 
1883. 

These two species have been examined with considerable care 
by means of microscopic sections, and I have been unable to 


Lower HEeLpEerRBerG FAUNA. 305 


detect the presence of either mural pores or septa. It is, therefore, 
impossible to retain these forms in the genus Favosites. On the 
other hand, the small size of the ceils, the superimposed mode of 
growth, and, in the case of Chetetes sphericus, the presence of 
macule, all indicate an affinity with the Bryozoa. 


Alveolites, Lamarck, 1801. 
ALVEOLITES EXPLANATUS, Hall, 1884. 
Alveolites explanatus, Hall, 1884. Rep. State Geologist for 1883, expl. Pl. 13, 
figs. 15, 16. - 
Alveolites explanatus, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 11. 


Formation.— Lower Pentamerus limestone. 
Localities.— Cedarville, Clarksville and Schoharie, N. Y. 


Pleurodictyum, Goldfuss, 1826. 
PLEURODICTYUM LENTICULARE, Hall, 1874. 
Michelinia lenticularis, Hall, 1874. Twenty-sixth Rep. New York State Mus. 
Nat. Hist., p. 113. 


Michelinia lenticularis, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus. 
Nat. Hist., p. 145. 

Michelinia lenticularis, Hall, 1883. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pl. 
ir ties, 1,2, 3, 5. 

Pleurodictyuwm lenticulare, Beecher, 1891. Trans. Connecticut Acad., vol. 
VIII, p. 207. 


Formation.—Shaly limestone, Albany county, N. Y. 


Striatopora, Hall, 1852. 
STRIATOPORA Issa, Hall, 1874, 
Striatopora Issa, Hall, 1874. Twenty-sixth Rep. New York State Mus. Nat. 


Hist., p. 114. 

Striatopora Issa, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus. Nat. 
Hist., p. 144. 

Striatopora Issa, Hall, 1883. Rep. of State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pl. III, 
figs. 14, 15. 

Striatopora Issa, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 6. 


Formation and locality.— Shaly limestone, Helderberg mountains, Albany 
county, and Becraft’s mountain, Columbia county, N. Y. 


39 


306 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.. 


Cladopora, Hall, 1852. 


CrapoporA OLARKEI, sp. Nov. 
Plate V, figure 1. 


Corallum compact, ramose. Branching, bifurcate infrequent. 
Cells in five longitudinal rows, comparatively large, distinctly 
labiate. Diameter of the branches varies from .2 to 4 mm. 

The branches of this species are unusually small, and the bi- 
furcations infrequent. One specimen measures 46 mm. from 
a broken end to the point of branching; another measures 42 
mm. The apertures also are comparatively distant and are 
regularly arranged in five longitudinal rows. The corallites are 
long, nearly parallel to the axis of the branch, with a slight out- 
ward curvature as they approach the periphery. The plane of 
the orifice is nearly perpendicular to the cell wall. This, taken 
in connection with the acute angle at which the corallites meet 
the surface, gives the cell mouths a somewhat labiate appearance. 
Above each orifice the branch is slightly flattened or convex, 
causing it to have a subangular or nodose form. The surface of 
the branches is without ornamentation, very smooth and dense. 
A cross section of the branches shows that the cells have been 
distorted by mutual pressure. They are not, however, polygonal 
as in Favositrs, but have become more or less cresent shaped. 
No tabulz have been observed. The mural pores are small and 
very distant. | 

Horizon.— Shaly limestone. 

Locality.—The Indian Ladder, Albany county, N. Y. 


Crapopora Hatt, sp. nov. 
Plate V, figure 2, 


Corallum dense, branching. Ramification bifurcate. Branches 
usually flattened, of larger size than in C. Clarkei, varying from 
7x5 to 5x3 mm. in diameter. Cells smaller, more closely set, © 
not labiate and not serially arranged. 

This species can be readily distinguished from C. Clarkei by 
the large size of the branches and by the small cells, thickly and 


LowErR HELpERBERG FAUNA. 307 


indiscriminately placed without being disposed in vertical series. 

The projection of the outer wall, which gives to C. Clarkei a 

labiate appearance, is not a well-marked character in this species. 
Horizon. — Shaly limestone at a slightly higher level than @. 

Clarkie. | 

' Locality.— Clarksville, N. Y. 


Vermipora, Hall, 1874. 


This genus has been usually regarded as a coral, closely allied 
to AvLorora, a sort of vertical aggregation of AvLopora tubes. 
Such a classification, however, overlooks several important struc- 
tural characters, which, if duly considered, would place it among 
the Lryozoa, in close proximity to HEDERELLA. 

The genus Avtopora, Goldfuss,* is said to have neither tabulae 
nor septa,t although most species are found to possess them. 
Hatt states that the type species of Vermipora is without both 
septa and tabulae, and my own observations confirm the statement. 
In this particular and also in its system of budding VERmMIporaA 
agrees with Heprrritia. In the latter genus there is a central 
stolonal rhachis, which sends off buds pinnately. The stolon is 
often very long, and the buds may also reach a considerable 
length in some species. In Auvtopora the system is quite dif- 
ferent. There is no long central axis, but each cell grows for a 
short distance in the line of such axis, then bending upward, puts 
forth one or two buds, which in turn repeat the same process. 
Each corallite ceases to grow shortly after budding and the 
rhachis, instead of being simple and homogeneous, is composite. 

Therefore it seems advisable to remove VeRmirora from its 
position near AvLopora, and as it possesses points of resemblance 
to Huprretya, I have associated it with that genus. There is, 
however, another form, Cionorora, closely allied to HEpERELLA, 
but differing from VxErRmipora chiefly in that the buds bend out- 
ward from the stem in umbels. It may be a synonym for the 
latter, and at all events is closely related to it. ° 


* GOLDFUSS, 1826. Petrif. Ger., vol. I, p. 82. 
+ HALL, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, pp. XII and 5. 


308 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Family AvLoporipz. 
Aulopora, Goldfuss, 1826. 


AULOPORA SUBTENUIS, Hall, 1879. 


Aulopora subtenuis, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus, 
Nat. Hist., p. 148, 

Aulopora subtenuis (pars.), Hall, 1883. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pl, 
II, figs. 9-20. 

Aulopora subtenuis, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 4. 


> This species is an abundant form at the Indian Ladder, and is 
represented in the collection by several hundred specimens. It 
is never found procumbent and attached like other examples of 
the genus, and there is reason to believe that the corallum grew 
upright from a single attached individual. Buds are given off 
along the medial dorsal line, and not somewhat laterally, as is 
commonin Avtopora. The cells are often turned sidewise instead 
of upward. Furthermore, the corallites are not flattened and 
impressed as they would be if they had been once attached 
and subsequently broken off. These features may prove sufficient 
for founding a new genus on this form, closely allied to AULopoRA. 

Horizon.— Shaly limestone, N. Y. 


AULOPORA SCHOHARIZ, Hall, 1874. 


Aulopora Schoharie, Hall, 1874. Twenty-sixth Rep. New York State Mus. 
Nat. Hist., p. 110. 

Aulopora Schoharie, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus. 
Nat. Hist., p. 142. 

Aulopora Schoharie, Hall, 1883. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pl. II, 
figs. 1-6. : 

Aulopora Schoharie, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 3. 

Horizon.—Shaly limestone, Schoharie and Clarksville. 


AULOPORA TUBULA, Hall, 1879. 


Aulopora tubula, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus. Nat.. 
Hist., p. 142. ; 
Aulopora tubula, Hall, 1888. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pl. II, figs. 
ace 
Aulopora tubula, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 3. 
Horizon.— Shaly limestone, Schoharie. 


LowrEr HELpERBERG FAUNA. 309 


AULOPORA ELONGATA, Hall, 1879. 


Aulopora elongata, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus. Nat. 
Hist., p. 143. . 
Aulopora subtenwis (pars.), Hall, 1883. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pl. . 
II, figs. 9-20. 
Aulopora elongata, Hall, 1887. Pal. N. Y., vol. VI, p. 5. 
Horizon.— Shaly limestone, Schoharie. 


In concluding this revision I take pleasure in acknowledging 
my obligation to Prof. C. E. Brxcuzr, of Yale University, to 
whom I am indebted for the material studied, for the facts of its 
occurrence, and for other valuable suggestions and advice. 


Explanation of Plates. 


PLATE I. 
Figs. 1-12. Spicules of Lysactinella Gebhardi, as shown in a section through 
the sponge. xX 380. 


Figs. 14-17. Spicules of Lysactinella Gebhardi preserved as casts in a phos- 
phatic nodule. xX 30. 


Figs. 13, 18-21. Spicules of Lysactinella Gebhardi preserved free as pyrite. 
x 80. 


Figs, 22-31. Spicules of Lysactinella perelegans preserved as pyrite. X 30. 


PLATE 1. e” 


Lower Helderberg Fossils. 


PLATE II. 

Fig. 1. Large spicule of Lysactinella perelegans preserved as pyrite. x 30. 

Fig. 2. Diagram representing the spicular structure of Hindia spheroidalis 
(after Rauff). 

Fig. 3. Outline of Lysactinella Gebhardi. Section taken near the center. 
Natural size. | 

Fig. 4. Gastral surface of the pyritized specimen of Receptaculites infundie 
buliformis. xX 8. 

Fig. 5. Ends of radial tubes in the same specimen. The tubes are embedded 
in a white, crystalline mineral which fills the intermural cavity. The 
fracture is just below the gastral or inner wall. xX 26. 

Fig. 6. Portion of the gastral surface much enlarged. X 26. 

Figs. 7, 8. Two views of a specimen of Duncanella rudis, showing the usual 
characters of the species.  X 8. 


PLATE 2. 


Lower Helderberg Fossils. 


a 


ele 
BESESR AC 
OEE. 


EJ fed 
Ey. 


J 
: 
ak 


EES 


pes 


Da 


2 


eR P| 


Fy 
2 


sae) 


Pt 


nd 
ly i, rs v ‘Pu 
#1 hi dike 


? i 
. , ' . 
a ’ 
. 
* 
¢ j 
4 ¢ ¢ 
. * ‘ 
- 
: 
+ 
Aig ‘ 
‘ 
A . 
? * 
‘ 
; « 4 4 
1 ‘ ' ? 
J os 
. f ‘ ye 
; Oo a aby 
j 
Ae | ers 
* W 
: ‘ 
‘ ° % , 
id 
C , 
Ur 
- of ‘ 
- 7 
bd * 
i 
. 
+ 
7 
c 
’ 
. 
* 
. Fy - 
. 
. 
4 
4 y 
» y al 
rs so) i 
Pap. 
« . 
+ ira 
. 
4 
Le ‘ « 
‘ s 
. a 


PLATE III. 


Fig. 1. Diagram representing a section cut through the middle of the pyri- 
tized specimen of Receptaculites infundibuliformis. 4. 

Fig. 2. A portion of the outer surface of the same specimen, showing rhom- 
bic pits, radial tubes, and projecting spines. xX 8. 

Fig. 3. R. infundibuliformis. The inner surface of the gastral wall, showing 
the broken radial tubes. xX 26. 

Fig. 4. Thesame. The ridges belong to the inner surface of the gastral wall, 
more fully illustrated in the preceding figure. The edge of the specimen 
is beveled, giving the canals an elongated shape. The large perforations 
in the lower part of the figure are the rhombic pits of the gastral surface. 
They are covered over with a plexusof minute spicules, to which reference 
has been made in the text. X 26. 

Fig. 5. One of the rhombic depressions of the outer wall enlarged, showing 
the diagonal canals and the radial tube at the bottom. X 26. 


Fig. 6. Another view of thesame. xX 26. 
Fig. 7. Fractured surface showing the crushed radial tubes.  X 26. 


PLATE 3. 


Lower Helderberg Fossils. 


o keith Wi yn 1 ait | 


nd Bis. He,t ideqe eid) of ; 

ne pth oraouoMt & gi . 

ah) AX 
UE us GN > ayia 

Prag). AT OL je egi'a 

Weak: a 909 dloidw 

. - HA x ‘jabia 


M20 rete BM: agit 
ba fee u fae inbiiiox 


NPAT rok Y amre .€ pe ts Bi 


a 


PLATE IV. 


Fig. 1. Portion of a frond of Dictyonema crassum. X 6. 

Fig. 2. Same. The indistinct longitudinal wrinkles which are sometimes seen 
in this species, are not represented by the figure. X 6. 

Fig. 3. Monograptus Beecheri, translucent specimen showing tabulation. 
x 60. 

Figs. 4-8. Monograptus Beecheri.  X 60. 


Figs. 9, 10. Two views of an abnormal specimen of Monograptus Beecheri in 
which for a short distance some of the serrations appear on the unserrated 


side. x 60. 

Figs. 11-18. Views of M. Beecheri showing character and position of the 
zodidal openings. X 60. 

Fig. 14. Under surface of the serrations in M. Beechert. X 60. 

Fig. 15. End of a specimen of M. Beecheri showing perforated stipe. 


PLATE 4. 


Lower Helderberg Fossils. 


» ’ 
Caw : 
Te Va) 


Dy ry aris. ia) Var hee ; - ' 

ND Saks yy ia hs, Sore" wines No pies eto nD Ab op eee 

a . , t , : , 7 ( ; « 
By * q - _ . ¥ . Pd a i A id 


- 


ms f al : Ah al 
oe ee oi here pi 26 f “24 rk we | is 


Ps 


& 
om +3) Vref ANAS PP ty 2 3()% rh is » 
@ hy ~ » 

ees 

wf OLD) [s an 7 


7] 


. ry 


PLATE V. 


Fig. 1. Cladopora Clarkei. A bifurcate stem showing the labiate zooidal 
openings. xX 6. 

Fig. 2. Cladopora Halli. Portion of a corallum showing the small pores, 
which are more regularly arranged than is commonly the case. x 6. 

Fig. 3. Outline of a corallum of Favosites Conradi showing the branching 
form, <2: 

Fig. 4. Enlargement of a portion of the surface, showing the sizes and 
arrangement of the cells.  X 4. 

Fig. 5. Enlargement of a portion of the surface showing the septal spines 
thickened by a deposit of silica. x 8. 

Fig. 6. Enlargement of a portion of the epitheca showing finely striate and 
wrinkled surface.  X 10. 


eat 


PLATE 65. 


22; 


te 
“pi, 


PB 
G4 Deng 5h, ph 
Gi Ba TE: Nahi 


Lower Helderberg Fossils. 


PLATE VI. 


Fig. 1. Receptaculites Owent. Section transverse to the radial pillars showin 
the latter to be solid and structureless. x 4. : 


Fig. 2. R. Owent. Section through the gastral wall near the inner surface, 
showing by the dark portion irregular, anastomosing channels filled with 
matrix, and cutting the structureless calcite of the inner wall. x 4. 


Fix. 3. R. Oweni. Section through the outer wall. The dark portion repre_ 
sents what is generally considered matrix thrust between the summit 
plates. At the corners of the plates are round pores which are usually 
supposed to be characteristic of the inner wall. x 4. 

Fig. 4. A diagrammatic representation of a relief ornamentation preserved as 
a cast in the matrix above the rhombic pits of the external surface of a 
specimen of R. Oweni, 


Fig. 5. Clathrodictyon Jewetti. Longitudinal section showing the discontinu- 
ous radial pillars. x 15. 


Fig. 6. Transverse section of the same showing the cut ends of the radial pillars 
which are not joined by connecting processes. The skeleton-fiber is seen 
_ to be dense, not reticulated as in the genus Syringostroma. 15. 


Fig. 7. Syringostroma microporum, This is a transverse section, showing the 
finely porous structure of the laminze and the minutely reticulated skele- 
ton-fiber. A mamelon with axial tube and astrorhizal canals is cut in the 
lower right hand portion of the figure.  X 15. 


Fig. 8. Syringostroma foveolatum. Transverse section showing an extended 
astrorhizal system, and illustrating the dense character of the skeletal tis- 
sue.  X 15. 


Fig. 9. Longitudinal section of the same. The figure shows the thick laminz 
and continuous radial pillars; at the same time it traverses an axial tube 
and illustrates the superimposed nature of the monticules.  X 15. 


PLATE 6. 


, a Phas 
=. Be Roe Nahe A ¥ pres 


Lower Helderberg Fossils. 


PLATE VII. 


Fig. 1. Transverse section of Syringostroma centrotum. The figure shows two 
monticules with axial tubes. The concentric groups of apertures probably 
represent the cut ends of astrorhizal systems. The skeleton-fiber is mi 
nutely reticulated. x 15. 


Fig. 2. Longitudinal section of the same showing the continuous radial pillars. 
x 15. 


Fig. 3. Syringostroma consimile. Transverse section showing a low monticule 
with'an axial tube and a very strong and complex astrorhizal system. 
x 15. ; 

Fig. 4. Longitudinal section of the same illustrating the independent flexures 
of the laminae. The radial pillars in this and the following species are 
not systematically continuous. » 15. 


Fig. 5. Transverse section of Syringostroma Barretti, which shows a low 
monticule with its tubular axis, and a very complex, extended astrorhizal 
system. X 15, . 

Fig. 6. Longitudinal section of the same. This section shows the reticulated 
structure of the skeleton-fiber and the wave-like flexures of the laminz. 


RAE 


* 


ress LON 


See 


iN 


Ses 


eee 


ay 


My 
i 

SAS 
rs 


sn 


PLATE 7. 


7 
Sy, 


BD 


Sat 


%. 


aS 
ak 


Ax: 


EF? 
EFL) 


cKOLa 
Fe 


o 
7a 
oj 


Acti 
& 
, 2, 
Ge > 
a ‘ 
>: 


a 


SiN var eee 
rs aS 
i sé 
EB cc 
Pipe 
Er? ; 
3% oo 
, Pe tae 
= 
ee Ag} ize 


“Ses 
oe gan 
Fay Al 
MS aD,F: 


Ty 


SIC Dares 


LAP 


fF 
2, 
Tf 


Fe, 


PIECES 
CA? 


aay 


WL 


th 


or) 


OD) 


pe 


THY 
i 


ot 
25 my Y 


* + 


iH 


s 


6 


a5 SE on 
APD 
po Fp 0S 
eet gs 


ae 


x 


a 


Lower Helderberg Fossils. 


THE NEW SPECIES OF BRACHIOPODA 


DESCRIBED IN 


PALAEONTOLOGY OF NEW YORK, 


WMolume Viti=Rarts 1 and’2. 


1892--1894. 


WITH FOURTEEN PLATES. 


THE NEW SPECIES OF BRACHIOPODA 


DESCRIBED IN 


Palaeontology of New York, Volume VIII, 
Parts 1 and 2, 1892-1894. 


WITH FOURTEEN PLATES. 


[Fortheconvenience of the student, such new species of Brachiopoda as have 
been described or figured in Volume VIII of the Palaeontology of New York, 
in illustration of generic structures, are here brought together in one place, 
with requisite illustration and description. | 


Lingula compta. 
Plate 1, fig. 1. 


Lingula compta, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, part 1, p. 171, 
pl. i, fig. 16. 1892. 7 

Shell very narrow, with lateral margins nearly parallel for 
most of their length; the anterior margin transverse and the 
posterior less abruptly rounded. Shell-substance thin. Surface 
marked by fine concentric strie. 

The interior of the brachial (?) valve bears two strong lateral 
muscular ridges which meet in the median line at about one-third 
the length of the shell from the anterior margin. A narrow 
median furrow extends from just behind the center of the valve 
nearly to the anterior margin. Length of this valve, 9 mm., 
greatest width, 4.5 mm. 

This species is allied to LZ. densa, Hall, but differs in its nar- 
rower form and thinner shell. 

Hamilton group. T%chenor’s Gully, Canandaigua Lake, N.Y. 


326 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Lingula scutella. 
Plate 1, fig. 8. 
Lingula scutella, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 171, pl. i, 
fig. 30. 1892. 

Shell broad, subquadrate; lateral margins parallel for a short 
distance,. but soon rounding to the extremities, which have about 
equal curvature. Length to width as 2 to 3. Surface covered 
with more or less distinct concentric lines and wrinkles. The 
interior of the original valve, a cast of the interior, shows a broad 
central elevation, corresponding to the muscular impressions, and 
converging ridges over the pallial region, representing the vascu- 
lar sinuses. Fine radiating lines are also visible over the anterior 
region. Length of the valve, 12 mm.; greatest width, 8 mm. 

Chemung group. Allegany county, WV. Y. 


Lingula (Glossina) flabellula. 
Plate 1, figs. 5, 6. | 
Lingula flabellula, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 172, pl. i, 
figs. 38, 84. 1892. : : 

Shell large, subtriangular ; lateral margins diverging from an 
acute apex, rounding broadly at about two-thirds the length of 
the shell, to the slightly transverse anterior margin. Length — 
to greatest width as 6 to 7. Surface convex, slopmg more 
abruptly to the sides than to the anterior margin; covered with 
low, rather faint and distant concentric lines or wrinkles. Shell- 
substance comparatively thick, showing fine radiating lines on 
the inner lamin. Length of the largest specimen observed, 
42 mm.; greatest width, 36 mm. 

Waverly group. Sciotoville and Berea, Ohio. 


Lingula paracletus. 
Lingula paracletus, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt.1, p. 172, see 
p. 12, fig. 8. 1892. 

Shell moderately large, broadly spatulate. Posterior margins - 
diverging from an acute beak, rounding slowly to the sides of 
the shell where the curve is less; the interior margin is subcircu- 
lar, rarely transverse. The greatest width of the shell is in front 
of the middle and the proportions of length to greatest width 
areas 2 to 1.8. Surface ornamented with distant, concentric 
wrinkles between which are exceedingly fine concentric striz. 


Tue New Species or Bracutopopa,. 327 


On the interior the valves have a notably broad margin of con- 
tact. The internal cast sometimes shows this to be broadest at 
the middle of the anterior margin; faint radiating striz are also 
observable on this cast. The muscular and vascular impressions 
of the interior are frequently well defined, as described on the 
page above cited. Length of the original specimen 16 mm., 
width, 11 mm. 
Waverly group; Cuyahoga shales. Chardon, Ohio. 


Fig. 1. Lingula paracletus. h, centrals; k, middle laterals; /, outside laterals; j, anterior laterals; 
i, transmedians; g, umbonal scar. 


Lingula tzniola. 


| . Plate 1, fig. 4. ) 
Lingula lamellata, Hall. Palaentology of N. Y., vol. II, p. 55, pl. xx, figs. 4, 
a,b,c. 1882. 
_ Lingula teniola, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 173. 1892. 
Shell of medium size, with the margins diverging rapidly from 
the apex for a short distance, thence curving rather abruptly into 
subparallel lateral margins. The anterior margin is nearly 
transverse. Surface covered with fine elevated, nearly horizontal 
- ornamental lines, which are crossed in the umbonal region by the 
concentric growth lines. 
Clinton group. Clinton, lV. Y. 


Lingula lingulata. 


Plate 1, fig. 2. 
Lingula lingulata, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 173, 
pl. iv k, fig. 5. 1892. 
Shell elongate-subquadrate, having somewhat the form of Zin_ 
gula oblata, Hall. Valves very slightly convex. Distinguished 


328 Report oF THE STATE GeoLoaist. 


from other species by the peculiar deflection of the anterior por- 
tion of the shell considerably below the plane of the lateral 
margins. 

Clinton group. Wear Hamilton, Ontario. 


Lingulops Granti. 
Plate 1, figs. 7, 8. 
Lingulops Granti, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 173, pl. 
iv k, figs. 14,15. 1892. 

Shell small, linguloid in external see Outline elliptical, 
subacuminate at the posterior extremity. External surface 
marked by faint, elevated, equidistant concentric lines. Margin 
of contact broad and conspicuous about the entire periphery. 
On the interior of the pedicle-valve the margin is broadest 
beneath the beak and slightly grooved on its posterior edge for 
the passage of the pedicle. Thecentral and lateral muscular scars 
are elevated on a well-developed platform, the ante-lateral margins 
of which meet each other at an acute angle. In the brachial 
valve the posterior margin is also broad and faintly grooved, the 
platform more conspicuously developed both in length, width and 
height than in the other valve, while the muscular scars have 
essentially the same arrangement. In neither valve do the speci- 
mens at hand afford evidence of the arched parietal impressions 
seen in the other species of the genus. Length of an average 
specimen, 5 mm., width, 3 mm. 

This species diifors from L. Whitfieldi and L. Norwood, not 


only: in the absence of the parietal scars, but also in the develop- 


ment of the muscular area of the pedicle-valve into a distinct 
platform, and in the absence of the anterior longitudinal septum 
in the pedicle-valve. 

Niagara group. Hamilton, Ontario. 


Monomerella Greenii. 
Plate 1, figs. 9-14. " , 
Monomerella Greenii, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 174, 
pl. iv d, figs. 5-10. 1892. 

Shell enlongate-subovate. Valves comparatively shallow; 
shell-substance relatively thin. Surfaces of contact very broad, 
especially toward the posterior portion of the shell. Pedicle- 
valve with an erect but not high cardinal area, which is continu- 


Ture New Srectes or BRACHIOPODA, 329 


ous with the broad margins. Umbonal cavities very short, rarely 
reaching to the hinge-line and sometimes scarcely more developed 
than in Dinozotus. Cardinal slope well defined and divided by 
a deep longitudinal groove. Cardinal buttress faint. Platform 
scarcely developed; the scars upon its surface usually faint, but 
the lateral impressions sometimes sharply defined. Crescent and 
terminal scars generally distinct. Pallial sinuses usually discern- 
ible. Brachial valve with a low, rotund beak and transversely 
striated area. Umbonal cavity deep. The deep groove of the 
crescent is followed within by a sharply elevated ridge extending 
for the entire length of the cardinal line; terminal scars gener- 
ally deeply impressed and apparently compound. Platform rep- 
- resented only by a median thickening of the muscular impressions, 
having the characteristic V-shaped outline and sometimes divisi- 
ble into the component scars. From the anterior extremity of 
this muscular area two diverging ridges pass toward the anterior 
margin ; these may be connected with the pallial sinuses. 

This shell is readily distinguished from all other described 
species by the general tendency toward suppression of the plat- 
forms and muscular scars, the broad surface of contact, and the 
diverging anterior furrows of the brachial valve. 

From the dolomites of the Niagara group, between Cedarburgh 
and Grafton, Wisconsin. 


Monomerella Kingi. 
Plate 2, figs 1, 2. 
Monomerella Kingi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 174, pl. 
iv d, figs. 1,2. 1892. 

Shell subcircular or longitudinally oval. Pedicle-valve prob- 
ably with a low cardinal area, as far as may be judged by the 
size of the casts of the umbonal cavities, which are quite short 
mamiform, not extending to the cardinal line. Cardinal buttress 
strong, produced as a septum nearly to the anterior edge of the 
platform. Platform well developed, broadly V-shaped ; anterior 
wall vertical, not excavated; surface marked by strong impres- 
sions of muscular attachments. Crescent distinct, terminal scars 
very prominent. Brachial valve with the umbonal region much 
thickened; the platform sharply V-shaped, its anterior wall being 
considerably excavated to form imperfect vaults; the whole ele- 

42 


330 | Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


vation is situated somewhat further forward than the opposite 
valve. <A faint longitudinal septum extends a short distance for- 
ward from the apex of the platform. Crown of the crescent 
faint; terminal scars as in the pedicle-valve. 

From the magnesian limestone of the Niagara group, near 
Cedarburgh, Wisconsin, in association with Déinobdolus Conradn, 
Monomerella prisca and M. Green. 


Monomerella Ortoni. 
Plate 2, figs. 4, 5. 
Monomerella Ortoni, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 175, 
pl. iv c, figs. 14, 15. 1892. 
Pedicle-valve large, with a high cardinal area, which is gently 
incurved longitudinally and crossed by lamellose growth-lines, 
upon which the evidences of the deltidial ridges are extremely 


faint or altogether wanting. Umbonal cavities conspicuous, but — 


much shorter than is usual in Jf. prisca. Cardinal slope large, 
triangular and divided by an axial furrow. Cardinal buttress 
broad at the base but not especially prominent. Platform appar- 
ent only at its anterior edge where it has a broad anterior slope. 
Crescent well defined beneath the hinge-line ; terminal scars very 
prominent ; central, lateral and anterior impressions discernible on 
the platform. Pallial sinuses very strong, the outer ramifications 
from which are distinctly seen. Brachial valve unknown. 

From the Niagara dolomitic limestone, at the Rising Sun 
quarries, Wood county, Ohio. 


Monomerella Egani. 
Plate 2, fig. 3. 
Monomerella Egani, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 175, 
pl. ive, fig. 16. 1892. 
Brachial valve with an unusually high cardinal area, indicating 
a quite elevated beak. This area is strongly striated trans- 
versely, and bears two faint longitudinal depressions correspond- 
ing in position to the deltidial ridges of the pedicle-valve. It is 
continued laterally nearly to the middle of the margins. Cres- 
cent very narrow over the crown, lying close upon the cardinal 
line; at its turn forward it is developed into a deep, narrow, 
elongate muscular scar, which is continued into a broader ter- 
minal impression. Platform sharply elevated at its anterior 


Tue New Specrizs or BRACHIOPODA. 381 


edge, sloping rather abruptly backward. Its surface bears the 
usual tripartite arrangement of the muscular scars. Anterior 
longitudinal septum distinct. From directly behind the crescent 
to the central muscular impressions is a very broad, smooth, 
lunate slope, occupying the position of the simple umbonal cavity 
usual in this valve of Monomemretua, and presenting the appear- 
ance of an abnormal deposition or callosity. 

Though represented by a single specimen only, this form shows 
features not elsewhere observed in the genus, viz., the great 
development of the cardinal area, the composite character of the 
muscular impressions terminating the crescent, and the broad 
posterior slope. | 

From the Niagara group. Wear Grafton, Wisconsin. 


Rhinobolus Davidsoni. 
Plate 2, figs. 6-8. 
Rhinobolus Davidsoni, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 176, 
pl. iv b, figs. 10-12. 1892, 

Shell with a circular outline, except for the prominence of the 
beak. Pedicle-valve with a moderately high, acuminate cardinal 
area, upon which the central area, the deltidial ridges and areal 
borders have each about the same width. Cardinal slope short;. 
crescent sharply defined; terminal scars distinct. Platform 
broadly V-shaped, sloping less abruptly backward than in A, 
Galtensis. Pallial sinuses faint. Brachial valve with marginal 
beak and inconspicuous area. Orescent more prominently devel- 
oped than in the opposite valve, transverse over the crown as in 
DivnopoLvus; terminal scars large. Platform more sharply angu- 
lated than in the pedicle-valve and somewhat more elevated, 
bearing conspicuous lateral and anterior scars. Longitudinal 
septum not pronounced. Pallial sinuses quite distinct. 

This species is based upon internal casts of opposite valves, 
which are in entire harmony with each other and are readily sepa- 
rated from Dinobolus Conrad and the various species of Mono- 
MERELLA associated with them at the same locality. It is distin- 
guished from the forms referred to /?hinobolus Galtensis, Bil- 
lings, by its more circular outline, less elevated pedicle-umbo, 
inconspicuous brachial umbo, and broader, though less sharply 
elevated platform. | 

Niagara group. Wear Grafton, Wisconsin. 


332 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Siphonotreta (?) Minnesotensis. 
Plate 2, figs. 9, 10. 
Siphonotreta (?) Minnesotensis, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, 
p. 177, pl. iv, figs. 37, 38. 

Shell subovate in outline. Pedicle-valve more convex than the 
brachial, slightly flattened along the median line, sloping with 
equal convexity toward the lateral and anterior margins. Fora- 
men apical (?). Brachial valve depressed-convex, somewhat ele- 
vated about the umbo. Surface covered, in the umbonal region, 
with fine, anastomosing and gently undulating concentric lines, 
which, in the later portions of the shell, are finely granulose or 
serrated ; at about one-third the length of the shell coarser var- 
ices of growth appear, between which the finer lines are retained. 
Surface covered with hollow spines of various sizes, which appear 
to have been most closely set over the umbonal region of the 
pedicle-valve. Here, where the growth-lines are absent, the 
spine-bases in the original specimen are large: and all of about 
the same size and are disposed without order. Over the other 
portions of the shell the spines are set along the edges of the 
varices, small and large being indifferently mixed. The bases 
of the spines make annular swellings on the interior of the 
valves The length of the original specimen is 15 mm., width 
12 mm. : 

Trenton limestone. Minneapolis, Minnesota. 


Orbiculoidea (Schizotreta) ovailis. 
Plate 2, figs. 12, 18. 

Orbiculoidea (Schizotreta) ovalis, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, 

pt. 1, p. 177, pl. ive, figs.4,5. 1892. . 3 . 

Shell subelliptical in outline. Valves with apices situated a 

little behind the center. Lower valve with the apex erect or 
inclined slightly forward. External foraminal groove narrow, 
extending for about one-half the posterior radius of the valve. 
Surface about the foramen convex, but elsewhere slightly 
depressed in its slope from apex to margin. Upper valve more 
elevated than the lower, apex inclined backward, posterior slope 
gently concave. Surface marked by elevated nearly equidistant 
concentric striae. Shell-substance thick, the inner laminz show- 
ing fine radiating lines over the anterior region. Length of the 


Tur New Species ofr BRACHIOPODA. 388 


original specimen, 8 mm., width, 6 mm., thickness through the 
apices of the conjoined valve, 3 mm. 
_ Trenton limestone. Middleville, V. Y. 


Orbiculoidea numulus. 
Plate 2, fig. 11. 
Orbiculoidea numulus, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII. pt. 1, p. 178, 
pl. ive, fig. 14. 1892. 

The original specimen is a lower valve, having a nearly circular 
outline. The apex is subcentral, elevated and directed anteriorly. 
The external groove of the foramen is moderately broad and 
extends one-half the length of the posterior radius. The posterior 
slope is convex while the anterior is depressed or slightly concave. 

Surface smooth about the apex, thence outward marked by a few 
— distant, elevated, concentric lines or ridges, between which are 
numerous fine concentric lines. Length and width, 12 mm. 

Lower Helderberg group (Waterlime). Marshall, V. Y. 


Orbiculoidea Herzeri. 
Plate 2, figs. 14-20. 
Orbiculoidea Herzeri, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 178, pl. 
iv e, fig. 19, and pl. iv f, figs. 9-13, 30. 1892. 

Shell subcircular in outline. Upper valve with an eccentric 
apex, situated less than one-fourth the length of the shell from 
the posterior margin, and directed backward. Surface gently 
convex, sloping evenly forward from the apex, but abruptly 
depressed on the post-apical region. Lower valve with the apex 
much nearer ‘the center ; shell almost flat. Pedicle-aperture, in 
the primary stages of development, a triangular opening extend- 
ing from the apex to the margin; this gradually closes with 
advancing growth, the external groove at maturity extending 
from one-half to two-thirds the length of the posterior radius of 
the valve. On the interior, the groove is frequently more or less 
enveloped by the development of testaceous deposits. Surface of 
both valves ornamented by crowded concentric lines and 
wrinkles. The internal surface of the lower valve sometimes 
shows fine radiating lines and faint vascular sinuses. Length 
and width of an adult individual, 14 mm. 

Waverly group (Cuyahoga shales). Berea, Baconsburg and 
elsewhere, Ohio. 


334. Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Lindstremella aspidium. 
Plate 3, figs. 1-4. 
Lindstremella aspidium, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. Vill mies 
p., 178, pl. ive, figs. 25-28. 1892. 

This species is readily distinguished from Orbiculoidea (Ronee 
ella) grandis, its associate in the fauna of the Hamilton shales, 
and the only form with which there is danger of confounding it, 
by the convex pedicle-valve, the distant, elevated, concentric 
surface-ridges, which have a peculiar undulation as they approach 
the margins of the foramen. The internal characters of the 
shell are at once distinctive. (See discussion of these features 
on page 134, op. crt.) Length and width of a mature specimen, 
50 mm. 

Hamilton group. Leonardsville, Hamilton, Darien and Canan- 
daigua Lake, NV. Y. 

schizocrania Schucherti. 
Plate 3, figs. 5-7. 
Schizocrania Schucherti, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 179, 
pl. iv g, figs. 31-33. 1892. 

Shell small, usually found unattached; marginal outline ga 
ovate. Surface of pedicle-valve flat or slightly concave; con- 
centrically striated. Pedicle-aperture broad and sharply triangu- 
lar. Brachial or upper valve strongly convex, often laterally 


* compressed. Umbo full and rotund, incurved at the apex, which 


is almost, but not quite, marginal. Surface covered by numerous 

simple, sharply elevated, uninterrupted striz, frequently crossed 

by concentric wrinkles. On the interior of this valye only the 

strong posterior muscular impressions are distinctly shown. 
Hudson group. Cincinnati, Ohio. 


Schizocrania (?) Helderbergia. : 
Plate 8, figs. 8, 9. 
Schizocrania (?) Helderbergia, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1 
p. 179, pl. iv g, figs. 34, 35. 1892. 

Shell subcircular in outline. Upper valve convex; apex pos- 
terior and marginal. Surface covered with fine, closely crowded, 
elevated, radiating lines, which extend to the apex, and increase 
by intercalation. Lower valve flat and of less diameter than 
the upper. Apex subcentral, posterior. Foramen apparently a 
’ narrow triangular slit extending to the margin. A short median 


Ture New Spectres of BRACHIOPODA, 335 


septum extends forward from the apex. External surface cov- 
ered with low, crowded and rather faint concentric lines. On 
the interior, the surface bears a series of distant, deep but nar- 
row radiating furrows, about twenty-five in number; these do 
not reach the apex, and increase in number toward the margin. 
Between them are very fine radiating lines. The animal was 
parasitic in its habit, attachment being considerably aided by the 
overlapping margin of the upper valve. Length and width of 
an average adult; upper valve, 9 mm., lower valve, 7.5 mm. 
Lower Helderberg group. Wear Clarksville, VN. Y. 


Crania agaricina. 
Plate 3, fig. 10. 
Crania agaricina, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 180, pl. 
iv h, fig. 2. 1892. 

Shell small. Apex posterior, slighly elevated. Surface 
covered by a few coarse, elevated, radiating lines, of ‘which 
-about twelve reach the apex. These increase by intercalation 
toward the margin to about thirty. The edges of these ridges 
appear to be minutely granulose. Length of the original speci- 
men (allowing for its incurvature upon the surface of attach- 
ment), 5 mm. | 

Lower Helderberg group. Wear Clarksville, V. Y. 


Crania pulchella. 


Plate 8, fig. 14. 


Crania pulchella, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 180, pl. 
iv h, fig. 3. 1892. 


Shell like that of C. agaricina, but larger and with much 
finer, more numerous radiating ribs. These are about sixty in 
number at the margin of the valve. Length of the original 
specimen, 8 mm. 

Lower Helderberg group. ear Glarkavitle 7: an 


Crania granosa. 
Plate 3, figs. 11, 12. 


Crania granosa, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 180, pl. ivh, 
figs. 19, 20. 1892. 


The original specimen is an upper valve, quite irregular in its 
growth, with a nearly central beak and strong convexity. The 


336 | Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


surface is completely covered with closely set granules which are 

somewhat coarser toward the margins. A few concentric 

wrinkles of growth are also visible. Diameter, 18 mm. 
Hamilton group. Centerjield, N. Y. 


Crania favincola. 


Plate 3, fig. 18. 
Crania favincola, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 181, pl. 

' ivh, fig. 33. ©1892. 

Two interiors of the lower valve attached to a colony of Favo- 
sites prrum have very strongly developed muscular and vascular 
impressions. The posterior scars are large and their strongly 
elevated margins unite with the broad lateral border of the shell. 
The anterior scars are situated in front of the center and are 
partially enveloped by the great elevation of the anterior and 
median fulcra. The vascular sinuses are broad, slightly undulat- — 
ing grooves, extending from the median region to the anterior 
border. Length, 17 mm., width, 21 mm. : 

Hamilton group. Crab Orchard, Kentucky. 


Craniella Ulrichi. 


Plate 8, figs. 15, 16. 
Craniella Ulrichi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 181, pl. 
iv at ses. A tes SOR: 

Shell moderately large. Outline normally circular. Apices 
subcentral, slightly posterior, inclined backwards. Upper valve 
with the posterior scars large and the adjustors well defined; 
anterior scars subdivided, the outer or posterior portion possibly 
representing the insertion of the brachial muscles. The vascular 
sinuses make a 3-shaped curve on the lateral portions of the valve, 
with the crest of the double arch toward the center; narrowing 
rapidly, becoming indistinct over the anterior region. Lower 
valve regularly convex, evidently unattached at maturity. An- 
terior adductors very large, situated on a thickened posterior 
area. -Posterior adductor and adjustor scars very faint, lying 
just within the margin. The vascular sinuses are a series of low 
grooves extending forward in subparallel lines from the anterior 
and lateral margins of the central muscular area. External 


Tue New Species oF BRACHIOPODA. 387 


surface of the valves smooth or covered with concentric sub- 
lamellose growth-lines. Length of an upper valve, 11 mm.; width, 
12 mm.; diameter of a lower valve, 16 mm. 

Trenton shale. Minneapolis, Minnesota. 


Pholidops calceola. 
Plate 3, fig. 20. 


Pholidops calceola, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 182, 
pl. ivi, fig. 30. 1892. . 

Shell small.. Outline subelliptical, the posterior margin being 
- narrowed by the extension of the beak, which is long and acute, 
slightly elevated above the plane of the margin. External surface 
_ marked by concentric lamellose growth-lines, which extend about 
the posterior side of the beak. Muscular area central; posterior 
margin divided into a broad central and two lateral arches, from 
the latter the outline extending in a regular curve to the anterior 
margin. Adductor scars sharply defined. The dorsal (?) valve 
only is known. Length of the original specimen, 3.5 mm. 

Corniferous limestone. alls of the Ohio. 


Pholidops patina. 
Plate 3, figs 17-19. 


Pholidops patina, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 182, pl. 
iv i, figs. 27-29. 1892. . 

- Shell comparatively large; outline elongate-ovate or elliptical. 
Length to width as 3 to 4. Apex posterior. Surface covered 
with lamellose concentric growth-lines, which are crossed by 
fine, interrupted radiating striez. The interior of the ventral (?) 
valve has the anterior and posterior adductors well defined, the 
latter being lobate. The median scars are well developed and 
the parietal impression acutely angled at the center. In the 
opposite valve the anterior edges of the muscular area are 
sharply elevated, both pairs of adductor scars prominent, and the 
parietal scar extended posteriorly. 

Corniferous limestone; from boulders of decomposed chert. 
DeCewville, Ontario. | 

43 


938 Report oF THE State GroLogist. 


Orthis Panderiana. 


Plate 4, figs. 1-3. 


Orthis orthambonites, Billings. Palaeozoic Fossils, vol. I, p. 77. 1862. 
Orthis Panderiana, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, expl. 
pl. v, figs. 1-3, and foot-note. 


This shell was identified by Brzimnas with the Orthis calli- 
gramma, var. Orthanibonites, de Verneuil, under the designation 
O. orthambonites, Pander. Panprr, however, did not employ 
this term in a specific, but in a generic sense, though it was sub- 
sequently taken by von Bucu and von Eronwatp as a specific 
designation to cover all the species referred by Panpezsr to his 
genus OrruampBonites. As a specific term it must be accredited 
to von Buox, and it is synonymous with some one (it is impossible 
to say which) of Panp«r’s species. The American shell is quite 
distinct from the Russian O. calligramma var. orthambonites in 
its smaller size, fewer and coarser ribs. 

“Pointe Lévis. In the upper part of Limestone No. 2. Quebec 
group.” (BiLuiwes.) ) | 


Orthis ? glypta. 
Plate 4, figs. 5, 6. 


Orthis? glypta. Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 359, pl. 
Ixxxiv, figs. 8,9, 1894. ek 


Shell small, transverse, with long, straight hinge, making the 
greatest diameter of the shell; short along the median axis} 
marginal outline transversely subelliptical. Pedicle-valve with 
a broad and low median sinus and generally depressed surface. 
The exterior bears from twelve to sixteen low, flat plications, 
separated by narrow sulci, and sometimes with a fine groove on 
the surface of each. These extend from apex to margins, and 
are crossed by fine, undulating, subconcentric lines apparently 
-in two oblique sets, producing a peculiarly reticulated or wavy 
surface, similar to that occurring in the Swedish Silurian species, 
O. Lovent, Lindstrém. The muscular area of the pedicle-valve is 
small. Length of an average pedicle-valve, 12 mm., width, 18 
mm. 

Niagara dolomites. Wear Milwaukee, Wasconsin. 


Tur New Specres or BRACHIOPODA. 839 


‘Orthis flabellites var. spania. 
Plate 4, fig. 4. 
Orthis flabellites var. spania, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, 
expl. pl. lxxxiv, fig. 10. 1894. 

Shell with the general aspect of 0. flabellites, Hall, but with 
very coarse plications, scarcely more than one-half the number 
usual in that species. 

Niagara dolomites. Wear Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 


Orthis ? Holstoni (Safford), Hall. 
Plate 4, figs. 19-21. 
Orthis ? Holstoni, Safford. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 340, pl. 
v a, figs. 35-37. 1892. 

Shell transverse; outline semicircular. Hinge-line long and 
straight. Pedicle-valve with a high, vertical, cardinal area, 
transected by a very broad, uncovered delthyrium ; beak not in- 
curved; surface sloping evenly toward the margins, slightly 
_ rounded in the median line, and faintly depressed toward the 
cardinal angles. Brachial valve depressed convex, nearly flat, 
with a broad and low median sinus. 

Surface of both valves covered with fine, elevated, radiating 
striae, crossed by faint, concentric, cancellating lines which have 
a slight retral bend on the striz. 

This shell has very much the aspect of a CriramponirtEs, but of 
the two specimens examined, neither has evidence of a deltidium 
plate, and a transverse section across the umbo of one, shows 
that the dental lamella, though strong and convergent, did not 
unite to form a spondylium. Received from Professor Sarrorp. 

Trenton horizon (Glade limestone). Near Mashwille, Tennessee. 


Orthis (Plzsiomys) loricula. 
Plate 4, figs. 7-9. 
Orthis (Pleesiomys) loricula, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, 
p. 341, pl. v a, figs. 32-34. 1892. 

Shell strophomenoid in outline; reversed convex. Hinge-line 
long and straight, making the greatest diameter of the shell. 
Cardinal areas narrow, subequal. In the pedicle-valve the del- 
thyrium is covered by a convex plate extending for one-half its 
length; the area is erect, the beak not prominent. The valve is 


346 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


slightly convex in the umbonal region, but is depressed outward 
in all directions, most strongly in the median line. The brachial 
valve is depressed about the beak, convex over the pallial region 
and divided in the median line by a shallow sinus. The interior 
characters of the valves are essentially the same as those in 
Orthis subquadrata. 

External surface covered with numerous fine, elevated stria, 
alternating in size and crossed by finer concentric lines. 

Length of an average specimen, 18 mm.; width, 21 mm. 

Trenton horizon. Fountain, Minnesota. ; 


Orthis P Saffordi. 
Plate 4, figs. 10-12. 
Orthis ? Saffordi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 340, pl. 
v a, figs. 38-40. 1892. 

Shell semielliptical in outline; valves subequally convex, the 
pedicle-valve being the more elevated at the apex. Hinge-line 
long and straight, giving the shell a strophomenoid appt 
Cardinal area low; delthyrium uncovered. 

Surface covered with numerous rounded, sharply elevated 
striz, increasing by intercalcation, and crossed by exceedingly 
fine concentric lines. The details of the interior are not known, 
but the relations of the shell to Orruis are demonstrated by the 
open delthyrium and simple cardinal process, ba lobate on 
its pcsterior face. 

Length of the type specimen, 17 mm.; width along the ills 
22 mm. 

Trenton horizon. ast Tennessee. 


Orthis (Dalmanella) arcuaria. 


Plate 4, figs. 18, 14. , 
Orthis (Dalmanella) arcuaria, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, 
p. 341, pl. vc, figs. 20, 21. 1892. 

Shell with a general similarity to that of Orthis elegantula, 
Dalman, but having the marginal outline more circular, the 
pedicle-valve more evenly convex, the umbo more prolate, and 
the brachial valve considerably more convex. The pedicle-valve 
bears a broad fold, and the brachial a shallow sinus, in the median 
line. In the interior of the pedicle-valve the muscular area is 


Tur New Species oF BRACHIOPODA. 341 


elongate and very deeply impressed, the umbonal portion of this 
valve being considerably thickened. 

Surface covered with numerous very fine radiating striz. 

Length of the type specimen, 19 mm.; width, 18 mm.; depth, 
9 mm. 

Hudson River group. Last Tennessee. 


Orthis (Dalmanella) superstes. 
Plate 4, figs. 15-18. 
Orthis (Dalmanella) superstes, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, 
p. 342, pl. v c, figs. 44-47. 1892. 

Shell of small size and having the general form and expression 
of O. hybrida, Sowerby. Hinge-line short, beaks but slightly 
elevated. Marginal outline varying from subquadrate to sub- 
circular. Valves about equally convex. In the pedicle-valve the 
beak is somewhat inflated and slopes evenly in all directions for 
nearly one-half of the shell; from this point onward is a broad, 
low median sinus, which is most conspicuously developed in old 
and gibbous shells. In rare instances there is a low elevation in 
the bottom of this sinus. The opposite valve also bears a median 
sinus which takes its origin at the beak. In the interior of the 
pedicle-valve the muscular area is sharply defined, subquadrate 
in outline, the adductor scars small and the diductors well 
developed. In the brachial valve the cardinal process and crural 
plates are prominent; the muscular area well defined and 
quadruplicate. 

The external surface of the valves is covered with fine, elevated 
strize, of which twenty of the coarsest reach the beak; this number 
increasing by intercalation to about fifty at the margin. Near 
the margin very fine concentric striz are visible. 

Length of normal individual, 12 mm.; width, 13 mm.; depth, 
9 mm. 

Chemung group. Wear Howard, Steuben county, NV. Y. 


Orthis (Rhipidomella) Oweni. 


Plate 4, figs. 24-26. 


Orthis (Rhipidomella) Oweni, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, 
p. 842, pl. vi, figs. 19-21. 1892. 


Shell having somewhat the outline of O. Vanuxemz, but more 
elongate transversely and gently sinuate or emarginate on the 


842 Report OF THE State Geoxoaist. 


anterior edge. The shells are usually flattened, but where the 
form is retained the pedicle-valve shows a hinge-line whose length 
is somewhat less than one half the transverse diameter of the 
shell. The beak is acute, the umbo full but not conspicuous. 
Along the center of the valve is a broad, low sinus, frequently 
very inconspicuous. The interior of this valve is characterized 
by the relatively small area covered by the muscular scars, a 
feature in which it resembles 0. Peloris of the Schoharie grit. 
The pallial region is pitted or covered with faint, closely anasto- 
-mosing ridges. On the brachial valve the median sinus begins at _ 
the,apex and becomes very pronounced as it widens anteriorly. 
From the ridges forming its lateral margins the surface slopes 
rather abruptly and without much curvature. On the interior 
the cardinal process and crural plates are not prominently elevated; 
the muscular area is small, quadripartite, the lateral pairs of scars 
being separated by a broad, thick ridge. 

Surface of both valves covered by a great number of fine 
radiating, hollow striz, from 110 to 130 in number, which are 
crenulated by minute concentric lines and crossed at intervals by 
coarser lines of growth. The surface was originally covered 
with short spinules, which are rarely preserved. This shell has 
heretofore been commonly referred to Orthis Micheloni, Léveille. 

Keokuk group (Knobstone eo Button-mould Knobs, 
Kentucky. 

Orthis (Schizophoria) senecta. 
Plate 4, figs. 22, 23. 
Orthis (Schizophoria) senecta, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt.1,p 
348, pl. via, figs. 23, 24. 1892. ; 

Shell subquadrate or transversely elliptical, resupinate, un- 
equally biconvex. The pedicle-valve is depressed convex in the 
umbonal region and develops a broad, low median sinus toward 
the anterior margin. The brachial valve is the more convex and 
slopes evenly toward the lateral margins, the median region — 
being rendered slightly more prominent by an obscure fold. 

Internal markings as in other members of ScaizopHortA. 

External surface covered with fine, subequal, closely covered 
radiating strie. 

Length of a typical example, 17 mm.; width, 21 mm. 

Clinton group. Leynale’s Basin, Niagara county, New York. 


Tur New Srectizs or BRACHIOPODA, 343 


Orthotropia dolomitica. 
Plate 6, figs. 4-8. 
Orthotropia dolomitica, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. 
pl. Ixxxiv, figs. 3-7. 1894. 
_ Shell known only from internal casts, which are somewhat 
elongate, biconvex; the pedicle-valve having a prominent and 
slightly arched umbo, and a distinct, triangular cardinal area. 
The hinge-line is straight, but shorter than the greatest width of 
the valves. Both valves are most convex in the umbonal region, 
and slope to’ the anterior margin, each with a median sinus. 
The delthyrium is open; the muscular impression of the pedicle- 
valve short, deep and restricted to the rostral region. Its mar- 
gin is elevated and a short vertical median septum extends from 
its anterior margin. In the brachial valve the muscular impres- 
sion is very narrow, also has elevated edges and a median 
septum. 
Niagara dolomites. Wear Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 


Strophomena Conradi. 
Plate 4, figs. 27-30. 
Stroghomena Conradi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 344, 
pl. ix a, fig. 3, and pl. xx, figs. 32, 33. 1892. 3 

Shell semiovate in outline; hinge-line straight and forming the 
greatest diameter of the shell. Cardinal area narrow on both 
valves; broader on the pedicle-valve and but slightly elevated at 
the umbo. Delthyrium covered; deltidium perforated at the 
apex. Pedicle-valve convex in the umbonal region, but becoming 
deeply depressed and concave over the middle of the shell and 
again elevated about the margins. The depression of the valve 
is most conspicuous along the median line and on the anterior 
margin where it produces a subnasute extension. The brachial 
valve is flat or slightly concave at the umbo, becoming convex 
over the pallial region; it reaches its greatest convexity at about 
the middle of the shell and is thence deflected gradually in the 
median line and more abruptly on the lateral slopes. 

Surface of the shell covered with radiating strie, arranged in 
fascicles of 4 to 7 fine ones between each pair of coarser ones. 
There are no concentric rug on either valve, but the radiating 
striz are crossed by exceedingly minute concentric lines. 


544. REpPoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


\ 


Width of the original specimen along the hinge, 23 mm.’; 
greatest length, 19 mm. 
Trenton limestone. Jacksonburg, NV. ¥. 


Strophomena Winchelli. 


Plate 4, figs. 31-33. 


Strophomena nutans, Hall. Rept. State Geologist N. Y. a 1882, expl. pl. (ix) 
39, figs. 10, 12-14. 1883. 

Strophomena Winchelli, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., van VIII, pt. 1, p- 
344, pl. ix, figs. 10, 12-14, and pl. xx, fig. 26, 1892. 

Shell elongate semiovate ; strongly convexo-concave. Hinge- 
line straight and making the greatest diameter of the shell. 
Cardinal angles sometimes extended. Pedicle-valve with a 
moderately broad area and deltidium; apex slightly elevated, the 
valve becoming deeply concave over the pallial region and 
reflected at the margins. The teeth are strong and divergent, 
and from their bases extend elevated curving ridges which form | 
the margin of the subcircular or subovate muscular area. 
Diductor scars broad, inclosing an elongate and narrow adductor. 
Within the anterior and lateral margins of the valve is a thick- 
ened ridge which is crossed by branches of the vascular sinuses. 
Brachial valve flat in the umbonal region, very convex over the 
median portion and sloping gradually to the margins. The car- 
dinal process consists of two slender and short apophyses which 
are united at their base with the crural plates. The latter are 
very divergent and extend in a broad curve subparallel to the 
hinge-line. The muscular scars consist of two pairs, the posterior 
being broad and striated, the anterior narrow and close to the 
median line. The members of the pairs are separated by a low 
median ridge. Surface of the shell covered with numerous very 
fine filiform striz, regularly but not conspicuously alternating in 
size. Delicate concentric striz are sometimes discernible. 

Trenton horizon. Clifton and Janesville, Wisconsin. - 

This shell has been referred to the Hemipronites nutans, J ames 
(Meek), of the Hudson River group, which it resembles in’ its 
general expression. It differs from this species in its internal 
characters and more finely and abundant striated exterior. 


Tur New Sprcies or BRACHIOPODA, B45 


Orthothetes desideratus. 
Plate 5, figs. 1, 2. 


Streptorhynchus, sp.? Hall. Rept. State Geologist N. Y. for 1882, pl. (xi a) 
42, figs. 26, 27. 1883. 


Orthotetes desideratus, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 345, 
pl. ix a, figs. 26, 27. 1892. 

The original specimens of this species are internal casts of a 
form with a subcircular marginal outline, very gibbous brachial 
valve which has its greatest convexity central and slopes evenly 
to the margins, though with a slight tendency to depression 
toward the cardinal extremities; a strongly and regularly con- 
cave pedicle-valve, elevated at the beak and about the margins. 
The cardinal area on this valve is moderately high and erect, the 
hinge-line being slightly shorter than the greatest diameter of 
the valves. The surface of both valves is covered with numer- 
ous fine radiating striz. The general form and contour of the 
species is very similar to that of Orthothetes umbraculum of the 
Eifel. 

Waverly group. Medina county, Ohio. 


Derbya ruginosa. 

Plate 5, figs. 12-14. 

Derbya ruginosa, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 346, pl. 
x1 a, figs. 25-27. 1892. 

Shell subelliptical in outline. Hinge-line short, its length 
being about two-thirds the greatest diameter of the shell. Ped- 
icle-valve shallow; cardinal area moderately high, its lateral 
slopes being slightly more than one-half the length of its base; 
-apex scarcely prominent; surface depressed or flat in the umbonal 
region, becoming irregularly concave anteriorly. Entire valve 
very irregular in growth, with concentric ridges and furrows. 
Brachial valve very convex; apex depressed, but the umbonal 
region gibbous, the greatest convexity being reached at the cen- 
ter of the valve. This valve is also of irregular growth, though 
the irregularities are not so strongly developed as on the oppo- 
site valve. The original specimen is an internal cast in chert to 
which portions of the inner lamine of the shell adhere. There 
are evidences of a flabellate muscular scar on the pedicle-valve 
and a short ovate muscular area in the brachial valve. 

44 


346 Report oF THE State GeoLoeist. 


The traces of the surface striae preserved show them to have 
been very fine and numerous. | 

Keokuk limestone. Mew Providence, Indiana. 

This species is similar in some general respects to Derbya 
Broadheadi, but differs in its narrower and lower cardinal area, 
less convex umbo on the brachial valve and in the absence of a 
median sinus on this valve. It may be compared with the Strep- 
torhynchus crenistria, var. senilis, Phillips Ca from the 
lower Carboniferous of Great Britain. 


_Derbya? costatula. 
Plate 5, fig. 9. 
Dertbya ? costatula, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 346, pl. 

xi b, figs. 16,17. 1892. ; 

Shell small, outhne semioval: Huinge-line nearly equal to the 
greatest diameter of the valve. Cardinal area moderately high, 
with a prominent deltidium very wide at the base. Pedicle- 
valve with an elevated beak from which the surface slopes to the 
margins with a tendency to irregular growth. Brachial valve 
faintly depressed at the umbo, but otherwise pretty ‘regularly 
convex, the most elevated point being a little behind the middle 
of the valve. There is a faint median sinus over the anterior 
region. 

Surface marked with afew coarse radial ribs, between each 
two of which are implanted one, two or three much finer ones. 
These ribs are crossed by afew distinct concentric varices of 

growth. 
Chester limestone. Crittenden county, Kentucky. 

This species is readily distinguished by the character of its sur- 
face ornamentation, and though the interior features of the shell ~ 
‘are as yet unknown, a very closely allied form from the upper 
Coal Measures near Kansas City has a well developed median 
septum in the pedicle-valve, and is hence to be referred to the 
genus DeRBya. 

Derbya Broadheadi. 
Plate 5, figs. 15, 16. 
Derbya Broadheadi, Hall. Palaeontology of N.. Y.; vol. VEG pe aes, 

pl. xia, figs. 23, 24. 1892. 

Shell with irregularly suboval marginal outline. Hinge-line 
short, its length not exceeding and usually less than one-half the - 


’ Tur New Species oF BRACHIOPODA. 347 


greatest diameter of the valves. Cardinal area of the pedicle- 
valve high, sometimes regularly triangular, often distorted or 
somewhat incurved; deltidium broad at the base and rapidly 
tapering with a faint median groove on its surface. Pedicle- 
valve convex in the umbonal region, irregularly rugose and 
depressed over the pallial area. Brachial valve very gibbous at 
the umbo, the greatest convexity being behind the center of the 
valve. From the umbonal region the surface slopes evenly toward 
the lateral and anterior margins, but is more abruptly depressed 
toward the cardinal extremities where it forms short subalate 
expansions. The valve is but slightly unsymmetrical and is 
_ bilobed by a conspicuous median sinus which takes its origin near 
the umbo, and widens to the anterior margin. 

Surface covered by fine radiating strize which are of cae 
size over the umbonal region, but: toward the margin became 
arranged in fascicles on account of the addition of finer striz as 
_ growth advances. Concentric ruge and er OWL HCG are fre- 
quent, especially on the pedicle-valve. 

Upper Coal Measures. Wear Kansas City, Missours. 


Derbya Bennetti. 
Plate 5, figs. 3-8. 
Dertya Bennetti Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 348, pl. 
xi a, figs. 34-39. 1892. 

Shell subtrihedral in general aspect, quite irregular in its 
growth. Hinge-line short, its extremities on both valves being 
-auriculate. Pedicle valve much the more irregular in growth, 
sometimes retaining the scar of attachment at its apex. Cardinal 
area unusually high, narrow, erect or slightly incurved, and 
frequently distorted ; delthyrium curved. General surface of the 
valve depressed-convex in the middle, sometimes rapidly sloping 
in all directions, at others concave in the umbonal region; as-a 
rule very unsymmetrical. The brachial valve is deep, more regu- 
larly convex and has a full rounded umbo and a conspicuous 
median sinus. On the interior the pedicie-valve bears an 
extremely high median septum which is united with the dental 
ridges near the apex. The cardinal process is high, erect and 
deeply bilobed, each of its apophyses being strongly grooved on 
its posterior face. Other internal characters unknown. 


348 Report or THE Strate Geoxoaist. 


The surface of both valves is covered by fine, elevated, thread- 
like striz increasing very slowly by intercalation. The edges of 
these striz bear numerous minute asperities which may be due 
to the crossing of fine concentric lines. Irregular lines and 
wrinkles of growth are abundant near the margins. 

Upper Coal Measures. Wear Kansas City, Missouri. 


Derbya cymbula. 
Plate 6, figs. 1, 2. 


Derbyu cymbula, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 348, pl. 
xi b, figs. 2, 3. 1892. 


’ Shell large ; marginal outline transversely subelliptical. Hinge- 
line straight, its length being about two-thirds the greatest 
diameter of the shell. On the pedicle valve the cardinal area is 
high, its base being one-third longer than its sides, and it may be 
somewhat unsymmetrical from distortion. Its surface is finely 
striated both longitudinally and transversely, and is divided into 
an outer and inner portion by two lines diverging from the apex 
and meeting the hinge-line halfway between its extremities and 
the edges of the deltidium. Deltidium broad at the base, rapidly 
narrowing for one-third its length, whence tapering more gradually 
to the apex; its surface is marked bya well defined median groove 
for its entire extent. The surface of the valve is elevated in the 
umbonal region and slopes somewhat irregularly to a low depres- 
sion over the pallial region and about the margins. ‘The brachial 
valve is broadly concave at the umbo, but rapidly becomes regu- - 
larly convex, the greatest convexity being in the middle of the 
valve, whence it slopes almost equally in all directions. There 
is no evidence of a tendency to irregular growth in this valve. 
Surface covered with numerous fine, sometimes irregular strie, 
increasing by implantation. Over the umbonal and pallial 
regions these striz are of about equal size, but about the margins 
the tendency to fasciculate arrangement is more apparent. Inte- 
rior structure, except the existence of a median septum in the 
pedicle-valve, unknown. 
Upper Coal Measures. Wear Kansas City, Missoure. 


Tur New Sprcims or BRACHIOPODA, 349 


Derbya affinis. 
Plate 5, figs. 10, 11. 
Derbya affinis, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 349, pl. xi b, 
figs. 4,5. 1992, | . 

Shell subsemicircular in outline, somewhat transverse. Hinge- 
line straight, nearly equaling the greatest diameter of the valves. 
Cardinal area of the pedicle-valve high, its greatest height being 
about equal to one-third the length of the hinge-line; divided by 
diverging lines as in the preceding species and crossed by con- 
spicuous horizontal and fainter vertical striations. This area is 
often much distorted. Deltidium having a width at the base 
equal to one-fifth the length of the hinge-line; it tapers evenly 
to the apex and bears a median groove on its surface. The umbo 
is elevated, but the surface of the valve becomes depressed, 
irregular in growth and concentrically wrinkled, though not con- 
cave anteriorly. Brachial valve faintly depressed at the apex, 
but rapidly becoming convex, the greatest convexity being in the 
-umbonal region, whence the slope is quite regular in all direc- 
tions, being somewhat more abrupt toward the cardinal extrem1- 
ties. This valve also shows a slight tendency to unsymmetrical 
growth in the umbonal region. 

Surface covered by sharply defined, subequal radiating striz, 
‘which increase by implantation. The grooves between these 
strie are deep, and both strie and grooves are crossed by fine 
concentric lines, which on the former produced a series of sharp 
asperities. Interior, with the exception of the median septum in 
the pedicle-valve, unknown. 

Upper Coal Measures. Wear Kansas City, Missouri. 

There are many points of similarity in the Orthis Kaskaskiensis, 
McChesney, from the Kaskaskia limestone, Derbya cymbula and the 
species under consideration. All have the same general aspect. 
In O. Kaskaskiensis the brachial valve is most convex at the. 
umbo, the pedicle-valve generally concave and the hinge line 
equal to the greatest diameter of the shell; in Derbya affinis the 
brachial valve also has its greatest convexity at the umbo, but 
the hinge line is considerably shorter than in McCgssney’s species, 
and there is a notable difference in the character of the surface 
strie; while in Derbya cymbula the convexity of the brachial 
valve is greatest at its center, the hinge-line very short and the 
pedicle-valve concave or depressed only over the pallial region. 


350 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Derbya (?) biloba. 
Plate 5, figs. 17, 18. 
Derbya (2) biloba, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 350, pl. xi, 
figs. 4, 5. - 1892. 

Shell small, obcordate in outline. Hingeline short and 
straight, its length being considerably less than one-half the 
width of the shell. On the pedicle-valve the cardinal area is 
moderately high and slightly arched backward; delthyrium 
covered. The surface of the valve is somewhat depressed or 
flattened over the pallial region. The brachial is deeper and 
more convex, the umbo is full but not elevated, and just in front 
of the apex there begins a broad and conspicuous sinus which 
widens rapidly and renders the shell bilobate on its anterior 
margin. 

Surface covered with numerous fine radiating strize. Interior 
unknown. 


Upper Coal Measures. Wénterset, Iowa. 


Streptorhynchus Ulrichi. 


Plate 6, fig. 3. 


Streptorhynchus Ulrichi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 
351, pl. xib, fig. 15. 1892. 


Shell of comparatively large size for this genus. General con- 
tour subtrihedral. Hinge-line shorter than the greatest diameter 
of the valves. Cardinal area high, somewhat incurved and dis- 
torted; sides considerably shorter than the base. Deltidium 
broad. Marginal outline of the pedicle-valve, from hinge-line 
forward, semiovate, somewhat irregular, contracted toward the 
hinge and expanding in the pallial region. The interior of the 
pedicle-valve shows strong teeth, the dental lamellae extending 
_ downward and inclosing the posterior portion of an ovate mus- 
cular scar. There is no median septum. External surface con- 
vex in the upper part, becoming depressed toward the anterior 
margin; quite irregular in growth, being crossed by more or less 
conspicuous concentric ridges or varices ; covered with numerous 
fine radiating, subequal strie, which increase by implantation. 
Brachial valve not known. 

Chester limestone. Crittenden county, Kentucky. 


pehh) 
Or 
= 


Tue New Species or BRACHIOPODA, 


Triplecia Niagarensis. 
Plate 7, figs. 1-4. 
Triplecia Niagarensis. Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. 
pl. lxxxiii, figs. 16-20. 1894. 

Shell of medium size with biconvex valves, the pedicle-valve 
having a deep median sinus, and the brachial an elevated fold. 
The brachial valve is much the more convex. Both lateral 
slopes and median fold and sinus are plicated by well-defined 
rounded ribs. ‘ . 

Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 


Christiania subquadrata. 
Plate 6, figs. 13-18. 
Leptcena subquadrata, Hall. Rept. State Geologist N. Y. for 1882, pl. (xv) 
46, figs. 32, 33. 1883. 
Christiania subquadrata, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 
351, pl. xv, figs. 32, 33; pl. xv a, fig. 36, and pl. xx, figs. 18-20, 1892. 

Shell small, elongate, semielliptical in outline, strongly con- 
vexo-concave. Hinge-line short, straight, not equaling the greatest 
diameter of the valves anteriorly. In the pedicle-valve the 
umbo is full, rounded and incurved, with the apex obscure; the 
cardinal area is moderately broad and bears an open delthyrium 
which terminates above in acircular foramen. The teeth are 
short, divergent and continued into ridges which form the lateral 
margins of two linguiform, muscular scars, traversing the shell 
for almost its entire length. These scars inclose two much shorter 
impressions. In the brachial valve the area is narrow, the cardi- 
nal process bipartite on its anterior face, each of the lobes being 
grooved behind. The crural plates are very long and divergent, 
the upper portion of each terminating in an elevated extremity ; 
the lower portion produced on each side as a strongly elevated 
ridge, curving slightly inward on the sides, then outward on 
approaching the anterior margin of the valve; each branch 
recurving and passing backward, paraliel to the median axis, as 
far as the base of the cardinal process. The symmetrical spaces 
thus formed are each divided transversely by a somewhat lower 
vertical ridge. Between the inner muscular walls in the median 
line is a low, rounded, longitudinal ridge. 


852 _ Report or THE State GEOLOGIST. . 


The surface is smooth or covered with concentric, usually 
somewhat squamous lines of growth. 7 
Lower Helderberg group. Perry county, Tennessee. 


Leptznisca adnascens. 
Plate 6, figs. 26, 27. ; 
Leptenisca adnascens, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII pt= Ep: 
302, pl. xv a, figs. 22, 23. 1892. 

Shell small, very irregular’ in outline; cemented to shells of 
other. brachiopods, especially of Ortuts, by the entire external 
surface of the pedicle-valve. Hinge-line making the greatest 
diameter of the shell. Cardinal area well developed on the 
pedicle-valve and bearing a convex deltidium. Internal charac- 
ters as in ZL. tangens. Brachial valve prominent at the beak, 
elevated in the umbonal region and slightly depressed anteriorly. 
Surface smooth or with irregularly concentric wrinkles. 

Lower Helderberg group (Shaly limestone). ear Clarksville, 
I a 


Leptenisca tangens. 


Plate 6, figs. 19-25. 
Leptenisca tangens, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 352, ee 
xv a, figs. 24-380. 1892. 

Shell transverse; hingeline making the greatest diameter; 
contour regularly convexo-concave; attached by the apical or 
umbonal portion of the pedicle-valve, usually fronds and twigs of 
bryozoa. Cardinal areas narrow; delthyrium covered. In the 
pedicle-valve teeth not prominent but continued into strong, con- 
verging lamellz which nearly enclose an oval muscular area; 
this area is divided by a median septum. External surface con- 
vex; bilobed by a more or less conspicuous median furrow. 
Brachial valve strongly concave. 

Surface smooth, with a few inconspicuous concentric growth- 
lines, and faint radiating strize on the inner lamellae toward the 
margins. 

Lower Helderberg” group (Shaly limestone). Wear Clarks- 
wulle, NV. Y¥. 


Tur New Srecies or BRACHIOPODA, 353 


Chonostrophia Helderbergia. 
Plate 7, fig. 11. 
Chonostrophia Helderbergia, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VII, pt. 1, 
p. 353, pl. xv b, fig. 14. 1892. 

Shell tenuous, semielliptical in outline. Hinge-line straight 
and making the greatest diameter of the valves. Valves nearly 
flat, the pedicle-valve being gently concave and the brachial cor- 
respondingly convex. Cardinal areas very narrow; marginal 
spines not observed. Teeth of the pedicle-valve well developed 
on either side of the moderately broad delthyrium; at their bases 
arises a median septum, strongest at the point of beginning and 
continuing for one-half the length of the valve. In the brachial 
valve the crural plates are very short, subparallel to the hinge- 
line and apparently coalesced with thé short cardinal process. 
No traces of muscular scars retained. 7 

Surface covered with a great number of exceedingly fine, sub- 
equal radiating striz, all of which are apparent on the interior 
of the shell, even to the bases of the teeth and crural plates. 

Lower Helderberg group (Shaly limestone). Albany county 
ee a 


Strophalosia Rockfordensis. 
Plate 7, figs. 6-10. 
Strophalosia Rockfordensis, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, 
p. 353, pl. xviia, figs. 1-3. 1892. 

Shell semielliptical in outline, somewhat elongate. Hinge- 
line scarcely as long as the greatest diameter of the valves. Car- 
dinal area well developed on each valve, that of a pedicle-valve 
bearing a convex deltidium; scar of attachment on the pedicle- 
valve covering only the apical region... Surface regularly convex, 
depressed toward the cardinal angles; bearing scattered spines, 
of which there is a well-defined row of six or seven on the car- 
dinal margin. There are faint, irregularly concentric wrinkles 
among the spine-bases. Apex of the brachial valve convex, but 
the valve rapidly becomes concave, being of somewhat less curva- 
ture than the opposite valve. Surface with conspicuous, irreg- 
ular, concentric corrugations, and a few short spines over the 
pallial region. | 

45 


354: REporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Length of the original specimen, 9 mm.; width along hinge- 
line, 10 mm. 
Upper Devonian. Lockford, Towa. 


Strophonella costatula. 
Plate 6, figs. 9, 10. 
Strophonella costatula, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 
309, pl. Ixxxiv, figs. 15, 16. 1894. Z . 

Shell subsemicircular in outline; hinge-line straight or slightly 
arched ; surface depressed concavo-convex. 

Pedicle-valve elevated at the beak, becoming rapidly depressed 
anteriorly, the median depression continued upon the short lin- 
gcuiform extension at the anterior margin. Corresponding to 
this depression is a broad anterior fold on the opposite valve. 
The surface of both valves is covered with a few coarse, round, 
sharply elevated ribs, which rapidly bifurcate or multiply by 
implantation. These are more or less irregular or sinuous, ele- 
vated at the concentric varices and crossed by faint concentric 
lines. | 

The typical example has a length of 21 mm., and a width on 
the hinge of 24 mm. 

Niagara group. Louisville, Kentucky. 


Plectambonites producta. 
Plate 6, figs. 11, 12. 


Plectambonites producta, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 
360, pl. Ixxxiv, figs. 23, 24, 25. 1894. 


The original of this species is an internal cast of the pedicle 
valve, with short, straight hinge; rather narrow, depressed 


umbo, the shell becoming highly convex and greatly produced 


anteriorly. The sides of the valve are somewhat appressed 
medially and the anterior margin slightly expanded and suboval 
in outline. The cast shows the impression of short, divergent 
dental plates and a moderately broad muscular impression. The 
width of the shell on the hinge is 10 mm; its length, 23 mm; its 
convexity from. the posterior margin, 8 mm.; from the anterior 
margin, 28 mm. 
Niagara dolomites. Yellow Springs, Ohio. 


Tur New Species or BRACHIOPODA, 355 


Strophalosia cymbula. 


. Plate 7, fig. 5. 
Strophalosia cymbula, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, expl. pl. 
xviia, figs. 3, 4, 8,9. 1892. 

Shell of medium size, convexo concave, -hinge-line, cardinal 
area, deltidium and chilidium well developed. Brachial valve 
smooth, pedicle-valve spinose, with a distinct scar of attachment 
confined to the apex. | 

Keokuk group. Lebanon, Kentucky. 


Spirifer crispatus. 
Plate 7, figs. 12, 13. 7 
Spirifer crispatus, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 360, pl 
xxxvi, figs. 9,10. 1894. : | 

Shell small, with moderately high, incurved area, scarcely 
extended on the hinge; well-developed median fold and sinus, 
and three coarse plications on each lateral slope. The surface is 
covered by conspicuous concentric lamelle. 

Niagara group. Maryland. | 


Spirifer Canandaigue. 
Plate 7, figs. 14-16. — 


Spirifer Canandaigue, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 360, 
pl. xxxvii, figs. 23, 24, 26. 1894. 


Shells of rather small size, having somewhat the aspect of an 
elongate and umbonate S. jimbriatus. Umbo of pedicle-valve 
prominent, narrow and closely incurved at the apex. MJinge-line 
quite short, cardinal area small, incurved. Median sinus deep, 
produced on the anterior margin, its anterior width being nearly 
equal to the length of the hinge. On each lateral slope are from 
two to four low radial undulations or plications, all of which are 
sharply defined at the umbones. Surface covered with very fine, 
closely crowded concentric lines which are granulous and were 
originally fimbriate. Length of typical specimen, 21 mm.; 
greatest width, 22 mm.; length of hinge, 10 mm. 

Hamilton group. Centerfield and Canandaigua Lake, VN. Y. 


856 ReEporT oF THE State GroLoGIst. | 


Spirifer mucronatus, Conran, var. posterus, 
Plate 7, figs. 20-24. 


Spirifer mucronatus, Conrad, var. posterus, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., 
_ vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 361, pl. xxxiv, figs. 27-31. 1894. . 


A late variety of.the typical Hamilton form, characterized by 
its small size, usually narrow bodies and acuminate cardinal 
extremities. 


Chemung group. Tompkins county, NV. Y. 


Spirifer disjunctus, Scwersy, var. sulcifer. 
| Plate 7, fig. 27. 


Spirifer disjunctus, Sowerby, var. sulcifer, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., 
vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 361, pl. xxx, fig. 16. 1894. 


This variety is distinguished by the sharply defined median 
sulcus on the folds of the brachial valve. It has heretofore been 
embraced within the limits of S. disjyunctus, but the character 
referred to appears to be persistent. 

Chemung group. Wear Olean, WV. Y. 


Spirifer Williamsi. 
'. Plate 7, figs. 17-19. 


Spirifer Williamsi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 361, pl. 
xxxvii, figs. 20-22. 1894. 


Shells of the form of Spirifer increbescens, Hall, and varying 
but little in size. Median fold and sinus well developed. The 
latter bearing usually three, sometimes four plications, finer than 
those on the lateral slopes. Of these the median plication is 
generally the strongest. This, however, is not always the case, 
the arrangement of these plications being frequently quite irregu- 
lar. The median fold generally bears a median groove and one 
lateral plication on each side. On each lateral slope of the shell 
are seven or eight plications. | 

A normal example measures: Length, 15 mm. ; width on hinge, 
24 mm. . 

Chemung group. Allegany county, NV. Y. 


Tur New Species or BRACHIOPODA, 357 


Spirifer Newberryi, Hall. 1883. 
Plate 7, figs. 25, 26. 


Spirifer Newberryi, Hall. 2nd Ann. Rept. State Geologist, pl. (xxxi) 56, figs. 
9,10. 1883. 

Spirifer Newberryi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 362, pl. 
xxxi, figs. 9,10. 1894. 

Shell moderately large, with sharp cardinal angles. Surface 
plication consisting of numerous fine simple or duplicate ribs 
which cover the median fold. On each lateral slope there are 
twenty-five to thirty of these plications. The plications and the 
grooves between them are covered with fine radiating lines. 

Waverly group. Ofvo. 


Cyrtia radians. 
Plate 7, figs. 28, 29. 


_ Cyrtia radians, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 362, pl. 
xxviii, figs. 4, 5, 50, 52; pl. xxxix, fig. 33. 1894. 

The typical form is of medium size, with high area, incurved 
umbo and general cyrtiniform aspect. Its outer surface is char- 
acterized by an absence of plications and fine radial striae. — 
Median fold and sinus well developed. 

Clinton group. Rochester, NV. -Y. 

An allied but larger form, here referred to this species, occurs. 
in the Niagara dolomites, near Milwaukee, os. 


Cyrtina umbonata, Hall, var. Alpenensis. 
- Plate 8, figs. 9-13. 


Cyrtina umbonata, Hall, var. Alpenensis, Hall. Palaeontology BE NY) «4, Vous. 
VIII, pt. 2, p. 362, pl. xxviii, figs. 16-20. 1894. 


Cyrtina umbonata, Hall, from the original locality in Iowa, is a 
small shell, often obscurely plicated; this variety possesses the 
contour of C. wmbonata, but is a larger and more robust shell 
with broad and well-defined plications, smooth median fold and 
sinus. ) 

Hamilton group. Alpena, Michigan. 


(a) 
Ort 
192) 


Report or THE State GEOLOGIST. 


Cyrtina lachrymosa. 
Plate 8, figs 1-3. 
Cyrtina lachrymosa, Hall. Paleontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 362, pl. 
xxviii, figs. 36, 37, 47. 1894. 

Shells small; cardinal area high, more or less inosteell Sur- 
face with low and rather narrow median fuld and sinus, on each 
side of which are two or three low, faint plications. Lateral 
margins of the cardinal area broadly rounded. Surface covered 
with elongate pustules, some of them coarse, but the greater 
number quite fine. 

Height of an average specimen, 5 mm.; width and length 
6 mm. 


Waverly group. Richfield, Ohio. 


Syringothyris Missouri. 
| Plate 8, figs. 14-16. 
Syringothyris Missouri, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y. vole VIII, pt. 2, p. 
363, pl. xxxix, figs. 29-31. 1894, 

Shell small, cyrtiniform ; cardinal area biel slightly incieen 
toward the apex; lateral cardinal margin broadly rounded, ren- 
dering the definition of the area quite obscure. Median fold and 
sinus neither wide nor highly developed. Surface of both 
smooth. Each lateral slope with five or six low plications. 
Interiorly the pedicle-valve bears strong divergent dental 
lamellz which are attached to the surface of the valve for fully 
one-third of its length. There is no median septum. The trans- 
verse delthyrial plate is thin and is developed into a delicate but 
distinct tube. Shell substance highly punctate on the inner 
lamine. Height of original specimen, 13 mm.; cardinal width, 
18 mm.; length, 15 mm. 

Choteau limestone. Choteau Springs, Missourr. 


Athyris densa. 
Plate 9, figs. 3-9. 


Athyris densa, Hall. Palaeontology of N.Y. , vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 364, pl. xlvi, 
figs. 6-12. 1894. 


Shell transversely elongate, valves compressed; median fold 
and sinus not conspicuously developed.  Pedicle-valve shallow, 
with broad, sharply angled cardinal slopes, greatly thickened 


Tur New Species of BRACHIOPODA, 359 


interiorly. The anterior margin is frequently extended intoa 
linguate process at the termination of the median sinus. Brachial 
valve the more convex, with an indistinct, flattened, and some- 
times broadly grooved median fold with regular and even lateral 
slopes. In the interior of the valves the form of the muscular 
scars is normal, though there is a notable variation in the size 
of the diductor scars. | 

St. Louis group. Washington .county, Indiana; Colesburgh, 

Kentucky. 
Seminula Rogersi. 
Plate 9, figs. 10-13. 
Seminula Rogersi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 364; pl. 
xlvii, figs. 1-4. 1894. 

Shell rather small, suboval in outline. Valve subequally con- 
vex. Pedicle-valve with:a low, broad median sinus and brachial | 
valve with a corresponding fold, both becoming more distinct 
toward the anterior margin. Lateral slopes depressed-convex. 
Umbones not conspicuous ; deltidium concealed. 

External surface smooth. , , 

A normal individual measures 15 mm. in length, and 13 mm. in 
greatest with. 

Pendleton sandstone (Schoharie grit). Pendleton, Indiana. 


Seminula Dawsoni. 
Plate 9, figs. 14-16. 
Seminula Dawsoni, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 364, pl. 
xvii, figs. 32--34. 1894. 

This species was originally identified as Athyris subtilita, Hall, 
by Davipson (Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of 
London, vol. XIX, 1863). Its differences from this species are 
indicated on the pages referred to. 

Carboniferous limestone. Windsor, Nova Scotia. 


Torynifer criticus. , 
Plate 9, fig. 1. 
Torynifer criticus, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. pl. 
Ixxxiv, figs. 34, 35. 1894. 
Shell but imperfectly known. The pedicle-valve has a smooth 
exterior, narrow cardinal area and unclosed dilthyrium. On the 


360 > Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


inside it bears a short but well defined spondylium supported by 

a median septum, and strong recurved teeth. This structure 

is unlike that of any other genus. ! 3 
St. Louis group. La Rue, Kentucky. 


Rhynchospira scansa. 

Plate 9, fig. 2. 

Fhynchospiras scansa, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. . 
pl. 1, fig. 45. 1894. 

Pedicle-valve large, with prominent,,somewhat arched beak, 
cardinal slopes extending about one-half the length of the shell, 
anterior margin semioval. Surface with a sharply defined median 
furrow bearing a single small plication, the lateral slopes having 
eight or ten broad and rounded plications. Shell known only 
from an internal cast of the pedicle-valve. 

Waverly group. /cKean county, Pennsylvania. 


Trematospira Tennesseensis. 
| Plate 8, figs. 17-19. 
Trematospira Tennesseensis, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, pl. 
Ixxxiii, figs, 21-28. 1894. | 

Shell small, subelliptical or subcircular in outline. Valves 
coarsely plicate, the pedicle-valve bearing six, with a small median 
plication at the bottom vf the sinus, the brachial valve having the 
median fold divided by a low furrow, and with three plications 
on each lateral slope. Valves subequally convex. Apex of the . 
pedicle-valve slightly elevated, truncate; deltidial plates coalesced. 
Surface with distant concentric growth-lines. : 
Lower Helderberg group. Perry county, Tennessee. 


Meristella Walcotti. 
Plate 8, figs. 26-81. 
Meristella Walcotti, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 365, pl.. 
xliii, figs. 16, 17; pl. xliv, figs. 6-11, 23, 382. 1894. ; 

Shell elongate-ovate, valves convex, regular. Pedicle-valve 
with umbo moderately full and beak incurved ; foramen generally 
concealed at maturity. Cardinal slopes concave and well delimited 
by divergent cardinal ridges. Dorsum more or less distinctly ridged 


Tue New Specizs or BRACHIOPODA. 361 


in *the umbonal region, broadly convex anteriorly and slightly 
extended on the anterior margin, but with no median sinus. 
Brachial valve with the median elevation somewhat more strongly 
defined, especially in the umbonal region. Umbo-lateral slopes | 
rather more abrupt than in the other valve. 
Internal structure normal for the genus. 
Oriskany sandstone. Cayuga, Ontario. — 


Merista Tennesseensis. 
Plate 8, figs. 20-25. 
Merista Tennesseensis, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 365, 

pl. xlii, figs. 1-6. 1894. 

Shell subpentahedral in outline, transverse, rarely elongate. 
Valves subequally convex, with broad, low fold and sinus devel- 
oped on the anterior portion of the brachial and pedicle-valves 
respectively. Umbo of pedicle-valve not conspicuous, apex 

truncated at maturity by a circular foramen. Deltidial plates 
concealed by incurvature. Umbo of brachial valve full, apex 
acute. ‘External surface smooth. Dimensions of an average 
example: length, 17 mm.; greatest width, 19 mm. | 

Upper Silurian. Perry county, Tennessee. 


Clintonella vagabunda. 
Plate 9, figs. 17-26. 
Clintonella vagabunda, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y.,vol. VIII, pt. 2, p, 160, 
pl. lii, figs. 1-11. 1894. 

Shells small, suboval in outline, valves subequally biconvex, 
the axis of greatest convexity being oblique. Pedicle-valve with 
a small umbo, which is compressed laterally, the apex being 
slightly incurved. Delthyrium wide, without traces of deltaria. 
The umbo merges anteriorly into. a sinus which makes a deep 
flexure at the margin and bears two plications, both of which 
reach the beak. The lateral slopes bear from four to eight radial 
plications of smaller size. On the interior the teeth are promi- 
nent and strongly recurved. The muscular impression is moder- 
ately large, flabellate in outline and deeply impressed. The 
brachial valve has an inconspicuous beak ; the umbonal region is 
depressed for about one-third the length of the valve, but an- 

46 


362 REPORT OF THE StTatTE GeoLoaist. 


teriorly the median fold becomes prominent. The hinge-plate 
consists of two flat processes, inclined toward each other but not 
meeting. A stout median ridge supports this plate and divides 
the muscular area. Spirals are present but their direction is 
undetermined. 


Clinton group. . Drift block in Western New York. 


Zygospira putilla. 
Plate 9, figs. 31, 32. 


Zygospira putilla, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 365, 
pl. liv, figs. 35-37. 1894. j 


Shell small, elongate-suboval in outline. Pedicle-valve the 
more convex; umbo narrowed, apex acute, delthyrium unclosed. 
Medially this valve is elevated by a strong double plication, the 
parts of which diverge anteriorly, leaving a flat, low depression 
between them, and in this lies a single faint plication. The 
lateral slopes are considerably depressed, and each bears from 
four to seven coarse, often irregular plications, only a part of 
them reaching the beak. ; 

The brachial vaive is depressed convex, with a conspicuous 
median fold, grooved longitudinally and bounded by deep mar- 
ginal depressions. . The lateral slopes are more convex than on the 
other valve, but are similarly plicated. : 

Surface of the valves usually without concentric growth-lines. 

An average example has a length of 8 mm. and a greatest 
width of 7 mm. 

- Hudson River group. Wear Edgewood, Pike county, Missouri. 


Atrypina Clintoni. 
Plate 9, figs. 27-30. 4 
Atrypina Clintoni, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 162, 
pl. liii, figs. 7, 17-19. 1894. : 
Shell smalJ, subplano-convex. The pedicle-valve projecting 
slightly at the apex, with short oblique cardinal margins and 


nearly circular periphery. This valve has a low median sinus ~ 


bearing a median plication, and four or five somewhat stronger 
plications on each lateral slope. The brachial valve is slightly 
convex in the umbonal region, and has but avery faintly developed 


median fold. The surface of both valves bears rather distant — 


= 


Tur New Species or BRACHIOPODA, 363 


concentric lamellz. On the interior the pedicle-valve has mod- 
erately strong teeth and a large flabellate muscular impression. 
In the brachial valve the hinge-plate is divided into two flat 
lobes, supported by a thickened median ridge extending nearly 
the full length of the valve. 

Clinton group. Jn the drift of Western New York. 


Glassia Romingeri. 
Plate 9, figs. 33-36. 
Glassia Romingeri, Hall. Palzeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 152, pl. 
lxxxiii, figs. 32-35. 1894. 

Shell small, subequally biconvex, obcordate in outline. Surface 
smooth, with a median depression on both valves, which 
gives the shell a bilobed appearance on the anterior margin and 
over the anterior region. On the interior are introverted spirals 
whose primary lamelle are united by a posterior jugum. 

Trenton limestone. Jn a drift boulder, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 


Camarophoria rhomboidalis. 
Plate 9, figs. 37-40. 
Camarophoria rhomboidalis, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, 
p. 366, pl. Ixii, figs. 25-29. 1894. 

Shells of rather small size, subtriangular in outline with‘cardinal 
margins extending for half the length of the valves. Pedicle- 
valve with apex scarcely elevated, incurved, with deltidial plates 
usually concealed; slightly convex about the umbo, broadly 
depressed medially, forming a sinus which makes a linguiform 
extension on the anterior margin. This sinus may bear one and 
sometimes traces of two other low plications. The lateral slopes 
are smooth, except at the margins, where there is faint: evidence 
of one or two plications on each. The brachial valve is convex 
and broadly rounded with abrupt umbo-lateral slopes ; broad, low 
median fold, apparent only in the pallial region, and bearing a 
median plication. Traces of two lateral plications are visible at 
the margin of the valve, and these are somewhat more distinct 
on the surface than on the opposite valve. Surface smooth or 
with fine concentric lines. The interior structure of the shell is 
normal for this genus. 

Corniferous limestone. Cass county, Indiana. 


364 REporT oF THE STATE GEOLCGIST. 


Parastrophia divergens. 
Plate 10, figs. 11-14. © 
Parastrophia divergens, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 
366, pl. lxiii, figs. 4-7. 1894. 

Shell of medium size with strongly convex brachial valve and 
depressed convex, anteriorly concave pedicle-valye. The beak of 
the pedicle-valve is erect, but not. conspicuous; from the gently 
convex umbo the surface slopes gradually to the lateral margins, 
and abruptly to the front, forming a broad and deep sinus, which 
is sharply defined at the sides, and bears from two to four angu- 
lar plications. Two or more smaller plications occur on each 
lateral slope. The brachial valve is well rounded in the umbonal 
region, but the median fold is defined only near the anterior 
margin. It bears from three to five plications, with three on 
each lateral slope. All the plications, as well as fold and sinus, 
become obsolete in the umbonal region, and in old and thickened: ~ 
shells the latter can be distinguished only at the anterior margins 
of the valves. In the interior there is a supported spondylium 
in the pedicle-valve, but in the brachial valve the septal plates do 
not unite. . 

Hudson River group. Welmington, Lllinors. 


Parastrophia Greenii. 
“Plate 10, figs. 1-5. 

Parastrophia Greenii, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. oF p. 867, 

pl. lxiii, figs. 17-20, 22. 1€94. ; 

Shell robust, with convex brachial valve and shallow pedicle- 
valve, convex in the umbonal region, but concave anteriorly. 
Beaks not prominent; that of the pedicle-valve low but erect; 
that of the brachial valve full and incurved. Cardinal slopes 
sharply defined on pedicle-valve. Median fold and sinus on 
brachial and pedicle-valves not strongly defined except at the 
anterior margin. The brachial valve bears six broadly rounded > 
plications which are obsolete in the umbonal region; four of 
these belong to the median fold, the other two to the lateral 
slopes. The pedicle-valve has five plications, with three in the 
median sinus. Interior with a median supporting septum in each 


valve. . 
Niagara dolomites. Wear Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 


Tur New Spectes oF BRACHIOPODA. 365 


Parastrophia multiplicata. 


Plate 10, figs. 15-17. | 


Parastrophia multiplicata, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, 
p. 367, pl. Ixiii, figs. 15, 16, 21. - 1894. 


This species differs from P. Greenz in its more conspicuously 
developed median fold and sinus, flatter and larger plications, 
and the greater number of the latter on the lateral slopes. The 
usually sessile spondylium of the brachial valve may also prove a 
distinguishing feature. 

‘Niagara dolomites. Wear Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 


Parastrophia latiplicata. 


Plate 10, figs. 6-10. 
‘Parastrophia latiplicata, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 
368, pl. Lxiii, figs, 23-27. 1894. 

This species is distinguished from the two preceding by its 
smaller size, less robust form, two broad plications on the fold 
and one in the sinus, with but a single pair on the lateral slopes. 

Niagara dolomites. Wear Milwaukee, Wisconsin. — 


Liorhynchus robustus. 
Plate 10, figs. 18, 19. 
Liorhynchus robustus, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. 
pl. lix, figs. 80, 31. 1894. 

‘Shell large, with highly convex brachial valve and shallow 
pedicle-valve. Median fold and sinus well developed on brachial 
and pedicle-valves respectively. Surface abundantly plicate. 
Species is known only from an internal cast, which shows very 
perfectly the muscular scars and vascular sinuses. 

Chemung group. ' Steuben county, WV. Y. 


Liorhynchus Lesleyi. 
Plate 9, figs. 41-43. 


Liorhynchus Lesleyi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 368. pl. 
lix, figs. 34-36. 1894. 


Shell of medium size with shallow pedicle, and deep brachial 
valve. Median sinus on the former well defined; median fold on 
the latter broad and not sharply delimited. Surface of both 
valves sharply and abundantly plicated. 

Upper Devonian. Pennsylvania. 


366 Report oF THE State GEoxocist. 


Conchidium exponens. 
‘Plate 10, figs. 20-23. 
Conchidium exponens, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. 
pl. lxvi, figs. 6-9. 1894. 

Shell elongate, subtriangular in marginal outline; valves subse- 
quently convex. Median fold distinct over the anterior region 
of the pedicle-valve. Surface with numerous fine, rounded plica- 
tions which are more or less obsolete over the lateral slopes and 
umbonal region of the valves. The pedicle-valve bears a spondy- 
lium extending less than one-half its length, while i in the brachial 
valve the septal plates do not unite. 

Niagara group. Lowisville, Kentucky. 


Conchidium scoparium. 
Plate 11, figs. 8, 9. 
Conchidium scoparium, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. 
pl. Ixvii, figs. 6, 7. 1894. 

Shell with biconvex valves; marginal outline subcircular. 
Pedicle-valve with prominent, suberect umbo, slightly incurved 
at the top, with gradually expanding sides. Surface without 
median fold or sinus, but covered with numerous fine plications. 

Guelph dolomites. Durham, Ontario. | 


Conchidium obsoletum. 
Plate 11, figs. it 2. 
Conchidium obsoletum, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. 
pl. xvii, figs. 8,9. 1894.’ 

Shell with highly convex valves and greatly fnivened cardinal 
slopes. Anterior margin broadly curved, subtransverse. Surface 
with ‘a few obscure and broad plications, obsolete at the sides of 
the valves. 7 ; 

Niagara dolomites. Genoa, Ohio. 


Conchidium Nettelrothi. 
Plate 10, figs. 24, 25. 
Pentamerus Knighti, Nettelroth, Kentucky Fossil shells, p. 57, pl. xxix, figs. 
te ie 1889; 


Conchidium Nettelrothi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. viii. pt. 2, p. 234, 
foot-note. 


Tur New Species or BRACHIOPODA. 367 


Shell somewhat similar in general expression to that of Con- 
chidium Knighti, Sow., but smaller, more sparsely and closely 
plicated. | 

Corniferous limestone. Wear Louisville, Kentucky. 


Conchidium Greenii. 
Plate 11, figs. 5-7. 
Conchidium Greenii, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 368, pl. 
Ixvi, figs. 20-22, 1894. 

Shell subequally biconvex, ventricose, subcircular in marginal 
outline. Umbones full and rounded, both incurved, that of the 
pedicle-valve somewhat elevated. Thereisnoevidenceof median 
fold and sinus. Surface of each valve bearing, over the pallial 
region, from forty-five to fifty rounded plications, which very 
gradually increase by implantation and become more numerous 
anteriorly. . These plications are of slightly unequal size, which 
appears to be due to variation in the rate of their multiplication. 
In the umbonal regions the plications are obsolete. 

Niagara dolomites. Wear Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 


Conchidium crassiplica. 
Plate 11, figs. 3, 4. 
Conchidium crassiplica, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 
369, pl. Ixvi, figs. 24, 25. 1894. | 

Shell elongate, subelliptical in outline. Valves subequally con- 
vex, depressed above; cardinal slopes broad and abrupt on both. 
Umbo of the pedicle-valve erect, not prominent, surface slightly 
elevated medially. Umbo of brachial valve depressed, apex con- 
cealed; median region depressed anteriorly; surface of both 
valves bearing broad rounded plications, separated by deep 
grooves. Of these plications there are from eight to ten on each 
valve over the pallial region; by dichotomizing these become 
more numerous anteriorly. 

Niagara group. Wear Louisville, Kentucky. 


Conchidium Georgiz. 
Plate 11, figs. 10, 11. 


Conchidium Georgie, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 369, 
pl. Ixvi, figs. 18, 19. 1894. 


Pedicle-valve unknown ; brachial valve trilobed by the develop- 
ment of a strong-median fold which extends from apex to mar- 


368 REportT oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


gin, and is sharply delimited by abrupt lateral slopes. The sides 
of the valve are convex, rather narrow, and slope abruptly to the 
lateral margins. Umbo full and incurved. Surface covered with 
numerous duplicating plications, of which from fifteen to twenty 
may be counted on each side at the margins, and twelve to four- 
teen in the fold. 

Clinton group. Trenton, Georgia. 


Pentamerus oblongus, Sowxrrsy, var. Maquoketa. 

Plate 11, figs. 12-14. . 
Pentamerus oblongus, var. Maquoketa, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. 
VIII, pt. 2, expl. pl. Ixvii, figs. 11-138. 1894. : 
Shells small, with highly ventricose valves; general aspect — 
ovoid. Umbo of the pedicle valve not greatly elevated. Mar- 
ginal outline suboval. Surface smooth. Spondylium well 
developed in the pedicle-valve ; septal plates of the brachial valve 

not uniting. 4 i 

Niagara dolomites. Wear Dubuque, Lowa. 


Pentamerus oblongus, Sowrrsy, var. subrectus. 
Plate 12, figs. 1-6. — | 
Pentamerus oblongus, var. subrectus, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, 
pt. 2, expl. pl. Ixviii, fig. 6; pl. lxix, figs. 2, 3, 8-10. 1894. 

Shells with elongate, subquadrate marginal outline, high, sub- 
rectangular cardinal extremities, narrow and exsert umbo. 
Valves subequally convex, the greatest convexity being from 
umbo to anterior margin along the median axis. Each valve — 
bears a longitudinal impressed median line and two divergent 
grooves which divide the surface. into three divisions or fault 
lobes. Surface smooth ; sometimes with traces of obscure, coarse 
radial folds in the median region. . 

Niagara group. Jones county, Lowa. 


Capellinia mira. 

Plate 18, figs. 5-13. 

. Capellinia mira, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 249, pl. xx, 
figs. 6-14. 1894. 

Shells large, elongate subovate. The relative size and convex- 
ity of the valves normal for Pentamer s are here reversed, the 
brachial valve being the larger and deeper, with full, strongly 
arcuate and incurved beak, the apex of which is concealed within 


Ture New Sprcirs or BRACHIOPODA. 369 


the umbo of the opposite valve. The pedicle-valve has an acute,- 
suberect beak, which is not arched posteriorly but rises directly 
from the cardinal margins. Below it is a broad delthyrium 
without evidence of deltidial plates. There is no hinge-line but 
the margins of the delthyrium make subacute angles with the 
lateral margins of the valve. Cardinal slopes very broad and 
abrupt. The pedicle-valve is flattened above, while that of the 
brachial valve is evenly and deeply convex; it also shows a 
tendency to trilobation or obscure radial plication. Surface of 
both valves otherwise smooth. Internal apparatus as in Pen- 
tamerus oblongus. 
Niagara dolomites. Wear Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 


Barrandella Areyi. 
, Plate 13, figs. 1-3. 
Barrandella Areyi, Hall. Palacotitology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 368, pl. 
Ixxi, figs. 14-16. 1894. 

Shell small, ventricose, with sinus on the pedicle-valve and fold 
on the brachial valve. Surface on both valves rather sharply and 
- coarsely plicated, the largest plication being in the median sinus, 
with traces of finer ones on the slopes of the sinus. The median 
fold bears two well-defined plications with faint traces of others, 
while on each lateral slope of. the valves there are four or five less 
sharply angular ribs. 

- Clinton group. Rochester, WV. Y. 


Gypidula Romingeri. 

Plate 12, figs. 7-12. 

_ Gypidula Romingeri, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. pl. 
Ixxii, figs. 27-33. 1894. 

Shells plano, or subplano-convex; marginal outline circular 
or subelliptical. Pedicle-valve highly convex, regularly arched 
from beak to margin. Hinge-line short, straight; cardinal area 
distinct, narrow, sometimes with remnants of deltaria or deltid- 
ium. On the interior the pedicle-valve bears a short, free spondy- 
lium and the brachial valve a sessile cruralium which may extend 
for one-half the shell’s length. The surface of both valves is 
covered with coarse, often irregular and bifurcating plications. 

Hamilton group. Alpena, Michigan. . 

1 SR 


370 Report oF THE State Gronoaist. a a 


Sieberella Roemeri. 


Piate 18, fig. 4. 


Pentamerus galeatus, F. Roemer. Silur. Fauna des westl. Tennessee, p. 73, 
pl. v3 fies 11. 


Sieberella Roemeri, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 247, pl. 
Ixxii, fig. 6. 1894, 
Shell similar in general aspect to Sieberella galeata, but some- 
what more elongate, less distinctly plicate and always smaller, 
having, also, the septal plates of the brachial valve united, form- 
ing a cruralium resting on a median septum. 
Niagara group. Perry county, Tennessee. 


Rensselzria Cayuga. 


Plate 18, figs. 14, 15. 


Rensseleria Cayuga, Hall. Relaconnclony of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 370, 
pl. xxv, figs. 1,2. 1894. 


Shell lenticular, often of large size; suboval in marginal out- 
line. Valves subequally biconvex, Blgnne regularly in all 
directions. Apex of the pedicle-valve scarcely prominent ; umbo 
not conspicuous, somewhat elevated medially. Divergent cardi- - 
nal ridges and cardinal slopes well defined. Brachial valve with 
apex depressed and concealed; somewhat less convex in the 
umbonal region than the opposite valve. Surface of both valves 
covered with a great number of fine, simple, thread-like, rarely 
duplicating plications, of which from 70 to 100 may be counted. 
on each valve near the anterior margin. 

Oriskany sandstone. Cayuga, Ontario. 


Rensseleria ovulum. 
Plate 14, figs. 15, 16. E 
Rensseleria ovulum, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. pl. 
Ixxv, figs. 3, 4. 1894. 

Shell large, distinguished from 7. ovoides by its more orbicular 
form and regularly convex valves, and from 2. Cayuga by its 
larger size and greater convexity. Its outline is rather regularly 
oval, the greatest diameter of the valves being somewhat in front 
of the middle. Surface covered with fine radial plications. 

Oriskany sandstone. Cayuga, Ontario. 


Tue New Specizs or BRACHIOPODA. Stk 


Oriskania navicella. 
Plate 14, figs. 1-3. 
Oriskania navicella, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 270, pl. 
lxxix, figs. 25-27. 1894. 

Shell of considerable dimensions, elongate-ovate, plano-convex. 
Pedicle-valve much the deeper with a prominent median ridge. 
Surface of both valves smooth. Interior with a broad, triangular 
undivided hinge-plate, bearing an erect, lamellar unciform cardi- 
nal process and stout crural lobes. In the pedicle-valve are well- 
developed dental lamelle. 

Oriskany sandstone. Rondout and Hudson, N. Y. 


Selenella gracilis. 


Selenella gracilis, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 271, figs. 
184-186. 

Shells small, elongate-ovate, with attenuate, truncate beak. 
Valves convex, surface smooth. Interior with a simple centro- 
nellid loop. | 

Corniferous limestone. Cayuga, Ontario. 


Selenella gracilis. 


Fig. 2. Outline profile of conjoined valves. 
Fig. 3. Preparation showing the form of the loop. 
Fig. 4. An oblique view, showing the upward curvature of the anterior plate. 


Cryptonella subelliptica. 
Plate 14, figs. 4-6. 
Oryptonella subelliptica, Hall. Ealscontoloey of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expt. 
pl. Ixxxi, figs. 41-48. 1894, 
Shell elongate-oval, broadest near the center of the length; 


valves convex,smooth. Pedicle-valve with arched and truncated 
beak. 


Waverly group. Sczotoville, Ohio. 


372 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. . 


Beecheria Davidsoni. 
Plate 14, figs. 7-11. 


Terebratula sacculus (Martin), Davidson. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., London, vol. 
XIX, p. 169, pl. ix, figs. 1-8. 1863. 

Beecheria Davidsoni, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 300, pl. 
Ixxxix, figs. 33-36, 1894. 


Shells small, terebratuliform, oval, broadest medially, attenu- 
ate at the beak. ‘Valves biconvex, surface smooth. On the 
interior the pedicle valve is without dental plates, and the loop, 
which is short, is supported by a divided hinge-plate. 

Carboniferous limestone. Wdandsor, Nova Scotia. 


Dielasma obovatum. 
Plate 14, figs. 12-14. 


Dielasma obovatum, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. pl. 
lxxxi, figs. 38-40.. 1894. 


Shell elongate-ovoid, attenuate in the umbonal region. Sur- 
face biconvex, smooth, sloping subequally from the median por- 
tion of the beaks. Beak of the pedicle-valve broadly and some- 
what obliquely truncated. 

Coal Measures. Kentucky. 


Cyrtina neogenes. 
Plate 8, figs. 4-8. 


Cyrtina neogenes, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. pl. 
Ixxxiv, fig. 41. 


Shells having the form of SprrirERina, extended on the hinge, 


with 5-7 plications on the lateral slopes. Internally with the 
structure of Cyrrina. | 
Chart of the Burlington limestone. Burlington, Lowa. 


Explanation of Plates. 
PLATE 1. 


LineuLta compta, Hall. 
Page 325. 


Fig. 1. A specimen of the brachial valve (?); showing the lateral impressions 
and the median septum extending to the anterior margins. X 2, 
Hamilton shales. Canandaigua Lake, N. Y. 


LINGULA LINGULATA, Hall. 
Page 3827. 


Fig. 2. The pedicle-valve, from which the epidermal layer is partially exfoli- 
ated; showing the peculiar deflection of the anterior margin, which is a 
constant feature. X 2. ° 

Clinton group. Near Hamilton, Ontario. 


Linevuta scuTeuua, Hall. 
Page 326. 


Fig. 8. An internal cast, indicating that the muscular region of the valve was 
depressed instead of thickened and elevated, as is usually the case. X 2. 
Chemung group. ey, county, N. Y. 


LINGULA T#NIOLA, Hall. 
Page 327. 


Fig. 4. The pedicle-valve; showing the peculiar surface ornament, crossed 
near the beak by concentric growth-lines. xX 1.5. 
Clinton group. Clinton, N. Y. 


Lingua (GuLossina) SLADE, Hall. 
Page 326. 


Fig. 5. A very large example from which a portion of the shell has been 
exfoliated, without showing any traces of muscular markings. 
Waverly group. Sciotoville, Ohio. 
Fig. 6. A similar valve, aoe the inner lamine of the shell, with faint 
radiating lines. 
Berea grit. Berea, Ohio. 


Lincutors Grantt, Hall. 
Page 3828. 
Fig. 7. The interior of a brachial valve. x 6. 
Fig. 8. The interior of a pedicle-valve. The muscular area is here developed 
into a well-defined platform, while in the species L. Whitfieldi and L. 


Norwoodi, it retains its linguloid character. - x 6. 
Niagara group. Hamilton, Ontario. 


374 


a 


BRACHIOPODA. 


, 1894. 


ist 


Report State Geolog 


MonoMERELLA GREENUI, Hall. 
Page 328. 


Fig. 9. An internal cast of the pedicle-valve; showing the extremely small 


umbonal chambers and the sharply defined crescent, cardinal groove and 
lateral scars. 


Fig. 10. An internal cast of a pedicle-valve; showing the very broad cardinal 
margin and its lateral extent ; also the faint umbonal cavities and the con. 
spicuous cardinal groove and crescent. 


Fig. 11. An intérnal cast of the brachial valve; showing in the matrix the 
impression of the cardinalarea. The platform scars are accompanied by 
only a very faint thickening of the shell. 


Fig. 12. The interior of a brachial valve, from a gutta-percha cast of a natural 
“impression. The crescentic fulcrum is exceedingly strong and the plat- 
form very obscure. 
Niagara limestone. Grafton, Wisconsin. 


Fig. 18 An internal cast of the brachial valve ; showing a portion of the broad 
area of contact, the platform scars with the diverging anterior ridges. 
Niagara limestone. Rising Sun, Ohio. 


Fig. 14. The interior of a brachial valve, with sharply defined terminal scars 


and anterior ridges. From a gutta-percha cast. 
Niagara limestone. Grafton, Wisconsin. 


315 


PLATE II. 
Monomegzetia Krnar, Hall. 
Page 829. 
Fig. 1. An internal bakit of a pedicle-valve; showing fie very short umbonal 
chambers and the sharply defined muscular impressions. 


Fig. 2. Opposite side of the same specimen ; showing the internal characters 
of the brachial valve. 
Niagara limestone. Hawthorne, Illinois. 


Monomeretia Eeant, Hall. 


Page 330, 
Fig. 3. A brachial valve ; showing the strongly developed cardinal area, the 
"narrow crescent and the platform scars. The umbonal cavity is filled by 
a thick deposit of testaceous matter. 5 
Niagara limestone. Grafton, Wisconsin. 


MonoMERELLA Ortont, Hall. 
Page 3380. 


Fig. 4. An internal cast of the pedicle-valve, in which all the characters of 
the shell are very sharply defined. 


Fig. 5. The counterpart of the same from a gutta-percha impression; show- 
ing the broad deltidium without evidence of subdivision, the conspicuous 
cardinal slope and groove, the crescent and platform scars and the pallial 
trunks with their ramifications. 

. Niagara limestone. Rising Sun, Ohio. 


Rurnozotus Davipsoni, Hall. 
Page 331. | 
Fig. 6. The interior of a brachial valve. 
Fig. '7. The interior of a larger brachial valve; showing the undeveloped 
platform, the crescent and the transverse muscular scars. 


Fig. 8. A small pedicle-valve, showing its internal characters. 
Niagara limestone. Grafton, Wisconsin. : 


SrPHONOTRETA (?) Minnusorensis, Hall. 
Page 332. 


Fig. 9. View from the brachial side of a specimen retaining the vaives in jux- . 
taposition, and preserving most of the epidermal layer of the sheli. The 
spine-bases about the beak are notably larger and more closely set than 
over the rest of the surface, where they occur at considerable intervals 
along the concentric varices. The entire length of the spines is evidently 
not represented in the fringe at the margin. X 2. 


376 


BRACHIOPODA. 


1894 


’ 


Report State Geologist 


=) 
” 


JO 


= 


Ay 


> 


vame; 


- 


Fig. 10. The opposite side of the same specimen. The imperfection of the 
valve in the umbonal region has rendered it impossible to determine with 
accuracy the generic character of the species. X 2. 

Trenton limestone. Minneapolis, Minnesota. 


ORBICULOIDEA NUMULUS, Hall. 
Page 333. 


Fig. 11. The exterior of a pedicle-valve. 
Lower Helderberg group (Waterlime). Marshall, N. Y. 


OrBicuLoipEA (ScHIZOTRETA) OVALIS, Hall. 


Page 382. 
Fig. 12. View of the pedicle-valve; showing the short foraminal groove. 3. 


Fig. 18. Profile of the same specimen; showing the valves in juxtaposition. 
x 3. 
Trenton limestone. Middleville, N. Y. 


OrBICULOIDEA Herzen, Hall. 


Page 333. 


Fig. 14. The exterior of a pedicle-valve. 1.5. 
Cuyahoga shale. Berea, Ohio. 


Fig. 15. An internal cast of a brachial valve ; showing the impressions of two 
strong, diverging vascular sinuses (?) and finer markings about the 
margins. x 1.5. 

Cuyahoga shales. Newark, Ohio. 

Fig. 16. The internal pedicle-area, having the lateral pedicle callosities 
coalesced, leaving the foramen open but otherwise concealing the structure 
of the area. X 3. 

Fig. 17. A similar structure. ~X 3. 


Fig. 18. The interior of the apical portion of the brachial valve; showing the 
small median septum, extending forward from the apex. *X 8. 
Fig. 19. The internal pedicle-area, in which the lateral callosities have not 
fully coalesced. X 8. 
Cuyahoga shales. Berea, Ohio. 
Fig. 20. A similar structure, the lateral callosities being somewhat more com- 
pletely united. x 3. 
Cuyahoga shales. Baconsbery, Ohio. 


48 317 


PLATE III. 


LINDSTR@MELLA ASPIDIUM, Hall. 


Page 334. 
Figs. 1,2. Interior and internal casts of a brachial valve to which a portion of 
the shell adheres, showing the strong lateral ridges, faint median septum 
and obscure muscular impressions. 


Fig. 2a. Outline profile of conjoined valves of a smaller example, the pedi- 
cle-valve being at the left. 
Hamilton group. Near Hamilton, N. Y. 


- 


Fig. 3. A natural cast of the exterior of a large pedicle-valve ; showing the 
character of the surface ornament and the peculiar undulation of the con- 
centric ridges on approaching the pedicle-area. The pedicle-passage 
differs from that in the normal mature ORBICULOIDEA in not being closed, 
though its margins appear to be in contact. ti 

Hamilton group. Near Leonardsviile, N. Y. 


Fig. 4. A small pedicle-valve, with characteristic ornamentation and strongly 
developed forgminal groove. 
Hamilton group. Darien, N. Y. 


ScHIzocRANIA ScHUCHERTI, Hall. 
Page 334. 
Fig. 5. A small brachial valve retaining most of the external surface. * 3. 


Fig. 6. A large brachial valve, showing the posterior muscular scars. X 3, 


Fig. 7. An individual from which most of the upper valve has been removed 
exposing the flat pedicle-valve. X 3. 
_Hudson River group. Covington, Kentucky. 


Scuizocrania (?) Hetperperetra, Hall. 
Page 334, 


Fig. 8. The lower exterior surface of an individual, showing the coarsely 
radiate surface of the pedicle-valve, and the overlapping edges of the 
finely striated pedicle-valve. ~ 2. 


Fig. 9. The internal surface of the pedicle-valve, showing a broad pedicle-fis- 
sure and the overlapping margins of the upper valve. X 3. 
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y. 


CRANIA AGARICINA, Hall. 
Page 335. 
Fig. 10. An individual attached to a branch of TREMATOPORA; showing the 


sparse and relatively coarse radiating ribs. X 3. 
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y. 


378 


4 
4 
" 


BRACHIOPODA. 


rer a 
rea 

CD) & 

v rt 

is) x 

— 

An 2 
g 
wa 
5 
Ss 
a 

: OQ 
“ 
5 
Lae 
st 

ro) 

oe) 

[om ) 

ay 

a 

‘a 

On 

Oo 

Fa | 

oO 

o 

oO) 

3 

7 

wD 3 

a 

= D 

ay 4 

> a 

oc fey 

Ko 


CraANnia GRANOSA, Hall. 
Page 335. 
Fig. 11. A somewhat distorted upper valve; showing the finely granulose 
surface. 


Fig 12. A portion of the surface enlarged. X 20. 
Hamilton group. Centerfield, N. Y. 


Crania FAVINCOLA, Hall. 
Page 336. 

Fig. 13. A lower valve, slightly broken about the posterior margin, but show- 
ing the very large posterior muscular impressions, the deeply impressed 
anteriors with sharply elevated margins and median fulcrum ; also, the 
radiating pallial sinuses. The shell is attached to a specimen of /avo- 
sites pirum, Davis. 

Hamilton group. Crab Orchard, Kentucky. 


CRANIA PULCHELLA, Hall. 


Page 335. 
Fig. 14. An individual attached to a valve of ORTHIS. 
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y. 


CRANIELLA Uxricut, Hall. 
Page 336. 


Fig. 15. A cast of the interior of a lower valve, somewhat restored at the 
right ; showing the strong anterior and very obscure posterior adductor 
scars and the marks of the vascular sinuses. The shell is convex and 
shows no evidence of attachment, though the external surface is covered 
with bryozoan growth.  X 1.5. 


Fig. 16. An internal cast of the upper valve. The sigmoid vascular impres- 
sions are simpler than elsewhere observed. The scars of the dorsal adjust- 


ors and of the muscles accessory to the anterior adductors are also shown: 
x 1.5. 


Trenton limestone. Minneapolis, Minnesota. 


PHoLipors patina, Hall. 


Page 337. 
Fig. 17. The exterior of a valve, showing the lamellose growth-lines, crossed 
by fine, interrupted radiating striz. x4. 


Fig. 18. The interior of a ventral (?) valve. x 4. 


Fig. 19. The interior of the opposite valve. ~X 4. 
Corniferous limestone. DeCewville, Ontario. 


PuHourpors catcéoua, Hall. 
Page 337. 


Fig. 20. The interior of a dorsal (?) valve, showing the terminal beak, the sub- 
apical area and the character of the muscular scars. X 2. 
Corniferous limestone. Falls of the Ohio. 


379 


PLATE 2 


Ortuis PanpERiana, Hall. 
_ Page 338. 
Figs. 1, 2. Exterior and interior of a pedicle-valve. X 3. 2 


Fig. 8. Interior of a brachial valve. X 8. 
(From the originals of BILLINGS’s species. ‘‘Orthis orthambonites, Pander.” 
“* Point Levis; in the upper part of Limestone No. 2, Quebec group.” : 


ORTHIS FLABELLITES, var. SPANIA, Hall. 
Page 339. 


Fig. 4. An internal cast of a pedicle-valve, having the expression of O. jiabel- 
lites, but with scarcely more than one-half the number of plications usual 
in this species. . 
Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 


Orruis (?) Guypta, Hall. 
Page 338. 
Fig. 5. A partial internal cast of a pedicle-valve ; showing the outline of the 
shell, its surface ornamentation and the form of the muscular impression. 


Fig. 6. A similarly preserved shell with but a single series of radial plica- 
tions and showing the peculiar reticulating surface sculpture. X 2. 
Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 


Ortuis (PLa&siIoMyYs) LoricuLs, Hall. 
Page 389. 


Fig. 7. The exterior of a pedicle-valve. 
Fig. 8. The interior of a brachial valve. 
Fig. 9. The interior of a pedicle-valve; showing the character of the muscular 
area and ovarian markings. 
Galena limestone. Fountain, Minnesota. 


Oxgtuis (?) Sarrorpi, Hall. 
Page 340. “i 


Figs. 10, 11, 12. Ventral, profile and dorsal views of the exterior, showing the 
characters of the species. 
Trenton horizon. Near Knoxville, Tennessee. 


Ortuis (DALMANELLA) ARCUARIA, Hall. 


Page 340. 
Figs. 18, 14. Dorsal and profile views of a silicified and partially exfoliated 


shell. 
Niagara group. Perry county, Tennessee. 


380 


BRACHIOPODA. 


es vt ¢ 
ee 


Report. State Geologist, 1894 


Ortuis (DaLMANgLLA) suUPERSTES, Hall. 


Page 341. 
Figs. 15, 16. Dorsal and profile views of the exterior. 
Fig. 17. The interior of the brachial valve, showing cardinal process, adductor 
scars and vascular sinuses. 
Fig. 18. An internal cast of the pedicle-valve; showing traces of the vascular 
sinuses. ’ 
Chemung group. Howard, N. Y. 


Ortuis Hoxstroni (Safford), Hall. 
Page 339. 
Figs. 19, 20, 21. Ventral, profile and cardinal views of the type specimen. 
Trenton horizon. Near Knoxville, Tennessee. 


Ortuis (ScuizopHoriA) sENECTA, Hall. 
Page 342. 
Fig. 22. The exterior of a pedicle-valve; showing the depression over the 
pallial region. 
Fig. 28. An internal cast of a pedicle-valve; showing the diductor and 
adductor scars. 
Clinton group. Reynale’s Basin, N. Y. 


Ortuis (RuiPIDOMELLA) OwEnl, Hall. 


Page 341. 
Fig. 24. The interior of a brachial valve. 
Fig. 25. The exterior of a brachial valve. 
Fig. 26. The interior of a pedicle-valve. 
Waverly group. Button-mould Knobs, Kentucky. 


SrseoPHOMENA Conrapt, Hall. 


Page 343. 
Fig. 27. Dorsal view, showing the reversed convexity of the valves, and the 
fasciculate striz. 


Fig. 28. Outline profile of the same specimen. 
Trenton limestone. Jacksonburg, N. Y. 


Fig. 29. Profile of a brachial valve. 


Fig. 30. Outline profile of both valves of the same specimen. 
Trenton limestone. Trenton Falls, N. Y. 


STROPHOMENA WINCHELLI, Hall. 
Page 344, 
Fig. 31. The exterior of a brachial valve, showing its great convexity and the 
fine filiform radial strize of the surface. 
Trenton limestone. Clifton, Wisconsin. 
Fig. 32. The interior of a brachial valve. 
Trenton limestone. Janesville, Wisconsin. 
Fig. 33. The interior of a pedicle-valve, showing the character of the muscu- 
lar area and the submarginal thickening of the shell. 
Trenton limestone. Clifton, Wisconsin. 


381 


PLATE V. 


ORTHOTHETES DESIDERATUS, Hall. 
Page 345. | 
Fig. 1. A cardinal view of an internal cast. 


‘Fig. 2. A dorsal view of the same specimen, showing the dorsal muscular 
scars. . 


Waverly group. Ohio. 


Derrpya Bennett, Hall. 
Page 347. 


Fig. 3. Transverse section near the apex of the pedicle-valve, showing the 
median septum coalesced with a solid callosity filling the apical portion 
of the deltidial cavity. 


Fig. 4. A section of the same specimen nearer the hinge. This shows the 
dental ridges, tips of the cardinal process and the median septum. 


Figs. 5, 6. Cardinal and profile views of the same specimen. 


Figs. 7,8. Dorsal and ventral views of a smaller shell, with a large scar of 
attachment. 
Upper Coal Measures. Kansas City, Missouri. 


Dersya (?) costatuLa, Hall. 
Page 346. 


Fig. 9. Dorsal view, showing the characteristic surface ornamentation of the 
species. X 2. 
Chester limestone. Crittenden county, Kentucky. 


Dersya AFFINIS, Hall. 
Page 349. 


Figs. 10, 11. Cardinal and profile views of a small individual, with the irregu- 
lar growth very pronounced on both valves. 
Upper Coal Measures. Kansas City, Missouri. 


DzRBYA RUGINOSA, Hall. 
Page 345. 


Figs. 12, 18, 14. Cardinal, anterior and profile views of an internal cast in 
chert. : 
Keokuk limestone. New Providence, Indiana. 


382 


is BRACHIOPODA. 


Report State Geologist, 1894. Plate 5. 


C.Fausel, lith. James B. Lyon, State Printer 


bs 
. 


DersyA BroapuEany, Hall. 
Page 346. 


Figs. 15, 16. Profile and cardinal views of an entire individual, showing the 
rugose and somewhat irregular pedicle-valve and the median sinus of the 


brachial valve. 
Upper Coal Measures. Kansas City, Missouri. 


Derpya (?) BriLoBA, Hall. 
Page 350. 


Figs. 17, 18, Cardinal and dorsal views, showing the bilobed contour and obo- 
vate outline. X 2. 
Coal Measures. Wéinterset, Iowa. 


383 


NPLATE Vi. 
Dersya cymButa, Hall. 


Page 348. 


Figs. 1, 2. Dorsal and cardinal views of a large specimen. 
Upper Coal Measures. Near Kansas City, Missouri. 


STREPTORHYNCHUS ULricui, Hall. 


Page 350. 


Fig. 3. The interior of a pedicle-valve referred to this genus on account of | 
the peculiar form of the shell and the absence of a median septum. 
Chester limestone. Crittenden county, Kentucky. 


ORTHOTROPIA DOLOMITICA, Hall, 
Page 843. 


Fig. 4. Ventral view of an internal cast; showing the form of the shell, the 
short straight hinge and the conspicuous muscular scars. 


Fig. 5. The interior of a pedicle-valve, showjng the cardinal area, open 
delthyrium, muscular scar and short median septum. 


Figs. 6, 7, 8. Dorsal, ventral and cardinal views of an internal cast, showing 
the form of the muscular impressions, the median get in each valve 
and the elevation of the cardinal area. X 2. 

Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 


STROPHONELLA cCosTaTULA, Hall. 
Page 3854. 


Figs. 9,10. Dorsal and profile views of the shell, showing the reversed con- 
vexity of the valves and the sharp, irregularly dichatomizing plications. 
Niagara group. Louisville, Kentucky. 


PLECTAMBONITES PRODUCTA, Hall. 
Page 354. 


Figs. 11, 12. Profile and front views of an internal cast of 4 pedicle-valve. 
Niagara dolomites. Yellow Springs, Ohio. 


CARISTIANIA SUBQUADRATA, Hall. 


Page 351. 
Figs. 18, 14. Two views of a pedicle-valve, showing its elongate form, smooth 
or squamous surface. 
Fig. 15. The interior of a pedicle-valve, with an open delthyrium and showing 
the muscular walls and scars. 


Fig. 16. The exterior of a brachial valve, showing the cardinal process and 
edges of the crural plates. : 


384 


BRACHIOPODA. 


Report State Geologist, 1894. Plate 6. 


Bee j 
Fausel, lith. James B.Lyon,State Printer. 


Fig. 17. The interior of a brachial valve, showing the bilobed cardinal process 
and the quadruple adductor scar, divided by high, vertical muscular 
walls. 


Fig. 18. Cardinal view of the brachial valve, showing the cardinal process, 


widely divergent crural plates, and the prominent longitudinal and trans- 
verse muscular ridges inclosing the scars of the adductor muscles. X 3, 


LEPT ANISCA TANGENS, Hall. 
Page 352. : 

Figs. 19, 20. Opposite sides of a pedicle-valve which has been attached toa 
frond of Fenestella. X 3. . 

Fig. 21. The exterior of a pedicle-valve in which the rugose growth has 
obscured the median sinus. The deep umbonal cicatrix has been caused 
by attachment to some bryozoan. X 3, 

Figs. 22, 28. Exterior and interior of a pedicle-valve, showing the cicatrix of 
attachment, deltidium and dental plates. X 3. 

Figs. 24, 25. Opposite sides of a pedicle-valve attached toa twig of Tremato- 

pora. X68. 
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y. 


LEPTr=nisca ADNASCcENS, Hall. 
Page 352. 

Fig. 26. A pedicle-valve attached by nearly its entire surface to the interior of 
a valve of Orthis oblata. The specimen shows the dental lamelle and 
median ridge dividing the muscular area. X 3. 

Fig. 27. A specimen retaining both valves, attached to the surface of Orthis 
perelegans. X 4. 

Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y. 
49 385 


PLATE VII. 
Triptecia Nriacarensis, Hall. 
Page 351. 


Figs. 1, 2, 3,4. Cardinal, oblique cardinal, anterior and profile views of an 
internal cast, showing the sharply defined median fold and sinus on 
brachial and pedicle-valves, respectively, the marginal plication and the 
cavity left by the cardinal process. 

Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 


STROPHALOSIA CYMBULA, Hall. 


Page 355. 


Fig. 5. The exterior of a pedicle-valve, showing the scar of attachment. 
Keokuk group. Lebanon, Kentucky. 


STRoPHALOSIA RockForDEnsiIs, Hall. 
Page 353. 


Figs. 6,7, 8. Dorsal, cardinal and ventral views of a specimen, showing the 
external characters and size of cicatrix. 
Upper Devonian. Rockford, Iowa. 


Figs. 9, 10. Cardinal and dorsal views of a larger, but incomplete example. 
Upper Devonian. Rockford, Iowa. 


CHONOSTROPHIA HELDERBERGIA, Hall. 
Page 353. 


Fig. 11. A specimen in which the valves are opened, exposing their internal 
surface, showing the extremely fine radial striation, teeth and cardinal 
process. 

Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y. 


SPIRIFER CRISPATUS, Hall. 
Page 355. 


Figs. 12, 18. Views of the original specimen, showing the coarsely plicate 
surface. 
Niagara group. Maryland. i 


SprriFER Cananpaicu#, Hall. 
Page 395. 
Figs. 14, 15. Ventral and profile views of a somewhat imperfect individual, 
showing the low rounded lateral plications. 


Fig. 16. Enlargement of the surface, showing the closely crowded concentric 
row of fine granules or spine-bases. X95. 
Hamilton group. Canandaigua Lake, N. Y. 
386 


BRAC HIOPODA. 


Lyon, State Printer 


B.L 


James 


+2 crease ati 


Pausel. lith 


= 
wed 


Report State Geologist, 1894. 


Sprrirerk Wivwiamsi, Hall. 
Page 356. 


Figs. 17, 18, 19. Dorsal, cardinal and ventral views of a large example, show- 
ing the low, coarse and sparse plication of the fold and sinus. 
Chemung group. Allegany county, N. ¥; 


SprrirFER MUCRONATUS, Conrad, var., postERUS, Hall. 
Page 356. 


Fig. 20. An internal cast of the pedicle-valve, showing the impression of the 
muscular area. 


Fig. 21. Internal cast of a brachial valve. 


Fig, 22. Exterior of a brachial valve, showing the lamellose surface and ex- 
tended cardinal extremities. . 


Fig. 23. Internal cast of a brachial valve. 


_ Fig. 24. The central portion of the interior of a brachial valve, reer: 
Chemung group. Tompkins County, N. Y. 


SprrirER Newserry], Hall. 
Page 357. 
Fig. 25. The exterior of the brachial valve. 


Fig. 26. An enlargement of the surface. 
Waverly group. Ohio. 


SPIRIFER DISJUNCTUS, Sowerby, var. suLciFsR, Hall. 
Page 356. 


Fig. 27. The internal cast of a brachial valve ; showing the sulcus on the pli- 
cated fold. . 
Chemung group. Near Olean, N. Y. 


CyrtTra RapiAns, Hall. 
Page 857. 


Figs. 28, 29. Cardinal and profile views of the original specimen. The cen- 
tral cardinal area of two examples, showing the direct circular foramen 
and elongate foraminal groove. 

Clinton group. Rochester, N. Y. 


387 


-. PLATE VIII. 
CyrTINA LACHRYMOSA, Hall. 
Page 358. 
Figs. 1,2. Views of an average example; showing the regular, slightly 
incurved cardinal area, and the sparsely pustulose exterior. X 2. 
Fig. 3. An enlargement of the exterior; showing the large pustules of various 
sizes, X 5, ; 
Waverly group. Richfield, Ohio. 
CYRTINA NEOGENES, Hall. 
Page 3772. ; 
Fig. 4. The pedicle-valve broken so as to show the median septum supporting 


_ convergent dental plates. 
Fig. 5. An internal cast of the pedicle-valve. 
Fig. 6. Cardinal view of the same specimen; showing the convergent dental 


plates uniting with the median septum. X 2. 
Fig. 7. An enlargement of the external surface; showing the bases of concen- 


tric rows of spinules. 4, 
Fig. 8. An enlargement of a portion of the interior of the pedicle-valve; 


showing the convergence of the dental plates and the projection of the 


median septum beyond their union. X 3. 


Chert of the Burlington limestone. Burlington, Iowa. 


CyRTINA UMBONATA, Hall, var. AtpENENsis, Hall. 
Page 307. 


Figs. 9,10. Views of an individual of normal size. 
Fig. 11. The conjoined valves split along the median septum ; showing the 
extreme extension of the latter, its acute anterior extremity, and the pene- 
tration of its median edge beyond the base of the dental lamellee. 
Fig. 12. Front view of a preparation ; showing the normal shape of the spiral 


cones, and the form of the crura and loop. xX 14. 


Fig. 18. A lateral view of another preparation showing the extension of the 


spiral into the rostral cavity divided by the median septum, and the pro- 
jection of the loop downward and toward the brachial valve. X 14. 


Hamilton group. Alpena, Michigan. 


SyrineotHyris Missouri, Hall. 


. Page 358. 
Figs. 14, 15, 16. Three views of the original specimen; showing its small size, 
elevated pedicle-valve, broadly rounded cardinal margins and coarse 


lateral plications. 


Choteau limestone. Pike county, Missouri. 


388 


a 


bi as 


BRACHIOPODA. 


Report State Geologist, 1894. 


e Prirwer 


Ce 
nm, otat 


Lyo 


nes B. 


J 


. een — 4 


TREMATOSPIRA T'ENNESSEENSIS, Hall. 
Page 360. 


Figs. 17, 18, 19. Dorsal, profile and ventral views, showing the convexity and 
coarse plication of the valves. 
Lower Helderberg group. Ferry county, Tennessee. 


Merista TENNESSEENSIS, Hall. 
Page 361. 
Figs. 20, 21. Two views of the exterior of a somewhat elongate example. 
Fig. 22. Dorsal view of a broader example. | 
Fig. 23. The exterior of the pedicle-valve, showing the cavity left by tbe 
removal of the ‘‘shoe-lifter.” 
Fig. 24. The interior of a pedicle-valve. 


Fig. 25. The interior of a brachial valve. 
Lower Helderberg group. Perry county, Tennessee. 


Meristetita Watcorti, Hall. 


Page 360. 
Fig. 26. The hinge-plate. x 3. 
- Fig. 27. An internal longitudinal view; showing the position and form of the 
jugum and one of the spiral cones. 
| Fig. 28. The spirals and jugum naturally preserved by incrustation and 
viewed from the posterior margin. 


Fig. 29. A similar preparation to which a portion of the internal cast of the 
valves adheres. The specimen is viewed from the dorsal side, and shows 
the form of the spiral cones and the length of the median septum. 

Figs. 30, 31. Dorsal and profile views of the exterior. 

Oriskany sandstone. Cayuga, Ontario. 


389 


PLATE IX. 
TORYNIFER cRiITICUS, Hall. 


- Page 359. 


Fig. 1. A fragment of the pedicle-valve with well-defined cardinal area. 
prominent teeth, convergent dental lamelle, forming a distinct spondy- 
lium, supported by a median septum. * 2. 

St. Louis group. La Rue, Kentucky. 


RAYNCHOSPIRA SCANSA, Hall. 
Page 360. 


Fig. 2. A view of the exterior of the pedicle-valve, showing a median sulcus 
similar to that occurring in typical representatives of the genus. 
Waverly group. McKean county, Pennsylvania. 


ATHYRIS DENSA, Hall. 
* Page 358. 


Fig. 3. The interior of a small but thickened pedicle-valve; showing the broad 
cardinal slopes, the deep pedicle-cavity and relatively large muscular 
impressions. 


Figs. 4, 5. Dorsal and profile views of conjoined valves; showing the contour 
of the shell, the foramen and broad cardinal slopes of the pedicle-valve, 
the median elevation and low marginal sulcus of the brachial valve. 

St. Louis group. Colesburgh, Kentucky. 

Fig. 6. The interior of a larger pedicle-valve; showing a faint median ridge. 

Fig. 7. The interior of another pedicle-valve, showing an umbonal thickening 
of the shell, and the division of the muscular area. 

St. Louis group. Washington county, Indiana. © 
Fig. 8. The interior of a pedicle-valve with relatively small muscular area and 


linguate extension of the anterior margin, which is much foreshortened 
in the figure. 


St. Louis group. Lanesville, Indiana. 


Fig. 9. The interior of a pedicle-valve, showing the details of the muscular 
structure. 


St. Louis group. Colesburgh, Kentucky. 


SEMINULA Rogers, Hall. 
Page 359, 
Fig. 10. A dorsal view of an internal cast. 


Fig. 11. A ventral view of a similar specimen; showing tue cast of the 
pedicle-cavity and muscular scars. 


Fig. 12. Cardinal view of the same specimen. 


Fig. 18. A profile of the specimen represented in Fig. 10. 
Pendleton sandstone. Pendleton, Indiana.’ ° 


340 


BRACHIOPODA. 


Report State Geologist, 1894. 


: James 


B. Lyon, State Priruter. 


Seminuta Dawsont, Hall. 
Page 359. 
Figs. 14, 15. Dorsal and profile views of conjoined valves. X 2. 


Fig. 16. A view of the brachidium naturally preserved by incrustation and 
exposed by the removal of a portion of the valve. X 2. 
Coal Measures. Windsor, Nova Scotia. 


CLINTONELLA VAGABUNDA, Hall. 
Page 361. 


Fig. 17. A dorsal view of an internal cast, retaining the shell at the umbo of 
the pedicle-valve. 


Fig. 18. View of another specimen similarly preserved, 

Fig. 19. Profile of the same; showing the normal convexity of the valves and 
the elevation of the median fold on the brachial valve. 

Fig. 20. Ventral view of the same specimen; showing the depth of the median 
sinus. 

Fig. 21. The interior of an imperfect pedicle-valve; showing the teeth and 
delthyrium. ~* 2. 


Fig. 22. The interior of a pedicle-valve; showing the elevation and curvature 
of the teeth. X 2. 

Fig. 23 An internal cast of a pedicle-valve, showing the muscular area crossed 
by plications of the shell. X 2. 

Fig. 24. The interior of the umbonal region of conjoined valves, viewed from 
in front; showing the mode of articulation and the bilobed cardinal 
process. 3. | 

Fig. 25. An internal cast of the pedicle-valve; showing the division of the 
muscwar scar into adductor and diductor scars. x 2. 


Fig. 26. The umbonal portion of the brachial valve; ee the bilobed hinge- 
plate. X38. 
Clinton group. Drift of western New York. 


ATRYPINA CuinTon]I, Hall. 
Page 362. 


Fig. 27. An internal cast of the pedicle-valve; showing the adductor and 
diductor scars. X 2. 


Fig. 28. The exterior of a pedicle-valve. X 2. 
Fig. 29. The interior of an incomplete brachial valve; showing the small 
bilobed hinge-plate and low muscular ridge. ~ 8. 


Fig. 30. A dorsal view of a specimen; showing the internal cast of the brachial 
valve and the teeth and rostral cavity of the pedicle-valve. x 2. 
Clinton group. Drift of western New York. 
391 


ZYGOSPIRA PUTILIA, Hall. 
Page 362. 


Figs. 31, 32. Dorsal and ventral views of a typical example. X 2. 
Hudson River group. Pike county, Missourt. 


Guass1a Romincert, Hail. 
Page 363. 


Fig. 33. A preparation showing the introverted coils and the direction of the 
loop. X38. : 


Figs. 34-36. Ventral, profile and dorsal views of the exterior; showing the 
smooth surface and bilobed anterior margins of the valves. X2. _ 
Trenton limestone. Ina drift boulder near Ann Arbor, Michigan. 


CAMAROPHORIA RHOMBOIDALIS, Hall. 
. Page 363. 
Fig. 87. Dorsal view of a rather small specimen. 
Figs. 38, 39, 40. Anterior, dorsal and ventral views of an average adult possess- 
ing a sharper median fold and stronger plication and showing the median 


septum in each valve through the substance of the shell. X 2. 
Corniferous limestone. Peru, Indiana. 


Liornyneaus Lusiryi, Hall. 
Page 365. 


Figs. 41, 42, 43. Dorsal, profile and ventral views of a mature shell; showing 
the rather obscurely defined median fold on the convex brachial valve, the 
deep sinus of the pedicle-valve and the unusually complete plication of the 
lateral slopes, 

Upper Devonian. Pennsylvania. 


392 


PLATE X, 
PARASTROPHIA GREENII, Hall. 
Page 364, 


Figs. 1-4. Ventral, profile, dorsal and cardinal views of an internal cast; show- 
ing the character of the plication of the surface and the median septum 
of each valve. : 

Fig. 5. Cardinal view of another individual; showing the cavities left by the 
median septa. 

Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 


PARASTROPHIA LATIPLICATA, Hall. - 
Page 365. . 
Fig. 6. An internal cast of a brachial valve; showing the few broad plications 
and the extent of the median septum. 


Fig. 7. An internal cast of the brachial valve in which the filling of the 
spondylium is exposed and the four scars of the adductor impression dis- 
tinctly retained. 

Figs. 8, 9. Profile and cardinal views of the same specimen. 

Fig. 10. Anterior view showing the elevation of the median fold and char- 


acter of the plication. 
Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 


PaRASTROPHIA DIVERGENS, Hall. 


Page 364. 

Figs. 11, 12. Ventral and dorsal views showing the spondylium and septa in 
the umbonal region. ; 

Fig. 18. Cardinal view of a specimen which has been transversely sectioned in 
the umbonal region, the brachial valve being represented above; showing 
the spondylia. 14. 

Fig. 14. Anterior view of the specimen represented in figs. 11, 12. 

Hudson River group. Wilmington, Illinois. . 


PARASTROPHIA MULTIPLICATA, Hall. 
Page 360. = 
Figs. 15, 16. Anterior and profile views of an internal cast; showing the 
broad, strong plications, of which there are four on the fold and three in 
the sinus. 
Fig. 17. Cardinal view of another and rather more convex internal cast; show- 


ing the cavities left by the median septa. 
Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 


394 


BRACHIOPODA. 


ro) 
wx 
o 
pes) 
bs 
AY 


, 1894. 


_ Report State Geologist 


LioRHYNCHUS ROBUSTUS, Hall. 
Page 365. 


Figs. 18, 19. Ventral and cardinal views of a sharply marked internal cast of 
large size; showing the muscular impressions of both valves and the vascu- 
lar sinuses in the pedicle-valve radiating from the impression left by the 
umbonal testaceous callosity. 

Chemung group. Steuben county, N. Y. 


Concuipium ExponeEns, Hall. 
Page 366. } 


Figs, 20-23. Interiors of pedicle (figs. 20, 21) and brachial] valves (figs. 22, 28), 
Niagara group (Halysites bed). Louisville, Kentucky. 


Concuipium NeEttTeLrotui, Hall. 
Page 366. 


Figs. 24, 25. Dorsal and lateral views. (After NETTELROTH.) 
Corniferous limestone. Near Lowisville, Kentucky. 


This fossil published by Mr. Nettelroth, under the name of Pentamerus 
Knightii (FOssIL SHELLS OF KENTUCKY), is referred by him to the Corniferous 
limestone. The form and entire external characters of the species are so sim- 
ilar to those from the Niagara formation in the vicinity of the Falls of Ohio 
and elsewhere, that the reference to this geologic horizon is probably errone- 
ous. The form is,very similar to Conchidiwm biloculare, Linné, from the 
Island of Gotland; and to some varieties of Conchidiwm nysius, Niagara 
group, near Louisville, Ky., that one can scarcely doubt its Silurian age. 


395 


PLATE XT. 
- ConcuHipium ogsoLetTum, Hall. 
Page 366. 


Figs. 1, 2. Dorsal and ventral views of an internal cast; showing the few low 
and broad plications, the length of the median septum of the pedicle-valve, 
the septal plates and muscular impressions of the brachial valve. 

Niagara dolomites. Genoa, Ohio. 


CoNcHIDIUM cRassIPLica, Hall. 
Page 367. 


Figs. 8, 4. Dorsal and profile views; showing the ovate form of the shell, the 
subequally convex valves, short and depressed beak of the pedicle-valve 
and the coarse duplicate plication of the surface. 

Niagara group. Probably from the vicinity of Louisville, Kentucky. 


ConcHipiumM GREENII, Hall. 
Page 367. 

Figs. 5, 6,7. Ventral, cardinal and profile views of a specimen somewhat 
restored about the margin; showing the short, ventricose valves and the 
fine duplicate plication. 

Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 


Coxcuipium scoparium, Hall. 
| Page 366. 


Figs. 8,9. Ventral and dorsal views of a specimen retaining much of the 
shell and preserving a very distinct and rather fine radial plication. 
Guelph dolomites. Durham, Ontario. 


ConcHipitum GxrorGi4, Hall. 
Page 367. 


Figs. 10, 11. Cardinal and dorsal views of the brachial valve, characterized by 
its strong median fold. 
Clinton group. Trenton, Georgia. 


PENTAMERUS OBLONGUS, var. Maquoketa, Hall. 
| Page 368. 
Figs. 12, 18. Dorsal and profile views of an internal cast; showing the ovoid 
and regularly convex valves. 
Fig. 14. Cardinal view of another individual; showing the position and extent 
of the internal plates. 
Niagara dolomites. Near Dubuque, Iowa. 


396 


BRACHIOPODA. 


Plate 11. 


tate Geologist, 1894. 


ort S 


Rep 


ers 


tate 


Cc 
wo 


B. Lyon 


~ 
7S) 


c 


ie 


s+) 
SERN 


ag 


.Fause 


Fd 
uu 


z 
4 
é 
' 


VCs 


OA I ese v 


PLATE XII. 
PENTAMERUS OBLONGUS, Sowerby, var. SUBRECTUS, Hall. 
Page 368. ; 
Figs. 1, 2. Dorsal and ventral views of a normal mature individual; showing 


the characteristic outline, prominent umbo, trilobate exterior and linear 
median depression on both valves. 


Fig. 3. Dorsal view of a large individual, ee imperfect at the anterior 
margin. 

Fig. 4. A somewhat weathered specimen, in which the valves have been dis- 
placed from their normal position, exposing the spondylium of the pedicle- 
valve, and, by the removal of the rock, also showing part of the united 
septal plates of the brachial valve. 


Figs. 56, 6. Ventral and dorsal views of a small specimen of subquadrate out- 
line, trilobed exterior, and showing the single median septum on each 
valve. 

€ Niagara beds. Jones county, lowa. 


GypipuLA RomineEri, Hall. 
- Page 369. 


Fig. 7. Cardinal view of a pedicle-valve; showing a well-defined cardinal 
area, the teeth and the form of the spondylium. 

Fig. 8. Dorsal view of the umbonal region of the specimen represented in 
fig. 30; showing the sharply defined cardinal area, and the delaras or 
remnants of the deltidium. X 2. 


Fig. 9. Interior of a large brachial valve; diese the size and structure of 
the spondylium. 


Fig. 10. A smaller specimen; showing similar features. 

Figs. 11, 12. Dorsal and profile views of a large specimen; showing the char- 
acters of the exterior. Thesurface of the brachial valve is somewhat 
exfoliated in the umbonal region, exposing the base of the spondylium 
and the vascular markings. 

Fig. 18. An individual of average size with an unusually flat brachial valve 
and coarse, duplicating plications. 

Hamilton group. Near Alpena, Michigan. 


398 


BRACHIOPODA. 


ist, 1894. 


ist 


Geolog 


port State 


Vater kaw eticne wey 


eerie: 


Va GI 


B. Lyon,State Printer. 


James 


+ 


litn 


C.Fausel 


og Nee ts : 
e ¢ vo Pt 6 bj bs <i ee ces ; ; . 
“ - : bal) i = j - . 4 ns 


é - 
= t ‘ > 
~ es. . A 4 : _ . : 
@ ¥ = + ~ - ‘ - ' 
' 5 * ~ 
“an ' ¢ =) . ny 
. x 4 
« i] 
. 
¢ 
' \ 
" 
s 
. 
%. 
- 
® . 


PLATE XIII. 
BaRRANDELLA ARzEyYI, Hall. 
Page 369. 


Figs. 1, 2,3. Dorsal, profile and ventral views; showing the strongly plicated 
fold and sinus on brachial and pedicle-valves respectively, and the sharp 
plication of the lateral slopes. X 2. 

‘Clinton group. Rochester, N. Y. 


SIEBERELLA RoEmeEsr!, Hall. 
Page 370. 


Fig. 4. Dorsal view of an individual of rather large size; showing the charac- 
teristic plication of the sinus and lateral slopes and their obsolescence in 
the umbonal region. 

Upper Silurian. Perry county, Tennessee. 


CaPELLINIA MIRA, Hall — 
Page 368. 


Fig. 5. Cardinal view of a pedicle-valve; showing the suberect beak and wide 
delthyrium. 

Fig. 6. Ventral view of the same specimen. 

Figs. 7, 8. Cardinal and ventral views of a normal example; showing the pre- 
dominant convexity of the brachial valve, the smooth surface and the 
‘position and extent of the internal plates. 

Fig. 9. A brachial valve, showing the length of the septal pier! 

Figs. 10, 11. Ventral and profile views of a specimen in which the umbo of 
the pedicle-valve is abruptly depressed. 

Fig. 12. Cardinal view of another example. 

Fig. 13. Profile of a normal individual. 

Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. ee 


RENSSELAERIA CayuGa, Hall. 
; Page 3870. 
Figs. 14, 15. Dorsal and ventral views of a specimen which retains most of the 
shell and shows the fine plication of the valves. 
Oriskany sandstone. Cayuga, Ontario. 


400 


BRACHIOPODA. 


Plate 13 


Report State Geologist, 1894. 


Printer. 


yoru, State 


44 


es B 


h 


+ 
c 


C.Fausel, li 


te 
i 
. ; _ 
« 
ri 
i 
r 
x 
- 
+ 


I 


errr 8 tee 


mre wf 


ee 


ft Ty yy SApPals VANS Ae ee 


' 
> a = 
Bs Pee ina asc te ae Uy 


PLATE XIV. 


ORISKANIA NAVICELLA, Hall. 
Page 371. 


Figs. 1, 2, 3. Dorsal, profile and ventral views of the exterior; showing the 
elongate form and plano-convex contour of the species. 
Oriskany sandstone. Rondout, N. Y. 


CRYPTONELLA SUBELLIPTICA, Hall. 
Page 371. 


Figs. 4, 5, 6. Ventral, profile and dorsal views of an internal cast in iron-stone; 
showing the form and contour and the muscular scars of the brachial 
valve. . 

Waverly group. Sciotoville, Ohio. 


BzrrcuEria Davipsont, Hall. 
Page 372. 


Fig. 7. The internal cardinal structure exposed by the removal of a portion of 
the pedicle-valve; showing the absence of dental plates and the structure of 
the loop. X93. 

Fig. 8. Outline profile showing the manner in which the lamellae of the loop 
originate from the hinge-plate. 

Fig. 9. Dorsal view of an elongate shell. 

Figs. 10, 11. Profile and dorsal views of an average specimen. 

Carboniferous limestone. Wéndsor, Nova Scotia. 


DrIzLASMA OBOVvATUM, Hall. 
Page 372. 


Figs. 12, 18, 14. Ventral, dorsal and profilé views of the original specimen , 
Coal Measures. Kentucky. 


RENSSELZRIA OVULUM, Hall. 
Page 370. 


Fig. 15. An internal cast of the brachial valve; showing the muscular scars, 
the large cavity left by the hinge-plate and the genital hie in the 
umbonal region. 

Fig. 16. An internal cast of the pedicle-valve. 

Oriskany sandstone. Cayuga, Ontario. 


402 


BRACHIOPODA. 


Plate 14. 


- Report State Geologist, 1894. 


James B. Lyon, State Printer. 


Ae PE ACN DE OOK. 


OF THE 


Genera of the North American Palaeozoic 
Bryozoa. 


Witten INTRODUCTION UPON THE STRUCTURE 
OF LIVING SPECIES. 


By GEORGE B. SIMPSON. 


Aupany, N. Y., January 1, 1895. 
James Hatt, LL. D., State Geologist: 


Srr.— Herewith I beg to communicate for your report a paper 
which I have entitled “A Handbook of the Genera of the North 
American Palaeozoic Bryozoa,” prefaced by some observations 
upon the structure of living species. | 

This work is the direct outcome of the investigations made in 
preparation of Volume VI of the Palaeontology of New York 
(1887), and has been done by me as a member of the staff of the 
geological department. The collections made for use in that 
work, as well as your own private collection, and, through your 
intervention, those of the American Museum of Natural History 
of New York, have been freely accessible to my use, and I take 
this opportunity of expressing my appreciation of the favorable 
conditions under which my work has been done. 


Very respectfully yours, 
GEORGE B. SIMPSON. 


= ; j 
a 
=n 
* . ‘ 
e+" bot eg ‘ ‘ = 
a os - ‘ -. a) cay ~ > 
a t ‘ . 5 ‘4 Sau aa lA F \ eS 
SC21 Festi Gh ae twa a | 
CSA oh Qe IRS a Be ee gM at Ay: - rans 
= ia ok ri P - 23 a 1 ° P 6 
~ i i: a 6 ; 
: ‘ : od Ny es : vg ie pe oh aaa 
f es ere ‘ ms ¥ ya.) Gel —e Vy, ie ¢F 
| ie had, Cae 
Mee wig a 2 , : . ' s 
irrore & 625 0 ea fous oo Soa iva 5 “e 
CHTAG Sf ESOS “LAS Gord, G27. <3 SELePLOHG SL iF hG £ te 
ey Sit fr bs ; ; 
RATES: Peat ete OT See A 
BAO A ew. ehnciccd o. Seee— Siicmals tai fein € YE ef 
ye vee ke eet) he oo Ie = te pe’ Ee a 
» : . 
oer meen a eee i * j ‘ 
SE edi 18 Pree eit) aN 6 rete aay desapag! 
4 = i ' , ; - > P J . > & . 3G 7 fy psee 851i : 
™) a 2 _ ‘ © 
¥ . a : Yee Lt eet Siete Nie 
- A ¢ ‘ 3 7 
‘ : - ' “4 ‘i 
+ r ‘ ry r? “Seq 
- , J JS ~~ + ke 
= 4 q i f 1 i es . ‘ 
‘ ‘ ae rue ne (¥ 
‘ i ry ; 4% ees c 
x 


HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. 


It is scarcely more than one hundred years since naturalists gen 
erally recognized the fact that corals belong to the animal king- 
dom. Though in the year 1599 Ferrante Imprraro, a naturalist 
of Naples, in his work, “Histoire Naturelle,” asserted that fact, he 
found few, if any, believers in his statement. In every reference 
that I have seen to this author he is referred to as an “ Apothe- 
cary of Naples” —seemingly overlooking the fact that this man 
-as a naturalist possessed knowledge nearly 150 years in advance 
of any other naturalist in regard to the Zoophytes. To him 
should be given the honor which is generally accorded to men of 
the eighteenth century. This book was republished in 1672, but 
even then attracted little attention, and subsequently seems to 
have been relegated to oblivion. Ds Buarnvitze speaks of his 
work as being one ‘of the most important in zoophytological 
_ history. 7 

Whatever had been the importance of Imprrato’s work at the 
time, his statements had fallen into complete oblivion at the 
beginning of the eighteenth century. In 1706, Count Marsie11, or 
Marsitur as his name is sometimes written, in a letter to the 
Abbé Brenon, and later in 1711 in “ Brieve ristretto del Sagio 
fisico intorno alla Storia del Mare,” Venice, 1711, reasserted the 
doctrine of the vegetable nature of corals and makes the 
remarkable assertion that he had seen the plants in full flower 
mistaking the expanded tentacles for the petals of a flower. 

Jm#AN ANDRE PrysonNELLE, a physician of Marseilles, saw the 
error into which Marsiexi had fallen, and in 1727, in a communi- 
cation to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, reasserted the doc- 
trine of Imperato, that the seeming flowers were animals, and 
that the hard part was provided for the protection of the ani- 
mals. This communication was entrusted to the great naturalist, 
Reavumor, to be presented to the Academy, but so ludicrous did 


408 REvoRT oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Reavumor consider Peyvsonnewix’s belief to be, and so great was his 
contempt for his doctrine, that while presenting it to the Acad- 
emy, he not only vigorously combatted the idea, but suppressed 
PrYsSONNELLE’s name in connection with the article. 

At the same meeting of the Academy Reaumur read a paper 
‘explaining the growth of corals in accordance with vegetable 
physiology. (See Hist. de Acad. Royale des Sci. p. 51, and also 
Reaumur’s memoir in the same volume, p. 380.) 


In his communication to the Academy PrysonneELLE main- — 


tained that the organisms described by Marsice11 as flowers were 
analogous to the ActintrA, whose animal nature was admitted, 
and that the hard parts were formed by a fluid deposited by the 
animal, which afterward hardened, and that in these parts was no 
trace of vegetable organism, mixing up the principal truth, 


namely, the animality of corals, with many false conclusions 


from observations. | 

PEYSONNELLE seems to be remembered chiefly by this discovery, 
which, though previously recorded by Imprrato, was to all intents 
original, as [mpsrato’s writings were at that time practically 
unknown. According to the Philosophical Transactions “M. 


PrysonneEi&, disposed from his youth to the study of natural — 


history, after having qualified himself for the practice of medi- 
cine, applied himself with great diligence to the practice of 
that science, to which his inclination so strongly prompted him, 
and being a native of, and residing at Marseilles he had an 
opportunity for examining the curiosities of the sea, which the 
fishermen, more especially those who fished for corals, furnished 
him with.” According to Jonnston (History of British Zoo- 
phytes) he was subsequently appointed Physician-Botanist to 


his “ Most Christian Majesty ” in the island of Guadaloupe, and 


had every opportunity for prosecuting his researches on -the 
coast of Barbary. He is the author of two or three communi- 
cations to the Philosophical Transactions, of which the most 


interesting is “ An account of the visitation of Leprous persons - 


in the isle of Guadaloupe,” in the volume for the year 1757. _ 
In the year 1741, Asranam Tremsiey, while making experi- 

ments on the fresh-water Hydra, which had been discovered by 

LEsuwENnHOOoK in 1702, especially on its reproductive power, dis- 


GENERA oF THE NortH AMERICAN PaLArozorc Bryozoa. 409 


covered in the fresh waters near the Hague, a plant-like animal, 
growing in masses, from which proceeded crescent-shaped ten- 
tacles. The tentacles were the most striking feature of these 
animals, and from them Tremsuey gave the name to the animals of 
“ Polype 4 panache,” the Polyp with plumes. In the Philosophical 
Transactions for 1742 will be found a full account of this discov- 
ery, and in “ Mémoirs pour servir a |’ Histoire du genre de Polypes 
deau douce,” Leyden, 1744, he gives an accurate account of the 
anatomical details, which have been surpassed by few subsequent 
observers. He demonstrated an alimentary canal, consisting of 
cesophagus, stomach and intestine, and also the muscles. He also 
showed the relation between the animal and its cell, and proved 
that the latter was created by the former. He further described 
and fully understood the statoblast. Though recognizing the in_ 
testine, he failed to detect its termination. 

This species was subsequently found in England by Baxzr, 
who gave to it the name “ Bellflower animal” in “ Employment 
for the Microscope,” 1753. In this paper is first recorded the 
termination of the intestine. 

In the autumns of 1741 and 1742, Barnarp pe Jussieu and 
GuETTARD Visited different points on the coast of France for the 
purpose of studying the marine zoophytes. They had an oppor- 
tunity of observing several forms, which had not been seen by 
PrysonneE.te, notably Serturaria, Firustrra and Axcyontum, the 
last of which especially excited their admiration by the beauty 
of its tentacles which could be seen by the naked eye. Lamarck 
speaks very highly of Gortrarp’s labors, which seem to have 
been especially directed to fossil Polypes and Sponges. 

The result of the observations of Jussizrv was communicated to 
the Royal Academy of Sciences on the 14th of November, 1742, 
and was published in 1745. His observations were precise and 
were illustrated by excellent figures. He described four species as 
illustrating the most remarkable forms, viz.: Alcyoniwm digita- 
tum, Tubularia indivisa, Flustra foliacea and Cellepora pumicosa. 
In regard to the Szerrutarip# in the Mem. de |’Acad. Royal des 
Sciences, 1742, he says, “Il s’en presentoit ensuite quantité des 
celles qu’on appelle Corallines, les unes pierreuses dans lesquelles 
je ne remarquai rien, et les autres dont les tiges et les branches, et 

52 


pm) 


410 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


ce qui passoit pour feuilles, etoient d’une apparence membraneuse, 
dans lesquelles je decouvrais que ce qu’on y prenoit pour feuilles 
disposées alternativement, ou dans un sens opposé, n’etoit autre 
chose que de petits tuyaux contenant chacun un petite insecte.” 

The work of Trems.ey, Jussreu and Guerrarp convinced Reav- - 
Mur that the views of Prysonne:Le were in the main correct, 
and that he had been in error in combatting them. He now 
advocated the animality of corals (Memoires pour servir 4 lHis- 
toire des Insectes, Paris, 1742, tome xvi, Prefatio, pp. 68-80), but 
so deep seated was the belief in the vegetality of corals that 
his views made a very slight impression. Dr. Vitat1ano Donatr 
in a work entitled ‘‘ New discoveries relating to the History of 
Corals,” translated by Sracx and published in Phil. Trans., Vol. — 
XLVII, Feb. 7, 1750, gave a minute account of the coral and its 
inhabitant, but his terms were botanical and his opinions so 
‘ doubtful that he rather confirmed the advocates a the vegetable 
theory in their opinion. 

A few years afterward (Phil. Trans. 1757, abridge. x1, p. 83), he 
says: “| am now of the opinion that the coral is nothing less than 
a real animal with a great number of heads. I consider the 
polyps of the coral as the heads of the animal. This animal has 
a bone ramified in the shape of a shrub. This bone is covered 
with a kind of flesh, which is the flesh of the animal. My 
observations have discovered to me several analogies between 
the animals of a kind approaching to this. There are for 
instance Kwratopayta, which do not differ from coral, except 
that the bone or prop that forms part of the animal is testaceous 
in the coral and horny in Kwratopsyra” P&YsoNNELLE was 
- still living and in 1751 he sent to the Royal Society a treatise 
entitled ‘“ Traité du corail, contenant les nouvelles decouvertes, © 
qu’on a fait sur le corail, les pores, madrepores, eschares, lito- 
phitons, éponges et autres corps et productions, que le mer four- 
nit, etc., par le Sieur pz Peysonneie, M. D., correspondent de la 
Royal Acad. de Paris, etc., etc.” This manuscript was never 
published, though a review of it was given by Dr. Watson in 
the 47th volume of the Phil. Trans., published in 1752. This 
treatise was very lengthy and consists of about 400 quarto pages. 

In the same year, 1752, we find the following statement in 
answer to PsrysonneaLLe concerning the formation of corals, 


Genera or THE NortH AMERICAN Patarozoic Bryozoa. 411 


corallines, etc.: “And indeed it would seem to me much more 
difficult to conceive that so fine arrangement of parts, such 
masses as these bodies consist of, and such regular ramifications 
in some, and such well-contrived organs to serve for vegetation 
in others, should be the operation of little, poor, helpless, jelly- 
like animals, rather than the works of more sure vegetation, 
which carries the growth of the tallest and largest trees, with 
the same natural ease and influence as the minutest plant.” 
(Parsons.) 

Even Liyy&é could not be convinced of the purely animal 
nature of corals, but maintained that the stems and branches 
were of a purely vegetable nature, while the polyps were a sort of 
flowering which had been raised and perfected to an animal 
nature. 

The conversion from the belief of the vegetable to the animal 
nature of corals is due to the efforts of Joun Exuis, of London, 
more than to those of any other oneman. Et.is seems to have been 
ignorant of the labors of his predecessors, and to have imagined 
that his discoveries were original. In 1755 he published his 
work “ Essay on the Natural History of the Corallines,”’ which, 
from its fidelity of observations and its correct pictorial illustra- 
tions left but little room for doubt as to the true nature of corals. 
He also contended for the animality of Sponges, in which he was 
not only opposed by the naturalists of his time, but this theory 
was not universally accepted for more than one hundred years 
later. 

Lryx&é could not be convinced by the clear descriptions and 
figures of Exxis,and wrote to him, as follows: “ Zoophyta are con- 
structed very differently, living by a mere vegetable life, and are 
increased every year under their bark-like trees, as appears in the 
annual rings in a section of a trunk of Goreonta. They are, 
therefore, vegetables, with flowers like small animals, which you 
have most beautifully delineated. All submarine plants are 
nourished by pores and not by roots, as we learn from Fuci. 
As Zoophytes are, many of them, covered with a stony coat, the 
Creator has been pleased that they should receive nourishment 
by their naked flowers He has, therefore, furnished each with a 
pore, which we calla mouth. All living beings enjoy some motion. 
The Zoophytes mostly live in the perfectly undisturbed abyss of 


412 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


the ocean. They can not, therefore, partake of that motion which 
trees and herbs receive from the agitation of the air. Hence the 
Creator has granted them a nervous system, that they may spon- 
taneously move at pleasure. Their lower part becomes hardened 
and dead like the solid wood of a tree. The surface, under the 
bark, is furnished every year with a new living layer asin the | 
vegetable kingdom. Thus they grow and increase and may even 
be truly called vegetables, as having flowers, producing capsules, 
etc. Yet as they are endowed with sensation and voluntary 
motion, they must be called, as they are, animals; for animals 
differ from plants merely in having a nervous sentient system, 
with voluntary motion, neither are there any other limits between 
the two.” 

Notwithstanding the opposition of a few naturalists, the 
animality of corals was hereafter almost universally. admitted, 
more than one hundred and fifty years after its discovery by 
IMPERATO. 

In 1827, Professor Grant read before the American Society an 
account of the structure of FrLusrra, in which he describes its 
locomotive embryos. (New Philosophical Journal, Edinburgh, 
Vol. III, 1827) 

In the following year M. Aupourw and Mitne-Epwarps gave a 
very complete account of the anatomy of Fr.ustrra in which they 
called attention to their close resemblance to the Asctp1a and the 
bearing of this resemblance upon their systematic rank. 

They called attention to the fact that some of the polypes 
possessed an anal as well as an oral opening to the canal, and 
proposed to found a division of the polyps into classes, according 
to the form of the alimentary canal. He includes moreover 
sponges in this class. 

ExrKENBERG in his “Symbole Physice” published in 1831 
divided the polyps into two principal groups, AnTaozoa and 
Bryozoa, according as the alimentary canal had one or two 
aboral openings. Afterward, in 1834, he modified this division — 
by separating the Serturarp#£ and other Hydriform polyps, 
which he placed in a class called LimorpH#a. 

In 1830 Dr. Joun V. THompson, at that time stationed at Cork 
as deputy inspector-general of hospitals, made a series of observa- 
tions on the marine fauna of the coast. He examined the ani- 


Genera or THE NortH AMERICAN PaLartozorc Bryrozoa. 413 


mals of Bowerbankia imbricata, Valkeria cuscuta, V. pustulosa, 
Vesicularia spinosa and other allied forms. He also perceived 
their internal relation with the compound Ascrpra, and separat 
ing them from corals, gave to them the-name, Poryzoa. Being 
situated in a remote part of Ireland he was seemingly ignorant 
of the previous work of Exrenpera, Epwarps and Grant. 
EsRENBERG’s papers were printed from 1828 to 1¢31 (Symbol 
Physicee) and Tuompson’s in 1830. There is no date printed on 
the title page, but according to Atiman it is‘to be found on the 
paper wrapper in which the publication was originally stitched. 

It has been, and still: is a matter of dispute whether the term 
' Bryrozoa of Earenpera or Poryzoa of Tompson has priority. 
The name Bryozoa has been adopted by many English natural- 
ists, and seems to be growing in favor among them, while it is 
used by all the naturalists of the world, with the exception of 
those of England and her colonies, and the use of that term will 
' probably in time become universal. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Recent Forms. , 
Although I have endeavored to make this list as complete as 


possible with means at command, it is, in all probability, very 
imperfect. 


1599 Feranrx Imperato. Historia Naturale. Napoli. 

1672 Ferantre Imezeato. Historia Naturale, new ed. 

1703. Leeuwennocs. Phil. Trans. Royal Society of London. 
Account of discoveries in 1702. | 

1727 Prysonnette, Jean Anpvré. Memoir de I Acad. 

1742 Trempcrey, Apranam. Philosophical Trans. 

1742 pe Jusstzu, Bernarp. Memoir de |’Acad. Roy. des Sc. 
p. 292. , 

1742 Reaumor. Mémoirs pour servir 4 Vhistoire des insectes. 
Tome sixiéme. Quarto. Preface, from p. 68 to p. 80. 

1744 Trempiter. Mémoires pour servir a l’histoire d’un Genre 
de Polypes d’eau douce; Leyden. Mém. III. 

1746 Boxox. Berdttelse om Watten Polypen, i anledning af 
dem som dro fundne omkring. Stockholm. Acta 
Holm: Vit. 


41-4 


1753 
1754 


1754 


1758 
17Gl 
1761 
1766 
1768 


1769 


1773 


1774 


1776 
Lito 
1782 
1786 


1789 
L797 


1798 
1804 


1804 


Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Baxer. Employment for the Microscope. 

Euus, Joun. Essay toward a natural history of the 
corallines and other marine productions of the like 
kind, commonly found on the coasts of Great Britain 
and Ireland. | 

ScuarFER, J. Cur. Die Armpolypen in den siissen 
Wasser um Regensburg entdeckt und beschrieben. 
Regensburg, 1754. d 

Linyaus. Systema Nature, editio decima.. Holmiz. 

Roser. Insecten. Belustigungen, 1746-1761. 

Linnzvus. Fauna Sueccia. Stockholmiz. 


Patras. Elenchus Zodphytorum. Hagze-Comitum, 1766. | 


Patras. Descriptio Tubulariz fungose propre Volode 
mirum observate. Nov.Comm. Petr., XII, p. 565. 

LrrnpEert Bomuer. Bericht aangaande verscheiden zoon- 
derlinge Zee-Insecten. IV Acta Vliss. 


‘“Mouuuter. Vermium terrestium et fluviatilium Historia. 


Lips. 1773. 

Biumensacu. Von den Federbusch-polypen in den Got- 
tingeschen Gewissern. Gdottin. Mag. 

ErcoHorn. bBeitrige zur Naturgeschichte der kleinsten 
Wasserthiere in den Gewiissern und um Danzig. 

Briumenspacu. Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. Gottingen. 

ScumrrpeL. Icones plantarum. — 

Mutter. Animalcula Infusoria Fluviatilia et Marina: 
Haunie. 

Brueurere. Encyclopédie Methodique. 

LicatenstEin. Skrivter of Naturhistorie Selkabet, Kio- 
benhavn. 

Cuvier. Tableau é¢lémentaire de Vhistoire naturelle des 
Animaux. Paris. 

Vaucuer. Observations sur les Tubulaires d’eau douce. 
Bull. Soc. Philom. 

Bosc. Histoire Nat. des Vers; Bull. Soc. Philom. | 


1815-22 Lamarck. Histoire des Animaux sans Vertebre. 


1816 


1821 


Lamouroux. Histoire de Polypiers Coralligénes flexibles. — 


Caen. 
Lamovroux. Exposition Méthodique des genres de l’ordre 
des Polypiers. Paris. 


- tit aia aa 


Genera or THE Nortn AMERICAN PatArozorc Bryozoa. 415 


1824 Dxsronacouames. Encyclopédie Méthodique. Zoophytes. 

1826 Grant. New Phil. Journal. Edinburgh, December. 

1827 Grant. Observations on the structure and relations of the 
Flustre. Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, April 
and June, pp. 107-118, and July and Sep., pp. 337-342. 

1826-1829 Avpourin anp Gerorrroy St.-Hitarre. Zoologie de 
Egypte (faissant partie de la description de Egypte, 
2d ed.) Paris. ) 

1828 Avpouin nt Epwarps. Resumé des recherches sur les 
animaux sans vertebres, faites aux iles Chaussay. 
Annales des Sciences Naturelles. t. 15. 

1828 Mzryen. Naturgeschichte der Polypen. Isis. 

1828 Fremine. A History of British Animals, exhibiting their 
descriptive characters. Edinburgh. 

1828-1831 Eurenperc. Symbol Physics, seu icones et descrip- 
tiones animalium, etc. LBerol. 

1830 TxHompsoy. Zoological Researches and _ Lllustrations. 
Memoir 5. Cork. 

1830 Meryrn. Nachtriigliche Bemerkungen zur Naturg. der 
Polypen des stissen Wassers. Isis. 

1830-33 Quvoy et Gaimarp. Zoologie des Voyage de Astro- 
labe. Paris. 

1833 Enrenpere. Beitrag zur Erkenntniss grosser Organisation 
in kleinsten Raume. (Cyophonaret es compressus.) 

1834 Datystt. On the propagation of certain Scottish 
Zoophytes. Rept. British Ass’n. 

1884 De Buainvirre. Manuel d’Actinologie et de Zoophytol- 
ogie. Paris. 

1834 Leister. Tubular and cellular Polypi. Royal Society. 

1835 Domorrigr. Recherches sur |’ Anatomie et la Physiologie 
des Polypiers composés d’eau douce. Bull. Acad. 
Bruxelles. 

1836 Mitnre-Enowarps. Recherches Anatomiques, Physio- 
logiques, et Zoologiques sur les Eschares. Annales des 
Sciences Naturelles, July. ; 

1837 Gervais. Recherches sur les polypes etc., Ann. Sci. Nat. 
2d Series, VII. | 


416 


1837 


1837 
1837 


1838 
1859 


1840 


1841 


1841 


1843 


1843 
1842 


1844 


1844 


1845 
1845 


1845 


18418 


Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Turpin. Ktudes microscopique de la Cristatella mucedo- 
Comptes rend. de l’Acad. Sci. Paris, Jan., and Ann. 
Ann. Sci. Nat., March. 

Farr. On the structure of the Ciliobranchiate Polypi. 
Philosophical Transactions. 

Teate. On Alcyonella stagnarum. Trans. Phil. Society. 
Leeds. 

Jounston. History of British Zoophytes. 

D’Orsieny. Voyage dans l’Amerique meridionale, vol. V, 
pt. IV. 

Norpmann. Voyage Demidoff dans la Russie et la Crimée 
(Tendra zostericola). 

Ccstr. Propositions sur l’organisation des polypes fluvi- 
atiles. Comptes rendus. 

Hassat. Description of two new Irish LOoBNi Annals 
and Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. VII. 

Dirrenpach. Travels in New Zealand, 2 vols. Ann. and 
and Mag. Nat. Hist... Series I, vol. XII; pier 

Attman. On the muscular system of Paludicella and 
other Ascidian Zoophytes of Fresh Water. Proc. Royal 
Irish Acad. 

Doumortier and Van Benepen. Histoire Naturelle des - 
polypes composés d’eau douce. Nouveaux Mémoires de 
Acad. Roy. de Bruxelles, t. XVI. 

Coucn. A Cornish Fauna. Announced in Ann. and Mag. 
Nat. Hist., vol. X. 

Attuann. Synopsis of the genera and species of Zoo- 
phytes inhabiting the fresh waters of Ireland. Ann. 

‘ and Mag. Nat. Hist. 

Van Benepen. Memoir Acad. Belgique, vol. XVII, Halo-— 
dactylus. 

Van Benepen. Memoir Acad. Belgique, vol. XIX, Pedi- 
cellina. 

Rei and Caanpos. Anat. and Physiol. observations on 
some Zoophytes. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. 
XVE- 

Autman. On the structures of Cristatella mucedo, 
Reports of British Association. 


GrneRA or THE NortH AmmpRICAN PALAEOzoIG Bryozoa. 417 


1847 Datysety. Rare and Remarkable Animals of Scotland, 
represented from living subjects. London, 1847-8. 
1848 Domortrer and Van Benzpen. Histoire Naturelle des 
Polypes composés d’eau douce, 2e Partie. Mem. Acad. 
Roy. Bruxelles. 
1849 Ariman. On the Nervous System and certain other points 
| in the Anatomy of the Bryozoa. Reports of the British 
Association, 1849. | 
1850 Hancock. The Anatomy of Fresh Water Bryozoa. Ann. 
and Mag. Nat.. Hist., March. 
1850 Atiman. The Natural History of the genus Alcyonella. 
Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. 
1851 Boscn. Beobacht. tiber Anat. und Entw. wirbelloser 
Thiere. | mat 
1851 Letpy. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. Vol. V. 
1852 Ariman. On the Homology of the organs of the Tunicata 
. and Polyzoa. | 
1852-4 Busx. Catalogue of the marine species of Polyzoa in 
the British museum. . 
1853 Gossr. A Naturalist’s Rambles on the Devonshire coast. 
London. 
1851 Hinoxs. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. From this date 
Hincks had articles in many numbers of this publi- 
cation. 
1856 Axrrman. A monograph of fresh-water Polyzoa. 
1857 Hinoxs. Quart. Jour. Micro. Sci., Vol. V. 
- 1858 Reprern. Quart. Jour. Micro. Sci. London. 
1360 Mucter. Archives fiir Anatomie, 1860. On the nervous 
system, etc., of Bryozoa. 
1861 Hrvoxs. Quarterly Journal Micro. Sci., pp. 278-281. 
1863 Ssirr. Bidrag till Kannedomen, etc., dans Upsala univers. 
arskrift. | 
1863 CraparEpE. JBeobacht. tiber Anat und Entw. wirbell. 
Thiere, 1863. 
1863 Sars. Beskriveler over nogle norske Polyzoer. 
1865 Sars. Zoologie k Riese i Liéfoten og Finnmarken; N. 
Magazin fur Natur. Kab., Vol. V. 
1865 Smirr. Om Hafs-bryozoernas uty. och fetkroppar: Ofver 
sigtaf k. Vet. Akad Forhandl. 
53 


418 


Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


1866-8 Smirr. Kritisk Forteckning 6fver Skandinaviens Hafs- 


1863 


1867 
1867 


1867 


1860 


1869 
1869 


1869 


1870 


eT 


1871 
1871 
1872 


1872 
1873 


1873 


bryoz. ofversigt k. Vetensk. Akad. Forhandl., Vol. 
XXII, pp. 115-142, 1866; Vol. XXIII, pp. 395-533, 
1867; Vol. XXIV, pp. 279-429, 1868. Bihang, pp. 
3-230, Vol. XXVIII, pp. 1115-1134. . 

Kowatsky. Beitriige sur Anatomie und Entwickelungs- 
geschichte des Loxosoma neapolitanum. Mem. de 
Acad. de St. Petersbourg. : 

Kererstrin. Bericht tiber die Fortschritte der Anatomie 
und Physiologie. Jahrbuch, 1866. 

Smitr. Bryozoa marina in regionibus arcticis et borealibus 
viventia. 

Apriat Heiter. Die Bryozoen des Adriatischen Meeres, 
Verhandl. d.k. k. Zool-bot. Gesellsch. Wien, Vol. 
XVII, pp. 77-186. 

Mertscunixorr. Nachrichten der Gottingen Universitat. 
1869. | 

Nirscue. Zeitschrift fiir wiss. Zool. 

Reicuerr. Ueber Zoobotryon pellucidus Abh. d. Konigl. 
Akad. der Wissenschaften. “Berlin. 

ScHNEIDER. Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte und system- 
atischen Stellung der Bryozoen, und Gephyreen. eT 
fiir mikro. Anat. 

Ursanin. Zur Anat. und Entw. des Pedicellina, No. I 
Bull. de la Soc. Imper. des Nat. de Moscow. 

Smirt. Floridan Bryozoa, collected by Count L. F. De 
Pourtales. K. Svensk. wenanste Akad. Handl. Vol. X, . 
pt. 1, No. 1a: 

Me Rte Jonns. The Animal Kingdom. Article Poly- 
zoa, p. 501-517. 

Mertscuntkorr. Bull. de ?Acad. de Saint Petersbanee 
DOV | 

Attman. On the structure of Cyphonantes. Rept. 
British Ass’n. 

Nitscuz. Zeitschrift fiir wiss. Zool. Vol. XIII, fase. 4. 

Hinczs. Quarterly Jour. Micro. Sci., No. XLIX. p. 16. 
“Contributions to the history of Polyzoa.” 

Hurron. Catalogue of the marine mollusca of New 
Zealand, with diagnosis of the species. Wellington. 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALArEozo1c Bryozoa. 419 


1873 Morsr. On the systematic position of the Brachiopoda. 
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. XV. 

1874 Sarensxy. Zeitschrift fiir wiss. Zool. Vol. X XV, fase. 2. 

1874 Lanxester. Quart. Jour. Micro.Science. Vol. XIV,n.s. 


1875 O.Scumiptr. Arch. fiir wiss. Zool. Vol. XXIV, fase. 3. 

1875 Oscar Sonmipt. Die Gattung Loxosoma Arkiv. fur mikr. 
Anatomie. : 

1875 Nrrscnz. Zeitschrift fiir wiss. Zool. Vol. XXIV, fasc. 3. 

1875 Reprtacuorr. Zeitschrift fiir wiss. Zool. Vol. XXV, fasc. 2. — 

1676 Reriacnorr. Zeitschrift ftir wiss. Zool. Vol. XXVI, 
fase. 2. 

1876 Esrers. Hypophorella expansa. Abhandl. d. Konig. 
Gesellsch. Gottingen. XXI. 

1877 Hurron. Corrections and additions to the list of Polyzoa 
in the catalogue of the marine mollusca of New Zealand. 
Trans. and Proc. of N. Z. Institute. Vol. TX. 

1877 Joxuer. Bryozoaires des cdtes de France. Arch. de 
zool. experim. Vol. VI. 

1877 Barrots, Jores. Mémoire sur l’embryologie des Bryo- 
zoaires. 

1877 Dantetsen et Koren. Fauna littoralis Norwegia, pt. III. - 

1878 Huxiny. Anatomy of Invertebrate Animals, pp. 53, 56, 
389, 572, 576. 

1880 Hinoxs. History of British Marine Mollusca. 

1880 Barrors. Annales des Science Naturelles. Vol. IX. 

1880 Batrour. Comparative Embryology. London, Vol. I, 
p. 242. 

1880 Haswetr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales. Vol. V, 

--. pt. 1, p. 33, pls. I-III. 

1€80 Maprxson. Jour. Micro. Soc., Victoria. Vol. I. 

1881 GoxpstErm. Proc. Royal Soc., Victoria. June. 

1881 Maceritivary. New species of Bryozoa from the Marin 
Islands. Proc. Royal Soc., Victoria. June. 

1881 Bosx. Kinetoskias (Maresia) cyathus, details of. Quart. 
Jour. Micro. Soc. ; 

1881 Busx. On the use to be made of the chitinous organs in 
the Cheilostomata in the diagnosis of species. Jour 
Linn. Society. London. 

1881 Honoxs. Quart. Jour. Micro. Science, n.s., Vol. X XI. 


430 _ Revort or THE State GEoLogist. 


1883 Maceituvary. Proc. Royal Soc. of Victoria, Aug. 9. 

1883 Catpwett. Proc. Royal Society. 

1884 Lanxester. Quart. Jour. Micro. Sc. 

1884-6 Busx. Report on the Polyzoa collected by H. M. §. 
Challenger during the years 1873, 1874. a 

1885 Harmer. On Loxosoma. Quart. Jour. Micro. Sc., April. 

1885 Lanxxster. Encyclopedia Britannica, article Polyzoa. 


Tar ‘Onn 


The typical Bryozoan, (fig. 1) is composed of a sac, with walls 
ormed of an inner and outer layer, the endocyst, Plate I, fig. 1, 


/ 


SISO ERAS DOA 1 ASNT 


Fic. 1. Diagram showing the structure of a single polypide of a Bryozoan (after Busk): ¢, Ten- 
tacles; m, Mouth; @w, (sophagus; s, Stomach; 7, Intestine; a, Anus: z, Funiculus; a, Testis; 
0, Ovary; r, Retractor muscles; g, Nerve ganglion; v, Tentacular sheath; d, Perigastric space ; 
¢, Ectocyst; or, Aperture of the zocecium (after BUSK). 


u, and the ectocyst, fig. 1, ¢, and Pl. A, fig. 1, v. The outer 
layer is usually chitinous or calcareous, though in some forms 
it is gelatinous and sometimes entirely wanting, though this is 


*In writing this paper on the recent BRyozoA I make no claim to original investigation, but have 
placed the results of the study of the literature of the subject in such a form that the student can 
readily obtain a clear idea of the morphology of these animals, as at present known. 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALAEOZzOIO Bryozoa. 421 


of very rare occurrence. Within this sac is suspended the alli- 
mentary canal, consisting of cesophagus, stomach and the intestine 
bent upon itself so that the anus is in close proximity to the 
mouth, as shown in fig. 1 and in the figures on Plates A and B. 
Around the mouth is a fringe of ciliated tentacles, which serve 
as respiratory organs and as a means of conveying food. In all 
the marine species and in the fresh-water genus Pa.upiceua, 
the tentacles are arranged in a circle around the mouth, but in 
the other fresh-water genera they are bilateral, the arrangement 
being in the form of a horseshoe, from which fact this group of 
Bryozoa is called Hippocrepian. 

The mouth and tentacles are protruded from and contracted into 
the cell by the action of occlusor and retractor muscles. From the 
fundus of the stomach to the base of the cell is a cord known as 
thefuniculus. This cord extends through the cell, forming a means 
of communication with the other cells composing the colony. 
_ This cord frequently gives off filaments which extend through 
the walls of the cell, being continuous with similar filaments from 
adjacent cells (Plate A, fig. 17). The testis is formed on the funi- 
culus, the ovaries being situated on the endocyst much nearer 
the mouth of the cell (fig. 1, 0, and plate A, figs. 1, 2). The 
space between the alimentary canal and wall of the cell is 
filled with a perigastric fluid. There is a single nerve ganglion, 
on the side of the cesophagus, near the mouth (fig. 1, g), from 
which filaments proceed in different directions, but principally to 
the lophophore and tentacular crown. In some forms, as in 
Bowerbankia densa, the ectocyst is chitinous and beautifully 
transparent, so that all the parts of the animal can be 
distinguished through it. In most of the forms the ectocyst 
is calcareous’ and opaque. Some portions of the cell are fre- 
quently more fragile than others. These are usually absent in 
the fossil stage, the more calcareous portions alone remaining 
and giving a very false impression as to the original form of the 
cell. Some species which when living had an ampullate or cucul- 
late cell, with opercula, appear in a fossil state as having poly- 
gonal cells, as in a thin section of a Favosite. This condition may 
also be observed in some of the forms adhering to shells. In the 
Mempranipora, a large group of incrusting Bryozoa, the cells 
are surrounded by a well-marked and elevated border. The 


429 ZPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


space within this border is called the area, and is frequently 
entirely occupied by a chitinous membrane, in which is the cell- 
mouth. In the fossil state the membrane has disappeared, the 
elevated border alone remaining, the whole “ area” appearing as 
the mouth of the cell. The loss of all chitinous portions of the 
cell and chitinous appendages will, of course, greatly change its 
appearance, making it much more difficult to classify fossil than 
recent forms ‘The ectocyst is not, as has often been supposed, a 
calcareous exudation from the surface of the animal, but is 
‘deposited in a tegumentary membrane, forming not a mere cal- 
careous crust, but an integral portion of the animal itself, which, 
like the cartilage of higher animals, hardens by the deposition of 
calcareous matter, but still is the seat of nutritive movement. 

Mitye—Eowarp has made a number of experiments on the 
cell walls of Escuarip#, and the results are here given in 
translation. In the Ann. des Sciences Nat. Zool., Vol. I, 
pp. 25-31, he says: “If the stony cells of the Escharide 
were formed by the exudation of a calcareous matter which 
molded itself on the surface of the secreting membrane, it is 
evident that the first layer thus formed must be the external 
one, and that the addition of new quantities of this earthy mat- 
ter could only augment the thickness of the parietes of the cell 
and modify the disposition of its interior cavity, without at all 
changing the exterior configuration of the first formed layer; 
for here the solid cell completely envelops the animal and is not 
overlapped by the secreting organ, as in the Mollusca gasteropoda, 
whose shell changes its form with age, because the deposit of 
new matter taking place on the border of the part already con- 
solidated continually lengthens it and is molded on the soft 
parts whose configuration is liable to change. 

“To throw some light on the mode of formation and on ne 
nature of the cells of the Eschares, it becomes, consequently, 
interesting to examine these cells at different ages and to see if 
their exterior form changed or remained always the same. This ~ 
study, indispensable for the anatomical and physiological history 
of these little beings, may also lead to a knowledge useful to 
zoology and geology, for the determination of the species, recent 
and fossil, rests principally on the characters furnished by these 
cells. And we are still ignorant whether or not they can be 
modified in the progress of age. 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALAEOZzOIO Bryozoa. 423 


“This examination can be made more easily than one might at 
first imagine; for neither the observation of the same individual, 
at different stages of its development, nor the collection of a 
series of specimens so as to represent all the phases through 
which these little creatures pass successively, is required. 
Indeed, since these polyps spring from each other, and do not 
separate from their parents, each polypidom must present a long. 
series of generations enchained to each other, and in each of 
these series the relative age of living individuals must be indi- 
cated by the place they occupy. To resolve the question which 
we have put, it is sufficient, therefore, to study comparatively the 
cells situated near the base of the polypidom, in its middle, in its 
young branches, and toward the extremity of the latter; for we 
are certain that it is not only in this last place that living polyps 
are found, as some authors affirm, but that they exist over almost 
the entire extent of the polypidom. 

“ After examining in this manner, with a sufficient magnifying 
power, the cells of the Lschara cervicornis, I am quite convinced 
that the mode of development of these stony cells is not that 
which is usually admitted. 

“Indeed, I have seen that not only does the general conforma- 
tion of the cells change with age, but also that these changes 
operate in a great measure on the exterior surface — that is to 
say, on that side of their parietes, which, in the hypothesis of 
their formation by layers, must exist from the first, and once 
consolidated, ought to change no more, unless from.exterior and 
accidental frictions. 

“In the young cells whose partitions, although thin, have © 
already acquired a stony consistency, the exterior surface is quite 
convex, and the margin of their apertures just out so they are 
easily distinguished ; but by the progress of age their appear- 
ance changes; their free surface rises so as to efface the deep 
depressions which marked originally their respective limits, and 
to raise to the level of the surface the border of the openings. 
The result of this is that the cells cease to be distinct, or even 
distinguishable without, and,that the polypidom seems to be 
formed of a stony continuous mass, in the substance of which are 
excavated certain holes slightly widened interiorly, and disposed 
in quincunx. 


4.24. Rxrprort oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


“ But differences of this nature can not be formed by the sim- 
ple juxtaposition of new calcareous layers under those primi- 
tively formed, for the soft parts of the animal—the only ones 
which can be the seat of a secretion of this calcareous matter — 
do not extend over the surface which is thus modified, and the 
position of the cells thus immersed in the apparently common 
mass of the polypidom is often such that we can not attribute 
their change of form to any operation or friction of foreign 
bodies. | 

“Tt appears evident to us that these facts indicate the presence 
of life in the substance which composes the parietes of these 
" cells and can only be explained by the existence of a nutritive 
movement, like to that which in the configuration of bones effects 
analogous modifications. | 

“To know better the nature of these cells, I submitted to the 
action of nitric acid diluted with water a part of a polypidom 
recently taken from the sea. A brisk effervescence was visible 
immediately, and in some minutes the cells becaine flexible and 
separated from one another. Before treating them thus no dis- 
tinct membrane was seen on the internal wall of these cells, and 
when the nitric acid had destroyed all the calcareous carbonate | 
on which their rigidity depended these same parietes still existed 
and had not changed their form much, only they. were formed 
now of asoft and thick membrane constituting a bag, in the 
interior of which we perceived the digestive apparatus of the 
polype. The opening of this bag was no longer truncated, as it 
appeared when the texture of the membrane was thickened by 
‘the stony deposit from which we had just freed it, but the 
- membrane was continued uninterruptedly with the tentacular 
sheath. ! ; 

‘“‘ We see, then, that in the Eschares, the cell in which it is said 
the polyp retires as into a shell, is a component part of the 
animal itself, in which it conceal!s itself, if we may use the com- 
parison, as the hedgehog enters into the thorny skin of his back. 
It is not a calcareous crust which is molded on the surface of its © 
body, but a portion of the general tegumental membrane of the 
skin of the polyp, which by a molecular deposit of earthy mat- 
ter in the meshes of its tissue, ossifies as the cartilages of superior 
animals ossify, without ceasing to be the seat of a nutritive 
movement. 


GENERA OF THE Nortu AMERICAN PaLArozoic Bryrozoa. 425 


. “ We see, also, that that which is considered generally as being 
the body of these polyps, constitute in reality only a small por- 
tion of it, and consists of little but the digestive, and probably 
breathing organs, of these little animals. 

“The tegumental bag, freed from its carbonate of lime, seems 
tome formed of a tomentose membrane covered, particularly 
without, with a multitude of cylindrical filaments, disposed per- 
pendicularly to the surface, and pressed close to one another. It 
is in the space left between these fibers that the calcareous mat- 
ter appears to be principally deposited, for if we examine, with 
the microscope, a transverse cut of the polypidom in its natural 
state, we distinguish in it an analogous conformation, the exter- 
nal wall of the cells being not composed of layers, but rather of 
cylinders or irregular prisms placed perpendicularly to its 
surface. — 

“ Asto the operculum, which serves to shut the entrance of the 
tegumental cell of the “scharva, when the animal is wholly con- 
cealed in it, it is but a labial fold of that which we may call the 
skin of the polyp, and of which the projecting margin has 
acquired a horny consistence, whilst that portion continuous with 
the general envelope preserves sufficient softness to remain 
flexible, and to obey the action of the muscles whose tendons are 
inserted in its thickness. 7 

“The changes which we have indicated above in the external 
formation of the cells of the Eschares are not the only ones 
effected by the progress of age in the stony integuments of these 
zoophytes. The form of their opening is modified considerably, 
as may be seen by the figures which accompany this memoir; the 
sinus or emargination situated under the operculum disappears by 
degrees, and their interior cavity becomes filled up so as not to 
occupy more than about the quarter of their original diameter. 
This thickening changes even a little the general appearance of 
the polypidom ; for as it is more considerable in the cells situated 
farthest from the extremities of the branches, it results that 
these, at first almost flat, become more and more cylindrical. 
Lastly, it is not without surprise that we have seen these same 
cells when they arrived at extreme old age, lose altogether the 
opening from which the polyp extended its tentacula. In fact, 
the margins of this opening, swelling more and more inwardly, 

54 


425 . Rrport oF tHE State GEOLOGIST. 


come at last to touch and to close, so that no trace of its existence 
is left; but the cell, now a shut cavity, still exists toward the © 
axis of the polypidom. ; 

“Thus, then, the last external mark of the individual existence 
of these collected polyps disappears before that life is extinct in 
the interior, and the most remarkable character of the polypidom 
is lost without hope of recovery. 

“Reflecting on the fact we have just noticed, we are naturally 
led to ask how the nourishment necessary for aa support of the 
secretions on which the progress of consolidation depends, can 
continue when the cell containing the digestive apparatus of the 
animal is shut up in this manner. Is it from its neighbors that 
it receives its nutritive matters, or can it continue to absorb them 
directly from without through these stony integuments? The 
nature of this solid shell seems at first sight to oppose great 
obstacles to this imbibition, particularly to that which would 
take place by the free surface of the polypidom, but an experi- 
ment which is, so to speak, the counterpart of that which has 
been already detailed, shows that it is otherwise. 

“ On boiling a fragment of the solid polypidom of an Esonara 
in a solution of caustic potash, I have extracted the major part 
of the substance which composes the organized part of its tissue, 
and I have then seen that the appearance of the polypidom is 
considerably changed. The external parietes of the cells had 
become of an almost spongy texture, and its surface, from 
being simply granular, presented a great number of very distinct 
pores, which were before concealed by the soft parts with which 
they were filled. 

“We may understand, then, that the organized tissue of the old 
polyps finding itself without covering in different points of the 
external surface of the cells, the absorption may continue to be 
effected directly from without, although the opening by which 
the nutritive matters penetrate usually into the digestive cavity 
is obstructed and obliterated.” (From Johnston’s History of 
British Zoophytes.) 

Tae OPERCULA. 

Nearly all the forms in the sub-order CaEILostomata are sup- 
plied with a chitinous organ for the purpose of closing the mouth 
of the cell when the animal is retracted. In the fossil Croxnosto- 


Genera or Tue Nortu American Patarnozoric Bryozoa. 427 


MATA many forms possess a calcareous plate whose purpose was 
undoubtedly the same. Fig. 2 illustrates several variations in 
this organ from the recent cells. 


Fie. 2. 


In the recent cells the opercula are sometimes composed of a 
continuous chitinous substance, but generally it is composed of a 
chitinous frame supporting a membrane; in addition there are 
sometimes lateral rods and occasionally a complicated frame 
work. Sometimes the chitinous frame is continuous all around ; 
at other times the lower border is membranous and is continuous 
with the chitinous ectocyst of the cell. In other forms the oper- 
cula are calcified and are preserved in many fossil forms, as in 
FenEsTELLa, Cattopora, Fistutipora, etc. Usually the opercula 
are somewhat convex, and concentrically striated; sometimes 
minutely granulose; at other times, as in Callopora elegantula, 
small ridges radiate from the central portion to the margin, hay- 
ing a resemblance on a superficial examination, to septa or project- 
ing spinules. Sometimes there is a central perforation, at other 
times there is a central node or projection. 

The mode in which the opercula are articulated to the cell 
varies considerably ; when the cells are calcified they are directly 
attached to the sides of the orifice, usually near the lower border, 
sometimes above. The articulation is effected by an elastic 
fibrous ligament, which is generally inserted in a notch on each 
side of the opercula, but sometimes it is attached to projections 
which correspond to notches in the margin of the cell. 

The opening and closing of the opercula is effected by two 
pairs of muscles, the occlusor and retractor, which are variously 
inserted in the different forms of Bryozoa. 

The opercula are constant in form in the same species, as are 
also the avicularia, and form the most reliable means for the 
identification of species in recent forms. Of course in fossil 
forms, where the opercula are seldom preserved, such a means of 
identification is impossible. 


428 Report ot tHe Stare Geroroaist. 


The form in recent species varies, but they are all more or less 
circular or semicircular in outline. The lower border is straight, 
sinuate or concave, forming a segment of a smaller circle than 
the upper border, or produced in the middle into a peduncular 
process, which usually, but not always, corresponds to a notch in 
the margin of the cell. 


AVICULARIA AND VIBRACULA. ~~ 


The chitinous organs called avicularia were first observed by 
Extts in a species to which he gave the name “ bird’s head coralline,” 
and it is from their resemblance to the beak of a bird that they 
take their name. They are supposed to be modifications of the 


Fies. 3-5. Illustrating immersed avicularia. 


Fieé. 3. Cellepora Honoluluensis. 
Fie. 4. Cellepora vagans. 
Fie. 5. An enlargement of the mandible of the latter (after BusxK). 


cell proper. There are three distinct forms, the simplest of 
which is in the rudimentary form of a dwarfed cell, with an 
enlarged operculum, called the mandible (figs. 3, 4, 5), and is 
known as the immersed form. The sessile forms (figs. 6’, 7, 8), 
are those which are situated on the cell walls and have a small 
chamber and mandible. The pedunculate forms, which are situ- - 
ated at the extremity of a movable stalk, which is frequently 
jointed, and which is in almost incessant motion (figs. 6” and 9). 
These avicularia have a very close resemblance to a bird’s head. 
All the forms may be said to consist of three parts, the chamber, 
the beak and the mandible. In the chamber are occlusor and 
retractor muscles, by means of which the mandible keeps up a 
constant flapping motion. The different parts and the muscles 
are illustrated in figs. 9, 10, enlargements of sessile avicularia. 


Genera or THE Norto AMERICAN Patanozoic Bryozoa. 429 


In the Report on the Bryozoa of the Challenger expedition, 
Busx arranges the avicularia as follows: 


As to form: 
a. Pedunculate and usually articulate. 
b. Sessile. 
c. Immersed. 
As to function : 
a. Prehensile — when the mandible, beak and muscles are 
adapted for prehensile purposes. 
b. Retentive— when the mandible is thin, membranous, 
and adapted to serve merely a as a lid for the cup or receptacle. 
As to position : 
a. Vicarious — when they represent or replace an ordinary 
zocecium. 
b. Adventitious — when either attached to some point or 
other of the zocecium or interspersed among the zocecia. 
The mandibles exhibit a great variety of form, some of which 
are shown in figure 12. The prehensile forms are semicircular, 


Fia. 6’, Sessile avicularia of Scrupocellaria scruposa. a, Mandible; b, Beak; c, Chamber of avi- 
cularium; m, Muscles ; p, Peduncle. 
f& Fie. 6/’. Pedunculate avicularium, ideal figure. 

Fie. 6’. Three cells, showing vibracula. 


Fie. 7. Cell of Eschara sulcata, with sessile avicularia tation HINCKS and Busk), 


430 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


triangular, elongate or sword shaped. They are formed of a 
strong chitinous frame and base, by the extremities of which the 
mandible is articulated to the cup. _The space between the frame 
is occupied by a membrane, nearly always with a foramen, above 
which the occlusor muscles are inserted. These are usually two 
in number. The form of the retentive mandible is usually semi- 
circular or spatulate. They are generally simple, but sometimes 
bifid or trifid. They are without the continuous chitinous frames 
of the prehensile mandibles, and consist of a membrane sup- 
ported only by the base, or by a frame at the sides extending 
only a short distance from the base; the’foramen is generally 
absent, and the occlusor muscles are much weaker than in 
the other variety. The purpose of the avicularia is not - 
known. By some it is thought that they procure food, 
and it is a favorite mode of illustration to picture an avicu- 


Fie. 8. Menipea flagellifera. a, Sessile avicularia; v, Vibracula; p, Peristome; o, Opercula. 
Fic, 9. Bugula bicornis, showing two kinds of pedunculate avicularia, the larger one with the 
digitiform process (after BUsK). 


GENERA OF THE Nortu AMERICAN PALAEozoIc Bryrozoa. 431 


larium with a captive worm, longer than the polyp cell; of 
course the avicularia can not convey food to the mouth, and the 
animal is incapable of swallowing any but the most minute 
particles. Any capture by an avicularium is clearly accidental, 
- caused by the mandible shutting as the particle floated beneath 
it, and the constant flapping of the mandible would tend to 
create a current away from it. According to other authors its 
functions are purely defensive. ‘“‘They may either arrest or 
scare away unwelcome visitors. Their vigorous movement and 
the snapping of their formidable jaws may have a wholesome or 
deterrent effect on loafing annelids or other vagrants, while the 
occasional capture of one of them may help still further to pro- 
tect the colony from dangerous intrusion.” (Hrnoxs.) But the 
avicularia occur only on the Caxtcosromara, and as other forms 
are without them, it shows that they are unnecessary as weapons 
of defense. 


Figs. 10,11. Two views of a pedunculate avicularia of Bicellaria pectogemma, showing occlusor 
and retractor muscles (after Busk). F 


The vibracula consist of long slender setz or bristles thickened 
near the base (figs. 6” and 8,v). They are divided by Busx into 
two kinds, as follows: 


439 Rerort oF THE State Groroaist. 


Simple — consisting of a basal cup without a beak, to which 
the flagellum or seta is articulated, usually by a Re joint, 
admitting of motion in only one nae 

Compound — in which the seta is continuous with or articu- 
lated to a basal mandible, and the cup or receptacle has a more 
or less distinct beak. 

The use of these appendages is not known. Busx says: “These 
whip-like appendages serve as defensive and cleansing organs, and 
may be observed in almost constant motion, sweeping slowly and 
carefully over the surface of the colony and removing whatever 
might be detrimental,” but as is the case with avicularia, only a 
portion of the Bryoz»a are furnished with these appendages. 


Fic. 12. Showing various forms of mandibles (after BUSK). 


The two kinds of appendages are frequently coexistent on the 
same colony, as shown in figure 8, and surely it is not neces- 


GENERA OF THE NortH AmERICAN Patarozorc Bryozoa. 433 


sary that some species need a double means of defense, while 
other species equally fragile are destitute of any. 

The compound forms of vibracula may develop into an avicu- 
laria, according to H1ncxs who, in The Annals and Magazine of 
Natural History, 1*81, cites the case of the nearly ubiquitous 
species Microporella ciliata. Fig. 13, a, b, c, d, shows the transi- 
tion from avicularia to vibracula; a@ shows a cell with a sessile 
avicularium of the ordinary type; in 4 the mandible is prolonged 
into a slender spine, in other respects resembling a; in c the man- 
dible has entirely lost its lid-like character, and is prolonged into 
a long, slender process, tapering to a point, and analogous toa 
vibraculum. The beak has also undergone a slight modification, 
recalling the vibracular cell which supports the movable seta. 
In d@ another modification is seen; the mandible is prolonged into 
a narrow spine, and on each side of it there is a membranous 
expansion, forming a flapper. 


Fic. 18. Microporella ciliata; a, b, c, d, showing modifications of a sessile avicularium (after HINCKS). 


In the fossil state the obverse or noncelluliferous face of Fenes- 
telloid forms is apparently a solid calcareous layer ; but in a thin 
transparent section it is seen to be penetrated by numerous 
minute tubuli at right angles to the surface. In a decorticated 
specimen of the same family, the longitudinal structure is appar- 
ently composed of numerous cylindrical fibers. In a cross-section 
these have the appearazice of tubuli. Many of the cells, both in 

55 


434 Report or tur State GEOLOGIST. 


a recent and fossil state, are ornamented with ridges, granules, 
nodes or spines; the latter frequently hollow. In the course of 
. growth, as illustrated by fig. 14, as layer after layer is added, 


Fic. 14. An enlarged section of FENESTELLA, showing minute tubuli and large pores. 


these hollow nodes, as seen in a transparent section, assume the 
appearance of tubuli. These have been likened by some authors 
to the “Acanthopores” of the MonricuLtrorip2; but I think that 
in most cases too much importance has been given to them, and 
that in reality they are only ornamentations. The deposit of cal- 
careous matter continues after the animals in the immediate 
vicinity are dead, and all ornamentations of the surface are 
obliterated, it presenting a uniformly smooth appearance. The 
difference in appearance between the younger and more aged 
portions of a Fenestelloid frond, and this applies to other forms 
also, is often so great that seen in different fragments they would 
be considered as belonging to two species. In the noncellulifer- 
ous face of some Fenestelloid forms there are frequent, small, 
circular pores with raised margins or peristomes, and in some 
forms, as FenestTRapora and Isorrypa, there are more conspicu- 
ous apertures, frequently larger than the cell apertures. In 
Frnestrapora the ridge (carina) dividing the two ranges of cells. 
is also poriferous. The purpose of these pores have not been sat- 
isfactorily accounted for. 

It has been suggested by Prof. Nicnotson that the larger pores 
may have been the bases of avicularia; if that explanation 
should be accepted the smaller pores might be considered as 


= 


GrneRA or THE Nortu AmeERICAN Patarozoic Bryozoa. 435 


bases of vibracula or of the smaller avicularia. In support of 
his theory Prof. Nicnoxson gives the following figures : 


Z 
? 
; 
ol 


— 
ae 
in 


ARG 


vi 


ww 


== 
a 


is oy 


a. 3 
mee wit Sy 


“+ 


nv 
x 


< 
he 


Fig. 15. a, A transverse section of a recent species of RETEPORA, taken parallel to the noncellu 
liferous surface of the frond, enlarged ; showing the thickened tubes p, to which the avicularia were 
attached; b, A section of Cosciniwm (Coscinotrypa) cribriformis, from the Devonian rocks of Canada, 
showing similar thickened tubes; c, A section of Rhombopora (Ceriopora) Hamiltonensis, showing 
similar tubes (after NICHOLSON). : 


The following discussion is from Hrycxs’ “ British Marine Poly- 
zoa, Vol. I. Introduction, pp. ]xiv—lxxxiii, inc., 1880.” 


“ MopIFiGATIONS OF THE ZocmoraAL TYPE. 


“The structural type of which the zocecium is the most famil- 
iar representative, exhibits a number of modifications amongst 
the marine Potyz>a. Of these the most remarkable are the 
avicularium and vibraculum. These curious appendages are 
confined to a single suborder, the CuxrtLostomata, within the 
limits of which they occur in great abundance and variety. The 
vibraculum (probably a derivative from the aviculariwm) is 
rarely met with as compared with the latter, which is present in 
a large proportion of the Cheilostomatous genera. The avicu- 
larium is best known in its most highly specialized form as it 
occurs in the genera Breuvca and BiceLvarta. 

“This is the true ‘bird’s head,’ an articulated appendage at- 
tached to the zocecium, with a formidable hooked beak and a 
mandible worked by powerful muscles, perpetually snapping its 
jaws with a monotonous energy, and swaying to and fro with a 


456 REFORT oF THE SraTE GEoLoGiIst. 


vigorous swing on its jointed base, grotesque both in form and 
movement. . 

“ But in a large proportion of cases the appendage exhibits a 
much simpler structure, and is totally destitute of the peculiar 
Shape which has suggested its name. _ It is necessary to study its 
morphology in extenso to obtain a clue to its history ; the articu- 
lated ‘bird’s head’ bears no resemblance to its associated struc- 
tures which yet are undoubtedly of its kin; it has assumed an 
alien form and has parted with all the familiar features of its 
tribe; its aspect and habits are those of a foreigner, and as we 
watch it even with its genealogy in our hands, we cease to won- 
der that it remained so long a mystery and a puzzle to the zoolo- 
gist. When we come to consider the avicularium, not merely in 
its more complex and highly organized condition, but in its 
totality, as it is represented in a long series of gradational forms, 
we are left in no doubt as to its structural affinities. We can 
trace the course of its development from the first rudimentary 
stages, which are hardly distinguishable from the ordinary zo- 
cecium, through a multitude of phases, up to the highly elaborated 
prehensile appendage in which no family likeness survives. And 


probably the best way of presenting its history will be to begin © 


with the lowest form in which it occurs, and to follow it through 
its chief modifications up to the highest. 

“It will be desirable, however, first to indicate the essential ele- 
ments of its structure; and in doing so, it will be necessary to 
avoid the descriptive terms which might naturally be suggested 
by the organization and apparent function of the true ‘birds 
head.’ The latter would be a grasping organ, but in a large 
proportion of the lower forms there is nothing which can prop- 
erly be called a ‘beak,’ whilst the equivalent for the mandible is 
utterly inefficient for prehensile purposes. Every avicularium 


consists of a chamber, of variable size and shape, in which is 
lodged an apparatus of muscles; of a movable horny appendage, 


which is moved backward and forward by the action of the 
muscles, and of a fixed frame opposed to it, surrounding an aper- 
ture upon which it falls when closed. In many cases, if not in 
all, the chamber also contains a cellular body, which is in all 
probability the homologue of a polypide. 


GrreRa oF THE NorrH AMERICAN Patanozorc Bryozoa. 437 


“These elements may compose a structure very closely resem- 
bling an ordinary zocecium; or they may be so modified as to 
constitute an articulate and prehensile appendage, armed with 
curved beak and powerful jaws, and provided with a delicate 
tactile organ such as we find in the genus Bueura. In all cases 
the avicularium is to be regarded morphologically as a metamor- 
phosed zocecium, though in its more complex form there is little 
to betray its lineage. | 

“Amongst our British Potyzoa we find this zooidal form in its 
most rudimentary condition in such genera as Fustra and Cet- 
LARIA. Here it is not a specialized structure attached to one of 
the zocecia; it occupies the place of one of them in the colony. 
It consists of a dwarfed cell, on the upper surface of which is 
placed the usual oral valve, but which is destitute of a polypide ; 
at the same time the valve is frequently of unusual and dispro- 
portionate size, and occupies a large part of the area of the cell. 
Except in size, however, it has undergone but little change, al- 
though a certain variation of form already indicates its plas- 
ticity. In one species (Cellarza stnuosa) it assumes a triangular 
shape; in the common C. jistulosa it is almost indistinguishable 
from the ordinary operculum. The degree in which the avicu- 
larian chamber (or cell) is reduced in size varies greatly amongst 
these primitive and rudimentary forms. In Cellaria Johnsoni it 
is a miniature copy of the normal zocecium, almost its only pe- 
culiarity being the elevation and somewhat increased size of the 
operculum. In other cases the atrophy of the cell is carried to a 
great extent and the operculum occupies almost the whole of the 
area. | ; 

“As specialization proceeds, the chamber is minimized and the 
adaptive modification of the valve becomes more and more varied 
and elaborate. In the mandible of the ‘ bird’s head’ appendages 
it reaches its climax, whilst in this form the zocecium itself has 
lost every trace of its original character and function, and merely 
lodges the machinery by which the curious prehensile instrument 
is worked. 

‘“‘ Nowhere, perhaps, is the relation of the avicularium to the 
normal zocecium more clearly traceable than in a foreign species 
of Mempranipora (as yet I believe undescribed), in which a very 
striking modification of the operculum is combined with the 


4.32 2EPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


slightest change in the zocecium itself. In this species a number 
of zocecia are scattered over the colony, which, whilst retaining 
in great measure the usual form, are distinguishable by a re- 
markable elongation of the oral valve. 

“This structure, which is normally semicircular in shape, is 
here much produced and somewhat elevated above, and stands: 
out conspicuously on the surface of the zoarium. It is fully four 
times the size of the ordinary operculum, and of course increases 
very materially the length of the whole zocecium, which, in other 
respects, departs very slightly from the normal condition. The 
aperture is somewhat reduced and the spines are aborted, but in 
general, these abnormal cells very closely resemble the other 
members of the colony. The polypide in such cases is probably 
suppressed. We have here, it would seem, one of the earliest 
and simplest departures from the normal type of the zocecium in 
the direction of the avicularium. In Fuvsrra the change is 
much more marked, as the cell is merely rudimentary and the 
movable operculum constitutes the essential feature. These 
slightly specialized forms, which fill the place of the zocecium in 
the colony, may be distinguished as primary avicularia. 

“They occur under various modifications. In Schizotheca jissa 
the avicularium has an area of the same size and form as that of 
the zocecia, the beak and mandible occupying much the same po- 
sition as the oral opening. Nowhere is its morphological signifi- 
cance more apparent. A striking case of the same kind is pre- 
sented by Cellaria tenwirostris. In Schizoporella venusta, on the 
other hand, the area (which replaces a cell) is reduced to a very 
diminutive size and has a minute rounded mandible. The next 
marked stage in the developmental series is characterized by the 
contraction of the area combined with the assumption of .a more 
or less peduncular character by the hollow portion of the struc- 
ture. The external resemblance to the ordinary z cecia has dis- 
appeared ; the cell is commonly represented by a subconical ele- 
vation, on the summit of which are placed the beak and man- 
dible. At the same time the avicularium is now, for the most 
part, a secondary growth and is developed not on the original 
plane of the colony, but on the zocecia themselves. There has 
been a large reduction in the size of the chamber, no longer re- 


™~ 


Genera or THE NortH AMERICAN PALAEOZOIC Bryozoa. 439 


quired for the accommodation of the polypide, and a growing 
specialization of the mandible and its adjuncts. To a great ex- 
tent the avicularium has lost its apparent status as a distinct 
Zooid in the colony, and become an appendage of the zocecium. 
The bosses or mounds, so often forming part of it and supporting 
the mandibular apparatus, are to be regarded as the homologue 
of the chamber in the normal zocecium. Such forms as I have 
now described, and others allied to them, may be classed as séc- 
ondary or transitional avicularia. We must not suppose, how- 
ever, that they constitute a clearly defined section; they are con- 
nected at all points by intermediate forms with the primary 
group. Nor are these divisions coincident with any particular 
genera or families; the various modifications of the avicularia 
are distributed sporadically over the whole suborder, with the 
exception of the highest, which occur only in very narrow and 
definite limits. 

“The raised or pedunculate character commonly assumed by 
the hollow portion of the avicularium in this division becomes 
very pronounced in certain cases. The beak and mandible are 
elevated on a distinct stem, and (we may suppose) obtain in this 
way peculiar advantages for the discharge of their function, 
whatever it may be. In such forms we recognize an advance 
toward the peduncle of the true ‘bird’shead.’ A nearer approach 
to it is met with in the remarkable pedunculate avicularia which 
occur in one or two species of Memsranrrora. -T’he want of 
mobility is perhaps the most essential distinction between this 
form and the avicularium of Boevia; the beak and mandible 
are less highly organized than in the latter, but the general char- 
acter is the same in both, and very slight changes would serve 
to convert the one into the other. 

“In Scrvpocentarta the avicularium is attached to the side of 
the zocecium by its entire length, but it is truly pedunculate, and 
if attached only by the base, would bear a close general resem- 
blance to the Bugulan form. | 

“The mandible is curved in toward the extremity, and the 
beak is somewhat hooked, so that the appendage has considerable 
prehensile power. The chamber is not more than sufficient for 
the lodgment of the muscular fascicles. A still nearer approach 
to the higher avicularium occurs in the remarkable form de- ° 


440 ) Report or tHe Strate GEorocist. 


scribed by Smi1r under the name of Membranipora mina. 
Here we have the perfect form of the ‘ bird’s head’ (a curious antici-- 
pation of the organ as it exists in Bugula Murryana), but there | 
is no basal joint and the whole structure is calcareous. A con- 
nection is very clearly established between the simply mammillated 
avicularium and the articulated through such forms as we have 
in the true Membranipora minazx, in Serupocellaria Jerox and in 
the present species. 

“In Noramta we have probably the fixed form, which comes, 
on the whole, nearest to the movable ‘bird’s head,’ and consti-. » 
tutes the most direct link between the two classes of avicularium. 
Here the hollow portion (or chamber) is borne on a slender stem 
of considerable length, from which it is separated by a partition; 
it expands from the base upwards, and on the upper surface is 
placed the curved beak (‘like that of a cuttle fish *), occupying 
about two-thirds of its length, at the base of which the mandible 
takes its origin. The latter is much curved and terminates above 
it in a sharp point. The upper edge of the chamber below the 
mandible surrounds a semicircular space, closed in by a mem- 
brane, which probably represents the aperture of the normal : 
zocecium. ‘Two new features (both of them present in the ‘bird’s 
head’) make their appearance in this form. The beak and the 
portion of the chamber from which it arises are both of a horny 
material; in the lower form they are calcareous. Between the 
mandible and the beak, when the former is elevated, a tuft of 
minute sete, placed on a slight rising, is visible, which consti- 
tutes a tactile organ, and conveys the external stimuli which 
brings the muscles into play. It is possible that this structure 
may exist in species in which it has not yet been observed, but: 
so far, I believe, it has only been noticed among the higher 
forms, which I shall call the articulated avicularia, and in No- 
Tamia. In all but the fixed condition Noramta agrees with the 
articulated group. It may, I think, be concluded that it is the 
concomitant of the more highly specialized form. 

“JT may add that the avicularia in the Noramra have very 
much the shape and general appearance of zocecia reduced in 
size, and are placed, like the latter, in opposite pairs. We pass 
now to the articulated forms in which the zocecial type is com- 
pletely masked, its elements being so modified as to constitute 


Guxera or THE Norra Amprican Paraxozorc BRyYoz0A. AAT 


an elaborate prehensile appendage, charged with a special ser- 
vice in the interests of the colony. 

“In the articulated avicularium, the ‘pbird’s head’ is supported 
on a short peduncle with a basal joint, on which it sways to and 
fro. The head is composed of two portions, a lower which is 
more or less rounded above, and forms the chambers for the 
muscles (=the cavity of the zocecium), and an upper and anterior, 
which consists of a movable mandible and a curved beak opposed 
to it. This anterior portion is composed of horny material, 
whilst the chamber itself is calcareous. The walls of the pro- 
jecting upper jaw, which terminates in the hooked beak, inclose 
an aperture, over which stretches a delicate membrane, pierced 
by a‘small circular orifice. This aperture represents the mouth 
of the zocecium, the mandible taking the place of the operculum. 
Within the chamber occurs a small circular body, composed of 
distinct cells, which is connected (in Bugula flabellata) with a cup- 
shaped organ, opening out through the membrane of the aper- 
ture. From the bottom of the cup rise a number of sete, which 
project beyond the opening and constitute the tactile organ be- 
fore referred to. The cellular body, in connection with the 
setiferous cup has been regarded as a nervous ganglion (B sx, 
Surrr); the two together constitute, according to Nitsche, the 
homologue of the polypide, which is here reduced, in conformity 
with the altered significance of the whole structure, into a mere 
organ of touch. There can be but little doubt, I think, but that 
the latter is the true view; at the same time it must be regarded 
as probable that the rudimentary polypide is furnished with 
its nerve center, by which the powerful muscular apparatus 
and the sensitive organ may be supplied. Whether the cellular 
body constitutes the ganglion, we are not at present in a posi- 
tion to decide. The articulated avicularia are always attached 
- to the wall of the cell, and usually at a short distance from the 
orifice; they are confined apparently to a small number of 
genera. Some further evidence of the morphological nature of 
these curious appendages may be briefly noticed. (I.) In some 
cases I have met with ovicells developed over the upper extrem- 
ity of the aviculariaf beak and mandible, clearly indicating their 
morphological relation to the orifice of the zocecium,. On more 
than one occasion this 7usus has occurred to me in Schizotheca. 

; 56 


yy Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


Jjussa. (II.) The resemblance in minute detail between the avi- 
cularian cell and the species to which it belongs, which are not 
unfrequently met with, have a like significance. Thus, to take a 
single illustration, in one species a minute sinus occurs on the 
lower margin of the avicularian mouth, corresponding with a 
similar sinus in the orifice of the zocecium. Instances of the 
same kind might be multiplied. The function of the avicularia 
is difficult to determine; nor indeed can the same function be 
assigned to all of them. The primary forms are many of them 
quite unfit for prehensile work. The lid-like mandible, with 
plain rounded margin, has no power of grasping and could not 
detain for a second the active worms which are sometimes cap- 
tured by the articulated kinds. Their service for the colony 
must lie in some other direction. Even the fixed transitional 
forms, in which the beak and curved mandible are present, must 
be inefficient for this work from their want of mobility, whilst in 
many of them the parts concerned in the act of prehension are 
but slightly developed. The articulated avicularia are, however, 
undoubtedly grasping organs, and the presence of the tactile 
tuft between the jaws must be taken to indicate that capture in 
some form or other is their function. They have been seen to 
arrest minute worms and hold them for a considerable time with 
a tenacious grip as if with some ulterior object, but what the 
object may be, it is difficult to decide. -Dr. Jonnston suggested | 
that they may assist in providing supplies of food, seizing ‘ cir- 
cumfluent animalcules,’ and retaining them until, enfeebled or 
killed by the grasp, the ciliary currents may bear them to the 
mouth. But the avicularium is not fitted to capture the ex- 
tremely minute organisms in which the polypides feed ; and even 
if they could be captured and rendered helpless, there would be 
many chances, placed as the appendages usually are, against 
their coming within the attraction of the ciliary vortex. The 
worms, which seem to be the commonest victims, could only be 
utilized as food by being retained until decomposition having set. 
in, the particles of decayed matter might diffuse themselves 
through the surrounding water and find their way, in a greater 
or less degree, to the stomach of the polypides. But the sup- 
plies of nutriment in the waters of the ocean must be ample and 
unfailing, and no better provision for appropriating them than 


Grnpra or THE Nortx Amprioan Patazozoro Bryozoa. 443 


the ciliary whirlpool can well be imagined. Unless we can sup- 
pose that a peculiar diet is necessary for the species furnished 
with the prehensile appendage, it is hardly probable that the 
ordinary arrangements would have to be supplemented by the 
service of such uncertain purveyors. And should they be feed- 
ers on dead organisms only (as has been suggested), they would 
certainly lead a precarious existence if dependent on the chance 
supplies of the avicularian commissariat. The appendages, it 
must be remembered, have no freedom of movement; they do 
not go in quest of prey; they merely oscillate, without variation, 
to and fro, snapping their jaws at haphazard, or when aroused — 
by some irritation of the tactile sete. Their captures must be 
fitful and uncertain, and if the food requires long keeping to be 
fit for use (and under the conditions this seems to be a necessary 
supposition), the colony must be in a chronic condition of famine. 
If living animals be the required diet, then the cilia are adequate 
to the supply of them, and the avicularia are not. 

“On the whole (though the question is involved in much ob- 
scurity), I am inclined to regard the avicularia as charged with 
- a defensive rather than an alimentary function. They may 
either arrest or scare away unwelcome visitors. Their vigorous 
movements and the snapping of their formidable Jaws may have 
a wholesome deterrent effect on loafing annelids and other va- 
grants, whilst the occasional capture of one of them may help 
still further to protect the colony from dangerous intrusion. On 
this view of them, they have a function analogous to that of the 
other appendage with which the CuxtLosromata are furnished. 
The vibraculum, though morphologically related to the zocecium 
like the avicularium, is more immediately connected with the 
latter; and we find a line of transition forms linking the two to- 
gether. It consists, in its more perfect condition, of a chamber, 
in which the muscles are lodged, and a movable bristle, sus- 
pended in a kind of cleft at its upper extremity, in which it 
works backward and forward. The seta (or bristle) is broad at 
the base and above it slender, and often of considerable length. 
In some cases it attains an enormous development, and forms 
either a whip-like appendage or an organ of such a size and 
strength as to be available for locomotive purposes. On the 
lower part of the wall of the chamber there is always a small 


444 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


opening, marking the point from which a long tubular appendage 
(or radical fiber) originates. 

“The vibraculum, as already mentioned, is of comparatively 
rare occurrence. In its most highly peo forms it is placed 
on the dorsal surface of the zocecium, and the movable seta 
(which, when at rest, is laid back upon the chamber) is swung 
around at intervals to the front of the cell, sweeping slowly over 
the surface as if to remove all noxious matter, and then returns 
to its original position. This movement goes on uninterruptedly 
during the lifetime of the colony, and there can be no doubt 
‘that its object is to scare away dangerous intruders or accumula- 
tions of refuse from the neighborhood of the orifice. We have 
no difficulty in recognizing the equivalent of the avicularian 
mandible and the operculum of the cell in the sete. The mouth 
is here modified in the same sense as the rest of the structure; 
the raised ‘ beak’ is absent, being no longer useful, but the mar- 
gin is carried out above into two prominent points, just within 
which the bristle is articulated, clear of all hindrances, and so as 
to possess the utmost freedom of movement. 

“The homology of the parts becomes more evident when we 
study the transitional forms. We meet with a developmental 
stage (corresponding to the promary avicularium) in which the 
vibraculum is developed on the original plane of the eolony and 
occupies the position of an ordinary cell; in some species the ~ 
vibracular cells alternate regularly with the z-cecia. In such 
cases the movements of the setz are of necessity much restricted, 
and the appendage is rather the servant of the colony than ‘of 
the individual polypide. 

“The direct links between the vibraculum and avicularium are 
found in those forms of the latter in which the mandible is pro- 
longed and attenuated, whilst the beak is almost rudimentary. 
Indeed, it is difficult to draw the line between them, unless we 
regard the total absence of a distinct beak as an essential charac- 
teristic of the vibraculum. We have a case of the slight exten-. 
sion and attenuation of the mandible in Schizoporella spinifera; 
in Membranipora ciliata the change is occasionally carried still 
further, but there is a,great variability, and the mandible is now 
of the ordinary form and now prolonged into a vibracular pro- 
cess. In Schizoporella vulgaris the mandible is metamorphosed 


GENERA OF THE Norra American Partarozoic Bryrozoa. 445 


into a seta, but the beak survives and the movement is prob- 
ably nothing more than the rising and falling as of a lid. In 
Mastigophora Hyndmanmni, the mouth is so modified as to give 
much more play to the seta, which is thrown backward and for- 
ward with perfect freedom, and has much the appearance of a 
lash. In this species the vibraculum is borne on a distinct cell, 
resembling the zocecium (on which it is developed), except in 
size. In yet another case the vibracular cells are still further 
reduced, and one is placed on each side of the orifice of the 
zocecium. When we come to the higher forms, we meet with 
cases in which the seta resumes the dimensions of the mandible, 
and loses its free and vigorous swing. The most elaborate form 
of this appendage is found in the genus Caserna. There the 
- chamber is large and traversed on the upper side by a channel 
or groove, in which the seta lies when at-rest. The latter is of 
great length and serrated or toothed along the edge. In this 
genus the entire dorsal surface of the branch is covered by the 
vibracula, and the movements of the setz are synchronous; they 
act together with perfect regularity, the whole company on a 
branch swinging to and fro at the same moment, and as if under 
a common impulse. We can hardly doubt but there must be 
some intercommunication between the nerve centers of the indi- 
vidual vibracula, on which these combined movements depend, | 
but so far the synchronism has attracted very little attention, 
and we have no observations that throw any further light upon 
it. The sete attain their highest development in the family of 
the SeLmnarup#, Busk; here they are of enormous size and of 
great strength and assume, in some species at least, a locomotive 
function, acting probably as oars, and propelling the colony, 
which is free in the adult state. In the history of these appen- 
dages we have a curious illustration of the variety of function 
that may connect itself with the same morphological element.” 


Tue ANIMAL. 


In the Gymyormwata the principal species studied have been 
the marine form, Bowerbankia densa, and the fresh-water form 
Paludicella Ehrenbergi. These two forms, though differing some 
in detail, are of essentially the same structure. 

For the Hippocrepian forms Alcyonella fungosa furnished the 
principal material. 


446 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


The tentacular crown may be divided into two portions: the 
disc which surrounds the mouth and to which is given the name 
lophophore, and the tentacles which are inserted on the margin 
of the lophophore. 

In all the marine species and in one fresh-water species, 
Paludicella Ehrenbergi, the lophophore is continuous around 
the mouth ; the tentacles being arranged in a complete circle. In 
the other fresh-water forms the arrangement is bilateral. The 
lophophore is extended in two triangular arms; the tentacles, ar- 
ranged continuously on the margin of the dise and the arms are 
disposed in a horseshoe form. From the mouth descends the 
cesophagus; at first a little expanded, then contracting and con- 
tinuing nearly straight to its terminus. The upper, expanded 
portion may be called the pharynx. The walls are thickly 
studded with minute oval spots. In the marine species the ceso- 
phagus leads into an oval sac, which performs the office of a 
gizzard (Plate B, fig. a, 3). The walls of this cavity are thicker 
than those of any other portion of the alimentary canal. In the 
walls are two dark bodies, opposite to each other (fig. 16), with radi- 

16a. 16D. 


Loma neGee 
SSO CEE 


> RS 
ie 


Fic. 16a. Bowerbankia densa, showing the dark bodies of the cesophagus separated ; the cardiac 
teeth showing between them. 
Fie. 16b. Showing the dark bodies in apposition. 
Fie. 17. An enlargement of the cardiac teeth (after FARRE). 
/ 


ating lines, and in the walls between these bodies are the cardiac 
teeth (fig. 17), which present a somewhat regular tesselated appear- 
ance. This again opens downward into the true digestive 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN Patarozoric Bryozoa. 447 


stomach (Plate B, fig. a), an oblong cavity terminating below 
in a blunt extremity. From the upper part of the stomach, near 
the gizzard, by a true pyloric cavity (fig. 5, a), arises the intestine, 
which continues nearly straight, alongside the cesophagus, and 
terminates by a distinct anal orifice, close to the outer side of the 
lophophore. Thus the alimentary canal consists of pharynx, 
oesophagus, gizzard, stomach and intestine, with distinct oral, 
cardiac, pyloric and anal orifice. 

The whole floats freely in the perigastric cavity, the boundaries 
of which are the walls of the cell, and which contains the peri- 
gastric fluid and the muscles of the animal. 

In Patupicetta, the upper part of cesophagus is wide (the 
pharynx) but soon contracts and continues as a long narrow tube, 
which leads-into an oval sac (Plate A, fig. 1, c), corresponding to 
the gizzard of the marine forms and to the cardiac cavity of the 
stomach of the Hippocrepian forms. This sac is much more 
distinctly expanded from the large cavity of the stomach (the 
pyloric cavity) than in the other fresh-water forms. When 
the animal is completely retracted it is bent backward upon 
the pyloric cavity (Plate A, fig.2,c). The intestine arises from the 
upper portion of the pyloric cavity (Plate A, /). 

In the Hippocrepian forms, the cesophagus becoming narrower 
and opening into the stomach with a distinct conical projection. 
In the contraction of the animal within its cell, in these 
forms, the alimentary canal occupies essentially the same 
relative position as when the animal is protracted, the cesophagus 
‘remaining straight; but in PatupiceLia and in the marine forms, 
the alimentary canal is doubled upon itself and its form is some- 

what modified (Plates A and B). The lophophore is brought 
down to the upper part of the stomach; the intestine is doubled 
upon itself, and the cesophagus is forced down to the side of the 
stomach, and again turning upward has somewhat the form of 
the letter S. The stomach is composed of three different layers; 
the inner one of which has frequently longitudinal ridges 
(fig. 20, d), though this feature is often absent. The layer is com_ 
posed of easily separable spherical cells, which contain a smaller 
cell or nucleus, floating in a colorless liquid having yellowish- 
brown contents (fig. 18, a,b). These are, in all probability, hepatic 
follicles, secreting a fluid which colors the stomach and its con- 


448 | Report or tue Stare Gxroroaisr. 


tents; the inner layer thus being the representative of the liver. 
The median layer is composed of hexagonal cells, with a brilliant 


Fic. 18. a, Portion of internal or hepatic layer of the stomach; b, Three isolated cells, further 
magnified; each cell contains within it a secondary cell with brownish contents; c, Middle 
layer of stomach composed of cells with colorless contents and brilliant nucleus; d, Structure of 
the endocyst ; the tissue has been treated with acetic acid, and presents isolated nuclei, and nucle- 
ated cells in various stages of formation ; ێ, Muscular net work of the endocyst; f, Muscular fibers 
from the endocyst, treated with acetic acid and more highly magnified ; g, An isolated muscle cell of 
the same, still more highly magnified ; h, Tubular net work occasionally seen in the substance of the 


endocyst, and containing peculiar corpuscles; 7, Corpuscles separated from the tubular net work; 
&, The same under the action of acetic acid. . 


nucleus (fig. 18, c). The outer layer consists of a very thin mem- 
brane with a cellular structure. It covers the whole of the 
alimentary canal, and by the application of acetic acid it may be 
frequently separated from the median layer. Delicate circular 
striz may be observed in this layer, in some species very dis- 
tinctly. They are, in all probability, muscles. These muscles: 
have not been observed in this layer of. the intestine, but proba- 
bly do occur there. In the cesophagus there are only two layers 
(fig. 19, c, g), corresponding to the median and external layer of 
the stomach, the inner layer of the stomach having entirely dis- 
appeared and the external layer being much thickened. The 
mouth and upper portion of the cesophagus are thickly covered 
with vibratile cilia ; apparently disappearing in the lower portion. 
The structure of the intestine is very similar to that of the 
oesophagus, with the exception that the cilia are entirely wanting. 


SS 


Genera or THE Norra American PAaLAEozorc Bryozoa. 449 


{In the Hippocrepian forms there are no cilia except at the 
mouth and upper part of the stomach, but in PaLUDICELLA and in 


Wee S¥ro 5° 


tt < Si 


oho 


AN 
hry, 


EVE 


ae 


= 


geo 2S%\ 


Fic. 19. Aleyonella fungosa. a, Internal layer of cesophagus; }, External layer of cesophagus ; 
¢, Internallayer of rectum; d, Hepatic layer of stomach; e, Pylorus; f, Cardia; g, External layer of 
rectum; h, Medial layer of stomach; i, External layer of stomach; 7, Polyp retractor muscle; 
o, Radial muscles; p, Ovary; r, Superior radial muscles; s, Testis; ¢, Spermatozoa; u, Endocyst ; 
wv, Ectocyst ; z, Statoblasts;(after ALLMAN). 


450 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. Bus 
the marine forms there are long vibratile cilia near the pyloric 
orifice of the stomach. 

The cesophagus and stomach are very irritable, and the ~ 
stomach is in constant motion whenever the animal is exserted. 
When food is received the contraction of the stomach is very de- 
cided ; the food remaining in the stomach a very short time, 
then descending with great rapidity. In the gizzard of marine 
forms they are subjected to a sort of crushing process, the two 
dark bodies previously spoken of, being brought in apposition 
(fig. 16, 0). After remaining in the gizzard a very short time, the 
food: passes into the stomach, where it is rolled about in a peris- 
taltic motion, being frequently regurgitated into the gizzard. In 
the upper portion of the stomach, near the pyloric orifice, the 
food assumes a rotary motion from the action of the vibratile 
cilia. In some species with very clear walls the motion of the 
cilia can be very plainly seen by microscopic observations. The 
alimentary matter passes from the stomach by the pyloric orifice, 
and in the large portion of the intestine, near this orifice, it is 
formed into little pellets of excrementious matter, which, by the 
contractions of the walls of the intestine, is carried to the anus, 
and passing out is carried away by the current caused by the 
action of the cilia of the tentacles. 


Fic. 20. Eschara cervicornis. t, Tentacula: b, Pharynx; f, Filiform appendages; d, Stomachal © 
dilation; 7, Intestine; o, Oral aperture ; m, Muscles (after JONES). 


TENTACLES. 


The tentacular crown of the Bryrozoa consists of two portions, 
a disc surrounding the mouth, the lophophore, and the tentacles 
which are borne upon the margin of this disc. 


GEnERA OF THE Nortu AMERICAN PALAEOZOIC Bryozoa. 451 


In the Hippocrepian forms, one side of the lophophore, that 
on which the anus is situated, is prolonged in two triangular 
arms. The tentacles are arranged continuously on the outer and 
inner margins, making a double row (fig. 23), in the form of a 
horseshoe, a fact from which the name Hippocrepian is given to 
this class of Bryozoa. This condition is not found in any marine 
form. 

The Hippocrepian forms have also another organ which is 
absent in those genera in which the lophophore forms a continu- 
ous circle. This is a hollow valve-like organ continuous with one 
side of the lophophore, and is known as the epistome. The in-_ 
terior communicates with the perigastric space by an opening in 
the lophophore (fig. 22, #). The walls which are turned toward 
the mouth are thick and are covered with a vibratile cilia; the 
others are membranous and transparent. 


Fic. 21. Membranipora pilosa. In one of the cells the animal is partially retracted, in the other 
it is fully expanded (after FARRE). 


When the animal is protruded, this organ is in constant mo- 
tion, elevated and depressed. The elevation is effected by the 
action of a muscle (fig. 22,2), to be hereafter described ; while the 
depression is probably effected by the antagonistic elasticity of 
the organ itself, though it may be effected by the action of a 
muscle not yet observed. | 

Notwithstanding this organ has been studied by many observ- 
ers, its purpose has not yet been ascertained. 


452 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


The fresh-water form, PatupioEeLia, and all marine forms have 
the lophophore circular and the tentacles arranged in a single 
row on its outer border, having, when expanded, somewhat the 
form of an inverted cone. The tentacles are cylindrical, with a 
blunted extremity. They are hollow and are composed of two 
layers (fig. 23); the outer layer being composed of comparatively 
large spherical cells, frequently with a brilliant nucleus, and the 
inner layer of a very thin transparent membrane, without any 
trace of a cellular structure. . 

The exterior of the tentacles has two rows of vibratile cilia, 
situated on opposite sides, one row vibrating toward the extremity 
and the other toward the base. 

The tentacles are hollow and communicate with the perigastric 
cavity through the lophophore. In allthe Hippocrepian forms the 
tentacles are surrounded, on their lower portion, by an exceed- 


Fic. 22. Lophopus cristatus. a, Tentacles; b, Calyx; c, Lophophore; d, Intestine; e, Invaginated 
portion of the endocyst; f, Nerve ganglion; g, Nerve filament tolophophore; h, Nerve filament passing 
around the lophophore; 7, Anus; k, Epistome; k’, Orifice in lophophore forming a communication 
between the cavity of the epistome and the perigastric space; 1, Elevator muscle of the epistome 
{after ALLMAN). 


Genera or THE NortH AMERICAN PALAEOZOIO Bryozoa. 453 


ingly thin transparent membrane, a prolongation of the outer 
margin of the lophophore, fig. 22,6, which is known as the calyx. 
The calyx never exists in forms destitute of an epistome. 


PERIGASTRIC SPACE. 


The perigastric space is filled with a colorless fluid, which prob- 
ably fulfils the triple purpose of circulation, nutrition and respira- 
tion; the last-named office probably in conjunction with the ten- 
tacles, but there is no absolute certainty on this point. The fluid is 
colorless and the circulation, which undoubtedly takes place, is de- 
tected only through the medium of certain small particles, held in 
suspension in the fluid; but these particles are not necessary for 


Fie. 23. Tentacle enlarged, showing outer cellular and inner membranous layer, 


the performance of the functions of the fluid, because they are fre- 
quently absent, and Mr. Hancock thinks that when they are 
present, it is from some rupture of the walls. Dr. Farre has 
described and figured parasites occurring in this fluid, but judg- 
ing from his figure, he mistook the spermatozoa for parasites, 
and he describes them as moving with a slow, undulating motion, 
which is characteristic of the spermatozoa. 

Autman is of the opinion that the perigastric fluid is chiefly 
aqueous and supplied from without In that case there must exist 
pores through the ectocyst capable of being opened and closed 
at the will of the animal or the water must exude through the 
alimentary canal. What the other constituents of this fluid may 
be has not yet been ascertained. Autumn says:. ‘That the fluid 
thus contained in the perigastric space and thence admitted into 


454 ReEporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


=_— 


the tentacles consists mainly of water obtained from without, 
there can, I think, be little doubt ; and yet I have in vain sought 
for any opening through which the external fluid can gain 
admittance into the interior. I have allowed the transparent 
genera CRISTATELLA and LopHopus to remain many hours in car- 
mine without being able to detect a single particle of this pig- 
ment in the perigastric space, though I have seen this space 
rapidly empty itself on the removal of the animal from the 
water and again fill on restoring it to its natural element. Von. 
BEnEDEN believed that he had detected in AtcyonmLLa, apertures, 
which he named ‘bouches aquiferes,’ at the base of the ten- © 
tacles ; but this distinguished naturalist is certainly here in error, 
as indeed he himself subsequently admits.” Meynn asserts that 
an opening exists in the vicinity of the anus, through which he 
himself had witnessed the escape of the egg of ALcronELia, and 
SIEBOLD corroborates him. But, without doubt, any such aper- 
ture was the result of a rupture. One objection to the theory 
that the water finds its way through tubes in the cell walls too 
minute to be detected is that in many forms the cell tubes are 
so closely packed together that no water has access to the 
exterior of the cell walls. 

The perigastric fluid enters the tentacles through the lopho- 
phore, and thus becomes aerated by the constant flow of the 
oxygenating medium over their surface by the action of the 
vibratile cilia, though if the perigastric cavity can be emptied 
and filled as quickly as stated by ALtLmay, any special aeration by 
the tentacles would seem unnecessary. While the aeration of the 
blood or perigastric fluid can be easily understood when the animal 
is protruded, it is difficult to understand how the oxygenation 
can be effected when the animal is withdrawn in the cell, for 
then the orifice is completely closed by the folding of the sides of 
the orifice, and there is no communication with. the exterior. 
The only explanation can be that, as is the case with bivalves, a — 
constant aeration of the blood from the air in the water is 
unnecessary. 

There can be little doubt that the perigastric fluid is nutritive, 
and holds in suspension the results of digestion, which proba- 
bly exude through the walls of the stomach. It is only on such 
a supposition that we can understand the nourishment of the 


GENERA OF THE Norto AmmRICAN Patarozoic Bryrozoa. 455 


walls of the cell and the buds which take their origin in the 
endocyst, and must be nourished by it until they have acquired 
such a stage in their growth that they have an external orifice. 


Tue MusovuLar System. 


The following description of the muscular system refers espec- 
ially to that of a fresh-water species, Paludicella Lhrenberqi; 
but it is almost identical with that of the marine forms, and 
mention will be made of the details in which it differs. 

There are six sets of muscles, three in connection with retrac- 
tion, two with protrusion and one for the closing of the orifice 
when the animal has withdrawn in its cell. 

Of the retractors one set acts directly upon the orifice, the 
others upon the tubular orifice of the cell. The former is much 
the more powerful muscle (Plate A, 2’). It takes its origin in the 
endocyst, toward the bottom of the cell, and passing upward, 
alongside of the alimentary canal, its superior extremities are 
inserted around the base of the lophophore. It is composed of 
numerous long, stout fibers, which by their action draw the ani- 
mal into the cell. In the marine and in the Hippocrepian forms 
the corresponding retractor muscles differ only in being com- 
posed of two fascicles instead of only one. 

In the withdrawal of the animal into the cell, the tentacula, 
which when well expanded are in the form of an inverted cone, 
are first brought together in a straight line, and immediately 
begin to descend. The body does not descend in a mass, but 
becomes folded up so as to be accommodated in the cell. The 
cesophagus, surmounted by the tentacles, descends first; whilst 
the integument of the upper part of the animal begins to be 
inverted, where it has its insertion around the tentacular disc. 
As the tentacles descend the invagination of the integument 
continues, forming a close sheath around the tentacles. The 
withdrawal of the animal continues until the extremities of the 
tentacles have reached a point level with the top of the ectocyst ; 
that is, to the unyielding part of the cell. The stomach of the 
animal is now near the bottom of the cell; the cesophagus is 
bent in the form of a letter S; the tentacles are lying close 
together inclosed in their tegumentary sheath. It now remains 
to complete the closing of the orifice. This is effected by the 


456 Report oF THE STaTE GEOLOGIST. 


second and third sets of muscles, called by Farre the oper- 
cular muscles, by Hancock the tube retractors, and by Atuman 
the antero-parietal vaginal muscles. They have their origin 
near the top part of the ectocyst, and are inserted in the 
flexible part of the invaginated tunic (endocyst) on which they 
act. They consist of four flat bundles of stout linear fibers 
(Plate A, 2). The fibers of the muscle are inserted one after 
another in a straight line, commencing near the point of invagi- 
nation, and extending some distance down the invaginated tunic. 

The arragement of the fascicles causes the margins of the orifice 
to fold in four portions in the retraction of its tube. The end is 
consequently square, the angles corresponding to the insertion of 
the muscles. The third set of muscles, the superior tube retractors, 
consist of only fourfibers. They have their origin below the other 
tube retractors, and are inserted in the tegumental tunic above 
them. The action of this set of muscles completes the action of the 
second set. In the marine forms as represented by Bowerbankia 
densa, the muscles are the same, except that they have a tri- 
radiate arrangement, and the orifice is puckered into three folds 
instead of four. 

The fourth set of muscles is for the purpose of closing the 
orifice and was discovered by Mr. Hancoox. They consist of 
two sets of muscles passing around the invaginated tunic. One 
set is made up of several fibers passing around the tunic at the 
insertion of the inferior tube retractors and is of considerable 
width; the other consists of only two or three fibers and passes 
around the tube at the interior of the superior tube retractors. 
This action is to close the orifice on the retraction of the animal, 
and also to oppose the tube retractors, which would have a 
tendency, by their divergence, to keep the orifice open. These 
muscles exist both in fresh-water and marine forms. 

The fifth set of muscles is connected with the endocyst and is 
called the parietal muscles. They are numerous and strong (Plate 
A,.m). Their extremities are probably attached to the ectocyst. _ 
They run transversely, each muscle embracing a fourth ora third 
of the cell, and consist of three or four fibers each. Their pur- 
pose is the contraction of the endocyst, assisting in the propyen 
of the animal. 

The sixth set (the posterior parietal muscles) is for the purpose 
of preventing the entire invagination of the tunic and tentacles. 


Genera or THE Nortu American PaLarozoric Bryozoa. 457 


It consists of four thin fasciculi (Plate A, i). They have their 
origin in the tunic (endocyst) near the top of the cell, two in the 
front and two in the back, and are inserted in the opposite sur- 
face of the tentacular sheath. 

In the Hippocrepian forms the muscles differ somewhat from 
those just described, principally owing to the difference in the 
structure of the tentacular crown. 

The presence of the epistome necessitates another muscle for 
its movements. It arises from the tentacular disc, within the 
cavity of the epistome, and passing obliquely across he cavity is 
inserted on the inner surface of the oval wall) of the epistome 
(fig. 22,7). Its action is to elevate the epistome, raising it from 
the mouth. 


Fic. 24. Alcyonella flabellum, a, Endocyst; b, Ectocyst; f, @sophagus; g, Cardiac cavity of 
stomach; p, Rotary muscles of tentacular crown; 0, 7, Radiating muscles; J, Polyp retractor 
muscles (after ALLMAN). 


‘ 


The rotary muscles of the crown consist of two fascicles, which 
take their origin at the same place as the retractor muscle of the 
animal, and passing upward with that muscle,until,within some 

58 


458 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


distance of the lophophore, they separate from it, and continuing 
to the right and left, are inserted one in each arm of the lopho- 
phore. Their action is to rotate the tentacular crown and to 
depress the lobes (fig. 24, »). Van Benupen first directed atten- 
tion to a set of parallel bands running along the margin of the 
lophophore. These bands are continuous with one another 
below, but when they arrive at the space between adjacent 
tentacles, each band divides in two, appara running up 
opposite sides of adjacent tentacles. . 

These bands do not present any fibroid structure. Vawn 
BeEnepEN considered them muscles, and that to their action was 
due the movement of the tentacles. They have not been ob- 
served in the Gymnota@mata, but if they are muscles and the 
movements of the tentacles are due to them, they will probably 
be found in all Bryozoa. There is another set of muscles 
peculiar to the Hippocrepian forms, which consists of a circle of 
short, stout radiating fibers (fig. 22, 0, v, and fig. 24,0, 7). They 
take their origin on the inner surface of the endocyst, on the 
same plane, and are inserted in the tentacular sheath some dis- 
tance below the mouth of the cell, on a plane parallel to that of 
their origin. Their action is to prevent the eversion of the 
whole of the tentacular sheath, and to keep the mouth of the 
animal at the proper distance from the cell aperture. 

Mr. Hancock says in relation to this muscle: “The true value 
of these muscles will be understood if we refer to the marine 
genus Bowrrpangia, in which they are deficient, and of course 
the tentacular sheath can be wholly everted, and accordingly the 
animal can reach to a greater distance than it could otherwise 
have done, but an apparatus of extraordinary beauty is provided 
to obviate the inconvenience that must have arisen from the 
greater elevation of the tentacular disc above the support of the 
horny cell. This is effected by what may be considered an 
elongation upward of the cell. Numerous sete, bound together 
by a membrane, are attached to the lips of the orifice of the cell, 
so that when the polyp is exserted they stand up in a circle, sur- 
rounding the lower portion of the exposed part of the animal 
(fig. 25, d), and give support to it. By this means the far out- 
stretched tentacular disc is brought completely under the control 
of the muscles for directing its movements. 


GrnEeRA oF THE NortH American Patarozoic Bryrozoa. 459 


“We thus clearly see that the set of radiating muscles isa 
compensation for the absence of sete. 

“On examining an animal of Bowrrganxia in action it is evi- 
dent that the use of the sete is as I have pointed out. The 
circle of setz is then seen to encompass the lower part of the 
extended polyp, and when the tentacular disc moves from side to 
side the neck always bends from the top of the setze in a decided 
angle and does not gradually arch away from the lips of the cell, 
as might be expected if this contrivance was for the purpose of 
giving flexibility. The delicate membrane uniting the sete is 
strengthened with numerous minute transverse fibers forming 
the whole into a powerful sphincter, thus giving great firmness 
to the part. 

“ By this arrangement BowrrBanxta is enabled to raise the ten- 
tacular disc far above the polype cell and yet to remain as per- 
fectly under the control of the muscles as is the tentacular disc 
of PrumaTetia and FrREpERICELLA, in both of which it is confined 
close to the surface of the cell.” 


, they are entirely retracted; in fig. d they are completely extended. a, Sete; d, Muscles (after 


FARRE). 


Fig. 25 (a, 6, c and d) shows the position of the sete when the 
animal is contracted and during the process of eversion. 


460 ReEportT oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


When we compare the muscular system of the fresh-water 
and marine forms we find a great similarity in them, but also 
some modifications. In all forms the endocyst continues beyond 
the ectocyst and is continuous with the margin of the lopho- 
_ phore. In the marine forms, when the animal is exserted, the 
endocyst or tunic is, of course, carried with the lophophore, and 
not being held by any muscles is continuous in essentially a 
straight line with that portion of the endocyst lining the cell. 
When the animal is retracted the endocyst is invaginated, the 
evagination and invagination being complete; the evagination 
being effected in the same manner as if the finger of a glove 
was pulled in from its inner extremity, the eee portion 
forming the tentacular sheath. 

In the fresh-water forms the evagination and invagination is 
incomplete, a portion of the endocyst being pee in- 
vaginated. 

Though the evagination in ParvpicELLa is not complete, yet it 
in common with the marine forms, is without the small radiat- 
ing muscles near the orifice and the larger radiating muscles 
which are connected with the tentacular sheath (fig. 19, 0, 7). 
The polyp retractor muscles are essentially the same in all forms 
of Bryozoa. The sphincter muscles are present in PaLuUDICELLA 
and the marine forms. The parietal muscles are the same in all 
forms, and the tube retractors are essentially the same. Patupr- ~ 
CELLA is very closely related to the marine forms even in its mi- 
nute structure. 

The protrusion of the animal from its cell takes place as fol- 
lows: The principal agency to which we must assign the pro- 
trusion of the animal is undoubtedly the contraction of the endo- 
cyst by the parietal muscles and the consequent pressure of the 
perigastric fluid upon the body of the animal, making it neces- 
sary for it to move in the direction of the least resistance, namely; 
the orifice of the cell. : 

Farre, in his admirable paper on Bowerbankia dene states 
that the principal cause of the protrusion of the animal is 
the pressure of the perigastric fluid, and that the straightening - 
of the cesophagus raises the tentacular crown a certain distance, 
which it undoubtedly does, as the cesophagus has the power to 
straighten itself without the action of the fluid. 


Genera or THE Nortu American Patarozoric Bryozoa. 461 


As the parietal muscles contract, the endocyst leaves the 
ectocyst, especially in the lower part of the cell, and the animal 
begins, on account of the consequent compression of the perigas- 
tric fluid, to move up the cell.. The sphincter muscles relaxing 
affords to the tentacles an easy passage through the inverted 
endocyst. The tube retractors relaxing the inverted lips of the 
orifice begin to evolve. As the contraction of the parietal 
muscles continues, the protrusion goes on until it is complete. 
In the marine forms the whole of the invaginated endocyst is 
protruded ; in the fresh-water forms with the single exception of 
Patupicett, nearly all that portion of the endocyst continuing 
beyond the ectocyst is permanently invaginated, its evagination | 
_ being stopped by the radial muscles (fig. 18, o and fig. 24, 0.) 

In Patupicetta there is a more complicated process. The re- 
laxation of the tube retractors permits the endocyst to be evagi- 
nated, but only for a short distance, the posterior fibers of these 
muscles soon checking its further progress, and keeping a small 
portion. of the endocyst permanently invaginated. The second 
portion of the endocyst, which when invaginated constitutes the 
tentacular sheath, continues to be evolved by the relaxation of the 
posterior parietal vaginal muscles, but the relaxation.soon ceasing 
the complete protrusion is prevented. Thus we have two small, 
permanent invaginations after the eversion is completed as 
shown in Plate A, fig. 1, one within the other, forming the mem- 
branous cup at the mouth of the cell. The retraction can be 
much more easily understood. ‘The parietal muscles relax; the 
polyp retractor contracts, pulling the animal in the cell. The 
superior tube retractors first, and then: the inferior contract, and 
when the animal is withdrawn entirely within the cell, the action 
of the sphincter muscles closes the orifice. When an operculum 
exists this is closed by the action of the muscles prowionsls 
described. 

ieee ais SYSTEM. 


The nervous system consists of a single ganglion attached to — 
the external surface of the cesophagus (fig. 1, g, and fig. 22, /), 
with its filaments. 

In the Hippocrepian forms filaments have hee distinctly 
traced by Azitman running to the tentacular crown. ‘The 
ganglion gives off a rather thick cord, immediately running into 


462 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


the lophophore (fig. 22, g). It gives forth a band which runs 
along the root of the lophophore toward the back (fig. 22, h), giv- 
ing off a branch to each tentacle, continuing on the arms to the 
extremity, giving off branches to each tentacle on the outer 
margin of the arms; turning at the extremity in its backward 
course it gives off branches to each tentacle on the inner side of 
the arms. The ganglion also sends forth a filament which imme- 
diately enters the substance of the cesophagus, probably supply- 
ing the mouth, epistome and cesophagus, but it has been traced 
for only a short distance. 


REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. 


The ovary and testes occur in the same cell. In certain sea- 
sons of the year the ovary may be seen attached by a short 
peduncle to the endocyst a short distance below the mouth of 
the cell (Plate A, figs. 1, 2, »). It isa rounded mass composed 
of ova in various stages of growth. The testes are situated on 
the funiculus, below the fundus of the stomach (Plate A, s), and 
are developed in the form of an irregular mass. It 1s formed of 
spherical cells, each of which contains a second cell, which devel- 
ops into a spermatozoidal filament, escaping by the rupture of 
the cell. They havea distinct but somewhat sluggish, undulat- 
ing movement. They are carried about the perigastric space by 
the current and thus come in contact with the ova. They were 
observed in 1837 by Dr. Farrz, but were mistaken for parasites. 

There are three methods of reproduction, first by the true ova, 
developing into a free ciliated embryo; secondly, by gemmation; 
and thirdly, in the Hippocrepian forms by statoblasts, the 
nature of which will be hereafter described. | 

The process of gemmation may be observed with comparative — 
ease in Panupicenia, and is illustrated by figure 26. In the 
earliest stages in which the “bud has been noticed, it consists of 
a slight tubercle on the parent cell, a, filled with parenchyma. 
It soon becomes elongated and has a cavity communicating with . 
the parent cell, 6. In c it has increased in size and consists of an 
external envelope continuous with the ectocyst of the parent 
cell, and a thick lining continuous with the endocyst and con-- 
taining numerous round, nucleated cells. These two features 
develop into the ectocyst and endocyst of the adult cell. Ind 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALArozorc Bryozoa. 463 


we observe a thick portion of the endocyst projecting into the 
cavity. This is the rudiment of the future polyp. Within this 


D ay 
aes 7h 


ee ; 5 , 


Tay 


Fig. 26. Paludicella Ehrenbergi, showing development of bud (after ALLMAN). 


when viewed from the front, may be seen an oval ring, which 
develops into the lophophore, ¢. This ring is at first a mere 


464 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


fleshy fold, but soon develops on its inner side a series of small 
tubercles, which become the tentacles, 7. At this stage the 
lophophore is bilateral, being prolonged to that side where the 
rectum is to make its appearance. The space between the rudi- 
mentary tentacles is prolonged downward, being the first trace 


Fic 27. Paludicella Ehrenbergi. Free spermatozoa (after ALLMAN). 


of the body of the polyp, g. The embryo is now suspended in 
a membranous sac from the walls of the cell. A few minute 
fibers can be observed, which develop into the polyp retractors. 
In h, the tentacles are much more developed; the body of the 
polyp is prolonged downward, and we are able to trace the 


Fic. 28. Paludicella Ehrenbergi, showing manner of growth (after ALLMAN). 


positions occupied by the cesophagus, stomach and intestine. The 
tube retractors can now be observed as a few indistinct fibers. © 


GeneERA oF THE NortH AMERICAN PAaLArEozorc Bryozoa. 465 


In 2, the lophophore has lost its crescentic shape and become 
orbicular ; the different portions of the animal are well defined. 
Hitherto there has been no external opening in the cell, and the 
nourishment has been effected from the parent cell; but now an 
opening occurs at the extremity of the young cell; the different 
organs rapidly become perfected, and the polyp is capable of 
obtaining nourishment from without. 

Fig. 29 represents the development of a free embryo of Alcy- 
onella fungosa; a represents the free spermatozoa greatly enlarged; 
6 a group of ova; ca single ovum much more enlarged. In d the 
ovum has undergone segmentation and a central cavity has 
begun to show itself. Fig. e represertts the ovum developed into 
- an oval ciliated sac destitute of an external opening. In/ the 
embryo presents an orifice, through which an unciliated portion 
is protruded by a process of evagination; in this protruded portion 
a polyp is developed. Fig. g shows the polyp isolated from 
the cell, and further enlarged; the lophophore is yet destitute 
of tentacles. Fig. 4 shows the polyp more advanced; a few of 
the tentacles have begun to develop on the lophophore. Fig. 2 
shows an embryo containing two polypes; fig. k the same more 
advanced, the polyps having acquired nearly their perfect 
development. Fig. 7 shows a more advanced stage. The first 
invagination has become obliterated ; the cilia have disappeared 
from the surface, and the young Bryozoan has acquired its ecto- 
cystal investment. A new bud is seen at each side within its 
cell, near its anterior extremity. 

For the knowledge of the development of Phalangella jlabel- 
larva, a gymnolematous bryozoan of the sub-order CycLostomata, 
I am indebted to Jutes Barros’ “ Embryologies de Bryozoaires,” 
from which work I have copied the figures on Plates C, D and. 
E. The first stage recognized is that of a morula already well 
formed and composed of numerous, comparatively large, vitelline 
spheres (Plate C, iig. 8). The morula does not yet show any trace 
of a central cavity, and is very easily seen to be composed of a 
great number of the round cells represented in figs. 1, 2. 

In the following stage the morula is slightly enlarged, and the 
vitelline spheres are segmented into more and more numerous 
elements. 

59 


466 REprort oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. ; 


Fie. 29. Alcyonella fungosa, showing the development of a free embryo. a, Spermatozoa; b, A 
group of ova; c, A single ovum, much enlarged; d, Showing segmentation and central cavity; 
ce, Showing ovum developed into an oval ciliated sac; f, Showing rudiment of polyp; g, Polyp isolated 
from the cell and further enlarged ; h, Polyp more advanced; 7, An embryo containing two polyps; — 
k, the same more advanced ; J, A still more advanced stage. 


A little later (fig. 4) a central cavity is seen, and the vitelline 
spheres are arranged ina radiating manner around the center. 
Figure 5 shows the progressive thickening of the egg with an: 
enlargement of its central cavity ; the embryo becoming elon- 
gated and of oval form. Figure 6 shows the blastula stage well 
formed. The central cavity is more spacious and the cells more 
clearly radiatingly disposed. The gastrula stage shows the 
invagination of the gastrula which here follows the typical 


GENERA OF THE Norto AmerRIcAN Patarozorc Bryozoa. 467 


method ; that is, there is at first a sinking in of a part of the 
blastula inside the other part, afterward the bringing together of 
the margins of the depressions thus formed. Figures 1-7 represent 
the first stage; figs: 8, 9, 10, Plate C, the second. The sinking in 
of one-half the blastula into the other part is not effected rapidly, 
as frequently happens, reducing at once the cavity of the body 
to a simple slit, but is effected, on the contrary, in a very slow 
manner. It is during this slow process of invagination that the 
egg assumes an elongate form, as shown in fig. 7. It is toward 
the end of the process of invagination that the elongate form is 
most decided. Afterward, by degrees, the egg recovers its round 
form. Figure 9, which is an exterior view of the stage represented 
in section by fig. 8, shows the form already lesselongated. Figure 
10 shows a complete return to the round form. Figures 8,9 show 
the archigastrula already well formed; nevertheless it is not until 
the following stage, fig. 10, that the form is completed. We 
have not only the constriction of the opening of the invagi- 
nation which forms the mouth of the gastrula and the constriction 
of the cavity of the body to asimple slit, but there are other 
changes of great importance. The surface begins to have a 
general covering of fine vibratile cilia, and the embryo is swollen 
a little forward of the middle, so as to present at this portion a 
line (c) of the greatest width; this line separating the primitive 
uniform exodermic sac into two faces, the portion above the line 
being the oral face, and the portion below, the aboral face. 
The stage illustrated by fig. 11 shows another change equally 
equally important; the ciliary covering hitherto disseminated 
over all the surface begins to be concentrated on the oral face, 
the aboral face being without it. At the same time at the 
point of greatest width the exoderm begins to separate from the 
internal layer, which it has heretofore carpeted, in such a man- 
ner as to give rise toa sort of fold, formed as a thick bourrelet. 
This is developed more toward the aboral than toward the oral 
face, making the two faces hitherto unequal of the same dimen- 
sions. On account of the formation of this bourrelet the cavity 
of the body, heretofore a simple slit, begins to be enlarged at 
this point (cc); but at the same time that this local enlargement 
appears, it begins to disappear at another portion. All that part 
of the outer layer which formed the aboral face, in effect com- 


468 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


mences to disappear at this stage and already presents vague traces 
of a welding with the inferior part of the endoderm (fig. 11, m, 
Plate C), and the cavity of the body as it enlarges laterally begins 
to recede and disappear at the base of the embryo. Figure 12, 
Plate C, shows the same modifications much more accentuated. 
The annular bourrelet is developed in such a manner as to form 
the most voluminous part of the entire embryo and has quitted 
its exactly intermediary position, approaching more and more to 
the aboral pole, to which it is now much nearer than to 
the oral pole, and the face in which is situated the mouth, 
from being the smaller, is now much the larger face of the 
embryo. In this progressive enlargement of the exterior the 
annular fold which constitutes the bourrelet carries with it the 
entire layer, which is now strongly separated from the endoderm 
except at the aboral face, where it is welded with the endoderm. 
The cavity of the body, previously continuous, is thus reduced to . 
its superior portion, which: in turn is divided into two distinct 
parts, the part which borders the oral face (cé) and which forms 
the general cavity, properly speaking, and the part comprised in 
the bourrelet (cm), which later forms the cavity of the mantle. 
On the aboral face it is no longer visible except as a scarcely per- 
ceptible line, which in a confused manner delimits the exoderm 
from the inferior portion of the endoderm. On all the rest of 
this face it is seen that the two primitive layers are thickened in 
giving birth to a thick white mass of a histological structure diffi- 
cult to determine. The cavity of the body is seen in the middle 
of this mass very indistinctly, and in the stage represented by 
fig. 13 it has entirely disappeared. 

We have seen that since its first appearance, the median swell- 
ing and later the bourrelet, at first situated near the oral 
pole, afterward moves toward the opposite extremity, and 
finally is situated much nearer to the aboral pole. This process 
still continuing, the bourrelet is found situated at the extreme 
limit of the aboral face, necessarily by the continuation of this — 
process, it comes to project beyond the aboral face in the form 
of a mantle (fig. 138, Plate C). The position of the bourrelet at 
the extreme limit of the aboral face modifies very much the 
general aspect of the embryo. It is no longer composed of two 


Genera oF THE Norra Ammrican Patarozorc Bryozoa. 469 


equivalent faces separated by the bourrelet, but now takes on 
the form of a hat, of which the crown is formed by the oral 
face, while the rims are formed by the bourrelet, which makes 
a strong projection around the aboral face. The embryo has at 
this time very much the structure described by Sarrras the struc- 
ture of the embryo of Tubularia serpens and Crista, and agrees 
_ very well with the description of that author, of an embryo of the 
form of a flat hat, with large rims, analogous in form to the em- 
bryo of Axrcyontum, described by Hinors. ‘1. It is composed 
of a convex and a flat face, the latter surrounded by a projection 
and showing by transparence at the center, an internal organ 
formed by a round swelling of the outer layer, which is an open- 
ing to the center of a cavity.” The two organs which Smrrr 
describes as the rudiments of the tentacular crown, and the ad- 
hesive organ, are probably the annular bourrelet, the evolution 
of which has been described, and the digestive tube. 

At this stage the buccal opening, situated at the middle of 
the oral face, is very distinct, and all this face, as well as the . 
superior part of the bourrelet, is provided with a continucus 
covering of long vibratile cilia. The cavity of the bourrelet (cm) 
and the general cavity (cc) are still in direct communication as in 
the preceding stage. 

All the rest of the development of the embryo consists of a 
general shrinking of the form, with an elongation toward the 
inferior part, whilst the bourrelet strongly projects beyond the 
aboral face. In consequence of the general shrinkage, which 
takes place rapidly, the embryo quickly changes from the dis- 
coidal to the elongate form represented in fig. 14, Plate C. At 
the same time the different organisms undergo modifications 
corresponding to the change in form. 

The solid aboral face, hitherto almost flat, commences to project, 
the projection becoming more prominent as the shrinkage pro- 
ceeds, and eventually forming a round or somewhat elongate 
mass (fig. 14, Plate C). While this round mass is forming, the 
bourrelet projects more and more as a sort of mantle, and finally 
the mass is almost entirely enveloped by the mantle, leaving only 
a simple opening, which forms the communication with the in- 
terior of the cavity circumscribed by the mantle. The figures 12 


470 REporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


and 13, Plate OC, show its formation in optical sections. In 
this transformation the two primitive portions of the embryo 
become more and more separated. In the stage represented 
by fig. 14, Plate C, the two extremities are enlarged and the 
middle constricted, forming two visceral masses of the body. 
The general cavity of the body (cc) and the mantle cavity 
are reduced to mere slits, and are not as heretofore in direct 
communication with each other, but their ends are close to- 
gether at the constricted portion of the body, without being 
connected. Externally the free larva, at this stage, presents 
an elongate form (fig. 15, Plate C), with the posterior extremity 
much the larger, occupied by the mesodermic mass and covered 
by the mantle. The anterior part is less swelled and con- 
tains the intestine. The two portions are separated by the 
constricted portion before mentioned. The two visceral masses 
are visible by the transparence of the body as two dark spots 
at the extremities of the free larva. Each pole is occupied 
by an opening. The first, situated at the superior pole, is the 
buccal opening. It is capable of contracting in such a manner 
as to be reduced to a simple point, and frequently it is so small 
that it is almost impossible to distinguish it; in this case there 
are always present, in that part of the skin covering the intestine, 
radiating striz, which are probably plications produced by the 
contractions of the buccal opening. At the opposite pole there 
is another opening capable of expanding and contracting itself, 
and at the bottom of which the aboral mass is visible. As at 
the opposite pole there are radiating lines, but finer and situated 
more closely together. 


METAMORPHOSIS. 


After the embryo has become fixed the first stage observed is 
that represented in Plate D, fig. 16, and is composed of an internal 
mass, @, and an external layer, 0, which are separated from each 
other by a fatty layer, c; the first constituting a pyriform mass ; 
the second, soft and transparent; the third is composed of fatty — 
globules closely enveloping the central mass, and in turn envel- 
oped by the external layer. The form of the entire embryo is 
determined by that of the internal mass and is necessarily pyri- 
form. At this stage it does not present in its interior any cavity 


GENERA OF THE Nortu AMERICAN PaLArozoric Bryozoa. 471 


but apparently forms a solid flat mass, composed of thin concen- 
tric layers, a, b, c, in direct contact with each other. In the fol- 
lowing stage (Plate D, fig. 17) the external layer has expanded into 
a round cell, which is separated from the internal mass, and forms at 
this time a discoidal plate. The wall, at first formed of an uniform 
transparent membrane, is now differentiated into three parts: the | 
external layer, d, which completely invests the embryo ; an interior 
layer, a, which has preserved the essential structure of a, fig 16, 
and at this stage consists of a somewhat thick, obscurely cellular 
layer, and is called the endocyst. Between the endocyst and the 
peripheral zone, d, there is already visible a calcareous deposit, 
in the form of an opaque ring. The cavity of the body situated 
between the endocyst and internal mass, before this, compressed 
ina small compass, as shown in fig. 16, Plate D, by the enlargement 
of the external layer into a round sac, becomes very spacious, and 
the fatty globules, heretofore generally adhering to the external 
layer, for the most part detach themselves and drop into the 
spacious cavity. Finally, the internal mass which has preserved 
its pyriform aspect, commences to show two small papillz, which 
are the rudiments of the tentacles. Even at this early stage we 
are able to see, with certainty, that the internal mass forms the 
rudiments of the polyp, of which the inflated portion gives rise 
to the tentacular crown, while the more slender portion is the 
beginning of the alimentary canal. The differentiation of the 
parts of the zocecium proceed in a very gradual manner and, as 
illustrated in fig. 17, are still vague, but in the stage represented 
by fig. 18, Plate D, the parts previously vaguely indicated are 
seen distinctly separated. The rudiment of the polyp is clearly 
seen, divided into the tentacular crown and the beginning of the 
alimentary canal. Moreover, the fatty globules are definitely 
separated from the outer envelope, and are irregularly dissemi- 
nated in the cavity of the body. Another important change 
which takes place at this stage, is the appearance, a little in front 
of the center, and just at the anterior part of the polyp, ofa 
round swelling of the endocyst. The disc first appears in the 
form of a round swelling, sessile on the walls of the body, but is 
soon elevated above the level by the circular uprising of the walls 
of the endocyst, which is rapidly effected and gives rise toa 
tubular conduit, terminated above by a disc, which is pierced by 


472 ReEpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


an opening. This uprising is not uniform but is much more 
rapid forward than behind, so that the disc first occupies a hori- 
zontal position and is parallel with the superior portion of the 
endocyst, but gradually, from the unequal development of the 
sides of the tube, it assumes first an oblique and then a vertical 
position. 

The tube is at first very slender, but rapidly changes to the 
form represented in fig. 19, Plate D; but in this stage it is yet 
entirely membranous, and presents very distinctly a cellular 
structure. Fig. 19 shows the polyp more distinctly ; a tentacu- 
lar crown already well formed, as well as the rectum and the 
stomach distinct from each other. It occupies all the space 
between the tube g, into which is prolonged the tentacular sheath 
and the bottom of the cell, and apparently divides the cavity of 
the last into two symmetrical parts, in each-of which the fatty- 
globules unite in two coherent masses. The endocyst is still 
visible, but becomes less distinct by the thickening, already 
considerable, of the calcareous ectocyst. | 

In the following stages (figs. 20, 21) the terminal disc is com- 
pleted, also the terminal opening which forms the mouth of the 
cell; also the tube /, which is a little elongated, is covered, with- 
out sensibly increasing the diameter, by a calcareous layer, 
continuous with the primitive ectocyst, which it soon equals in 
thickness. Figure 20 shows the continuation of the growth of 


the polyp, the tentacles begin to elongate themselves into the ~ 


tube, which begins to lose its very regular form. 

_ The two symmetrical masses of fatty globules, which are 
seen in the preceding stage (fig. 19) assembled to the right and 
left of ‘the polyp, are at this stage condensed in two compact 
masses, Occupying a much smaller space. The arrangement of 
the globules are the same as in the Cheilostomata at a corre 
sponding stage, except that in those forms they are condensed in 
“one mass instead of two, as in this form. Passing by the inter- 


mediate stages (fig. 21) shows us the polyp completely formed, 


with a pigmented stomach (hepatic follicles?). Figure 22 shows us 
the last stage in which the polyp is observed before the completion 
of the cell. 

Figure 23 shows us a completed cell, and fig. 24 a group of 
cells, of which the cells marked 2 were formed by the budding 
of the cell, whose growth we have been studying. 


ik hight OS 


_ Geyer or THE Norta American PatAnozoic Bryozoa. 473 


In Plate E, figs. 1, 2, show the free embryo, front and back 
view of Mottta. | | 

a, Ciliary plume. 6, Mouth of gastrula. ce, Oculiform points. 
d, Obscure portion of the body, comprised between the two. 
branches of the stomach (intestine of Repracdorr?). 

Figures 3 and 4 show the changes toward the formation of a 
cell. p, The polyp. 7, Fatty globules disseminated in the period 
following fixation. e, Endocyst. e’, Ectocyst. z, The peri- 
pheral zone. In fig. 5 the calcareous ectocyst has acquired its 
normal thickness, while the peripheral zone has disappeared, as 
we have already seen in Tusutipora. The primitive cell is now 
completely ‘formed and has always on the right or left a lateral 
cell. Figure 6 represents a more advanced stage than fig. 
5. The lateral cell 1, after increasing in size, buds and is now 
divided by a wall into two superimposed cells, 1 and 1’, both 
still incomplete. In fig. 7 the cell 1 has acquired its com- 
plete development, but has not given birth to another cell. The 
cell 1’, has increased in size and shows two new cells, 2 and 2’, 
budding from it, showing in this stage as two lateral swellings ; 
2’ is already divided from its parent cell by a wall. In fig. 8 we 
see that the rudimentary cells of the preceding figures have in- 
creased in growth, 1’ being completely formed and the others 
well advanced; moreover, we see that the cells 1, 2, 1’ and 2’ are 
spread out to the left in such a manner as to fill the space be- 
tween them and the neighboring cells, a process resulting in 
three new cells, 3, 3’ and 3". In fig. 9 we see that the cells num- 
bered 3 have increased in size, while the cells numbered -2 are: 
nearly or quite completed, whilst the cells numbered 3 have 
spread out in such a manner as to fill the interstices between 
them and the cells 1’, 2, 2’, giving birth to a new range of cells 
numbered 4, composed of more and more numerically, which in 
turn thicken and give birth to another range. This form of 
growth continues indefinitely, each range of rudimentary cells 
giving birth to a new range, while the cells of the preceding 
range acquire their complete character. The continuation of 
‘this mode of growth finally forms a discoidal mass, the primitive 
60 


474. Report oF THE State Geroxocist. 


b 


cell occupying the center, the mass growing in size by the in- 
crease of the cells occupying the border. 


a 29a b 


Left-hand figure. Bicellaria ciliata, Free embryo, oral face. 
Right-hand figure. Canda repens. Free embryo, profile view. a, Pharynx; b, Opening of the 
cavity ; c, Stomach; d, Mouth of the gastrula; e, Flagellum; g, Aboral mesoderm;; J, Intestine. 


STATOBLASTS. 


In the Hippocrepian forms, there is still another mode of repro- 
duction. At certain seasons of the year peculiar bodies occur 
attached to the funiculus (fig. 18, z) or lying loose in the perigas- 
tric space, to which ALtmMan has given the name of statoblasts, 
figs. 30,31. They are lenticular bodies, varying in different genera 
from orbicular to elongate oval, and enclosed in a horny shell, . 
consisting of two concavo-convex discs, united at their margins 
by a ring, which is of a different structure from the discs. 

The statoblasts have erroneously been described as an egg, but 
“are considered by Attmaw to be a form of bud. They are devel- 
oped on the funiculus and may be seen on that organ in various 
stages of growth. : 

The following account of them is taken from ALiMaAn’s 
‘“ Fresh-Water Polyzoa.” 

“In Lopsorus I have succeeded in following them through 
their various stages of early development. Their first appear. 
ance here is in the form of little swellings on the funiculus, 
consisting of a mass of minute cells, surrounded by a dense 
layer, continuous with the surface of the funiculus. The swell- 
ing now increases in size and assumes a more regularly oval 
form, whilst its contents appear more uniformly granular, and 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN Patarozorc Bryozoa. 475 


are plainly to be seen to be composed of two masses in close 
apposition to each other [fig. 30, a]. We next find that the two 


x 
Be 


Fie. 80. Showing the development of a statoblast (after ALLMAN). 


- masses have lost their distinctness and fused together, and the 
whole contents now appear to be composed of minute cells, con- 
fined by common, external, transparent membrane, which is itself 
plainly cellular [4]. The cellular condition of its contents must 
not be confounded with true segmentation. The whole body 
now begins to assume a more lenticular form, and within the 
external envelope two other investments begin to show them- | 
selves. One of these, the more internal, extends over the whole 
of the cellular mass, but the other is confined to the margin 
of the lenticular mass, which it embraces in the form of a 
ring [c]. No manifest structure, beyond a simple granular one, 
can as yet be detected in these last formed envelopes; but the 
ring is soon seen to be composed of distinct cells [@], which . pre- 
sent a bright central nucleus-like point, and a number of concen- 
tric layers, which remind us of the secondary deposits in certain 
vegetable cells. Up to this point the investments are all color- 
less and nearly transparent, but we now find that the internal 
envelope and annulus become more and more opaque, while the 
former assumes a deep brown color and the latter becomes 
yellow. They have both acquired a horny consistence, and the 
annulus is composed of large hexagonal cells filled with air. If 
now the whole be crushed under the microscope multitudes of 
cells will escape all filled with minute, strongly-refracting cor- 
puscles, but any further observation of the progressive develop- 
ment of the contents, up to the opening of the statoblast and 
the escape of the young polyzoan, is henceforth, on account of 
the opacity of the covering, impossible. The statoblast having 


476 Report oF THE State Geoxoaist. 


now its full form and breaking free from the funiculus,'lies free 
in the perigastric space. 


Fie. 31. A fully developed statoblast, frond.and side view (after ALLMAN). 


‘“‘ When exposed to conditions favorable to its development, the 
two faces after a longer or shorter period separate from one 
another and a young polyzoan gradually emerges and floats 
away freely through the surrounding water. The surface of 
the young polyzoan thus become free is destitute of cilia except 
on the tentacles, and the motions of the young animal seem to be 
quite passive, except as they may be influenced by the cilia on 
the tentacles. At the period of its escape it possesses all the 
essential organization of the adult. The retractor muscles are 
well developed and the polypid is capable of regular exsertion 
and contraction, but the ectocyst is colorless and transparent 
and free from the earthy particles which in the greater number 
of species are afterward formed in it, and the little animal is . 
still simple. It loses no time, however, in developing gemme, 
which soon change it to the compound form of the adult. 

“The general structure of the statoblasts being now under- 
stood, the important question at once suggests itself, What is the 
true importance of these bodies? All that we have seen of them 
is manifestly in accordance with the nature of a bud. The 
invariable absence of a germinal vesicle and germinal spot, and 
their never exhibiting the phenomena of yelk cleavage, inde- 
pendently of the conclusive fact, that true ova and ovary occur 
elsewhere in the same individual, are quite decisive against their 
being eggs. We must then look upon them as gemme peculiarly 
encysted and destined to remain for a period in a quiescent or 
pupa-like state. It was for this reason, therefore, that I pro- 
posed for them the name of statoblasts — Statd- Bidory.” 


NORTH AMERICAN PALAEOZOIC BRYOZOA. 


C.assIFICATION. 


In determining the systematic position of the forms described 
in this paper, the form and manner of growth of the zoarium as 
a whole, as well as that of each cell, has been considered. 

It is best not to give too much weight to microscopical charac- 
ters, which not one student in ten can detect, to the neglect of 
more obvious characters, which can be observed by any student 
of ordinary scientific penetration. This is especially true of 
those forms which have undergone fossilization, and the con- 
sequent modification of microscopic characters. 

It is a well-understood fact that one making a special study of 
a certain group or groups can see minute differences whieh can 
not be distinguished by others; not that they do not exist, but in 
order to distinguish them it needs constant and close study of 
that particular group; and it is apt to be the case that in the 
study of these minute differences more important points of 
agreement are overlooked. . 

In many forms, as Stictorora, the cells, from their manner of 
growth, need some support. In some species this support is pro- 
vided for by a vesicular tissue between the cells; in others 
the space between the cells is filled up by an apparently, but not 
in reality, solid mass. As the structure in either case is simply 
for the support of the individual cells, if in other respects the 
zoarium and zocecia are essentially the same, such difference in 
the supporting structure can make but little difference in system- 
atic position of the two forms; certainly not a generic difference. 

Though the Montiovutirroripz and allied forms are described 
here, there is but little doubt that all the forms which are 
here placed in the family AmpLtexororip# and other allied forms 
are not Bryozoa. Any form which increases by fissiparity or 
by coenenchymal gemmation, must of necessity be considered as 
a Coral. 


478 Report oF THE State Geotoaist. 


In Miller’s “North American Geology and Paleontology,” 
1889, the names of 1093 species of Bryozoa are given, occurring 
in the different geological formations of this country, as follows: 


Species. 
5G 01 A aa ee Rl NA el Jet ca an 5 
Trenton: 6.23080 0e il. Se ee 79 
Hudson River (......0.0). 60.600 De 141 
Clintom or. 2. cee ce aie ke est hoe AS 
Ninearaeene ! cn, weee ne De ese Soe 1a ee 95 
Lower Helderberg .2.......200.0.6,00+.40: or 86 
Cormiterous. 0. ccc. 6 ee eles ch pein ns Cee 201 
Hamilton’. oe oc oooala van suka cole 203 
ROTTS ys Ae sh coh s one es ty alee 
Sub Carbonilerous «(005.0 00)  A e Re 229. 
Carboniferous: o.oo obuieknic (cee ee oi 34 
Permian... ec kaha ads vewuses lance 3 


But no significance can be attached to these figures, as the 
Bryozoa of some of the formations have been more thoroughly 
studied than those of others. For instance, though more forms 
have been described from the Lower Carboniferous than from 
the Hamilton Group, more than sixty additional species of the 
FrnusTELLip# alone from the Hamilton Group have been described 
in manuscript from the State of New York, and these occur in a 
comparatively small collection. It is safe to say that not one- 
half of the species of Bryozoa occurring in this country have yet 
been described. 


Sub-kingdom MOLLUSCOIDEA. 
Class BRYOZOA. 
Order Gymnolcemata. 


Sub-order Chilostomata. 
Family Fenestellide, King, emend. 


ANASTOMOPORA. ARCHIMEDES. A RCHIMEDIPORA. 
Crotoporina. FENESTELLA. FENESTRALIA. I ENESTRAPORA. 
FLABELLIPORA. FLABELLIPORELLA. Hexzicopora. HeEmirryPa. 
Isotrypa. Locurrpora. Lyroprora. .LyRoPoRIDRA. 
LyroporInA. LyRoporRELIA. Payriopora. PoLypora. 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALAEozorc Bryozoa. 479 


PoLyPoRELLA. PritoporA. PriLopoRELLA. PTILOPORINA. 
Pinnaporina. PiNNApoRELLaA. 

RetTeroRINA. SyNOCLADIA. TECTULIPORA. 
TECIULIPORELLA. UNITRYPA. | 


Family Acanthocladiidae, Zittel, emend. 
AOCANTHOCLADIA. GLAUCONOME. IcHTHYORACHIS. RAMIPORA. 


Family Thamniscide, King. 
CRISINELLA.. Diptopcra. 'THAMNISCUS. 
THAMNICELLA. 


Family Arthrostylidz, Ulrich, emend. 


ARTHROSTYLUS. 


Family Stictoporidz, Ulrich, emend. 


-CERAMELLA. Evurypictya. EvaAcriNnopoRA. 
Pacuypiotya. PuHyciopictya. Prismorora. 
SCALARIPORA. SEMIcPORA. STICIOCELLA. 
STIOTOPCORA. STICTOPORIDRA. STICTOPORELLA. 
TAENIODIOTYA. 'TAENIOPORA. 


Family Intraporide, nov. fam. 


CoscInELLA. INTRAPORA. SEMIOPORA. 
STICTOPCRELLA. 


Family Cystodictyidz, Ulrich, emend. 
Cystop:ctyA. Coscrnium. DicHotrRyPaA. 
PHRAOCTOPORA. MEEKAPORA. 


Family Actinotrypide, nov. fam. 
AOTINOTRYPA. 


Family Rhinoporide, Ulrich. 


RHINOPORA. 


Family Ptilodictyide, Zittel, emend. 


GraptTopictya. PH#NvuPporA. PuILopiIcrya. 
Pritotrypa. STioToPpoRINA. STIOTOTRYPA. 


- 


480 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Family Acrogenide, nov. fam. 
AOROGENIA. DICRANOPORA. (GONIOTRYPA. 


Family Clathroporide, nov. fam. 


CLATHROPORA. 


Family Thamnotrypide, nov. fam. 


THAMNOTRYPA. 


Family Arthroclemidz, nov. fam. 


-ARTHOCLEMA. HELOPORA. 'SEPTOPORA. 


Family Rhomboporide, nov. fam. 


BAtTosTOMELLA. Co oELOcONUS. RHOMBOPORA. 
-TREMATELLA. 


Family Streblotrypidz, Ulrich emend. 


CALLOTRYPA. STREBLOTRYPA. 
ByTHOPORA. 


Family Rhabdosemonide, Vine, emend. 


ACANTHOCLEMA. NEMATAXIS. 


Family Bactroporide,. nov. fam. 


Bactrorporsa. NEMATOPORA. 


Family Chilotrypidz, nov. fam. 


CHILOTRYPA. 


Family Phaceloporidz, Ulrich. 
PHACELOPORA. | 


Family Worthenoporidz, Ulrich. 
W oRTHENOPORA. 


Suborder CYCLOSTOMATA. 
Family Fistuliporinide, nov. fam. 
Ca@LocaAuLis. FIsTuLIPORIDRA. FISTULIPORINA. 


PINACOTRYPA. 


GeneERA oF THE NortH AMERICAN PAaLaArozorico Bryozoa. 


Family Fistuliporide, Ulrich emend. 
Fistutrpora. LiIcoHENALIA. STROTOPORA. 
? FIsTULIPORELLA. 
¢ GLOSSOTRYPA. 


Family Odontotrypide, nov. fam. 
Eripopora. OpontotryPA. PILEOTRYPA. 
SELENOPORA. | 
Family Ceramoporide, Ulrich emend. 


CERAMOPORA. ATAOCTOPORA. PRETIGOPORA. 


Family Ceramoporellidz, nov. fam. 
CERAMOPORELLA. CHILOPORELLA. OREPIPORA. 
DIAMESOPORA. 

Family Lichenoporide. 


BotryLuopoRA. SPHAGIOPORA. SOENELLOPORA. 


Family Tubuliporide, Busk. 


BerenickA. Drastopora. DrAstToroRINa. 
Hernopia. Proposcina. SAGENELLA. 
STOMATOPORA. 


Family Entalophoridz, Reuss. | | 


Cronopora. COystopora. MuITooLEMA. 


Family Reptaride, nov. fam. 


ReEpTARIA. HEDERELLA. 


Suborder TREPOSTOMATA. 
Family Monticuliporidz, Nicholson emend. 
Homotryres. Monticutirora. PErRoNOPORA. 


Family Amplexoporidz, Ulrich emend. 
AmpLExoporA. DgseKayra. HegrtrerotryPa. 
LeptotryPpa. Monotrrypa. MonoTryPELLa. 


Prratotrypa. PrycHoneMa. STENOPORA. 
61 


481 


4892 . Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Family Prasoporide. 
AsPIpoPpoRA. ATACTOPORELLA. HoMOTRYPELLA. 


PRASOPORA. 


Family Calloporidz, Ulrich emend. 
Batostoma. OantoporaA. DrKayerta. DieLotrypa. 


2 IpIOTRYPA. ; 
Suborder CTEN OSTOMATA. 


Ascopictyum. RHAPOLONARIA. VINELLA. 


UNCLASSIFIED. 


— CycrtoporA. PrRovutE ua. 


COT & Or PH &~ 


28 


1801 
1821 


1825 
1826 
1832 
1836 
1839 
1840 
1841 


1842 
1842 
1844 
1846 
1847 
1849 
1849 
1850 
1851 
1851 
1851 
1852 
1855 
1857 
1858 
1858 
1858 
1858 
1859 
1860 


PoalatOGRAPH Y: 


Fossil forms found in North America. 


Lamarck. System. Animaux sans vert. 

Lamourrux. Exposition methodique des genres de 
Vordre des Polypiérs. 

Bronn. System. des Urwelt; Pfian. 

GotpFuss. Petrefacta Germaniea. 

Eaton. Geological Text-book. 

Puiturres. Geol. Yorkshire, pt. 2. 

Lonspatr. Maurchison’s Silurian System. 

Troost. 5th Rept. Geol. Tennessee. 

Puaiturps. Pal. Foss. Cornwall, Devon and W. Somer 
Set. : 

LieSvuxur. Amer. Jour. Science, Vol. 43, p. 19. 

Vanouxrem. Geol. Rep. 3d Dist. N. Y. 

McCoy. Carboniferous Fossils of Ireland. 

Krysrrtine. Geognost. Beobacht. 

Hatz. Palaeontology of New York, Vol. 1. 

McCoy. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 2nd Series, Vol. 3. 

Kine. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 2nd Series, Vol. 3. 

D’ Orzieny. Prodrome de Paléontologie, Tome 1. 

Epwarps AnD Harmer. Pal. Foss. des Terr. Pal. 

Lronnarp anpD Bronn. Neues Jahrbuch. 

Hatz. Foster’s and Whitney’s Report, Vol. II. 

Hatt. Palaeontology of New York, Vol. II. 

Satter. Belcher’s Last Arctic Voyage. 

Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Vol. I. 

Swattow. Trans. St. Louis Acad., Vol. I. 

Prour. Trans. St. Louis Acad., Vol. I. 

Bituines. Canadian Journal. 

Harty. Geol. Rept., Lowa. 

Prout. Trans. St. Louis Acad. Science. 

Prout. Trans. St. Louis Acad. Science. 


484 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
35a 
36 


37 
38 
39 
40 
40a 
41 
49, 
43 
44 
45 
45a 
456 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
Do 


60 
61 


1860 
1860 
1860 
1862 


(1862 


1863 
1863 
1865 
1865 


1866 
1866 
1866 
1868 
1868 
1869 
kewl 
1872 
1872 
1873 
1873 
1873 
1873 
1874 
1874 
1874 


1874 


1874 
1874 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1875 
1875 


1875 
1875 


Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Rormer. Sil. Fauna West. Tennessee. 

EroHwaup. Lethaea Rossica. 

Hatt. Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, Vol vi 

McCoy. Carb. Foss. of Ireland. 

Bituines. Palaeozoic Fossils, Vol. I. 

Des Kosincx. Quart. Jour. Geol. Society. 

Winone.t. Proc. Acad. Nat. Science. 

Bruines. Cat. Silur. Foss. Anticosti. 

Mrex and Wortuen. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila- 
delphia. 

WinowELt. Rept. Lower Peninsula, Michigan. 

Rominerr. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia. 

Prout. Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci. 

Mex and WorrHey. Geol. Survey Ill., Vol. ILL. 

Dawson. Acadian Geology. : 

SaFForD. Geology, Tennessee. 

Musk. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., Philadelphia. 

Murr. Pal. Eastern Nebraska. | 

Mutx. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia. 

Hatt and Wuitrierp. 23d Rep. N.Y. State Museum. 

Nicuotson. Can. Nat. and Geologist. 

Mrex. Pal. Ohio, Vol. I. 

Merrx. Hayden’s 6th Rep. Geol. Sur. Terr. 

Nicuotson. Geol. Magazine, N.S., London, Vol. I. 

Nicwoison. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXXIV. 

NicHotson anp Hinpze. Canadian Journal. 

Wuite. Geol. Survey West 100th Meridian, Vol. IV. 

Bituines. Palaeozoic Fossils, Vol. II. 

Hatt. 226th Rept. N. Y. State Museum. 

James. Intro. to Cat. Am. Fossils. 

Hart and Wuirtrietp. Pal. of Ohio, Vol. II. 

Nicuorson. Geological Magazine, Vol. I. 


Youne and Youne. Proc. Nat. Hist. Sce., ‘Glasgow. : 


Nicuotson. Pal. Province of Ontario. 

Touta. Neues Jarhbuch fiir Mineral. 

Touta. Permo-Carbon. Fossilien von der West Kiiste 
von Spitzbergen. 

Nicuorson. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 

Nionoitson. Pal. of Ohio, Vol. II. 


=—— 


=—_—.—-~ 


62 
63 


67 
68 
68d 
69 
ya 
T1la 
71d 
T1e 
Tle 
2 


73 
74 
75 
76 
717 
78 
79 
80 
81 
82 
83 
84 
85 
86 
87 
88 
89 
90 
91 
92 
92a 
93 
94 
94a 
95 


GENERA OF THE NortuH AMERICAN PALArEozoic Bryozoa. 485 


1876 
1877 


1878 
1878 
1878 
1878 
1878 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1879 
1881 


18381 
1881 
1882 
1882 
1882 
1882 
1883 
1833 
1883 


1883 


1883 
1884 


1884 


1884 
1834 
1885 
1885 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1887 
1887 
1888 
1888 
1890 


Harty. 28th Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Museum. 

Nicuotson. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 4th Series, 
Vol. XIX. 

Wuirrietp. Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Wisconsin. 

Mitter. Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. 

Uxrion. Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. 

Waits. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila. , 

Micter and Dysr. Cont. to Paleontology, No. 2. 

Urion. . Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. : 

Hatt. Deserp. New Species Fossils. 

Nicuorson. Paleozoic Tabulate Corals. 

Harr. 32d Rep. N. Y. State Museum Nat. Hist. 

Nicnorson. Structure and Affinities of Monticuli- 
pora. 

Hatt. Trans. Albany Inst., Vol. X. 

Haut. Bryozoans of the Upper Held. Gr. 

WuitrigsLtp. Geol. Wisconsin, Vol. LY. 

Mirirr. 2d ed. Palaeozoic Fossils. 

James. Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V. 

Uxeicxe. Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V. 

CuaypoLe. Quart. Jour. Geological Society. 

Vaw Creve. Indiana Geol. & Nat. Hist., 12th Rept. 

Foorp. Cont. to Micro-Palzontology. 

Hatt. Report of State Geologist. 

Utrica. Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI. 

Unricw. Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VII. 

Spencer. Bull. No. 1, Univ. Missouri. — 

Rinevesure. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 

Harty. Rept. State Geologist N. Y. 

James. Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. 

Hart. Report of State Geologist. 

Uxrice. Cont. to Amer. Pal. 

Rinevesure. Bulletin Buffalo Soc. Nat. Hist. 

Urricu. 14th Rep. Geol. Surv. Minnesota. 

Uxrica. Bulletin Dennison University. 

Hans. + Palate Y., Vol. VI. 

Uxrica. Bulletin Dennison University. 

Uxreica. American Geologist. — 

Uneicn. Geol. Surv. [Il., Vol. VIII. 


486 REpPoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


96 1893 Utrica. Geol. Surv. Minnesota. 
97 1894 -Smpson. Genera of Fenestellide. 
98 1889 Utricu. Micro-Paleontology of Canada. 

In the list of species, the name of each species is followed by 
a number and letter. The number refers to the work in which 
the species was first described, the letter to the formation in 
which the species occurs, as follows: 


C. CHAZY. K. CORNIFEROUS. 

D. TRENTON. L. HAMILTON... 

E. HUDSON RIVER. N. CHEMUNG. 

F. CLINTON. O. LOWER CARBONIFEROUS. 
G. NIAGARA. P. CARBONIFEROUS. 

H. LOWER HELDERBERG. R. PERMIAN. 


GENERA AND Sprorzrs of AmeRicAN Patatozoio Bryozoa. 

In the list of works containing accounts of genera and species, 
each work is preceded by a number. The number following 
each name refers to those numbers. The letter refers to the 
geological formation. (See above.) | 


ACANTHOCLADIA, 15. ANISOTRYPA, 83. 
americana, 23, R. fistulosa, 95, O. 
fruticosa, P. ramulosa, 95, O. 

ACANTHOCLEMA, 93. solida, 95, O. 
alternatum, 74, K. symmetrica, 83, O. 
bispinulatum, 73, L. ARCHIMEDES, 9. 
confluens, 94, O. communis, 95, O. 
divergens, 93, K. compactus, 95, O. 
ovatum, 93, K. distans, 95, O. 
scutulatum,.'73, L. » grandis, 95, O. 
sulcatum, 93, L. i intermedius, 95, O. 
triseriale, 82, K. invaginatus, 95, O. 

ACROGENIA, 87. laxus, 22, O. 
prolifera, 87, L. : Meekanus, 22, O. Nie 

ACTINOTRYPA, 95. negligens, 95, O. 
peculiaris, 38, P. Owenanus, 22, O. 

AMPLEXOPORA, 78. permienimus, 95, O. 
affinis, 95, E. Proutanus, 95, O. 
Canadensis, 81, D. reversus, 26, O. 
cingulata, 78, E. sublaxus, 95, O. 
discoidea, Cheetetes, 61, Bl. Swallovanus, 22, O. 
pustulosa, E. terebriformis, 95, O. 
robusta, 83 E. Wortheni, 22, O. 
septosa, Atactopora, 71¢, E ARCHIMEDIPORA, 16. 
superba, 81, D. ARTHROCLEMA, 83. 


winchelli, 92, D. angulare, 95, E. 


——— 


Genera or THE Norra AMERICAN PALAEOZOIC Bryozoa. 487 


ARTHROCLEMA, Billingsi, 95, D. 

pulchellum, 33, D. 
ARTHROPORA, 78, 

Shafferi, Stictopora, 44, E. 

simplex, 92, D. 
ARTHROSTYLUS, 94%. 

curtus, Arthronema, 78, E. 

tenuis, Arthronema, 78, D. 
ASCODICTYUM, 63. 

fusiforme, 63, L. 

stellatum, 63, L. 
ASPIDOPORA, 78. 

areolata, 83, E. 

caliculus, Chetetes, 53, D. 

parasitica, 92, D. 
ATACTOPORA, 71%. 

hirsuta, 71%, E. 

maculata, 71%, E. 

subramosa, 71a, E. 
ATACTOPORELLA, 94. 


multigranosa, Atactopora, 71a, E, 


mundula, Atactopora, 71%, E. 

Newportensis, 83, E. 

Ortoni, Cheetetes, 48, E. 

Schucherti, 83, E. 

tenella, Atactopora, 7la, E. 

typicalis, 83, E. 
BACTROPORA, 93. 

curvata, 93, L. 


granistriata, Trematopora, 73, L. 


simplex, 95, O. 
BaTostoma, 78. 
fertile, 92, D. 
imperfectum, 95, E.° 
implicatum, Monticulipora, 
E. 

irrasum, 92, D. 
Jamesi, Cheetetes, 53, E. 
Manitobense, 98, E. 
Ottawense, 81, D. 
Tugosum, Fistulipora, 75, E. 
variabile, 95, E. 

' BATOSTOMELLA, 78. 
abrupta, 95, O. 
gracilis, Cheetetes, 48, E. 
interstincta, 95, O. 
nitidula, 95, O. 
obliqua, 95, L. 
spinulosa, 95, O. 
simulatrix, 95, E. 


BERENICEA, 2. 


insueta, 9, O. 
Minnesotensis, 92, D. 
primitiva, 78, E. 
vesiculosa, 78, E. 


BOTRYLLOPORA, 48. 


socialis, 48, L. 


BUSCOPORA, 92. 


lunata, Fistulipora, 38, K. 
lunata, var. tubulata, Lichenalia, 
89, K. 


BYTHOPORA, 71. 


arctipora, Ptilodictya, 60, E. 
fruticosa, 71, E. 

Herricki, 92, D. 
Nashvillensis, 71¢, D. 
striata, 98, E. 


CALLOPORA, 20. 


aspera, 20, G. 
cellulosa, 82, H. 
cervicornis, 71%, G. 
diversa, 71°, G. 
elegantula, 20, G. 
fistulosa, 82, H. 

florida, 20, G. 
geniculata, 93, K. 
incontroversa, 92, D. 
laminata, 20, G. 
magnopora, 92a, G. 
nodulosa, Cheetetes, 48, E. 
nummiformis, 20, G. 
Ohioensis, 53, G. 
Oneali, Cheetetes, 93, E. 
oppleta, 93, H. 
perelegans, 52, H. 
punctillata, 37, L. 
sigillaroides, Cheetetes. 61, E. 
singularis, 62, G. 
subnodosa, 95, E. 
subplana, 78, E. 
undulata, 92, D. 


CALLOPORELLA, 78. 


Harrisi, 83, E. 
nodulosa, 95, E. 


CALLOTRYPA, 93. 


heteropora, Callopora, 52, H. 

internodata, 71,.L. 

macropora, Callopora, 73, H. 

macropora, var. signata, Cal- 
lopora, 52, H. 


488 Report oF THE StatTE Geroxogist. 


CALLOTRYPA, multiseriata, Callopora, | CHLOCAULIS, 93. 


"4, K. aculeolata, Callopora, 74, K. 
oculifera, Callopora, 71, E. Hyale, Callopora, 52, K. 
paucipora, 98, H. irregularis, Callopora, 74, K. 
striata, 93, H. mediopora, Callopora, 98, H. 

“unispina, Callopora, 52, H. venusta, Callopora, 52, H. 
CERAMELLA, 93. CLOCONUS, 95. 
scidacea, 93, L. granosus, 95, O. 
CERAMOPORA, 20. rhombicus, 95, O. 
agellus, 62, G. COSCINELLA, 93. 
Beani, 88, E. cosciniformis; Ptilodictya, 57, L. 
confluens, 62, G. elegantula, 938, L. 
explanata, 710, G. CoscINium, 12. | 
foliacea, 20, G. asterium, 28, O. 
Huronensis, 55, L. Cyclops, 28, K. 
imbricata, 20, G. elegans, 28, O. 
incrustans, 20, G. escharoides, 28, O. 
labecula, 62, G. Keyserlingi, 28, O. 
labeculoidea, 8&2, H. latum, 95, O. 
maculata, 52, H. Michelini, 28, O. 
maxima, 52, H. plumosum, 28, O. 
Nicholsoni, 53, E. Haganella, 28, O. 
Nothus, 718, G. striatum, 93, O. 
Ohioensis, 61, E. striaturum, 93, K. 
parvicella, 712, H. tuberculatum, 28, O. 
raripora, 71%, G. Wortheni, 20, O. 
CERAMOPORELLA, ‘1. COSCINOTRYPA, 938. 
distincta, 95, E. cribriformis, 24, K. 
granulosa, 95, E. CREPIPORA, 95. 
. stellata, 95, E. epidermata, 95, E. 
CHANODICTYUM, 71a. hemispherica, 95, E. 
laxum, 714, G. simulans, 95, E. 
laxum, var. minor, 95, O. solida, 95, E. 
CHILOPORELLA, 78. CRISINELLA, 82. 
flabellata, 78, E. . scrobiculata, '74, K. 
CHILOTRYPA, 84. CYCLOPORA, 28. 
hispida, 84, O. expatiata, 95, O. 
ostiolata, Trematopora, 20, G. fungi, 28, O. : 
CLATHROPORA, 20. polymorpha, 28, O. 
alcicornis, 20, G. - _ | CYCLOPORELLA, 95. 
Clintonensis, 54, G. perversa, 95, O. 
flabellata, 19, D. spinifera, 95, O. 
frondosa, 20, G. CISTODICTYA, 78. 
gracilis, 85, G. americana, 95, O. 
intermedia, 49, G. angusta, 94, O. 
intertexta, 48, K. Hamiltonensis, 95, L. 
CLONOPORA, 74. . lineata, 84, O. 
fasciculata, 98, K. . nitida, 95, O. 
incurva, 74, K. ocellata, 78, O. 


semireducta, 74, K. Gilberti, 42, K. 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN Patartozoic Bryrozoa. 489 


CISTODICTYA, pustulosa, 95, O. EUSPILOPORA, 95. 
simulans, 94, O. Barrisi, 95, L. 
zigzag, 94, O. serrata, 95, L. ; 
CYSTOPORA, 74. EVACTINOPORA, 36. 
geniculata, 74, K. grandis, 40, O. 
DIAMESOPORA, 20. quinqueradiata, 95, O. 
camerata, Trematopora, 82, K. radiata, 36, O. 
communis, 95, E. . sexradiata, 40, O. 
constricta, Trematopora, 52, H. | FAVICELLA, 93. 
dichotoma, 20, H. inclusa, Thallostigma, 78, L. 
dispersa, Trematopora, 71°, H. FENESTELLA, 6. 
Vaupeli, 95, E. acmea, 62, G. 
DICHOTRYPA, 95. © acuticosta, 29, G 
elegans, 95, O. adornata, 93, H. 
expatiata, 95, O. Adraste, 82, H. 
flabellum, Fistulipora, 38, O. eequalis, 74, K.. 
foliata, 95, L. eesyle, 82, H. 
grandis, 95, G. albida, 93, O. 
intermedia, 95, O. albida, var. Richfieldensis, 95, O. 
_ lyroides, 95, O. Althzea, 82, H. 
DICRANOPORA, 78. ‘angulata, 74, K. 
emacerata, Ptilodictya, 61, E. . angustata, 87, L. 
fragilis, Ptilodictya, 33, E. anonyma, 74, K, 
internodia, Ptilodictya, 71, E. aperta, 93, O. 
lata, 78, E. arctica, 21, P. 
nitidula, Ptilodictya, 33, E. aspectans, 87, L. 
Trentonensis, 78, D. assita, 87, L. 
DIPLOCLEMA, 95. banyana, 27, O. 
Trentonense, 93, D. bellistriata, 71, G. 
DIPLOPORA, 56. bicornis, 85, F. 
bifurcata, 95, O. bifurca, 90, K. 
biserialis, 95, O. bifurcata, 39, L. 
ee bigeneris, 90, K. 
devonica, 90, K. biimbricata, 74, K, 
elegans, Cheetetes, 71 , E. biseriata, 74, K. 
ENALLOPORA, 16. biserrulata, 74, K. 
cinctosa, Mitoclema, 78, D. brevilinea, 87, L. 
perantiqua, Gorgonia, 13, D. Burlingtonensis, 95, O. 
ERIDOPoRA, 78. cavernosa, 90, O. 
macrostoma, 78, O. Cestriensis, 95, O. 
minima, 90, K. cinctura, 74, L. 
punctifera, 78, O. cingulata, 95, O. 
ESCHAROPORA, 13. clathrata, 98, K. 
angusta, 71°, G. Cleia, 82, H. 
recta, 13, D. conferta, 71,, G. 
recta, var. nodosa, 13, D. confertipora, 93, K. 
EURYDICTYA, 95. coronis, 82, H. 
Calhounensis, 95, D. corticata, 24, P. 
montifera, 95, E. crebripora, 52, H. 
Sterlingensis, 95, E. cribrosa, 20, G. 


62 


490 Report or THE State Geroxoaist. 


FENESTELLA, cultrata, 74, K. FENESTELLA, patellifera, 90, K. 
curvata, 87, L. perelegans, 438, P. 
curvijunctura, 74, K. . permarginata, 74, K. 
¢cylindracea, 74, K. perminuta, 95, O. 


Davidsoni, 55, L. perplexa, 74, K. 
delicata, 42, O. pertenuis, 71», G. 
depressa, 74, K. philia, 82, H. 
delata, 39, L. 
dispanda, 93, K. 
elegans, 20, G. 
elevatipora, 95, O. 
emaciata, 87, L. 
erectipora, 74, K. 
exigua, 95, O. 
eximia, 37, L. 
exornata, 87, L. 


planiramosa, 87, L. 
plebeia, 32, P. 
Popeana, 94, R. 
prisca, 6, F. 
proceritas, 93, K. 
prolixa, 71°, G. 
Proutana, 76, K. 
pulchella, 94, K. 


filistriata, 95, O. puncto-striata, 62, G. 
filitexta, 37, L. quadrangula, 87, L. 
flexuosa, 95, O. quadrula, 82, H. 
foliata, 94, O. regalis, 94, O. 
funicula, 95, O. remota, 95, O. 
granifera, 74, K. rudis, 95, O. 
granulosa, 67, E. sculptilis, 90, K. 
hemitrypa, 27, O. semirotunda, 74, K. 
Herrickana, 94, O. serrata, 74, K. 
Hestia, 87, H. serratula, 94, O. 
Idalia, 52, H. Sevillensis, 94, O. 
inaequalis, 95, O. Shumardi, 24, P. 
inflexa, 87, L. singularitas, 74, K. 
intermedia, 24, O. sinuosa, 95, K. 
interrupta, 74, K. Spio, 95, H. 
junceus, 82, H. stellata, 74, Ke 
latijunctura, 74, K. subflexuosa, 94, O. 
latitruncata, 87, L. subretiformis, 24, P. 
limbata, 71, O. — substriata, 74, K. 
lineanoda, "4, K, A fie subtortilis, 87, ee 
lunulata, 74, K. ; Sylvia, 52, H. 
Lyelli, 40,, O. Tantalus, 71°, G. 
magnifica, 48, K. tenax, 95, O. 
marcida, §7, L. tenella, 98, K. 
marginalis, 48, K. tenuis, 20, F. 
Meekana, 94, O. Thyena, 82, H. 
mimica, 95, O. torta, 74, K. 
modesta, 95, O. tuberculata, 24 K. 
multiplex, 87, L. trituberculata, 93, P. 
multispinosa, 95, O. variabilis, 24, P. 
nodosa, 95, L. variopora, 74, K. 
Norwoodana, 24, O. vera, 95, L. 
parallella, 74, K. verrucosa, 82, K. 
peculiaris, 82, K. virgosa, 30, P. 


parvulipora, 62, G. Wortheni, 95, O. 


GrnerRA OF THE Norto American Patarozorc Bryozoa. 


FENESTRALIA, 24. 
St.-Ludovici, 24, O. 


St.-Ludovici, var. compacta, 95, O. 


FENESTRAPORA, 89. 
biperforata, 89, K. 
infraporosa, 90, K. 
occidentalis, 95, L. 

FISTULIPORA, 14. 
acervulosa, 38, L. 
astricta, 95, L. 
carbonaria, 84, P. 
collina, 95, L. 
communis, 95; L. 
compressa, 38, O. 


confertipora, Thallostigma, 73, L. 
constricta, Lichenalia, 73, L. 


corrugata, 95, L. 
crassa, 30, L. 


decipiens, Thallostigma, 73, L. 


densa, 73, L. 
digitata, 73, L. 
Eriensis, 38, L.* 
excellens, 84, O. 
Foordi, 9°, L. 
Halli, 38, G. 

helios, 38, K. 
hemispherica, 73, L. 
incrassata, 47, L. 
intercellata. 73, K. 
involvens, 95, L. 
labiosa, 37, L. 
lamellata, 73, K. 
lens, 67, E. 
longimacula, 73, L. 
micropora, 67, L. 
minuta, 38, L. 
monticulata, 95, L. 
multiaculeata, 87, L. 
nodulifera, 43, P. 
normalis, 90, K. 
occidens, 45, N. 
Oweni, 85, E. 
parasitica, 715, H. 
prolifica, 84, O. 
proporoides, 71¢, L. 
ponderosa, 52, H. 
Saffordi, 37, L. 
scrobiculata, 87, L. 
segregata, 87, L. 
serrulata, 87, L. 


FISTULIPORA, solidissima, 67, E. 


spergenensis, 38, O. 
spheroidea, 87, L. 
spinulifera, 38, L. 
stellifera, 38, L. 
subtilis, 87, L. 
sulcata, 38, L. 
triangularis, 87, L. 
trifaria, 93, L. 
trifolia, 38, O. 
triloba, 93, H. 
umbilicata, 87, L. 
unilinea, 93, L. 
utricula, 38, L. 
variopora, 87, L. 
tuberculata, 27, O. 
GLAUCONOME, 38. 
bellula, 95, O. 
carinata, 87, L. 
curvata, 94, O. 
flexuosa, 95, O. 
intermedia, 94, O.; 
minor, 94, O. 
nereidis, 50, P.! 
nodata, 74, K. 
simulatrix, 95, O. 
sinuosa, 74, K. 
subangulata, 94, O. 
tenuiramosa, 94, O.' 
tenuistriata, 94, K. 
trilineata, 43, P. 
Vinii, 94, K. 
Whitii, 940, O. 
Youngi, 94, O. 
GLOSSOTRYPA, 93 
paliformis, 73, K. 
GONIOTRYPA, 95. 
bilateralis, 95, E. 
GRAPTODICTYA, 78. 
nitida, 78, E. 
perelegans, 68, E. 
HEDERELLA, 87. 
Canadensis, 45a, K. 
cirrhosa, 87, L. 
conferta, 87, L: 
filiformis, 25, L. 
magna, 87, L. 
HELICOPORA, 79. 
latispiralis, 79, G. 
Ulrichi, 79, K. 


491 


492 Report or toe Srare Groroaist. 

HELIOTRYPA, 83. HOMOTRYPELLA, 92. — 
bifolia, 83, O. contexta, 95, E. 

HELOPORA, 20. i granulifera, 78, D 
armata, 36,, E. instabilis, 92, D. 
bellula, 36a, E. ICHTHYORACHIS, 11. 
Circe, 36a, E. Nereis, 52, H. 
concava, 3864, E. IDIOTRYPA, 838. 
divaricata, 92, D. parasitica, 83, G. 
formosa, 854, E. INTRAPORA, 74. 
fragilis, 20, F. puteolata, 74, K. 
irregularis, 364, E. ISOTRYPA, 89. 
imbricata, 95, E. conjunctiva, (3. 1 
lineata, 36a, E. consimilis, 89, K. 
liniopora, 36,, E. LABECHIA, 17. 
nodosa, 36¢, E. montifera, 90, E. 
spiniformis, 78, D. LEIOCLEMA, 78. 


striatopora, 36a, E. 


strigosa, 36a, EK. 
variopcra, 36g, E. 


HEMITRYPA, 8. 


aspera, 95, O. 
biordo, 93, K. 
biserialis, 71°, H. 


columellata, 93, K. 


cribrosa, 93, K. 
favosa, 73, K. 
nodosa, 73, O. 


pateriformis, 95, O. 


perstriata, 95, O. 
plumosa, 24, O. 
Proutana, 95, O. 


Proutana var. nodulosa, 95, O. 
Proutana var. vermifera, 95, O. 


tenera, 95, L. 
Ulrichi, 942, F. 


HERNODIA, 87. 


humifusa, 87, L. 


HETERODICTYA; 55. 


gigantea, 55, O. 


HOMOTRYPA, 78. 


arbuscula, 95, D. 
curvata, 78, E. 
exilis, 92, D. 
flabellaris, 95, E. 
gelatinosa, 95, E. 
insignis, 92, D. 


Minnesotensis, 92, D. 


obliqua, 78, E. 
subramosa, 92, D. 


araneum, 95, O. 
foliatum, 95, O. 
gracillimum, 95, O. 
minutissimum, 57, L. 
punctatum, 26, O. 
subglobosum, 95, O. 
Wachsmuthi, 95, O. 
Wilmingtonensis, 95, E. 
LEPTOTRYPA, 84. 
clavacoidea, 53, E. 
clavis, 78, E. 
cortex, 78, E. 
hexagonalis, 95, D. 
minima, 78, E. 
ornata, 78, E. 
semipilaris, 95, E. 
Stidhami, 95, E. 
LICHENALIA, 20. 
alternata, 74, K. 
bistriata, 74, K. 
bullata, 98, L. 
carinata, 74, K. 
clypeiformis, 87, L. 
colliculata, 87, L. 
concentrica, 20, G. 
concentrica, var. maculata, 62,G. 
concentrica, var. parvula, 62, G. 
confusa, 93, L. 
conulata, 74, K. 
cornuta, 938, L. 
crassa, 71¢, H. 
crustacea, 74, K. 
cultellata, 87, L. 


Genera or tue Nortu American Patarozoic Bryozoa. 493 


LICHENALIA, dissimilis, 82, H. 


distans, 82, H. 
foliacea, 87, L. 
geometrica, 93, K. 
imbricella, 87, L. 
maculosa, 87, H. 
operculata, 93, L. 
ovata, 93, K. 
permarginata, 74, K. 
pustulosa, 93, L. 
radiata, 74, K. 
ramosa, 93, L. 
serialis, 93, H. 
stellata, 87, L. 
subcava, 74, K. 
substellata, 74, K. 
subtrigona, 93, L. 
tessellata, 93, L. 
torta, 82, H. 
tortuosa, 82, H. 
vesiculata, 93, L. 
LICHENOTRYPA, 90. 
cavernosa, 90, K. 
- longispina, 73, K. 
LOCULIPORA, 93. 
ambigua, 62, G. 
circumstata, 93, K. 
perforata, 87, L. 
LYROPORA, 22. 
cinctura, 89, L. 
divergens, 95, O. 
lyra, 22, O. 
ovalis, 95, O. 
quincuncialis, 22, O. 
ranosculum, 95, O. 
retrorsa, 40, O. 
subquadrans, yy an © 
MEEKOPORA, 995. 
aperta, 95, O. 
approximata, 95, O. 
_ clausa, 84, O. 
eximia, 95, O. 
NEMATAXIS, 93. 
fibrosus, 93, K. 
simplex, 93, L. 
NEMATOPORA, 95. 
alternata, 95, D. 
delicatula, 95, D. 
quadrata, 95, D. 
retrorsa, 95, D. 


NICHOLSONELLA, 995. 
cumulata, 95, E. 
ponderosa, 95, D. 

ODONTOTRYPA, 93. 
alveata, 73, K. 

| ORTHOPORA, 93. 
bispinulata, 87, L. 
regularis, 52, K. 
ornata, 93, L. 
‘reticulata, 93, L. 
rhombifera, 52, K. 
scutulata, 73, K. 

PACHYDICTYA, 78. 
concilitrix, 92, D. 
Everetti, 95, D. 
fimbriata, 92, D. 
firma, 95, E. 
foliata, 92, D. 
gigantea, 95, E. 
occidentalis, 92, D. 
robusta, 78, D. 
splendens, 95, E. 

PALESCHARA, 52. - 
amplectans, 52, L. 
bilateralis, 82, H. 
concentrica, 93, H. 
incrassata, 62, G. 
incrustans, 52, H. 
intercella, 87, L. 
maculata, 62, G. 
offula, 62, G. 
pertenuis, 87, L. 

radiata, 82, H. 
reticulata, 87, L. 
Sapheerion, 62, G. 
tenuis, 98, H. 
variacella, 87, L. 

PETALOTRYPA, 95. 

~ compressa, 95, L. 
delicata, 95, L. 

PETIGOPORA, 78. 
asperula, 83, E. 
gregaria, 83, E. 
petechialis, 61, E. 

PHACELOPORA, 95. 
constricta, 95, D. 
pertenuis, 95, D. 

PHZZNOPORA, 20. 
constellata, 20, F. 
ensiformis, 20, F. 


494 Rerort oF THE State Geotoaist. 


PHAENOPORA, excellens, 36¢, E. 
expansa, 54, G. 
explanata, 20, F. 
multipora, 19, D. 
tenuis, 52, H. 

PHRACTOPORA, 73. 

‘cristata, 73, K. 


cristata, var. lineata, 98, K. 


PHYLLODICTYA, 78. 
‘frondosa, 78, D.: 
PHYLLOPORA, 15. 
aspera, 95, K. 
. superba, 95, L. 
PILEOTRYPA, 93. 
clivulata, 73, K. 
denticulata, 73, K. 
granifera, 73, K. 
pyriformis, 73, K. 
PINACOTRYPA, 995. 
elegans, 38, L. 
POLYPORA, 11. 
aculeata, 73, K. 
adnata, 73, K. 
Albionensis, 85, G. 
approximata, 95, O. 
Arkonensis, 76, L. 
arta,.112;, iL. 
biseriata, 95, O. 
blandida, 90, K. 
brevisulcata, 73, K. 
Burlingtonensis, 95, O. 
carinella, 93, K. 
celsipora, 73, K. 
Cestriensis, 95, O. 
compacta, 71°, H. 
complanata, 95, O. 
compressa, 71°, H. 
corticosa, 95, O. 
crebescens, 93, K. 
crassa, 93, P. 
cultellata, 78, K. 
distans, 73, K. 
elegans, 52, H. 
elongata, 74, K. 
Eudora, 93, H. 
fistulata, 87, L. 
flabelliformis, 73, K. 
gracilis, 28, O. 
grandis, 58, P. 
granilinea, 73, K. 


POLYPORA, Hallana, 28, O. 


Hamiltonensis, 39, L. 
hexagonalis, 73, K. 
hexagonalis, var. forminulosa, 
Viel: O.. 
idothea, 71° ,-H. 
imbricata, 39, K. 
impressa,'94, O. 
incepta, 20, G. 
intermedia, 24, K. 
leevinodata, 73, K. 
leevistriata, 82, K. 
largissima, 73, K. 
lileea, 52, H. 
Maccoyana, 95, O. 
megastoma, 34, P. 
mexicana, 24, R. — 
mutabilis, 73, K. 
nexa, 73, K. 
nodocarinata, 95, P. 
obliqua, 938, H. 
papillata, 82, P. 
paxillata, 710, H. 
perangulata, 73, K. 


- perundata, 73, K. 


porosa, 73, K. 
propria, 73, K. 
Psyche, 51. 
pulchella, 47, K. 


_quadrangularis, 73, K. 
_radialis, 95, O. 


retrorsa, 95, O. 
rigida, 39, K. 
robusta, 93, K. 
rustica, 98, K. 
separata, 74, K. 
Shumardi, 24, K. 
simulatrix, 95, O. 
spinulifera, 95, O. 
stragula, 50, P. 
striatopora, 73, K. 
stricta, 98, H. 
submarginata, 438, P. 
submutans, 73, K. . 
tenella, 48, K. 
transversa, 90, K. 
tuberculata, 28, O. 
Varsoviensis, 24, O. 
Whitii, 95, P. 
Whitii, var. eximia, 95, P. 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PaLarozoic Bryozoa. 


PRISMOPORA, 74. 
dilatata, 87, L. 
lata, 93, L. 
minima, 95, P. 
paucirama, 74, K. 
serrata, 61, P. : 
serrulata, 84, O. 
Sparsipora, 73, K. 
triquetra, 74, K. 

PROTOCRISINA, 95. 
exigua, 95, D. 

PROUTELLA, 95. 
discoidea, 28, O. 

PTILODICTYA, 6. 
bipunctata, 80, G. 
Briareus, 78, D. 
canadensis, 36%, E. 
dictyota, 46, O. 
falciformis, 61, E. 
fenestelliformis, 61, E. 
flagellum, 61, E. 
gladiola, 36¢, E. 
Hilli, 78, D. 
libana, 41, D. 
lirata, 52, H. 
maculata, 78, E. 
magnifica, 71, E. 
Meeki, 47, K. 
nebulosa, 52, H. 
parallela, 93, L. 
pavonia, 16, E. 
plumaria, 77, E. 
plumea, 93, L. 
punctata, 49, F. 
ramosa, 78, D. 
retiformis, 93, L. 
scutulata, 87, L. 
subrecta, 92, D. 
sulcata, 36%, E. 
superba, 36%, E. 
tarda, 51. 
triangulata, 69, P. 
variabilis, 95, E. 
Whiteavesi, 95, E. 

PTILOPORA, 11. 
acuta, 95, O. 
cylindracea, 95, O. 
infrequens, 93, L. 
nodosa, 87, L. 
paupera, 95, O. 


PTILOPORA, Prouti, 26, O. 
striata, 87, L. 
valida, 95, O. 

PTILOPORELLA, 93. 
inzequalis, 93, K. 
laticrescens, 93, K. 
nervata, 61, G. 

PTILOPORINA, 93. 
conica, 98, K. 
disparilis, 93,-K. 
pinnata, 93, K. 
sinistralis, 93, K. 

PTILOTRYPA, 95. 
obliquata, 95, E. 

RAMIPORA, 59. 
Hochsteteri, 59, P. 

REPTARIA, 18. 
nodata, 87, L. 
penniformis, 87, L. 
stolonifera, 18, L. 

RETEPORINA, 16. 
coalescens, 93, K. 
Hamiltonensis, 39, L. 
perundulata, 87, L. 
Phillipsi, 48, K. 
prisca, 53, L. 
rhombifera, 73, K. 
striata, 87, L. 

RHINIDICTYA, 78. 
granulosa, 93, H. 
Nicholsoni, 78, D. 

RHINOPORA, 20. 
curvata, 91, G. 
frondosa, 54, G. 
tuberculosa, 20, G. 
tubulosa, 20, F. 
venosa, 85, F. 
verrucosa, 20, F. 

RHOMBOPORA, 48. 
armata,-84, O. 
asperrima, 95, O. 
attenuata, 95, O 
crassa, 84, P. 
decipiens, 95, O. 
dichotoma, 95, O. 
elegantula, 84, O. 
exigua, 95, O. 
gracilis, 95, O. 
incrassata, 94, O. 
lepidodendroidea, 43, P. 


496 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. . 


RHOMBOPORA, Ohioensis, 94, O. SPATIOPORA, montifera, 83, E. 
persitnilis, 84, O. tuberculata, 17, E. 
pulchella, 84, O. SPHRAGIOPORA, 95. 
simulatrix, 95, O. parasitica, 95, O. 
spiralis, 95, O. STICTOPORA, 13. 
subannulata, 95, L. acuta, 18,°D. 
sulcifera, 95, L. Alcyone, 35q, E. 
tabulata, 95, O. — alternata, 93, H. 
tenuirama, 95, O. angularis, 93, L. 
transversalis, 95, O. -  arguta, 35a, E. 
varia, 95, O. basalis, 78, D. 
Wortheni, 84, O. bifurcata, 80, G. 

RHOPALOMARIA, 71, Bristolensis, L. 
venosa, ‘71a, E. carbonaria, 42, P. 

SAGENELLA, 20. compressa, £0, G. 
ambigua, E. crassa, 20, F 
elegans, 62, G. crescens, 98, K. 
membranacea, 20, G. crenulata, 87, L. 

SCALARIPORA, 74. divergens, 93, L. 
approximata, 95, L. elegantula, 13, D. 
scalariformis, 74, K. fidelis, $2, D. 
separata, 95, L. fruticosa, 74, K. 
subconcava, 74, K. glomerata, 13, C. 

-SCENELLOPORA, 78. granatula, 93, H. 
radiata, 78, D. granifera, 87, L. 

SCEPTROPORA, 94g, graminifolia, 86, G. 
facula, 94a, E. incisurata, 87, L. 

SELENOPORA, 93. incrassata, 87, L. 
circincta, 73, K. interstriata, 87, L. 
complexa, 73, K. invertis, 74, K. 

SEMICOSCINIUM, 27. labyrinthica, 13, D- 
Eriense, 27, K. *lichenoides, 454, K. 
obliquatum, 90, K. limata, 93, L. 
planodorsatum, 95, K. linearis, 74, K. 
rhomboideum, 27, K. lobata, 98, L. 
rhombicum, 95, L. magna, 54, G. 
tuberculatum, 28, K. , multifida, 80, G. 

SEMIOPORA, 87. mutabilis, 92, D. 
bistigmata, 87, L. obsoleta, 98, H. 

SEPTOPORA, 27. orbipora, 71%, G. 
Cestriensis, 27, O. ovata, 93, L. 
decipiens, 95, O. : ovatipora, 74, K. 
delicatula, 95, O. palmipes, 87, L. 
robusta, 95, P. papillosa, 82, H. 
subquadrans, 95, O. paupera, 90, D. 

SPATIOPORA, 78, perarcta, 74, K. 
areolata, 81, D. permarginata, 87, L. 
aspera, 83, E. punctipora, 20, G. 
lineata, 88, E. - ramosa, 13, D. 


musculosa, 8&3, E. raripora, 20, F. 


GENERA OF THE NortuH AMERICAN PALAEOZzOIC Bryozoa. 


STICTOPORA, recta, 93, L. 


rectilinea, 93, L. 
recubans, 87, L. 
rhomboidea, 74, K. 
rigida, 74, K. 
rustica, 35%, E. 
scitula, 93, G. 
semistriata, 74, K. 
similis, 62, G. 
sinuosa, 62, L. 
striata, 87, L. 
subrigida, 93, L. 
sulcata, 37, L. 
tenera, 354, E. 
trilineata, 93, L. 
tumulosa, 93, L. 
Vanclevii, 82, G. 
variabilis, 39, K. 
vermicula, 93, K. 


STICTOPORELLA, 78. 


angularis, 90, D. 
basalis, 95, O. 
cribrosa, 90 D. 
frondifera, 90, D. 
interstincta, 78, E. 
undulata, 95, O. 


STICTOPORINA, 93. 


claviformis, 73, L. 


STOMATOPORA, 2¢. 


alternata, 45, N. 
auloporoides, 61, E. 
confusa, 61, E. 
frondosa, 61, E. 
inflata, 138, D. 
nexilis, 53, E. 
pertenuis, $2, D. 
Proutana, 76, E. 


STREBLOTRYPA, 95. 


denticulata, 95, O. 
distincta, 95, O. 
Hamiltonensis, 48, L. 
Hertzeri, 94, O. 
major, 95, O. 
multiporata, 94, O. 
Nicklesi, 95, O. 
obliqua, 94, O. 
radialis, 95, O. 
regularis, 94, O. 
striata, 94, O. 
subspinosa, 95, O. 


63 


STROTOPORA, 95. 
dermata, 95,0. 
favolata, 85, O. 
perminuta, 95, K. 
SUBRETEPORA, 16. 
angulata, 20, G. 
aspera, 13, C. 
asperato-striata, 20, G. 
clathrata, 71, E. 
corticosa, 92, D. 
Dawsoni, 95, D. 
dichotoma, 20, G. 
fenestrata, 13, D. 
gracilis, 13, C. 
incepta, 13, C. 
reticulata, 13, D. 
Trentonensis, 55, D. 
variolata, 78, E. 
SULCOPORA, 16. 
fenestrata, 13, C. 
SYNOCLADIA, 15. 
biserialis, 23, P. 
‘rectistyla, 74,. O. 
TZNIODICTYA, 95. 
cingulata, 95, O. 
frondosa. 95, O. 
interpolata, 94, O. 
ramulosa, 95, O. 


497 


ramulosa,- var. Burlingtonensis, 


95, O. 
subrecta, 95, O. 
TZENIOPORA, 48. 
exigua, 48, L. 
occidentalis, 95, L. 
penniformis, 48, L. 
THAMNISCUS, 15. 
Cisseis, 82, H. 
diffusus, 20, G. 
fruticella, 82, H. 
divaricans, 95, O. 
furcillatus, 95, O. 
multiramus, 74, K. 
nanus, 74, K. 
Niagarensis, 62, G. 
Nysa, 82, H. 
octonarius, 95, P. 
pauciramus, 87, L. 
ramulosus, 95, O. 


ramulosus, var. sevillensis, 95, O. 


variolata, 82, H. 


498 REporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. . 


THAMNISCUS, sculptilis, 95, O. TREMATOPORA, punctata, 20, G. 
THAMNOTRYPA, 93. . primigenia, 92, D. 
divaricata, 73, K. rectilinea, 74, K. 
TREMATELLA, 93. solida, 20, G. 
annulata, 74, K. sparsa, 20, G. 
arborea, 74, K. spiculata, G. 
glomerata, 93, K. spinulosa, 20, G. 
nodosa, 93, L. : ‘striata, 20, G. 
perspinulata, 73, L. subimbricata, 712, G. 
TREMATOPORA, 20. subquadrata, 87, L. 
americana, O. superba, 36q, F. 
annulifera, 67, E. tortalinea,.87, L. 
annulata, var. pronospina, 74, K. transversa, 87, L. 
aspera, 20, G. tuberculosa, 20, G. 
calloporoides, 95, D. tubulosa, 20, G. 
canaliculata, 82, H. varia, 62, G. 
carinata, 98, L. variolata, 62; G. 
coalescens, 20, G. vesiculosa, 35, O. 
corticosa, 52, H. Whitfieldi, 83, G. 
crebipora, 710, G. TROPIDOPORA, 93. 
debilis, 95, D. nana, 93, K. 
densa, 52, H. UNITRYPA, 89. 
echinata, 62, G. acaulis, 74, K. 
elongata, 93, L. acaulis, var. inclinis, 93, iK. 
fragilis, 35, O. acclivis, 93, K. 
granifera, 93, L.  biserialis, 87, H. 
granulata, 67, E. conferta, 90, K. j 
granulifera, 20, G. ' consimilis, 98, K. 
Halli, 83, G. . elegantissima, 93, K. 
hexagona, 938 L. fastigata, 73, K. 
immersa, 93, L. -ficticius, 93, K. 
infrequens, 62, G. lata, 73, K. 
interplana, 93, L. nana, 93, K. 
lineata, 93, L. nervia, 52, H. 
macropora, 716, G. nervia, var. constricta, 71°, H. 
minuta, 62, G. preecursor, 52, H. 
nitida, 95, E. pernodosa, 73, K. 
nodosa, 98, H. projecta, 93, K. 
orbipora, 87, L. retrorsa, 90, K. : 
ornata, 92, D. scalaris, 87, li. 
osculum, 62, G. stipata, 73, K. 
ovatipora, 82, H. tegulata, 73, K. 
parallela, 82, H. transversa, 93, K. 


perspinulata, 87,[L. WORTHENOPORA, 95. 
polygona, 87, L. spatulata, 27, O. 
ponderosa, 87, H. spinosa, 95, O. 


Descriptions of Families and Genera. 


Family Fenestellide, King. 


All the members of this family are reticulate, funnel or fan 
shaped, and are composed of slightly diverging bifurcating 
branches, either rigid and connected by cross. bars (dissepiments) 
which are formed by opposite projections from adjacent 
branches, uniting midway between the branches, or sinuous 
and connected at intervals by anastomosis; in both cases the 
frond being perforated by symmetrically disposed quadrate or 
oval spaces (fenestrules). The cells are short utricular and 
arranged in two or more series, on one side of the branch only. 
The cell apertures are usually circular, surrounded by an eleva- 
tion (peristome). The noncelluliferous face of the frond is com- 
posed of a more or less thick stratum of calcareous fibrous tissue, 
which is perforated by minute tubuli, rectangularly to the surface, 
and in some forms by larger thick walled tubes, the use of which 
isnot known. The surface is usually striated and ornamented by 
granules, nodes or spinules. These features in aged fronds are 
usually obscured or obliterated by a calcareous deposit; the dif- 
ference in appearance between the older and more recent por- 
tions of the frond being very marked. 

The following genera are included in this family: Anastomo- 
PORA, ARCHIMEDES, ARCHIMEDIPORA, CycLoporINA, FENESTELLA 
and its groups, FrnestraLia, FenestraporA, FLABELLIPORINA, 
Hetivopora, Hemirrypa, Isotrypa, Locutipora, Lyropors, Lyro- 
PORIDRA, LyrRoporina, LYROPORELLA, PHyLLopora, Potypora, Poty- 
PORELLA, Pritopora, PrILOPORELLA, PriLopoRINA, PiNNAPORELLA, 
Pinnaporina, RererorRELLA, RetTerorina, Synociapra, SEMIcos- 
cintuM, TrEcTuLiporA, TEoTULIPoRELLA and UnitTrypa. 

Several of these genera have been placed by authors under 
other families or subfamilies but they are so intimately connected 
and the change from one form to another, through intermediate 
forms, is so gradual (as shown in the article on the “ Genera of 
Fenestellide” in the Annual Report of the State Geologist for 
1893) that a separation into different families does not seem ad- 


500 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


missible. Thus Fenrsterya and Potyrora have been placed in 
different families, yet both forms very gradually merge into the 
genus Potyporztia. A full discussion of the different genera will 
be found in the paper above referred to. 

All the forms have a general resemblance to FenrsTELLa and 
are separated from it by the number and disposition of the cell 
apertures, difference in the structure beyond the celluliferous 
face, mode of growth, etc. 


FENESTELLA, Miller. 


Type, Fenestella antiqua, Miller. 

(Plate 2, figs. 1-17.) 

This genus was first proposed in manuscript by J. 8S. MiruER 
of Bristol, England, but the first published description of it was 
given by W. Lonspate in Murchison’s Silurian System, Pt. II, 
p01) (1839. 

Diacnosis. A ramose, calcareous bryozoum, forming cup 
shaped or funnel shaped expansions; branches bifurcating and 
connected by apparently solid dissepiments; cell apertures. 
occurring on one side of the branches; arranged in two parallel 
rows, which are separated by a carina or row of nodes. Reverse 
side consisting of a stratum of fibroid, calcareous tissue, which * 
is traversed by numerous minute tubuli, at right angles to the 
surface. For illustrations of this genus, see Plate 2 


The species of this genus have been placed in the following 
groups based upon the character of the carina. 


Group «, for forms with low, smooth carina. 

Group ¢, for the forms with a range of nodes between the 
cell apertures, or a low, nodose carina. 

Group 7, for forms with very prominent, equal, thin carine. 

- Group 6, for forms having carinz expanded midway of their 
height, then contracting, the expanded portion 
having nodes on its margins. 

Group «, for forms with prominent carine, summits expanded, 
margins smooth. 

Group £, for forms with prominent carine, scpaniee at ie 
summit, margins nodose. 

Group 7, for forms with prominent, moderately thin caring, 
having conspicuous lateral projections at the 
summit. (Fenestella perplexa.) 


‘~.. 


Genera or THE Nortu AMERICAN PALAEOZOIC Bryozoa. 5OL 


Figs. 32, 33, Group B. Figs. 34, 35,Group7y. Figs. 36, 37, Group O, Figs. 38-41, Group =, 


502 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


PoLyPorELLa, Simpson. 


(Rep. of State Geologist for 1893, p. 700. 1894.) 

Type, Polyporella fistulata, Hall (sp.). 

(Plate 1, figs. 9, 10.) 

Zoarium having the same general aspect as Fanneramam Cell 
apertures, on the narrower portion of the branches, disposed in 
two parallel rows, with or without a dividing ridge; on the wider 
portions in three and occasionally four rows. 

This genus is intermediate between FanestELta and PoLyPora 
and was constituted to include those forms which might with 
propriety be included in either genus. 


Potypora, McCoy. 
(Carb. Foss. of Ireland, p. 206. 1845.) : 
Type, Polypora dendroides, McCoy. 
(Plate 1, figs. 18-15.) 

Bryozoum having the same manner of growth and general 
_ aspect as FEnESTELLA, but having the cell apertures disposed in 
three or more ranges, entirely covering the celluliferous face of 
the branches, which are without a median keel or carina. 


F'LABELUIPORELLA, Simpson. 


(Ann. Rept. State Geologist of N. Y. for 1893, p. 703. 1894.) 

Type, /labelliporella lilea, Hall (sp.). 

Zoarium consisting of ramose flabellate or fan-shaped expan- 
sions. Branches slender, bifurcating, connected by dissepiments. 
Celluliferous on one face only; cell apertures disposed in three or 
more longitudinal series. 

A fragment of this genus is similar tooneof Potypora. The forms 
are separated from that genus by the flabellate mode of growth 


FrenesTRAtia, Prout. 
(Trans. Acad. Sci., St. Louis. 1858.) 

Type, Lenestralia St. Ludovici, Prout. 

“Corallum flabelliform, bifurcating frequently and rapidly 
expanding into a broad frond, folded upon itself ong near 
the top. 

“ Longitudinal rays or «interstices (branches) large, round 
near the base, more angular toward the middle of the frond; 
midrib indistinct near the base, very prominent and well marked 
when slightly weathered. 


GevERA oF THE Nortu American Patarozorc Bryozoa. 5038 


“ Dissepiments short, strong and enlarged at their junction with 
the longitudinal rays. . 

“Fenestrules, long, oval, or elliptical, rarely quadrangular, two 
to two and a half in two lines measured longitudinally ; four in 
_two lines transversely. 

“Cells in two rows on either side of the midrib, most generally 
opposite to the two rows, and opposite on the two sides of the 
midrib, five to each fenestrule, or twenty inclusive of the two 
rows on either side. 

“Reverse, fenestrules quadrangular from the want of expansion 
in the junction of the dissepiments; rays and dissepiments 
rounded, minutely tubular, striate.” 

This species differs from Frnrstre.ia in its flabellate mode of 
growth, and in having two rows of cell apertures on each side 
of a median carina. It differs from FLapetiporina, in having a 
median keel and it having uniformly four rows of cell apertures. 


<a 


Fic. 42. Fenestralia St. Ludovici. Frond natural size. Fie. 43. A portion enlarged. 


RetErorsiya, Simpson. 
(Ann. Rept. of State Geologist of N. Y. for 1893.) 
Type, Reteporella undulata. 
(Plate 1, figs. 1-5.) 
Bryozoum consisting of infundibuliform or cup-shaped expan- 
sions, celluliferous on one face only ; branches sinuous or zig-zag, 


504 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


anastomosing at short and regular intervals in such a manner 
- as to give rise to a regularly disposed system of fenestrules; cell 
apertures disposed in from three to seven longitudinal rows; 
branches without a median keel. : 

Many of the forms included in this genus have been described . 
under the name RezEpora, owing to a misapprehension of the 
characters of that genus. By some authors it is considered a syn- 
onym of Psy.uiopora, but the original figures of that genus show 
that the branches are connected by celluliferous dissepiments, 
not by anastomosis. : 

The genus most nearly resembles Potypora in its general 
appearance, but it differs from that genus in the anastomosis of 
the branches. 7 

-Rerteporina, D’Orbigny. 
(Prodrome.de Pal. t. 1., p. 101.) - 
Type, Reteporina prisca, Goldfuss (sp.). 
(Plate 1, figs. 6-8.) 

“Ce sont des Potypora dont les cellules placés sur deux lignes 
paralléles, rapprochés, réguliéres, longitudinales, non séparées par 
une cote, sont a la partie supérieure des branches largement 
anastomosées de maniére 4 ne laisser entre elles que des oscules 
oblongs, reguliérs, placés par lignes divergentes.” 

This genus differs from Retmporeua in having only two rows 
of cell apertures... 

The original diagnosis states that the rows of apertures are 
not separated by a ridge, but as we have seen in I’ enusTELLA, the 
presence or absence of a carina, all other characters being the 
same, is not of generic importance. 


CycLoporina, Simpson. 
(Ann. Rept. State Geologist for 1893.) 

Type, Cycloporima hemicycla, Hall (sp). 

(Plate 3, figs. 1-5.) 

Bryozoum having the same general aspect as ReTeportna ; at 
irregular intervals, but invariably over a dissepiment, there are 
semi-circular, lateral projections from the carina, which extend 
about half the distance to the adjacent carina. Frequently the 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALArozorico Bryozoa. 505 


projections from adjacent carinz uniteand form solid connections 
of the two carine. 

The carine of this genus vary in the same manner as do those 
of Frnustecia, and from these variations the species are divided 
into several groups, corresponding to, and designated by the 
same letters as the groups of FenusTHua. 


° 44 45 


o a 
=o a = ae 
ee 
; ‘ 
tS 
. 


Figs. 44-50. CycLoporina, showing various forms of the carina. 

Figs. 44, 45, 46. Showing the carinz of the species of this genus ; viewed from above. 
Fies. 47. Illustrating the carine of group /. 

Fic. 48. Illustrating carinz of group &. 


64 


506 Rerort or Tur Srare GEoLocist. 


49 


Fias. 49,50. Illustrating carine of group 0. 


FrnestraporA, Hall. 
(Rept. N. Y. State Geologist, p. 36, Pl. 2, fig. 17. 1885.) 

Type, Fenestrapora biperforata, Hall. 

(Plate 3, figs. 6-12.) 

Bryozoum having the same general aspect as Fanustetta. On 
the noncelluliferous face there are numerous triangular or circular 
pores or apertures of the larger tubuli. On the celluliferous face 
the cell apertures are disposed in two ranges, separated by a 
prominent carina, which has a row of small pores along the 
middle of its expanded summit. 


PatLopoRELia, Hall. 


(Pal. N. Y., Volo Vi, p17 yeaa 
Type, Ptiloporella laticrescens, Hall. . 
| (Plate 4, figs. 1-6.) 


Bryozoum ramose, forming infundibuliform expansions; 
branches of two sizes, the smaller or secondary branches pro- 
ceeding laterally from the larger or primary ones, either from 
one or both sides. As the frond expands other large branches 
proceed laterally from the primary ones, this process continuing 
during the growth of the frond; cell apertures arranged in two 


GENERA OF THE Norra AMERICAN PALArozorc Bryozoa. 507 


parallel rows, separated by a carina, the carine of the primary 
branches being much more po ca than those of the second- 
ary branches. 
Pritoporina, Hall. 
(Pal. Ne ¥., Yok: Vi,p. 172, Pl. 43, figs: 79.) 
Type, Pieloporina sinistralis, Hall. 
(Plate 4, figs, 8-12.) 

Bryozoum having the same manner of growth and general 
appearance as Pritoporsiua, but differing from that genus in 
having three or more ranges of cell apertures, not separated by a 
carina. This genus bears the same relation to PrILOPORELLA that 
Potrpora does to FanustE.ua. 


Pinwaporina, Simpson. 
(Ann. Rept. of N. Y. State Geologist for 1893. 1894.) 
Type, Pinnaporina pinnata, Hall (sp.). | 
(Plate 4, fig. 7.) 
In general appearance and disposition of cell apertures this 
genus resembles Pritoporrna, but differs from that genus in hav- 
ing a flabellate mode of growth. It differs from PrynaporELia 


in having three or more ranges of cell apertures not Bena tied 
by a carina. 


jute Phillips. 
(Pal. Foss. Cornwall, Devon. and West Somerset, p. 27, 1841.) 


Type, Hemitrypa oculata, Phillips. 
(Plate 5, figs. 1-11.) 


Bryozoum having the same general appearance and manner of 
growth as Frenustetya; cell apertures arranged in two parallel 
rows separated by a carina; carina prominent, expanded above 
and having lateral processes (scale), which, meeting midway 
between the carinz, form an intermediate ridge or pseudocarina. 
The spaces between the scale or fenestrules usually correspond 
in number to the cell apertures. 

This form differs from Unirrypa in having simple lateral pro- 
jections, instead of thin oblique plates, and in the formation of a 
pseudocarina. 


508 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


51 52 


Fies. 51-53. Hemitrypa columellata. 

Fie. 51. A transverse section of a frond, x18. 

Fig. 52. A side view of a portion of a branch and its carina, x18. 

Fig. 538. Showing the tubular appearance of a transverse section of the carine and scale. 


Unritrypa, Hall. 
(Rep. of N. Y. State Geologist for 1884, p. 36. 1885.) 


Type, Unitrypa lata, Hall. 

(Plate 5, figs. 15-19; Pl. 6, figs. 1-6.) 

Fronds having the general appearance and mode of growth of 
FenesteLtya. The cell apertures are arranged in two parallel 
rows, separated by a carina; carina prominent, thickened above 
and connected by thin oblique plates (scale). Frequently the 
scale are abruptly bent at about half their height, and ys 


present an imbricated appearance. 
54 55 


Fic. 54. Unitrypa fastigata. An enlargement showing the side view of a branch, with its carina, 
and section of the scale. The scalz are oblique toward the base of the frond, a mode of growth of 


rare occurrence. 
Fic.'55. U.lata. A side view of a branch and its carina, and a section of the scale, x18. 


fon) ® mM . 
= — i Se 
Yer a eee ® 
48 hn a 
<{ oF = 
cS t 45 36: = i 
7 | en =| =| Vine = 
| c iS ate 
pS g a oO : . : 
a 3 a & py C4 
: Coe Sea 5 een 
iS ie co pe ly (<j ‘ ep > 
8 = ped = TC B i 2 
ro) ,8 re Zi es en” a8 2 wn 
< s : = ee a 2 R ars ; : esd ss ogee 7 Saeed < a <i i iy i(e) . Le oe 
o mM fo) o) oO eye Rede yoo ot ry y 1G MUL O MK, So oats May, Me ve Be ~ /{s) al{e Sond 
< ar = alee 4 fo) a : RARE res : i le) no oe 
Ay . a Ay ~~ : Y, > a es nS ae ys ESS ; Bae aoe? (s7(2, (e oy 
= 3 5 4 = la} S i " me :  * ta, = pr 
He EN oH gees We ge < 2 
: go Cis See e 
pa Sa on WS 8 4h Se a3 
<3) o 2 OS oe Oo 2 = 
go 3 > — raf ™M q 
5 ~ Drs 2 5 
ss eB Peet (ee oe 
br pegs iS ne ae ae S) 
fe oa 2S SoS 
em 3 g Oo O Na 3 3 © 
2 ee elo) eee mas aq 
ao & 3s r= 
i cee | xen ue Oo 8 
oH ns °C a) 
o MN “2 O 42 5 
. ga A os 2° oe 
H o A aS q UH I 
2 A Hoang SO & 
S o oO See 1 ord = 
© as > gc B 
5 3 a) ™M ore o - 
e <{ > g. Ss i) | Bb 
re a of > a S eS < 
= g 5 a) 50 M “3 D 
© fe g2as g 
> = (<a = Oo 
Sg ee 80 & a 
ae) fy 
o 8 q 


given. 


510 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Isorrypa, Hall. 
(Report of N. Y. State Geologist for 1884, p. 37. 1885.) 
Type, Lsotrypa conjunctiva, Hall. 

(Plate 6, figs. 7-12.) 
Bryozoum having the same general appearance as FenmstTEcys; 
cell apertures arranged in two parallel rows separated by a 
carina; carine prominent, expanded at the summit; summits 
connected by round or oval, comparatively distant lateral bars. 
On the noncelluliferous Bee a cone pore occurs on or near 
each dissepiment. 

This genus differs from Unirrypa not only in having con- 
spicuous pores on the noncelluliferous face, but also in the char- 
acter of the lateral processes. In Unitrypa the scale consist of 
thin, oblique or bent, imbricating plates, which usually extend 
on the sides of the carinz for at least one-half their height, each 
scala being formed of two lamella, coalescing at the summit. 
The carine of this genus are not of equal thickness, and when - 
broken the base of the thicker portion alone remains attached to 
the branches, closely resembling a row of elongate nodes, in this 
respect being similar to Hmmirrypa. 


59 


Fic. 59. Isotrypa conjunctiva. A side view of a portion of a branch and its carinee ; also showing a 
section of the dissepiments and scale, x18. 


TECTULIPORELLA, Simpson. 
(Ann. Rept. of N. Y. State Geologist for 1893.) - 


Type, Tectuliporella consimilis, Hall. 
(Plate 6, figs. 13-15.) 

This genus resembles Isotrypa in general appearance and man- 
ner of growth, but the summits of the carine and connecting 
bars are much stronger and are scarcely distinguishable from the 
noncelluliferous face of the frond. It differs, also, from IsorryPa 
in being without pores on the noncelluliferous face of the frond, 
and on the sides of the carinz, above the cell apertures. 


GENERA OF THE Norra AMERICAN PALArEozoic Bryozoa. Sil 


Trotu.ipora, Hall. 
(Ann. Rep. State Museum Nat. Hist. 1887.) 

Type, Tectulipora loculata, Hall. 

(Plate 7, figs. 1-5.) 

Bryozoum having the general aspect of TroruLrrors3ta ; cell 
apertures arranged in two parallel rows; branches and dissepi- 
ments carinated ; the carine of the dissepiments coalescing with 
those of the branches; carine prominent; summits expanded, 
frequently having a width nearly or quite equal to the branches 
and dissepiments below. The summits of the carine are angu- 
lar or carinated, sometimes with a row of nodes along the middle, 
this portion of the frond having a strong resemblance to the 
noncelluliferous face of some Fenestelloid forms. This genus 
differs from Locutipora in having the cell apertures arranged in 
two parallel rows; the dissepiments being noncelluliferous. © 


60 61 


Fig. 60. Tectulipora loculata. A transverse sction of the branches and carinz, showing a side view 
of dissepimental and its carinz, x18. 

Fia.61. A transverse section of three dissepiments and their carine and aside view ofa portion of a 
branch and its carina, x18. 


Locuripora, Rominger, mss. 
(First published in Pal. N. Y., Vol. VI, p. xxiii. 1887.) 


Type, Loculipora biperforata, Hall. 
(Plate 7, figs. 6-12.) 

Bryozoum infundibuliform, branches sinuous or zig-zag, anasto- 
mosing or connected by very short dissepiments, which are of 
about the same width as the branches. The noncelluliferous 
face usually presents more of an anastomosed appearance than 
the celluliferous ; cell apertures disposed in oval order entirely 
surrounding the fenestrule; branches and dissepiments cari- 


nated ; carine coalescing ; summits much expanded, angular and 


slightly carinated; width of the summits usually about equal to 
the branches and dissepiments below. So close is the resem- 
blance of this portion of the frond to the noncelluliferous face, 
that it is almost impossible to distinguish them. This genus 


512 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


is the only one, so far observed, in which the cell apertures 
are not arranged in parallel rows. It differs from Trcruxtpora, 
which it most closely resembles, in the sinuosity and frequent 
anastomosis of the branches, and in the oval arrangement of the 
cell apertures. 
Pay iopors, King. 
(Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 2d Series, Vol. 111, p. 389. 1849.) 
Type, Phyllopora EFhrenbergi, King. : 


62 


Fic. 62. Phyllopora Ehrenbergi, 1, 2, Fronds natural size; woper figure, celluliferous face; lower 
left-hand figure, noncelluliferous face: lower right-hand figure, showing filling of cells, the surface 
being worn away. 


GENERA OF THE Norta AMERICAN PatArozoric Bryozoa. 513 


\ 


Original diagnosis. “A Fenestellidia consisting of infundibuli- 
form, folded, perforated fronds or foliaceous expansions; cell- 
ules on the whole of the outer or under surface of the fronds, 
and planted more or less approximately to a position at right 
angles to the plane of the capillary tubular basal plate; cellule 
apertures with plain margins and parallel to the surface of the 
fronds.” 

The original illustrations, a photo-engraving of which is given 
below, show this genus to be a Fenestelloid form, the branches 
of which are connected by celluliferous dissepiments, in this re- 
spect differing from the genera hitherto described. 

A discussion of this genus will be found in the Annual Report 
of the N. Y. State Geologist for 18%3. 


Synoctapia, King. 


(Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 2d Series, Vol. 111, p. 389. 1849.) 

Type, Synocladia virgulacea, Phillips (sp.). 

Bryozoum infundibuliform, branches bifurcating, having at 
regular intervals lateral projections, obliquely ascending, coalesc- 
ing with an opposite series from adjacent branches, and forming 


63 


Fic. 68. Synocladia virgulacea. Frond, natural size. 


arcuate or angular dissepiments. In some specimens many of the 
lateral projections are not oblique, in which case they have the 
65 


514 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


same appearance as the ordinary forms of Frnzs1zLLa.™ Usually 
there are three or more ranges of cell apertures on the, branches 
and two on the dissepiments. 


64 


Fic. 64. A portion of the celluliferous face enlarged. 


SEPTOPORA, Prout. 
(Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis; Vol. I, p. 448. 1859.) 


Type, Septopora Cestriensis, Prout. 


Bryozoum infundibuliform, having the general aspect of 
FENESTELLA. On the celluliferous face the cell apertures are 
arranged in two longitudinal parallel rows, separated by a carina; 
dissepiments arcuate, angular or straight, and celluliferous.. 

Provr in his original description says: “I have established this 
genus upon the character of the dissepiments, which are more 
celluliferous than the longitudinal rays (branches). Though in 
its general features it resembles Fz .zstE.va, it a in a oo 
degree by its celluliferous dissepiments.” 

This genus differs from Synociapria in having only two ranges © 
of cell apertures, separated by a carina, having the same relation 
to that genus that FenestrEtia does to PoLypora. 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PaLArozorc Bryozoa. 515 


65 


4 
2 > 
ryterrerr tiie eee) 


Coes 


Fig. 65. Septopora Cestriensis, 2a, Fronds: natural size; 2b, A portion of the frond e. x4; 2c A small 
portion x8. 


Lyropora, Hall. 
(Proc. Amer. Ass. Ad. Sci., Vol X, p.179. 1857.) 
Type, Lyropora lyra, Hall. 
“ Bryozoum consisting of reticulated, foliated expansions, mar- 


gined on either side by strong,”stony supports, which diverge 
from the base curving upwards and outwards.” 


Fig. 66. Lyropora ranosculum. The thickened margin, natural size and transverse section of same. 
Fig. 67. Noncelluliferous face of a frond, x9. 
Fig. 68, Celluliferous face, x18. 


516 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


The structure between the thickened margins has the same 
appearance as Potyrora, being composed of bifurcating branches, 
connected by noncelluliferous dissepiments; cell apertures in 
three or more ranges, with no separating carina. 


LyRroporE.ia, Simpson. 


(Ann. Rep. of N. Y. State Geologist for 1893. 1894.) 
Type, Lyroporella quincuncialis, Hall (sp.). 
Bryozoum having the same manner of growth and general 
appearance as Lyropora, but having on the narrower portion of 


69 


Fie. 69. Lyroporeila quincuncialis. Middle figure; the thickened margin of the frond, natural size , 
Lower figure. Noncelluliferous face of a frond, x9. 
Upper figure. Celluliferous face of a frond, x9. 


o =e 


GENERA OF THE Nortu AMERICAN Patanozo1c Bryozoa. 517 


the branches only two ranges of cell apertures, frequently sepa- 
rated by a carina, and on the wider portion of the branches 
three and occasionally more ranges without a dividing ridge. 
This genus has the same relation to Lyrorora that PoLyPORELLA 
has to Po.ypora. 


LyRoporRIpDRA, nov. gen. 
Type, Lyroporidra subquadrans, Hall (sp.). 
(Plate 9, fig. 19.) 


This genus has the same general appearance and mode of 
growth as Lyrorora, but on the celluliferous face the cell aper- 
tures are arranged in four parallel rows, two rows on each side 
of a median carina or row of nodes. 

This genus bears the same relation to Lyropora that FENESTRA- 


Lia does to PoLyporRa. 


ANASTOMOPORA, NOV. gen. 


Type, Anastomopora cinctuta, Hall (sp.). 
(Plate 9, figs. 20-23.) 


This genus has a general resemblance to Lyrropora, but the 
branches are sinuous and anastomiosing; cell apertures disposed 
in three or more ranges, without separating carina. 

This genus bears the same relation to Lyropora that RerEpo- 
RELLA does to Potypora, and is separated from it by the fact that 
the branches are connected by anastomosis, not by dissepiments. 


Hexicopors, Claypole. 
(Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., p. 30. 1883.) 
Type, Helicopora latispiralis, Claypole. 


Original diagnosis. “ Polyzoary expanded, fenestrate and spiral. 
formed of slender, bifurcating rays, poriferous on one face, con- 
nected by nonporiferous bars, forming an open network; cells 
arranged in two rows along the rays, one on each side of a 
median keel; axis none, or consisting only of the thickened in- 


518 Report or THE Stare GEoLocist. 


ner border of the polyzoary ; not straight, but forming a spiral, 
rounded, nonporiferous or slightly poriferous inner margin.” — 


70 


Fic. 70. A photo-engraving of CLAYPOLE’s original illustration. Fig. 1, Helicopora latispiralis. 
Lower face, showing four whorls of the spiral, nat. size; 2, H. Ulrichi, x8; 2a, A small portion, x8; 
3, H. archimediformis, nat. size; 4, Enlarged view of the celluliferous part of fig. 8, x4. 


Hi 
GENERA OF THE NorrH American Pataxrozoic Bryrozoa. 519 


Arouimepss, Le Sueur. 
(Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. 43, p. 19. 1842.) 
Type, Archimedes Owenana, Hall (sp.). 


The forms in this genus do not differ in their essential struc- 
ture from FrenusteLia; their mode of growth, however, is quite 
distinct; the expansion acquiring a solid central axis, around 
which it revolves in an ascending spiral form, spreading equally 
on every side. On the celluliferous face, the cell apertures are 
arranged in two parallel rows, separated by a carina or row of 
nodes. 


rel — R 


\\\ id tant 


" nh 


LECH AC HORII 
shy ya | b 
OA MT i ~ ch 
iy) NPy Wal 
IAL ! no) 
uy ili i es hii 
HH 1a AHN | 
SAT pe it 
Oa { 


1 7 i} 
i)! i il 
Va a 


in 
Uf, Hi 
Yih, i 

ih 


ty 


Fie. 71. Archimedes Wortheni, frond natural size. 
Fie. 72. A longitudinal section of the central axis. 
Lower fig. A transverse section of the central axis, x2. 


Pritopora, McCoy. 
(Syn. Carb. Foss. Ireland, p. 200.) 

Type, Ptilopora flustriformis, McCoy. 

(Plate 8, figs. 1-7.) 

Flabelliform, attached by roots, from which a strong midrib 
arises, giving origin on each side to thin equidistant branches, 
which are connected by regularly disposed dissepiments; cellu- 
liferous on one face only; cell apertures disposed in two longi- 
tudinal, parallel rows, separated by a carina or row of nodes. 


520 


RECAPITULATION OF FAMILY FENESTELLIDE 


Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Branches connected by dissepiments : 


INFUNDIBULIFORM. 


Cells in two ranges, separated by carinz 
or row ‘Of “MOMES Die. ...8.) om cee ena 
Cell apertures in two or three ranges, 
branches carinated or not............ 
Cell apertures in three or more ranges, no 
COMIMA st eer ds a) Aan oi 
Cell apertures in four ranges, median 
COMUNE (1 a pies) oo Wide aia ogee oe ee 
Cell apertures in two ranges, carina promi- 
nent, poriferous ; reverse face poriferous 
Cell apertures in two ranges ; carinz with 
prominent, semicircular projections... 
Cell apertures in two ranges; carin 
prominent, connected by scala, which 
meet midway, forming pseudo-carine. . 
Cell apertures in two ranges; carine 
prominent, connected by oblique, thin 


Cell apertures in two ranges; carine 
connected by bars; reverse face porifer- 


Cell apertures in two ranges; carine 
connected by bars; reverse face non- 
POVILELOUS yoo ee OSes) hee seq 

Cell apertures in two ranges; branches 
and dissepiments carinated ; carine very 
prominent, expanded at summit, and 
CoOaleseIn Geet a ees TO ee 

Cells arranged in oval order, around 
fenestrules ; branches and dissepiments 
carinated ; carine prominent, expanded 
at summit, and coalescing............ 

Cells in (?) two ranges; dissepiments cel- 
PalihorQ uss. aos cite tie ptecters ieee ee 


FENESTELLA. 
PoLyPoRELLA. 
PoLyPoRA. 
FENESTRALIA. 
FENESTRAPORA. 


CYCLOPORINA. 
HEMITRYPA. 
UNITRYPA. 
IsoTRYPA. 


TECTULIPORELLA. 


TECTULIPORA. 


LocuLiP )RA. 


PHYLLOPORA. 


GENERA OF THE Nortu AMERICAN PALAEozoic Bryozoa. 521 


Cell apertures in two ranges; branches 
carinated; dissepiments celluliferous 
SU RUC ULC) fos soc eR IR Ths alsa is < 0s s SEPTOPORA. 
Cell apertures in more than two ranges; 
dissepiments arcuate and celluliferous. Synocoiapia. 


FLABELLATE. 
Cells in two ranges; median carina ..... FLABELLIPORINA. 
Cell apertures in more than two ranges; | 
meee Ia CHrIMa NN, .. RODS ad. FLABELEIP BELLA. 


- Forms having large primary branches, smaller lateral branches : 


INF UNDIBULIFORM. 

Cell apertures in two ranges; median 

SOS i ea i Ym be AAR. PTILOPORELLA. 
Cell apertures in more than two ranges; 

Me AeIaN CAPMNA. Sees es alae. 3s PTILOPORINA. 

F'LABELLATE. 

Cells in two ranges; median carina..... PINNAPORELLA. 
Cell apertures in more than two ranges; . 

no median carina ....... ee 2s _..... PINNAPORINA. 


Branches at nearly right angles: 


Cell apertures in two ranges; median 
20 ae eee ae 1 ede le NB -. PaILOPoRA. 


Branches connected by anastomosis : 


INFUNDIBULIFORM. 
Cells in two ranges; median carina ..... RETEPORINA. 
Cells in more than two ranges; no 
MIEdIan. CATING... 62-0... 'l0 «3 Pes psi, +2 RETEPORELLA. 


529 Report oF THE Strate GEoLoaisr. 


Base and.lateral margins greatly thickened. Branches connected 
by dissepiments : 
FoLiAcKovs. 


Cell apertures in two ranges; median 


carma” 292)... ae TERE es 2 yet, SON ea LiyRuPORINA. 
Cell apertures in two and three ranges; 

with or without carina ..........52.. LyROPORELLA. 
Cell apertures in more than two ranges; 

no median Canima ss 0a. eee LyRopora. 
Cell apertures in four ranges; median - 


nodes or carina: oo ee LYROPORIDRA. 


Branches connected by anastomosis : 


Cell apertures in more than two ranges; 
no median Carma’ <2. 2nase ee eee ANASTOMOPORA. 


Forms with central axis ; growth spiral : 


Cells in two ranges; median carina ..... ARCHIMEDES. 
Cells in more than two ranges; no 
median Carma). .2i)4-)i.42 Ap ees ARCHIMEDIPORA. 


Growth spiral ; no central axis: 
Cells in two ranges; median carina ..... HELICOPORA. 


Family Acanthocladiide. 


The forms included in this family have a flattened stipe, from 
which proceed numerous short lateral branchlets and occasionally 
a larger branch having the same manner of growth as the main ~ 
stipe; celluliferous on one side only ; branchlets not connected by 
dissepiments. The following genera are included in this family: 
AcantTHocLapIs4, G:auconomr, IcuTHroRAcHis and RAmIpPoRA. 


AoantHociapia, King. mite 
(Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist , 2d series, Vol. 111, p. 389. 1849.) 
Type, Acanthocladia anceps, King. 


Original diagnosis. “A Thamniscidia; stems symmetrically 
and bilaterally branched; more or less on one plane; rarely 


GENERA OF THE Norru AmERICAN PaLArozorc Bryozoa. 523 


bifurcating ; branches short, simple; occasionally elongated and 
becoming bilaterally branched; stems and branches celluliferous 
on the side overlooking the imaginary axis of the coral; cellules 
imbricated and arranged in longitudinal series; series of cellules 
separated from each other by a dividing ridge; gemmuliferous 
vesicles (?) on the dividing ridge.” 


The following figures are photo-engravings from Krna’s orig- 
inal illustrations : 7 | 


de 


CA amy 
eons, ey 
Fy ~ \} . 4 


Fic. 73. Acanthocladia anceps. 13, A specimen slightly enlarged; 14, A specimen x2; 15, "An 
enlargement to show the cell apertures; i6, A specimen, nat. size. 


594 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


GLavconome, Goldfuss. 
(Petrefacta Germanica, Vol. I, p. 10), 1826;,emended by Lons- 
dale in Murchison’s Silurian System, p. 677, 1839.) 
Type, Glauconome disticha, Goldfuss. 
(Plate 8, figs. 8-15.) 

Zoarium consisting of a main stem or rachis, from which pro- 
ceed simple lateral branches, at regular intervals, and occasionally 
branches having the same manner of growth as the primary 
rachis ; celluliferous on one face; cell apertures disposed in two 
longitudinal, parallel rows; usually separated by a carina. 


IcutHyoracuis, McCoy. | 
(Carb. Foss. of Ireland, p. 205. 1844.) 


Type. ee ease Newenhami, McCoy. 
- (Plate 8, figs. 16-21.) 

Zoarium plumose, consisting of a rachis with short lateral 
branches or pinnules; celluliferous on one face. On the rachis the 
cell apertures are disposed in five or more rows, laterally in 
oblique ascending order; usually three ranges on the branches. 


Family Thamniscide, King, emend. 


The following genera are included in this family : 
THamnisous, THAMNOCELLA, CRISINELLA and DIPLoPoRA. 


Tuamniscos, King. 
(Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 2d Series, Vol. III, p. 309. 1849.) 
Type, Thamniscus dubius, King. 
"(Plate 9, figs. 14-18.) , 

Zoarium fruticose, giving forth lateral branches or bifurcating, 
on one plane; branches numerous, frequently of clavate appear- 
ance; not connected by dissepiments; celluliferous on one face; 
cell apartares in quincunx order or irregularly disposed. 


Kine’sdiagnosis. “Thetypical Thamniscidia; stems equcntly 


and irregularly bifurcating, more or less on one plane; cellu- 
liferous on the side overlooking the imaginary axis of the coral , 
cellules imbricated and arranged in quincunx; gemmuliferous 
vesicles overlying the cell apertures.” 


5: i ee 


a 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALAEOzoIC Bryozoa. 525 


Figs. 74 and 75 are photo-engravings from Krna’s original 
illustrations. 


74 73 


at ge 4 amet 
res ya 
ee Re MY 


ea 


Fie. 74. Thamniscus dubius, natural size. 
Fie. 75. Celluliferous face of same, enlarged. 


THAMNOCELLA, NOV. gen. 
Type, Zhamnocella Cisseis, Hall (sp.). 
| (Plate 9, figs. 4-12.) 


Zoarium ramose, sometimes fruticose; giving off lateral branches 

or bifurcating; branches of equal size, and, compared with THam- 
Niscus infrequent; cells numerous; arranged in quincunx order, 
forming oblique transverse rows. 
_ This genus differs from THamniscus in the infrequency of the 
branches, and in the fact that the branches are of uniform size; 
from some forms of DrpLopora in having numerous cell apertures, 
that genus having but two ranges. 


Dretopora, Young and Young. 
(Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. Glasgow. 1875.) 
Type, Diplopora marginalis, Young and Young. 
Very slender straight stems, throwing off a few lateral branches 
of equal dimensions (or bifurcating); celluliferous face with two 


ranges of cell apertures, and moderately developed median keel; 
noncelluliferous face striated. 


526 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


Fic. 76. Diplopora bifurcata, natural size. 
Fie. 77. A frond, x9. 


CrisINELLA, Hall. 
(Rep. of N. Y. State Geologist for 1883, pl. 26.) 
Type, Crisinella scrobiculata, Hall (sp.). 
(Plate 9, figs. 1-3.) 


Zoarium ramose, solid; celluliferous on one face; cell apertures 


disposed in oblique ascending rows from the middle to the margin 
of the branch; peristomes prominent. 


Family Arthrostylidz, Ulrich, emend. 


This family contains at present only the genus ARTHROSTYLUS. 


Fic. 78. 
Fig. 79. 


Arthrostylus conjunctus. Lateral view of a portion of a segment,"x18 
Fic. 79a. 


Noncelluliferous face,x18. . 
Lateral view of another species. 


i 


GENERA OF THE NorrtH AMERICAN PataArozotc Bryozoa. 527 


ArtHrostrtvus, Ulrich. 
(Amer. Geologist, Vol. I, p. 230. 1888.) 


Type, Arthrostylus tenuis, Ulrich. 

Zoarium somewhat fruticose; composed of numerous, slender, 
equal segments, joined to each other by terminal articulation; 
celluliferous on one face only; opposite face longitudinally 
striated; cell apertures disposed in three or more longitudinal 
rows, separated by ridges. | 


Family Stictoporide, Ulrich, emend. 

The forms included in this family are very similar in their 
mode of growth to Cystodictyide, but differ from the forms in 
that family in the absence of pseudo-septa and lunaria, the dif- 
ference in the skeleton making a corresponding difference in the 
living organism. The following genera are included in this 
family: CrRrameEtita, Evurypictya, Evspitopora, EvactTInopora, 
Paouypiotya, Payituopiotya, Prismopora, ScALARIPORA, SEMIO- 
PORA, STICTOCELLA, STIOTOPORA, STICTOPORIDRA, STICTOPORELLA, 
TaEnropioTyA, TaEnropora and (??) AcTINOTRYPA. 


CERAMELLA, Hall. 
(Pale ee vol vip: xix: 1887.) 


Type, Ceramella scidacea, Hall. 
(Plate 14, figs. 2-6.) 
Zoarium consisting of thin, foliaceous expansions, arising from 
a spreading base; celluliferous on each face; cells tubular, 
oblique; cell apertures oval or circular, disposed in quincunx 
order; surface marked by sterile maculae, which are usually de- 
pressed below the general surface of the branch. 


Eurypictya, Ulrich. 
(Geol. Sur. Ill, Vol. VIII, p. 309. 1890.) 
Type, Hurydictya montifera, Ulrich. 
“ Broad, simple or irregularly divided bifoliate expansions 
without nonporiferous parallel margins; surface with more or 
less conspicuous, small, solid macule or monticules; zocecial 


528 Report or THE Strate Groroaist. 


structure very much as in Suncopora, the difference being of 
small importance and due to zoarial habit.” 


80 81 


Fic. 80. Hurydicta montifera. A portion of the frond, natural size. 
Fic. 81. Surface enlarged. 
Fic. 82. A transverse section of the cells enlarged. 


Eusrrtopora, Ulrich. 
(Geol. Sur. Ill, Vol> VIII, p.-389. “18309 


Type, Huspilopora serrata, Ulrich. 
(See Plate 10, fig. 20.) 


“ Zoarium consisting of small, flattened, irregularly dividing 
branches; zooecial apertures subcircular or elliptical; arranged in 


four or more rows over the central portion of the branches, © 


between slightly elevated longitudinal ridges, having numerous 
small nodes. At brief intervals, occurring alternately on each 
side of the branch, there are several short rows of apertures, 
directed obliquely upward and outward from the central rows, 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PaLArozoic Bryozoa. 529 


extending nearly to the sharp margins. Between these lateral 
rows the margin of the frond is more or less indented.” (U:Rt0# ) 

The type species closely resembles Stictopora palmipes, which, 
though showing some variation from the ordinary forms of 
Sriororora, has not been considered distinct from that genus, 
though it may be. | 

Euspilopora Barrisi is identical with Stictopora crassa and does 
not have the characters which have been used to separate Eospt1- 
LoPORA from SticTopoRa. 


83 84 


Fic. 83. Huspilopora serrata, natural size. 
Fic. 84. Surface, x10. 

Fig. 85. FE. barrisi, natural size. ., 

Fic. 86. A portion, x10. 


Evactinopora, Meek and Worthen. 
(Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 165. 1865.) 
Type, Hvactinopora radiata, Meek and Worthen. 
“ Zoaria consisting of four or more vertical leaves, which radi- 
ate from an imaginary axis so as to present in a transverse sec- 


tion a star shaped or cruciform outline; leaves thin, double; 
- 67 


530 Report oF THE Strate Geoxoaist. 


celluliferous on both faces; * * * zocecia with subcircu- 
lar apertures; interspaces apparently solid at the surface; occu- 
pied by vesicular tissue internally. As growth (proceeded, a 
gradually increasing deposit of minutely perforated calcareous 
laminz covered the lower and older portions x the _zoarium.” 
(Marx anp WorrTHEN.) 


87 


Fic. 87. Evactinopora, illustrating various forms of this genus. 


Pacuypiotya, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 152. 1882.) 
Type, Pachydictya robusta, Ulrich 


“ Zoaria varying from paralleled, margined, narrow branches, 
to large undulating expansions. The edges are acute and have 
a noncelluliferous border; * * * zocecia rising rather ab- 
ruptly from the mesial lamina, near which they have very thin 
walls; are broad elliptical or subquadrate in outline, arranged in 
longitudinal series, and partially separated from each other by 
small vesicles. Toward the surface their walls are thickened, 


GENERA OF THE Nortu AMERICAN PatArozorc Bryozoa. 531 


ring like, and usually completely isolated and the interspaces 


solid.” (ULrtoz.) 
Puyxuopictya, Ulrich. 


(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 153. 1882.) 
Type, Phyllodictya frondosa, Ulrich. 
“Zoaria leaf-like or consisting of irregular, broad branches. 
Zocecia tubular, the prostrate portion long, apertures circular, 
slightly oblique, with the posterior portion elevated; inter- 


spaces wide, solid, traversed*vertically by numerous minute 
tubuli.” (Uxricz.) 


Fic. 88. Phyllodictya frondosa. 
Upper fig., natural size. * 
Lower left hand fig., a portion of the surface x18. 
Lower right hand fig., a transverse section of the cell tubes, x18. 


Prismorora, Hall. 
(Bryozoans of the Upper Helderberg Group, p.17. 1881.) 


Type, Prismopora triquetra, Hall. 
(Plate 12, figs. 9-15.) 


Zoarium ramose ; consisting of triangular branches, bifurcating 
or sometimes trifurcating; frequently forming irregular groups; 
branches with the sides equal or unequal, concave; celluliferous 
on each face ; cells tubular, arising from the mesial plates, which 
extend from the center of the branch to each angle; margins of 
the branches solid ; intercellular tissue vesiculose. 


532 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


Scavcaripora, Hall. 
(Trans. Albany Institute, Vol. X, p. 159. 1881.) 
Type, Scalaripora scalariformis, Hall. 
(Plate 12, figs. 16-22.) 


Zoarium consisting of groups of triangular prismatic branches, 
celluliferous on each face; sides of branches concave and crossed 
by transverse, elevated, celluliferous scale ; cells tubular, arising 
from the radiating mesothece of. the branches and from the 
mesotheca of the scale ; marginseof the branches and ge non- 


celluliferous. 
STICTOCELLA, Nov. gen. 


(Plate 10, figs. 6, 7.) 

Type, Stictocella sinuosa, Hall (sp.). 

Zoarium consisting of flattened bifurcating branches, cellulif- 
erous on each face; cell apertures oval, irregularly disposed ; 
peristomes equally elevated; interapertural space occupied by 
short irregular ridges, which are frequently covered by minute 
nodes, giving to the surface of some of the species a granular 
appearance. ; 

This species differs from Stictopora in the irregular disposi- 
tion of the cell apertures, and in the presence of the irregular 
ridges between the cell apertures. 


STicTOPORINA, NOV. gen. 
(Plate 10, fig. 8.) 

Type, Stict-porina subcarinata, Hall (sp.). 

Zoarium’ consisting of flattened bifurcating branches, cellulitf- 
erous on each face; cell apertures arranged in longitudinal 
parallel rows, circular; peristomes prominent; apertures of the 
two central rows the boalee eradually enlarging to the outer 
row; margins of. branches sca transverse section of the 
branches lenticular; central rows S apertures separated by a 
ridge, sometimes the adjacent two rows are also separated by a 
carina. aa 

This form has some resemblance to T#niopora (and is erro- 
neously given by Mirier as a synonym), but aiffers from that 
genus in its more decidedly bifurcating mode of growth, and in 
the form of its transverse section. In this genus a section is 
lenticular, the most gently rounded near the base, while in 


GeneRA or THE NorrH AMERICAN PALAEOZOIC Bryozoa. 533 


T»yropora the sides of the branches are angular, and near the 
base the branches are always triangular. 


Tzntopicty4, Ulrich. 
(Geol. Sur. [ll., Vol. VIII, p. 528, pl. 67, figs. 1, 1b.) 
Type, Zweniodictya ramulosa, Ulrich. 


“ Zoarium growing from a basal expansion, into dichotomously . 
divided narrow branches or broad fronds; * * * apertures 
elliptical or subcircular, surrounded by a sloping area. Inter- 
spaces ridge like.” (UxRicH.) 

This genus very closely resembles and is probably identical 
with Sricrorora. 


FiG.89. Teniodictya ramulosa, natural size. 
Fic.90. Surface of same, x9. 


Tzniopora, Nicholson. | 
(Geol. Mag., N. S., London, Vol. I, p. 120. 1874.) 
Type, Twniopora exigua, Nicholson. 
(Plate 11, figs. 12-16; Plate 12, figs. 1-6.) 

Zoarium ramose, flattened, proceeding from a spreading base, or 
from rootlets attached to foreign bodies; branches triangular or 
flattened. The branches of the lower portion of the frond are 
usually triangular, though this condition may occur on all por- 
tions of the frond; sides concave, equal or nearly so; from each 
angle proceed depressed, quadrangular branches, which both 
bifurcate and ramify laterally, continuing growth in the same 
manner as the parent branches; margins flat, smooth; cells 
tubular, cylindrical, gradually enlarging to the aperture. 


534 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


In the triangular branches they proceed from lamin, which 
extend from the center to each angle of the branch; in the flat- — 
tened branches they proceed from the mesotheca, and are recum- 
bent for about one-half their length, then abruptly turning and 
generally opening directly outward ; intercellalar tissue vesicular q 
cell apertures disposed in parallel longitudinal rows, and frequently . 
in oblique ascending rows from the middle of the branch; — 
‘apertures of the central rows the smallest, gradually enlarging 

to the marginal rows. . 

There is usually a prominent carina along the middle of the 

flattened branches. 


— 


Family Intraporidz, nov. fam. 


- The forms included in this family have essentially the same 
manner of growth as the Stictoporide, but differ from the mem- 
bers of that family in having the interapertural space occupied 
by the cavities of vesicles. 

The following genera are included in the family; CosomngLua, 
INTRAPORA, SEMIOPORA AND STICTOPORELLA. — 


Coscinetia, Hall. 
(Pal. N. Y., Vol. VI, p. 19, pl. 64, figs. 9-127 1ssae) 

Type, Coscinella elegantula, Hall. 

(Plate 14, figs. 7-12.) 

Zoarium consisting of an explanate frond, celluliferous on each - 
face, with perforations or fenestrules at somewhat regular distances 
from each other; the whole having the appearance of being com- 
posed of sinuous anastomosing branches; base spreading, adher- 
ing to cyathophylloid corals or other bodies; mesotheca very 
thin, marked by arching undulations of growth, and also by 
longitudinal striations caused by the recumbent portions of the 
cell tubes; cells tubular, cylindrical; for one-half their length 
resting upon the mesotheca, then abruptly bending and continu- 
ing at right angles to their former course, opening directly out- 
ward; intercellular tissue composed of minute tubuli, with very 
closely disposed septa, or of vesicles so disposed that they have 
the appearance of septate tubuli; cell apertures circular; closely 
and irregularly disposed. The interapertural surface, and a space 
about .75 mm. wide around each fenestrule are occupied by 
minute angular pits. 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PaLarozoric Bryozoa. 535 


cee ae Hall. 
(Trans. Albany Institute, p. 157. 1881.) 
Type, Jntrapora puteolata, Hall. 
(Plate 11, figs. 1-9.) 


Zoarium consisting of a flattened, dichotomously branching or 
bifurcating frond, arising from a spreading base; cells tubular 
for one-half the length, parallel with the mesotheca, then turning 
abruptly outward; apertures oval, irregularly and very closely 
disposed ; very frequently in contact; peristomes strong, slightly 
and equally elevated. The interapertural space is occupied by 
minute angular pits, generally a single series between adjacent 
apertures ; intercellular space irregularly vesiculose. 


SemioporaA, Hall. 
(Trans. Albany Institute, Vol. X, p. 193. 1881.) 

Type, Semiopora bistigmata, Hall. 

(Plate 11, figs. 10-11.) 

Zoarium consisting of a flattened dichotomously branched 
frond, proceeding from a spreading base attached to foreign 
bodies; branches narrow, not expanding before bifurcation ; non- 
celluliferous marginal space very narrow; transverse section 
abruptly narrowing and very thin toward the margin; obscurely 
subangular near the middle; cells tubular, oblique, gradually 
enlarging to the aperture. The intercellular tissue is composed 
of irregularly disposed vesicles ; cell apertures oval, sometimes 
nearly circular; regularly disposed in parallel longitudinal rows ; 
the apertures of the marginal rows being larger than the others. 
Between adjacent cell apertures in a longitudinal direction are 
two minute pits side by side. In the course of growth these pits 
form minute tubuli between the cell tubes. 


STICTOPORELLA, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 152. 1882.) 
Type, Stectoporella interstincta, Ulrich. 


The type species of this genus belongs to Inrrapora; other 
forms, as S. cribrosa, are members of the genus CoscrnELLa. 


5386 Report or THE Strate Groxrogist. 


Compare these figures with those of Intrapora puteolata-and 
Coscinella elegantula. 


91 92 


Fig. 91. Stictoporella basalis, a portion of the frond, x9. 
Fie. 92. A still further enlargement, x25. 
Fic. 93. Stictoporella cribrosa, x6. 


Family Cystodictyide, /Ulrich, emend. 

The forms in this family have the same general appearance 
and manner of growth as the forms included in the Stictororips, 
but differ from those forms in having two septa, situated close ~— 
together, in the cell tube, which form a lunarium at the aperture. 
The following genera are included in this family: Cysropictya, 
Coscintum, Coscinotrypa, Dicaotryea, Merxapora and Pxrac- 


TOPOBA. 
Cystopiotya, Ulrich. 


(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V,p. 152. 1882.) 


Type, Oystodictya ocellata, Ulrich. 
(Plate 10, figs. 11-20.) 

This genus has the same general’ appearance and mode of: 
growth as Sricropora, but differs from that genus in having two 
pseudosepta in the cell tube and a lunarium at the aperture. 

Cystodictya Gilberti, though not the type species, shows the 
characteristic features of the genus much more clearly than any 
other. 


Genera oF THE Nortu AMERICAN PaLaAhozoric Bryozoa. 537 


Cosorntum, Keyserling. 
(Geognost. Beobacht., p. 192. 1848.) 

Type, Cosconium Cyclops, Keyserling. 

(Plate 138, figs. 8-12; pl. XIV, fig. 1.) 

Original diagnosis. ‘Lobed expansions in the form of a leaf, 
consisting of two mutually applied strata, whose free planes ex- 
hibit free pores quincuncially arranged so that on a cross fracture 
of the leaf are seen the tubular oblique cells, biserially distributed 
on either side, quite the same as in Escuara; but here the foli- 
aceous expansions are perforated by a regular series of holes as 
in Adonea cribriformis, from which it varies, however, in the 
want of an articulated stipe. Our genus coincides also with 
_ Esouara in the character of the intercellular substance, which is 
permeated by capillary tubules. This substance fills up with 
age; the holes likewise, which are then distinguished as spaces 
without cells.” | 

The fronds of this genus very closely resemble those of Cos- 
OINELLA, but differ in the absence of interapertural pits, and in 
the presence of pseudosepta and lunaria. 


Coscinotrypa, Hall. 


(Report of N. Y. State Geologist for 1885 ; advance sheets Expl. 
of Plate X XIX. 1886.) 
Type, Coscmotrypa cribriformis, Hall. 
(Plate 13, figs. 1-7.) 
Zoarium consisting of explanate fronds, celluliferous on both 
. faces, with perforations or fenestrules at varying distances from 
each other. At irregular intervals the surface is raised into 
augular folds or plications, which continue growth in the same 
manner as and at right angles to the parent frond. These in 
turn give rise to similar elevations, the frond forming a very 
irregular mass; cell apertures arched and triangular, usually 
irregularly disposed, but sometimes alternating and subimbri- 
cating. The apertures adjacent to the fenestrules radiate from 
them; cells with two closely disposed, parallel pseudosepta, 
which form a lunarium at the cell aperture, which consists of 
strong crescentic denticulations.. The fenestrules, in size and 
distance from each other, are extremely variable. 
68 


538 Report or THE Strate GEOLOGIST. 


‘ ° 
Meexarora, Ulrich. 


(Geol. Sur. Ill, Vol. VIII, p. 183. 1890.) 
Type, Meekapora eximia, Ulrich. 


Original diagnosis. “ Bifoliate, sometimes branching ; the 
median laminz thin, flexuous; cells arranged with their oblique 


94 


FIG. 94. Upper left-hand fig., Meekapora eximia, a frond, and vertical section, naturai size. 
Upper right-hand fig., transverse section, x18. 
Middle figs., surface x9 and x16. 
Lower right-hand figs., M. clawsa. Surface, x9 and xi8. 
Lower left-hand fig , vertical section, x18, 


GenERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN Patarozoric Bryozoa. 539 


apertures directed toward the distal margin of the expansion; 
lunarium moderate or obsolete ; cell tubes oblique, the anterior 
walls thinned and flexuous; diaphragms numerous, often 
recurved ; ocecium a large oval cell, showing a convex space with 
a small apical perforation.” (Ulrich.) 


- Paractopora, Hall. 
(Trans. Albany Inst., abstract, p..12.. 1881.) 
Glyptotrypa, Ulrich. 
Type, Phractopora cristata, Hall. 
; (Plate 24, figs. 11-14.) 


Zoarium consisting of explanate fronds, having the surface 
raised at irregular intervals into prominent crests, which are 
celluliferous on each face; cells tubular, arising from a mesotheca, 
cellujiferous on each face, with lunaria, which are frequently 
indistinct. The apertures are generally disposed in diagonally 
intersecting rows; intercellular structure, near the base, irreg- 
ularly vesiculose, and having the appearance of septate tubuli 
above. 


95. 96. 


Fig. 95. Phractopora sagenella, natural size. 
Fig. 96. Phractopora michelini, natural size. 


540 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Family Actinotrypide. 
Actinotrypa, Ulrich. 


(Geol. Sur. Ill., Vol. VIII, p. 386. 1890.) 

Type, Actinotrypa peculiaris, Ulrich. 

“Zoaria very much as in Dichotrypa. Zocecial apertures show- 
ing the ends of from eight to ten vertical septa-like ridges, which 
extend down the inner side of the vestibule, nearly or quite to 
the primitive apertures.” (ULrtou.) | 

The structure of the cell tubes precludes placing this genus 
under either Stictororip# or OysToDICTYID&. 


97. 98. 99. 


Fie. 97. ; Actinotrypa peculiaris, portion of the surface, x9. 
Fie. 98. A still further enlargement, x18. 


Fie. 99. A transverse section, showing the structure of the zoarium a short distance from the 
surface. ; 


Family Rhinoporidz, Ulrich, emend. 
Rurnopora, Hall. 
(Pal. N. Y.,: Vol: UH, p. 170-1528 
Type, Rhinopora verrucosa, Hall. 


Zoarium consisting of lamellate or subpalmate fronds, which 
are celluliferous on both sides. The outer edges are thickened 
and celluliferous, and the entire surface on both sides is uni- 
formly tuberculous. The tubercles (monticules) are usually 
smooth and solid at their summits, rarely celluliferous; surface 
also exhibiting slender, rounding, bifurcating ridges, which, 
when the zoarium is a little worn, appear as shallow grooves; 
cell apertures nearly circular, occupying the summits of prom- 
inent papille, arranged in more or less regular intersecting lines ; 
jnterapertural space smooth; intercellular space occupied by 
mesopores. 7 


Genera or THE Norra AmeriIcaAN Patarozorc Bryrozoa. 541 


‘Family Ptilodictyidz, Zittel, emend. 

The genus Prmoprorya includes those forms which are pointed 
below, articulating into a spreading base; unbranched; straight 
or curved; but other genera are included in this family whose 
structure and mode of growth is the same as that of Pu11xo- 
pioTya, except that they are bifurcating. 

The following genera are included in this family: Grapto- 
pioTya, Paznoprora, Prinop:otya, Sticropormna and STIoTOTRYPA. 


Grapropiotya, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 165. 1892.) 

Type, Graptodictya perelegans, Ulrich. 

“ Zoarium arising from a pointed articulated base into continu- 
- ous dichotomously divided narrow branches ; zocecia with sub- 
circular apertures surrounded by a low peristome; subpolygonal 
in outline; interspaces depressed, generally linear; sometimes 
with one or two fine, tortuous, elevated lines; vertically linear in 
longitudinal sections, but with the lines interrupted.” (Uxrtoz.) 


| Psarnopors, Hall. 
(Pate y Olt p26, 1852.) 
Type, Phenopora explanata, Hall. 
(Plate 15, figs. 8-10.) 

Bryozoan forming thin, broad or ensiform expansions, cellulifer- 
ous on each face; cell apertures oval, separated by ridges, and 
having two minute pits between the ends of adjacent apertures. 

This genus has a very close resemblance to the typical forms of 
Pritoprotya, but is separated from them by the presence of inter- 
apertural pits, which is a constant feature. 


Pritoprotya, Lonsdale. 
(Murch. Silurian System, p. 676. 1839.) 

Type, Ptilodictya lanceolata, Lonsdale. 

(Plate 15, figs. 4-7.) 
~ Bryozoum consisting of a radially striated basal expansion, 
attached to foreign bodies, and which has at the center of the 
upper surface a socket for articulation with the subsolid extremity 
of the erect and conjoined frond; frond commonly lanceolate or 
falciform unbranching ; margins of frond acute, noncelluliferous, 


4 


549 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


smooth or striated; disposition of cell apertures variable; in the 

typical forms plumose, with longitudinal rows in the middle of 

the frond, and oblique lateral rows diverging from those on each 

side. Other species have longitudinal rows separated by ridges, 

and still others have the apertures arranged in diagonally inter- 

secting rows. 3 : 
Pritotrypa, Ulrich. 


(Geol. Sur Ill, Vol. VIII, p. 193. 1890.) 
Type, Ptilotrypa obliquata, Ulrich. | 


Original diagnosis. “Bifoliate, forming large ramose expansions. 
Zocecial tubes and apertures very oblique. At the upper extrem- 


100. 101. 


Fie. 100. Ptilotrypa obliquata, natural size. 

Fig, 101. Vertical section,"natural size. 

Fig. 102. A portion of the surface enlarged. 

Fig. 103. Tangential section, showing usual characters and accessory pores. 


Genera or THE Nortu AMERICAN PaLArozoric Bryozoa. 543 


ity of the acutely oval aperture, there is a small cell, which is 
best seen in.a tangential section; surface. with irregular longi- 
tudinally channeled spots.” (Uxrtc# ) 


Sricroporma, Hall. 
(EalN. ¥-) Vol Vij}p: 20. 1887.) 


Type, Stictoporina claviformis, Hall. 
(Plate 10, figs. 1, 2.) 


Zoarium obtusely pointed at the base, enlarging above and 
becoming flattened; bifurcations few ; cells tubular, arising from 
a mesotheca; apertures oval, disposed in diagonally intersecting | 
rows; interapertural space elevated, angular, enclosing the aper- 
tures in rhomboidal or polygonal areas. 


Family Clathroporide. 


The forms of this family are similar to those of Priioptoty- 
ip in the form and arrangement of the cell apertures, but 
they consist of fenestrate fronds, arising directly from a spread- 
ing base. ; 


tp Set Hall. 
peal Ne. Ye Viel Tt p:.169:° 1852.) 


Type, Clathropora frondosa, Hall. 


Original diagnosis. “ Ramose or reticulate corals; uniformly 
poriferous on both sides of the reticulate fronds and all sides and 
branches of the stems.of the ramose forms; apertures of cells 
more or less quadrangular; regularly arranged in series parallel 
to the direction of the stems or obliquely in quincunx order.” 

Two forms which can not be placed in the same genus were 
embraced in this description. The forms which have been con- 
sidered for the past forty years as CLatHropora have the same gen- 
eral appearance and manner of growth as Cosornium, but the cell 


B44 Report oF THE Srate GEoxocist. 


structure resembles that of Prinopictya. Clathropora frondosa 
must then be considered as the type of the genus. 


Fic. 104. Clathropora frondosa, natural size. 


Family Acrogenide. 

This family includes segmented forms, celluliferous on each 
face, segments narrow, very gradually increasing in width; mar 
gins noncelluliferous. It includes the genera Aoroamnta and — 
DicRANOPORA. 


AcrogcentA, Hall. 
(Rept. of State Geologist, p. 51. 1884.) 
Type, Acrogenia prolifera, Hall. 
(Plate 15, figs. 11-20.) 


Zoarium segmented, arising from cylindrical rootlets. Two 
segments proceed from the truncated termination of the preced- 


: f 


GENERA OF THE Nortn AMERICAN PaLArEozoic Bryozoa. 545 


ing one; base of each segment obconical; terete above and 
strongly striated, gradually becoming flattened and celluliferous; 
apertures in rows separated by ridges; central ranges of aper- 
tures the smaller; apertures with comparatively prominent 
lunaria. 


Dieekxorons: Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 166, pls. 6, 7.) 
Type, Dicranopora internodia, Ulrich. 


Zoarium comprised of bifurcating segments; bifurcations 
short; extremities truncate; a bifurcating segment arising from 


- each preceding truncated extremity; margins subparallel; cell 
* apertures usually arranged in parallel longitudinal rows, sepa- 


rated by ridges; the apertures of the outer rows being larger 
than the others; margins of segments noncelluliferous. 

This genus bears some resemblance to Aorogenta, but differs 
from that genus in the fact that each two segments proceed from 
the bifurcations of the preceding segment instead of from the 
truncated extremity of a simple segment. 


Goniotrypa, Ulrich. 
(Micro. Pal. of Canada, Pl. 2, p.14; Pl. 9. 1889.) 
Type, Goniotrypa bilateralis, Ulrich. 


“ Like Dicranopora in all respects, save that there is a promi- 
nent median ridge on each of the two faces of the double-leaved 
segment.” (ULRIcH). - 


Family Thamnotrypide. 


This family includes at present only the genus THamNnorryPa, a 
form which can not well be included in any of the existing 
families. . 

69 


546 Report oF THE Strate GEOLOGIST. 


Taamnotrrypa, Hall. 
™ (Pal. N.Y; Vol. VL p. 101, Pl. 33, fiegaoeeue 
Type, Thamnotrypa divaricata, Hall. 
(Plate 12, figs. 7, 8.) 


Zoarium consisting of a very narrow. stipe, from which pro- 
ceed, rectangularly, lateral branches; celluliferous on each face ; 
- cell apertures oval; usually disposed in two parallel longitudinal 
rows, separated by a prominent ridge. Sometimes three. rows 
occur and occasionally four rows for a short distance on the 
stipe. On the lateral branches there are never more than two 
rows. 


Family Arthroclemide. 


Zoarium articulated, ramose ; consisting of numerous subcylin- 
drical segments; cells subtubular, more or less oblique; radially 
arranged around a central axis, opening on all sides of the seg- 
ments. The family includes the following genera: ArTHROCLEMA, 
He opora and (?) ScEPrRoPoRA. 


ARTHROCLEMA, billings. 
(Pal. Foss., Vol. I, p. 54. 1862.) 
Type, Arthroclema pulchella, Billings. 


Zoarium jointed, composed of numerous ‘subcylindrical seg- 
ments; celluliferous on all sides; arranged in a pinnate manner ; 
articulation both terminal and lateral. The segments ‘are of 
three kinds, primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary 
segments form the strong central stem, of which each seg- 
ment has normally one or two sockets on opposite sides, for 
articulation with the secondary segments, which usually articu- 
late in like manner, terminally with each other and laterally with 
still more slender tertiary segments; cells subtubular, apertures 
ovate, oblique, the lower border more or less prominent ; disposed 
in longitudinal rows separated by ridges. 


~ Pe, 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PaLarozoric Bryozoa. 547 


106 105 107 108 


ws 
eae 
35, 


X 
s 


a\ he aes 
-% 


p 
S on ; 


5 


‘" 


« 
ge 
fi di 
J 


VSP 


AOR, OO 


nr re ee ee 


Satin 
Moe OF 


co 


Fie. 105. Arthroclema Billingsi, natural size. 

fie. 106. A. cornutum, one of the primary segments, showing lateral sockets. 

Fie 107. A. cornutum, four primary segments, natural size, and three x7, showing the 
articulating sockets near the base of each. 

Fic. 108. Five of the secondary segments, natural size, and x7. 

Fie. 109. A. striatum, lateral view of a large and strongly striated primary segment, 
x18. 

Fie. 110. A secondary segment, x18, aid «nd view of the preceding, x18. 

Fic. 111. A.armatum, a complete segment of the secondary set, x18. 

Fic. 112. A. cornutum, a primary segment, x18. 


- 548 ' Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Henopora, Hall. 
(Pal. N. Y., Vol. II, p. 44. 1852.) 
Type, Helopora fragilis, Hall. 


Zoarium consisting of numerous, subequal, small cylindrical 
segments, articulating terminally; celluliferous on all sides; cell 
tubes somewhat oblique, rectangular to the surface, or geniculate ; 
cell apertures oval; arranged in a diagonally intersecting series 
or in longitudinal series separated by ridges. 


118 114 ; 115 


Figs. 118,114. Helopora Harrisi; two segments, natural size and x18. 
Fie. 115. Vertical section, and transverse section, x50. 
Sorprropora, Ulrich. 
(American Geologist, Vol. I, p. 228. 1888.) 
Type, Sceptropora facula, Ulrich. 


Segments club shaped ; the lower half striated ; noncelluliferous; — 
the extremity bulbous; upper half expanded; the center of the 
top with a large socket; cells tubular, arranged between vertical 
lines ; apertures ovate. 


GenerRA OF THE Nortno AMERICAN PAaLArEozoric Bryozosa. 549 


Fie. 116. Sceptropora facula, a,Segment of the average size and appearance; b, A vertical section, 
showing tubular cells, and central axis; c, Transverse section of a lower half of a segment;- 
d. Transverse section of the expanded portion of a very large segment. All x18. 


Family Rhomboporide, nov. fam. 

Zoarium ramose solid; apertures more or less regularly 
arranged, oval or circular, placed at the bottom of a sloping 
area, rhombic or hexagonal in outline, or between straight or 
flexuous longitudinal ridges; mesopores wanting. 


The following genera are included in this family: Catoconus, 
Raomporpora and TREMATELLA. 


Catoconvs, Ulrich. 
(Geol. Sur. Ill., Vol. VIII, p. 402. 1890.) 
Type, Caloconus rhombicus, Ulrich. 


“Zoarium simple, hollow, expanded gradually from the stri- 
117 118 


Fie. 117. Ccaloconus granosus, natural size and x18. 
Fic. 118. C. rhombicus, natural size and x18. 


550 _ Report or tHe State GEoxoaist. 


ated and subacute basal extremity; substance thin; external 
characters of zoceciaasin RuomsBoprora; primitive portion short ; 
hemisepta well developed.” (Uxgtiox.) 


RHoMBOPORA, Meek. 
(Pal. Eastern Nebraska, p. 141.) 
Type, Z2hombopora lepidodendroidea, Meek. 
(Plate 19, figs. 10-13.) 


Zoarium ramose, solid; cells cylindrical, radiating from an 
imaginary axis; bea cell apertures disposed in straight 
longitudinal rows or in diagonally intersecting rows. In 
the former case the rows are generally separated by promi- 
nent ridges; in the latter the interapertural surface consists 
of rhombodial or polygonal elevations surrounding the aper- 
tures. Usually nodes or short spines occur between the cell 
apertures. The intercellular space near the surface is occupied 
by tubuli formed by the growth of the interapertural nodes. 


TREMATELLA, Hall. 
(Rep. of N. Y. State Geologist for 1886, advance sheets.) 

Type, Zrematella annulata, Hall. 

(Plate 19, figs. 6-9.) 

The internal character is similar to that of Ruomsorora, but 
the cells are more closely disposed and the intercellular space is 
generally solid; but sometimes the spiniform tubuli occur. The 
apertures are more closely arranged in a somewhat quincunx 
order, surrounded by polygonal elevations. The monticules are 
elongated laterally and are so disposed as to give to the branches 


an annulated appearance. This peculiar disposition of the mon- 
ticules has been observed in all the species of the genus. 


Family Streblotrypide, Ulrich, emend. 


The forms included in this family are very similar to the 


Raompoporip&, but they have in the peripheral portion intercel- | 


lular tubuli and interapertural polygonal pits. 


1 
} 
¢ 
} 
} 


GENERA OF THE NortHo AMERICAN Patartozoric Bryozoa. 551 


Siksb,ctrypa, Ulrich. 


(Geol. Sur. Ill., Vol. VIII, p.103. 1890.) 

Type, Streblotrypa Nickels, Ulrich. 

(Plate 19, figs. 14, 15.) 

The internal and external characters of this genus are very 
similar to those of Raomsorora, but between the ends of the cell 
apertures are one or more angular pits, and in the peripheral 
intercellular space mesopores instead of “spiniform tubuli.”’ 


Catiotrypa, Hall. 


Pera, OY VOL. Vil: p24.  L6sT,) 

Type, Callotrypa macropora, Hall. | 

(Plate 18, figs. 8-14.) 

Zoarium ramose solid; cells arising from an imaginary axis at 
the center of the branch; cell apertures oval, irregularly dis- 
posed; peristomes equally elevated; interapertural space occu- 
pied by angular pits; sometimes there are also more or less 
prominent spines; peripheral intercellular space occupied by 
mesopores and spiniform tubuli. 

The internal structure of this species is almost identical with 
Str: BioTRyePa, but it differs from that genus in having the cell aper- 
tures irregularly dispcsed and entirely surrounded by the meso- 
pore apertures. 

Byinorors, Miller and Dyer. 
(Cont. to Pal., No. 2, p. 6. 1879.) 
Type, Bythopora fruticosa, Miller and Dyer. 
“ Dendroid, branches small, sometimes anastomosing; smooth; 


=, 
cell apertures longer than wide; separated by impressed lines.” 


Fic. 119. Specimens of the genus, nat. size. 
Fic. 120. Bythopora Herricki, surface, x9. 
Fic. 121. B. alcicornis,°x9. 


552° ReEport OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Family Rhabdosemonide, Vine. 


This family includes forms whose external characters are simi- 
lar to those of Ruomzororip#, but the cells arise from a filiform 


axis at the center of the branch. It includes the following — 


genera: AcanTsoctemA, Nemataxis and (?) TRoPID PoRA. 


AcantHoctEMé, Hall. . 

(Pal. N. Y., Vol. VI, p. 72. 1887.) 
Type, Acanthoclema alternatum, Hall. 
(Plate 16, figs. 6-12.) 

Zoarium ramose, branches slender, cells cylindrical, arising 
from a filiform axis at the center of the branch; cell apertures 
oval, arranged in longitudinal parallel rows, separated by ridges 
or in diagonally intersecting rows; each aperture enclosed by a 
polygonal elevation. Nodes or conical spines usually occur 
between the cell apertures. When the interapertural space is 
spinulose the intercellular space is occupied by tubuli formed by 
the growth of the hollow spines. When the spines are absent 
the intercellular space is solid. The external characters of this 
genus and Raomsorora are so similar that a knowledge of the 
internal characters is necessary to distinguish the genera. 


Nemaraxis, Hall. 
(Pal. N.Y¥., Vol. V1, p. 740% 18873 
Type, Nemataczis fibresa, Hall. 
: | (Plate 16, figs. 15-18.) 
Zoarium ramose; cells cylindrical, arising from a central filiform 
axis, diverging at an angle of forty-five degrees until within a 


short distance of the surface, when they abruptly turn outward; 


. the former portion of the cells in contact, the latter slightly sepa- 
rated; interspace apparently solid; cell apertures oval, arranged in 
parallel longitudinal rows, separated by a ridge; peristomes very 


thin, slightly elevated. On the surface, at intervals, there are. 


monticules destitute of cell apertures, which extend across the 
branch and give to it an annulated appearance. Frequently a 
solid calcareous growth extending over the branches obliterates 
all traces of the cell apertures. 


ee 


Tl 


—— 


GenerRA OF THE Norto AMERICAN PaLaArozorc Bryozoa. 553 


TropipoporaA, Hall. 
(Report of N. Y. State Geologist for 1886, Expl. pl. 25. 1886.) 

Type, Zropidopora nana, Hall. 

(Plate 16, figs. 1, 2.) 

Zoarium minute, ramose; cell apertures arranged in irregular 
longitudinal rows, separated by sinuous ridges; peristomes very 
thin, slightly elevated. 

It has been impossible to determine the internal character of 
this genus, but the external characters are so different from other 
Trematoporoid forms, that there here seems a necessity for a new 
genus. . | 

Family Bactroporide. 
Baotropora, Hall. 
(Pal aN. Yes Vok. V1) p.l93. )1887.) 

Type, Bactropora granistriata, Hall. ; 

; (Plate 16, figs, 13, 14.) 

Zoarium simple, unbranched, lower extremity pointed, striated; 
external and internal characters very similar to Raomsopora, 
but it can not be placed in the family Ruomsoporipa#, on account 
of its simple form and pointed, striated base. 


Nematopora, Ulrich. 


teco our Dev ol Vit, p. 401. - 1890.) 
Type, Vematopora quadrata, Ulrich. 
“Zoarium ramose, very slender; continuous above the pointed 


basal extremity; cells subtubular, short; arranged ina radial 
ne ARB 124 


123 


Fic. 122. Nematopora quadrata, natural size and x18. 
Fig. 123. A vertical section, x18. 

Fic. 124.. N. delicatula. A frond, natural size and x18. 
Fig. 125. A transverse section, x50. 


70 


554 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


manner around a very minute axial tube; apertures elongate 
oval, with a very thin, equally elevated peristome; disposed in 
longitudinal series, separated by smooth or granulose ridges.” 


Family Chilotrypide. 
Cattotrypa, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin..Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, p. 49. 1884.) 

Type, Chilotrypa hispida, Ulrich. 

(Plate 21, figs. 1, 2.) 

Zoarium ramose, branches cylindrical; cells tubular, arising 
from a small axial tube and curving to the surface; apertures 
oval, oblique to the surface, the lower portion of the peristome 
being the most strongly elevated; frequently arranged in diag- 
onally intersecting rows; interapertural space solid ; intercellular 
space vesiculose; vesicles comparatively large and irregularly 
disposed. 

- Family Fistuliporinide. 

The forms comprised in this family consist of explanate fronds, 
free or incrusting, globuiar or semiglobular masses,  occasion- 
ally ramose, with hollow branches; cells tubular, cylindrical, 
arising from a base consisting of a wrinkled epitheca; cell walis 
smooth, entire; intercellular space occupied by vesicular tissue, 
or tabulate mesopores, serving as a support to the slender cell 
tubes. | ; 

Some of the forms have hitherto been included in the family 
Fistuiporip#, but they differ from the forms properly included 
in that family by the entire absence of pseudosepta, a difference 
in the cell structure which must be accompanied by a correspond- 
ing difference in the structure of the animal. The following 
genera are included in this family: Ca ooavtis, FisTuLrrorina, 
LicHENOTRYPA, PiNacoTRYPA. 


Caxocautis, Hall. 
(Pal IN. Y., Wolk: Vil, p.323. 1S Sia) 
Type, Celocaulis venusta, Hall. 
(Plate 21, figs. 3-5.) 


Zoarium ramose, hollow, inner surface a thin epitheca with 
transverse wrinkles, and fine longitudinal striations; cells tubu- 


Genera or THE Nortuo American’ Patartozoic Bryozoa. 555 


lar, arising from the epitheca, and parallel with it for a short 
distance, then turning abruptly outward; apertures circular or 
oval, sometimes irregularly disposed, at other times in a more or 
less regular quincunx order; peristomes thin, distinctly and 
equally elevated, usually smooth, but sometimes with numerous 
minute nodes or spinules; intercellular space occupied by 
irregularly disposed vesicles, or by regularly superimposed 
vesicles, resembling tabulate mesopores; interapertural space 
occupied by minute angular pits. This genus has been con- 
sidered by one or more authors as a synonym of CartLotrypa, but 
the structure is radically different. In that genus the cells arise 
from a small, irregularly contracting and expanding tube, and 
the posterior portion of the peristome is much the thickest, 
strongly elevated and hood-like. Compare the figures of the 
two genera. ; 


FIsTULIPORINA, NOV. gen. 
(Plate 21, figs. 11-15.) 
Type, /istuliporina serrulata. 


Zoarium usually consisting of free or incrusting explanate 
fronds, or of masses formed by the aceretion of successive layers 
of growth; cells tubular, cylindrical, rectangular or oblique to 
the surface ; intercellular space, near the base, occupied by 
irregularly disposed vesicles; above by regularly superimposed 
vesicles, or by tabulate tubuli (mesopores); cell apertures circu- 
lar or oval; irregularly disposed ; peristomes equally developed, 
often prominent; often granulose or spinulose; interapertural 
space occupied by angular pits, and frequently, in addition, by 
more or less prominent conical nodes or spines. This genus 
differs from Fistu.tpora in the form of the cell tube, and in the 
absence of pseudosepta and lunaria. 


Pryacotrypa, Ulrich. 
(Geol. Sur. Ill, Vol. VIII, p. 384. 1890.) 
Type, Pinacotrypa elegans, Ulrich. 


“Thin, contorted expansions, with a wrinkled epitheca below ; 
cells with subcircular apertures, and well-developed granose peris- 


~ tomes, thin walls, and, so far as observed, no lunarium ; inter- 


cellular spaces wide, occupied by a single series of very large - 


556 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


angular mesopores, which never present the appearance of vesicu- 
lar tissue; tabulze horizontal, few in the cell tubes, numerous in 
the mesopores.” 


Family Favicellide. 


This family includes those forms having the cell apertures in a 
depressed vestibular area, enclosed by angular elevations, and 
comprised of two groups, in one of which the interapertural sur- 
face is solid, in the other occupied by Age pits. It includes 
the genera Favioetia and Licuenoreypa. 


F'AVICELLA, rs 
(Pals: N.. Y.5 Vol W lyon xviii Srey 
Type, Favicella inclusa, Hall. 
(Plate 24, figs. 15-17.) 

Zoarium consisting of thin, lamellate expansions, free, or 
incrusting other objects; cells tubular, cylindrical; for nearly 
one-half their length parallel and in contact with the epitheca; 
then somewhat abruptly bending, continuing almost rectangularly 
to the former portion, and opening directly outward inter- 
cellular space occupied by vesicles, usually regularly super- 
imposed, and having the appearance of tabulate mesopores about — 
two-thirds the diameter of the cell tubes, with closely disposed 
tabulze ; cell apertures circular, irregularly disposed ; peristomes 
thin, equally elevated. Midway between the cell apertures are 
comparatively strong, angular ridges, which coalesce and inclose 
the apertures in pentagonal or hexagonal vestibular areas. The 
surface between the angular ridges and cell apertures is occupied 
by minute angular pits, of much less diameter than the vesicles. 
On the surface at intervals are monticules occupied by pits or 
vesicles at the center ; the cell apertures immediately surrounding 
them being larger than those on other portions of the frond. 


LicnEnotrypa, Ulrich. 
(Cont. Amer. Pal., p. 23. 1886.) 
Type, Lichenotrypa longispina, Hall, (sp.). 
(Plate 23, fig. 7.) 
Zoarium consisting of thin laminate expansions incrusting 
other objects. In the earlier stages of growth (which may be 


a ee 


Genera or THE Nortu AMERICAN PanaArozorc Bryozoa. 557 


observed near the margin of the frond), the cell tubes are very 
short, the apertures oval, closely and irregularly disposed ; per- - 
istomes prominent, the posterior portion strongly elevated ; 
interapertural space smooth, flat or slightly concave. As the 
growth continues the posterior portion of the peristomes becomes 
more elevated, and those of adjacent apertures are united by 
thin irregular connecting walls, which traverse the interapertu- 
ral spaces, and gradually form an elevated and very irregular net- 
work, which at numerous points is further elevated into strong 
spines. The apertures of some of the cell tubes occupy one side 
of the bottom of the large depressions; while others have grown 
with the net-work, and are on a level with numerous, irregularly 
distributed, angular and smaller cells, probably corresponding to 
the vesicular tissue of the immature type. 


Family Selenoporide. 
This family includes the forms similar to Licnmna 1a, but hav- 
ing the cell apertures enclosed in a vestibular area formed by the 
coalescence of thin prominent plications. 


SELENoPoRA, Hall. 
(eae Nave Vol L.-p.-xyils. ISS.) 


\ 


Type, Selenopora circincta, Hall. 
(Plate 24, figs. 4-7.) 


Zoarium forming incrusting expansions. Cells tubular, oblique 
to the surface, pseudo-septate ; frequently alternating and imbri- 


_ cating; apertures circular or slightly oval; anterior portion of 


3D? 


_ peristome slight or entirely wanting ; posterior portion strongly 


elevated, denticulated, projecting over and partially concealing 
the aperture. The vosterior portion of the peristomes are con- 
nected by prominent oblique walls, which traverse the surface 
between the apertures, uniting and forming polygonal vestibular 
areas; the cell apertures being situated on the posterior portion 
of the floor of the area; surface with flat circular macule des- 
titute of cell apertures. The cell apertures adjacent to these 
macule, and radiating from them, are larger and more oblique 


than those on other portions of che frond ; intercellular structure 


the same as in Fistunipora. It is distinguished from the Ovonte- 


558 ReEporT oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


TRYPID#& by the cell apertures being situated in vestibular areas ; 
. from Favice.unz by the presence of pseudosepta and lunaria. 


‘Family Fistuliporide, Waagen, emend. 

The forms comprised inthis family usually consist of explanate 
fronds, free or incrusting, globular or subglobular masses, or 
sometimes of irregular masses. Cells tubular with two pseudo- 
septa and a lunarium at the aperture ; intercellular space occupied 
by vesicles or tabulate mesopores; near the base invariably by 
vesicles, which probably serve to support the slender cell tubes. 

The general appearance of these forms is very similar to the 
FIsTULIeORINIDZ, but they may very easily be distinguished by 
the presence of pseudosepta and lunaria. ‘The peculiar horse- 
shoe shaped sinus along one side of the autopores (cell tubes) 
formed by the pseudosepta has been considered with much prob- 
ability, as corresponding in the living animal witha ciliated groove 
(“siphonoglyphe”’) such as is found in the onopae of the 
Aleyonarians. 

“Tt is but fair to state here, that several authors consider Fistv- 
LiporA and allied genera to be ccelenterate corals of the order 
ALoyonaRI4, and to increase by coenenchymal gemmation; that 
. the cell ee are occupied by autozooids a the vesicles or 
mesopores by siphonozooids. 

“In coenenchymal gemmation a number of these coenenchymal 
tubes apparently unite to form together a new autozooid, so that 
several reduced individuals become blended together into a single 
perfectone. * * * Now with this transformation a great change 
in size certainly goes hand in hand, and the new autozooid certainly _ 
requires much more room than did the siphonozooid. It might 
then be imagined that in reality that only one of the siphono- 
zooids inhabiting the coenenchymal tube is transformed into an 
autozooid, but to make room for the new individual, thus formed, 
the surrounding siphonozooids die, and that the first sign of the 
beginning of the decay is just the thickening of the outer walls, 
which are destined to form together the outer wall of the new — 
autozooid.” (Waagen, Paleontographica Indica, Vol. I, Ser. XIII, 
pp. 905, 906.) 

If this view is correct, the vesicles (coenenchymal tubes) should 
be smaller than the autopore, but in reality they are frequently 


a le 


Genera or THE Nortu AMERICAN PaLArozoic Bryozoa. 559 


larger, as in Lichenalia cultellata, where the diameter is from 
two to four times that of an autopore; and it seems almost a 
rule that the smaller the autopores, the larger the vesicles pro- 
portionally. 

The forms of Fistutipora so gradually pass into other genera of 
undoubted Bryozoa, that sometimes it is difficult to distinguish 
the genera apart, especially from fragments. %istulipora cellata 
and Jntropora puteolata have the cells and intercellular tissue so 
similar, that it is only possible to distinguish the two genera by 
their mode of growth; the one consisting of lamellate incrusta- 
tions, and the other of bifoliate, dichotomously divided, flattened 
branches, with noncelluliferous margins. 


Fistutipora, McCoy. 
(Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist, 2d Series, Vol. 111, p. 180. 1849.) 
Type, /istulipora incrustans, Phillips (sp.). 
(Plate 22, figs. 11-13.) 

Zoarium incrusting or massive, under surface of explanate 
forms consisting of a wrinkled epitheca; cells tubular, tabulate ; 
with two more or less prominent pseudosepta along one side, 
giving a bilobed or trilobate form to a section of the cell; inter- 
cellular space, near the base, occupied by irregularly reed 
vesicles; above by vesicles or tabulated mesopores; sometimes 
the Bales are so regularly superimposed that they resemble the 
tabulate mesopores; cell apertures irregularly and generally 
closely disposed, bilobate or trilobate in outline, and having on 
the septate side a prominent lunarium; interapertural space 
occupied by mesopore apertures or vesicular cavities; surface 
usually with monticules or macule, the centers of which are 
generally occupied only by angular pits, the cell apertures imme- 
diately surrounding them being larger than those on other por- 
tions of the frond. 


Licnsenatt, Hall. 
(Balen. ¥.,-Vol. 1, p..171- 91852.) 
Syn., Dybowskiella. Type, Lichenalia concentrica, Hall. 
(Plate 22, figs. 8-10; Pl. 28, figs. 1-6.) 
Zoarium having the same general appearance and manner of 
growth as Fisrucipora, but the interapertural surface is solid. 


—560 ReEporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Notwithstanding statements to the contrary, it is a fact that the 
‘same species has invariably a cellulose interapertural surface or 
a solid one. Both characters do not occur on the same species. 


FIsTULIPORELLA, NOV. gen. ag 


Type, /istuliporella constricta, Hall (sp.). 
(Plate 22, figs. 5-7.) 


Zoarium laminar or massive from the superposition of suc- 
cessive layers of growth ; cells tubular ; pseudoseptate ; apertures 
subcircular, enclosed inasloping, polygonal, vestibular area. On 
the interapertural surface, in addition to the vesicular cavities, 
are small oval apertures, with equally elevated peristomes; 
intercellular space vesiculose. 


Strotorora, Ulrich. 
(Geol. Sur. Ill., Vol. VIII, p. 383. ee 
Type, Strotopora Javeolata, Ulrich. 


‘‘Ramose, branches large, irregular, solid or hollow; large, 
abruptly spreading cells, which are supposed to represent ocecia, 
are distributed among the ordinary cell apertures. When well 
preserved they appear on the surface as strongly convex nodes, 
with an opening on one side. In all other respects they are like 
FisTuLieoRA.” | j 


Fic. 126. Strotopora faveolata. Fragment, natural size and a portion of the surface of the 


same, x9. 
Fic. 127. ''Strotopora dermata. A flattened fragment, natural size and a portion of the same, X9. 


GENERA OF THE Nortu AmeERICAN PaLArozotic Bryrozoa. 561 


Family Odontotrypide. 


The forms included in this family are usually very thin, incrust- 
ing expansions, but sometimes ramose, branches hollow; zoarium 
thin; cells short, oblique, pseudoseptate; intercellular space 
vesiculose ; interapertural space solid. 


Eripoprora, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 187. 1882.) 

Type, Lridopora macrostoma, Ulrich. | 

Original diagnosis. ‘ Zoarium thin, incrusting. Cell aper- 
tures subtriangular or ovate, and moge or less oblique, with the 
margin strongly elevated on oneside, or the peristome may extend 
unequally all around the aperture ; it being always more promi- 
nent on one side than the other. Cell apertures surrounded by 
from one to three series «f smaller, angular, interstitial cells, 
which, when the zoirium is well preserved, is covered by a 
membrane. Intercellular spice occupied by vesi: ular tissue.” 


Fic. 128. Eridopora macrostoma. 2. Enlargement of a portion of the surface. 2a. Vertical 
section. 


OpontotrypPa, Hall. 


(Report of N. Y. State Geologist for 1835; advance sheets, 
explanation plate 30, figs. 24-27. 1886.) 
Type, Odontotrypa alveata, Hall. 
(Plate 24, figs. 1-3.) 

Zoarium consisting of very thin expansions incrusting other 
objects; cells oblique, frequently imbricating; pseudoseptate ; 
apertures oblique to the surface, trilobate, irregularly and very 
closely disposed; peristomes thin, anterior portion slightly 


elevated ; posterior portion more strongly elevated, and having 
71 


562 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


two prominent denticulations, producing a crescentic projection ; 
intercellular space vesiculose; surface with elongate depressed 
macule, destitute of cell apertures. 


Pirzotrypa, Hall. 


(Pal. NOY... Vol. Vijp:xvi: Sea 
Type, Pileotrypa denticulata, Hall. 
(Plate 23, figs. 8-15.) 


Zoarium usually consisting of thin incrusting expansions, but 
one form having the same characters is ramose, branches hollow. 

Cell tubes very oblique, frequently imbricating, pseudoseptate ; 
cell apertures trilobate, irregularly disposed, or alternating and 
imbricating ; anterior portion of the peristome slightly elevated ; 
posterior portion strongly elevated, projecting over and partially 
concealing the aperture ; denticulate; on some parts of the frond 
the upper portion of the cell tubes are frequently exposed for a 
third or more of their entire length; intercellular space occu- 
pied by irregularly disposed vesicles on tabulate mesopores ; 
surface with frequent monticules the centers of which are desti- 
tute of apertures; from this space the cell apertures radiate in 
every direction; interapertural space solid. 


GrossotryPa, Hall. 


(Pal N_Y., Vol. V1, p. xvi geen) 

Type, Glossotrypa paliformis, Hall. 

(Plate, 24, figs. 8-10.) 

Zoarium tubular, cylindrical, hollow; diameter of tube 2 mm.; 
thickness of zoarium 40 mm. Cells tubular, with frequent 
narrow projections, (semi diaphragms) from the cell walls, extend- 
ing partially across the tube; two pseudosepta on one side; cell 
apertures paliform, very closely disposed, frequently in diagonally 
intersecting rows; the surface presenting a reticulated appear- 
ance; apertures with denticulated lunarium; interapertural space 
elevated, forming ridges; frequently a prominent node at the 
intersection of the ridges; sometimes a depression or pit ; surface 
with monticules which are laterally in contact, giving to the frond 
an annulated appearance; intercellular space vesiculose. 


GrenERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALArozoric Bryozoa. 563 


Family Ceramoporide, Ulrich. 
* The forms in this family are usually incrusting lamellate 
expansions, but sometimes free; cell apertures arched or triangu- 
lar, usually imbricating; no pseudosepta. 
The following genera are included in the family: Aractropora, 
Crramopora and Prricopora. ; 


Atactopors, Ulrich. . 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. II, p. 119. 1879.) 
Type, Atactopora hirsuta, Ulrich. 


_“Zoarium consisting of very thin expansions incrusting other 
_ objects; cell tubes short, very oblique, frequently alternating 
and imbricating; cell apertures oblique to the surface, oval but 
appearing petaloid from the numerous nodes, which occur not 
only between the apertures, but also on the cell walls near the 
aperture; surface with numerous small monticules, the centers of 
which are destitute of cell apertures.” 


Ceramopora, Hall. 
(Pal. N. Y., Vol. II, p. 16%. 1852.) 


Type, Ceramopora imbricata, Hall. 
(Plate 20, figs. 10-15.) 
Zoarium consisting of flattened discoidal or lamellate incrust- 
ing expansions; cells radiating from one or more centers; cell 
apertures arched or triangular, frequently alternating and imbri- 


cating ; mesopores few or entirely wanting; interapertural sur- 
face solid. 


Perticopora, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 155. 1882.)- 
Type, Petigopora gregaria, Ulrich. 


Zoarium consisting of small circular or lamellate expansions 
incrusting other objects; cell tubes rectangular or oblique to 
the surface; walls very thin; cell apertures oval or circular, 


564 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


sometimes polygonal; very frequently oblique to the surface, 
alternating and imbricating, with frequent comparatively large 
spines at the angles formed by the junction of the cell walls ; 
surface with monticules having apertures larger than those on 
other portions of the frond, the cell walls usually extending 
above the surrounding surface. 


129 


Upper-right-hand figs. Petigopora gregaria, a frond natural size and vertical section enlarged. 


Upper left-hand fig. Surface of same enlarged. 
Lower right-hand figs. P. asperula, natural size and vertrical section enlarged. 


Lower left-hand fig. Surface enlarged. 


Family Ceramoporellide. 
Crramororgtia, Ulrich. — 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p- 156. 1882.) 


Type, Ceramoporella distincta, Ulrich. 

Zoarium incrusting, becoming massive by the superimposition 
of numerous thin layers; cell tubes short; walls thin; apertures 
more or less oblique; posterior portion of peristome strongly 
elevated, cucullate, denticulate ; mesopores abundant, often com-” 
pletely isolating the cell tubes; surface with macule destitute 
of cell apertures, frcm which the cell apertures frequently 
radiate in all directions. 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PAaLArEozoic Bryozoa. 565 


This genus may be distinguished from Csramorora by the 
numerous mesopores. 


Fie. 180. Ceramoporella distincta. Surface x18. 
Fig. 1381. C.interporasa. x18. 
Fie. 1382. C.inclusa. Surface x9 and x18. 


CattoporE.i A, Ulrich. 
ieur.cm. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. for. 1882.)- 
Type, Chiloporella flabellata, Ulrich. 


Original diagnosis. “ Zoaria rising up into flabellate fronds 
from a greatly expanded heavy crust ; cell tubes long, very thin- 
walled ; large and of irregular shape in the axial region; walls 
much thickened near the surface ; apertures ovate; the lunarium 
conspicuously elevated; mesopores numerous; diaphragms few, 
generally absent.” 

(?)Synonym for Fistutrpora. 


~ 


566 - Report or toe Stare GEoxoaist. 


CrEPIPORA, Ulrich. 
(Geol. Sur. Ill, Vol. VIL, p. 404. 1890.) 
Type, Crepipora simulans, Ulrich. 


Incrusting, lamellate or massive from the superimposition of 
successive layers of growth; cells slightly oblique ; pseudoseptal ; 
apertures rhomboidal or pyriform; lunarium prominent ; surface 
exhibiting at irregular intervals minutely porous or subsolid 
elevations or depressions; mesopores usually restricted to the 
maculee. } ; 


Fie. 1838. Crepipora simulans. A frond, natural size. 
Fig. 134. A portion of the surface, x12. : 

Fic. 185. .C. impressa. A frond, natural size. 

Fig. 1386. A portion of the surface, x12. 


Dramesopora, Hall. 
(Pal. N.-Y., Vol. il, p. 158... isazs) 


Type, Diamesopora dichotoma, Hall. 
(Plate 16, figs. 3-5.) 

Zoarium ramose, hollow; thickness of frond about .33 mm. 
Inner surface composed of an epitheca, marked by strong con- 
centric undulations of growth, fine concentric striations and fine 
longitudinal strie, caused by the recumbent portion of the cell 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PAaLArEozoric Bryozoa. 567 


tubes ; cells tubular, cylindrical, arising from the epitheca, and 
for about one-half their length parallel with it, then abruptly 
turning outward and opening obliquely to the surface ; apertures 
oval, more or less regularly alternating and imbricating; pos- 
terior portion of the peristome strongly elevated and cucullate, 
projecting over and partially concealing the apertures, with two 
minute denticulations; surface with frequent macule destitute 
of cell apertures, the macule immediately adjacent to them 
being larger than the others and radiating. 


OTHE. MON TICULLPOROIDS:: 


The systematic position of many of the forms which have been 
included in the families Monrticutieorip# and Fisto.iporip# has 
- been the subject of much discussion, and authors are not now 
agreed whether they should be placed with the Bryozoa or 
. the Corals. Although in this work they have been placed with 
the Bryozoa, undcubtedly further study and investigation will 
show that some of the forms at least must be associated with 
the corals. 

Prof. H. A. NicHoxson has made a close study of these forms, 
and in his Manual of Paleontology, Vol. I, p. 352, he sums up 
the matter as follows: 

“Tt must be admitted, however, that the zodlogical affinities of 
the Monticuliporoids is still a matter of uncertainty; in many of 
their features, both structural and developmental, they show 
marked relationship with the Actinozoa generally and with the 
AtcyonaRkia in particular, while in others they approach the 
Potyzos, and it must in the meanwhile remain a matter of indi- 
vidual opinion whether the Monticuliporoids should be con- 
sidered as a very peculiar group of corals or an equally peculiar 
group of Potyzoa. * * * Leaving the external form of the 
skeleton entirely out of consideration, the general features which 
favor the reference of the Monticuliporoids to the Ccelenterates 
is as follows: 

1. The common. dimorphism of the colony in the Monticu 
liporoids finds its best parallel in Hetiopora and Herioxirss, the 
coelenterate nature of which is undoubted. In particular the 
structural relationship between Fisrutirora and Hewiorirss or 
PiLasmopora are exceedingly close, the skeleton in both consisting 


568 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


of large sparsely-tabulated tubes (autopores) separated by 
smaller closely-tabulated tubes (mesopores), and the former of 
these possessing radial structure of the nature of septa or 
pseudosepta. 7 

2. The Monticuliporoids increase by fission as well as by gem- 
mation, whereas the recent Bryozoa appear to be uniformly 
characterized by a gemmiparous mode of development, which 
varies in its precise detail in the various groups. Moreover the 
gemmation of Monticuliporoids is intermural, and is precisely 
similar to that which obtains among the Favostripa. 

3. Coenenchymal gemmation occurs in the Fisrciiworips, this 
mode of growth being otherwise characteristic of Htiopora 
and the He tiouitips. oes 

4. The walls of the tubes in the Monticuliporoids are imperfor- 
ate, while in the calcareous Bryozoa the skeleton seems to be 
almost always (probably always) perforate, and the cavities of 
contiguous cells are usually placed in direct communication by 
means of connecting foramina or tubes. 

5. The abundant development of tabule in the Montiad eet 
is a feature in which the organisms resemble a a large number of 
undoubted corals. 

6. Certain Monticuliporoids possess in their.autopores radial 
folds or plications which may be compared with the pseudosepta 
of Hetiorora; while others (Monticulipora mammulata) possess 
radially disposed calcareous spines, which are closely similar to 
the septal spines of Favosires, of Syrine pora and of certain 
species of HELtoLirTxs. 

On the other hand there are the following considerations which 
would point to a relation between the Monticuliporoids and the 
Bryozoa, or which, at any rate, would more or less diminish the 
importance of some of the features above mentioned as showing — 
Coelenterate affinities of these organisms. 

1 The polyzoary of Hetsropora (which is undoubtedly a 
Bryozoan*) consists of large tubes scattered among small ones, 
though there does not seem to be any essential difference in the- 
structure of these respectively. 

*Waagen says: ‘It may suffice to have proved that the systematic positionof HETEROPORA is by no 


means certain. * * * If HETEROPORA, from a careful study of its animals, should ever be proved to 
be a Bryozoan, then also the FAVOSITID® would have to be removed to the BRYOZOA.’’ 


GreneRA oF THE NortH American Panarozorc Bryozoa. 569 


2. Tabule are by no means confined to the Ccelenterates, 
precisely similar structures, so far as appearances go, being present 
in undoubted Bryozoa (e. g. in Hergropora, Lomopora, F'asorov- 
LARIA, ALVEOLARIA, etc.) 

8. Radial structures in the form of rows of spines are present 
in a number of Bryozoa (e. g. HeteRorora, DiscoporELia, etc.) 

4, There are various Bryozoa, such as RHomBorora, CERIOPORA, 
and some of the Fenestelloids which possess structures very 
similar to the “acanthopores” of many Monticuliporoids. 
Structures possessing in some degree the same aspect, are found 
in the recent Rzrzporipz, where they serve to carry the 
avicularia. 3 

5. Portions of the skeleton of /2stulipora incrustans have been 
shown by Joun Youne, to become thickened and to exhibit a 
finely tubular structure, similar to that seen in the skeleton of 
FENESTBLLID&. 

6. According to Linpsrrom, certain of the Monticuliporoids 
pass through early stages of development in which the skeleton 
is a distinctly Bryozoan type;* as an example of this we may take 
the base of the singular Cellopora heterosole, the base, and therefore, 
the first formed portion of which exhibits Bryozoan characters, 
while the main mass of the skeleton is of the ordinary Monti- 
culiporoid type. | 

7. Lastly certain extinct forms, the Bryozoan nature of which 
seems unquestionable, are hardly distinguishable, as regards 
minute structure, from other forms which have always been 
regarded as Monticuliporoids. Thus an extremely close 
structural resemblance obtains between Cerzopora imterporosa on 
the one hand and Batostomella (Monticulipora) tumida on the 
other. 

Wiiiam Waacen (Paleeontologia Indica, Vol. I, Series XIII, 
p. 854), has the following to say in regard to the family, Monrr- 

*Probably LINDSTROM was mistaken in his observations, being deceived by the superimposition of 
different forms,the incrustation of one form by another being of common occurrence. Two cases 
of metamorphosis are treated in-detail, one of Monticulipora (Diamulites) petropolitana, which 
begins as a CERAMOPORA, and during its growth several times reverts to that form, but M. (D.) petro- 
politana, has unmistakably an intermural gemmation, which would preclude its being a Bryozoan. 
The other case is still more extraordinary, that of M. ostiolato. LINDSTROM says, that in its earliest 
stage it is a DISCOPORELLA, then a FISTULIPoRA, then a THECOSTEGITES, finally becoming a MONTICULI- 


PORA, FISTULIPORA has according to WAAGEN a coenenchymal gemmation, THECOSGITES a stolonal 
gemmation and MONTICULIPORA an intermural gemmation. 


72 


570 ReEporT oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


cULIPoRIDZ. “The family which has given us the greatest 
trouble in working out its affinities and its internal structure is © 
Montiovtirori#, not only because there had to be taken into 
consideration two opposite opinions of long standing, one sup- 
ported by Lrypsrrém and Rominerr, regarding these fossils as 
Bry ozoa, and another, supported strongly by Nicxotson, taking 
them to be corals, but also, because the family as circumscribed 
by Nicwotson could not be retained as made to include forms of 
AtcyonaRiA as well as those belonging to Huxacogauta. 

“The first point, therefore, is to show the affinity of the Montr- 
cuLIPorID& to the corals, in opposition to the view which con- 
siders them as Bryozoa. In our endeavors to decide this question, 
great difficulties -were encountered on account of the fact that no 
decisive characters have so far been made out, by which the 
stony abodes of certain corals, and those of the Bryozoa cyclo- 
stomata could be distinguished. Both consist of minute cells, 
more or less tubular, often with horizontal partitions or tabule ; 
and even organs comparable externally to radial septa are not 
entirely absent in some Bryozoa; from all of which it appears 
that in fossil forms neither the general habitus of the colonies 
nor the internal character of the single cells can be made use of 
for the distinction of the Monticuttporip” and the Bryozoa. Yet 
after careful study we detected certain distinctive characters in 
the mode of propagation which are so radically different as to 
affect the shape and structure of the colonies; the structure of 
the walls of the cells is also different in the MonticuLiroripz 
and in the Bryozoa. : | 

‘“In all these considerations we must exclude, however, the 
genus Herrrorora. In its structure it can not be denied this 
genus exhibits a certain affinity to the MonricuLirporipz, but 
there are also so many discrepancies that its real relations must 
probably be looked for in other quarters. 
ve % a % % % * % “ 

“Tf we turn now to the modes of propagation occurring in . 
different groups of animals, we find that in Bryozoa there is only 
one such mode observable and that is gemmation. In the corals, 
on the contrary, two such modes have long since been made 
known —fissiparity and gemmation. Whilst, however, gemma- 


GENERA OF THE NortH AmeERICAN PaLArozoic Bryozoa. 571 


tion takes place in the Bryozoa only in a single manner, by pro- 
truding one of the walls of the mother cells and then partition- 
ing off the protruded part, there are many different ways in 
which gemmation has been observed to occur in corals. With 
regard to the gemmation of Bryozoa very excellent observations 
have been published by Barrors (Recherches sur ’embryologie 
des Bryozoaires, Lille, 1877) Nirscax, CLararios, etc. The mode 
of gemmation of corals, on the other hand, has been studied in 
detail by Kocu, whose chief work on the subject has been pub- 
lished in the Paleontographica. (III Series, Vol. V.) 

“The difference between the animals inhabiting the colonies of 
Bryozoa and those that build up the colonies of corals are 
extremely striking in many respects, and must find their expres- 
sion also in the mode in which the colonies are built up. The 
animals of the Bryozoa are, in the first place, much less long- 
lived than those of the corals, as they show, for by far the largest 
part of their existence, a so-called latent vitality. Each animal 
of a colony of Bryozoa produces only one or two gems”*, only 
exceptionally more, more or less simultaneously, and mostly 
while it is yet in a rather juvenile stage, after which it stops its 
functions in this direction. The animal of a colony of corals 
never stops producing gems, but develops them at all times of its 
life and at different levels. This difference alone is the cause of 
a quite different growth of the colonies of the two classes of 
animals. Whilst in the Bryozoa gems are produced only in the 
peripheral parts of the colony, as for instance in BERENICEA or 
in arborescent forms only at the apex of the branches, as in 
Enracopnora, in the corals gems are produced all over the colony 
in great numbers if the animals are well fed, etc., and in smaller 
numbers if the contrary is the case. be ss < a : 
From all that we can gather in regard to the gemmation of 
recent Bryozoa, it appears that besides having the gemmation 
restricted to a very short period in a single animal’s life, the 
production of gems is restricted to one side of the animal. It is 
always on the side opposite the aperture of the cell. This can be 
very easily made out in the CusiLosromata, where the aperture is 
always more or less lateral; but also in the Crorostomara, where 


* A word used by the author to express the product of gemmation. 


572 Report oF THE STaTE GEOLOGIST. 


the aperture is terminal, the apex always bends to one side, oppo- 
site to the side on which the gems are produced. We will call 
the gem-producing side the dorsal one. In creeping colonies this 
dorsal side is always turned downwards; in arborescent forms it 
is turned inward, toward the axis of thestem. If thus acreeping 
colony changes into an arborescent one, the animals must turn 
around to acertain extent to bring their dorsal sides into a 
fitting position, but that is all the change that takes place in such 
a@ case. 

“‘In the corals, on the contrary, pone takes place, indis- 
criminately, on all sides of the animal, and, therefore, no lineal 
descent of the animals is observable. . 

“In the MonricoLiporip2 propagation takes place in a way which 
deviates very far from the modes described in the Bryozoa. As 
in corals two essentially different modes of propagation are 
observable — gemmation and fissiparity. The first of these is the 
more common one, and, therefore, we shall consider it first in the 
Monticuriroripz. If we turn to Prof. Koon’s extremely impor- 
tant paper on the propagation of corals, we find he does not 
retain the old opinion as to the essential difference between fissi- 
parity and gemmation, and from a biological point of view such 
an opinion may not be entirely justifiable, but from a practical 
point of view it appears to us as of great importance. 

* * * * * * * * Ses 

“The four modes of gemmation are classed by Kocn in the 
following manner: 

“A. Internal gemmation. 

“a. Tabular gemmation; the young coralites are » produced by 
means of singularly transformed tabule. 

“This mode of gemmation chiefly occurs in the Rucosa or 
TETRACORALLA. 

“'B. External gemmation. 

“q. Intermural gemmation; the young corallites are produced by 
the splitting of the primary mural plate (or primordial ra of two 
or more adjoining corallites. 

“db. Coenenchymal gemmation ; young corallites are produced 
by the fusion of several interstitial tubes. 

“¢, Stolonal gemmation; young corallites are produced by the 
budding of one of the stolons. 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALAEOozoIc Bryozoa. 573 


“The last of these modes is entirely restricted to the ALOYONARIA : 
the second seems chiefly so, while the first has been observed up 
to the present time in Favositipz and some Hexacora.ta. 

“If we regard the Monticutivorip# as a whole as they have 
been circumscribed by Nicxotson, we find in the forms thus com- 
prised under the name that two of the above distinguished modes 
of gemmation are observable, the intermural and the ccenen- 
chymal gemmations. According to the occurrence of the two 
modes of gemmation two different groups of forms can be dis- 
tinguished within NicHotson’s Monrticutieorips, of one of which 
the genus Mostiouttrora, whilst of the other the genus Fisrutt- 
poRA may be considered the types. We take the two groups as 
forming two different families, for the one of which we retain 
the name MonticuLirorip#, whilst for the other we create the 
name F stutirorip&. The latter family must, however, be removed 
to the Arcyonartia, a mode of proceeding which will be justified 
later on. 

“In the Monricuttror1p4, in this restricted sense, there remains 
onlyone method of propagation, the intermural one, which is 
chiefly characterized by the circumstance that the young animal 
formed by gemmation has no part in common with the mother 
animal, so that it is impossible to say from which of. the surround- 
ing animals the new one took its origin. It looks as if the new 
animal were only filling up a void space between several old 
animals. * * * | 

“This gemmation is certainly very far different from the mode 
of gemmation of Bryozoa as described above. The most radical 
difference always consists in the circumstance that in the Bryozoa 
the fully developed animals do not produce gems, but only the 
quite young ones, which are themselves still more or less in the 
state of buds. After this the next important difference is, that 
in Bryozoa the mother animal can always be made out, which is 
not the case in MonttsuLipora. 

“On the other hand the gemmation of Monricutrpora is abso- 
lutely identical with that occurring in the FavositipzZ. 

* * * * * * * * * 

“Tf thus the mode of increase of the colonies of the Monticttt- 
PoRA seems not to be in favor of the supposition of these organ- 


574 ReEporT oF THE STatTE GEOLOGIST. 


isms being Bryozoa, there are yet other points which also oppose 
such a supposition. One of these is the structure of the walls in 


the Monticutirorip# and in the Bryozoa. There are many forms — 


of Bryozoa which deposit carbonate of lime in the ectocyst of 


_ their body more or less abundantly. This deposit takes place in ~ 


the median layer of the ectocyst only, whilst the outer and inner 
layers remain of a horny nature, which probably is the cause that 
in thin sections the calcareous walls of single individuals appear 
separated from each other by dark lines. If we now consider 
more in detail the structure of the calcareous substance of which 
the walls of the cells are built, we find that it is composed of very 
thin fibers placed vertically to the surface of the wall, so that in 
sections cutting the single cells transversely, a concentric arrange- 
ment of the fibers can never be observed. These fibers leave 


interstices between them at intervals, producing numerous capil- 


lary tubes, by which the walls of the Bryozoa seem always to be 
pierced in great numbers, if. otherwise sufficiently well preserved. 
Every work on recent or fossil Bryozoa shows this. 

“ Of all this there is not a trace in the MonticuLiporipZ. 
* * ee * * -¥ * * * 


“ The animals of a colony of corals undergo constantly a certain 
process of renovation. The animal deposits large masses of 
sclerenchyma behind itself and thus slowly ascends within the 
tube, sometimes chambering off the dead and useless parts of the 
corallum by diaphragms or tabule ; the animals are all self-feed- 
ing, performing all their vital functions during their whole life- 
time, at the same time constantly producing new gems. The 
structure of the wall is in accordance with these peculiarities, 
the reversedly conical layers of sclerenchyma by which the wall 
of the Monticu11poripz is built up indicate the ascending move- 
ment of the animal within its tube. 

“The circumstance that the greater part of the animals of the 
colony of Bryoza is in a state of latent life, the functions of 
taking and digesting food being performed by only a few indi- 
viduals at the top of the branches in arborescent forms, brings 
with it the other peculiarity, that all the animals of a colony are 
in intimate connection and communication with each other; this 
communication seems to be brought about partly by the capillary 


~ 


Genera oF THE Nortu AMERICAN Patarozorio Bryozoa. 575 


tubes mentioned above; for the most part, however, it is affected 
by large openings in the walls of the lodges, by which a free 
communication of all the animals of a colony is established. If 
the Monticutirorip& were Bryozoa such openings must exist, and 
they must have been observed in some case or other, but nothing 
of the kind has ever been detected. 


“From all this it appears that the MonricuLiporip# are not 
Bryozoa, and as they show the greatest affinity to Fav simpa, it 
is very probable that they must be considered as corals and 
placed among the HexacorE.ta.” 


Family Monticuliporida, Nicholson, emend. 


Zoaria massive, discoidal, lamellar or ramose. Cells polygonal 
in contact their entire length, increasing by intermural gemma- 
tion or by fissiparity. Cells tabulated and invariably with “cysti 
phragms” near the surface. The following genera are included 
in this family: Homorrypa and Monricutrrora. | 


Homotrypa, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 240. 1882). 
Type, Homotrypa curvata, Ulrich. | 


Zoarium ramose to subfrondescent; cells tubular polygonal, 
arising from an imaginary axis at the center of the frond, 
gradually diverging till near the surface, where they turn abruptly 
outward. The tube walls are very thin till they reach the peri- 
pheral region, where they become thickened. The thin walled 
portion of the cells have straight diaphragms, usually infrequent. 
In the peripheral portion of the zoarium the cells are provided 
with a series of cystoid diaphragms or cystiphragms, the space 
between their flexuous inner wall and the opposite wall of the 
cell being crossed by an equal number of straight diaphragms ; 
mesopores wanting, but the numerous gemme or young cells have 
sometimes the appearance of mesopores; surface usually with 
maculz or monticules, the centers of which are occupied by very 
small cells, while the cells immediately adjacent to them are 


576 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


larger than on other portions of thefrond. Internally the smaller 
cells of the macule or monticules are without cystiphragms. 


Fig. 187. Homotrypa curvata, natural size. 

Fia. 138. 
x18- 

Fig. 1389. Hometrypa callosa. Vertical section x18. 

Fie. 140 Transverse section x18. 


Upper fig., surface, «18; Middle jfig., transverse section x18; Lower fig., vertical seCtion 


oe ile ey 


Genera oF THE NortH AMERICAN Pataxozoic Bryozoa. 577 


Monticuttpora, D’Orbigny. 


(Prod. 2, p. 279. 184’7.) 
peer NMonticulipora mnamaliont, D’Orbigny. 
(Plate 17, figs. 1-3.) 

Zoarium massive, lobate, laminar, incrusting and sometimes 
irregularly frondescent. Cells tubular, polygonal, arising from 
an imaginary axis at the center of the frond, gradually diverg- 
ing until near the surface when théy more abruptly turn outward, 
at the same time becoming slightly thickened. Immediately 
above the point of gemmation the young cell or tube is crossed 
by numerous straight diaphragms, giving to it the appearance of 
a mesopore, subsequently the tabule become less crowded and 
the tube assumes the character of an ordinary cell. In addition 
to the diaphragm numerous cystiphragms are developed in the 
greater number of cells; surface with numerous conical monti- 
cules closely and subregularly disposed in intersecting rows. 

This genus is distinguished from Homotrypa by the much 
greater number of diaphragms and cystiphragms in the thin 
walled portion of the cell tubes, and the absence of the thicken- 
ing of the cell walls in the peripheral region of the frond that is 
characteristic of Homotrypa. 


Family Amplexoporidz, Ulrich, emend. 

This family includes, the forms which have a general resem- 
blance to the Monticuliporide, and essentially the same mode of 
growth, but the cell tubes are without cystiphragms. The fol- 
lowing genera are includéd in the family: Amp.zxopora, Dexaytia, 
Mownorrypa, Monorrypeuia, Leproreypa, Patarorrypa and STEn- 
OPORA. 

Ampuexopora, Ulrich. 


(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 154. 1882.) 
Type, Amplexopora cingulata, Ulrich. 
(Plate 17, figs. 6, 7.) 
Zoarium ramose or massive ; cells polygonal, forming prismatic 
tubes, which arise from an imaginary axis at the center of the 
frond, gradually diverging till within a short distance of the 


surface, when they turn more abruptly outward. In the axial 
73 


57 By Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST. 


region the cell walls are very thin, and the diaphragms are com- 
paratively distant. In the peripheral region the walls are much 
thickened and the diaphragms are much more numerous; surface 


with slightly elevated monticules, having cell apertures a little 


_ larger than those on other portions of the frond. 


- Dexayia, Edwards and Haime. : 
(Mon. de Pol. Foss. de Terr. Pal, p. 127. 1851.) 
Type, Dekayia aspera, Edwards and Haime. 
Zoarium. ramose, branches cylindrical or flattened cells 
tubular, polygonal, arising from an imaginary axis at the center 
of the branch, gradually diverging until near the surface, when 
they abruptly. turn outward. In the axial region the walls are 


very thin, and the diaphragms are very infrequent or entirely - 


wanting. In the peripheral region the cell walls are much 
thickened and the diaphragms are of moderately frequent occur- 
rence, the walls becoming moniliform. The cell apertures are 
polygonal and have numerous spines (acanthopores) at the angles; 
surface with numerous macule, the cell apertures of which are 
larger than those on other portions of the frond. 


141 Ged 143 144 


Fie. 141. Dekayia devonica, natural size. 
Fig. 142. Vertical section, x18. 

Fie. 143. Surface, x18. 

Fie. 144. Transverse section, x36. 


Hererorrypa, Nicholson.»  - 
(Pal. Tab. Corals, p. 291. 1879.) 
Type, Heterotrypa mammulata, Nicholson. 


Zoarium consisting of large lobate or frondescent expansions; 
cells tubular, polygonal, arising from an imaginary axis, gradu- 


' 


Genera or THE NortH AMERICAN PaLAEozo1o Bryozoa. 579 


146 


AEX 


Sry 
ro 


ad 


Fic. 145. Heterotrypa prolifica, natural size. 


Fic. 146. Surface and transverse section x18. 


Fia. 147. 


Transverse and vertical section x18. 


H. singular 


te 


580 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


ally diverging for about two-thirds of their length, then abruptly 


turning outward, the walls, previously very thin, becoming much 
thickened. In the axial portion of the cells the diaphragms are 
very infrequent or entirely wanting. In the peripheral portion 
they are closely disposed; surface with numerous monticules 
subregularly disposed in intersecting rows, occupied by cell 
apertures larger than those on other portions of the frond. 
Numerous species have been placed in this genus, but with one 


exception they are not cogeneric with the type species. The 


mesopores spoken of by various authors are not mesopores, but 


young cells, there being no mesopores in the type species. 


Leprotrypa, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, p. 158. 1883.) 


Type, Leptotrypa minima, Ulrich. 


“Zoarium varying from thin incrustations to free forms of 
discoidal, spiral or elongate-spiral shape; irregular massive speci- 
mens also occur; cells polygonal, with thin walls and a variable 
number of delicate diaphragms; cell walls appreciably thickened 
in the peripheral region; spines or acanthopores small, more or 
less numerous, but usually restricted to the angles of junction 
between the cell tubes.” 


Fic. 148. Leptotrypa semipilans. A frond and vertical section, natural size. 
Fic. 149. Vertical section of same, x18. 
Fig. 150. Transverse section, x18. 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN Patarozoic Bryozoa. 581 


Monorrypa, Nicholson. 
(Pal. Tab. Corals, p. 320. 1879.) 
Type, Monotrypa undulata, Nicholson. 


Zoarium irregularly massive, discoidal, subglobose or hemi- 
spheric. Cell tubes polygonal, prismatic, and very thin through- 
out their entire length, and often undulating or wrinkled 
transversely ; diaphragms remote or entirely wanting, except 
near the surface. 


Fic. 151. Monotrypa rectimuralis, natural size. 
Fig. 152. Transverse section, x18. 
Fig. 158. Vertical section, x18. 


Monotrypsetua, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 173. 1882.) 


Type, Monotrypella equalis, Ulrich. 


Zoarium ramose, branches cylindrical or flattened; cells 
tubular, polygonal, arising from the center of the branch, and 
more or less regularly curving to the surface. For the greater 


582 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


portion of the length of the cell tubes, their walls are very thin, 
and diaphragms remote or entirely wanting. Near the surface 
the walls become thickened and the diaphragms are numerous ; 
surface with frequent macule of cell apertures a than those 
on other portions of the frond. 


Fie. 154. Monotrypella cequalis surface, x18. oss 
Fic. 155. Transverse section of same, x18. ; 
Fig. 156. Vertical section, x18. 


Peratorrypa, Ulrich. | 
(Geol. Sur. Ill., Vol. VIII, p. 3877. 18902) 


Type, Petalotrypa compressa, Ulrich. 

Zoarium bifoliate, consisting of irregular comme branches 
or simple fronds; celluliferous on both sides; cell tubes prismatic, 
arising from a strongly flexuous mesvtheca; apertures polygonal. 

This genus may be distinguished from the other forms of this 


family by its bifoliate mode of growth, and the presence of a 
mesotheca. 


Fig.157. Petalotrypa compressa, zoarium natural size. 
Fic. 158. Transverse section of same, x18. 
Fig. 159. Vertical section, x18. 


Genera or THE NortH AMERICAN PALAEOZOIC Bryozoa. 583 


PrycnoneMA, Hall. 


(Pal. N. Y., Vol. VI, p. 14, PL. IX, figs. 12-17.) 
(Plate 17, fig. 9.) 


Type, Ptychonema tabulatum, Hall. a 

Zoarium forming spheroidal or hemispheric masses or ramose ; 
cells polygonal; walls very thin, strongly and regularly corru- 
gated, not wrinkled; the corrugations forming nodes at the 
angles; diaphragms entirely wanting in the typical species. 

This genus may be distinguished by the strong and regular 
corrugations of the cell walls, a feature which must not be con- 
founded with the transverse wrinkling of the cell walls of some 
other forms. | 

Both Monorrypa and Prycuonema are undoubtedly ccelenterate 
corals. 

Srenopora, Lonsdale. 


Appendix to Darwin’s Volcanic Islands, p. 161. 1844.) 
pp P 


Type, Stenopora ovata, Lonsdale. 

I have not seen a specimen of this genus, but WaaceEn’s 
diagnosis is as follows: | 

“ Zoarium incrusting, arborescent ; foliaceous or hemispherical ; 
fixed by its base to foreign bodies ; composed of tubular cells, 
which are nearly vertical at the center of the zoarium, and 
radiate thence on all sides toward the surface. The cells are 
polygonal in the center of the zoarium, with thin walls, and very 
closely packed together ; in their radiating peripheral part they 
become cylindrical, and their walls show regular transverse annu- 
lar thickenings, which occur in the same manner and at equal 
distances in a great number of adjoining tubes. These thickenings 
alternate on the inside of the cells with periodical contractions 
of the walls; a vertical section of the walls being moniliform. 
There are other thickenings which extend longitudinally in the 
walls as in the Montrovrirorip#.. They are the thickenings which 
precede gemmation, and project on the surface of the fronds as 
little spines between the single cell apertures. The cell apertures 
are partly quite open, partly quite closed by a kind of hemispheric 
lid. They are of unequal size. Tabule are present at very 


584 ReEporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


irregular distances. Mural pores and distinct well-developed 
septa are absent.” 


Fie. 160. Stenoporaintercalaris. Surface and transverse section, x18. : / 
Fig. 161. Vertical section of same, x18. 


Family Prasoporide. 


This family includes the forms having cells with diaphragms 
and cystiphragms, as in the Monricu.iporips, but in addition 
there are mesopores, that feature separating the family from 
Monticutivorip#2. It includes the following genera: Asprporora, © 
ATAOTOPORELLA, HoMoTRYPELLA and PRAsoPpora. 


Aspiporora, Ulrich. } 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 155. 1882.) 
Type, Aspidopora areolata, Ulrich. 


Zoarium consisting of thin lamellar expansions, or of more 
massive expansions formed by the superimposition of successive 


Fig. 162. Aspidopora elegantula, natural size. 
Fig. 163. One of the areas, x9. 
Fia@. 164. A vertical section, x18. 


GenersA or THE Norto AMERICAN PAaLArEozo1ic Bryozoa. 585 


layers of growth; rarely parasitic, generally free with a radiately 
and concentrically striated epitheca on the lower side; typically 
composed according to age of from one to many subequal parts, 
each part gently convex, with the cell apertures increasing in size 
from their margins to their centers; cell tubes with very infre- 
quent diaphragms and’ more numerous cystiphragms; mesopores 
numerous, closely tabulate ; surface with spiniform nodes. 


ATACTOPORELLA, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, p. 247. 1883.) 


Type, Atactoporella typicalis, Ulrich. 

Zoarium generally forming thin crusts over foreign bodies, 
rarely lobate or subramose; surface with monticules and very 
closely resembling some forms of CzeRAMOPORELLA. 


165 


- a hay 
CARES 
Sh Se a 


Fig. 165. Atactoporeilla typicalis, surface, x18, 
Fig. 166. Transverse section, x18. 
Fic. 167. Vertical section, x18. 


Cells with very thin inflected walls: apertures oval, but the 


numerous nodes at their margins give to them an irregular 
74 


586 Report oF THE State GroLoaist. 


petaloid appearance; cells with cystiphragms and occasional dia- 
phragms ; nodes very numerous, encroaching more or less on the 
cell cavity. | 


Homorrype.ta, Ulrich. | 
(14th Rept. Geol. Sur. Minn., p. §3. 1886.) 
Type, Homotrypella instabilis, Ulrich. 


Zoarium somewhat irregularly ramose, sometimes palmate or 
frondescent; surface with macula, consisting of clusters of meso- 
pores; cell apertures subcircular ; mesopores abundant frequently 
isolating the cell tubes, closely tabulate; cell tubes with dia- 
phragms and cystiphragms, the latter being chiefly developed in 
the median portion ofthe cell tubes; usually absent just below 
the surface and never occurring in the axial region; surface with 
numerous small nodes or granules. 


168 169 


aK 
A 
ally: 


Fic. 168. Homotrypella instabilis. Fronds natural size. 1 
Fies. 169. Vertical and transverse sections, x18. 


Prasopora, Nicholson and Etheridge. 
(Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 4th Series, Vol. XX, p. 38. 1877.) 
Type, Prasopora grave, Nicholson and Etheridge. ; 


Zoarium forming conical, hemispherical or irregular masses, 
the under side of the conical forms usually being concave and 
covered with a concentrically wrinkled epitheca; cells tubular, 
prismatic, becoming cylindrical as they approach the surface; 
walls thin, with both diaphragms and cystiphragms; mesopores 
few or numerous, sometimes completely isolating the cell tubes. 
In some species there are numerous spiniform nodes; surface 
with frequent macule of large cell apertures, or with monticules, 


Genera or THE Nortu AmericAN Patarozorc Bryozoa. 587 


the centers of which are destitute of cell apertures, and occupied 
by mesopore apertures. 


170 


KEUCIClE 


= eS 

i: sat CRE 
my DIESE 
Ny EIS ER 
aie BASE ER 
nA Nw ees ck 
eal oa GRE 2 <1) 
mer 8 

ae Sa 


Fie. 170. Prasopora conica. Lateral, basal and sectional view of a specimen, natural size. 
Fics. 171,172. P. simulatrix. Transverse and vertical sections, x18. 


Dranvtirss, Eichwald. 


(Zool. special. Vol. I, p. 180. Dybowsky, Cheetetes d. ost-balt. 
Siluriform., p. 14. 1877. Syn. Diplotrypa, Nicholson. Pal. 
Tab. Cor., p. 312. 1879.) 


Type, Dianulites petropolitana, Kichwald. 


I have been unable to obtain an authentic specimen of the type 
species, but judging from the published descriptions, its affinities 
are with the forms included in the family AmpLexoporip#. 

-Most.of the forms described under the name Drerorrypa are 
not congeneric with the type species. 


Family Calloporide, Ulrich, emend. 


The forms included in this family are usually ramose, cells 
tubular, cylindrical, tabulate; mesopores more or less abundant, 
closely tabulate; interapertural space with pits (mesopore aper- 
tures). 


588 Report or THE State GEOLOGIST. 


The following genera are included in this family: Batostoma, 
CatLopora, Daxayetia, NicHoLsoneLLA and TREMATOPORA. 


Barostoma, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 154. 1882.) 
Type, Batostoma implicatum, Ulrich. 


Zoarium ramose; cells tubular, arising from the center of the 
branch and curving outward ; cell walls in the axial region very 
thin, becoming thicker in the peripheral region; cell apertures 
circular; peristomes equally elevated; interapertural surface 
with numerous pits (mesopore apertures), occasionally there are 
ornamental nodes or spines on the surface. . 

This genus in all probability is synonymous with CALLopora. 


174 173 ~ 176 175 


Fie. 178. Batostoma Minnesotense, zoarium, natural size. 
Fie. 174. B. Winchelli. Surface x18. 
Fies. 175,176. B.variwm. Vertical section and transverse sections, x9. 


Caxiopora, Hall. 
(Pal. N. Y., Vol. I, p. 144. 1852.) 


Type, Callopora elegantula, Hall. 
(Plate 18, figs. 1-7.) 

Zoarium ramose, smooth or tuberculated; cells cylindrical, aris- 
ing from an imaginary axis, gradually curving to the surface; 
diaphragms few or numerous; intercellular space occupied by 
tabulate mesopores; tabulz very closely disposed, much more so 
than in the cell tubes; apertures circular; when perfect, closed by 
an operculam ; closely and irregularly disposed, frequently nearly 
or quite in contact; interapertural space occupied by angular 


GENERA OF THE Nortno AMERICAN PALAEOzOIC Bryozoa. 589 


pits (mesopore apertures). The principal difference between this 
genus and Trematopora is the presence of interapertural pits. 


DexayeE.ua, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 155. 1882.) 
Type, Dekayella obscura, Ulrich. 


Zoarium ramose, cells tubular, polygonal, arising from the 
center of the branch and curving outward ; diaphragms distant ; 


2) 
»> 
OK) 


Fie. 177. Dekayella prenuntia. Natural size ,and surface, x9. 
Fic. 178. Transverse sections of the same, x18. 

Fic. 179. Vertical section, x9. 

Fic. 180. D. obscura, surface, x18, 

Fic. 181. Transverse section, x9. 

Fig. 182. Vertical section, x9. 


590 ' Report oF THE STatTE GEOLOGIST. 


walls of cells in axial region very thin, becoming much thickened 
and sometimes slightly moniliform in the peripheral region. 

This genus has been placed in this family because the author 
of the genus says that mesopores occur, but in a large number of 
sections of the type species that I have examined, the “ meso- 
pores” have much more the appearance of young cells. The 
genus should probably be placed in the family AmpLExoporID#&: 


Nicuorsonera, Ulrich. 
(Geol. Sur. Ill, Vol. VIII, p. 374.) 
Type, WVecholsonella ponderosa, Ulrich. 3 | 
Zoaria consisting of irregular, intertwining flattened branches 
or fronds. Cells tubular witha few diaphragms in the peripheral 


Fic. 183. Nicholsonella cumulata. Natural size. 
Fie. 184. Surface of the same, x12. 

Fie. 185. Transverse section, x18. 

Fic. 186. Vertical section, x18. 


region; apertures circular, with a faint granular peristome; 
intercellular space occupied by numerous angular mesopores or 
tubuli, that more or less completely isolate the cell tubes; walls 
of both the cell tubes and mesopores thin ; mesopores with thick 
and numerous tabule or diaphragms. 


GENERA OF THE NortoH AMERICAN PALaArozoic Bryozoa. 591 


TrEMATOPORA, Hall. 
(Pal. N. Y., Vol. IT, p. 149. 1852.) 

Type, Zrematopora tuberculosa, Hall. 

(Plate 19, figs. 1-5.) 

Zoarium ramose, branches solid; surface with or without 
monticules; cells cylindrical, walls thin; apertures circular or 
oval, irregularly disposed ; peristomes equally elevated ; meso- 
pores with numerous tabule; interapertural space solid. Fre- 
quently spinules occur between the cell apertures or on the 
-_peristomes. | | 

This genus in its manner of growth is very similar to CaLto- 
pora, but differs from that genus in having a solid surface be- 
tween the cell apertures. The solid surface is a persistent feature 
in all the species of this genus.  __ 


Iptotrypa, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, p. 272. 1883.) 

Type, ldiotrypa parasitica, Ulrich. 

Original diagnosis. Zoaria parasitically adhering to foreign 
objects; cells of two kinds, the true zocecia being subcircular, 
with a slightly elevated thin peristome, and more or less com- 
pletely separated from each other by a series of large angular 
interstitial cells. The two sets of cells are not distinguishable 
from each other in vertical sections, both being crossed by thick 
horizontal diaphragms occurring at short and regular intervals 
so as to divide the zoarium into so many equal layers. 


187 : 188 189 


Fic. 187.. Idiotrypa parasitica. Surface x18. 
Fig. 188. Transversesection. x18. 
Fic. 189. Vertical section of same, x18. 


592 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Hemiporaama, Ulrich. 


(Report of the Geological and Nat. Hist. Survey. Minn., p. 
299. 1893.) 


“ Zoaria like Batostoma save in this, that the diaphragms in the 
peripheral part of the zocecial tubes are incomplete.” Ulrich. 


190 191 


Fie. 190. Hemiphragma irrasum. Specimens, natural size. 

Fie. 191. Surface, x9. ; = 
Fie. 192. Vertical section, x9. ‘ 

Fig. 198. Cell walls, x35. 


Family Botrylloporidz, Miller. 
Botryiiopora, Nicholson. 
(Geol. Mag. N.8., Vol. I, p. 160... 1874) 
Type, Botryllopora socialis, Nicholson. | 
(Plate 20, figs. 16, 17.) 


_ Zoarium consisting of small discoidal bodies, occurring singly 
or in groups, connected by vesicular tissue; adherent -to foreign 


Genera or THE Nortuo AmeERICAN PaLArozoric Bryozoa. 593 


bodies by their under surface, which consists of a concentrically 
wrinkled epitheca. Nearly all the specimens observed are para- 
sitic on Cyathophylloid or Favositoid corals, sometimes occurring 
in groups of from seventy-five to a hundred zoaria. 

Zoarium convex with a depressed central area, which is some- 
what variable in size. 

Cells tubular, rectangular to the aenaee! disposed in double 
radiating rows, extending above the surface and forming promi- 
nent ridges; adjacent ridges generally separated by a space 
about equal to the width of a ridge, but sometimes more closely 
disposed. Alternate ridges extend from the depressed central 
space to the margin, the others commencing at about one-half 
the distance to the margin; cell apertures circular, in contact, 
often inosculating, having the appearance of being immersed ; 
intercellular space vesiculose; vesicles comparatively large and 
irregularly disposed. The concave central space, that between 
the ridges and between the zoaria is vesicular, the vesicles 
between the ridges being much smaller than those occupying the 
central space. Between the zoaria some of the vesicles are of 
the same size as those between the ridges, others are much larger, 
circular or polygonal from mutual pressure. 


ScENELLoPoRA, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., p. 150. 1882.) 
Type, Scenellopora radiata, Ulrich. 
Zoarium obconical the under side with an epitheca; the upper 
slightly concave and celluliferous; cell apertures occupying the 


center of ridges which radiate from a subsolid and depressed 
center ; intermediate space smooth, without cells. 


194 195 


Fie. 194. Scenellopora radiata. Profile and top view, natural size. 
Fig. 195. A portion of the noncelluliferous surface, x8. 


75 


594 Report oF THE STatE GEOLOGIST. or a 


SpHRaciopora, Ulrich. 
(Geol. Sur. Ill., Vol. VIII, p. 398. 1890.) 
Type, Sphragiopora parasitica, Ulrich. 


Zoarium a small discoidal body attached to other objects; 
upper surface flat or a little concave; cell apertures disposed in 
an irregularly radial manner from the center, on the summits of 
from six to nine more or less elevated ridges; at first they form 


only single rows, but at the outer margin the arrangement is 
biserial. | : 


196 


Fic. 196. Sphragiopora parasitica. A frond, x18. 


Family Tubuliporide, Busk. 


The forms included in this family are composed of simple 
cylindrical tubes, with inoperculated aperture. The following 
genera are included in the family: Brrxrnicea, Driastoporina, 
Hernopi4, Prozoscina, SAGENELLA and STOMATOPORA. 


Brrenicea, Lamoureux. 3 


(Exp. Meth. des genres d. pol., 80. 1821.) 


Type, Berenicea diluviana, Lamoureaux. 


“Tncrusting, composed of a very thin foliaceous base, from: 
which proceed, gradually enlarging, distantly separated tubular 
cells ; apertures circular or. oval, situated near the broad anterior 
end; cells disposed in an obscurely radiate arrangement.” Brrz- 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN Patarozoric Bryozoa. 595 


NicEA is a recent genus and I very much doubt if any Paleozoic 
forms are properly placed here. 


Fie. 197. Berenicea Minnesotensis. Twospecimens, natural size. 
Fic. 198. A portion of the surface, x25. 


Drastoporina, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XII, p. 177. 1890.) 

Type, Diastoporina flabellata, Ulrich. 

“Zoarium bifoliate, in general resembling Drastopora ; cells 
subtubular, prostrate, immersed; apertures constricted, subcir 
cular, not prominent; interspaces finely punctate and striate 
longitudinally.” 

Probably a synonym of Drastopora. 


199 200 


Fie. 199. Diastoporina flabellata, natural size and enlarged. 
Fie. 200. A still further enlargement of the surface. 


596 Report oF THE STaTE GEOLOGIST. 


Hernopia, Hall. 
(Rep. State Geologist, N. Y., p. 58. 1884.) 

Type, Hernodia humifusa, Hall. 

(Plate 25, figs. 1, 2.) 

Zoarium parasitic, procumbent, consisting of tubular, annulated 
cells, enlarging to near the aperture; increasing by lateral gem- 
mation, the buds continuing growth in the same manner as the 
parent tube so that comparatively large surfaces are often covered. 


Progposoina, Audouin. 
— (Desc. de PEgypte; Pol., p. 236. 1826.) 
Zoarium adnate, branching dichotomously or inosculating, in 
the latter case forming an irregular large meshed net-work. 


201 


Fid. 201. Proboscina tumulosa, natural size and x9. 
Lower fig, P. frondosa. A‘frond, x18. 


Cell tubes as in Sromatopora, excepting that they are more or 
less immersed and not uniserial, being arranged in two or more 
contiguous rows. 


GENERA OF THE NortH AmerRICAN PaLArEozoic Bryrozoa. 597 


SaGENELLA, Hall. 


(Pal. N. Y., Vol. Il, p. 172. 1852.) 


Type, Sagenella membrunacea, Hall. 
(Plate 20, fig. 4.) 


Zoarium a thin membraniform expansion, growing upon the 
surface of other organic bodies cells subcylindrical, flattened 
for the greater part of their length, and continuing nearly 
parallel with the plane of the epitheca; arranged in a more or 
less regular diverging or radiating order, with intercalated ranges 
presenting a subimbricated appearance, turning abruptly and 
opening directly outward , cell apertures circular. 


StomatToPora, Bronn. 


(System d. Urwelt; Pflanzenthiere. 1825.) 
Type, Stomatopora dichotoma, Bronn. 
Zoarium adnate, cells subtubular, club shaped or ovate, not 


Fie. 202. Stomatopora inflata. Enlargement of different colonies, x9. 


Fic. 208. Three cells, x 18. 
Fic. 204. Vertical section of one of the cells, x18. 


598 REporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


immersed; arranged ina single branching series; apertures sub- 
terminal, circular, more or less elevated, opening directly 
outward. 

The shape of the cells and mode of increase is the same as in 
Prozoscina, differing from that genus only in having the cells 
arranged in a single series, in Prososcina the cells being arranged ~ 
in two or more series and more or less immersed. ) 


Family Entalophoride, Reuss. 
CLONOPORA, Hall. 
(Bryozoans of the Upper Helderberg group, p. 20. 1881.) 


ae Clonopora semireducta, Hall. 
(Plate 25, figs. 6, is) 
- Zoarium ramose; branches consisting of an aggregation of 
elongate, cylindrical, tubular cells, which at more or less regular 
intervals become entirely free, and turn abruptly outward in an 
umbelliform expansion or in alternation ; cell apertures expanded. 


. CyrstoporA, Hall. 
(Trans. Albany Inst., Vol. X, p. 161. 1881.) 
Type, Cystopora geniculata, Hall. — 
(Plate 25, figs. 3-5.) 
Zoarium consisting of an aggregation of ampullate, tubular 
cells; the greatest diameter of the cell tube being at about two- 
thirds of its length; near the anterior end turning abruptly out- 
ward and much constricted at the aperture ; cell tubes exposed 
for more than half their length, alternating, imbricating, 
arranged in spiral rows around the branch. 


Mrroctema, Ulrich. 


(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 150. 1882.) 
Type, UWitoclema cinctosum, Ulrich. 


Zoarium ramose, slender; transverse section subcircular; cells 
‘tubular; very long; gradually diverging in all directions from 


GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PaLArozoic Bryozosa. 599 


an imaginary axis; apertures prominent, circular, arranged in 
a transverse series or spirally around the stem; walls thin. 


Fic. 205. Mitoclema cinctosum, natural size. 
Fig. 206. A portion of the same, x18. 


Family Reptaride. 


This family includes those adnate forms, having a central axis 
and bilateral tubular cells. The following genera are included 
in the family: Heprretia and Reprartia. 


HEpDERELLA, Hall. 
(Trans. Albany Institute, Vol. X, p. 194. 16881.) 

Type, Hederella Canadensis, Billings. 

(Plate 25, figs. 10-13.) 

Zoarium parasitic, procumbent, attached its entire length; 
usually occurring on corals or Brachiopoda. Zoarium consisting 
of a primary, cylindrical, tubular axis, which has bilateral 
tubular cells at frequent intervals and occasionally cells having 
the same manner of growth as the primary axis. This manner 
of growth is indefinitely continued so that comparatively large 
surfaces are covered by the fronds; cells subcylindrical with 
transverse annulations and striations, and also fine longitudinal 
striations; cell tubes in contact with the axis for a portion or 
the whole of their length. 


ReptariA, Rolle. 


(Leonhard and Bronn, Neues Jahrbuch, p. 180. 1851.) 


Type, Reptaria stolonifera, Rolle. 
(Plate 25, figs. 8, 9.) 
Zoarium adnate, consisting of a rachis, from which proceed, 
laterally, simple cell tubes, and, at irregular intervals, tubes 


600 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


which have the same manner of growth as the primary rachis. 
This mode of growth is continued indefinitely, the zoarium 
frequently covering a comparatively large area. 

Cell tubes subcylindrical, slightly sinuous, especially near the 
base; the attached portion flat, the free portion convex. For a 
short distance the cells are nearly parallel with the rachis, then 
diverge at an angle of thirty-five or forty degrees; near the 
aperture turning directly outward, so that the aperture is at right 
angles to the main portion of the cell tube; margins of the cell — 
tubes in contact, but not coalescing; the end of each succeeding a 
cell tube projecting beyond the preceding one, giving a serrate 
appearance to the margin of the frond ; cell tubes annulated. 


Family Phaceloporide, Ulrich. 
This family at present includes one genus, PHACELOPORA. 


PHACELOPORA, Ulrich. 
(Geol. Sur. Ill., p. 388. 1890.) 
Type, Phacelopora pertenurs, Ulrich. 


Zoarium articulated, segments short, conical, consisting of two 
or more equal conical cell tubes, with pehenly contracted, circular 
apertures. 


Fie. 207. Phacelopora pertenuis. Natural size, and x 25.} 
Fie. 208. A vertical section of the same, x 25. 
Fra. 209. P. constricta. <A portion of a frond; x 25. 


GrenERA OF THE Norto AMERICAN PatArozorc Bryrozoa. 601 


Cyrctopora, Prout. 


(Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., Vol. I, p. 574. 1860.) 
Type, Cyclopora fungia, Prout. 


Zoaria consisting of lamellar or discoidal expansions; incrust- 
ing or free; under surface an epitheca, concentrically wrinkled 
and radially striated by the recumbent portion of the cell tubes. 
Cells tubular, at first prostrate, then curving somewhat abruptly 
and continuing rectangularly to the surface; apertures subcircular 
or somewhat truncated posteriorly ; more or less regularly dis- 
posed. When regularly disposed there is an oblong depression 


between adjacent apertures; 


when irregularly disposed, this 


space may be divided into two smaller ones; or it may appear 
that the apertures are separated by unequal and irregularly 


situated depressions. 


oped into tabulate mesopores. 


212 


210 


‘ 


Le 

"@'e"6 rae a ee Oo % 
Be 23@% Or 

> *@.0'@ tt ALPS Oy, x] 


Ce 
@ 
e 
9°.4%8 
ad 
agoi® 
ry 
-) 
i 
8 
ci 
@ 
#, 


O76 O., 
1@i.@=e' @tO%Or@ f, 
Jo1e1o70:0"a nae ® e 
PT AAS é 
LBL ALT pa) OR 
AT RAL RO 

® 70 2 3 Se “4 ‘ 

o 3 eciat areas 6:2 
= ¢ & 


ri 


a 44 
a@ 
ot) 
e 
a 
® 
te 
@ 
at 
e 
» 
@ 
) 


O2G ict : ie 


; 
£> 
oY 


Et) 


{e3@ 
eX 
e) 
[) 
—s 
@ 
te 


With growth these interspaces are devel- 


yw # 
i @ae 


sR 
;ene56 
$@8 


Caw 
YU 


4 
i. 
: 


oe 
tt 
os 
te 


Fig. 210. 
Fig. 211. 
Fig. 212. 
Fig. 213. 


i v 
eee 4 ky Se 
PTR PAT asta 


213 


Cyclopora fungia. A portion of the surface, x 9. 
Surface, x 18. 


An enlargement showing a portion of one of the macula. 
A vertical section, x 28. ; 


Provte.ia, Ulrich. 
(Geol. Sur. Ill., p. 403. 1890.) 


Type, Proutella discoidea, Ulrich. 


“Zoarium discoidal, thin, free; the lower surface convex and 


with a concentrically wrinkled epitheca. 


Cells subtubular ; 
76 


602 Report oF THE Strate Groroaist. 


walls thin; apertures broadly elliptical, surrounded by a narrow 
sloping area, hexagonal in outline. When perfect there is a 
depressed calcareous plate that closes nearly two-thirds of the 
aperture, the orifice left being subtriangular inform. With age, 
successive layers are developed directly over the first, so that 
they gradually form a cell tube, seemingly having the cavity 
intersected by incomplete diaphragms, which appear to have 
their origin on the posterior wall, and extend out half way 
across.” 


214 216 215 


Fic. 214. Proutella discoidea. Under surface, natural size. 
Fie. 215. Upper surface of a fragment, natural size. 
Fie. 216. A portion of the surface, x 9. 


Family Worthenoporide, Ulrich. 
This family includes at present only the genus WorTHENOPORA. 


Worrasnorora, Ulrich. 
(Geol. Sar. Ill, Vol. VIII, p. 403. 18907} 


Type, Worthenopora spinosa, Ulrich. f 

“Zoarium bifoliate, branching or palmate. Cells very regu- 
larly arranged, subtubular, with the apertures semielliptical. 
On the surface the line of junction between the cells is marked 
by a longitudinal, elevated ridge. The truncate posterior margin 
of the aperture is raised into a less strong transverse bar. The 
elongate, triangular depressed front appears perfectly plain.” 

The condition in which the three following genera occur render 
their classification difficult: Ascoprorron, RHopatonaRia and 


VINELLA. 


Genera or THE NortH AmeErtcAN Patarozoric Bryozoa. 603 


217 ; 218 . 219 


wy 


Fic. 217. Worthenopora spinosa, natural size. 
Fie. 218. Surface, x9. | 
Fie. 219. A portion of the surface, x28. 


Ascopiotyon, Vine. 
(Ann. and Mag. Nat Hist., 4th Series, Vol. XIX, p. 463. 1877.) 
Type, Ascodictyon fusiforme. 


“ Zocecia consisting of radially arranged fusiform or bulbous 
cells, or filiform threads with periodic swellings.” 
220 


Fic. 220. Ascodictyon stellatum. <A group of vesicles, x18. 


RuopatonariA, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. II, p. 26. 1879.) 


Type, /¢hopalonaria venosa, Ulrich. 
Cells slender, fusiform, arranged in a single anastomosing 


FIG. 221. Rhopalonaria venosa, x18 


604 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


series; cell mouths small, near one end of the cells. The animal 
had the power of excavating the substance of the body upon 
which it grew. | 


Vinetta, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XII, p. 173. 1890.) — 
Type, Vinella repens, Ulrich. 


slender, ramifying, thread-like tubular stolons, arranged in a 
more or less distinctly radiating manner ; surface of tubes some- 
times faintly lined longitudinally ; a row of widely separated small 
pores along the center of the surface of the tubes ; cells unknown. 
The cells must have been deciduous and developed by budding 
from the creeping stolons from the points now represented by 
the pores.” , 


“Zoarium attached to foreign bodies; consisting of exceedingly 


222 


Fic. 222. Vinella repens, natural size, and a portion of the colony, x18. 


GENERA OF THE Norto AMERICAN PAaLartozorc Bryozoa. 605 


ADDENDUM. 


Srio ToporA, Hall. 
(Pal Woy 4 Vol 1, p. 73. 1847.) 
Type, Stictopora elegantula, Hall. 
(Plate 10, figs. 9, 10, 20.) 
. seri attached by a spreading base to foreign objects; 
ramose; branches thin, transverse section lenticular; composed 
of two layers of cells eae by a mesotheca; cell apertures 
circular or oval, surrounded by a peristome; rows of cells fre- 
quently separated by narrow ridges; margins noncelluliferous; 
interapertural space vesiculose or apparently solid. 
This genus differs from Cysropictya principally in the absence 
of pseudo septa and lunaria. 


ArrTuHropora, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 152. 1882.) 
Type, Arthropora Shafferc, Ulrich. 


“ Zoarium jointed; segments short, with several branches pro- 
jecting from each edge, some of which may or may not be tipped 
_ for articulation with succeeding segments; cell mouths sub-circu- 
lar, separated by interstitial pits or sulci.” 


Rarnipictya, Ulrich. 
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 152. 1882.) 
Type, 7 hada Nicholsoni, Ulrich. | 
(Plate 10, figs. 3-5.) 


“ Zoarium narrow, branching at long intervals; cellssurrounded 
by a close series of spiniform tubuli.” 
Very similar to Stictopora. 


PrILocELLA, nov. gen. 
Type, Ptzlocella parallela, Hall (sp.). 
3 (Plate 15, figs. 1-3.) 
Zoarium ensiform; in its pointed, striated base resembling 
Putnopictya, but the cell apertures are circular, arranged in par- 


606 REporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


allel longitudinal rows, which are separated by ridges as in Sric- 
TOPORA; margin of frond noncelluliferous, striated. 


FIsiULIPORIDRA, NOV. gen. 

Type, /istuliporidra tesselata, Hall (sp.). 

(Plate 22, figs. 1-3.) 

The manner of growth and internal structure is the same-as in 
Fisruttporina, but the cell apertures are surrounded by angular 
elevations, enclosing the apertures in a polygonal vestibular area, 
the surface presenting a very different appearance from that of 
FIstULIPORINA. | 


FIsTULICELLA, NOV. gen. 
Type, Mistulicella plana, Hall (sp.). 
(Plate 22, fig. 4.) 
The manner of growth and general appearance is the same as 
that of Liesmnatta, but the cells are circular and without pseudo 
septa or lunaria. | 


eS ill a ttl Ps 


INDEX TO GENERA. 


PPPRMMOCIAUIA oie icc c cee ea cess 522 
Preambnoclema ..:.. 6.26. 586b 606s 552 
eae 544 
MEIMIGOUEY DA cic esc dace bees e tes 540 
PeNMOXOVOTA ls. csc cee eee tee OUT 
POMSAVOMMOPOTA .2¥ cscs ese e eee os 517 
PEMCMMICUOS occ osc ewes cee eee ds 519 
AMGMIPICOIPOTA: occ s eee cee 522 
POBEROGIOMA Sc. . cece ee een ees 546 
PPEPMPEDOLA cose c ccc ver edae sens 605 
PREUMEGHUV IOS. 06 ce ects e eee ewes 526 
Ascodictyum........... Me Weg LT Ets 603 
PRG LS ails wine oe trate Peels 584 
MMMM ei. oy decrees be 563 
PMMA OROU ES 6 oc)a ccc cvewesea ness 585 
MN SRORITT RE Fo os .s, clo:is, nick. 0.9 od SRG SY 553 
NUTONE To 0c oe oc, s, sows We. ahGieh cos 588 
We lS re 594 
RMR POT 32,6. a. 0, «aii ain, ane wislivear dh sb 592 
Bythopora......... Teas Gata tvs 551 
2 ees Pe 588 
Nis wi es)ecece's a,=/0 Is ws 551 
SPEDE eae ce an 527 
MEMORECEOE A pa, 5.5;60.5.. Ue.e jolt bob Oate ys 563 
BeEIMOPOFElIS. ..... oo. «siecle des: 564 
SOMME ENA. scant, sip 6 dap leii pees 565 
EVEN 35 an) 8.s,ty0c0,0,0,0,cised Stars wld 554 
UR MMMEPER CEN, Soc cod. cte pula, ova sid did Siow le 536 
PRR MMWODOES oo. ccc a aw dola deci’, 543 
IRN ERNE SD 5 cia hc bre po naipso. vid BIG Les 598 
RI EELLET SS, oy s eiainiees/aiais eae ds & « 554 
Eo ee te eee 549 
LEG) a a 534 
PERETTI ech Evie os viene we 537 
BURMAN Ey (2k Ses oc vs va 537 
MMIVOTA Soiled wee SE See 566 
(| TRL EL SEAS eee ea 526 
EERE eS ere: flo, c.¢ 5 dx w'eretece 601 
Gyeloporina........... ORS eee ae 504 


Gy StOGict yas agri ho a/a oo ono elds 536 
WystopOrars cikyeedne veg vd oll Mee 598 
Dekavolla eserves us o's averse eee 589 
SRA I 5, 9am ee Mae id wm sw AO a ca 578 
WIAMESOPOTAke y aes sven se be otk ee 566 
AN UMLGOS oy Gas areas 6 ov oc Alia lad 587 
YASTOP OPIN mg am oie aatire eis ete ees 595 
DICEADOPOLA sane das shots Oni 545 
Diploporarts cattery. ews < 5 «deat ss) 525 
Bridoporareus Sage nasedkescie sees 561 
ERE VOLLCU Via te aca tol siete tte oreo oe 527 
BAISMMOPOLAs 2 serecacite ater, fess 528 
Hivachinoporar:..505 so eee fee es 529 
Bavicellay «nix 'c,csais aietead opts Sete tate 556 
Menestella: «04. «3% aan meas nd cemees 500 
Penestralia.. < «.ic\sias.000 wee eerie 502 
Henestrapora) .\.. 6 aj wenn eaten sas 506 
Bastullicella: 5:3 occt anne secsomeaerets 606 
baatalapota: . 2 o2cceqae cease 559 
Mistuliporella as cease epee 560 
BNSHUIPOTN Ass cigtees es acakae ae 559 
Plabelliporella gece oi, fc see varelsce 502 
GAUCONGMKa ani ses ae kere 524 
Glossotry pai odes ccna cater 562 
Gono try passa spcrrweiyel basse Te SS 545 
Graptodichya: sows. easels % 541 
Federellas.scta nek eee one 599 
Eeliconora tease eee 517 
Eeloporaeward ices - 548 
Hemiphragnianttete aoe... Ss 592 
EPOPAIDEN DA. eta oe suis ea eres 4 ce hs 507 
Eermpitat taser tetas cs . 596 
EIBLGPOnE VPS ori dostige tenlene <2 8 2 578 
EQOA. ccs aero eee 3 575 
ERomairy pelle. oo. ole Sasiiees sae 586 


608 

PAGE. 
felitiyorachis 04 saciewsaceenen ce 524 
Tah otry paeac, occe ais yee ae 591 
Tntrapota :cap.cs chs sees eo coweree 535 
DSOtry Pa torr ce 66s cee eee ee 510 
Spiny De fico: «de cs tah cee 580 
fhichenalia,,.. 2) Ges sen Hace soe 559 
dboenlipora.-2.5.4 cs <teex eee 511 
ACY OPOTA: 0... c.c. «sacs cs See Sine 515 
Lyroporellay sca es... a55.c eee 516 
Lyropormdra :. 2c5/scom ae ae ene 517 
Meekapora...... Bij atier s-2¥o.'a's OEE 5388 
Mitoclenia e254 ..: 3s). Beak 598 
Mon Gtr yA feck aici = 3s ds ok eee bee 581 
Monotry pela, 5.2545 scic0.02 seeeeeee 581 
Monticulipora yc, cians oaks 577 
Nemataxis/ 220256. 5. cseo nae 552 
NemMalOpOtAa 2 oc y-oithsits). eee See ee 553 
Mrcholsonella ss. sees ete 590 
Odontotirnypain tis sid. 622s ees ems 581 
Pachydictyan <2.) masses. 530 
PELQIOULY DAs «60/0 sess ate les Sa 582 
PCLIZOPORA 56s. .ates tweens SRE AD 563 
Phacelopora........ COP to RAnen 600 
PURBAOPOPA 632) eoia 5. 101.0 bs Soa es 541 
PHTrActOporas./ 4%." '2 6%! fiasS tel. 539 
Phy lodictyai wwii. ceeet eshte 531 
Pay llOpora echo. cr ete oe 512 
Pileotrypa....... teliets odes eae 562 
Pimacowwy pas... eaters s LA Se 555 
Pinnaporina..... PN: Suk eoaia 507 
Polypora....... pista d cmgs SPLEEN 502 
Poly porellas nits. . scan an lee ee . 502 
PYOSOMOLON. . eo: sad ecw oo aa eene. 586 
BrisMOPOFA:. 3. 2, cckescie ema ele 531 
IPEODOSCINE 345 tink ke Oe seas oan 596 
Broubetlas § vd. excite o Memeaeeees 601 
IOUOUAy occ joie pee ee tere 605 
Biilodictya... 2... x <4 Shae atl eateny 541 
Ptilopora....... een cla eee See ees 519 
Pttloporella,.-.. ioc. san ec nee 506 
PAUGHOEUAD .)3'.5 cca avian wa Sees 507 


ReEporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 


Philotrypa .... ..4:cccee eee eee 542 
Ptychonema......-. s.20.n wee 583 
Reptaria . io. i... .5 2 oe eee 599 
Reteporella .... .2.¢2 2s eee 503 
Reteporina. ..: .. 2 shee eee 504 
Rhinidictya .... .....c.e 42 eee 605 
Rhinopora....... PE rt 540 
Rhombopota. ....: .. 25. a eee 550 
Rhopalonaria . ....)..2)- pee 603° 
Sagenella.... ....-... s<-)0 eee 597 
Scalaripora .........<-<.-. ghee 532 
Scenellopora. .....->. -44-e eee 593 
Sceptropora.. .....: 2 ..see eee sawp, 9948 
selenopora... ...<,.:..:2 .. aes 557 
Semicoscinium ............. anes Dep 
Semiopora. .. i)... sis eee 535 
Septopora.... .... <4. ase 514 
Sphagiopora...:.....)) 4.2542 e see 594 
Stenopora. «.... ..2.<.0,40 ee 583 
Stictocella .:. ..). .-..:.2,.4.05 =e eee 532 
Stictopora...<,... sce ee eee a ae 605 
Stictoporella..-....:. 22.25 5385 
Stictoporina. «...c..eueEr 3 eee 543 
Stomatopora.... ......<.c:ese eee 597 
Streblotry pa.........: 2-25. eeeeee 551 
Strotopora...c-.\. si. ose 560 
Synocladia .. ..... .:..sicie cee 513 
Taeniodictya . ..:. <<. see 533 
Taeniopora. ....0 ...s .:60 eee 533 
Tectulipora i.) ...<<seeeeee erg ei) 
Tectuliporella. ....¢. <henn ee mers 
Thamniscus ....«...+<oneeeeeee 524 
*Thamnocella .... 3..<...aseeeen 525— 
Thamnotrypa....2.....< se5 «nee eee 546 
Tremaiella .. ...:.....<.senm =e _550 
Trematopora....~...-+s60eeeeee 591 
Tropidopora ., ....-. 2005 sey eee 553 
Unitrypa . .......6s.cnsnke eee 508 
Vinella.......s0s «sores se eee 604 
Worthenopora. . ...<. 2. sss eee 602 


EXPLANATIONS OF PLATES. 


PLATE Ay 


PALLUDICELLA EKHRENBERGI. 


Fig. 1. A very much enlarged drawing of a cell seen in section, with 
the polypide exserted, and exhibiting anatomical details. 

Fig. 2. Showing a section of a cell with the polypide retracted. 

Fig. 3. Lophophore viewed upon the upper surface, with the mouth 
and roots of tentacule (after ALLMAN). 


Explanation of lettering. 


a, Tentacles. | k, Muscles closing the orifice. 

b, Lophopore. i, Retractor muscles of polypid. 

c, Cardiac cavity of stomach. m, Parietal muscles. 

d, Pyloric cavity of stomach. o, Superior funiculus. 

é, Pylorus. p, Ovary. 

J; Intestine. | 7, Funiculus. 7 

g, Anus. s, Testes. _ 

h, Posterior parieto-vaginal mus- 7%, Spermatozoa. ‘ H 
cles. u, Endocyst. ‘ 

7, Anterior par leto- -vaginal mus- v, Kctocyst. 


{ 
cles. : : 
} 
: 


' 610 


PLATE A. 


5 
BS, 
BSS o0> rere SIRES Os 
AMS “Be 
C D RUD: 


OF OS Sos 
< e 


CosCote, etd 


ANATOMY OF THE BRYOZOA. 


lh Awad 
Mig 
an 


ty 
heh 


Lis « AAS 


es ee |, ee 


rip ach v4 ; 
¥ ' : 4a v2 hy f 


Ao ka ae Vb Oe Saas a OU aa 


A A a Uh Rvacee aly) ptt A Ky Alt 
qian Gaui hs ee al { 

Ass oe yi RE ik hal Pa: a * vos) eau ot a | 

Shey ea cladalaunic loinuias sk. Ahan 


bal a 


: an . ) 
: are at ' smiiey iy Ry A ee, tole ry? aN 


: oe . té- I 
ahi ter bad el wa on Rita ah 


4 oy 
} ata) sha Eo ae yr esaet eid Th Tae ae | 4 ‘ < Ba) ¥ 


. 7 by; ues : t : Ft a 


whe P 7 


RAPA OR NR eC one ‘on 


» ce. : 
E ar * ‘ 
; ¥ 
* 1 

* “~~ na 

> ¥ r] ‘ 4 ; a 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 
Fi g 


PLATE 'é, 


BowERBANKIA DENSA. 


a. Showing the animal fully expanded. | 
1 Pharynx ; 2 Cardia; 3 Gizzard ; 4 Stomach; 5 Pylorus ; 
6 Intestine ; 7 Anus; 8, 9 Muscles. | | 
6. The animal completely retracted. 
2, 3 Opercular retractor muscles. 
ce. An immature animal. 
d. One of the buds in its earliest state (after Farrz). 


612 


PLATE B. 


ANATOMY OF THE BRYOZOA. 


ea 
as Aa C <%. 
9 ” bebe 8 ot eee ae 


iris a vthhiyt die | | 
maitane of). 70 hapoWey bis i Ma - 
et ‘Siox ms Pee 

a | pba et of cs ch eae a, | 
| sig ee x ALA es oe Ma 


a 


Oe lea ae wirobar sin 4g ae Wo ee 


ie 


tenia 1 mde pebie Sid Hike 4 ane) 2) ey 


5 on “ ; Oele py #8 Mis tak J ; A ae at a 
; 1 E . ~ 1 | - 4 Loy 
balls A) Son as p : ; 7 { «ih hel 
Be 24 onus (eds paiwade nattnor A Ot ie eee a 
He i > Ty 5 

, we i 4 i Pe ; . A Oy a Oe 

Miwa & ae Wi4i eee (wa shag ‘j id a - : 
‘6 x rr ; A vee tate Le ( 

' ee : Wy 


2p P 
ne 


” aun et 


Le tai eR: EER 
S Nisle 


ey 


toe Aa ORT a eee 
. \ a Tain ‘ae ’ 4 

romney he oe Tae i aaa Sag aS 
F i ‘ 4 ‘ 


te qi as -y SOCMw ven y | J As a ; : ND 


PY ae 

/ 4 et »s ’ ¥ : rf 

en eo EN, i : aed | a} an 

| Sura Masi Pe DIR al, eG ; Al: 
F 1 Ad f : he 

ak IRA a. ait 


ia th aif ith s MAY .s oo 
nee pi ee) < ‘ 


YUP & ORS ‘ 


a, Cavity of the body. : 1, Cavity of the mantle. 
b, Digestive cavity. '  m, Mantle. 

¢, Mouth of the gastrula. -n, Tentacles. 

d, Exoderm. 0, Endocyst. 

e, Endoderm. p, Polypide. 

J; Orai face. 7, Rectum. 

2, Aboral mesoderm. «, Crown. 

k, Aboral face. z, “‘ Zone anhiste.” 


Fig. 1. Cell greatly enlarged. 

Fig. 2, Cell divided in two, still adhering to the endocyst. 
Fig. 3. Morula. 

Figs. 4,5. Beginning and enlargement of the cavity of bicamins 


PLATE CG: 
Embryology of PHALANGELLA FLABELLATA, 


Explanation of lettering. 


Fig. 6. Blastula. 


Figs. 7, 8, 9. Gastrula in different stages of formation, fig. 8 being a 


vertical section. 


Fig. 10. A section, showing the appearance of the median swelling, 


which represents the crown. _ 


Figs. 11,12. Development. of the median swelling, which at first 


(fig. 10) is near the oral face, approaching the middle 
(fig. 11), and afterwards nearing the aboral face (fig. 12). 
The same figures show the formation of the mesoderm’, 
between the aboral face and the posterior walls of the 
intestine. 


Fig. 13. Showing a more developed state. 
Fig. 14. A free embryo, vertical section. 


Fig. 15. 
Fig. 16. 


‘Fig. ay, 


An exterior view of the.same. 
First stage of fixation, composed of an internal pyriform 
mass, and an external layer spread over, and following all 


the contours of the internal mass. Between the two are 
shown the fatty globules. 


The external layer has separated from the internal mass, and 


has formed a discoidal sac, in which is easily distinguished 
the endocyst (e), the ectocyst (7), and the “zone anhiste 
(z). Internally are shown the fatty globules and the pyri- 
form mass, which now begins to show the rudiments of a 
polypide. | 

614 


235 


' 
e 
, 
i 
4 
4 


PLATE C. 


3 
< 
4 
é 
’ 
> 
€ 


res ck 


DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRYOZOA 


5 


oy AS 
BN 
Ameena 


Continuation of embryology of PHALANGELLA FLABELLATA, 


PLAT Ee: 


Explanation of lettering. 


d, Ectocyst. — 7, Rectum. 


é, Endocyst. v, Terminal disc of tentacular tube. 
n, Tentacles. w, Stomach. | . 
o, Fatty globules. © z, “ Zone anhiste.” | 


Fig. 18. A more advanced stage; a little beyond the center is a 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 


19. 


20. 


21. 


22. 
23. 
24, 


discoidal plate, formed by the tubular uprising of the 
surface. 

The uprising of the surface under the disc » has formed a 
long tube (tentacular tube) ; the disc has changed from a 


horizontal position to a vertical on account of the unequal 


increase of the two faces of the tube, and has the beginning 
of an, opening (opening of the cell), The rudimentary 
polyp begins to acquire a definite structure. 
The ectocyst is greatly thickened, and has formed on the 
tentacular tube. The fatty globules are condensed in two 
- Masses 0. afta! 
The polyp has reached the complete state, and the “zone — 
anhiste” has disappeared. 
The primitive cell and tentacular tube more developed. 
A profile view of a cell: 


Showing the manner of increase of the celle. 


616 i 


PLATE D. 


DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRYOZOA. 


ae eee 
8. CA ee 
tive 


Te hie) Tht at te phe Cate 

‘ { en Pe wah # ‘ a 

USSR: Oe i eae 

Lite wie at Mamma wea oo ieee aie 
ie : “ , a, ath 


ry . “ + a 


A = 


4 
¥ 
= 4 
« 
, ee Ae mi : oe its [ . + 
eet a rr au Ei, PL aad 
Ne ete es L | 
i Pav, ba i r A faci : 
- ihe z > et ee : os ‘ J ‘ 
i ay." . 
+ = 


ph ARH nue AL EI 


ye Cae A , . 7 * ‘ ie 
Rls ehh i tho Lt aba 


? 


He 


s 


a 


| > | , | 
; . j ‘ae . o “ » ta 
r iy a icy, oe yf i> } a } Mk eff es ah / re Hi 


Ale t a 


= 4 es sie 
pe => 
: - tay 
x f 
« r ’ é we i 
) 
MET) LAO BRL, Se Rte mE he 
‘ Ts - 6 : a y " 
> é 
See \ j 
tne * «* 


aL | ty once] Wa 


‘a 
: 
a 


re 

an BB 

a 

1 ‘ a 
rae | 

BI 


PLATE E. 
Mo.iia GRANIFERA, 


Explanation of lettering. 


a, Ciliary plume. o Endocyst. 
6, Mouth of the gastrula. 1, Ketocyst. 
e, Oculiform points. : Fatty globules. 


d, Obscure portion of the cavity J, “Zone anhiste.” 
of the body comprised be- p, Polyp. 
tween the two branches of the 
stomach, 


Figs. 1, 2. The oral and aboral face of a free embryo. - x150. 

Fig. 3. The first stage of metamorphosis, showing the beginning of — 
the calcareous incrustation ; the rudimentary polyp already — q 
exists ; the fatty globules are less abundant. x125. 

Fig. 4. The same more advanced. x125. a 

Figs. 5-9. Showing the manner of the growth and increase in number — 
of the cells, page 473. 


O15 


| 
| 
i 
: 


PLATE E. 


DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRYOZOA. 


Pig. 


ry 
Lh. 


a 
| eames ‘ , ti 
rials Ce. art 


beh =) ; . r > 
; ais” fs fi io ait, URN Yi ib 


Ria Wie aa 
steed Sis) edie: 


™ he Wah x) 
OE Bs un to oh a ee eee. “I 
(ie MeALE a ) que betsy 2 
: ov, . 
im Se WA a! 


he Ri 4 yt bagkhA | 
4 i ak," 4 yi , 
a Oe ila nat 


in ‘ ey 


ue ates al eb a 


> > i | 
yt) aE rye cogeghil AEE. cay j 
‘hs Fee au. 
., wae aan 
Masts | 
we . 
s Ah 4 


wii aoe ‘ag hD haa 


je Egon ug, he “aaa OY Pe 


Sr arm Af it if a sigs 8 
ac ee ee ix LOD eee 


+ _" isi l ba | Hitt 3 z 


nae rks A i 
; ran ia ee Ae 
bh ‘s 


Sheht (nina at Be 


j 
ae qi 
Wee li eeee J 
5 NOS n ata 
VF ‘ rif, 
L i 
i * f 
+ 
y ‘ ‘ 
. Aes tt, 
Vat Wiese ean % 
ey Oe 
ht wel hay Me 
i 
- 
i: ug / 
4 W y | it 
t i oe 
fil by 
¥ 
’ 4, r 
; ; y f 
- ri j 
‘ a Wg oa i 
Meat. oy : 
Oa Sie YS 
L » ul ve 
, l ' " Ny at , 
A f 5 ya ‘ 
Ling a) iy ’ 
‘ P| ‘es 4? ? 
¥ t 
4 ive ; 
, . " 
AG er 
Dees: 


= 
Seas > 


PUATE st. 
RETEPORELLA. 
(Page 503.) 
RETEPORELLA a Hall. 


Bigs. 1, 2: Natural size. 
Fig. 3. Celluliferous face. x6. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 


Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 


RETEPORELLA ADNATA, Hall (sp.). 


4, Noncelluliferous face. x6. 


12. 
13. 


i. 
14, 
15. 


. Celluliferous face. x6. 
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 


RETEPORINA. 
(Page 504.) 
RETEPORINA STRIATA, Hall. 


. Noncelluliferous face. x6. 
. Celluliferous face. x6. 


Hamilton group. New York. 


RETEPORINA PERUNDULATA, Hall. 


. Noncelluliferous face. x6. _ 
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 


POLY PORELLA. 
(Page 502.) 
' PotyporELia FistuLata, Hall (sp.). 


. Transverse section. x6. 
. Celluliferous face. x6. 


Hamilton group. New York. 


- POLYPORA. 
(Page 502.) 
PoLypoRa ASPECTANS, Hall. 
Transverse section. x6. 
Celluliferous face. x6. 


Upper Helderberg group. alls i the Ohio. 


PoLYPoRA STRIATOPORA, Hall. 
Natural size. 
Celluliferous face. x6. 
Noncelluliferous face. x6. 
Upper Helderberg group. Fuils of the Chae 


620 


BRYOZOA. 


Generic Illustrations 


Plate 1. 


Report State Geologist,1894. 


te Toth 
nD ste : ) 14 Ong fh 
de® , : Seg at Ss wee 
Pe Gee kT Sole - 65 er" Vea 
Abra te i NE og ey Clg 
CES pg Ry oe A TE ES vi OSE 
RINE SES HD BOR SLL es 


pa ORS Cy gt # 
ruerieieet 


‘ 
eee ee eee ee ee Ce 
— a eee ee ee CL 


[SSSR ESRI 


7 x 
DD OO ad GY DO VAAN Oo 9) dae 

3 Cy BESS PRR ( 

vi . ata & ~ Vy? urs wre * 
DITA NI VIE IND YO derarer Oe 
wa 3, roe 4 \ ae 

LANA ATS 

CPM OM ‘~ "i tr a? es 

Py 


re u ‘ . 
POF OD Me PIM IDS OXPO ODO Lys FD he 


Bs gn i a sy 3% ha) *: ob Sh ) 4 


er © » J ¢ ‘ 
YY VOM H ASOD BH VOO 


Darn - Mieke: D0 he : hy me 
PLSD TEER BLY EVE GH OVO 


Boe BAG, & 


James B Lyon, State Printer. 


G.B.Simpson , del 


x 
~ 
ie 


7 f 
Lise 


™ 


at Rice 
Wy Me Og 
4 tae ame) 


Z fit) GieoHee WN 


4 a cia at ANP o> is Feat 


Soak Uti ee eo 


Cabersmes ah iyitt Al os 


ai)" 
| iu ‘8 : 
a PME CUPY sar 
Sa hale LET TY mi ae iy yi fc a8 ey? 


oy ( 
Me ie ii sh) eee y ee heat 


ie. 1. 
Fig. 

Pig, (2. 
Fig. 4. 
Big. 5: 
Fig. 6. 
Bie 37. 
Fig. 8. 
ie. 9, 
Hig. 10. 


PLATE Il, 
FENESTELLA. 
(Page 500.) 
Celluliferous face, showing low, smooth carina. x6. Group a. 


2. Celluliferous face of a form showing a row of nodes between 


the rows of apertures. x6. Group f. 

Celluliferous face, with prominent carinze expanded at the 
summit. x6. Group «. 

Transverse section of a form belonging to group «. 

Oblique view of a portion of the celluliferous face of / 

* stellata, showing the very prominent stellate nodes. x6. 

A transverse section of a branch showiny conical nodes. x6. 

Side view of a branch of F’ exornata, showing the prominent, 
thin carina. x6. | 

End view of branches of the same species. x6. 

Side view of a branch of / latijunctura, showing the charac- 
teristics of the’carine of Group 6. 

End view of branches of the same species. x6. 


Figs. 11, 12. End view of branches of / bi-imbricata and F. lati- 


Fig. 13. 


carina, showing the characteristics of Groupe. x6. 


An enlargement from the celluliferous face of a specimen, ~ 


showing the characters of the carine of Group ¢. 


Figs. 14-17. Fragments of specimens, natural size. 


Fig. 18. 


An enlargement of the base of a frond of / variapora. 


622 


BRYOZOA. 


Generic Illustrations. 


Report State Geologist,1894. Pilate ve: 


oN Py. rf 

5 teal pa Z 
pea anew ene 
a fn Same 


+ 


Av 
+ 


: $ 
th ao date 


sy ™ a 
pete 
neat ae 
a =m 
1 <. és . - z 
BA pO, eae 


Sy Reh 


fr 4 
ms F 
= % 
‘a: 
a8 
<r: 
4 oe 
eres 
ae Pr 


ota > 


bnas 
ree 
f 


G.B.Simpson, de] 


James Blyon, State Printer. 


agai ae i 


=. * 
aire 
Es ——. 

~ — 


ele 


a. 


ee 
al 
; 


o> a 
=. 


Fig. 


5S 


Fig. 

Big: 3. 
Fig. 4. 
Fig. 6. 
Bie? 7 
Fig. 8 
Fig. 

Fig. 10 
Big. 11 
Fig. 12 


. Noncelluliferous face. x6. 
9. Celluliferous face. x6. 
5. Side view of a branch. x6. 


PLATE III. 
CYCLOPORINA. 
(Page 504.) 
CYCLOPORINA HEMICYCLA, Hall (sp.). 


Hamilton group. New York. 


CYCLOPORINA SEMIROTUNDA, Hall (sp.). 


Noncelluliferous face. x6. 
Celluliferous face. x6. 


- Hamilton group. New York. 


FENESTRAPORA. 
(Page 506.) 
FENESTRAPORA LARGIOR, Hall (sp.). 


Noncelluliferous face. x18. 
Hamilton group. Moscow, N. Y. 


FENESTRAPORA BIPERFORATA, Hall. 


. An enlargement from the celluliferous face, showing the 


triangular pores. x18. 


. An enlargement from the noncelluliferous face. x18. 
9, An enlargement from the celluliferous face, showing the cell 


apertures and the poriferous summits of the carine. x6. 


. A still further enlargement of the poriferous summits of the 


carine. x18. 


. Side view of a branch. x6. 
. End view of branches. x6. 


Hamilton group. Moscow, NV. Y. 


624 


BRYOZOA. 


ic Illustrations. 


Gener 


Plate 3. 


* 


1894. 
| 
| 
| 
| 

aA 


Report State Geologist, 


James B Lyon, State Printer. 


G.B.Simpson , de] 


pias 


et we 


“Pe 


A we , } 
4; eel i 


Fig. 


Hie: 3: 
Fig. 

Big. 35. 
Figs. 6. 
mie. 7. 
his. -8. 
ig: 9 
Fig. 10 
Fig. 11. 
Fig. 12. 


. A fragment of a specimen, natural size. 
2. An enlargement of a portion of the preceding figure. x6. 


4, A transverse section of the branches. 6x. 


PLATE My, 
PTILOPORELLA. 
(Page 506.) 
PTILOPORELLA INEQUALIS, Hall. 


Upper Helderberg group. Walpole, Ontario. 


PTILOPORELLA LATICRESCENS, Hall. 


A fragment, natural size. 


An enlargement from the noncelluliferous face of a frond, 
showing two of the primary branches. x6. | 

An enlargement from the celluliferous face of Fig. 3, showing 
the form and arrangement of the cell apertures. 

Upper Helderberg group. Walpole, Ontario. 


PINNAPORINA. 
(Page 507.) 
PINNAPORINA PINNATA, Hall (sp.). _ 


A fragment of a frond, natural size. 


PTILOPORINA. 
(Page 507.) 
Prinoporina conica, Hall. 


A fragment, natural size. 
Upper Helderberg group. Schoharie, N. Y. 


PTILOPORINA SINISTRALIS. 


. A frond, natural size, showing all of the secondary branches 


proceeding from the sinistral side of the primary or larger 
branches. ; 


. An enlargement of a portion of the same frond. xé. 


Upper Helderberg group. Walpole, Ontario. 


PTILOPORINA DISPARILIS. 
A fragment, natural size. | 
An enlargement from the celluliferous face, showing from two 
to five ranges of cell apertures. x6. . 
Upper Helderberg group. Walpole, Ontario. 


626 


BRYOZOA. 


Generic Illustrations. 


Plate 4. 


1894. 


Report State Geologist 


pk ag “Deyo Bop Slee lok At Oe 


we, a ee ee ee oe a 
. lia SF Sa j : 


phy 


HA ash tise Botiart Ste 


oo 


James B Lyon, State Printer. 


et en wand 


aE 


be Ea ae Ree 


ieee aS ad 
4 , Pas Pere 


she 


G.BSimpson , del 


tif 


rhb 4 


eal 


——_- 
a 


BML AD ogc e eT Ne | okt 


ceasing e. ay qu i ; : ii? ; F. A ’ A. | ‘4 wie F jae * ye nm / ne 


{ 
f a it oF ’ ’ ‘ i 2 
14) ‘ Ae oT! ae ata ha Sf 
ne Po ’ j x it " ‘> ie] se | . 
Tiuiows ats at.) rip: wih Y 4 oY fe) ee Ve Lt 5: 
§ ayy Y 4 Pe Y il F ra ‘ F / ye +f 4% 
: at 5 ; CEA AY 4 ‘i ; mer. t q j i a i S 
We B45 } ay q 4 : * SE. ‘ ; r 
. ¥) F y 
‘ i Ae 
fo . Pa 
ros 
Bf 2 Fas 
sh, 4 
‘s Fok! 
. o 
. 
L * 
4 
" : ‘ wu 
i. at’ 
. 
prea 
~ 
if i f 
‘ ‘ 
\ . eH ‘ 
, 4 y 1A 
vt 
; , 
* 4 F ‘ OF a 
er bo i n 
p ‘ 
¥ t ’ 
‘ “4 H's oa 5 wa ede 
‘ ; ‘ ‘ 4 7 + 
‘ 
4 & 
} 
{ . . vy : \ @ “ 4 
, ; . F : 
ie} } ‘A bag iti hy mils | 
= ; h 
. x 
ha iw : 
; 1744 Li. A t ‘ if H v { 
? ‘ il 
i i. a ‘4 ’ 4 ; 
i J 2 
aide EP EY q : Ca 2 » eD ms ; ? 
P Lot pees 
q ,.% ti) | Yj 
- he 4 | 
= ~ i 
1 Na 
I 
rm ( 
1 q 
$ 
‘ ; :¥ a 
. NA 
vs 
‘fi 
r 
I a. r 4 4 P 
a , 
} J » 
. & i 
‘ ’ 
. 1 é 
‘ ; i ¥ 
: ri Dt 1 
* 7 er gk E 
TH Ite 
a r 
r . J , 
Mes y ; . } 
‘ . j 
ahd! &es a a 
. . ‘ 
. ‘ ‘ 
~~ . 
* ed $ } F 
- 7 ‘ 1 
. ; 
t } 
v > : , 
it s ; P 
; , 7? 
F f 
i 
- Z F 
ae . , 
. 
* 
r ) See 


Bigs-. 1 


Fig. 


Fig. 3. 
Fig. 4. 
Fig. 5. 
Hig.’ 6. 
Bigs; 7, 


Bigs) °8: 


Hig. 9: 
Fig. 10. 
Fig. 11. 


Fig. 12. 


Fig. 13. 
Fig. 14. 


2, A still further enlargement of the same specimen. x18. 


PLATE Y: 


HEMITRYPA. 
(Page 507.) 
HEMITRYPA CRIBROSA, Hall. 


An enlargement of the base of a specimen. x6. 


Upper Helderberg group. ails of the Ohio. 


HEMITRYPA COLUMELLATA, Hall: 


A fragment, natural size. 

An enlargement from the noncelluliferons nee of the 
frond. x6. 

An enlargement from the geltaliterads face of afrond. The | 
upper portion of the figure shows the superimposed hemi- | 
trypic structure. x6. 

A side view of a portion of a branch and carina. x6. 

End view of branches and carinez. x6. : 

Side view of a branch showing the cell apertures and the 
columellar appearance of the broken carina. 

Noncelluliferous face. x6. 

An impression in the rock of the celluliferous face. x6. 

Pseudo-carine and connecting scale. x6. 

Upper Helderberg group. Walpole, Ontario. 


UNITRYPA. 
(Page 508.) 


Unirrypa connexa, Hall. 


An enlargement of the summits of the carine and connecting 
scale. On portions of the figure the scale are of unitrypic 
character, while on other portions they are hemitrypic. 
This species could, with equal propriety, be included in 
either Unirrypa or HEMITRYPA. 

Side view of a portion of a branch and its carine. x6. 

Transverse section of branches and carine. x6. — 

Upper Helderberg group. 


628 


BRYOZOA. 


Generic Illustrations. 


Piate 3. 


Report: State Geologist,1894. 


ae 


arti fe = 


lal 


AA ee 


= 


ney 


Jot 2 SPER OR 09 @ 


rae vee AUNENU Sy cH TREAD 


— 
Bes 


ee 


= ee ee 


~ 7 ig Z “ 
he sags LET AEM oth. 
‘Altes 5 e BSé 
ae , Qe 
2 snk 


tie CCR, 
ae me A 


a 


a 


James Blyon, State Printer. 


G.B.Simpson,-del 


Fig. 15. 


Fig. 16. 


Fig. 17. 


Fig. 18. 
Fig. 19. 


UnitTrypa acctivis, Hall. 


An enlargement. The lower left-hand corner shows the cellu- 
liferous face of the branches; the other portion showing 
the irregular summits of the carine and the connecting 
scale. | 

Upper Helderberg group. ulls of the Ohio. 


UNITRYPA LATA. 


An enlargement, showing the summits of the carine and con- 
necting scale, the celluliferous face of the branches, and 
also the interior of the branches. 

A fragment of a frond, showing the unitrypic face, natural 
size. 

A side view of a portion of a.branch and its carina. x6. 

A transverse section of branches and their carine. x6. 


629 


Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


ie 
12, 


13. 


14, 


15. 


. A fragment of a frond, showing the noncelluliferous face, 
. A fragment of a frond, showing the unitrypic chasacieed 
. A transverse section of branches and their carine. 

. Aside view of a branch, showing the form.of the scale. x6. 


. An enlargement from the noncelluliferous face of the 


. An enlargement, showing the summits of the carinz and their 


. A transverse section of branches and their carine. x6. 
. A side view of a portion of a branch and its carina. x6. 
. Aside view of the upper portion of a branch, showing the 


PLATE (Vi. 


UNITRYPA. 
(Page 508.) . 
Unirrypa FasticaTa, Hall. 


natural size. f 


natural size. 


frond: x6. 


connecting scale. x6. 
Upper Helderberg group. 


ISOTRYPA. 
(Page 510.) 
IsoTRYPA consuNcTIVA, Hall. 


columellar appearance of the broken carine; in this respect 
closely resembling a HemirryPa. | 


. An enlargement from the noncelluliferous face of a frond, 


showing the conspicuous pores on or near the dissepiments. 
An enlargement from the celluliferous face of a frond. x6. 
An enlargement, showing the summits of the carine and their 
connecting bars. x6. 
Upper Helderberg group. Walpole, Ontario. 


TECTULIPORELLA. 
(Page 510.) 
TECTULIPORELLA CONSIMILIS, Hall (sp.). 

An enlargement. The left-hand portion of the figure shows 
the summits of the carine and connecting bars; the central, 
the celluliferous face of the branches; the right-hand 
portion the interior of the branches. x6. 

An enlargement, showing the celluliferous face of the 
branches. x6. 

An enlargement, showing the summits of the carine and 
their connecting bars. x6. 

Upper Helderberg group. 


630 


i 


BRYOZOA. 


Plate 6. 


rei es 


12 


pS 
ee Wy ERPS Bap ATO NT <p aS veg 
§ ‘ tie a 
4 t 
ri 
A 
4 
geno My NES 
an soe 


James B Lyon, State Printer. 


ic Illustrations. 


Gener 


a eS we 


Report State Geologist,1894. 
B Simpson, del 


* 
an 


- 
2 


= 


7 
‘ 
° 
~ 
"oe 8 


¢ 


v 


a 
ra 


we 
pe 
> ’ 
‘ 4 ro 
, a | , Pen f . 
‘ ‘ones i od 
he Aai4 } 
- * 4 i 
A j é ; 4 - 
a 7 f 
4 oa " Ai 
4 s ree © af y 
- mI ® 4 
ia, 4 : ’ Ah if 
= bal y ay > 7 ~ 


tt 
» t 
a5 ¥ 


Ws ve ‘ hg be , . 
sedan aires = ab g A ' ‘ Pr 4 
5 ah ae oy i Be i, a ‘ : ed . ‘ is 


Bios" 1. 
2, A side view of a branch, showing sections of the dissepiments 


Fig. 


Fig. 3. 


Fig. 4. 
Big.73; 


Fig. 6. 


PEATE VIL 
TECTULIPORA. 
(Page 511.) 


TECTULIPORA BIPERFORATA. . 


A transverse section of branches and carine. x18. 


and their carine. x18. 

An enlargement from the noncelluliferous face of a frond. 
x18. , 

An enlargement from the celluliferous face of a frond. x18. 

An enlargement, showing the summits of the carine of the 
branches and dissepiments. x18. 

Upper Helderberg group. Walpole, Ontario. 


LOCULIPORA. — 
(Page 511.) 
LocuLipoRA PERFORATA, Hall. 


A side view of a branch, showing a section of the dissepiments 
and their carine. x6. 


. A transverse section of three of the branches and their carine. 


x18. 


. An enlargement from the noncelluliferous face of a frond. 


x6. 


. An enlargement of the summits of the carine of the branches 


and dissepiments. x6. 


. An enlargement. The lower portion of the figure shows the 


celluliferous face of the branches; the upper portion the 
summits of the carine. x6. 


. An enlargement from the celluliferous face of a.frond. x6. 
. A portion of a frond, natural size. 


Lower Helderberg group. Albany county, N.Y. 


632 


BRYOZOA. 


10ns. 


Generic Illustrat 


7. 


Plate 


Report State Geologist,1894. 


James BLyon, State Printer. 


6.B.Simpson , de] 


ite P 
== a= 
ee oe * Y 


’ 


a 
ae 
=a 
mw 
= 
— 
: 


ae 
—_, 
= 
> 


=: 


es 


Bigs 


PLATE Vilt. 


PTILOPORINA. 
(Page 507.) 
PTILOPORINA PINNATA, Hall. 


An enlargement of the noncelluliferous face. This figure is 
inserted here for comparison with Prinopora. 


PTILOPORA. 
(Page 519.) 


Prinopora sTRiaTA, Hall. 


Fig. 2. Noncelluliferous face. x6. 
Fig. 3. Celluliferous face. x6. 
Hamilton gronp. Moscow, Livingstor county, N. Y. 
PTILOPORA INFREQUENS, Hall. 
Fig. 4. A fragment, natural size. 
Fig. 6. The same specimen. x6. 
Fig. 7. Noncelluliferous face of a fragment. x6. 
Hamilton group. Western New York. 
Prinopora noposa, Hall. 
Fig. 5. The celluliferous face of a fragment. x6. 


Hamilton group. Near Alden, N. Y. 


GLAUCONOME. 
(Page 524.) 
GLAUCONOME stnuosa, Hall. 


Figs. 8, 9. Fragments, natural size. 


Fig. 10. 


Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


ivi 
12, 
13. 


14, 
15. 


The celluliferous face. x6. 


Upper Helderberg group. Wear Leroy, N. Y. 


GLAUCONOME TENUISTRIATA, Hall. 


A fragment, natural size. - 
The noncelluliferous face. x6. 
The celluliferous face. x6. 


Upper Helderberg group. Near Buffalo, N. Y. 


GLAUCONOME CARINATA, Hall. 


Fragments, natural size. 


The noncelluliferous face. x6. 


Hamilton group. Full Brook, four miles east of Canandaigua 


Lake, IN. ¥. 
634 


BRYOZOA. 


Generic Illustrations. 


Plate 8. 


1894. 


. 


Report State Geologist 


be) 
Ny 


gd auiatiea captdk tec a 


i 


vs 


cb 


ay 


= ay " z . n ears Eo oh ii 

NAN le lan Sola ht ba ER I ae cs tare Vine alti Ne ETI Sean ptate 
ARENT SS PRY RON OR er 
' - a 3 rash 


i * r celts & 
i ca a 


James B Lyon, State Printer. 


6.B.Simpson, del 


ICHTHYORACHIS. 
(Page. 524) 
Icutayoracuis Ngwrenuami, McCoy. 


Figs. 16-18. Copies of McCovy’s original illustrations. 


IcntHyoracuis Nereis, Hall. 


Fig. 19. The celluliferous face. x6. 

Fig. 20. A fragment, natural size. 

Fig. 21. The noncelluliferous face of a specimen. © x6. 
Lower Helderberg group. Schoharie, N. Y. 


6355 


PLATES. 


CRISINELLA. 
(Page 526.) 


CagIsINELLA SCROBICULATA, Hall. 


Fig. 1. A portion of a frond, natural size. 
Fig. 2. Noncelluliferous face. -x6. | 
Fig. 3. Celluliferous face. x6. 

Upper Helderberg group. 


THAMNICELLA. 
(Page 525.) 
THAMNICELLA Nysa, Hall. 
Fig. 4. A fragment, natural.size. 


Fig. 5. The same. x6. 
Lower Helderberg group. Clarksville, N. Y. 


THAMNICELLA ascuTa, Hall. 
Fig. 6. A fragment, natural size. . 
Fig. 7. A portion of the celluliferous face. x9. 
Fig. 8. A portion of the noncelluliferous face. x9. 


THAMNICELLA Cissxis, Hall. 
Fig. 9. A frond, natural size. 
Figs. 10, 11. A portion of the noncelluliferous face. x6. 
Fig. 12. A portion of the celluliferous face. x6. 
Fig. 13. A group of Bryozoa, ae which are several specimens of 


this species. 
Lower Helderberg group. Clarksville, N. i 


THAMNISCUS. 
(Page 524.) 
THAMNISCUS VARIOLATA, Hall. 
Fig. 14. A fragment of the noncelluliferous face of a frond. x3, 


Toamniscos NraGaRrensis, Hall. 


Fig. 15. A frond, natural size. 
Fig. 16. A portion of the celluliferous face. x2. : 
Fig. 17. A portion of the celluliferous face of ance specimen, 
showing angular, carinated branches. 
Niagara group. Waldron, Indiana. 


636 


BRYOZOA. 


ions. 


Generic Illustrat 


,1894. Plate Q. 


Report State Geologist 


BOS ough ee eggs et, « 


ee es 


ee 


23 


James B.Lyon, State Printer. 


6.B.Simpson , del 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


18. 


19. 


20. 
21. 


22. 


23. 


THAMNISCUS NANUS, Hall. 


A portion of the celluliferous face. x6, 
Upper Helderberg group. Falls of the Ohio. 


LYROPORIDRA. 
(Page 517.) 
LYROPORIDRA SUBQUADRANS, Ulrich (sp.). 


An enlargement of a portion of the celluliferous face of a 
frond, showing the dispcsition of the cell apertures. 
Lower Carboniferous. 


ANASTOMOPORA. 
(Page 517.) 
ANASTOMOPORA CiNCTUTA, Hall (sp.). 


A fragment of a frond, natural size. 

An enlargement of a portion of the noncelluliferous face, 
showing irregular anastomosis. x6. 

An enlargement of the noncelluliferous face, showing regu- 
larly anastomosing branches. x6. 

An enlargement from the celluliferous face, showing the dis- 
position of the cell apertures and the thickened margin of 
the frond. 

Hamilton group. 

637 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


iN) 


. A frond, natural size. 
. The same. x6. 
Hamilton group. Bellona, N. Y. 


. A segment, natural size. 
. The same. x6. 


PEATE se 


STICTOPORINA. 
(Page 543.) 


STICTOPORINA CLAVIFORMIS, Hall. 


RHINIDICTYA. 


R#HINIDICTYA GRANULOSA, Hall. 


. A still further enlargement of a portion of the surface, show- 


ing more distinctly the cell apertures and surface orna- 
mentation. 


Lower Helderberg group. Catskill Creek, NV. Y. 
STICTOCELLA. 
(Page 582.) 
STICTOCELLA INTERSTRIATA, Hall. 


. A frond, natural size. 
. A portion enlarged, showing the disposition of the cell aper- 


turer, the interapertural striations and the spinuliform pro- 
_ jections in the cell tubes. 
Hamilton group. Alden, NV. Y. 


STICTOPORINA. 
(Page 582.) 


STICTOPORINA SUBCARINATA, Hall. 


. An enlargement of a portion of a branch. x6. The natural 


size of the frond is illustrated in fig. 6, pl. xii. 
Hamilton group. Lellona, V. Y. 


STICTOPORA. 


(Page 605.) | 
SricropoRa CRESCENS, Hall. 


. A portion of afrond. x6. 
10. 


A vertical section showing the form of the cell tubes, ae 
the intercellular vesicular tissue. x6. 
Upper Helderbarg group. Ontario. 


638 


BRYOZOA. 


Generic Illustrations. 


Piaie ie. 


Report State Geologist,1894. 


«th 
4 


of mas 
Wer. shel D 
vey ey aoe ye 


Peers 


wan eh ee We Mn. Cha A ET GS OAS _— 
Se. i Be ee ie ia ee 


ee 


& 


pn —s 
# 

d 

4. 


ee 


oe 


2 


James Blyon, State Printer. 


G.B.Simpson, del 


ay es 
ao et a 


i ee 
at 


Fig. 


Fig. 


is. 13. 
bak 


Fig. 
Fig. 


20. 


rt. 


. Ds 


As B 


ame 3 


ae 


18, 
19. 


Sricropora PaLMIpEs, Hall. 


A frond, natural size. 
Hamilton group. New York. 


CYSFODICTYA. 
(Page 536.) 
CysTopIcTyA INCISURATA, Hall. 


A transverse section of a branch. x6. 
Hamilton group. New York. 


CysTODICTYA GI BERTI, Meek. 


A portion of a frond from which the surface has been worn 
away, showing the cell tubes. x6. 

A fragment of a frond, natural size. 

A natural vertical section showing the cell tubes, and in 
some of them the septx. x6. 

A natural transverse section. x6. 

An enlargement of the mesotheca, showing the transverse 
arching lines of growth and the longitudinal lines formed 
by the recumbent portion of the cell tubes. x6. 

An enlargement showing the cell apertures with denticulated 

_ projections. x6. 

Upper Helderberg group. ails of the Ohio. 


CYsTODICTYA OVATIPORA, HALL. 


A portion of a frond, natural size. 
The same. x6. 
Upper Helderberg group. Fulls of the Ohio. 


639 


PEATE AL. 


INTRAPORA. 
(Page 535.) 


InTRAPORA PUTEOLATA, Hall. 


Figs. 1-5. Fragments of fronds, natural size, showing variations in 
| form. 
Fig. 6. A portion of a frond. x6. 
Fig. 7. A still further enlargement from the preceding figure. x18. 
Fig. 8. An enlargement from another specimen having circular aper- 
tures and fewer interapertural pits. x18. 
Fig. 9. A transverse specimen of one-half of a specimen. x6. 
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 


SEMIOPORA. 
(Page 535.) 
SEMIOPORA BISTiGMATA, Hall. 
Fig. 10. A frond, natural size. 
Fig. 11. A portion of the preceding. x6. 
Hamilton group. Wew York. 


TAINIOPORA. 
(Page 533.) _ 
Tazniopora Exicua, Nicholson. 

Fig. 12. A portion of the concave face. x6. 
Fig. 13. A portion of the angular face. xé. 
Fig. 14. The mesotheca worn away, showing the under portion oi 

the cell tubes. x6. ? 
Fig. 15. A transverse section of a branch. x6. 
Fig. 16. A side view of the cell tubes, showing their form and mode 

of growth. 

Hamilton group. Various localities in New York, 


640 


‘4 
A 
t 
4 
x 


BRYOZOA. 


Generic Illustrations. 


Le 


Plate 


Report State Geologist,1894. 


6 @2628 © 


5 ABA nomen Rare inks 


D 
ay 
na 


\ 


James Blyon, State Printer. 


eee 


LAK 


6 


1 


WERE 


‘j 


\ San hitea! 

Ftp Fi sits Shale Ra 
Mi Yes Mie Me eee 

Hite ha eo ve Feo Pt 

Na Mwukb Man Fombd ks Fh 


G.B.Simpson , del 


Po 


A Pchaege 


ies. Ae 
Rig. 5:3; 
Fig. 4, 
Hig.» 5. 
Big) 6. 
Bie 7: 

Fig. 8. 


PUATE it, 


TASNIOPORA. 
(Page 533.) 
T2NIOPORA Exieua, Hall. 

2. Portions of fronds, natural size. 

A transverse section of the triangular main branch of fig. 
1, x6. Compare this figure with fig. 15, Prismopora 
triquetra, - 

An enlargement of a portion of a frond. x6. 

An enlargement from a specimen having only two ranges 
of cell apertures on each side of the carinz. x6. 

Hamilton group. New York. 


STICTOPORINA. 
(Page 582.) 
STICTOPORINA SUBCARINATA. 


This figure is inserted here for comparison with figs. 1 and 2. 
Hamilton group. New York. 


THAMNOTRY PA. 
(Page 546.) 
THAMNOTRYPA DIvARIcATA, Hall. 


A frond, natural size. 


A portion of the same. 6x. 
Upper Helderberg group. Wear Buffalo, Wa 


PRISMOPORA. 
(Page 531.) 
PRISMOPORA TRIQUETRA, Hate 


Figs. 9,10. Two specimens, natural ‘size. 


Bio! 11. 
Fig. 12. 


| ‘Fig. 13. 


Fig. 14. 


A portion of one face of a branch. x6. 

An enlargement, showing the denticulated cell apertures. 
x LS: 

A transverse section, showing the mesotheca and inter- 
cellular vesiculose tissue. x6. 


A natural transverse section showing mesothen and cell 


tubes. x6. 
Upper Helderberg group. ails of the Ohio. 


642 


| 
4 


BRYOZOA. 


Generic Illustrations. 


wey Re a FF st A eet 


Plate le. 


oO SR * && AF os rs. > 


James B Lyon, State Printer. 


Réport State Geologist,1894. 
G.B.Simpson , del 


Fig. 
Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 


5 


Fig. 


» LS, 


21, 
22. 


PRISMOPORA SUBTRIQUETRA, Hall. 


A portion of one of the faces of a branch. x6. 
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 


SCALARIPORA. 
(Page 582.) 
ScALARIPORA SCaLAgirormis, Hall. 


. A specimen, natural size. 
. An enlargement of the concave face of a branch. x6. 
. An oblique view of the same, showing the form of the scale. 


x6. 


. An enlargement of the two narrower faces of a frond. x6. 
. A transverse section, showing the radiating mesothece, the 


cell tubes and the form of the scale. x6. 
Upper Helderberg group. Falls of the Ohio. 


ScALARIPORA suBcOoNCAVA, Hall. 


A fragment, natural size. 
A transverse section: x6. 
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 


645 


PLATE <XITE 


COSCINOTRYPA. 
(Page 537.) 
CoscINOTRYPA CRIBRIFORMIS, Hall. 


Figs. 1-4. Fragments, natural size. 
Fig. 5. A portion of afrond. x6. 
Fig. 6. An enlargement from another specimen, showing the denticu- 
lated cell apertures. x6. 
Fig. 7. A transverse section, showing one of the elevations, a a 
characteristic of this genus, natural size. 
Upper Helderberg group. Falls of the Ohio. 


COSCINIUM. 
(Page 537.) 
CoscINIuM sTRIATUM, Hall. 


Fig. 8. A specimen, natural size. 

Fig. 9. An enlargement of a portion of fig. 8. 

Fig. 10. A still further enlargement, showing the denticulated cell 
apertures. x18. 

Fig. 11. A transverse section of the portion of the frond between the 
fenestrules. x6. 

Fig. 12. One of the cell apertures. x72. 

Hamilton group. Widder, Ontario. 


€44 


BRYOZOA. 


es 


Generic Illustrations. 


Plate 13. 


Report State Geologist, 1894. 


i 


James B.Lyon, State Printer. 


G.BSimpson ,del 


Fig. 2 
Fig. 3 
Fig. 4. 
Fig. 5 
Fig. 6 
Fig. 7 
Pig 


. A specimen, natural size. 


. A weathered specimen, natural size. 
. An enlargement from the preceding. x6. 


PLATE XIV: 


COSCINIUM. 
(Page 537.) 


CoscINIuM sTRIATURUM, Hall. 


Upper Helderberg group. Stafford, N. Y. 


CERAMELLA. 
(Page 527.) 


CERaMELLA scripackKa, Hall. 


A fragment of a well-preserved specimen, natural size. 


. An enlargement from the preceding. x6. 
. A vertical section, showing the form of the cell tubes and 


their manner of growth. x6. 
Hamilton group. New York. 


COSCINELLA. 
(Page 534.) 
CoScINELLA ELEGANTULA, Hall. 


. A frond, natural size: . 
8. A portion of the preceding figure. x6. 
. A transverse section of the portion of the frond between 


adjacent cell apertures. x6. 


. A vertical section, showing’ the form and manner of growth 


of the cell tubes and the intercellular vesiculose tissue. x6. 


. An enlargement of the mesotheca. x6. = 
. An enlargement of one of the cell apertures. x72, 


Hamilton group. Widder, Ontario. 


646 


BRYOZOA. 


Generic Illustrations. 


14. 


Plate 


Report State Geologist,1894. 


James Blyon, State Printer. 


GBSimpson , de] 


Big: /1. 
Bigs 2 
Fig. 3. 
Fig. 4, 
Fig. 5 
Bis yc. 
Fig. 7 
Fig. 8. 
Fig. 9 


. A portion of the preceding. x6. 


PLATE ZW: 
PTILOCELLA. 


PTILOCELLA PARALLELA, Hall. 


A specimen, natural size. 


A transverse section of a frond. x6. 
Hamilton group. Ontario county, N. Y. 


PTILODICTYA. 
(Page 541.) 


Pritopicrya PLUMEA, Hall. 


A specimen, natural size. 


. An enlargement of a portion of the surface. x6. 


An enlargement of the base of Fig. 4. x6. . 
Hamilton group. West Hamburgh, N. Y. 


PTILODICTYA KETIFORMIS, Hall. 


. An enlargement of the surface, showing the form and dispo- 


sition of the cell apertures and the vestibular areas. x6. 
Hamilton group. Alden, NV. Y. 


PHANOPORA. 
(Page 541.) 
PHANOPORA LIBATA, Hall. 


A portion of a specimen. x6. | 
Lower Helderberg group. Clarksville, N. Y. 


PHAZNOPORA TENUIS, Hall. 


. A specimen, natural size. 
. An enlargement of the preceding. x6. 


Lower Helderberg group. Albany county, N. Y. 


ACROGENIA.. 
(Page 544.) 
ACROGENIA PROLIFERA, Hall. 


Figs. 11, 12. Segments, natural size. 
Fig. 18. A perfect specimen, natural size. 
Fig. 14. An enlargement of the roots of the preceding specimen. x6. 


648 


4Ey; 


~ 


BRYOZOA. 


Generic Illustrations. 


Plate 


Report State Geologist, 1894. 


SR ere Sis Ae... rE gee nae 


So? 


Pres he Ps L Seabank ay heey 
( UE BB ya . 


RECA EV eH 


ee es 


Ct plait ekteka- she “chile Sh $3 ckreke 


James Blyon, State Printer. 


Pity isn iin A ARS TAKS TAL Nts 


\ die Wiha tks 
{iad Nal a Diag ig Ma Dae 
RS SR SER SHAK WCRI REE Ol 


ANREP Ra Breas ARRON 


BSF HT Nita es oR as 
a pra» he wept: a do-aaeen 
Me et EATS OTs ag 


“ lhametoememmntcn ht a 
Wa ets Cle, CB Gl 
¥ CE NOIR NIN Sa p 


6.B. Simpson , del 


Fig. 15. An enlargement from the central portion of a segment. x6. 
Fig. 16. An enlargement from another segment, showing angular form 
and median carination. x6. : 
Fig. 17. An enlargement from the base of a segment. x6. 
Figs. 18-20. Transverse sections from different portions of a seg- 
ment. x6. 
Hamilton group. ew York. 


649 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


11. 


12. 


13. 
14, 


PLATE vi: 
TROPIDOPORA. 
(Page 553.) 
TROPIDOPORA NANA, Hall. 


. A fragment, natural size, with Aulopora. 
. A portion of the preceding specimen. x18. 


Upper Helderberg group. Onondaga Valley, N. Y. 


DIAMESOPORA. 
(Page 566.) 
DIAMESOPORA CAMERATA, Hall. 


. Several fragments of this species, natural size. : 
. A portion of a branch x6, showing the appearance and arrange- 


ment of the cell apertures and one of the macule. 


. A section showing the cell tubes and epitheca. x6. 


Upper Helderberg group. Caledonia, N. Y. 


ACANTHOCLEMA. 
(Page 552). 


ACANTHOCLEMA ALTERNATUM, Hall. 


. A specimen, natural size. 
. A portion of the preceding specimen. x6. 


Upper Helderberg group. Onondaga Valley, N, Y. 


ACANTHOCLEMA scuToLaTuM, Hall. 


. A portion of a branch. x6. 
. An enlargement showing the usual appearance and arrange- 


ment of the cell apertures. x18. 

An enlargement of a specimen having a pit at the base of 
each cell aperture in addition to the usual node. — 

A vertical section. x18. 

Hamilton group. Canandaigua Lake, N. Y. 


BACTROPORA. 
(Page 558). 
BacTRopora cuRVATA, Hall. 


A specimen. x6. 
A portion of the preceding specimen. x18. 
Hamilton group. rie county, N. Y. 


«50 


BRYOZOA. 


ions. 


Generic Illustrat 


Report State Geologist 


Plate 16. 


1894. 


, 


ms, 


al we WA 


A as 


Cee angi of ate oy 
Lia So 3 


SS IRSESS Seer SS: 


7? wise “ ~ 


eo 


~ rele Pe 


Sloe er 


James B Lyon, State Printer. 


G.B.Simpson, del 


NEMATAXIS, 
(Page 552). 
NEMATAXIS FIBROSUS, Hall. 


Fig. 15. A specimen imbedded in the rock and fractured so as to 
show the internal structure, natural size. 

Fig. 16. A part of the same. x6. 

Fig. 17. A portion of a specimen showing the oval cell apertures dis- 
posed in regular longitudinal rows and macule destitute of 
cell apertures. 

Fig. 18. A portion of a specimen having the cell apertures obliterated 
by a calcareous deposit. 

Hamilton group. rie county, NV. Y. 


651 


PLATE. XVII. 
MONTICULIPORA. 
(Page 577.) 
MontTIcuLipoRa MAMMILLOSA, Hall. 

Fig. 1. Zoarium, natural size. ; 
Fig. 2. A vertical section. x6. 

Fig. 3. A transverse section. x6. 

These two sections show the generic characters. 
Hudson River group. ear Cincinnati, Ohio. 


PRASOPORA. | 
. (Page 586). 

Figs. 4, 5. A vertical and transverse section. x6. 
Illustrating the characters of the genus. 


AMPLEXOPORA. 
(Page 577.) - 
Figs. 6, 7. A transverse and vertical section; illustrating the internal 
structure of the genus. 


MONOTRYPELLA. 
(Page 581.) 4 


Fig. 8, An enlargement of the surface. x6. 
Lower Helderberg group. Wear Schoharie, N. Y. 


PTYCHONEMA. 
(Page 583.) 
PTYcHONEMA TABULATUM, Hall. - 
Fig. 9. An enlargement of.a portion, showing the peculiar corruga- 
tions of the cell tubes. x6. 
Lower Helderberg group. Near Schoharie, NV. Y, 


652 


Plate iz 


BRYOZOA. 


Generic Illustrations. 


Report State Geologist,1894. 


' 
1 


I ee ee a a) a en ae we ene ee ee ee ee 


& # ae 2 e a & ‘de ai 


HY 


Es 


 beobetnted ed) | JLT | 
Libel 
ee 


| 
| 
| 
I 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
l 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
I 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
] 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


James B Lyon, State Printer. 


G.BSimpson , del 


st 
hs 
hg 
y i 
‘wh 
Men. 
) ha 
i 4 
« r 
ote se r 
4 ¥ 
x ; 
< 


eS See Tee ee 


pis 
“4: 
ee 


' at 


i J At 4 
Aa 


= 


a 

- 

a 

ae Sing 
eel 


= 
\ aatallioe tine = Pre 


Abadi Col Sis: ie 4 in r , J ; 1 uli 
‘ feby eee . aes 
| A et See . 


Sf She Wey. we , | a 


i 
: nid USN! 2 , ee hy eas 
wa * Se 
4 & ' ren a Ye 
jt Bawa.) .:. 25) OS see 
, ib ; j 
« ine é ani ; id a ’ q 
De Y Vo aia Ta 
wO9 ' ¥ ee) 
- R oe 7 vie 
e f os 
Vie / ba 
Le 
© . ' } pe A 
4 zs 4 , b ‘4 
\ CAs 
4 : ag ° fl me f aKt 


PLATE XVIII. 
CALLOPORA. 


(Page 588.) 
CALLOPORA ELEGANTULA, Hall. 


Figs. 1, 2. Specimens, natural size. 

Fig. 3. A fragment of a specimen fractured so as to show the cell 
tubes. x6. 

Fig. 4. An enlargement of the surface, showing the form and arrange- 
ment of the cell apertures and interapertural openings. 
Several of the apertures on the lower portion of the figure 
have opercula. 


Fig. 5. An enlargement of one of the apertures, showing the oper- _ 


culum. x100. 
Figs. 6, 7. These sections show the tabulated cell tubes and the 
tabulated mesopores. x18. 
Niagara group. Lockport, N. Y. 


CALLOTRYPA. 
(Page 551.) 
CALLOTRYPA UNISPiNA, Hall. 

Fig. 8. A specimen, natural size. 

Fig. 9. An enlargement showing the form and arrangement of the 
cell apertures and interapertural pits, and the prone 
node at the base of each aperture. x18. 

Fig. 10. An enlargement of one of the cell apertures and its accom- 
panying node, x54. : 

Fig. 11. A thin vertical section, showing the internal structure. x18. 

Lower Helderberg group. ew York. : 


CALLOTRYPA MACROPORA, Hall. 
Figs. 12, 18. Groups of Bryozoa, among which are several of this 
species. 
Fig. 14, A portion of a branch. x18. _ 
Lower Helderberg group. New York. 


654 


BRYOZOA. 


Generic IJlustrations. 


Plate 18. 


Report State Geologist,1894. 


James Blyon, State Printer. 


G.B.Simpson, del 


a wh 


Bios “bib “ 


PLATE ese 
TREMATOPORA. 
(Page 591.) 
TREMATOPORA TUBERCULOSA, Hall. 

Figs. 1, 2, 3. Fragments of this species, natural size. 

Fig. 4. A portion of a branch showing the form and arrangement 
of the cell apertures, and the monticules destitute of cell 
apertures. x18. 

Fig. 5. An enlargement of a thin section showing the cell tubes and ~ 
the tabulated mesopores. x18. 

Niagara group. Lockport, NV. Y. 


TREMATELLA. 
(Page 550.) 
TREMATELLA ANNULATA, Hall. 
Figs. 6, 7. Specimens, natural size. 
Fig. 8. A portion of abranch. x6. 
Fig. 9. An enlargement of a thin section showing the el 


structure. 
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 
RHOMBOPORA. 
(Page 550.) 


RHOMBOPORA REGULARIS, Hall. 
Fig. 10. A group of specimens, natural size. 
Fig. 11. A portion of a branch. x18. 
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 


ReomBorora TRANSVERSA, Hall. 


Fig. 12. A portion of a branch of this species. x6. 
Fig. 13. An enlargement of a pin section showing the internal 
structure. x6. 
Hamilton group. Hamburgh, N. Y. 


STREBLOTRY PA. 3 
(Page 551.) 
STREBLOTRYPA Hamitronense#, Hall. 

Fig. 14. An enlargement showing the regular arrangement of the 
cell apertures, the interapertural pits, and the sinuous ~ 
ridges. x6. } | 

Fig. 15. An enlargement from a specimen having unusually large 
cell apertures, and without the prominent longitudinal 
ridges. 

Hamilton group. West Williams, Ontario. 


656 


BRYOZOA. 


Generic Illustrations. 


Report State Geologist,1894. Plate 19. 


Sea = =~ — = 


‘\ \ 


_ 


We 


‘ 


% 


Yh ‘ 
' ANY 5 
.\4 he 


6.B.Simpson , del James B. Lyon, State Printer. 


PLATE XxX. 


PALESCHARA. 
PaLESCHARA INCRUSTANS, Hall. 


Fig. 1. A zoarium incrusting Streptelasma strictwm, natural size. 
Fig. 2. An enlargement from the preceding, showing form and 
arrangement of the cells. x6. 
Lower Helderberg group. ear Clarksville, N. Y. 


PALESCHARA RADIATA, Hall. 


Fig. 8. An enlargement, showing the form and arrangement of the 


cells. x6. 
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y. 


SAGENELLA. 
(Page 597.) 
SaGENELLA ELEGANS, Hall. 
Fig. 4. An enlargement, sbowing the form of the cells. x6. 
Niagara group. 
CERAMOPORA. 
(Page 563.) 
CERAMOPORA MAcULATA, Hall. 


Figs. 5, 6, 7. The under side of three specimens, natural size. 
Fig. 8. The upper surface of a specimen, natural size. 
Fig. 9. An enlargement from the preceding figure, showing the form 
and arrangement of the cell apertures. x6. 
Niagara group. 
CERAMOPORA LABECULOIDEA, Hall. 


Fig. 10. An enlargement of a zoarium. x6. 
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, VN. Y. 


CERAMOPORA LABECULA, Hall. ES 


Fig. 11. A fragment of a FENESTELLA, upon which are two separate 
colonies of this species. x6. 
Niagara group. 


CERAMOPORA PARVICELLA, Hall. 


Fig. 12. A zoarium incrusting a Merisrrita, natural size. 
Fig. 18. An enlargement from the surface of the preceding, showing 
the form and arrangement of the cell apertures. 
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y. 


658 


BRYOZOA. 


Generic Illustrations. 


Plate 20. 


Report State Geologist, 1894. 


4 
i 
| 

mi 
| 
| 
{ 
i 
| 
| 
| 
f 
| 
' 
t 
i 
| 
1 
1 
1 


aed RTA t 


ey 


et #9 
doh 1 


ok 


a on BK 


eS 


zi ee 2 2 : ae ~F- - ‘3 tte 
ton, Cea 8 
Zi 


AES 


James B Lyon, State Printer. 


G.B.Simpson, de] 


OS a eae er 
Seat cide 
4 " 


aia. 


iy. tale 
* ve 
’ . v2 
~. 
y 


-~ 


~~ 


ey en 
ee 
. ne 


Fig. 14. 


Fig. 15. 


Fig. 16. 
Fig. 17. 


CERAMOPORA. 
(Page 563.) 
CERAMOPORA CONFLUENS, Hall. 
A zoarium entirely incrusting a specimen of Platyostoma 


niagarense, natural size. 
An enlargement, showing the character of the cells and the 


monticules. x6. 
Niagara group. Waldron, Indiana. 


BOTRYLLOPORA. 
(Page 592.) 
BoTRYLLOPORA socraLis, Nicholson. 


An enlargement of aportion of a colony of this species. x6. 

An enlargement of a thin section showing the cell tubes and 
the intercellular vesicle. x6. 

Hamilton group. Mew York. 


659 


PLATE, ROC: 
CHILOTRYPA. 
(Page 554.) 
CHILOTRYPA OSTIOLATA, Hall. 


Fig. 1. Fragments of zoaria, natural size. 

Fig. 2. An enlargement of a thin section showing the axial tube, 
the cell tubes and the intercellular vesicles. x9. | 

Niagara group. Lockport, V. Y. 


bo 


CaELOCAULIS. 
(Page 554.) 
C@LocauLis vENuSTA, Hall. 
Fig. 38. A fragment, natural size. 
Hig. 4. An enlargement of the preceding. x6. 
Fig. 5. An enlargement of a specimen fractured so as to show the 


cells, the intercellular vesicles and the epitheca, x9. 
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y. 


FISTULIPORINA. 
(Page 555.) 
FIsTULIPORINA MICROPORA, Hall. 

Fig. 6. An enlargement showing the manner of growth of the 
frond, the form and arrangement of the cell apertures and 
mesopores. : 

Hamilton group. rie county, NV. Y. 

Figs. 7-10. Enlargements showing the internal structure of the fol- 
lowing species: 

Fig. 9. & stellata ; Fig. 10. & variopora. 


FIsTULIPORINA DiIGITATA, Hall. 

Fig. 11. An enlargement of a frond incrusting a Cyathophylloid 
coral, showing the manner of growth and the form and 
arrangement of the cell apertures and mesopores. x6. 

Hamilton group. West Hamburgh, N. Y. 


FIsTULIPORINA MULTICULEATA, Hall. 

Fig. 12. An enlargement showing the form and disposition of the 
cell apertures and the numerous nodes on the peristomes 
and walls of mesopores. x18. 

Hamilton group. Darien Center, V. Y. 


660 


BRYOZOA. 


ions. 


ic Illustrat 


Gener 


Plate 21. 


1894. 


, 


1St 


Report State Geolog 


Aisthig 3 


baat] 


James Blyon, State Printer. 


6.B.Simpson , del 


FISTULIPORINA CONFERTIPORA, Hall. 


Fig. 13. An enlargement showing the circular cell apertures and 
nodose peristomes. 
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y. 


FISTULIPORINA PONDEROSA, Hall. 
Fig. 14. An enlargement, showing the circular cell apertures, the 
mesopores and the prominent, conieal, interapertural nodes. 


eux S. 
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y. 


FIsTULIPORINA SERRULATA, Hall. 


Fig. 15. An enlargement, showing the cell apertures and mesopores, 
the serrulated peristomes and the characters of the opercula. 
Hamilton group. West Bloomfield, N. Y. 


661 


PLATE: XxX. 


FISTULIPORIDRA. 
(Page 606.) 
FIsTULIPORIDRA TESSELATA, Hall. 

Fig. 1. An enlargement, showing the circular cell apertures and the 

polygonal vestibular areas. x18. 
Fig. 9. An enlargement of a transverse section, showing the internal 

structure, the same as in FisTULIPORINA. 
Fig. 3. An enlargement of a vertical section, showing the eal tubes 

and the intercellular structure. x6. 

Hamilton group. Western New York. 


FISTULICELLA. 


(Page 606.) 
FIsTULICELLA PLANA, Hall. 


Fig. 4. An enlargement of the surface. x12. 


~ FISTULIPORELLA. 
_ (Page 560.) | 


FIsTULIPORELLA CONSTRICTA, Hall. 


Fig. 5. An enlargement of the surface showing the denticulated 
cell apertures, the interapertural pores and the vestibular 
polygonal areas. x18. 

Fig. 6. An enlargement of a tranverse section. x18. 

Fig. 7 An enlargement of a vertical section, showing the cell tubes 
and the intercellular structure. x6. 

Hamilton group. Western New York. 


ee ee 


LICHENALIA. Es 
(Page 559.) 
The following figures are given to show the character of the cell 
apertures : 
Figs. 8, 9. Lichenalia colliculata. 


Fig. 10. Lachenalia interaspera. 
Hamilton group. New York. 


662 


BRYOZOA. 


10Nns. 


ic Illustrat 


Gener 


Plate 22. 


1894. 


1St 


Report State Geolog 


Ae, is 


Be @: 


aeun,: 
Hila 


4 


C8 aye] 


James B Lyon, State Printer. 


G.B.Simpson, del 


FISTULIPORA., 
(Page 559.) 
The following figures are given to show the character of the cell 

apertures : 
Fig. 11. Mstulipora triloba. 

Lower Helderberg group. Mew York. 
Fig. 12. Mstulipora pustulosa. 
Fig. 13. Fistulipora operculata. 

Hamilton group. New York. 


663 


Bigs, 
Bie, 2. 
Big. 3. 
Fig. 4. 
Fig. 5. 
Fig. 6. 
Hig, 


PLATE XXIII. 
LICHENALIA. 
(Page 559.) 


LIcHENALIA SUBSTELLATA, Hall. 


A frond, natural size. 
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 


LicHENALIA OvaATA, Hall. 


A frond, natural size. 
Upper Helderberg group. Hills of the Ohio. 


LIcHENALIA VEsicuLaTa, Hall. 


A frond incrusting a Cyathophylloidicoral, natural size. 
Hamilton group. Western New York. 


LICHENALIA SUBTRIGONA, Hall. 


An enlargement of a vertical section, showing the internal 


structure of the family Fisruniporipz. x6. 
Hamilton group. West Williams, Ontario. 


LicHENALIA LuNATA, Hall. 


An enlargement of the surface, showing the form and 
arrangement of the denticulated cell apertures and monti- 
cules.) x6: \, 

A specimen fractured so as to aoe the internal structure. 
The pseudo-septa and tabule of the cell tubes showing very 
plainly. x6. 

Upper Helderberg group.. Falls of the Ohio. 


LICHENOTRYPA. ; 
(Page 556.) 
LIcHENOTRYPA LONGISPINA, Hall. 


An enlargement, showing the form and arrangement of the ~ 
cell apertures, the interapertural elevations, and the spines 
at the angles. x6. 

Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 


664 


BRYOZOA. 


10NnSs. 


ic Ijlustrat 


Gener 


Plate 23 


1894. 


1St 


‘Report State Geolog 


ay 


i 


@ 
4 
rai 


hiiky 


f 


Mj 


4 


James BLyon, State Printer. 


6.B.Simpson, del 


Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


12. 


13. 


14, 


15. 


PILEOTRYPA. 
(Page 562.) 
PILEOTRYPA CLIVULATA, Hall. 


. Anenlargement of a vertical section, showing the oblique cell 


tubes and intercellular vesicles.- 
Upper Helderberg group. Falls of the Ohio. 


PILEOTRYPA PYRIFORMIS, Hall. 


. An enlargement of the surface. x6. 
10. 


A still further enlargement, showing more distinctly the 
character of the cell apertures. x18. 


. An oblique view of a portion of the surface. x6. 


Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 


PILEOTRYPA DENTICULATA, Hall. 


An enlargement of the surface, showing the form and 
arrangement of the cell apertures and the macule of larger 
cells. x6. 

Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 


PILEOTRYPA GRANIFERA, Hall. 


An enlargement of the surface. x18. 
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 


PILEOTRYPA BISTRIATA, Hall. 


An enlargement of the surface, showing the form and 
arrangement of the cell apertures, and one of the macule. 
x6. 3 

Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 


PILEOTRYPA GEOMETEICA, Hall. 


An enlargement, showing the form and arrangement of the 
cell apertures and one of the macule. x6. 
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 


84 
665 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 
. Fig. 


A frond, natural size, incrusting a Fennec ¥ 
. An enlargement of a portion of the surface, showing dhs a 


. A still further enlargement. x18. 


. A frond incrusting a FenEsTELLA, natural size. 3 
. An enlargement of the surface, showing the form ‘ead 


. A still further enlargement, showing more distinctly the 


. An enlargement of the surface. 


. Fragment, natural size. 
9. The same. x6. 
10. 


PLATE XXIV. : oe 
ODONTOTRYPA. 3 a 
(Page 561.) | lea "f ’ 


_ ODONTOTRYPA ALVEATA, Hall. 


form aud arrangement of the cell apertures and one oe the 
macule,, x6. ra tie OEE ; 


Upper Helderberg group. Fails of the ' Ohion ae rs by 2 . 


SELENOPORA. th an 
(Page 557.) 


: SELENOPORA ciRcINCTA, Hall. 


arrangement of the cell apertures and one of the macule, a 
x6. 


denticulated cell apertures and the interapeaia eleva- 
tions. x18. 
Upper Helderberg group. Falls of the Ohio. 


SELENOPORA COMPLEXATA, Hall. 
Upper Helderberg group.: Falls of the Ones 


GLOSSOTRYPA. "ofA Tae 
(Page 562.) 


GLOSSOTRYPA PALIFORMIS, Hall. 


Section showing cell tubes and thickness of zoarium. x6, 
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 


666 


BRYOZOA. 


10ns. 


ic Illustrati 


. 


Gener 


Plate 24. 


1894. 


Report State Geologist 


nD Tor} 
LFA) 


See EN GT-R 


Pir’ Gah 


er} ee. 
ENTS 


Sa. 


OF 
rs, 


fp, Oy eae '¥ 


aot é 


f 


the 


wo 


F 


AD Le 2S 


James B Lyon, State Printer. 


G.B.Simpson, del 


PHRACTOPORA. 
| (Page 539.) 
-PHRACTOPORA CRISTATA, Hall. 
Fig. 11. Zoarium, natural size. 
Fig. 12. A portion of the surface. x6. 


Fig. 13. Vertical section. x6. 
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio. 


PHRACTOPORA LINEATA, Hall. 


Fig. 14. Surface x6. 
Hamilton group. York, V. Y. 


FAVICELLA. 

(Page 556.) 
FavicELLa IncLusa, Hall. 
. Fig. 15. A portion of the surface. x6. 
Fig. 16. A still further enlargement, showing more distinctly the sur- 

face characters. x18. - : 

Fig. 17. A vertical section, showing internal structure. x6, 

Hamilton group. York, NV. Y. 


667 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


PLATE XXV. 
HERNODIA. 
(Page 596.) 
HERNODIA HUMIFUSA, Hall. 


. A colony incrusting Gomphoceras abruptum, natural size. 
2. An enlargement from the preceding, showing more distinctly — 


the form of the cells and their mode of growth. x6. 
Hamilton group. Cazenovia, N. Y. 3 


CYSTOPORA. 
‘(Page 598.) 


CysToPoRA GENICULATA, Hall. 


. A fragment, natural size. 
. An enlargement, showing the ampulliform cell tubes and the 


constricted apertures. x6. 


. A still further enlargement, showing more distinctly the 


features illustrated in fig. 4. x18. 
Upper Helderberg group. Manlius, N. Y. 


CLONOPORA. 
(Page 598.) 
CLoNoPoRA INCURVA, Hall. 


. An enlargement, showing the form and arrangement of the 


cell tubes. x6. 
Upper Helderberg group. Manlius, N. Y. 


CLONOPORA SEMIREDUCTUS, Hall. 


. An enlargement, showing the form of the cell tubes and their 


mode of growth. x6. 
Upper Helderberg group.. Fails of the Ohio. 


REPTARIA. 
(Page 599.) 
REPTARIA STOLONIFERA, Rolle. 


8. Colonies incrusting Orthoceras constrictum, natural size. 
. Anu enlargement, showing more distinctly the et of the 


cells and their mode of growth. x6. 
Hamilton group. Cazenovia, NV. Y. 


668 


BRYOZOA. 


10NnSs. 


ic lllustrat 


Gener 


Plate 25. 


1894. 


.) 


t 


Report State Geologis 


James B Lyon, State Printer. 


6.B.Simpson, de] 


Fig. 
Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


10. 
Er. 


12. 


13. 


HEDERELLA. 
(Page 599.) 
HEDERELLA CIRRHOSA, Hall. 
A colony, natural size. 


A portion of the preceding. x6. 
Hamilton group. York, N. Y. 


HEDERELLA CANADENSIS, Billings. 
An enlargement of a colony, showing an unusually compact 
growth. x6. 
An enlargement showing more distinctly the form of the cel 
apertures. x12. 
Hamilton group. New York. 


669 


= 
+ 
. 


~ e aw aa 


=" 


boy 


194: ails at igs at; Ke lag ater 


ae 
FARO 
aes 


‘ y ' “ a [ 
th ~ 7} 5 ¥ 
E . 
. 
; 
6 
A 4 " 
3 : 
) 
' 
« t 
) = 
’ 
© 
. 
os an 
: nie 
, 2 
, 
, . 
- 
‘2 
7 
x 
. 
é 
ee: 
i 
“a he 
a ieee 
PS. 
“es * 
= = 
+. * 
. 
‘ 
’ 


DNA 


3.9088 01300 5