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36TH CONGRESS, SENATE. Mis. Doc.
1st Session.
ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
BOARD OF REGENTS
OF FHE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
SHOWING THE
OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE
INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR 1859.
WASHINGTON:
THOMAS H. FORD, PRINTER.
1860.
$9 Yi detetan
ia? ‘hat Ne , (Ode: ni
oe ara Od lke ae nats
LETTER
OF THE
SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
COMMUNICATING
The Annual Report of the operations, expenditures, and condition of the
Smithsonian Institution for the year 1859.
JUNE 11, 1860.—Read and ordered to lie on the table.
June 14, 1860.—5,000 copies ordered to be printed, 2,000 of which for the Institution,
and 3,000 for the Senate.
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, June 9, 1860.
Sir: In behalf of the Board of Regents, I have the honor to submit
to the House of Representatives of the United States the Annual
Report of the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Smith-
sonian Institution for the year 1859.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
Hon. Joun C. BRECKINRIDGE,
President of the Senate of the United States.
ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
BOARD OF REGENTS
OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
SHOWING
THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION
UP TO JANUARY 1, 1860, AND THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD UP TO
APRIL 8, 1860.
To the Senate and House of Representatives :
In obedience to the act of Congress of August 10, 1846, establishing
the Smithsonian Institution, the undersigned, in behalf of the Regents,
submit to Congress, as a report of the operations, expenditures, and
condition of the Institution, the following documents:
1. The Annual Report of the Secretary, giving an account of the
operations of the Institution during the year 1859.
2. Report of the Executive Committee, giving a general statement
of the proceeds and disposition of the Smithsonian fund, and also an
account of the expenditures for the year 1859.
3. Proceedings of the Board of Regents up to April 8, 1860.
4, Appendix.
Respectfully submitted.
R. B. TANEY, Chancellor.
JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary.
OFFICERS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
JAMES BUCHANAN, £ officio Presiding3Officer of the Institution.
ROGER B. TANEY, Chancellor of the Institution.
JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary of the Institution.
SPENCER F. BAIRD, Assistant Secretary.
W. W. SEATON, Treasurer.
WILLIAM J. RHEES, Chief Clerk.
JAMES A. PEARCE,
A. D. BACHE, {eas Committee.
JOSEPH G. TOTTEN,
REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION.
‘JOHN C. BRECKINRIDGE, Vice President of the United States.
ROGER B. TANEY, Chief Justice of the United States.
JAMES G. BERRET, Mayor of the City of Washington.
JAMES A. PEARCE, member of the Senate of the United States.
JAMES M. MASON, member of the Senate of the United States.
STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS, member of the Senate of the United States.
WILLIAM H. ENGLISH, member of the House of Representatives.
L. J. GARTRELL, member of the House of Representatives.
BENJAMIN STANTON, member of the House of Representatives,
GIDEON HAWLEY, citizen of New York.
—— (Vacancy occasioned by the death of Hon. Richard Rush.)
GEORGE E. BADGER, citizen of North Carolina.
CORNELIUS C. FELTON, citizen of Massachusetts.
ALEXANDER D. BACHE, citizen of Washington.
JOSEPH G. TOTTEN, citizen of Washington.
MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE INSTITUTION.
JAMES BUCHANAN, President of the United States.
JOHN C. BRECKINRIDGE, Vice President of the United States.
LEWIS CASS, Secretary of State.
HOWELL COBB, Secretary of the Treasury.
JOHN B. FLOYD, Secretary of War.
ISAAC TOUCEY, Secretary of the Navy.
JOSEPH HOLT, Postmaster General.
J. S. BLACK, Attorney General.
ROGER B. TANEY, Chief Justice of the United States.
Pp. F. THOMAS, Commissioner of Patents.
JAMES G. BERRET, Mayor of the City of Washington.
HONORARY MEMBERS.
BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, of Connecticut.
A. B. LONGSTREET, of Mississippi.
JACOB THOMPSON, Secretary of the Interior.
PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION
OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
(PRESENTED IN THE FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SEORETARY, AND
ADOPTED BY THE BOARD OF REGENTS, DECEMBER 13, 1847.]
INTRODUCTION.
General considerations which should serve as a guide in adopting «
Plan of Organization.
1. Witt or Smitason. The property is bequeathed to the United
States of America, ‘‘to found at Washington, under the name of the
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, an establishment for the increase and diffu-
sion of knowledge among men.’’
2. The bequest is for the benefit of mankind. The government of
the United States is merely a trustee to carry out the design of the
testator.
3. The Institution is not a national establishment, as is frequently
supposed, but the establishment of an individual, and is to bear and
perpetuate his name.
4. The objects of the inanieattan are, first, to increase, and second,
to diffuse knowledge among men.
5. These two objects should not be confounded with one another.
The first is to enlarge the existing stock of knowledge by the addition
of new truths; and the second, to disseminate knowledge, thus in-
creased, among men.
6. The will makes no restriction in favor of any particular kind of
knowledge; hence all branches are entitled to a share of attention.
7. Knowledge can be increased by different methods of facilitating
and promoting the discovery of new truths; and can be most exten-
sively diffused among men by means of the press.
8. To effect the greatest amount of good, the organization should |
be such as to enable the Institution to produce results, in the way of
increasing and diffusing knowledge, which cannot be produced either
at all or so efficiently by the existing institutions in our country.
9. The organization should also be such as can be adopted pro-
visionally, can be easily reduced to practice, receive modifications,
or be abandoned, in whole or in part, without a sacrifice of the funds.
10. In order to compensate, in some measure, for the loss of time
occasioned by the delay of eight years in establishing the Institution,
Ig
8 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.
a considerable portion of the interest which has accrued should be
added to the principal.
11. In proportion to the wide field of knowledge to be cultivated,
the funds are small. Economy should therefore be consulted in the
construction of the building; and not only the first cost of the edifice
should be considered, but also the continual expense of keeping it in
repair, and of the support of the establishment necessarily connected
with it. There should also be but few individuals permanently sup-
ported by the Institution. ns bbe
12. The plan and dimensions of the building should be determined
by the plan of organization, and not the converse.
13. It should be recollected that mankind in general are to be
benefited by the bequest, and that, therefore, all unnecessary ex-
penditure on local objects would be a perversion of the trust.
14. Besides the foregoing considerations deduced immediately from
the will of Smithson, regard must be had to certain requirements of
the act of Congress establishing the Institution. These are, a library,
a museum, and a gallery of art, with a building on a liberal scale to
contain them.
SECTION I.
Plan of Organization of the Institution in accordance with the foregoing
deductions from the will of Smithson.
To INcREASE KNowLeDGE. It is proposed—
1. To stimulate men of talent to make original researches, by offer-
ing suitable rewards for memoirs containing new truths; and
2. To appropriate annually a portion of the income for particular
researches, under the direction of suitable persons.
To Dirruse Know.epce. It is proposed—
1. To publish a series of periodical reports on the progress of the
different branches of knowledge; and
2. To publish occasionally separate treatises on subjects of general
interest.
DETAILS OF THE PLAN TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE.
I.—By stimulating researches.
1. Facilities afforded for the production of original memoirs on all
branches of knowledge.
2. The memoirs thus obtained to be published in a series of volumes,
a quarto form, and entitled Smithsonian Contributions to Know-
edge. .
3. No memoir on subjects of physical science to be accepted for
publication which does not furnish a positive addition to human
knowledge, resting on original research; and all unverified specula-
tions to be rejected.
4, Each memoir presented to the Institution to be submitted for
examination to a commission of persons of reputation for learning in
PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 9
the branch to which the memoir pertains; and to be accepted for
publication only in case the report of this commission is favorable.
5. The commission to be chosen by the officers of the Institution,
and the name of the author, as far as practicable, concealed, unless
a favorable decision be made.
6. The volumes of the memoirs to be exchanged for the transactions
of literary and scientific societies, and copies to be given to all the
colleges and principal libraries in this country. One part of the
remaining copies may be offered for sale; and the other carefully pre-
served, to form complete sets of the work, to supply the demand from
new institutions.
~ 7. An abstract, or popular account, of the contents of these memoirs
to be given to the public through the annual report of the Regents
to Congress.
Il.—By appropriating a part of the income, annually, to special objects
of research, under the direction of suitable persons.
1. The objects, and the amount appropriated, to be recommended
by counsellors of the Institution.
2. Appropriations in different years to different objects, so that, in
course of time, each branch of knowledge may receive a share.
3. The results obtained from these appropriations to be published
with the memoirs before mentioned, in the volumes of the Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge.
4, Examples of objects for which appropriations may be made.
(1.) System of extended meteorological observations for solving the
problem of American storms.
(2.) Explorations in descriptive natural history, and geological,
magnetical, and topographical surveys, to collect materials for the
formation of a Physical Atlas of the United States.
(3.) Solution of experimental problems, such asa new determination
of the weight of the earth, of the velocity of electricity, and of light;
chemical analyses of soils and plants; collection and publication of
scientific facts, accumulated in the offices of government.
(4.) Institution of statistical inquiries with reference to physical,
moral, and political subjects.
(5.) Historical researches and accurate surveys of places celebrated
in American history.
(6.) Ethnological researches, particularly with reference to the
different races of men in North America; also, explorations and accu-
rate surveys of the mounds and other remains of the ancient people
of our country.
DETAILS OF THE PLAN FOR DIFFUSING KNOWLEDGE.
I.—By the publication of a series of reports, giving an account of the new
discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year in all
branches of knowledge not strictly professional.
1, Thgse reports will diffuse a kind of knowledge generally inter-
esting, but which, at present, is inaccessible to the public. Some of
10 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.
the reports may be published annually, others at longer intervals, as
the income of the Institution or the changes in the branches of know-
ledge may indicate.
2. The reports are to be prepared by collaborators eminent in the
different branches of knowledge.
3. Each collaborator to be furnished with the journals and publica-
tions, domestic and foreign, necessary to the compilation of his report;
to be paid a certain sum for his labors, and to be named on the title-
page of the report.
4. The reports to be published in separate parts, so that persons
interested in a particular branch can procure the parts relating to it
without purchasing the whole.
5. These reports may be presented to Congress for partial distri-
bution, the remaining copies to be given to literary and scientific
institutions, and sold to individuals for a moderate price.
The following are some of the subjects which may be embraced in
the reports:
I. PHYSICAL CLASS.
1. Physics, including astronomy, natural philosophy, chemistry,
and meteorology.
2. Natural history, including botany, zoology, geology, &c.
3. Agriculture.
4, Application of science to arts:
II. MORAL AND POLITICAL CLASS.
. 0. Hthnology, including particular history, comparative philology,
antiquities, &c.
6. Statistics and political economy.
7. Mental and moral philosophy.
8. A survey of the political events of the world, penal reform, &c.
Ill. LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS.
9. Modern literature.
10. The fine arts, and their application to the useful arts.
11. Bibliography.
12. Obituary notices of distinguished individuals.
Il.—-By the publication of separate treatises on subjects of general interest.
1. These treatises may occasionally consist of valuable memoirs
translated from foreign languages, or of articles prepared under the
direction of the Institution, or procured by offering premiums for the
best exposition of a given subject.
2. The treatises should in all cases be submitted to a commission
_ of competent judges previous to their publication.
)
PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 1
3. As examples of these treatises, expositions may be obtained of
the present state of the several branches of know ledge mentioned in
the table of reports.
SECTION II.
Plan of organization, in accordance with the terms of the resolutions of
the Board of Regents providing for the two modes of imereasing and
diffusing knowledge.
1. The act of Congress establishing the Institution contemplated
the formation of a library and a museum; and the Board of Regents,
including these objects in the plan of organization, resolved to divide
the income* into two equal parts.
2. One part to be appropriated to increase and diffuse knowledge
by means of publications and researches, agreeably to the scheme
before given. The other part to be appropriated to the formation of
a library and a collection of objects of nature and of art.
3. These two plans are not incompatible one with another.
4. To carry out the plan before described, a library will be required,
consisting, Ist, of a complete collection of the transactions and pro-
ceedings of all the learned societies in the world; 2d, of the more
important current periodical publications, and other works necessary
in preparing the periodical reports.
5. The Institution should make special collections, particularly of
objects to illustrate and verify its own publications.
6. Also, a collection of instruments of research in all branches of
experimental science.
7. With reference to the collection of books, other than those men-
tioned above, catalogues of all the different libraries in the United
States should be procured, in order that the valuable books first pur-
chased may be such as are not to be found in the United States.
8. Also, catalogues of memoirs, and of books and other materials,
should be collected for rendering the Institution a centre of biblio-
graphical knowledge, whence the student may be directed to any
work which he may require.
9. It is believed that the collections in natural history will increase
by donation as rapidly as the income of the Institution can make pro-
vision for their reception, and, therefore, it will seldom be necessary
to purchase articles of this kind.
10. Attempts should be made to procure for the gallery of art casts
of the most celebrated articles of ancient and modern sculpture.
11. The arts may be encouraged by providing a room, free of ex-
pense, for the exhibition of the objects of the Art-Union and other
similar societies.
* The amount of the Smithsonian bequest received into the treasury of
therUiniteds Stuteswice= see ree ie. oases ae eae s ceemet Co Sate oS $515, 169 00
Interest on the same to July 1, 1846, (devoted to the erection of the
building) aS See: ree eee ee Se ro eee ea tice eRe 242,129 00
Annualsincome trom) the bequest-aa=s-.-sssseesee essa = as -s—<is = 30,910 14
iD PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.
12. A small appropriation should annually be made for models of
antiquities, such as those of the remains of ancient temples, &c.
13. For the present, or until the building is fully completed, besides
the Secretary, no permanent assistant will be required, except one,
to act as librarian.
14. The Secretary, by the law of Congress, is alone responsible to
the Regents. He shall take charge of the building and property,
keep a record of proceedings, discharge the duties of librarian and
keeper of tlf€ museum, and may, with the consent of the Regents,
employ assistants.
15. The Secretary and his assistants, during the session of Con-
cress, will be required to illustrate new discoveries in science, and to
exhibit new objects of art; distinguished individuals should also be
invited to give lectures on subjects of general interest.
This programme, which was at first adopted provisionally, has be-
come the settled policy of the Institution. The only material change
is that expressed by the following resolutions, adopted January 15,
1855, viz:
Resolved, That the Tth resolution, passed by the Board of Regents
on the 26th of January, 1847, requiring an equal division of the
income between the active operations and the museum and library,
when the buildings are completed, be and it is hereby repealed.
Resolved, That hereafter the annual appropriations shall be appor-
tioned specifically among the different objects and operations of the
Institution in such manner as may, in the judgment of the Regents,
be necessary and proper for each, according to its intrinsic import-
ance, and a compliance in good faith with the law.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY FOR 1859.
To the Board of Regents:
GENTLEMEN: I have the honor again to present to you the history
of the transactions of the Smithsonian Institution for another year,
and I am happy to be able, at the beginning of my report, to state
that nothing has occurred since your last session to interfere with the
successful prosecution of the several objects embraced in the plan of
organization.
The funds of the establishment are still in a good condition: the
original bequest of Smithson remains in the treasury of the United
States; the extra fund which was saved from the annual income, is
still invested in State stocks, which have since the last meeting of the
Board considerably increased in marketable value, and could now be
sold for more than was paid for them. The accumulation of half a
year’s income in the treasury at the beginning of last year has enabled
us to pay in cash for all the materials purchased and labor performed
on account of the Institution, and has thus not only been the means of ©
a saving by reduction in the cost of the operations, but also of pre-
venting the embarrassment and anxiety which has sometimes been felt
on account of outstanding debts, besides enabling us more readily to
adapt the expenditures to the several items of appropriation.
The Institution, during the past year, by its publications, exchanges,
researches, &c., has sustained the reputation it had previously ac-
quired, and has continued gradually to extend the sphere of its
influence and usefulness. By its persevering efforts to carry out the
will of the founder, it has succeeded in rendering familiar to the public
mind in the United States the three fundamental distinctions in regard
to knowledge, which must have an important bearing on the future
advance of science in this country: namely, the increase of knowledge,
the diffusion of knowledge, and the practical application of knowledge
to useful purposes in the arts.
It is of the highest importance to the well-being of our race that each
of these distinctions should be recognized, and that each of the pro-
cesses to which they relate should receive encouragement and support.
14 | REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
In our country, however, they have not all met with an equal share
of attention, and at the beginning of this Institution the confusion
of ideas on this subject was so great that in the interpretation of the
will, even by some of our prominent and enlightened men, the diffu-
sion of knowledge was identified with its increase; and it was con-
tended that Smithson had used the terms as synonymous, and desired
by the one merely to enforce the other. But that this was not the
case may be gathered from the meaning attached to these terms hy
the class of mento which he belonged. ‘‘ While we may truly exult,”’
says one of his eminent contemporaries, *
national intellect, we must remember that diffusion and advancement
‘Cin the awakening of the
are two very different processes, and that each may exist independvat
of the other. It is very essential, therefore, when we speak of the
diffusion or extension of science, that we do not confound these stages
of development with discovery or advancement, since the latter may be
as different from the former as depth is from shallowness.’
That the diffusion of knowledge has been an object of solicitude to
the enlightened legislatures of almost every State in the Union is
evinced by the provision which has been made for libraries, schools,
academies, and colleges. The practical application of science to the
useful arts has received direct encouragement from the general gov-
ernment by the enactment of patent laws and the establishment of the
Patent Office. The fact, however, does not appear to have been so
constantly before the public mind that the advance of science or the
discovery of new truths, irrespective of their immediate application,
is also a matter of great importance, and eminently worthy of patron-
age and support. The progress of society and the increase of the
comfort and happiness of the human family depend as a basis on the
degree of our knowledge of the laws by which Divine Wisdom con-
ducts the affairs of the universe. He has created us with rational souls,
and endowed us with faculties to comprehend in some measure the
modes in which the operations of nature are effected; and just in
proportion to the advance we make by patient and persevering study,
in the knowledge of those modes or laws, are we enabled to apply
the forces of nature to our own use, and to avert the dangers to which
we are exposed from our ignorance of their varied influences.
“Myr. Swainson. Cabinet Cyclopedia, 1834.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. pane 35)
Nearly all the great inventions which distinguish the present cen-
tury are the results, immediately or remotely, of the application of
scientific principles to practical purposes, and in most cases these
applications have been suggested by the student of nature, whose
primary object was the discovery of abstract truth. The statement
cannot be too often repeated that each branch of knowledge is con-
nected with every other, and that no light can be gained in regard to
one which is not reflected upon all. Thus researches which at first
sight appear the farthest removed from useful application, are in time
found to have an important bearing on the advance of art, and conse-
quently on the progress of society. To illustrate this position, I shall
take the liberty of trespassing on your time with a few instances
gleaned from the history of inventions.
Astronomy was not studied by Kepler, Galileo, or Newton for the
practical applications which might result from it, but to enlarge the
bounds of knowledge, to furnish new objects of thought and contem-
plation in regard to the universe of which we form a part; yet how
remarkable the influence which this science, apparently so far removed
from the sphere of our material interests, has exerted on the desti-
nies of the world! Without its guidance what would navigation have
remained but a timid exploration of coasts and inlets, leaving the
fairest portions of the earth to be the heritage of rude and idolatrous
tribes? The steam-engine, in its improved form, is due to the labo-
rious scientific researches of Black, Watt, and Robinson, and the new
theory of heat, which is now occupying so much of the attention of
the abstract physicist, has lately served to modify our views of this
agent, and to develop new and important facts in regard to it which
will tend to economize its power, and increase the means of rendering
it more effectually the obedient slave of intelligent man.
In the year 1739, the Rev. Dr. Clayton communicated to the Royal
Society his discovery of what he called the ‘‘spirit of coal,’’? which
he confined in a bladder, and showed its burning powers as it
issued from a puncture in the membrane. Sixty years after this Mr.
Murdock, of Manchester, applhed this discovery to the purpose of
illumination; and what was at first a mere object of scientific research
has now become, from its almost universal employment, a necessity
of civilized life.
Early in the present century Davy published an account of a dis-
covery he had made of the effect produced on the nervous system by
16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
the respiration of nitrous oxide, a substance due to chemical research.
It was ascertained that the inhalation of the vapor of ether, another
chemical product, produced a similar effect, and these facts, many
years afterwards, were applied by Jackson and Morton, in our own
country, for the purpose of producing insensibility to pain, and thus
to relieve an incalculable amount of human misery, and to ameliorate
in a measure the original curse to which our race has been subjected.
Dr. Priestley, in the course of a laborious series of investigations
relative to the different kinds of air, subjected, on the Ist of August,
1774, to the heat of a burning lens (which is now, through the liber-
ality of one of his grandsons, the property of this institution) a
quantity of calcined mercury, and evolved from it a gas since known
by the name of oxygen, a discovery which led to a knowledge of the
composition of the atmosphere, and finally to the improvement of
almost the entire circle of the chemical arts.
About the middle of the last century Franklin devoted his sagacious
mind to what was deemed by some of his friends a trifling pursuit—
the study of the phenomena produced by the friction of different
substances when rubbed together. But from this investigation he
deduced his admirable theory of electrical induction, and the fact:
of the action of points at a distance, on which was founded the pro-
tection of buildings from lightning, and which, with the additional
discoveries of Volta, Oersted, and others, has given to the world the
electrical telegraph.
These are instances of investigations commenced without any idea
of immediate practical utility. They exemplify discoveries made
by men who studied science for its own sake, and received no other
reward than the consciousness of enlarging the bounds of human
thought, while it was left to others to gather a rich pecuniary har-
vest from what they had so effectually sown.
‘‘Tt is the destiny of the sciences,’’ says Fontanelle, ‘‘ which must
necessarily be in the hands of a few, that the utility of their progress
should be invisible to the greater part of mankind, especially if those
sciences are associated with unobtrusive pursuits. Let a greater
facility in using our navigable waters and opening new lines of com-
munication but once exist, simply because at present we know vastly
better how to level the ground and construct locks and flood-gates—
what does it amount to? The workmen have had their labors lightened,
but they themselves have not the least idea of the skill of the
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17
geometer who directed them; they have been put in motion nearly
as the body is by a soul of which it knows nothing; the rest of the
world has even less perception of the genius which presided over the
enterprise, and enjoys the success it has attained only with a species
of ingratitude.”’
But it is not alone the material advantages which the world enjoys
from the study of abstract science on which its claims are founded.
Were all further applications of its principles to practical purposes
to cease, it would still be entitled to commendation and support
on account of its more important effects upon the general mind. It
offers unbounded fields of pleasurable, healthful, and ennobling ex-
ercise to the restless intellect of man, expanding his powers and
enlarging his conceptions of the wisdom, the energy, and the benefi-
cence of the Great Ruler of the universe.
From these considerations, then, and others of a like kind, I am fully
justified in the assertion that this Institution has done good service
in placing prominently before the country the importance of original
research, and that its directors are entitled to commendation for
having so uniformly and persistently kept in view the fact that it
was not intended for educational or immediately practical purposes,
but for the encouragement of the study of theoretical principles and
the advancement of abstract knowledge.
Smithson declares his bequest to be for the increase of knowledge
and the diffusion of this among men, being well aware that a single new
truth added to the general stock must affect man for good in all times
and all places. We doubt not that when the importance of the
abstract speculations of science is more generally and more justly
appreciated, individuals who are favored by Providence with those
peculiarities of mind which fit them for the advancement of science
will be set apart as the priests or interpreters of nature, and be
furnished liberally with the means necessary to benefit their fellow men
by the discovery of new principles. The grand philosophical vision of
the father of modern science, which has waited so long for its ful-
filment, will then be realized, ‘‘by the union and co-operation of all
in building up and perfecting’ that House of Solomon, (as Bacon
quaintly termed it,) ‘‘the end of which is the knowledge of causes
and of the secret motions of things, and the enlarging of the bounds
of human empire to the effecting of all things possible.’’
9
«d
”
18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
\
Publications. —The publications of the Institution are now divided
7 mm quarto
into three classes: the ‘‘ Contributions to Knowledge,’
form; the ‘‘ Annual Reports’’ to Congress, and the ‘‘ Miscellaneous
Collections,’’ in octavo.
The eleventh volume of Smithsonian Contributions is nearly ready
for distribution, and will contain a number of origimal memoirs, which
are presented to the world as additions to knowledge of sufficient
importance to warrant their publication by the funds of the Institu-
tion. The fact, however, should be recollected that the Institution
does not merely publish these volumes, but, as a general rule, extends
its assistance to the original researches of which the papers published
contain the results, sometimes by furnishing the subjects or materials
of observation, and sometimes by defraying the whole or a part of
the expenses incident to such researches.
The first memoir contained in this volume is on North American
Oology, by Dr. Thomas M. Brewer, of Boston, an account of which
was given in a previous report. ‘The text of this work was printed
in 1857, but the preparation of the plates to accompany it not being
completed, it could not be included in any volume previous to the
eleventh. Copies, however, of the paper had been presented sepa-
rately to some of the principal naturalists of this country and Hurope,
and the work has been received with approbation as an important.
addition to the branch of natural history on which it treats.
The second paper is on the total eclipse of the sun, September T,
1858, as observed near Olmos, Peru, by Lieutenant Gilliss, United
States navy, illustrated by a plate of the appearance of the sun
during the total obscuration. A full account of this paper is given
in the last report of the Institution.
The third memoir in the eleventh volume has the following title:
‘*Discussion of the Magnetic and Meteorological Observations made
at the Girard College Observatory, Philadelphia, from 1840 to 1845,
by A. D. Bache, LL.D.” ~ Part 15 Investigation of the eleven-
year period in the amplitude of the solar-diurnal variation, and of
the disturbances of the magnetic declination.
About twenty years ago the British Association organized a series
of cotemporaneous magnetic and meteorological observations at dif-
ferent colonial positions in the British empire, with which most of
the civilized governments of the world co-operated. No assistance,
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19
however, was rendered to the enterprise in this country,, except in
the instance here referred to, in which the observations were con-
ducted by Dr. Bache, at Philadelphia, by means of funds supplied
by the members of the American Philosophical Society and the Topo-
eraphical Bureau of the United States, and with instruments furnished
by Girard College. This series of observations commenced in May,
1840, and, with short interruptions, terminated in June, 1845, thus
furnishing a record extending over five years, for three or four
months of which the observations were made bi-hourly, and for the
remainder of the time hourly. A general reduction of these observa-
tions was published in 1847, by order of Congress, in three octavo
volumes, with an atlas of diagrams. The records, however, contained
facts of great interest, which, owing to the laborious duties of Pro-
fessor Bache, could not then be deduced from them, and he has since
renewed the investigation, with the aid of Mr. Schott, and the present
paper gives an account of the first results which have thus been
obtained.
_ To present the bearing of the interesting researches exhibited in
this paper on the progress of science, it may be proper to state that
the magnetic force of the earth is almost constantly disturbed, both
in direction and intensity.
1. It is subject to a change which appears to complete its cycle in
a large number of years, for the determination of which it is necessary
to know the magnetic state of various places on the globe simul-
taneously at a given epoch, and again after the lapse of several years.
2. It is subjected to a change which is completed in the course of a
year; and 3d, another which runs through its course in a single day.
Beside these regular disturbances, there is another series of varia-
tions, large in magnitude, denominated magnetic storms, which have
been, until lately, considered as fitful, appearing to observe no law,
but which were manifest over a considerable part of the earth’s
surface. These, however apparently irregular as to the individual
instances, are in all probability, as has been shown by General Sabine,
subject to a law of more frequency of occurrence in certain years.
The object of Professor Bache’s paper is to investigate from the
data furnished by the Girard observations, the law of recurrence of
the latter disturbances. Since this has not as yet been accurately
ascertained, and every independent series of observations when pro-
perly discussed is of great value in giving more precision to our
20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
knowledge of one of the most remarkable classes of phenomena pre-
sented in the whole course of physical science, the results of this
discussion cannot but be received with much interest by the scientific
world.
As the magnetic needle, for example, may be considered as sub-
jected at the same time to different forces, each tending to produce
one of the variations we have mentioned, it becomes a subject of nice
inquiry to eliminate the several effects, and to obtain the magnitude
and period of each separately. In the case under consideration it
was necessary to separate more especially the large apparently fitful
variations from the regular daily ones. To effect this, the process
proposed by Professor Peirce, of Cambridge, and founded on the
doctrine of probabilities, was employed as a criterion in judging as
to the magnitude of a disturbance which should be considered as be-
longing to the class under consideration, and it was finally concluded
that all disturbances which exceeded 3/.64 of an arc were abnormal,
and accordingly all observations differing by that amount or more from
their mean monthly values were marked. Next, a new hourly mean
was taken, omitting the values so marked; and each observation again
examined in reference to deviations from this new mean, and so on—
the last mean thus obtained for each hour during each month gave
what was considered the normal daily curve.
From this it appears that the north end of the needle reaches its
‘greatest eastern position between 7 and 8 o’clock in the forenoon, and
its greatest western deviation about 1 o’ clock in the afternoon.
The author next proceeds to discuss the large disturbances, and
from these he deduces the fact that a principal maximum of disturb-
ances occurs in October, a smaller one in April, and the two minima,
mearly equal to each other, occur in the months of February and
June.
The diurnal variation arising from the large disturbances presents
one maximum and one minimum; its most prominent feature is the
easterly deflection, which occurs about a quarter after 8 o'clock
p. m., at which hour the maximum deflection amounts to 32” of an
arc; the great westerly deflection takes place at a quarter past 6
a.m., and en an average amounts to 14”.
These variations are compared with deductions made from similar
observations at Toronto, and are found to be the same in kind, but
less in magnitude.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Ze
The whole discussion clearly indicates a law of recurrence in the
frequency of the large disturbances, although the period over which
the observations extend was not sufficient to determine the interval.
The observations, however, indicate with great precision the time of
the minimum, the rate of diminution as the disturbances diminish in
approaching this period, and their increase as they recede from it.
The minimum thus found, of frequency of large disturbances, occurred
in August, 1843.
The establishment of the elements of a law of periodicity in rela-
tion to changes of the magnetic force which, from the time they were
first noticed until within a few years past, were regarded as entirely
irregular, is in its relation to terrestrial magnetism a fact of import-
ance; but the value of this is highly increased when it is found that
these disturbances are connected with changes in matter foreign to
our earth. To realize this, we must refer to a series of persevering
observations made day by day for thirty years on the spots of the
sun, by an astronomer named Schwabe, in an obscure town of Ger-
many. This devotion to an apparently unfertile field of inquiry was
finally rewarded by the discovery that the spots on the sun’s disc are
subject to a regular law of recurrence, and that they pass through the
phases of periods of greatest and least frequency in about eleven years;
but strange to say, it was afterwards announced by General Sabine that
the period of recurrence of large magnetic disturbances coincides
both in duration and its epoch of maximum with the period discovered
by Schwabe in reference to the solar spots; that is, that at the period
of greatest disturbances there occurs the maximum number of spots,
and vice versa. The investigations of Professor Bache serve to
establish this conclusion, and to furnish additional elements for amore
accurate comparison. From these results it is clear that the sun
exerts an influence on the magnetism of the earth which depends on
the existing state of its own luminous atmosphere, affording another
example to be added to other illustrations of the same truth, that
scientific researches, if skilfully and perseveringly continued, will
always lead to valuable results, and often to those which could not
have been anticipated by any previous conceptions.
The volumes of records of the Girard observations, which present
on casual examination immense series of tabulated figures in which
no law or regularity is observable, when scientifically studied and
properly interpreted, are thus found to yield truths of the highest
22 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
interest. Professor Bache proposes to continue his inquiries and ex-
tend his investigation to the influence of the moon and other agents
on the magnetism of the earth. He has already finished a second
paper on these discussions, and has a third in a state of considerable
advancement. These will probably forma part of the twelfth volume
of the Contributions.
The eleventh volume also contains a second series of the discussions
of the physical observations made by Dr. Kane during his last voyage
to the Arctic regions, the first part of which, or that relating to ter-
restrial magnetism, was published in the tenth volume of Contributions.
This second part relates to meteorology, and was prepared for publi-
cation in the intervals of his official duties by Chas. A. Schott, esq.,
assistant in the United States Coast Survey, under the direction of
Prof. Bache, and at the expense of the Smithsonian funds. This
memoir not only forms an interesting and important addition to
meteorology, which will tend to connect the name of our lamented
countryman with this branch of science, but also furnishes a model
for imitation, of the method in which observations of this character
ought to be reduced and discussed in order that they may best sub-
serve the advancement of science.
The following account of some of the points of the memoir and of
the facts developed will probably be generally interesting and serve
to illustrate its value:
The observations were made at Van Rensselaer harbor, on the
western coast of Greenland, and extend over a period of two winters
and a considerable part of two summers, during which the vessel was
constantly frozen in the ice.
They show in a very striking manner the constant and laborious
occupation of the little party in their lone abode, records having
been made at every hour of the day and night during the whole
period. It would be out of place in this report to, give a full account
of all the subjects discussed in this memoir, and I shall therefore
only glance at a few of the most prominent points, referring to the
paper itself for a full exposition of its more valuable contents. It
consists of three parts-—the first is on temperature, the second on
winds, the third on atmospheric pressure. The first part, viz. that
on temperature, gives the observations for every hour, from which
are deduced the diurnal and annual variations of the thermometer,
the influence of the different winds on the temperature, and an
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23
analysis of the recurrence of cold periods during the winter; tables
deduced from the daily observations for ascertaining the corrections
required to be applied to observations made only once or twice a
day in order to obtain the mean temperature of places within the
arctic circle; and, finally, observations to determine the diminution
of temperature with an increase of elevation.
Beside the corrected records of the motion of the air, the second
part of the memoir contains the resultant direction, the average
force, the mean velocity, the quantity, the frequency, and the dura-
tion of the winds. The third part contains not only the record of
the pressure, but also a comparison of the mercurial and aneroid
barometers, the diurnal and annual variation, the regular fluctuations
of the monthly and annual extremes of pressure.
The expedition was supplied with thirty-six mercurial thermome-
ters, four maximum and minimum thermometers, twenty-four spirit
thermometers of different sizes, including two standards and a regis-
ter thermometer of thirty-six inches in length. A laborious series of
the different readings of these instruments, particularly at low tem-
peratures, was made, from which have been deduced corrections to
be applied to the records prepared for publication. The differences
exhibited by the spirit thermometers at low temperatures was referred
to the unequal contraction of colored alcohol not chemically pure.
This liquid, when exposed to a great degree of cold, appeared to
change its condition, the coloring matter being deposited on the sides
of the tube. The lowest temperature observed during the first
winter, 1853-54, was, February 6, —66°.4; and during the second
winter, 185455, occurred, January 8, —65 .5.
The highest temperature observed was July 23, 1854, +51°, giving
an absolute difference of 1179.4. The diurnal maximum or highest
temperature of the day occurred in October and November, about
one hour before noon, and in April and May, three hours after noon.
In the months of October, November, and December there are two
points of low temperature each day—one at 6 a. m., and the other at
about 9 p. m.; during the remaining months of the year there is one
minimum during the twenty-four hours, which occurs at 1 a. m.
It was a fortunate circumstance that the observations extended
over two winters, and thus gave a more exact mean for that season.
The warmest month is July, the coldest March; the temperature of
December, however, does not differ much from the latter. The
24 REPORT OF THE SECRETALE
highest mean monthly temperature seems to occur almost exactly in
the middle of July, and the lowest point would probably have been
found in February if the series had been extended over several
winters. The méan temperature of winter, namely, of December,
January, and February, was —28°.59; of spring, —10°.59; sum-
mer, 33°.38; autumn, —4°.03. The mean temperature for the
whole year was —2°.46. The temperature was always lowest
during calms, and rose with the springing up of a wind from any
quarter.
There is also a great regularity in the elevation of temperature
during the hours of the fall of snow; on an average the sensible heat
was increased during this period 7°.7. In seventeen months it
snowed during six hundred and eighty hours, and rained during sixty
hours.
A series of recurring periods of cold was observed, which Dr. Kane
seemed inclined to consider as intimately connected with the phases
of the moon, and on this point a series of elaborate investigations
was made by Mr. Schott, from which it was found that in a period
of six days on an average the cycle was completed, and that the
lowest temperatures are reached about the time of full moon. Setting
aside some small deviations in the regularity of the curves of tem-
perature, there is not a single exception to the correspondence of the
greatest cold near the epoch of full moon, and of least cold near the
time of the new moon. It*should be observed, however, that since,
from the observations made at this Institution, the waves, as it were,
of cold air which reduce the temperature of the United States,
frequently begin several days earlier at the extreme west, the same
coincidence as to identity of occurrence of the maximum cold with
any particular phase of the moon cannot be true of all points on the
surface of the earth, although the period of recurrence may, as in the
case of the tides at different places, be governed by that luminary.
A series of comparative observations at the level of the sea and at
the top of the mast of the brig, at eighty feet elevation, was taken
during the months of August, September, and October, from which
is deduced a diminution of temperature of 1° for two hundred and
ten feet of elevation. ,
The direction of the wind was noted in the original records with
reference to the magnetic points of the compass, and the mean results:
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25
determined in regard to the true north. It appears from all the
observations that the true direction of the wind is from the eastward,
varying in the several months northward and southward. There is
but one exception, namely, in June; the wind then veers round to
the westward of south. The resulting direction for the whole year
is almost exactly east; in winter it is E.N.E. and in summer S.E. by 8.
The greatest quantity of air which moves over the place during
the year comes from a direction north of east. é
The predominance of calms is a circumstance quite characteristic
of this region. The number of hours of winds recorded was 3,697,
and those of still weather 5,063.
The snow or rain wind is between N.N.E. and E.S.E., or from the
direction of the Spitzbergen sea, and also from the opposite direction
of S.S.W., or that of the upper Baffin’s bay. From the northwestern
quarter there was hardly any precipitation.
During the whole period there were recorded thirteen gales, with
a duration of not less than two hours. They do not appear to be
confined to any particular season of the year, and on the average
continue about seven hours.
These records are of great interest in enabling us to ascertain
whether the great storms which pass over the United States can be
traced into the Arctic regions.
For observations on atmospheric pressure the expedition was pro-
vided with amercurial barometer and two aneroids, and from a series
of reductions of the observations of these instruments it is concluded
that the indications of the aneroid may generally be relied on to
within nearly one hundredth of an inch.
Owing to the small amplitude in the oscillations of the barometer,
and the magnitude of occasional disturbances, the law of diurnal
variation is apparently subject to considerable fluctuations. The
principal maximum is reached about one o'clock p. m.; the evening
maximum at about ten p. m., in conformity with the general law
deduced from observations in the northern hemisphere. The one
p.m. minimum seems to occur about three hours earlier than is
indicated at more southern stations.
_ The average maximum height of the barometer is above the mean
in the months of January, February, March, April, and May, and
descends below the mean in the remaining summerand autumn months.
The general law observed in other parts of the world, that the height
26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
of the barometer is less in summer than in winter, is prominently
exhibited.
The mean height of the barometer for the whole time was 29.775
inches, which is less than that for places under the tropics; and it
should be stated that Van Rensselaer harbor is fourteen degrees
farther north than the latitude 64° in which the height of the
barometer is a minimum.
The fluctuations in the height of the barometer were greater in
winter than in summer. The greatest pressure, 30.97 inches, oc-
curred in the morning of January 22, 1855; the lowest, 28.84 inches,
occurred near noon of February 19, 1854. Little change was ob-
served in the barometer during the fall of snow.
The barometer fell during the blowing of all the winds except those
from about north by east and southeast.
The observations indicate that the hottest winds are from the north-
east, one-half east, and the maximum atmospheric pressure nearly
east.
This memoir was referred for critical examination to Professor
Peirce, of Cambridge, and Professor Chauvenet, of St. Louis.
The next memoir is by Dr. John Le Conte, of Philadelphia, and is
intended to give a catalogue of the Coleoptera or beetles known to
inhabit the middle and eastern portions of the great central region of
temperate North America. The province here treated of includes
Kansas, a portion of Nebraska, and the eastern part of New Mexico.
Tis eastern limit is well defined, but its other boundaries are indefinite,
since it there fades imperceptibly into other provinces of the samegreat
zoological district. The descriptions of new species are principally
from specimens furnished through the Smithsonian Institution from
collections made by different explorers connected with the surveys of
the officers of the United States army.
Before proceeding to describe the special materials used in the
preparation of the memoir, the author gives a short sketch of the
results already obtained in regard to the geographical distribution of
coleopterous insects in this country, illustrated by a map on which
the several regions are distinguished by different colors. From this
map it appears that the whole area of the United States is divided by
nearly meridianal lines into three or perhaps four zoological districts,
distinguished each by numerous peculiar genera and species, which,
with few exceptions, do not extend into the contiguous districts.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. page
These districts are divided into a number of provinces of unequal size,
which are limited by differences in climate, and are therefore some-
times distinctly and sometimes vaguely defined.
The mode of distribution of species in the Atlantic and Pacific
districts is entirely different. Inthe Atlantic districts a large number
of species are distributed over a great extent of country; many species
are of rare occurrence, and in passing over a distance of several hun-
dred miles but small variation will be found to exist. In the Pacific
district a small number of species are confined to a limited region of
country. Most species occur in considerable number, and in travel-
ling even one hundred miles it is found that the most abundant species
are replaced by others, but of a similar character.
The object of the memoir is to give an account of what is known
of this class of insects in Kansas, upper Texas, and Arizona, and to
furnish means for facilitating the further exploration of the whole
country in regard to the same animals.
This will undoubtedly be considered a valuable addition to a branch
of zoology which, however insignificant it may appear to the popular
mind, is not only connected with questions of interest in relation to
abstract science, but also with the economical resources of the
country.
The memoir, beside the colored map to which we have alluded, is
illustrated by two engraved plates.
The next paper consists of the result of magnetical and hypsomet-
rical observations in Mexico, to which is appended notes on the
volcano of Popocatepetl and its vicinity.
In 1856 Baron Von Muller undertook an exploration of Mexico in
reference to its natural history, and proposed to the Smithsonian
Institution to make in its behalf a magnetic survey of the same country.
This offer having been accepted, an appropriation was made from the
Smithsonian fund to pay a portion of the salary of Mr. Sonntag, the
assistant of Baron Von Muller; and the magnetic instruments which
had been previously lent to Dr. Kane, and used by Mr. Sonntag
himself, as one of the assistants of that lamented explorer in his last
Arctic exploration, were furnished to the expedition for the contem-
plated survey. Several records of the unreduced observations made
at a number of places in Mexico, were at different times transmitted to
the Institution previous to the return of Baron Von Muller to Germany,
after which nothing more was obtained; and after considerable delay
28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
we were informed by him that he had been robbed in Mexico, and that
the instruments had been captured and destroyed. Not having re-
ceived a final report from Baron Von Miiller, to render the observa-
tions which had been obtained from Mexico available to science, they
were placed in the hands of Mr. Sonntag on his return to Washington,
and have been reduced by him at the expense of the Institution. He
has also appended a series of notes relative to the volcano of Popo-
catepetl and its vicinity, and also a series of barometrical and trigo-
nometrical measurements of heights of various places in the vicinity
of the city of Mexico. The observations included those for the
declination or variation, the inclination or dip, and, lastly, those for
the relative intensity of the magnetic force. A series of observations
for each of these elements was made at the following places; namely,
Vera Cruz, Potrero, Cocolapam, San Andres, Mirador, city of Mexico,
Chalco, and Tlamacas. The average variation of the needle from the
whole series of observations was about 83° east; at the city of Mexico
it was 8° 46’ east. The average dip for the whole region was about
423°, and for the city of Mexico 41° 26’.
The interesting fact is noted in the appendix that the southwestern
wall of all the recent Mexican craters observed by the author is higher
than the northeastern wall—a phenomenon probably due to the action
of the trade-winds constantly impelling the ashes and cinders from
the northeast to the southwest. The elevation of eleven different
places was determined, including the city of Mexico and the highest
peak of Popocatepetl. The former was 7,472.8 feet, and the latter
17, 817.6 feet.
We regret very much the loss of the ree instruments, not
only on account of the use which might be made of them in deter-
mining the magnetic elements of different portions of the American
continent, but also on account of the interest which attaches to them
from ae been employed in the observations by Dr. Kane.
They have, however, done good service; and although the result of
the co-operation of Baron Von Miiller has not been as fortunate as we
could have wished, still it has added something of considerable value
to our knowledge of the terrestrial magnetism of this continent.
Another memoir, which will form a part of the 11th volume of
‘*Contributions,’’ is on the American storm of December 20, 1836,
and the European storm of December 25 of the same year, by Pro-
fessor Elias Loomis, of the University of New York.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29
About twenty years ago this industrious meteorologist presented
to the American Philosophical Society an investigation of the first of
the above-mentioned storms, which extended from the Gulf of Mexico
to an unknown distance to the north. The area covered by the ob-
servations, and to which consequently the investigation was confined,
included only the southern part of the storm, and therefore the au-
thor regarded the results he had obtained, though of sufficient interest
to warrant publication, as not entirely satisfactory. Having since
obtained additional information, and adopted with success in the
study of similar storms a method of investigation which consists in
representing the disturbances of the atmosphere by lines and colors
on charts, he concluded to review his former labors, and to publish
all his results illustrated by a series of colored maps, which he is now
enabled to do through the provision made for this purpose by the
Smithsonian Institution.
The author first presents a summary of the observations of the
barometer at each of the American stations from which information
in regard to the indications of this instrument was derived. The
average height of the barometer at each of the stations is given, and
the fluctuations from this height during the storm, as well as imme-
diately before and after it. With these data a series of lines is drawn
on five charts, exhibiting the progress of the storm for as many suc-
cessive periods, namely, for December 19, at 8 o’clock p. m.; Decem-
ber 20, at 8 a. m. and 8 p. m.; December 21, at 8 a. m. and 8 p. m.
On each chart is drawn a line indicating the places of mean pressure
of the atmosphere, or those where the pressure is in a normal con-
dition, also a line indicating two-tenths of an inch of mercury above
the mean, &c. :
In examining these lines on each map, it is apparent that there
exists a large area over which the barometer was below its mean
height, which on the evening of the 20th of December extended 980
miles from west to east. On the morning of December 21 it extended
770 miles, and on the evening of the 21st it had become reduced to
600 miles in the same direction. It is evident, also, that toward the
north the limit of low barometer extended much beyond the map,
and, since the lowest point was found at Quebec, it is inferred that it
extended as far north as it did south of this point, and would, there-
fore, be on the 21st of December at least 3,000 miles in length from
north to south. The area, therefore, of least pressure was in the
30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
form of an oval figure, having a length of three times its breadth,
and, from the inspection of the several maps, it will appear that it
travelled constantly eastward.
A similar table of observations is given in reference to the ther-
mometer as observed at fifty-seven places, and lines corresponding
to the mean temperature to ten degrees above and ten degrees below,
&e., are drawn on each of the maps. From these it appears that on
the evening of the 19th the area of greatest temperature extended
from 800 to 1,100 miles in an east and west direction. The centre
of this area of high thermometer did not coincide with the centre of
Jow barometer, but was uniformly somewhat to the east of it.
On the same charts the condition of the weather at different inter-
vals as to clearness, cloudiness, rain, &c., is represented by different
colors, and from these it will be seen that on the evening of the 19th
of December rain or snow was falling over the entire region west of
the Mississippi as far as the map extends, and that a cloud covered
the whole of the United States except that part bordering on the
Atlantic ocean. On the evening of the 20th the rain had reached
Washington, and on the morning of the 21st the cloud had covered
the whole of the eastern portion of the country, while the sky had
cleared off as far as Cincinnati, at the same time that rain was falling
in the whole of New England except the State of Maine. On the
evening of the 21st the storm was confined to a small portion of the
eastern part of the chart, while the sky over nearly the whole United
States, with a few exceptions of spots of limited extent, was free from
clouds.
The direction of the wind is indicated by arrows, and its intensity
shown by their length; and from these it is seen that during the en-
tire period within the area of rain and snow the direction of the wind
in the rear of the storm was from the west, northwest, or north, and
that in the southwest part of the United States the winds were some-
what more northerly than in the northwest part of the country. In
front of the storm the winds generally blew from « southerly point,
the average of which was 10° east of south, while in the south and
northern parts of the country in front of the storm the wind was
easterly. There was thus along a meridian line of at least 1,200
miles in length a violent wind from a point on an average 30° north
of west, and on the east side a strong current from a point 10° east
of south. These two contrary winds blew with great violence for at
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ol
least forty-eight hours, indicating an ascending current of air and a
tendency to rotation contrary to the motion of the hands of a watch.
The author next proceeds to offer some suggestions as to the origin
of the storm, which in the main agree with the exposition of the phe-
nomena as given in the theory of Espy, namely, the upward motion
of the air at the point of lowest barometer, the evolution of latent
heat by the condensation of the vapor which it contains, and the
transfer eastward of the whole disturbance by the flow of the upper
current in that direction. He attributes the principal cause of the
cold experienced to the upper current descending to the surface of
the earth. :
The European storm of the 25th of December of the same year is
investigated in the same manner, and the results illustrated by means
of eight separate maps, one for each day, commencing with Decem-
ber 21, including the beginning and ending of the disturbance. It
was at first supposed that this storm was a continuation of that of the
20th experienced in America; the rate of progress, however, of the
latter was such that it could not have reached Europe before the
27th, whereas the storm of the 25th was fully organized on the 23d,
and, indeed, its first movements can be distinctly traced in Germany
on the 22d. The European storm evidently originated in Europe,
and the American storm wasted itself in the Atlantic. It was,
however, the possible connexion of these two storms that induced
Professor Loomis to collect particularly, during a visit to Europe in
1856— 57, records of meteorological observations for this period. The
whole number of stations from which he obtained data was nearly
fifty.
It was mentioned in the last report that the Institution had con-
cluded to publish in full detail several series of meteorological obser-
vations made for long periods in different parts of the United States.
The 12th volume of Contributions will contain the first of these
series, by Professor A. Caswell, of Brown University. The observa-
tions commence with December 1, 1831, and end with December 31,
1859,* including a period of a little more than twenty-eight years.
These observations were made three times daily, embracing the
thermometer, barometer, the direction and force of the wind, the
These tables have been extended to June, 1860.
32 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
degree of cloudiness, the amount of precipitation, and, for a portion
of the time, the psychrometer.
In addition to these fixed and regular observations, daily and special
notice was taken of all phenomena connected with atmospherica
changes, with storms, the aurora, &c. The barometrical observa-
tions are reduced to the level of the sea and the temperature of 32°
Fahrenheit.
The author has given a series of general summaries deduced from
the whole period; and when a sufficient number of similar observa-
tions for long periods are collected and published, they will be sub-
mitted to the process of exhaustive investigation similar to those to
which the observations of Dr. Kane have been subjected, in order to
determine peculiar points of interest relative to the climate of the
United States.
We have found that the printing of papers of this character re-
quires much time and is very expensive, since they are composed
almost entirely of rule and figure work. We think, however, the
value which will be attached to them will fully warrant the expendi-
ture on account of their publication. They will afford the data for
answering many questions which are propounded to the meteorolo-
gist, such as the period of recurrence of storms, the connexion of the
changes of the weather with the phases of the moon, &c. The means of
ascertaining the state of the atmosphere over a considerable portion of
the United States on any day for the last quarter of a century will be
interesting in many cases, independent of scientific considerations.
The report of the Regents to Congress for 1858, besides an ex-
position of the condition and operations of the Institution for that
year, was, as usual, accompanied by an appendix containing the report
of lectures, and other matter which has proved highly acceptable to
a large number of intelligent persons in every part of the country.
These reports, copies of which are especially solicited by teachers,
besides furnishing valuable knowledge not otherwise readily attain-
able, serve to diffuse information as to the operations of the Institu-
tion which tends to increase the number of its friends and co-opera-
tors, and to elevate popular conceptions in reference to science, as
well as to increase the number of its cultivators.
The number of copies of the report ordered to be printed at the
last session was less than that of the preceding year, yet the supply
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 303
to the Institution was the same. Indeed it is'a gratifying evidence
of the public estimation in which the Institution is held, that Con-
gress has been so favorably disposed, even during the depressed con-
dition of the treasury, towards the distribution of this document.
It was mentioned in the last Report that the Institution had made
arrangements for the preparation of elementary treatises on the dif-
ferent orders of insects found in North America, with a view to
identify the species and facilitate the study of their relation and
habits. Considerable progress has been made in this work, and sev-
eral parts are either in the press or ready to be given to the printer.
These treatises will afford the means of instructing the farmer in
regard to the character of the insect enemies with which he has to
contend, and will enable him by watching their habits, time of ap-
pearance, and mode of propagation, to add much valuable informa-
tion to what is already known relative to the method of guarding
against their ravages.
But before anything of this kind can be done systematically, we
must be able to recognize the insects, since the same animais are
known in different countries by different names. If, therefore, we
would avail ourselves of the facts which have already been gathered
by patient study in. this branch of natural history, we must be assured
of the identity of the species; and if we would make the knowledge
which already exists in this country generally available, the insects
must be described with that scientific precision which will enable
them to be immediately recognized with certainty in every part of
the world.
These treatises or catalogues will be illustrated by wood-cuts, and
published as a part of the Miscellaneous Collections of the Institu-
tion.
The last Report contains a series of instructions for collecting and
preserving specimens of insects, prepared by the following gentle-
men, viz: Dr. John L. Le Conte, of Philadelphia; Dr. B. Clemens,
of Easton, Pa.; Dr. P. Uhler, of Baltimore; and Baron R. Osten
Sacken, of the Russian Legation. These instructions have not only
directed attention to the subject, but furnished the means by which
a large number of specimens have been obtained for scientific inves-
tigation.
It will be recollected that it is one of the objects of the Institution
3
34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
to induce as many individuals as possible, in various parts of the
country, to devote their leisure hours to special objects of natural
history—to point out to them the pleasures derived from studies of
this kind systematically pursued, and the important results which
will flow from their labors when combined with those of other per-
sons in the same line, and also to facilitate by catalogues, descriptions,
and correspondence, the progress of the student in the elementary
part of his studies. In connexion with this object, circulars have
been distributed directing special attention to different points,
among which we may mention one on American grasshoppers, an
insect to the ravages of which a large portion of the United States
is frequently subjected, and relative to which every well authenticated
fact is of considerable interest. Another circular has been issued in
regard to the collection of nests and eggs of birds, to furnish the
material for a continuation of Dr. Brewer’s work on Oology.
The fact was stated in a previous report that materials had been
collected for a new edition of a report on the libraries of this country,
originally prepared by Professor C. C. Jewett. This work was en-
trusted to Mr. William J. Rhees, chief clerk of this Institution, to
be done out of the usual hours of his official duties; but the materials
which were collected contained so much information relative to edu-
cational and other institutions, which was thought too important to be
omitted, that the report when completed was found to exceed the
limits assigned by the Institution; and rather than abridge it by
leaving out a part of the material which had cost so much labor,
Mr. Rhees offered to publish it on his own account; and such an
arrangement being compatible with the general policy of the Institu-
tion, the proposition was agreed to, and the work has accordingly
been issued under his own name and responsibility. It forms a
volume of 700 octavo pages, and contains a large amount of very in-
teresting and valuable matter which has cost the author a much
greater amount of labor than can ever be repaid by even an extensive
sale of the work.
In this connexion we may mention that a list of the libraries, soci-
eties, and institutions in North America, has also been prepared by
Mr. Rhees and printed for the use of the Institution. It forms an
octavo pamphlet of 81 pages, and is found of much value in facili-
tating the distribution of our several classes of publications and in
directing circulars, &c.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 30
Researches. —Mr. L. W. Meech has continued his mathematical re-
searches in regard to the light and heat of the sun, and, since the
date of the last Report, has succeeded in integrating some of the an-
alytical expressions which had previously appeared likely to prove
exceedingly troublesome, and the analysis is now sufficiently advanced
for another publication. His next memoir will treat of the relative
intensity of the sun’s rays after passing through the air to the earth’s
surface. It will be recollected that his former memoir presented, in
tables and curves, the intensity of the sun’s rays at the exterior of
the atmosphere. The primary formula, to be given in this memoir,
has been demonstrated and verified, and the derived formule are
mostly made out for the range and other phases of the intensity of
the light and heat. These depend on what are called elliptical func-
tions, and are much more complicated than those of the former paper.
Before curves can be drawn from them, the numerical values for every
five degrees of latitude are to be computed and checked, which will
require the labor of several months. To defray the expense of this,
another small appropriation will be required. The success of the
previous labors of Mr. Meech warrants this expenditure, from funds
intended for the increase of knowledge, since the results which can.
now be obtained from his formula will, in all probability, be consid-
ered standard elements in the physical theory of heat.
Dr. Wolcott Gibbs has continued his chemical researches, and a paper
in relation to them will probably appear in the next volume of Con-
tributions. It will present new processes for the separation of all the
platinum metals in a state of absolute purity. These are very simple,
and easy of execution, and not only apply to the separation, but to
the quantitative analysis of mixtures of the different metals of this
group in almost any proportion. The researches also involve the
preparation and properties of a new and remarkable series of salts,
which, it is thought, will remove the difficulties with which the sub-
ject has hitherto been surrounded.
It was stated in the last Report that one of the most important op-
erations in which the Institution had been engaged during the previ-
ous year was the construction of a map to present at one view the
arable, forest, and sterile portions of the United States. The design
at first was merely to exhibit the limits or boundaries of these por-
tions of the country, and this has been faithfully executed by Dr. J.
G. Cooper, to whom the work was intrusted, as far as the materials
36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
could be gathered from all the accessible published data, the records
of the Land Office, and other sources. The facts presented at once
to the eye by this map are in striking accordance, as we have before
mentioned, with the deductions from the meteorological materials
whicn have been collected at this Institution, and serve to place in a
clear point of view the connexion of climate with the natural produe-
tions of different parts of the earth. The plan has, however, since
been enlarged, and Dr. Cooper now proposes, with the aid of the
Institution, to construct a map which shall give in detail the distribu-
tion of the several kinds of trees and shrubs found in different por-
tions of the country; and, in view of this, he has prepared an article,
which has been published and widely distributed by the Institution,
containing a list of the localities of the most important and useful
trees and shrubs, as far as known, and asking additional information.
The chief difficult:; in carrying out the plan has been the want of
definite knowledge as to the locality of different plants; for example,
a plant is mentioned as occurring in Virginia, but this statement is
not sufficiently precise, since this State occupies a large surface,
on asmall portion of which only the plant may be found. Facts are
also required as to the abundance of trees in a given locality.
The collection of the material for a map of this kind, in connexion
with a work on the forest trees of America, still in progress by Dr.
Asa Gray, of Cambridge, is a very important matter both in a politi-
cal and an economical point of view, and the work might be materially
aided, without much expense to the government, by appending a few
additional queries to the questions propounded by the marshals who
collect the statistics of the census. The outline map, which has al-
ready been prepared at the expense of the Institution, has excited
much interest, and the proposition to enlarge the plan of the work
has been received with commendation.
As an interesting object in regard to physical geography, and
intimately connected with meterology and various branches of natural
history, a commencement has been made, in connexion with the Coast
Survey, in collecting materials for the construction of a hypso-
metrical map of the United States.
No part of the surface of the earth, of equal dimensions, has been
so extensively traversed by lines of explorations for canals, railways,
and river improvements, as the United States. The materials, how-
ever, which are afforded by these, for constructing a map of the ele-
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. BY
vations and depressions of the surface of the country are widely scat-
tered, and unless an effort be made to collect them will ultimately be
lost. Previous to the connexion of the Institution with this enterprise,
circulars were sent by the Coast Survey to engineers and directors
of public works, m answer to which replies were received giving the
elevation of a large number of points. Since this connexion another
circular has been issued, to which a large additional number of an-
swers have been received. The whole number of points heard from
is about 9,000. Many of the replies to the circulars have been ac-
companied by valuable topographical information and maps, some of
which, as testified by the contributors, were rescued from the obliv-
ion which has been the fate of the records of many of the earlier sur-
veys. For the exhibition of these points, in connexion with the to-
pography of the country, it is proposed to have them plotted on a
map consisting of two sheets, with a projection of spp5¢500- One
sheet is to show the surface east of the Rocky mountains, the lines
of water courses, and is to be filled up from the best existing maps; the
western sheet is to be copied from the map of the same scale, issued
from the office of the Pacific Railroad explorations. An accurate out-
line map of the United States on this scale will be of great import-
ance as a base-chart on which to delineate the result of various other
statistical inquiries which have been instituted by this establishment.
Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, of Rochester, New York, having studied for
several years the ethnological peculiarities of the Indians of the
North American continent, has discovered among them a system of
relationship which he wishes to compare with the systems of con-
sanguinity existing among the natives of other countries, and the
Institution, at his request, in order to aid in this research, has dis-
tributed circulars to our consuls, missionaries, and ethnologists in
various parts of the world. The peculiar system of relationship of
the Iroquois, one of the principal families of American Indians first
attracted the attention of Mr. Morgan. The fundamental idea of this
system, which is carried cut with great logical rigor, is, that the bond
of consanguinity is never suffered to lose itself in the ever diverging
collateral lines—the degrees of relationship are never allowed to pass
beyond that of first cousins; after that the collateral lines are merged
in the lineal lines, so that the son of a cousin becomes a nephew,
and the son of this nephew becomes a grandson. This principle ex-
tends upwards as well as downwards, so that the brother of a man’s
38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
father becomes his father, and the brother of his grandfather be-
comes also his grandfather. At first Mr. Morgan supposed this ;
peculiar system to be confined to the Iroquois, but subsequent inves-
tigation developed the fact that the same system in its complexity
and precision is common to all the Indian tribes of North America.
It therefore becomes an object of interest to inquire whether the
same system exists among the natives of any other country. It is
proper to remark that, at the request of the Institution, General
Cass, the Secretary of State, has given to this interesting inquiry
the official sanction of his Department, and in a letter appended to
our circular, has commended it to all the diplomatic agents of the gov-
ernment abroad.
Laboratory.—During the last year the laboratory has been under
the direction of Dr. B. F. Craig, of this city, and, as in former years,
a considerable number of specimens of the products of different parts
of the country have been examined. The policy adopted from the
first in regard to examinations of this kind is to furnish a report free
of cost to the parties asking for the information, provided it is
of general interest and immediately connected with the advance of
science, and can be afforded at little expense to the Institution. If,
however, the examination is required principally to promote private
interests, a charge is made suflicient to cover the expense of the in-
vestigation. By the adoption of this policy, the laboratory is kept in
operation by means of a small appropriation for chemicals and ap-
paratus.
It may be proper to mention that during the year Dr. Craig has
been engaged in investigations, on his own account, in the laboratory,
and that Mr. J. H. Lane has made a series of experiments relative
to different points connected with the Atlantic telegraph.
Magnetic Observatory.—The remaining instruments necessary to
complete the equipment of the magnetic observatory established at
the joint expense of the Institution and the Coast Survey were re-
ceived and put into operation in the early part of the year; but as it
has been found that the changes in the direction and intensity of the
elements of terrestrial magnetism at Toronto, Philadelphia, and
Washington are almost precisely the same, it has been considered
that more important service would be rendered to the inquiries now
being made in regard to this branch of physics, if the instruments were
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. a9
placed in some more distant position, and it has been determined to
send them to the Tortugas, a group of islands within the Gulf of
Mexico, at which the United States coast survey has also a tidal
station. A single instrument, however, is still to be kept in opera-
tion at the observatory to record the changes in declination and to
exhibit the perturbations connected with the appearance of the
aurora borealis.
Exchanges. —The general system of international exchange, which has
been the subject of so much attention heretofore, continues to increase
in magnitude and importance. By reference to the special report on
this subject, it will be seen that the operations have been more exten-
sive in 1859 than during any preceding year. The facilities afforded to
the operations of the Institution in the department of exchanges and
of natural history by various transportation express companies, as
referred to in the preceding reports, have been continued throughout
the year. The steamers of the North German Lloyd have carried a
large amount of freight for the Institution, free of charge, between
Bremen and New York, as promised by their directors, at the in-
stance of Mr. Schleiden, minister from Bremen, resident in Wash-
ington. The steamer lines to California, consisting of the Unitsp
States Matt Co., M. O. Roberts, President; the Panama RaILRosD
Co., David Hoadley, president; and the Paciric Mat Co., W. H.
Davidge, president, transported a large amount of material for the
Institution up to the expiration of their mail contract in October, when
the NortH ATLANTIC STEAMSHIP Co., I. W. Raymond, president, re-
placed the United States Mail Co. in the line, which has since
continued the same favors. Mr. Bartlett, of New York, has offered
the use of his line of ships to the west coast of South America, and
the exchanges with Chili are now carried on chiefly through his ves-
sels. The steamer Isabel, Messrs. Mordecai & Co., of Charleston,
agents, has transported a number of packages for the Institution be-
tween Charleston and Key West, free of charge, and Messrs. Russell,
Major & Waddel, army contractors of transportation to Utah, have also
rendered valuable service in this line. The Adams Express Co., through
Mr. Shoemaker, the superintendent of its southern division, has also
exhibited liberality in reducing its charges greatly on heavy freights,
and in carrying small parcels free of cost. It is difficult to esti-
mate the value to the Institution of all these services. They are
interesting as exhibiting a high appreciation of the mission and
operations of the Institution, at the same time that they disclose a
40 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
spirit of liberality as gratifying as it is beneficial. It is believed that
an amount of at least $1,500 has been saved by these free freights dur-
ing the year, a sum which in effect may be considered as having been
added to the income of the Institution, and thereby correspondingly
increasing its means of usefulness. Acknowledgments are due to a
number of persons in the United States who have assisted without
charge in distributing the volumes of Smithsonian Contributions, viz:
Hickling, Swan & Brewer, of Boston; D. Appleton & Co., New York;
J.B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia; Russell & Jones, Charleston;
Robert Clarke & Co., Cincinnati; and Bloomfield, Steele & Co., in New
Orleans. Messrs. J. W. Raymond and Mr. W. H. Wickham, of New
York, and Mr. A. B. Forbes, of San Francisco, agents of the California
lines referred to above, have rendered services of a similar character.
It is gratifying to be able to repeat the statement made in previous.
reports, that all Smithsonian packages are allowed to pass free of
duty and without examination at the custom-houses of all the civil-
ized countries with which the Institution is in correspondence.
Library.—During the past year the plan adopted in regard to the
increase of the library has been constantly kept in view, namely, to
procure as perfect and extensive a series as possible of the transac-
tions and proceedings of all the learned societies which now exist or
have existed in different parts of the world. The library, in this
respect, is now perhaps the first in the United States, and has in-
creased, since the date of the last Report, not only by the addition of
the current publications but by a number of new series and of volumes.
to complete sets hitherto imperfect.
The catalogue of the serial publications of foreign learned societies,
State governments, universities, public libraries, and private parties,
contained in the library, mentioned in the last report, has been pub-
lished. It forms a book of 259 octavo pages and includes all the
collections of the kind above mentioned, down to the middle of the
year 1859. Copies of this have been sent to all the foreign societies,
with a request that deficient series of volumes or parts of volumes
be supplied, and that any works of the same kind which are not to
be found in the catalogue be furnished from duplicates at the disposal -
of any of the establishments with which the Institution is in cor-
respondence.
The distribution of this catalogue to the principal institutions of
this country and abroad will not only facilitate the completion of the:
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Al
design of forming as perfect a collection as possible of transactions,
but will also render the library more generally useful to the cultiva-
tors of science in the United States. But the most important means
of facilitating the use of a special library of this class of works will
be that of the publication of the classified index of all the physical
papers contained in the transactions, now in progress at the expense
and under the direction of the Royal Society of London. This
index is confined to papers relating to astronomy, mathematics, and
general. physics, and even with this restriction will include about
250,000 titles.
Professor J. Victor Carus, of Leipsic, informs us that during the
last two years he has been collecting materials towards a general
catalogue of zoological literature, from 1750 up to the present day,
including not only all the separately published works, books, and
pamphlets, but also and especially all the papers, notices, and articles
contained in periodicals, the number of which is increasing every
year. The titles and references will be arranged systematically, not
according to the alphabet of authors, but within the classes and
groups according to the alphabet of the genera, so that at a glance
the whole literature of a particular genus may be found. The
author calls for aid in obtaining information as to American zoological
papers contained in periodicals difficult of access, and any one who
can assist in this desirable object would confer a favor by forwarding
to him, through the Institution, information bearing on this subject.
To assist in the same general plan of facilitating the acquisition of a
knowledge of what has been done in different branches of science,
the Institution has authorized the preparation of a bibliography of
American botany, by Mr. Thurber, of New York, under the direction
of Dr. Torrey.
Since the date of the last Report, the act amendatory of the law
relating to the disposition of books intended for copyright has gone
into operation. This act merely requires that one copy of every
article intended to be secured to the author by copyright is to be
deposited with the clerk of the district court from whom the certifi-
cate is obtained, and repeals the requirement that a copy should be
presented to the library of Congress and to that of the Smithsonian
Institution. All the books which have heretofore been deposited
with the district clerks, and those which may be obtained in future,
are to be arranged in the Patent Office, where they will form an
AI REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
extensive collection, the support and preservation of which,. however
interesting to the bibliographer, are not in accordance with the gen-
eral objects of the Smithsonian Institution, although as the means of
securing evidence of title they are in strict conformity with the
design of the Patent Office.
Few, comparatively, of the books which were received by the In-
stitution under the operation of the copyright law were of any
scientific value, and by far the greater number, consisting of ele-
mentary school books and publications designed especially for children,
were entirely foreign to the plan of the library, and yet they have cost
the Institution for postage, certificates, entries, care, &c., several thou-
sand dollars. It now becomes a matter of consideration as to their
disposition, and petitions have been received from the Washington
Library and that of the Young Men’s Christian Association, of this
city, that they may be placed in their charge. Without expressing
any opinion as to the propriety of complying with these requests, I
beg to submit these propositions to the Board.
The operation of the former law of copyright illustrates the neces-
sity of caution, on the part of the Institution, in receiving miscel-
laneous donations into a special collection without careful discrimi-
nation, particularly if the gift is coupled with the condition that
the articles are to be perpetually preserved. Without care in
this respect a large amount of trash must inevitably accumulate,
which will interfere with the extension of the collection in the
desired direction.
Among the special donations to the library are a series of expensive
illustrated works from the Duke of Northumberland, privately printed
by him as materials for the history of the county which bears his
name. They include a survey of the Roman wall which was built across
the north of England, a description of coins of the Roman families,
some of which were found in that locality, and an‘account of some
ancient castles which possess historical interest.
Another portion of the great work of Lepsius on Egypt has been
presented by the King of Prussia, and valuable donations in the way
of completing our transactions have been received from different
societies.
The purchases for the library have been principally in the way of
completing such transactions and of supplying such additional series
as we have failed to obtain through our exchanges.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43
The library now contains a very large collection of the catalogues
and reports of different public institutions in this country, which have
been classified and arranged in a separate apartment so as to be
readily accessible for statistical inquiries; and we trust that this
collection will continually be enlarged by additions of the current
reports, particularly those of all institutions which receive the Smith-
sonian publications.
Meteorology. —The arrangement between the Patent Office and this
Institution in relation the collection of meteorological statistics still
continues. The amount appropriated, however, by the former has
been less than in previous years. The observers have very much in-
creased in number, and are now divided into three classes—the first
making records with a full set of instruments, the second with a
thermometer and rain gage, and the third without instruments; all,
however, reporting the state of the sky, the direction of the wind,
beginning and ending of storms, and casual phenomena. All the
observations which have been taken since 1854 have been reduced,
and are uow in the hands of the Commissioner of Patents to be pre-
sented to Congress as an Appendix to his Agricultural Report. It is
presumed they will be ordered to be printed since they form an in-
teresting part of the agricultural statistics called for by the Depart-
ment of the Interior.
The several systems of observations made in different parts of the
American continent have been continued and extended during the
past year. Those under the direction of the Surgeon General of the
United States have been made to include the new military posts of
the army, and a series of investigations of much interest has been
prosecuted in California by Lieut. R. S. Williamson, of the topo-
eraphical corps, relative to the diurnal changes, the diminution of
temperature depending upon elevation, and the extent of simultaneous
barometrical fluctuations.
Observations have also been made by the following surveying and
exploring parties, sent out under different departments of the gov-
ernment, viz:
Under the INTERIOR DEPARTMENT:
The Wagon Road Expedition from South Pass to California, under
command of F. W. Lander.
The survey of the boundary between Texas and New Mexico,
John H. Clark, commissioner.
44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
Under the Stare DEPARTMENT:
The northwestern boundary survey, Archibald Campbell, commis-
sioner.
Under the War DEPARTMENT:
Explorations in Utah, by Captain J. H. Simpson, U. S. A.
Explorations of the head waters of the Missouri and Yellowstone,
by Captain W. F. Raynolds, U.S. A.
The Wagon Road Expedition from Walla-Walla to Fort Benton,
Lieutenant John Mullan, U.S. A.
Exploration of San Juan and Upper Colorado, by Capt. J. N. Ma-
comb, U. S. Top. Engs.
Observations for determining the rise and fall of the lake surface,
by Capt. A. W. Whipple, U.S. Top. Engs.
Survey of the northern and northwestern lakes,.by Capt. G. G.
Meade, U. S. Top. Engs.
Strate oF Texas. Geological survey of the State, B. F. Shumard,
State geologist.
In addition to the regular observations, the following were re-
ceived by the Institution during the year 1859:
From Dr. 8. P. Hildreth, Marietta, Ohio, observations for forty-
two years, from 1818 to 1859, inclusive, on the barometer, thermom-
eter, and amount of rain, with remarks on the weather.
From Professor A. Caswell, Brown University, Providence, Rhode
Island, observations for twenty-eight years, from 1832 to 1859 inclusive,
on barometer, thermometer, winds, rain, and remarks on the weather.
From Dr. Nathan D. Smith, near Washington, Arkansas, observa-
tious for twenty years, from 1840 to 1859, inclusive, on thermometer,
rain, and remarks on the weather.
From Hiram A. Cutting, Lunenburg, Vermont, abstracts of ther-
mometer observations, from 1848 to 1858, inclusive.
From Henry Connelly, Rigolet, Esquimaux bay, Labrador, observa-
tions on barometer and thermometer, from November, 1857, to May,
1859, inclusive.
From Abram Van Doren, Falmouth, Virginia, psychrometrical ob-
servations at Mount Langton, Bermuda, from November, 1847, to
May, 1848, and from November, 1848, to March, 1850, inclusive.
From Dr. John F. Posey, Savannah, Georgia, hourly barometrical
and thermometrical observations during half the day for about ten
days in each month, from May, 1858, to September, 1859, inclusive.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. A‘
From Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada West, summary of ob-
servations for 1858.
The observations from Captain George G. Meade, noted on the
opposite page, consist of fifty-eight sheets, made with full sets of
instruments, on the northern and northwestern lakes, from June,
1858, to November, 1859, inclusive. The continuation of these will
be of much value in regard to the climate of this region. Those from
Captain A. W. Whipple were made at Oswego harbor, Detroit river,
St. Clair flats, and Lake George, of St. Mary’s river, for the purpose
of determining the rise and fall of the lake surface, from the year
1854 to 1859, inclusive.
Between four and five thousand newspaper notices of the weather
of 1859 have been cut out and preserved. Besides the papers re-
ceived by the Institution, a large number of exchange papers are
obtained from the office of the Evening Star. These two sources
together furnish the means, either by original or copied articles, of
obtaining popular notices of the principal changes of weather and
meteorological phenomena in nearly all parts of the country. The
method of preserving the scraps is to paste them on sheets arranged,
not by the date of the paper, but by that of the occurrence noted.
‘By this arrangement all notices of any storm, hot or cold terms,
aurora, earthquake, or any other phenomenon, are brought together,
no matter how widely apart may be the place of publication. It
would be an acceptable donation if all readers, when they meet with
any meteorological scrap worthy of preservation, would send the
paper containing it to the Institution, or the article cut out, with the
name, date, and place of publication of the paper plainly marked on
the slip. Without these marks it would be sometimes impossible
to identify either time or locality. The preferable mode is to send
the entire paper.
A general distribution of blanks is made twice a year. In this
distribution twelve blanks are sent to each observer, one for each
month, to be retained for his own use, and one to be returned to the
Institution.
As the registers come from all parts of the country, and arrive at
different times, a number are received every day, sometimes as many
as thirty or forty. A book is kept containing the names of all the
observers, with their place of observation; and when the registers
are received, an entry of each one is made in this book, so that, by
inspection, it can be seen at any time for what months registers have
46 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
been received from each observer. A memorandum is also made of
deficiencies, omissions, instruments used, discontinuance, change of
address, or such other items as may be necessary for reference or to
show the character of the observations. The date of the reception
is marked in red ink on each register, and they are placed on
shelves, those for each month being kept together. With the re-
gisters, letters are often received asking for information on meteor-
ological and other subjects. These embrace a very wide range of
inquiry, and, with the other letters received, make large demands on
the time of the secretary. When a number of registers have accu-
mulated, they are sent to Professor Coffin, at Haston, Pennsylvania,
who, with his corps of assistants, makes the reductions and prepares
them for publication.
Early in March, when a sufficient time is supposed to have elapsed
to allow all, or nearly all, the registers for the preceding year
to be received by due course of mail, an examination of the record
is made, and a notice is segt to each observer, whose register for
any month may not have reached us, informing him of the deficiency,
and requesting that, if possible, it may be supplied.
It sometimes happens that through loss in the mail or other causes
the blanks fail to reach some of the observers, and their stock, there-
fore, becomes exhausted before the time for the semi-annual distri-
bution. In such cases, as soon as the Institution is informed of the
fact, a new supply is forwarded.
Three forms of blanks are now distributed, corresponding to the
three classes of observers: First, a large blank, marked No. 1, which
contains columns for the records of the barometer, its observed
height, attached thermometer, and height reduced to the freezing
point; of the thermometer in the open air; the psychrometer, or
wet and dry bulb thermometer; the depth of each rain and snow,
with the time of beginning and ending; the direction and force of
winds; the kind, amount, and motion of clouds; and also for the force
of vapor and relative humidity of the atmosphere as deduced from
the observations with the wet and dry bulb thermometers.
Second, a blank half the size of the former, marked No. 2, and
contaiming all the columns which are on the first blank, except those
for the barometer and psychrometer, and the deductions from them.
Third, a blank the same size as the second, marked No. 3, and
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. AT
containing columns for such observations only as may be made without
any instruments, viz: the amount, kind, and motion of clouds; the
time of beginning and ending of rain and snow, the direction and
force of wind by estimation, and general remarks on the weather.
On the reverse of all the blanks is a place for remarks on casual
phenomena, as tornadoes, auroras, meteors, &c.
The importance of such meteorological records as may be kept with-
out instruments seems to be much underrated, and many persons have
declined to make or continue observations unless supplied with full
ssets of instruments, assigning as a reason that such records can be of
no value. But a little reflection will show that these observations
may furnish interesting and important information. If kept daily
and in all parts of the country and sent to the Institution, they would,
without the aid of any other record, enable an investigator to deter-
mine the direction and rate of motion of every storm, hurricane,
tornado, and thunder shower in the United States, and also the time
and place of their origin and termination when these occurred within
the limits of the observers.
They would enable him to mark out with accurate lines the districts
most subject to these atmospheric disturbances, and those free from
them or only partially visited, and also the portions of the year at
which they are most or least frequent. They would enable him to
ascertain the number, extent, and principal phenomena of all the
auroras, earthquakes, and meteors; the occurrence of the first, last,
and severe frosts, the comparative duration of clear and cloudy
weather, and the prevailing winds, both surface and upper current.
If to ascertain these points in the meteorology of every part of
North America is important, then the keeping such records as may be
made without instruments ought not to be omitted. While there are
persons in every neighborhood in this country who could faith-
fully and accurately fill these blanks, the number who can obtain
instruments and properly observe them must be comparatively limited,
Frequent applications are made to the Institution offering to record
meteorological observations for a reasonable pecuniary compensation.
But the policy originally adopted, on account of the want of means,
of declining to pay observers, has been uniformly adhered to. To
depart from this policy, while it might here and there secure an addi-
tional observer, would involve difficulties of discrimination altogether
disproportionate to the advantage gained. While, however, no
A8 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
pecuniary compensation is made to observers, the facilities exten ed
to them, besides the reports and other documents occasionally dis-
tributed, though not expected to be a remuneration for the time and
labor devoted to the subject, are still of some value. An inducement
also exists in the pleasure to be derived from the study of the changes
of the phenomena of nature, besides the consciousness of co-operating
with many others in a system intended to advance an important branch
of science.
Although the information derived from the system of observations,
under the immediate direction of the Institution, is exceedingly*
valuable in many points, it is to be regretted that changes in the
observers are so frequent. The value in determining the great ques-
tion as to the periodicity of the weather and its average conditions
as to heat, moisture, cloudiness, occurrence of frosts, &c., other things
being the same, depend upon the length of time the series of observa-
tions have been continued, and results which may be relied upon
as the element of insurance against failure of crops and disasters by
storms are valuable strictly in proportion to the number of years
embraced in the observations.
The reason why meteorology is not further advanced is not on
account of the want of observations, but of extended series at a
number of properly chosen places. From observations of this kind
it is found that much of the apparent irregularity and caprice of the
weather is due to our limited vision, and that by extending the records
and properly studying them, many phenomena which are apparently
fitful and exempt from all law will be reduced to order and periodicity.
According to Mr. Glaisher’s investigations of the records made at
the Royal Observatory for a long series of years, there is a rotation
in the character of the weather at London about every fifteen years,
the seasons growing warmer and warmer until they reach a maximum
of temperature, and then gradually colder until they come to the
lowest point, when they begin a new cycle of temperature. A series
of meteorological tables may appear to the casual observer a mere
mass of dull, uninteresting figures, yet a little study will enable us,
says a popular writer of the day, to read in them the past history of
‘‘rich harvests, prosperous commerce, good health, plenty, and con-
tentment; or, perhaps, the gloomier side of the picture, scanty crops
and high prices, stagnant trade and social irritation, prevalent diseases
and busy death;”’ and, it might be added, a still greater interest is
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49
inspired by the prospect they afford, that in the course of time they
will not only reflect the past but foreshow the future, and enable us
by their timely monitions to avail ourselves of the benignity, or
guard against the ravage of the coming day.
During the year 1859 a remarkable exhibition of the Aurora
Borealis occurred, and special efforts have been made to collect all
the reliable observations which could be obtained in regard to this
phenomenon. The materials thus accumulated have: been arranged
and will be published in order to render them generally accessible.
‘The occurrence of the Aurora, as is well known from the observa-
tions of Arago and others, is attended with a remarkable disturbance
of the magnetic needle; and since the latter, as has been shown in
the account of the paper of Dr. Bache, is connected with the spots
on the sun, it would follow that the Aurora, although apparently of
electrical origin, is connected with influences entirely exterior to our
planet, and hence precise information as to its appearance over so
wide an area as that in which it was exhibited about the beginning
of September last, must be specially acceptable to the student of
terrestrial physics.
Two remarkable meteors have appeared during the last year, one
of which exploded near the boundary between New York and Mas-
sachusetts, and the other apparently descended to the earth either in
Delaware bay or in the ocean in its vicinity. All the facts collected
in regard to these mysterious visitants of our atmosphere have been
referred to scientific gentlemen for critical examination, the results
of which will be published either by the Institution or in the Ameri-
ean Journal of Science.
The reduction of the current observations is continued by Professor
Coffin, who is also engaged, with the assistance of the Institution, in
the investigation of the winds of the southern hemisphere and in the
extension of his previous researches in regard to those in the northern
hemisphere.
The office duties of distributing the blanks; arranging the meteoro-
logical material and returns received from-observers; of superintend-
ing the observations made at the Institution, and in assisting in the
Smithsonian publications relative to meteorology, are assigned to Mr.
William Q. Force, of Washington, and to his industry, ingenuity, and
efficiency the system owes many improvements.
4
50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
Musewm.—During the year 1859 the labelling and repairing the
specimens received from the Patent Office, and setting up and classi-
fying new specimens collected by the Institution, or deposited by dif-
ferent government explorations, have been uninterruptedly continued
under the immediate direction of Professor Baird.
The extensive series of corals collected during the United States:
exploring expedition have been arranged and labelled by Professor
Dana, of New Haven, by whom they were originally described, and.
now constitute an interesting and attractive part of the general mu-
seum. We have also employed a distinguished conchologist, Mr. P.
P. Carpenter, of Warrington, England, to classify and label the ex-
tensive collection of shells, and have been favored in this work with
the co-operation of the principal gentlemen most distinguished in
this country for their original investigations in this branch of natural
history. Mr. Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia, assisted by Dr. Foreman,
has named the Unionide; Mr. Binney, of New Jersey, the Helicide;
Mr. Stimpson, the shells of the eastern coast of the United States;
and Dr. Gould has identified the new species of the exploring expe-
dition, and rendered aid in the classification of the collection gene-
rally. Assistance has also been rendered by Mr. J. G. Anthony, Mr.
James Lewis, Dr. Newcomb, and Mr. Lapham.
A taxidermist has been constantly engaged in going over the col-
lection. He has mounted several hundred new specimens of birds,
and set up a considerable number of large quadrupeds.
According to the statement of Professor Baird, the number of en-
tries in the record books, of additions to the museum, in the line of
zoology, during the year 1859, amounts to 11,691, and the whole
number of records in all the books is 87,197; but, as explained in
previous reports, this number is far from exhibiting the aggregate of
specimens catalogued; each entry frequently includes all the speci-
mens of any one species received at one time from one locality, and,
in some cases, embraces several hundred individual objects. It will
not be too high if we estimate five specimens on the average to each
entry, and we shall then have 185,985 as the aggregate of these ob-
_ jects now in the museum. In addition to the foregoing, there is a
large collection of specimens in ethnology, botany, mineralogy, and
geology.
The object of the Institution in obtaining so large a number of du-
plicates is, that they may be distributed for the advancement of
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. DF
knowledge to persons who may be engaged in original investigations
in natural history, to museums for the completion of their lists, and
also to colleges for the purposes of education.
As it is not a part of the policy of the Institution to form a general
collection like that of the British museum, which can only be the
work of the general government, but to assist in advancing and
diffusing a knowledge of the natural history of North America, we
have been anxious to distribute the duplicates in such a manner as
to render them subservient to the objects in view, and it is hoped
that we shall begin the work of distribution within the present year.
As usual, a number of young gentlemen have availed themselves of
the facilities offered by the library and collections of the Institution to
prosecute their researches in different branches of natural history;
and in some cases, in which such confidence seemed fully justified,
series of specimens have been intrusted for examination to indi-
viduals at a distance. Although the primary object of the Institu-
tion is not educational, yet the museum is arranged with especial
reference to the study of the elements of different branches of science;
and the distribution of the extra specimens will furnish the means of
diffusing a knowledge of natural history more generally throughout
the country.
Explorations—A number of expeditions sent out by the general
covernment have been furnished with instructions, and in some cases
with apparatus for the collection of objects of natural history, and
several explorations have been undertaken by individuals under the
immediate auspices of the Institution. I need only mention in this
place that conducted by Mr. Robert Kennicott in the regions of the
Hudson’s Bay territory and in Russian America. This young gentle-
man is assisted by the Smithsonian Institution, the University of
Michigan, the Audubon Club and Academy of Sciences of Chicago,
and a number of liberal-minded persons interested in natural history.
His labors have been greatly facilitated by the cordial co-operation
of Sir George Simpson, governor, and the other officers of the Hud-
son’s Bay Company, to whom we are also indebted for valuable dona-
tions of specimens and records of meteorological observations.
For a detailed account of the explorations and the museum, I refer
to the report of Professor Baird hereto appended.
52 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
Lectures. —The following lectures were delivered during the winter
of 1859-60:
Six lectures by Professor SamueL W. Jounson, of Yale College, on
Agricultural Chemistry:
1. The Plant, its Structure and Composition.
2. The Atmosphere and Water in their relation to Vegetable
Growth.
3. The Soil, as related to Agricultural Productions.
4. The Improvement of the Soil by Tillage, Drainage, Amendments,
and Fertilizers.
5. The Conversion of Vegetable into Animal Produce.
6. Systems of Farm Practice Viewed in the Light of Agricultural
Science; Rotation of Crops; Exhaustion and Maintenance of Agricul-
tural Resources.
Three lectures by Pattip P. Carpentse, esq., of Hngland:
1. Shells of the Gulf of California.
2. The Cuttle Fish Tribe, their Forms and Habits in the Ancient
and Existing Seas; including the Paper and Pearly Nautilus, &c.
3. Crawling Shells.
One lecture by Professor Henry Coppéz, of the University of
Pennsylvania, on Coincidences in the Conquests of Mexico.
Four lectures by Professor Benjamin Perrce, of Harvard College,
Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Two on The Diversities in Mathematical Powers of Different Races
.and Nationalities;
Two on Comets.
‘Three lectures by Dr. Bensamin A. Goup, of Cambridge, Massa-
-chusetts, on Chance, Probability, Accident.
Three lectures by Professor A. T. BLEDSOE, of the University of
Virginia, on The Social Destiny of Man.
Three lectures by the Rt. Rev. M. J. Spautpine, Bishop of Louis-
wille, Kentucky, on The Elements and History of Modern Civilization.
@ne lecture by WiLuiaAm Giuprn, esq., of Missouri, on The Charac-
teristics and Physical Geography of the Western Portion of North
America.
Five lectures by T. Sterry Hunt, F. R.S., of the Geological Survey
of Canada:
1. On Chemical and Physical Geology; Introduction of Geological
Agencies.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5S
. Chemistry of the Earth’s Crust.
. Life in its Geological Relations.
. Geology of the Metals, Mineral Springs, Metamorphism.
. Igneous Rocks, Volcanoes, Mountain Chains.
or Hw © bO
The interest is still kept up in the lectures, although they occasion-
ally called forth criticisms on account of the character of particular
courses, which, while they are received with much interest by one
class of hearers, are not in accordance with the taste of those whose
pursuits or reading lie in an opposite direction.
While a large number of persons regularly attend the lectures for
the sake of the advantage to be derived from them, others, and par-
ticularly young persons, attend as a mere pastime, or assemble in the
lecture room as a convenient place of resort, and by their whispering
annoy those who sit near them. Frequent complaints have been
made on this account, and it has been suggested that it might be
well to try, as an experiment, a plan similar to that adopted at the
Lowell Institute, in which, as in the case of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, free lectures are given to a promiscuous audience. To secure
proper order, and to prevent the interruption of the speaker by per-
sons arriving after the lecturer has commenced, a series of numbered
tickets may be distributed at the commencement of the season, and
the names of the persons who receive them entered in a book, oppo-
site the number of the ticket; and in addition to this, the doors may
be closed a few minutes after the lecture commences.
Respectfully submitted.
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary.
JANUARY, 1860.
54 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, December 31, 1859.
Sir: I have the honor herewith to present a report, for 1859, of the
operations you have intrusted to my charge, namely, those which
relate to the printing, the exchanges, and to the collections of natural
history.
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Assistant Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
Prof. Jos—epH Henry, LL.D.
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
PUBLICATIONS.
The publications of the Institution during the past year have been
as follows:
Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the
Institution for the year 1858. One volume, 8vo., pp. 448.
An account of the Total Eclipse of the Sun on September 7. 1858,
as observed near Olmos, Peru. By Lieutenant J. M. Gilliss, United
States navy. 4to. pp. 24, and one plate.
Catalogue of Publications of Societies and of other Periodical
Works in the Library of the.Smithsonian Institution. July 1, 1858.
Part 1. Foreign works. 8vo. pp. 260.
Appendix to the Catalogue of Described Diptera of North America.
By Baron R. Osten Sacken. 8vo. pp. 4.
Directions for Collecting, Preserving, and Transporting Specimens
of Natural History, prepared for the use of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion. Third edition. 8vo. pp. 40.
Discussion of the Magnetic and Meteorological Observations made
at the Girard College Observatory, Philadelphia, in 1840, 1841, 1842,
1843, 1844, and 1845. Part 1. Investigations of the Eleven-Year
Peried in the Amplitude of the Solar-diurnal Variation, and of the
Disturbances of the Magnetic Declination. By A. D. Bache, LL.D.
Pages 22. Quarto.
Meteorological Observations in the Arctic Seas. By Elisha Kent
Kane, M. D., United States navy. Made during the second Grinnell
expedition in search of Sir John Franklin, in 1853, 1854, and 1855,
at Van Rensselaer harbor, and other points on the west coast of
Greenland. Reduced and discussed by Charles A. Schott, assistant
United States Coast Survey. Pages 120. Quarto.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 55
The Coleoptera of Kansas and Eastern New Mexico. By John L.
Leconte, M. D. Pages 66, and three plates. Quarto.
Observations on Terrestrial Magnetism in Mexico, conducted under
the direction of Baron Von Miiller, with notes and illustrations of the
volcano Popocatapetl and its vicinity. By August Sonntag. Pages
92, and one plate. Quarto.
Observations on Certain Storms in Europe and America, in De-
cember, 1836. By Elias Loomis, LL.D., professor of natural phi-
losophy in the University of the city of New York. Pages 28, and
thirteen plates. Quarto.
In addition to the preceding publications, the following are in an
advanced stage of printing, and will be ready for distribution in a
short time:
Catalogue of the Described Lepidoptera of North America. By
Rey. Dr. John G. Morris. Octavo.
Check Lists of the Shells—land, fresh water, and marine—of North
America. Octavo.
Meteorological Observations made at Providence, Rhode Island.
By Prof. A. Caswell. Quarto.
Meteorological Observations made near Washington, Arkansas. By
Dr. Nathan D. Smith. , Quarto.
New Edition of the List of Foreign Institutions in Correspondence
with the Smithsonian Institution. Octavo.
Circular in reference to the collection of facts relating to the grass-
hopper tribes of North America. Octavo.
Circular in reference to the collecting of nests and eggs of North
American birds. Octavo.
Circular in reference to the collecting of North American shells.
Octavo.
EXCHANGES.
As in previous years, a continuous increase and expansion of ope-
rations has taken place in this department. The annexed tables will
give a better account of their magnitude than any general remarks
on the subject. It will be sufficient to say that the number of insti-
tutions and individuals in the United States availing themselves of
the Smithsonian facilities now embraces nearly all those publishing
works of a scientific and literary character.
The expenses of the system of exchanges conducted by the Insti-
tution have, of course, increased with the expansion of operations,
and but for the free facilities so generously accorded by various par-
ties would have arisen to such an amount as to render it necessary to
call on each of the institutions benefited for a share of the cost.
This has not yet been done, except in the case of the United States
Coast Survey, which has greatly exceeded all the rest in the bulk of
its transmissions; but it may soon be required from other parties.
The thanks of the Smithsonian Institution for free freights of pack-
ages containing exchanges and specimens of natural history are espe-
cially due to the following companies:
56 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
The North German Lloyd steamers, running between Bremen and
New York, of which Messrs. Gelpcke, Keutgen, and Reichelt, 84
Broadway, are agents. This line has carried 250 cubic feet for the
Institution at a single trip, without charge.
The California steamer line, consisting of the Pacific Mail Steam-
ship Company, between San Francisco and Panama, (as well as
between San Francisco and the ports of Oregon and Washington
Territory,) of which Mr. W. A. Davidge is president; the Panama
Railroad Company, David Hoadley, president; from Aspinwall to New
York the line at first consisted of the United States Mail Steamship
Company, M. O. Roberts, president, up to the 5th of October last,
when it was replaced in the route by the North Atlantic Steamship
Company, I. W. Raymond, president. Theagents of thisline, Mr. W..
H. Wickham, at New York, and Mr. A. B. Forbes, assisted by Mr.
Samuel Hubbard, at San Francisco, have also been very zealous im
their attentions to the interests of the Institution.
Messrs. Adams & Co., through the superintendent of the southern
division, Mr. S. M. Shoemaker, of Baltimore, and the Washington
agent, Mr. A. J. Falls, have very materially aided the Institution by
a reduction of freights on heavy goods, and their remission entirely
on small packages. This has also been done by Messrs. Wells, Fargo
& Co. in California. ;
The line of sailing vessels between New York and the west coast
of South America, belonging to Mr. Bartlett, 110 Wall street, has
continued to carry our Chilean exchanges free of charge.
To Mr. Edward Cunard, of New York, the Institution is indebted
for the offer to carry a specified amount of freight from New York to
Liverpool by his steamers, free of charge—a privilege which has al-
ready, in part, been made use of.
The Isabel steamer, running between Charleston, Key West, and
Havana, has also continued to carry packages free of charge, through
the liberality of the agents, Messrs. Mordecai & Co., of Charleston.
Messrs. Russell & Jones, contractors of army transportation to
Utah, and through Kansas and Nebraska, have also kindly extended
the facilities of their line to the Institution.
Considering the large amount of freight which some of the above-
mentioned lines transport annually for the Smithsonian Institution, it
will readily be understood how much they have assisted in carrying
out its objects, as, with a fixed income, the expenses of the ex-
changes and natural history operations conducted by the Institution
would be entirely beyond its present means.
A.
Receipt of books, &e., by exchange, in 1859.
V ol nrese CCA VO. cis Set errr es coe “la cue wie. crank ote among 659
Quarto hislbehelinlie, louleiis)'s s > - sl viisii sie siielis olieioletenelvalelelialie 303
POG reke eheweteliensilectesiats ole s:0's! ele la'le obs lon eat eee neat ice 60
Parts of volumes and pamphlets:
Oieyesidoh on cotdiob dooco Oooo b eo foot o 1,696
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
QUaTtO - eee ee eee ee cece ee eee e ee wees ne
Folio <) 0, (ehint aele —o Oe; Cero) 8/61 vue ele) eeieiiniele..a) es /epetlelverlale: Jellies
Maps and charts ++++-++-++ees eee eee: aes shonbapie' id «
of volumes.
MO tall steneistorcnene Me
7s ee oe
Being an increase over the year 1858 of 1,062 volumes and parts
The number of separate donations amounted to 1,252.
It will be remembered that this does not include the volumes pur-
chased for the current researches and operations of the Institution,
or for the completion of such series of transactions and periodicals as
could not otherwise be obtained.
Nos. of packages,
Nos. of boxes.
Bulk of boxes in
cubic feet.
eee eee
cere meee
Weight of boxes
in pounds.
B.
Showing the statistics of foreign exchanges of the Smithsonian Institution
in 1859.
g
o
oS
Agent and country. i
S
g
%
1. Dr. Fetrx Fricen, Leipsic—
SWeGentore sae cee ot See ee eee Y2
Norway terse hea haem eee ew 5
DenmMatkyee= oe aoe sae Sen oenee sees 12
RSG een aie aes ea Ee ye es ee 38
dha Ye oye bas ep are oe oe A Re 33
Germany ess sae cscee eae eens ncsacis 3
Switzerland ae eee melee wea eo od 294
Bel oiumpssee eee eee eee nee eno 12
Total 22h. Soe oe ee eee 437
2. H. Bossancr, Paris— ,
rane a teece cee tas eee 105
Maly sc Seee Sete Vecete sete See 55
Porturalcat eames sccers saanwabmenee 3
Spain See eee eee ccicma ace see ecminee 6
Wo eA 8 SS IS oe aS Sue 169
3. Henry Stevens, London—
Great Britain and Ireland ............ 151
TRO GAN ware ee ee teint a ieraretee 151
4 RESTON THES WORLD. oa cee mance nes aa cimie 68
Grand) totalee asses ee eee ee 825
1, 054
29, 480
58 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
The great increase in the number and bulk of packages of books
sent abroad during the period reported on is owing to several causes.
Among these may be mentioned the fact that the table embraces the
statistics of three different transmissions, rendered necessary by the
accumulation of materials in the Smithsonian building. A large pro-
portion of the works sent consisted of such publications of the
United States government as the Pacific Railroad Report, the Mexi-
can Boundary Report, the Report on Commercial Relations, the Coast
Survey Report, &e.
Of the Pacific Railroad Report alone, over one hundred sets were
sent, in behalf of the War Department, to the principal public libra-
ries and societies in Europe, and more than three hundred copies of
the Coast Survey Report to similar institutions. The Patent Office
exchanges with parties in Europe also occupied a very large bulk.
C.
Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from parties in America
for foreign distribution in 1859.
Number of
packages.
Albany, N. Y.—
PO LESSOL see) se eV eal Satie ah ere agers kt coy eames eed ra 98
Boston—
American Academyior Arts and@Sciences. --2-+-+-5-s4+c2s-+cece cee Ut
Socrebyrof Naturalvblistonys cas see eee ee eee ee ea a Seen 40
Cambridge, Mass.—
American Association for the Advancement of Science..---.........- 64
ProfessOrs Grayevecee tee sales ers aaa ae wa eee acta ato Sate Serta eae 15
Charleston, S. C.—
Hihote Society of Natural (history. 2-25 oo eee oan te annem 27
Columbia, Mo.—
BrofessSOT Swell owas sve er ae ree ta tee ea ei ae ae 17
Columbus, Ohio—
StateyAgriculturall Socletyiessassceeeoe oe ee ee. eee eee eee ee ee 100
Des Moines, Iowa—
tA bE Ot TO wea sane a ae Sa hes ee te i a Te og dS 193
Georgetown, D, C.— .
Collere sa 2nee es. ali ie ek OUTS ep ete ret fiat ce eR 2S ohne ny Wrecal F ' 6
New Haven, Conn.—
Amienicany J Oumslvor Science se aaene oa ee een ay een Le 12
AT ETICA MOLLE MbAln SOCLS byes see ee ee ty re 19
BLOfessOr J.) Dl Dantes Gensco alan See eet Bis a clan alisha 20
AEE IUIG HO I eg) Sa es pa ae RTS aed a ae el ee ee ee ee 2
Little Rock, Ark.—
ShatevonvArkansas jon6 soa5 soc mS cos aoe eee one ho kin a eee ee 800
New York—
New York Lyceum of Natural History.......-.-- Sed sciclslapeioeiem saieicicis 74.
Philadelphia—
Acad emygoreNaburalpsclen ces <5 so-celan aes oe aioe ere 325
Amenicany Ebilosophicall Soclety-csja.- os seeeeeises sass eee eee eee eee 132
Tsaac Wea te se sie ein sais Str Stai Go ae ee een Sms ats kM ee anc pea 134
Dr. Joseph eid yas na coc nn <n wo since «isc cee Seen eee 30
Wi. Sharswood same tema cee nee ois See oa ac 5 ee rs 30
Providence, R. I.—
State of-Rhodé-slandacstsesnsiceennccessawenceueseeeseseemese ass 6
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
C—Continued.
St. Louis, Mo.—
D9
Number of
packages.
DraGeorrewinrelmanns eno), .c see eee sees see ee eee otees
DP SOWAZIZCNUS tenimmis aie a jan sis cnjmaitine aes ent See eee eee
Washington, D. C.—
United: States sPatent’ Office’... 3. oo So ee atone eee eens ee
Wnited:States) Coast, Surveyc<.. 22 2/ds~/sstin eee eeeeeee see weeleels
Secretaryn Of | Wats cinco comocmtioumesensccmen ase eeeseene see saa
TieutenantG. 1. Warren 5. cance anos a oeiscapa esas Seen Eee ne
Miscellaneous: Se...5.s-cc2acce eae coe eo hese e ances seeeecese eee eae
Addressed packages received by the Snuthsonian Institution from Europe
for distribution in America in 1859.
Albany, N. Y.—
Albanyalnstitute=e-eee sees aece sane eset eee eae ee eae
Dudley, Observatory: ances niccn econ cecesinasee ne eeeee ome =e
News Yorks Statedbibrany veo e = ona scion ane eens se oe Seeyaae eee y=
New: Yorks StaterAgniculturalsSociety< =s22ee¢ thse. eoeseoseee ase
News work StateyMedicaliSocietyo 4. 2— a -eo sree oce eee eee eee
ProfessomJames#ialli=-2e essen eee eS ee ee oe eee clee a eeiaiees
Amherst, Mass.—
Amherst: Colleve caste Repeei eet ons tccee Os acetane cteeeareescceee
Ann Arbor, Mich.—
Observatoty<=222- enone eet ee acest nase mere ae Reae are eae ae as
Annapolis, Md.—
United StatessNaval Schoolassesseees=" =<" 2-2 acces ere ese eee eee
Atlanta, Ga.—
Medical:@ollesassssccsscsccslescor oes sessetescee ses econ nee
UisiversityaotlGeortiasces—-acs seen see eee ee eee eee ee ae eee
Baltimore, Md.—
Maryland! HistonicaliSociety2==s2sssssssseeScrrcessseses ese sas. |
Bloomington, Ind.—
indianawUniversityessss=s"4+ 2255 fof ce seemetsseee cea. teases cae
Boston, Mass.—
American: Academy of Arts and Sciences: 22--2282-222 7-22-22 <- 5-2.
American) Statistical Association=..\5-= oo oeeae eee atsmiass sae eeete nial
Boston-Society. of« Natural-History 3222s sseceeee = oes -- See e ec eaee-- |
Bowditchulotbrany, oer eseee sass ccsce ees SABRC SE eee. Sese
MistoncallSocietysasseaeosacccias lo tese aera se cee aie sae ae aerein =
RrisonyDiciplinesSocletyaseasa= se2-c eee aaacctese access aeeaee
Publicdhibraryasss.ssesoeeese sn nao oetaemacscccce ee roe scene cseen
State IuaibranysofeMassachusettsa=ss2-2-s-2sesse2+> -++s22s~——--— ===
Brunswick, Me.—
Bowdoin Colleper ast acen eee se eet eanc alsa ns.cae.o se =)= <niniemmine icin
Number of
packages.
“Th OO > bw
|
| 2
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
D—Continued,
Buriington, Vi.—
UniversibyonaVviermonta. sso 00. 8 case aecsn scoop eee eee
Cambridge, Mass.—
American Association for the Advancement of Science..-....-.-...-.
CambridzerAstronomicallJourmall 8-2 5-- sce oe ae ce noon sean
Cambrid “el prema tor yeaa ann = cn ciate a = ere se
ibranygorukHarvard Colleges anno le Pe oe
nofessonulitr Ae aSeiZ pc jara ste ater era i ial ei Oe 8 rl ia ot
IPT OfessOTeARal Gass mre eet eta sadam a2 Sella e oe mri cic ete eee ee
IProfessOL Dekel COee can me meena co eames conn twas koe cde smnehiae
Charlottesville, Va.—
WniversityfotmVineinigmecnes =e hee Seneca nce nca an seman mee
Charleston, S. C.—
HliothSocietyors Naturalebistonyaeseeine aes ceesete socetas Scsciece
Bui plat raaypeeereye era ee cen Serene eer a utes twee) or phat
Socicuyslbibrahyas eee ie ccc se ene awa see seed sanes sansa jeeameeseee
Cincinnati, Ohio—
Mercantilesmibranyieesemccem aie ccis tener ccinccessceccceesmscscesee
Obsenvatonyessmertey aoe ees eco Saka Sane ee omaha seine See ace ae
Bubucwibianyes-- = eeae eee eee ant Sake ine Sau bamanie stds sce tin
Columbia, Mo.—
Professors Gran Ore Swell O Wika tere eee Sate aie iciel S crcicre eich amiemicve Mite
Columbia, S. C.—
SouthiC@arolina;Colleve2 se seme eon mae aeie oc cetne ceo ceeewiss ase eee
Columbus, Ohio—
Ohio State boardsoreANcniculitte sss aso. ecne ese eeeneasmeeecsemins
Chapa Hill, N. C.—
Universityvote North Carolingeeas ea = cos ese sane emcee
Chicago, 1ll.—
WMechantcayeln stilt te state rte te rt a ets eee ee
Detroit, Mich.—
Michigan State Agricultural Society, <.- <--s-cec--cec-=--eenss--nac
Easton, Pa.—
Lafayette;Collese ince oo eee ae = saennisee te San nw atamioeSaeceee
Frankfort, Ky.—
Geological Surveyor Wentuchy i. ccoccnen pec an eee See
Gambier, Ohio—
Kenyon Collec eh a au seme ae a i ee a ie ais nate ee
Georgetown, D. C.—
Georretowny Colle mere mee teeta ae see iat rat ee eet ree
Hanover, N. H.—
Dartmouth) Colleve'.~ 2. csesccues som eces canister cence cc menicle cir
Harrisburg, Pa.—
State Library......... Soacoss cadbdttpsadasec Soned cedetsescaesas
Hartford, Ct.—
MounpwiMenisunstitute: = o6 oe —. So eee See neo eneiniae lo wie cic ieee
Jacksonville, Ill.—
Mlinois\College oes noc. s ec cc eae neces se eesc cisco ceeaeeees
Madison, Wis.—
Wisconsin State Agricultural Society -....-.------ ~-------- Sccooos
HustoricaltSociety, of Wisconsin = Sane en Wee eee eciena a see cme
Milledgeville, Ga.—
OslethorpesWUniversitvyees-seee esse cee eee ss] sssceeee eee eee
Montreal, Canada—
Naturaliaiistonyscocletyae= esate eee een ale m aeolian
Natchez, Miss.—
Public Library-....- eee iN fa a8 aha hs erage ate lates tee
| Number of
packages.
bo
= = OF ODO — GQ
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 61
D—Continued.
¥
Number of
packages.
New Brunswick, N. J.—
ibrotessorsG@eorge EH. Cook... 22te eee eee ee eees wootOeit es Ree 8
New Harmony, Ind.—
Dre De Owents nt See Se ee a ee eee 5
New Haven, Ct.—
American*Journal’ of (Science sss. ace ee eee 10
American Oriental Society soos ase secu see oe ee ee 8
Professor JOY Dana coors seer saicesrsocossatsig saw ee EES: 41
Professor sSillintansessososcoews se oe has ceSsesee ees eee 25
Male;Colleger torso eo oad ees ee See 17
Newark, Del.—
Delaware’Collegesesscosscscoscesecssesessse SP eae L
New Orleans, La.—
New, Orleans/Academy of Natural: Science- 222222228205... 3. 22 S222 31
University of Louisiana......... Jawscsorcasseseeweseeeosee ees ys
Newport, R. L—
Redwood Library ....... swiccsciaas ceSdencies Soe ete aS eS I
New York—
AmericanyHithnologicaliSocietyjeaeeee eee eee ee eee ee eee 7
American Geographical and Statistical Society ......... ....-------- 37
American institutesssae sence sees eee See eee Sassou 8
Astor fiibrary:c<.csenusendecccdscstatacekcest BIIe ae ees 3
Mercantile: Library. Association ..c.-odceeue ss eesencee oe eee 7
New? York Lyceum of: Natural: Historyy= ross tet eee ees See 29
Oregon city, O.—
University of: Oregon tueceket eee eeeeen tee eee ce ee ee 1
Philadalphia, Pa.—
Academy-of Natural Sciences seuwejoee eC ce oe ee 105
Ametican: Philosophical Society 222d eo 2 2 ee Be 67
Central" High School of Philadelphiac<wa2e..<o-e ced ee ee Se 6
RranklinMnstitutess 4, 1seoose cs cen oe Sek sek, a eee 17
Historical Society; of Pennsylvanialy.< 22 Se La L
Penusylvania Institute forthe Blind! beesooue bake eee ee eee «
Philadelphia*CollecetofPharmacywoosoe assesses eases Se a Sess wow cn
Philadelphia; Library. Company. 2-5. 326k e cee so ee eee 11
University of Penusyl vaninesssacessors ee Leone eo ee 1
Weapner i ree Institutes eeres: eee ee wee ee een eel un) wil 10
AsdaeWien) 242225 22ers seeeeeeyaeerosinsss sass sa seen ae 16
Dresolndeconte ==. Sian alee Sen) Bo ee ee 5
DreJosepht Leidy =: 2 = s22sesaseeeses sosassacseseoee er 19
Wallinnitshanwood! 5... 2.222 see eee te ee per 13
Princeton, N. J.—
ColleselofNewtdersey 2: 2 s2esscce ee ee eee ee BOE COMO p See e Soa 4
Providence, R. I —
Brown sWimiyersityya ss so oS Se Be oe See cg oer belle ee I
Richmond, Va.-—
Staterbibranyaeeeee. so s8 2) oss cae ey ol ee eee RL ud 1
Rochester, N. Y.—
University ...... ele Re eins ale a ses aCe we eae AE i
San Francisco, Cal.—
California Academy of Natural Sciences..ci..2..-.-..--2-<-------- 23
Geolovical Survey ofiGalitomiat solu caste cece< cc ecole ese seek ct 1
Savannah, Ga.—
Georinsristorical Soclcupameman cs caeeeeoes tae Ls calc. cee L
St. Louie, Mo.— : ;
Whe aGaiswA cad em y Obescieneen mn... eee cicien a eeeicc so cuss cece 70
Win versity eee eS espe Nene ace cea ey We at atctarrcshe Sas seeeee 11
Dre HS hmimandhs epee ee ee Ln. be aieleme nee a Seeene 5
Pie COlcemilecl Malena gee. sah we oc cscencclesesacoctmaneabon< 7
62 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
D—Continued.
Number of
packages.
Santiago, Chile—
WmiversibynOL Chile Vso jo ia sa mew winteln mi ira reer ees ee see meen mee 6
Obsenvatonyestene cet te cee s maeiee ace peicain comm cess a aiae cameos 1
Springfield, 1ll.—
Mlmnoisistate:Acricultural Society=.4-sseese=seece eee se pees ones 1
Tallahassee, F'la.—
Publichiibranyen casos scene ese gaigqo rossi see ee eee 1
Toronto, Cunada—
Canadianunstitdteysjoscniecinneine neces osorciasaae aes eee ee 4.
Tuscaloosa, Ala.—
UniversityroteMabamasenen sn cse nan sae cae cain onoceciac cence ae 1
Washington, D. C.—
PresidentsofatheyWimited States js 202 <4 sie ats ee ss eee oma 1
United: StatessPatent Ofiee tesa secs Hee ace eC l SSSR ee ee 72
OrdnancetBureauvssstssac acs ovewaeroceee see u cesT See 3
liehtenousesboardet seo. sasclsscacecesce cocecect cnet ec eer ees a eae 11
UnitedyStates:CoastiSurveyio-snca'scanessecasc esa sae sos aloe eae oe 3
IBTOLESSO Tap Da Cl Cetera a aietetetemtaja a} vaitete rate aster ais ata eee emia ate a eee 44
National Obseryatorye sconce mtc coos sees ete oee oe ee 27
DenutenantyMaunyssseeees eee ces oe eee eee eee et ee oe aeeeeeee 54
SecretanysoinWari nua eels us eo Skule a eeeonetsscecleeneeeees 3
Commissioner.ofeindian vAtfairsy <4 aa 2 a ee eicleaini ae 1
Surgeon, Generale 52 cactesssceccsn ace me cee eae eee cae ee coemes 3
Conpress: Wibrany sso ae oot sono OSES OS Soe O ees oe! 15
hicutenantp) seMeGillliss sees setters oe ete ela a oeleinie co clsiee ewes 31
National Institute #23 1s Saedos contests a sues seashell ee 3
Waterville, Me.—
Waterville Collegelsssaasseeececan sme waweose naa aenhae Someries u
Worcester, Mass. —
American Antiquanian§Socletypane acseatiese se eeeeaee soe ca ae mae 6
Individuals mot.inentioned aboyesss-ses aeons eee 246
Miscellaneous societies, &c., not mentioned ---.....--. pe a pS er 76
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 63
MUSEUM.
ADDITIONS TO THE MUSEUM.
Extensive as were the additions to the museum in 1858, (exclusive
of those transferred from the Patent Office,) those of 1859 have ex-
ceeded them in magnitude and extent. The number of separate do-
nations amounted to 301, (127 in 1858,) embracing nearly 500 different
packages. A detailed list of these donations will be found at the end
of this report, to which I would refer, and I will proceed here to
mention more in detail such of the collections received as from their
importance appear to require it.
As heretofore, most of the large collections were received from
officers in charge of parties under different departments of the gov-
ernment. Although the number of these parties has not been as
great as in some other years, the results attained by them are in no
way inferior in importance.
EXPLORATIONS UNDER THE WAR DEPARTMENT.
1. Construction of wagon road from Walla- Walla, Oregon, to Fort
Benton, under Lieutenant John Mullan, U. S. A.—This expedition,
with Dr. Mullan as medical officer, went to California in the spring,
by steamer, and thence to Walla- Walla, the starting point. Supplies
were sent up the Missouri by the steamers of the American Fur
Company of St. Louis, one of which made the first trip through to
Fort Benton. The supplies were accompanied by Mr. John Pear-
sall, an assistant of Lieutenant Mullan, who made large collections of
nests, eggs, birds, insects, and fossils. Collections were also made
by Lieutenant Mullan, between Walla-Walla and his winter camp,
near Fort Owen, not far from the Bitter Root valley, where he was
established at the last advices.
2. Exploration of the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone. under Cap-
tain J. W. Raynolds, U. S. A.—This expedition, accompanied by Dr.
“Hayden as geologist and naturalist, went up the Missouri in the steam-
boat of the Fur Company, in June last, and disembarked at Fort
Pierre. From this starting point they proceeded across to the Yel-
lowstone, at Fort Sarpy, and thence, after various lateral explora-
tions, to their winter quarters on Deer creek, at the crossing of the
Platte, about 100 miles west of Fort Laramie, and in the immediate
vicinity of the Upper Platte Indian agency, in charge of Major Twiss.
During the winter, excursions have been made in different directions
for the purpose of geological explorations, and large collections se-
cured in all departments of natural history. The collections received
in Washington from Captain Raynolds consist mainly of the zoolo-
gical series gathered up to the arrival of his party at Fort Sarpy, and
embrace specimens of birds, eggs, insects, &c.
64 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
3. Exploration of the San Juan river and Upper Colorado, under
Captain J. N. Macomb, U. S. A.—This party, accompanied by Dr.
Newberry as geologist and naturalist, did not get into the field until
a late period in the summer, and returned before winter to the east.
The principal results of the expedition, independently of interesting
geographical discoveries, are to be found in the department of geology,
in which Dr. Newberry was enabled to extend his observations made
while on the Colorado expedition under Lieut. Ives. Among other
fossils, Dr. Newberry obtained remains of a new genus and species
of extinct lizard, larger than any formerly found in North America.
4. Explorations with the army in Utah, under Captain Simpson,
U. S. A.—This party, under Captain Simpson, accompanied by Mr.
Charles 8S. McCarthy as collector, left Fort Leavenworth for Camp
Floyd, in May, 1858, reaching its destination in September. From
this time until March, 1859, the party was occupied in making roads
between Camp Floyd and Fort Bridger, and in marking reservations.
From May to August, 1859, Captain Simpson explored two wagon
road routes between Camp Floyd and Genoa, in Carson valley, which
shorten very much the distance from Salt Lake City to California.
As much of this region had never been before traversed by scien-
tific men, the results were very interesting, consisting of several new
and peculiar forms of fishes, as also of reptiles, insects, &c. Many
rare birds, with their eggs, were also procured.
The party left Camp Floyd for Leavenworth in August, by way of
the Timpanogos, the Uintah mountains and the valley of the Green
river.
In addition to large zoological collections made by Mr. McCarthy,
Mr. Engelmann, the geologist of the expedition, made some important
geological discoveries, and brought in many fossils and plants.
UNDER THE STATE DEPARTMENT.
5. Survey of the northwest boundary: Archibald Campbell, esq.. com-
missioner.—This expedition, with Dr. Kennerly as the surgeon and nat-
uralist, and Mr. George Gibbs as geologist, has already been referred
to in previous reports. ‘These gentlemen have continued to make
large collections during the year, those received filling twelve boxes.
The specimens gathered about the Chiloweyuck depot proved parti-
cularly interesting, from including a new salmon, Anodonta, and other
species of animals. The collections also embrace skins and skulls of
the Aploceras montanus, or Rocky mountain goat, the only ones known
in American collections; also of Lagomys princeps, or little chief hare,
and skins of Lagopus leucurus, the white-tailed ptarmigan, and of the
black-throated diver, Colymbus arcticus, in adult summer dress.
UNDER THE NAVY DEPARTMENT.
6. Exploration of the Parana and its tributaries, under Captain
T’. J. Page, U. S. N.—This survey, in continuation of that prosecuted
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 65
by Captain Page several years ago, is accompanied by Mr. Christopher
Wood as taxidermist, and has already sent home quite a large collec-
tion of birds, embracing several rare and perhaps new species.
UNDER THE INTERIOR DEPARTMENT.
T. Wagon road from El Paso to Fort Yuma, under Colonel Leech.—
This expedition returned to Washington in 1858, but the collections
did not arrive until early in 1859. These were made by Dr. 8. Hayes,
and consisted chiefly of a large and valuable herbarium, embracing
several new species of plants.
8. Wagon road from the South Pass to California, under Colonel F. W.
Lander.—This party passed so rapidly over the country as to be unable
to do much in the collecting of specimens of natural history. Mr.
James A. Snyder, who had charge of this department, among other
duties, succeeded in obtaining specimens, both in skin and in alcohol,
of the very rare Lagomys princeps, or ‘‘coney’’ of the Mormons.
These were captured in the Wahsatch mountains, to which, according
to Colonel Lander, they appear to be chiefly confined.
IN CONNEXION WITH THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
9. Exploration of the vicinity of Fort Tejon and of Cape St. Lucas,
by Mr. John Xantus.—Among the very important researches in the
natural history of America, the explorations of Mr. John Xantus de-
serve particular mention. In previous reports, the collections made
by Mr. Xantus at Fort Tejon have been referred to. During a resi-
dence there of about sixteen months, from the summer of 1857 to the
autumn of 1858, although constantly occupied with official duties, he
has exhausted the natural history of the vicinity of the fort in the
most thorough manner. All departments are fully represented in his
collections, which filled thirty-five boxes ; the birds alone embracing
nearly 2,000 specimens and 144 species.
Professor Bache, the Superintendent of the United States Coast Sur-
vey, having determined to establish a tidal station at Cape St. Lucas,
Lower California, Mr. Xantus was placed in charge, and reached the
Cape in April last. He has since that time made, in the intervals of
his official duties, and forwarded to Washington, collections which vie
in thoroughness with those of Fort Tejon, and exceed them in number
of species, embracing as they do the marine as well as the fresh water
and land forms. Of 42 species of birds first received from him, 8 are
new; of crustaceans, there are over 100 species, many of them new;
while in all other departments the collections have been proportion-
ately great.
The results obtained at Cape St. Lucas by Mr. Xantus add another
to the many benefits to natural history as well as to physical science
rendered incidentally by the operations of the United States Coe t
Survey, as shown previously in the important collections of Lieutenant
Trowbridge, Mr. Wurdemann, Mr. Cassidy, Mr. Wayne and others.
5
66 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
10. Explorations of the Hudson's Bay Territory, by Mr. Robert Ken-
nicott.—Mr. Kennicott, under the patronage of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, and by the assistance of the University of Michigan at Ann
Arbor, the Audubon Club of Chicago, the Chicago Academy of Sci-
ences, and a number of gentlemen interested in the natural history of
the Arctic regions, has ‘been during the past year engaged in an ex-
ploration of the north, which promises results of no ordinary import-
ance. His labors have been greatly facilitated by the cordial co-
operation of Sir George Simpson, governor of the territory, and the
officers of the service, especially of Mr. Barnston, of Michipicoten,
and Mr. B. R. Ross, of Fort Simpson. Mr. Kennicott left in May for
Lake Superior, via Toronto and Collingwood. From Fort William, on
Lake Superior, he was conveyed to Norway House in the Company’s 8
boats, and thence towards.Fort Simpson, on the Mackenzie. At the
latest advices, of July 29, he had reached Methy or La Loche Portage,
and, in company with Mr. Ross, it was his expectation to proceed in a
few days to Fort Simpson, there to winter. He intends inthe spring
to go to Great Slave or Bear Lake to collect eggs, and hopes to re-
main long enough in the north to spend another spring and summer
on the Youkon of Russian America, and another on the shores of the
Arctic ecean, north of Great Bear Lake.
A small portion only of the collections made by Mr. Kennicott have
yet reached Washington; those gathered between Norway House and
Portage La Loche having arrived at Pembina too late to come down
this year. Among the specimens received, however, is a fine skin of
the rare Larus Sabini, or the fork-tailed gull, shot on Lake Winnipeg.
Mr. Kennicott was accompanied to Lake Winnipeg by Mr. Charles
A. Hubbard, of Milwaukie, who returned home in the fall, by way of
Fort Garry and Pembina, from whom the Institution received a val-
uable collection of eggs, and through him, from Mr. Donald Gunn, a
number of birds and of specimens in alcohol.
11. Explorations on the Saskatchewan, by Captain Blakiston, Ra A.—
The Institution has also received some interesting collections made on
the Saskatchewan, by Captain Thomas Blakiston, R. A., through the
Royal Artillery Institution at Woolwich, London. These consist of
eggs and skins of birds, several of the former of which are rare and
new to our museum. |
Dr. Rae, the celebrated Arctic traveller, presented to the Institution
specimens of Spermophilus parryi from Repulse bay, latitude 56° 30’
north, thus supplying an important addition to the collection of North
American mammals.
12. Various other points on the west coast.—Other collections of in-
terest consist of nests, eggs, and skins of birds, and of other animals
from Fort Umpqua, sent by Dr. Vollum; of skeletons of the sea otter,
by Mr. R. W. Dunbar; of specimens in alcohol, by Mr. Alexander Tay-
lor; and of eggs, by Dr. C. A. Canfield.
13. Explorations of Fort Crook, by John Feilner, esqg.—Mr. Feilner
during the past year has made large coliections of birds and mam-
mals at Fort Crook, rivalling those of Mr. Xantus at Fort Tejon.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 67
Among them are good specimens of such rare birds as Picus william-
sont, albolarvatus, thyroideus, ke.
14. Exploration in the Rocky mountain region.—In addition to the
government collections of Captain Simpson and Captain Macomb, Dr.
Wdersan U.S. A., has continued to send a number of rare birds froin
Cantonment Burgwin. Dr. Irwin, U.S. A., at Fort Buchanan, has also
made large collections for the Institution, none of which, however,
have yet been received except one box of birds. Dr. George Suckley,
U.S. A., while accompanying a detachment of troops from Leaven-
worth to Camp Floyd, made some interesting collections, including the
eggs of the Rocky mountain plover. Several rare animals have also
been received from Colonel Vaughan, Indian agent for the’ Blackfeet,
near Fort Benton-
Dr. Brewer, U.S. A., presented to the collection, through Captain J.
H. Simpson, some rare reptiles and shells from southern Utah.
15. Explorations in and near Florida.—Dr. H. Bryant and Mr. Wil-
liam Cooper spent the winter in the Bahamas chiefly in and about
Nassau, and made rich collections of animals, series of which were pre-
sented by them to the Institution.
Dr. J. G. Cooper visited Key West in March, and thence proceeded
to Cape Florida, where he spent two months, and another month om
Indian River and the St. John’s. In addition to extensive zoological
collections, Dr. Cooper paid particular attention to the trees of Florida,
and succeeded in obtaining several West Indian and tropical species.
not previously known to occur in the United States.
A large number of marine animals in alcohol, and of birds and their
eggs, were collected at the Tortugas for the Institution by Captaim
Woodbury, U.S. A., and by Dr. Whitehurst.
Dr. Bean, of Micanopy, Florida, has also furnished a collection of
the eggs, reptiles, and fishes of the State. Among the first are the
only eggs of the glossy ibis,' [bis ordit, yet detected within our limits.
In connexion with Florida explorations, with which he was so clcesely
associated, itis my painful duty to mention the death, during the past
year, of Mr. Gustavus Wurdemann, a tidal observer of the United
States Coast Survey, and for many years an active correspondent of
the Smithsonian Institution. Occupied with the important scientific
duties incident to his place in the Coast Survey, Mr. Wurdemann yet
found time for attention to natural history; and at his different stations,
of St. Joseph’s islands, Texas; Calcasieu,* Louisiana; Fort Morgan,
Alabama; and Key West, Tortugas, Indian Key, Key Biscayne, Char-
lotte Harbor, &c., Florida, made collections “rine have proved of the
greatest service in supplying information concerning the zoology of
the Gulf region. Independently of the many new and little known
crustacea, shells, and other marine animals collected by Mr. Wurde-
mann, he succeeded in adding several species of birds to the fauna
of the United States; among others, Larus cucullatus, Certliola fla-
veola, Quiscalus baritus, Cor vus Americanus var. floridanus, Ardea
Wiirdemanni, &e.
16. Miscellaneous localities. —A collection of eggs and birds of II-
linois was received from Mr. Tolman; of insects and reptiles of
68 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
Kansas, from Mr. H. Brandt; and of eggs, reptiles, and shells,. from
St. Charles’s College, Louisiana. Mr. Theodore Gill, during a vist
to Newfoundland, obtained a collection of fishes and invertebrates for
the Institution. Mr. Willis, of Halifax, has also furnished valuable
collections of eggs and shells. For a statement of many other im-
portant additions to the Smithsonian Museum from private sources, I
beg leave to refer to the list hereunto appended.
17. Other parts of the world.—A series of skins of the tropic-birds,
and of eggs of birds breeding on the Bermudas, has proved of
much interest for comparison with North American. These were
presented by Chief Justice Darrell; a collection of fishes and reptiles
from Nicaragua, presented by Dr. H. C. Caldwell, United States
navy, embraced several species new to the Smithsonian collection.
Mr. McLeannan, of the Panama Railroad Co., has presented to the
Institution many species of birds taken on the Isthmus not before
in the museum. Captain Dow, of the same company, has also sup-
plied a pair of living curassows.
18. Miscellaneous collections.—One of the most important additions
to the museum during the year has been made by Mr. William Stimp-
son, embracing, among other specimens, the whole of his collection
of shells of the Atlantic coast, including the types of his ‘‘shells of
New England,’”’ and the ‘‘marine invertebrates of Grand Manan.’
A large portion of the collection consists of specimens in alcohol, of
many species, the animals of which are almost entirely unknown
elsewhere.
With this collection and that of the exploring expedition, and
other parties from the west coast, the Smithsonian Institution has
within its walls the best single collection extant of the marine shells
of North America.
Dr. Jan has presented, on the part of the Museo Civico, Milan, of
which he is director, a large number of species of snakes, for the most
part types of his great work on serpents. ;
From the zoological museum of the University of Copenhagen,
Dr. J. J. Steenstrup, director, the Institution has received types of
various species of radiates, crustacea, &c., described by C. F.
Liitken, Dr. H. Kroyer and others.
WORK DONE IN CONNEXION WITH THE COLLECTIONS.
Much progress has been made during the year in putting the speci-
mens already exhibited in the museum in order, in adding additional
ones, and in properly labelling and arranging the whole. So much,
however, is required to be done, that it is not to be wondered at if
the amount actually accomplished is not at first fully realized by the
visitor. The taxidermist has completed the change of stands of all
the mammals and of the North American birds on the south side of
the hall, and is now engaged on the exotic birds. He has also
mounted several hundred birds, chiefly from fresh specimens, for
the purpose of exhibiting deficient species of more special interest.
A considerable number of large quadrupeds have also been
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 69
mounted and put in place—such as two grizzly bears, a cinnamon
bear, an antelope, a pair of mule deer, several wolves, &c.
The labor of cataloguing, entering, and arranging the collections
has also been diligently continued during the year, as shown by the
accompanying table. Much assistance in this has been derived from
the voluntary services of Mr. Robert Kennicott, Mr. E. Coues, Mr.
Prentice, Mr. A. J. Falls, and others.
Table exhibiting the entries in the record books of the Smithsonian Museum
in 1859, in continuation of previous years.
1851. | 1852. | 1853. | 1854. | 1855. | 1856. | 1857. | 1858. | 1859.
Mammals .....+.. EU See Sea ERE. ot 114 198 351 | 1,200 2,046 | 3,200 | 3,226] 3,750
Birds tyteistenfelos.ctsideisisitersaisteiisiel sisereiseicell isctetersierll Sieeis veos| 45353 | 4,425 | 5,855 | 8,756 | 11,390] 15,913
Reptiles/t cmos scasace meee ets eA es fate Sac aeeell Noses cae esate’ 106 239 | 4,370 | 4,616
Mishes cdot ese cocesa reac: Men eccousealtaseaces cngeeed| faa one lesenetas 155| 613] 1,136| 1,740
Skeletons and skulls .... esses: 911 | 1,074} 1,190] 1,275 | 2,050 | 3,060 | 3,340 | 3,413| 3,650
Hoes ofsbirdaaesceeesteenenleces|eesaieses||tecerae S Seeccae cma cece PEER rcrerstelatilisieete sse| 1,032] 25595
GEDStACE Ras Aeesnicjsinisicloteysicicielcieleie)||arels elstieist] (*ferclatoiatn)elllataterelelete’etl nieisietelels’s iaveferelateltiet|(aieiate Sonoljsooo 000. 939 939
Moll asks taki. teistaleytse clesieicisis| sorsieteteies | esse seelever eee |eree wees |-sccanss|eseessee|ooresees|oeaveres 2,000
Adi AES plese lcicte sins mersisieiolalepeivia'sy)||e sie visisvelll Feteleteleleie sieieieeeie> iste viele [Peietoistate ater | Selo ol stetsls||lsfeVareverstoteil(atete stctetets 1,100
OSHIIi ein cicseleisls\e.isiaiseisielniciele.e/s'|isle\s\e elsie(n\ llslofalajeinieci|ie sielevetete(elltareleletaferetel| a's evsjalsialel|leials'<lele\e(eii|sievela laterals 171
Minerals 0.060 o ccc wees cvecercclecvccese| sees cccelescccece|ress cose [fereiatelleleleis|fareivielefetsts||/eleielefaleiers sajareloreisie 793
eee | AE EL es tee heals ome
Motallyeieeas|cemeterecie ets 9il| 1,188 | 1,388| 4,979 | 7,675 | 11,222 | 16,158 | 25,506 | 37,197
I
The actual number of entries during the year amounts to 11,691,
being the difference between the aggregates of 1858 and 1859, and
2,343 more than the entries of 1858. As explained in previous re-
ports, these numbers are far from exhibiting the aggregate of speci-
mens catalogued, except in the case of mammals, birds, and osteolo-
gical preparations.
Hach entry generally includes all specimens of the same species re-
ceived at one time from a given locality, and may embrace hundreds
of individual objects. Thus in the oological catalogue, one number
covers 242 eggs of the white ibis, Ibis alba, received from Dr. Bean.
In a similar manner one entry of shells may embrace hundreds or
even thousands of specimens. It will not be too high an estimate,
probably far below it, to assume 5 specimens as the average to each
number, making 185,985 as the aggregate of objects entered on
the record books.
At the present time there remain to be catalogued as many, proba-
bly, as 10,000 jars of fishes and other alcoholic specimens, independ-
ently of the entire series of the crustacea, radiates, &c., collected by the
North Pacific and Behring Straits Expedition; the fishes of the Wilkes
Exploring Expedition, in the hands of Professor Agassiz, embracing
over a thousand species; the skins of the birds of the same expedition;
and the shells, radiates, &c.; many thousand series of fossils, vegeta-
ble and animal, both vertebrate and invertebrate; all the insects,
70 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
worms, microscopical preparations, &.; a large portion of the eth-
nological collections, the entire herbarium, &c., amounting, in all
probability, to 100,000 numbers.
The series of skins and eggs of North American birds has been
entirely rearranged during the year to accommodate the large increase
both of the species and the specimens. This has only been done ap-
proximately in regard to the mammals, as the additions have been so
great, since their first arrangement in 1857, as to require a study of
the entire class in order properly to determine their names.
The corals have all been arranged and fully labelled by Professor
J. D. Dana during the year, and now constitute a highly interesting
and important feature of the public collection.
During the, year the services of Mr. P. P. Carpenter, the well
known conchologist, having been secured, he is now at work upon the
arrangement and labelling ‘the shells, the whole labor of which will
probably be completed in 1860. The co- operation of all the Ameri-
can conchologists, known as original investigators, has also been ob-
tained, and the objects of their especial attention ‘submitted to them
for determination; the Unionide to Mr. Lea, assisted by Dr. E.
Foreman; the Helicide to Mr. Binney; the east-coast shells to Mr.
Stimpson; the west-coast to Mr. Carpenter himself; while Dr. Gould
has identified the new species of the exploring expedition, and ren-
dered aid in the criticism of the collection generally. Much assist-
ance has also been rendered by Mr. J. G. Anthony, } Mr. James Lewis,
Dr. Newcomb, Mr. Lapham, and other gentlemen, who have ma ude
conchology a speciality.
In the proposed method of arrangement of the shells, the types of
descriptions, and a good representative of each species in different
ages and varieties, w rill be cemented to square plates of glass; the se-
ries, illustrating geographical distribution, being kept in trays.
A specimen of each species of North American shell will be ex-
hibited on the glass plates in table cases, lined on the bottom with
black paper; but of exotic shells there will only be table surface
enough for a type of each genus. The other portions of the series
will be kept in drawers below the tables. It is also proposed, for the
more ready appreciation of points connected with geograplucal dis-
tribution, to keep in separate series the shells of northern China,
Japan, and the North Pacific; the boreal shells of the west coast as
far south as San Diego; the marine shells from San Diego to Panama;
the marine shells of the west coast of South America; the marine shells of
the Atlantic coast to Fernandina, Florida; the marine shells of Florida,
the West Indies, and the Gulf of Mexico; and the different American
land and fresh water species. The shells of the rest of the world, with
a few exceptions, will probably be arranged in one systematic series.
As stated in the last report, a large portion of the collections in
charge of the Smithsonian Institution are in the hands of various
eminent naturalists for determination. Professor Agassiz and Mr. J.
C. Brevoort have different portions of the series of fishes; Mr. Bar-
nard, certain Echini; Professor Agassiz, the turtles; Mr. Cassin the
South American birds; Mr. Lyman, the Ophiuride; Mr. Putnam, the
/
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. ut
Etheostomoids; Drs. Torrey and Gray, the exploring expedition plants,
&c. None of the collections, stated last year to be out of the build-
ing, have yet been returned.
Much progress has been made upon the descriptive works on North
American Diptera, by Dr. Loew and Baron Osten Sacken; on Newroptera,
by Dr. Hagen; on Hymenoptera, by Mr. De Saussure; on Coleoptera, by
Dr. Leconte; on Hemiptera, by Mr. Uhler; and on Lepidoptera, by Dr.
Morris, based, toa greater or less extent, on specimens supplied by the
Smithsonian Institution. Itis hoped that nearly all these works will be
submitted to the Institution during 1860; and their publication can-
not fail to give an impetus to the “study of entomology, so important
in its application to the interests of agriculture. In this connexion it
may be proper to state that a circular has been drawn up by Mr.
Uhler,and published by the Institution, embodying numerous queries,
having for their object the eliciting such information respecting
the habits and history of the grasshopper tribes of North Americaas
may serve as a basis of operations in restraining their ravages.
A circular intended to secure contributions of shells from different
localities in North America, and a new edition of the circular in ref-
erence to North American eggs, have also been prepared for distribu-
tion.
PRESENT CONDITION OF THE COLLECTIONS.
In the last report I presented a list of all the great collections
constituting the bulk of the museum of the Smithsonian Institution,
and the additions since then are enumerated in the following pages.*
* For convenience of reference, it may be well to continue the enumeration here from
page 55 of the report for 1858 :
50. Collections made in Kansas, Nebraska, and Utah, by Captain J. H. Simpson, U.S. A.
51. Collections made on the South Pass wagon-road route, under I’. W. Lander, esq.
52. Collections made on the El Paso and Fort Yuma wagon-road route, by J. B. Leech, esq.
53. Collections made on the wagon-road reute from Walla-Walla to Fort Benton, by
Lieutenant John Muilan, U.S. A.
54. Collections made during an exploration of the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone, by
‘Captain J. W. Raynolds, U.S. A.
55. Collections made during the exploration of the San Juan and Upper Colorado, by
Captain J. N. Macomb, U.S. A.
56. Collection made in an exploration of Cape St. Lucis, Lower California, by John
Xantus, esq.
57. Collections made at Fort Crook, by John Feilner, esq.
58. Collections made in the Arctic regions, by Robert Kennicott, esq.
59. Collections made in Illinois, by J. W. Tolman, esq.
60. Collections made in Central Florida, by Dr. J. B. Bean.
61. Collections made in-Kansas, Nebraska, and Utah, by Dr. Suckley, U.S. A.
62. Collections made in the Bahamas, by Mr. William Cooper.
63. Collections made in the Bahamas, by Dr. H. Bryant.
64. Collections made in South Florida, by Dr. J. G. Cooper.
65. Collections made in the Tortugas, by Captain H. G. Wright, U.S. A.
66. Collections made in the Tortugas, by Captain D. P. Woodbury, U.5. A.
67. Collections made in the Tortugas, by Dr. Whitehurst.
68. Collections made in Louisiana, by the professors and students of St. Charles College
69. Collections made on the Isthmus of Panama, by James McLeannan, esq.
‘70. Collections made in the West Indies and in Newfoundland, by Theodore Gill.
71. Collections from the Saskatchawan, by Captain John Blakiston, R, A.
72. Collections made by Commodore Perry on the Japan expedition.
fe REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
The more prominent results of additions to the museum during the
current year are to be seen in the approach to completion of the series
of North American mammals and birds by the reception of such rare
species as Lagomys princeps, Aploceros montanus, &. Specimens of
the musk ox, barren ground bear, and reindeer, with other species,
collected by Mr. B. R. Ross for the Institution, were detained at Pem-
bina with Mr. Kennicott’s collections, having reached that point too
late in the season to come through to St. Paul.
Among the species of birds added in 1859 may be mentioned Phaeton
Havirostris, Puffinus obscurus, Xema sabini, Rosthramus sociabilis, Vireo
altiloquus, Sula personata, Tetrao richardsonit, Lagopus leucurus, and
adult Colymbus arcticus and Podiceps arcticus, in summer dress, with
the numerous novelties from Cape St. Lucas sent by Mr. Xantus.
The series of South American birds has been largely increased in
number of species. Many very rare North American eggs have been
added to the collection. The other specimens received, with the
exception of Mr. Stimpson’s Atlantic coast shells, have served to fill
up slight gaps in speciés or localities, rather than to bring any to a
condition of completeness.
LIST OF DONATIONS TO THE MUSEUM DURING 1859.
Abbott, William.—Skins of birds from Florida.
Adams, Alvin.—Bark of giant tree of California (Sequoia gigantea.)
Adams, Alvin, William R. Patterson, Dr. Nichols, Dr. Emmerson, Dr.
Emmerton, Dr. Thorndyke, Dr. Shrady, Dr. Robinson, and Dr.
Hells. —Stalactite from the ‘‘Gothic Chapel” of the Mammoth
Cave.
Akhurst, J.—Skins of birds from Central America, eggs of European
and American birds, bats in alcohol from the West Indies.
Amherst College. —Eges of Massachusetts birds.
Anderson, Dr. W. W., United States army.—Skins of birds and mam-
mals from Rocky mountains.
Andrews, Professor £. B.—Fishes and reptiles in alcohol, Ohio.
Arnold, Benjamin. —Indian relics from Rhode Island.
Ashmead, Samuel.—Set of marine algae of United States Sabet
Ashton, T, B.—Box of birds’ egos from New York.
Audubon Naturalists Club of Chicago. —Mounted specimen of Grus
americana, or whooping crane.
Ayres, Dr.—Birds? eges of California.
Baird, -S. F.—Skin of Arctomys monax, New York.
Baird, William M.—Heges of birds of New Jersey.
Baker, £. £B.—Al\coholic collections, skins of birds, and egg of
Pandion ? Charlotte Harbor, Florida.
Barnston, George. —Skins of fishes, birds’ eggs, &c., specimens in al-
cohol, from Lake Superior.
Beadle, Delos W:—Fifteen bottles alcoholic collections, Canada.
Bean, Jr. J. B.—iggs of birds; reptiles, fishes, &c., from Florida.
Bedford, Alexander.—Fossils, Michigan.
Bellman, C.—Reptiles, fishes, &c., from Mississippi.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. ie
Benners, Henry.—Specimens in alcohol from Tortugas.
Berthoud, Dr. E. L.—Fossils from Kansas and Isthmus of Panama.
Blake, W. P.—Minerals, and eggs of birds from Georgia.
Blanc, Rev. A.—Eggs of birds of Louisiana and other zoological col-
lections.
Bloomfield, Captain R. N.—Box of ‘‘coca’’ leaves.
Bossard, P.—Box of shells from Ohio.
Boston Society of Natural History.—Series of plants collected in Cali-
fornia, by E. Samuels.
Brackett, George H.—Skin of star-nosed mole.
Brandt, H.—Box of insects, reptiles, and mammals, Kansas.
Brewer, Dr. T. M.—Egegs of fifty-seven species of European birds.
Brewster, Miss L.—Nests, eggs of birds from Massachusetts.
Brown, Dr. George C.—Skins of Pityop his melanoleucus, New Jersey ;
eges of birds.
Brugger, Samuel.—Nests and eggs of birds, and mammals, Centre
county, Pennsylvania.
Bryant, Dr. H.—Fishes, skins of birds, and eggs from the Bahamas.
Caldwell, Dr. H. C., United States navy.—Birds and alcoholic collec-
tions from Nicaragua.
Campbell, A.—Nine boxes natural history collections from northwest
boundary survey, near Puget’s Sound, collected by Dr. Kennerly,
and one collected by George Gibbs.
Canfield, Dr. C. A.—Collection of eggs of Californian birds.
Carleton, Major J. H., United States army.—Shells from the Colorado
desert.
Carter, B. F.—Shells from Texas.
Catley, H.—Lepidopterous insects from Oregon.
Churchill, R. C.—Eggs and birds from Maryland.
Clark, J. H.—Coal from Rabbit-ear Creek, Texas.
Clark, Wiliam.—Centipede; Van Buren, Arkansas.
Clark, W. P.—Box of eggs and can of fishes from Ohio.
Cope, H. D.—Type specimens of Desmognathus ochrophea, Pennsylva-
nia.
Copenhagen Zoological Museum.—Type specimens of marine inverte-
brates of North Seas and West Indies.
Cooper, W.—Fifty-nine species of shells of Bahamas, &e., collection
of Bahama fishes; shells and echinoderms of the Atlantic coast
of the United States.
Cooper, Dr. J. G.—Specimens of woods, reptiles in alcohol, and eggs
of Pipiry flycatcher from Florida.
Corey, O. W.—Box of fossil crinoids from Indiana.
Craig, Dr., United States army.—Skin of black wolf of Washington
Territory.
Curley, Professor.—Gordius or hair worm in alcohol.
Danker, Henry A—Nests and skins of birds from New Y ae
Davis, ‘William A. —Fossils; Ilinois.
Davrell, Chief Justice.—Skins and eggs of Bermuda birds; reptiles in
alcohol.
Dawson, Professor J. W.—Fossil Pupa vetusta from Nova Scotia.
74 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
Day, Mrs. Thomas W.—Collection of eggs from California.
Diggs, Captain.—Skin of otter, Washington Territory.
Dorsey, William.—Minerals from Chile. ; 4
Dow, Captain J. M.—Alcoholic specimens, Nicaragua; and silver ore
from San Salvador; two living Curassows, Central America.
Drexler, C.—Mounted birds and fishes.
Dunbar, R. W.—Skeleton of sea otter; specimens of woods and In-
dian curiosities, coast of Oregon.
Dunham, Ed.—Mounted specimens of curlew and grayback snipe.
Duval, Alfred.cSeeds, silk cotton, minerals, &c.; Payta, Peru.
Eastman, S. C.—Egegs of birds from Labrador.
Edwards, W. A.—Kggs of frigate pelican, echini and crustacea, Cen-
tral America.
Edwards, Amory.—Brazilian ‘‘ coal.”’
Falls, A. J.—¥resh birds, Washington.
Fisher, Dr. G. J.—Eggs of hawks from New York.
Flint, C. L.—Nest of golden crowned thrush.
Force, Colonel P.—Hornets’ nest; Washington.
Gantt, Dr. W. H.—Nests and eggs of birds from Texas.
Gardiner, Capt. J. W., United States army.—Skin and skeleton of
Fisher (Mustela pennantii;) Indian nets, Fort Crook, California.
Gary, Jacob S.—Fossil wood, Ohio.
Gerhardt, A.—Skins and eggs of birds from Georgia, with alcoholic
specimens.
Gibbs, George.—Seeds of Coniferae; Puget’s Sound.
Gibbes, Professor L. &.—Box of fresh shrips.
Gill, Theo.—Birds, reptiles, fishes, &c., of Trinidad and Newfound-
land.
Gilliss, Lieutenant J. M., United States navy.—Hye of Loligo, from a
grave at Areca, Peru; Htheostoma from Washington.
Gilpin, Dr.—Mammals and reptiles in alcohol from Nova Scotia.
Glover, T.—Living sandhill crane (Grus canadensis) with zoological
collections in alcohol, Florida.
Godfrey, Mrs. A. D.—Skin of snow goose from Puget’s Sound.
Gordon, Dr. H. N.—Skin of young cinnamon bear (Ursus America-
nus,) Illinois.
Goss, B. F.—Keges of birds and skins of mammals from Kansas.
Grayson, A. J—Two boxes of skins and eggs of birds, and bottle of
reptiles from California.
Gunn, Donald.—Skins of birds and mammals from North Red River.
Hall, Dr. J.—Uiving Anolis carolinensis, Alabama.
Hampton, W. C.—Seeds of Australian plants.
Harvey, Prof. W. H.—Collection of Australian marine algae.
Hayden, Dr. I. V.—(See Captain Raynolds.)
Hayes, Dr. S.—Mezquite gum and alcoholic collections; dried plants
Western Texas, New Mexico, and California; skins of birds;
Scalops latimanus in aleohol, &¢., Fort Belknap, Texas.
Hayes, Dr. S.—(See Colonel Leech.)
Hoy, Dr. P. &.—Skins of rare birds of Wisconsin.
Haymond, Dr. R.—Nests and eges of birds of Indiana.
a
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 7
Hepburn, J.—Skins and eggs of California birds.
Fine, D.—Cannel coal, Ohio.
Hinman, W. M.—Package of plants from Laramie Peak.
Holden, W.—Thirty-six species of Uniwvalve shells from Ohio.
Hoopes, B. A.—Reptiles and mammals in alcohol, Lake Superior.
Hopkins, Prof. Wm.—Birds’ eggs, New York.
Hopkins, Arch.—Birds’ eggs, Massachusetts.
Hubbard, Chas. A.—Skins and eggs of birds from the Red River of
the North.
Hunter, Dr, C. L.—Arvicola pinetorum from North Carolina.
Interior Department.—(See Colonel Leech.)
Irwin, Dr., U. S. A.—Box of birds from New Mexico.
Jan, Dr. C.—Type series of exotic serpents from the Museo Civico,
Milan.
Jardine, Sir W. ‘rophanes lapponica from Arctic America.
Jenkins, J. Hi Shells of, 'W. ashington Territory.
Johns, Dr. U. S. A.-—Fragments s of Mastodon remains from Scott's
Bluffs.
Kellogg, F.—Tertiary shells from Texas.
Kennedy, J. M.—Four specimens of birds from New Mexico.
Kennerly, Dr.—Seeds of T huya gigantea, Washington Territory. See
also A. Campbell.
Kennicott, R.—Zoological collections made between Lake Superior
and Lake Winnipeg.
King, Dr. W. S., U. 8. .A.—Skin of Spermophile and Mexican weasel
from Texas.
Kohler, W.—Wead ores from Union mines, Austinville, Virginia.
Krider, John.—Egegs of fish hawk.
Kuhn, Dr. L. de B.—Skull of bears, shells, insects, &c., Washington
Territory.
Latchford, Tiomas.—F¥ossil bones from Laurel Factory.
Lawrence, Geo. N.—Skins of birds from the Atlantic coast.
Leech, Colonel.—Collections of plants made by Dr. Hayes on the El
Paso wagon road expedition in Texas, New Mexico, and California.
LTnbhart, J. J.—Box of birds’ eggs, Pennsylvania.
Loomis, Miss M.—Fossil seeds from Burlington, Vermont.
LTnther, Dr. S. M.—Shells and birds’ eggs of Ohio.
McCarthy, Charles S.—See Captain J. H. Simpson.
McCown, Captain J. P.,U. §. A—Box of Kansas birds.
He Cur dy, Dr. Samuel.—Skins of harlequin duck, Washington Terri-
tory.
McCurdy, S. B.—Curiously marked wood.
McIlvaine, J. H.—Eggs of birds.
McKee, Dr. J. Cooper, U. S. .A.—Skins of mammais and birds, Fort
Defiance.
McLain, William M,—Birds and eggs from Maryland; fish hook used
by ‘the natives of the Sandwich Islands.
McLeannan, James.—Sixty species birds from Isthmus of Panama.
Me Williams, Di.—Skins of blue grosbeak and yellow-billed cuckoo.
Mallet, Prof. J. W.—¥ossils from Alabama.
76 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
Martin, T. S.—Skins of birds of California.
Merrill, Lieut., U. S. A.—Box fossils from Green Bay, Wisconsin.
Moore, Miss J.—Living hawk moth from near Washington.
Moore, Dr. George F.—Birds’ nests and eggs from North Carolina.
Morris, Rev. Dr. John G.—Box European eggs.
Mullan, Lt. John, U. S. A.—Three boxes zoological and geological
collections made by John Pearsall on the Upper Missouri.
Nichols, Dr. C. H.—Armadillo from Paraguay.
Nunn, R. J.—Can of crustacea from Georgia.
D Oca, R. Montes—Mammals; reptiles of Mexico.
Odell, B. F.—ULiving rattlesnake from Iowa.
Packard, A. S.—Reptiles and mammals in alcohol; eggs of birds from
Maine.
Page, Captain, T. J., U. S. N.—Sixty species of birds from Paraguay.
Paine, Charles S.—Box of birds’ eggs from Vermont.
Paine, H. M.—Kgegs of birds from New York.
Poey, Prof. F.—Lucifuga subterranea, a new blind fish of Cuba.
Pearsall, John.—See Lieutenant Mullan.
Pena, Don F. de.—Box of ‘‘coca’’ leaves.
Peters, f.—Skin of Cotton rat, (Sigmodon hispidum, ) Georgia.
Peters, T’.. M.—Ferns,. ( Trichomanes, ) from Alabama.
Piers, Dr., Royal navy.—Skin of Thalassidroma furcata from Barclay
sound, northwest coast.
Plummer, Captain J. B., U. S. A.—Skins of birds, reptiles and fossils
from Texas.
Porter, Prof. T. C.—Bottle of fishes, (Rhinichthys, ) Pennsylvania.
Postell, J. P.—Specimens of Unio spinosus from Georgia.
Prentiss, D. W.—Skin of Sorex from near Washington.
Putnam, F. W.—Nest and eggs of birds, Massachusetts.
hae, Recah of Spermophilus parryi, Repulse bay, latitude 56°
vo iN.
Raymond, C.—Birds and other animals, Peru. .
Raynolds, Captain W. F., U. S. A.—Zoological collections made in
the Upper Missouri region by Dr. F. V. Hayden.
Reid, Peter.—Eges of Hawk.
Richard, J. H.—Mounted European birds.
Roanoke Library Association.—Fossil bone from the green sand of
North Carolina.
Robinson, L. S.—Nests and eggs from Mississippi.
St. Louis Academy of Science.—Serpent in alcohol, (Oeluta vermis, )
supposed to have been found in a block of stone.
Samuels, H.—Mounted microscopical preparations.
Sclater, P. I.—Mexican and Central American birds.
Simpson, Captain J. H., U. 8. A.—Zoological collections made in
Utah by Charles 8. McCarthy.
Simpson, Dr., U. S. A.—Mounted snow owl, Rhode Island.
Smith, A. C., M. D.—Can of fishes from Ohio.
Smith, J. W.—Boring and other shells from Puget’s Sound.
Sowthwick, Dr.—Skins of Scturus abertii, Fort Union, New Mexico.
Spence, Mrs. David.—Collection of eggs from California.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. T7
Steele, Judge.—File fish in alcohol from Florida.
Stimpson, William.—Type series of marine invertebrates of Atlantic
coast.
Stockton, Natural History Society.w—Nests and eggs of California
birds.
Suckley, Dr. George.—Harpoon used by Indians in catching whales on
northwest coast, with other Indian curiosities. Zoological speci-
mens from Kansas.
Swift, Dr., U. S. A.—Skin and skull of bighorn and horns of elk
from Rocky mountains.
Taylor, A. S.—Box of crustaceans and shells, with other zoological
collections from California; skull of grizzly bear.
Tolman, J. W.—Two boxes birds’ eggs from Illinois.
Trask, Dr.—Crustaceans of California.
Trembley, Dr. J. B.—Shells and eggs from Ohio.
Tuley, Colonel James.—Fresh skin of elk.
Tully, Bernard.—Stalactites from Weir's Cave.
Vagnier, Thomas.—Nests and eggs of birds from Indiana.
Van Bokkelen, Lieutenant J. J—Skin of puffin, Washington Territory.
Vaughan, Colonel A. J.—Foetal beaver and fossil coral; skulls of mam-
mals and skins of birds from Upper Missouri.
Vickary, N.—Nests and skins of birds from Massachusetts.
Vialleton, Rev. F. and Rev. A. Blanc. —Collections of shells, eggs, in-
sects, and reptiles from Louisiana.
Vollum, Dr. E.—Box of zoological specimens in alcohol, skins of ani-
mals, and birds’ eggs from the coast of Oregon.
Vortisch, Rev. L.—Aboriginal stone hammer of greenstone, Germany.
Walsh, Benjamin D.—Skin of bat and nest of humming bird from
Tllinois. .
Walton, Hon. E. P., M. C.—Spawn of conch from Buzzard bay,
Massachusetts.
Warren, Lieutenant J. R., U. §S. A.—Box of Indian curiosities,
(deposited. )
Waugh, A. Townsend.—-Box insects, Maryland.
Weeks, W.—Bottle of fishes from Connecticut river.
Welch, George.—Eges of birds of Massachusetts.
White, Lieutenant J. W., and officers of the ‘‘ Jeff. Davis.’ —Zoological
collections, chiefly invertebrates, from Puget’s Sound.
Whitehurst, Dr. D. W.—Eegegs of birds and specimens in alcohol from
2 Tortugas:
Williams, BE. C.—Warge plank cut from redwood tree, (Sequoia sem-
pervirens,) Cape Mendocino, California.
Willis, J. R.—Nests and eggs of birds from Nova Scotia.
Wilson, Dr. L. N.—Skins of carrion crow, (Cathartes atratus;) white
ibis, &c., and dried grasses from Georgia.
Wolcott, F. H.—Box of ‘‘ vegetable eggs.’’
Wood, Dr. W.—Birds’ eggs from Connecticut.
Woodbury, Captain D. P., U. S. A.—Fishes and marine invertebrates
in alcohol; skins and eggs of birds, and dried corals from Tortugas.
78 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
Wright, Charies.—Minerals and fossil radiates from Cuba. .
Wiirdemann, G.—Twelve skins of birds, Florida.
Xantus, John. —Twenty boxes of natural history collections from Fort
Tejon, California.
Unknown.—Box of coal; Indian remains from Scioto river; larvae of
Telephorus? from the surface of snow in Oneida county, New
York; package auriferous earth from Pike’s Peak.
LIST OF METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS
* FOR THE YEAR 1859.
BRITISH AMERICA.
| ie ae
Bedi 3 g
‘ = $
Name of observer. | Station. = = ss g
: : 5
Z = se 4
Oe Oa Feet.
Baker Jin Oca scccic= ss Stanbridge, Canada Hast,(P.O.| 45 08 SBM MNAGe A SSeS at
| Saxe’s Mills, Vt.)
Connelly, Henry-..-..| Rigolet yinabradoree sense eiain = aeeintsinl | atat= aioe ee eres Bsa,
Craicsie Drews sss >= Hamilton, Canada West.---- | 43 15 Woy Da | ees ae Boel.
Delany, Edward M. J.-'Colonial Building, St. John’s,|. 47 35 52 41 iO) |B ER.
Newfoundland.
Gunn, Donald_--.---.. ‘Red River Settlement, Hud-) 50 06 97 00 853 IT.
| son’s Bay ‘Territory.
Hall, Dr Archibald... Montreal, Canada Hast ...---| 45 30 73 36 57 JA.
Hartt, Chas. Fred’ k__. Acadia College, Wolfvilie,Nova 45 06 | 64 25 95 |A.
| Scotia.
Hensley, Rev. J. M...-|Ki ng’s College, Windsor, Noval 44 59 64 07 200 |A.
| Scotia.
Magnetic Observatory ./Toronto, Canada West ------ 43 39 wo 20 108 |A.
Mackenzie, WosRs ase ‘Moose Factory, Hudson’s Bay SIMS Mees OR om ae aaa Bale
Territory.
Ross, Bernard R-.---.- \Bort Simpson, Hudson’s Bay GTS 2 2 Sina ea ee dlc
Territory.
Roval Engineers. ...-- Halifax, Nova Scotia-.------ | 44 39 G3e3t) 8 jA.
Smallwood, Dr.Charles.|St. Martin, Isle Jesus, Can. E. 45 32 iid 36 118 |A.
ALABAMA.
A © eZ
Z E 5
Name of observer. Station. County. pa Ba = E
acs eS "Ep Be)
. . 2 fe
Z = an) a
OR ts Feet.
Alison eke, bi. 1) sae Carlowville --|Dallas....--.. o2) LON) SStuelo 400 |T. R.
CobbssiRev. Rh. Ames se Union Town=|Perry ==. ---- SOMO OM We Oi) Lalla) ses N.
Foster, William L.--.-. Montgomery .|Montgomery-| 32 22 | 86 31 |..-.-.--. iN.
Hurt; Ashley? Ds. 22 224. Moulton. ....|Lawrence---.| 34 32 | 87 25 643 |A.
: _ Selma=-se= 32 25) 86 51 200 | f.P-R
Jennings, Dr. S. K...4 (orvintos . f/Oallas----- } | 32 24 | 87 06 |... IT.P.R,
Nicholson, Rev. J. J.---|Mobile...._- Mobiles .ses- 30 30 88 30 188 |B. T.
Shepherd, Rev. J. Avery-|Montgomery -|/Montgomery -|----.---|--------|-------- rR.
Smith, Rey. Stephen U--|Livingston--.|Sumter------ 32 30 88 16 180 |T. P.
Troy, Matthew, M. D---|Cahaba.._-.-|Dallas....... Sy) 1S) I) 7 WD ecasSese ie
Tutwiler, Henry. ...-.- Havana --|Greenes. se. 32. 50} 87 46 500 |T.R.
Waller, Robert B. ...--- Greensboro’ ..|Greene.-.--- 32 40 | 87 34 350 JA.
*
“ce
“ce
se
A
B
th
R
N
signifies Barometer, Thermometer, Psychrometer, and Rain Gage.
Oe Barometer.
Thermometer.
Rain Gage.
No instrument,
80
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
ARKANSAS.
s za
= = e
5 S “oy oO
Name of observer. Station. County. = 2 3 8
is = "2 5
Q : oS Z
Z = ss 5
ORs rtd Feet.
Barlow, Dennis-....-.- Arkadelphia -|Clark. -....- 34 08 93) 00M eseneees N.
Blackwell, Wi. H=-2-2 3 Perryville. .-|Perry. ---.-- 35:05) |) (938 TGs |r ss22e ee Ne
CoulteryBs be. . 2 5-253 Brownsville. -|Prairie -..... Sys a) | SAR) | SEs oe N.
Davies, James T....--- Gainesville --|Greene_....-|-.....-- 90 00 500 |N.
Featherston, Geo. W.---|Waldron ----|Scott..-..... 34 53 94 00M Ses 4oe2 N.
Finley, 2) tee Spring Hill -:/Hempstead -.| 33 30] 93 40 |....---- at
Flippin, Wi, Bes== ==-== Mellvillevs—.. | Marioneaess-| 13005071) 93000 1,000 |N.
Graham), Panleese eee Bentonville ..|/Benton...... 36 23 94 10 1,790 IN.
Martin, G. Alex., M. D..|Jacksonport.-|Jackson. -.--| 35 56 | 91 16 |.---.--- a
ReynoldsyJpeesse-eee es Spring Hill ..|Hempstead --/ 33 30] 93 40 |....-..- Aue
Smith SDipsNep essen Washington..|Hempstead --| 33 44 | 93 41 |._._---- enkv.
Weast; ei Wiese ce sceen Yellville ..../Marion...--- S67 S0MI 19300 Te OO0OnINE
Younger, Armistead ..-.|Buck Horn--.)Independence. 34 30 92 00 650 |N.
CALIFORNIA.
* Ayres, W.O., M. D....|San Francisco.{San Francisco.) 37 48 | 122 27 130 |A.
> DeLCheiy Wiel Ceeeayania= |Marysville. ../Yuba- ~-.-- 39 29 | 121 30 80 |T.
Boucher, Wesley K...-- ‘Mokelumne /|Calaveras_-..| 38 18 | 120 28 1,502 |N.
| SH:
Cantield, Colbert A.,M.D.|Monterey-...|Monterey.-.-| 36 36 | 121 54 40 |T.
Frombes, Prof. Oliver S.. Santa Clara.-|Santa Clara--| 37 18 | 122 00 100 |A.
Gordon, Robert.......- jAntbirias- —.|\Placersecesa. 38 54°) 221 12 as Urea.“
Gould, Lewis A......-- Santa Clara..|Santa Clara..| 37 20 | 122 00 98 |N.
Logan, Thos. M., M. D. Sacramento --|Sacramento-.| 38 35 | 121 28 41 jA.
Randall, Robert B..2..- Crescent City.|Del Norte. -.| 41 45 | 124 11 12) Nae
Slaven,’ James... ....-- HMoncut.e-s=- Vinbaecoeos SON 25 AAS OB een T. BR.
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
Smithsonian Institution.|Washington -|Washington -| 38 53 | 177 01 | 60 n
CONNECTICUT.
Hamnisonmbeny. basses. |Wallingford..]/New Haven_.| 41 27 72 50 133 |A.
Hunt, Rev. Daniel_.....|Pomfret.....|Windham .--| 41 52 72 23 587 |A.
Johnston, Prof. John-_-.-|Middletown--|Middlesex. -_| 41 32 72 39 175 |A.
Rankine James... i225 - Saybrook ....|Middlesex -..| 41 18 72 20 TOs
Yeomans, William H_--/Columbia...-|Polland. ..._] 41 40 HPA? io gle ent ah ey
|
DACOTAH.
Norvell], Freeman.....- Greenwood - as 2 ars 42 52] 98 24 | Le 900g ia:
* The names of these observers were accidentally omitted in the list for 1858.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
ioe)
pi
DELAWARE.
el tena a
< 4
= 2 =
Name of observer. Station. County. = an is FI
; = g 2 |é
‘ : oes B
Z = se 5
Our Os
Maul dibs Wie sac Georgetown ...|Sursex ---..-|..-sie---|-<0ce=s= jatosewel R.
|
FLORIDA.
aael
Abert ihayern=ssssc cl Warrington..|Escambia .--| 30 21 87 16 9 JA.
Bailey, James B-------- Gainesville -.|/Alachua----- 29 35 82 26 184 |T.R.
Baldwin, A. S., M. D..--|Jacksonville -|Duval..-...- 30 15 82 00 14 jA.
Bean, Dr. James B-.--- Micanopy .---|Alachua..--- 29 35) 82 3 78 |A.
Dennis, Wm. C..---..---| Key West ---|Monroe .---- 24 33 |} 81 28 16 |B. TR.
Gibbon, Lardner--.-..... Tallahassee ..|Leon - --.--- 30 29 S4N0Ts | Pos2- es i:
Ives, Edward R..---.--- Lake City ---|Columbia....| 30 12 82 37 | JOS Dd ain
Mauran, P. B, M. D__._ St. Augustine|St. John’s-.-| 29 48 | 81 35 8 |B. T.R.
Steele, Judge Aug__---- i\Atsena) Otie:=.|Levy 22. -—- 29 08 83 04 Ly Beeler.
Whitner, Benj. F --.--- Tallahassee -.|Leon 222252. 30 24 84 17 70 |T.
GEORGIA.
Anderson, Jas., M. D ---/Thomaston -..|/Upson ...-.- 32 56 | 84 30 750 |A.
Arnolds eVirstidl) is see ee Zepulone seasleikers, Suse 33 07 S4° 260 los cece ies
Campy Benjie kia eeee Covington ...j/Newton ._--- 33 40 84 00 763 |N.
Doughty, Dr. Wm. H---|Augusta.-_--- Richmond ~..| 383 27 81 33. 152 JA.
Easter, Prof. John D.---|Athens------ Olarkemt =.= 2 | 33 58 83 35 350 |A.
Gibson, RiP. 22222525 Savannah - --|Chatham....| 32 02 | 81 01 18 |T.R.
Granteawe bMS De ssee ‘Thomson ..--|Columbia....| 33 26 S2e2Z Cal seeeeeee Baba:
Pendleton, E. M., M. D-|Sparta ......|Hancock .-..| 33 17 | 83 09 550. |T. R.
Posey, John F., M. D-..|Savannah . -.|Chatham--..) 32 05 | 81 07 42, 1A,
Stanford, Col. John R..-|Clarksville...|Habersham --| 34 40 |.---.---|---.---- N.
Van Buren, Jarvis..-....- (Clarksville _-|Habersham -.| 34 35 | 83 31 | 1,632 |T.P.
Westmoreland,J.G., M.D./Atlanta ..--. ‘Pulton 2 Sepa as. 25 84 31 1050) | Baclok
ILLINOIS.
Aldnichs Vientyae- se ITiskilwa.---- (Bureaus =a 5 N.
Alison weSSE s2=—\o= 5— Bloomington-|McLean ..--- N.
Babcock, Andrew J--.-.- AUROTaE see MARC 4c — 41 41 88 17 650 IT. R.
IS NOS Diggesacoooese Rileyaeneceas) McHenry - --| 42 11; 88 20 760 |. R.
IBiveohaly Il) ees as See Willow Creek.|Lee...-.---- { 41 45 88 56 1,040 |T.
BallouwNawE:, MAD. -3-- Sandwich . ..|De Kalb ----| 41 31] 88 3 575) |. Re
Bassett, George R -..... Woodstock ../McHenry - --; 42 18 | 88 30 |.------- rR:
Bowman, Dr. E. H_---- \Edgington.--.)Rock Island../" 41 25 | 90 46 | 686 | CR.
Brendel, Fred’k, M. D_-|Peoria --.-.-- Reoriasos. es | 40 43 89 30 | 460 |T.P.R.
Brookes, Samuel ----.-- \Chicago ----- Cookwysase4 | Ze OW) 1 te Sa cacec IB
Cantril, Joshua E------ Waynesville -|De Witt.---.) 40 16 S907, (Sa sceeee Deeks
Capen Bases se es Lone (Batavia ...-.| Kameese sa alt? 88 20 | GaOnibeabe
Cobleigh, N. E.-.....-- iLebanon _._-|St. Clair. 2---| 387137 -(- 18995 6) aa ene Ba RS
82
ILLINOIS—Continued.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
o :
3 = 3
ale 5
Name of observer. Station. County. = &p is =|
| rs e “Sp E
: : 5 a
ZA = so i
Ont Ore Feet.
Bell, Mrs. E. M. A---- a : Pe eMee Wire fsi Cae) eae (J ee LR.
Wallace, Sam’] Jacob- | Carthage ene
Collier, Prof. Geo. H..--| Wheaton. ---|Du Page-.--. 41 49 | 88 06 682 |A.
Eldredge, Rev. William V.|Newton - ---- Jasper .-.-.-|---=----|--------||-------<- TR
Ellsworth, Lewis------- Naperville-_-.-|Du Page. ..-- 41 46 SB aseeee N.
Ellsworth, Milton S----- Naperville ...|Du Page .---| 41 46 838° 11) |Seeeee=- mr
Grant, John...--------|Manchester - -|Scott - ---.-- 39 33 | 90 34 683 |A.
Haeuser, Emil--------- Galena . --.-\Jo. Daviess --|--------|--------|-------- N.
Harris) IOs, Ma De=a5- Ottawazias eo hai Salless: = Al 20 | 88 47 500 |T. R.
James, John, M.D -.-- |Upper Alton- Madison... --- 39 00 SOLS OE |e aeeeeer A.
hittlenJs Thomas. <== Dixon ssa COetecd esa AIGA Sie SO lelee es oe N.
MeadsSiB:, at. Desc s=- |Augusta.-.-- Hancock ----| 40 12] 91 45 *203 |T.P.R
Mead, Dr. Thompson...) Batavia ----- Rane asses a. 41 52 88 20 636 |A.
Newcomb, John B-..---- Bleinjecs ees Wanesseseeia= 42 00 |} 88 15 TI7,\A.
RibletwIwH co -sceeeees Pekines asia Tazewellis2 5) 40364589 45a sae aes Re
Rogers, O. P. & J.8.---- Marengo ..--|McHenry- --| 42 14 | 88 38 842 |B. T.R.
Smith, Chas. HE -.--..--- Evanston . --|Cook - --.--- 42 10 | 87 30 718 |T.
Smith, Geo. O., M. D.-.-|Ottawa....-- Ear Sallexeees 40 57 | 87 55 551 |T. R.
Swain, John, M. D------ West Urbana-.|Champaign --| 40 09 88 17 727 VA.
Thomas, Mrs. Win. S ---|Carbon Cliff..|Rock Island..; 41 33 90 29 688 IN.
Mitze, Henty AY. ---2se+ West Salem..|Edwards ----}| 38 30] 88 60 |.---...- Rs
Tolman, James W------| Winnebago
Depotee-=- Winnebago --| 42 17 | 89 11 800 |T. R.
INDIANA.
Andersons be Hs eae oe tockville Sap Rarkereae ses 36 C0 Si 00m eee N.
IATISting Wey Wis seocieo ss Richmond ~.-.|Wayne------ 39 47 | 84 47 800 jT.
Bartlett, Isaac ..--.----j|Logansport ..|Cass -..-.--- 40 45 86 13 600 | .R.
Bullocktrds Descesaeese ‘Shelbyville --|Shelby....-- 39.00) SiO 0M eee :
Chappellsmith, John....|New Harmony|Posey ----.-- 38 08 | 87 50 320 |A.
Maines JOhN sa si<sire = 1 Richmond --.|Wayne....-- ah) Bante GW loseeGese Bea
Parapee = WAM bea mses Green Castle-|/Putnam_..-.| 39 30 | 86 47 |..-....: N.
Martina ry Nex ye mia cc New Albany -|Floyd --.-.- 38 17 BSH) CeO SAE se Ale
Menifield, Geo. C.------ Mishawaka ..|St. Joseph ---| 41 37 | 86 02 685 |T.R.
Moore, Joseph_...----- Richmond .-|Wayne...--- 39 47| 8447 | 800 |A.
Smith, Hamilton, jr----|Cannelton --_-|Perry -----.- 37 57 86 42 450 |A.
Sutton, George, M. D --|Aurora.....- \Deatbornmeees| mei | ee vas 5 idl Ma eae Belek
Tomer! A; Pe jesersnis= Patokas scours \GibSOn Se rracwl> sae cuan| seme ae eeeeoee N.
Vagnier, Prof. Thos. ...-|Notre Dame -|St. Joseph ---| 41 40 | 87 10 |-------- Bonne
Webb hiissiG. <2-—---- South Bend--|St. Joseph.--| 41 45 | 86 20 |.-._._-- N.
* Above low water mark at Quincy.
t Above Lake Michigan,
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. 83
IOWA.
Nl
= i
3 eB | 5
Name of observer. | Station. Connty. & ‘Sp as q
i a al a
Zz E tH iG
| | Orn Ce een ph ecean Nil
Beal, Dexteri.=3------- Grove Hill...|Bremer ..--- eae: Sa atl ee 05) | apes eee 1M
Beeman, Carlisle D. ----|Rossville .-..|Allamakee_..| 43 10 | 91 20 | 1,400 |T.R.
Corse, John M. 22225202 ‘Burlington -.|/Des Moines--| 40 53 | 91 10 #486 |T. Rie
IDOVAGY Jub Ise See Resa \Waterloo <<. -|Black Hawk -| 42°30!) 92 31) |-....-=- iN.
IDA ey, Welsh aes Gaootee ‘Davenport .../Scott ..-.--- 41 30} 90 38 | 555 |N.
Bory, JohniC. oc semonce Bellevue ._--|Jackson --_-- AO aifssahe Onde ay |e (ER.
Goss, William K. --..-- Border Plains |\Webster-.--- AD OOM 940 00s eeeaeeee iB. T.R.
lala, VAC EIDE) pee eee (Dubuque --.-|Dubuque--.-| 42 30 | 90 52 * 666 |A.
Edson yAwel., Mi ao ayON Serine Clintons. s=- 41 50 90 10 401 |R
McBeth, Miss Sue ------/|Fairfield ...-|Jefferson ....| 41 01] 91 57 940 IN.
McConnel, Townsend .--|Pleasant Plain|Jefferson --..| 41 07 | 94 54 950 |T. R.
McCready, Daniel-_----- Fort Madison|Lee..-...--- AO MOM no La28 ieee enae rR
McKenzie, John M. .-..|Fayette ...-- Payette 5---- 42 51 Syst 1,000 |T.
Odell, Rev. Benj. F. .--- [Plum Spring-|Delaware...-| 42 40] 91 21 |........ iN
Parvin, Theodore 8. ...-|Muscatine ---|/Muscatine ...| 41 25 | 92 02 586 |A.
Shaffer, J. M., M. D. .... \Fairfield ....|Jefferson -.--| 41 01 | 91 57 940 |A.
Sheldon, Daniel -...--- |Rorestwalle: |<“! Delawares-=-| 422405)5"'91" 50) |-seoseee fit
KANSAS.
Berthoud yh. se = op ss. Leavenworth |Leavenworth| 39 19 | 94 50 809 |R.
Brown Ga sess sstae ee Lawrence...-|Douglas___-- 38 58 | 95 12 800 |N T.B
Clarkson, Rev. David---.|Fort Riley ---|Riley -...... 39 00 96 30 1,300 |N
Colliers Css ss S24 = Denyer\Cityr-|Arapanos=.)-:|s2 e525 sea sees nee oeene ae
Drummond, Rev. J. H..|Celestville. ..|Lykins....-- SOTA Om lmiOo GMa = ames N
Hiss Win.) Tse ccts Lecompton --|Douglas ----. 39 03 95 10 760 |T.
Hish Uueian <2.) saceaa Buntieeamne- 2 Shawnee) soe.) sae ee |e = asco ees ky
Goodnow, Isaac T_...-- Manhattan --|Riley .....-- 39 13} 96 45 1,000 |T. R.
GOSS aD tient once siees Neosho Falls-|Woodson----| 38 03 ae) Gal eee ss ty By Bo
MMeCartyvkeeD ea =s sae Leavenworth |Leavenworth.| 39 20} 94 33 | 1,342 |A.
Millers dohn) Hess --=- |Wyandot..--|/Wyandot.---| 39 08 | 94 3 707 |T.R.
Preston, Rev. N. O----- |Manhattan ..|Riley ---..-- 39.13 | 96 45 |._-..-.-/N.
ee Peele ce t Moneka .---- Wain cesta 38 3 ISA008| == eseeee Eevee
KENTUCKY.
| |
Beatty! Ovsss-e senses Danville -.\-|Boyle.. == =. 37 40 | 8430! 950 arr.
edie ats Bardstown.--|Nelson--...- 3v 52 |- 85 18 cteteeee SA.
Mattison, Andrew..-.-- Paducah ...-|Mt. Cracken .| 37 00 | $7 Die |e A eee N
Ra yanli Gene hep een Parissesssse Bourhon-=22-|/" 38) 16" 84207 800 |B.T.R.
Savage, Rev. G.S., M. D.|Millersburg../Bourbon ----| 38 40 | 84 27 | 8€4 (B.T.R.
Walker, Mrs: Mary A: )\\.2.c2eseeas|eneasooclanee jon cccteclesJedecs|eeeaness
Barbage, Joshua C.--- t Hardinsburg -|Breckenridge.| 37 40 | 86 15 500 IN
Sens K Louisville ...\Jefferson ----| 38 03 | 85 30 452
EEE REN 8 R.. | Lexington - -.-.|Fayette ...-- gueSmOO4|a 84.18.) 2c oaeae A.
Young, Mrs. Lawrence--|Louisville. ---|Jefferson ....| 38 07 85 24 | 570 jA
| |
| |
* Above low water in the Mississippi.
84
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
LOUISIANA.
NN
: S eb
| g 2 z
Name of observer. Station. County. = Be 3 5
iS s "a0 5
. S o ee
Z = as A
ol Oh. 4 Feet.
Jackson, A. W., M. D.--/|Falls River .-,Point Coupee | 30 20 60) Hees 3 18 ol eet ss epee N.
Kilpatrick, A. R., M. D. Trinity------ \Concordia...| 31 30 91 46 108 |T. R.
Swasey, Col. C. B.--.-- Independence |Livingston ..| 30 3 90 3 50 |N.
Taylor, Lewes B..------ New Orleans- Orleans --.--- PAS) sy PE EI Bees aes A.
MAINE.
oe
Adams, John W.------- Portland ....|Cumberland .| 43 39 | 70 00 180 |N.
Bickford, Calvin ------- Wranrengs=ose \Lincoln ..... AAS OV Oz Oa ere a N.
Brackett, G. Emerson---|Belfast- -.--- i\Wialdorsaaas 44 23 69808" | s22e25-— pve
Brown, E. E., and others.|Hartland....|Somerset ----| 45 00 | 69 3 200 |N.
Buller pHwAj assesses Freedom -~.--.|Waldo .....- ALES Oh OMS OF eee tee N.
AANA MWe - caisson ss = North Perry..|Washington .} 45 00 67 06 100 |B.T.R.
Gardinershwe Hoses see Gardiner ..../Kennebec -..| 44 40 69 46 90 |A.
GapulleGeWreescss==— = Cornishville .|York -.----- 43 40 | 70 44 800 |T. R.
Johnson, Warren.-.----- Topsham ....|Sagadahoc..-| 44 00 70 00 100 |P.
HOTA AWis Greessac esos Limington—..| Mork 2.225 43 40 | 70 45 500 |N.
Moore, Asa P...-...-.: isbony sje |Androscoggin| 44 00 | 70 04 130 |. R.
: Newcastle -../Lincoln ..... 44 07 69 35 88 |T.
Nichols, Charles L..--. Bangor.--.-.- (Penobscot)- |) 44.48)" 68) 47) | oes ie
Parker Jit) ..<s ae see Steuben. ....|Washington .| 44 44 | 67 50 50 |A.
Van Blarcom, James ---|Vassalboro’../Kennebec ---| 44 28 694A ASS Seeeee 1B
WerrillGeaWee jt oes Norway -----|Oxford...... He Ze IO WO Reese N.
AViestaSilasta=s-sse cee Cormish™)-==< York -....-- 43 40 70 44 784 |T.R.
WalburiBenys Es sesoe= Dextermecase |Penobscot -..]| 44 55 69 32 700 |R.
WillisHenny, 222 =s2—-- Portland ....|Cumberland -| 43 39 OVENS 87 |A.
Wyman, AH. 2S 20225 N’th Belgrade|Kennebec .-.| 44 30 0) 00 Wa eeee a N.
MARYLAND.
Baer MISciele Mis a sere Sykesville -..|Carroll. --..- 39 23 76 57 700 'T. R.
Belly JacovpWs——=<<ss-- Leitersburg ..|Washington.-| 39 35 GTO Nass 2 pewkvs
Goodman, Wm. h-.-..-- Annapolis -../Anne Arundel} 38 59 | 76 29 | 20 |A.
Hanshew, Henry E-.---- i\Wrederick . ../"rederick.---| 39 24 Til Z @ wie eee A,
Lowndes, Benj. O--_--- Bladensburg .|PrinceGeorge.| 38 57 76 58 70 |T. BR.
Mayer, Prof. Alfred M --|Baltimore. ..|Baltimore---} 39 18 UO BUT ea soace A.
MeWilliams, Dr. Alex’r- Leonardtown . St. Mary’s.-.-| 38 17 oe een Ba.
Stephenson, Rev. Jas... |St. Inigoes.-_|St. Mary’s...| 38 10 76 41 45 jA.
SuttonwRevaAsessaace Chestertown -|Kent . -...-- A aay BE) Wesooscae A.
MASSACHUSETTS.
Adams, Edward L....-- Bostonyie ss sunk ee | AZeZOM ML OS ul eae es Boke
Alcott, William P.... | |
Berger, M. L...... |Williamstown|Berkshire....| 42 43) 73 13 725 |B.T.B.
Morley, John H. -. | | |
METEOROLOGICAL
OBSERVERS.
MASSA CHUSETTS—Continued.
ie :
LE E
Name of observer. Station. County. & ep 3 g
2 = @ | &
: : ‘Oo ema
Z E m | (Cg
On ON Feet. |
Bacon Walliams seca Richmond -.-|Berkshire...-| 42 23 | 73 20 1,190 /|T.R.
Brewer, Francis A..-... Springfield...|,Hampden~-.| 42 06 UP Nepeecebs INE
Colliers Alfred = 5-25 -=.. South Groton.|/Middlesex .._| 42 30 }.-.----- 300 |T.
Davis, Rev. Emerson -.-|Westfield..../Hampden~--| 42 06 72 48 180 |A.
Hallonedohniae sees ce Lawrence.-_-.-.|Essex _....-- 42 42 Gla 133 |A.
Felt, Charles W.....-
Hanna, George B.. Bridgewater -|Plymouth.-.| 42 00 71 00 150 |A.
Parsons, Benj’n W.-
HarvardColl. Observatory|Cambridge..-|Middlesex -..; 42 23 | 71 07 80 jA.
Mack A Wiese = acters Danvers... HISS@xcpneieiets oi 42 35 a Ss SS 2 Bawls
Metcalf, Jno. G., M. D..|/Mendon. ~...)/Worcester -..| 42 06 fA ONS $3 cl as eee a peeks
Mitchell, Hon. Wm ....|Nantucket...|Nantucket...}| 41 17 70 06 30 jA.
Rodman, Samuel---....-. New Bedford. Bristol -..-.- 41 39 70 56 90 |A.
Prentiss, Dr. Henry C..-|Worcester . .-|Worcester _.-| 42 16 | 71 48 537 |A.
Snell SProfe ha Sees seee Amherst. ..-- ‘Hampshire ..| 42 22 72 34 267 |A.
Tirrell, N. Q., M. D..-.|Weymouth.-.-|Norfolk . .... 42 10 71 00 150 |B.T.R.
Whitcomb; Hoses ae Florida - =so-(Beenelines 42 40 73 10 2,000 |N.
MICHIGAN.
Abbe, Cleveland ----.-- Lansing .---- Ingham ---.-- 42 44 | 80 00 850 IN.
Allen,/James, jr= 2-5: Port..Huron--)St. Clair. .--- 42 58 82 24 606 |T.
Blaker, Dr. G. H., jr. --|Marquette. --/Marquette.--| 46 32 87 41 630 |A.
Bowlsby, Geo. Wi eae Monroe= === - Monroe. +---| 41.56) 83 30 584 |B.T.R.
Campbell, Wm. M., M.D.|Battle Creek -|Calhoun--_--- 42 20} 85 10 825 |B.T.R.
Coffin, Matthew--_..---- Otsego ...---- Allegan -.-.--| 42 28 85 42 662 (N.
Crosbya Jey beacasieaaae New Buffalo..|Berrien _ -..-| 41 45 | 86 46 661 |B.T.R.
FOMMES lt Crsem ane ae Lansing --.-- Ingham ..---!| 42 44} 84 15 750 (|B.T.R.
ae Gr | [Detwotttes 222 Wayne. ....- 42 24| 8258| 597 |A.
Strengy, Liye Ss - 225 ee Grand Rapids.|Kent - ------ | 43 00 | 86 00 680 |T. R.
Webb MissiG= =-=se see Ypsilanti ....| Washtenaw .-| 41 45 | 86 20 600 |N.
Whelpley, Miss H. I----|Monroe.----- Monroe. -..-}| 4156} 83 238 590 iT...
Woodard iC. \S2=222=22- Ypsilanti ..-.|Washtenaw. -| 42 15] 83 47 751 jA.
MINNESOTA.
Clark Thomas == —=—- Beaver Bay--|Lake._..---- Ahi 91a LO 657 |A.
Garrison, ,O.eb ea see a= Princeton - .-/Benton-...-- 45 50 93n 4 On Eco e ase hints
1B G1} oYo} yo WAY WN Se ee (Burlington ..|/Lake.......- 47 O1 92 30 | 645 iT. R.
Riggs Reve Sie ase oa = Pajutazee----|Brown .-.---- 45 00 948008 Scena iT. R.
Shitay AG Ob Saas adsase Forest City..-|Muker -...-- 45 45 | 96 00 | Speecoce i. R.
Thickstuneel.s hess ae ee i\Chatheldl sa pbillmore) coesleseccese|~-so~ === #325) ieee
Wieland) Henry -..-.--|beaver Bay, --|Dake--...2-- ATT), 91eZ5 850 |T. P.
* Above La Crosse.
86 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
MISSISSIPPI.
S 3
3 = 3
Name of observer. Station. | County. Be} = Pe St
| is S SD =
| a ° > wR
| Z = ss 5
OF ass On Feet.
Aribbsyd. kh. --osce= = Westville_--.-|Simpson.---- S73 041. OU WOH leGsocses ie
Johnston, Wm. M., M. D.|Hernando .--|De Soto -.--- 34 45 90 15 =70 |A.
Gull-jJames)S\~ <2 sa-2—- Columbus -..|Lowndes ----| 33 30 88 29 227 \A.
McCary, Robert---..--- Natchez ...--jAdams --..-. 31 34 91 25 264 |B. T.R.
Moore, Prof. Albert. -.-- Grenada...../Yalobusha---| 33 45 9000) | Set seee- N.
Robinson, Rev. E. S. ” Prarie Bi | Jasper Lae 32 20 | 89 20 |.....--- iN
MISSOURI.
ele se) ee ee ee eee
BatleyaiSas; 1. 6 sseces Dundee .-..-|Franklin ....| 38 30 | 91 10 536 |T.
Bowles, S. B., M. D.---- Greenfield ..-/Dade.....--- 3722) | 93 41 1,800 [N.
Byrns, Robert, M. D. ---|Kirksville ---|Adair --.....|--------|--------|-------- N.
Campbell, John....---- \Carrollton .-.|Carroll ..---- SG ee BM eo N.
@hristian, John=~--.5.-- Harrisonville: |Cage ~onceeee | anase ae ae reall ceierereetots INé
Conkling, Thos. J. ----- \Trenton ....- Grundy) 2=—2 AQ WUST mom OOMectemees N.
Daltons OM Dense sec cee Greenville -sc| Waynes. coeclosaece ol eee a|senenoe N.
DodsonsByDisssooesos (Yoronto ...-- \Camden ....- Bafisy: bal ee) Si0 al ere eas N.
Englemann, George ----\St. Louis --..|St. Louis-..-| 38 37 90 16 481 |jA.
Fendler, Augustus.--.---|St. Louis -...|St. Louis....| 38 37 | 90 16 470 |.
HinleykeW. «42 -~----|Richmond 2 = |hay eee oye se ONG pees Oh) Meeaood N.
Force, Nathan P.-..--- \Farmington-..|St. Francis...) 37 48 eZee ceeene N.
Hamaker, Marion F.-.-- \Warrenton...|Warren -..-- B8E45 Me Gilenl hy eee ae ies
Hanan pba scam eee (Litmanyrae stores Clarkes 222522 AORZ8 7) see ole see eet R.
Fleaston;eD disteiaeiatoeel= |Bethany - ---- Harrisons eo. 40S o4 OOM teases Ne
Horners Web. = oosee oe Hornersville -|Dunklin...-- 36 03 SORO0n seaeea=- N.
Huffakers ojeoae sees (Carrollton ---|Carroll -..--- 39 30 Sol |eeee see N.
Ki erm Weib. iaaeeisc= sae |Emerson ----|Marion ...... 40 00 9260.0 eee eee N.
WingOwaBaG ese eae see |Waynesville -jPulaski.....| 37 45 | 92 13 |.-.-..-- N.
Lumpkin, Wm. M, .---- \Tuscumbia-.-|Miller.-...-- 38 30 | 91 59 600 |N.
Mallinckroot, Conrad---|Augustus -...|St. Charles...| 38 30 90 46 780 iT.
MERU AEW sek yccsetesoee |\PaTisieehcoes Monroe <-2-2 39 3 92 00 700 |T.
Miyerssarhecen cease Kirksville -..|/Adair’.- 2222+ 40 38 92 50 1,000 |N.
Sutherland, Norris --.-- \Boonville....) Coopersaice ce SONODE |) MOAN SOM aa metsterets N.
Tidswell, Mary Alice ...|Warrenton...|Warren -.--- Sono lh Oleh 825 |T.
Wankink Wied etccicese (Bolivar -7->-|Pollky-=- 22° y(n) O24 bu eee eee N.
WogeliChas tes eos cice (Rhineland ...|Montgomery -} 38 42 | 91 41 300 |T. R.
Weatherford, John M. --|Lancaster_-..|Schuyler-.... 40 30 92 4 ON eae eats N.
Weber Philipps seessee |Hermann .... Gasconade .--| 38 40} 91 27 598 IN.
Weellsiwimi ses eae occ. Stockton ....|Cedar-.--..- 39 36 93 48 800 |T.R.
Wilson, Joseph A......- \Lexington ...|Lafayette....| 3915 | 93 45 |.-_...-. N.
Wiynicky Mabe. teeccne \Cassville ...-|Barry ..----- 36 41 3 57 | 3,000 |T.R.
* Above low water mark at Memphis.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. 87
NEBRASKA.
= Ss | B
Name of observer. Station. County. s “Ep & FI
Ss i | Ep é
; ae eames 2
Z Z hy 5
haar en|
Oni! oa Feet.
Bowen, Anna M. J..---- Elkhorn City -|Douglas ...-.- 41 22 96 12 | 1,000 /T.
Byers, William N -.---- Omaha - ...-|Douglas...--| 41,15 | 96 10 | 1,300 |T. RB.
BHyansWJObnessseseceae Fontanelle -.|/Dodge ....-- 40 31 | 96 45 oer ate
Hamilton, Rev. Wm....|Bellevue ----|Sarpy . -..-- 41 08 QS OOF apsete ret fakes
Mason, Edgar E.--....- Nebraska City|Otoe-.---.-- 40 40 95 44 1, 050 ie R.
MilleryiCh Hs: sess S. Pass Wagon|Road Exped’n} 42 28 | 108 40 SP Baek.
Rain JOnnEG Ss. -sicets cee Omaha - ..../Douglas_...- Al 20.| 95 57 1,400 |T. R.
Smith, Charles B-.....- Brownville .~.|Nemaha-_-_-- 40 30 96 (00M Rese eeee ike
Twiss, Major Thos. S...-|Deer Creek --|P.O. Fort La-) 42 50 | 105 50 | 5,000 /T. R.
| ramie. |
White, Bela_...-.. won| Kenosha... |Cassyeceneae. | 4051} 95 54 | 1,050
! i i
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Bell, Samuel N....-.... Manchester --|Hillsborough-| 42 59 | 71 28 S00F Baa:
Brown; Branch --.- . =-|Stratford ....|Coos = -.-..- 44 08 TL 34 1,000 'T. R.
Chase;Anthur ..-2 225-52 Claremont ..-|Sullivan...-- Be22ee 72, 21 5359 Be Lan
Halls Joseph H sasseses Top of Mount|Coos....-.-- 4415 | 7116] 6,285 |A.
Washingt’n |
Hoyt, Peter L., M. D.---| Wentworth --/Grafton ..--- SwAO RH T2005 |e cae RS
Odell; Hletcher 22. S522. Shelburne ~..|Coos's- S222 AA 23m sol A068 700 |B. T.
Smiths Rutus sos. oes ae N. Littleton -|Grafton --_-- ALISON NAO | se sae N.
Wiggin, Andrew. c-ccc~ Psa .---|Rockingham -| 43 00 | 73 3 100 |N.
NEW JERSEY...
| | | |
Allen, Edwin-.--...--- |New Brunsw’k Middlesex ---| 40 39 | 75 31 | 90 IN.
Parry William’ -2. 2.5.) (Cinnaminson. Burlington -.-| 40 00 1501, 83 IN,
Thornton, Miss E. E.---|Moorestown -|Burlington. --| 39 58 74 13} 104 |B. T.P.
Watson, George.......- | Woodstown-.|Salem......- | 89°39 | 75 20 | 30 it Jey
Whitehead, W. A....-. (Newark ..... HHSSexeetye ae | 40 45 74 10 | 35 |B.T.
Wallis SiO eS sesecta n= |Freehold -...|Monmouth -.| 40 15 | 74 21 |....---- Tr
NEW YORK.
Arden, Thomas B...--..- Garrison’s 2. 4Putnam. oseoh)) 4023 74102) 180 |T.R.
Aubier,"John.o.so0---- Fordham ....|Westchester..| 40 54 | 73 57 Pa A.
Bowman, John. -..----- Baldwinsville |Onondaga....| 43 04 | 76 41 |....----/T.
Brown, Rev. John J..-.|Dansville..../Livingston...| 42 38 | 77 44 672 |A.
Dayton tA eae ee oe |Madrid . ..._|St. Lawrence-| 44 43 | 75 33 280 |B.T. P.
Denning, William H-.-|Fishkill Land-|Dutchess.....| 41 33 | 74 18 | 42 |B.T.R.
ing. |
Dewey, Prof. Chester, | |
Trai a Clarkese ere Rochester....|Monroe...... AS 08 ) 775k | 516 |IB.T.R
Pe puiMere aes |
* Six miles east of summit of South Pass,
88
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
NEW YORK—Continued.
o :
3 Z -
= sa o
Name of observer. Station. County. 2 = 43 S
2 2 "Sp =
ru : cs a
A = ae 3
Cre Gi Feet.
Hlleston, Job=....++--- Geneva....-. Ontario Yiea| sees sees |eaea ete sae eee ts
iWrostuOole bia Osssee a= Havana. _-.-|Schuyler ----| 42 30 76 31 1,041 |T.
Graeme Wises 2e t Spencertown -|Columbia....| 42 18 | 73 32{ 700 |A.
Alexander, James M--
Guest aWoliee=coen ete Ogdensburg... St. Lawrence 44 43 (oyu 232 |R.
Holmes, He S-skecee eee Wilson....-- Niagara. ..-.| 43 20 78 56 250) |/E.
House) John 2.222222 Waterford ...|Saratoga...-. 42 47 73 39 70 |A.
Howell-Rrsseessscecse Nicholso—_o-|Liogastee. 2 AD OO GW a2 eee eee Abe
Ingersoll JD iess25e= ions soe Herkimer....| 43 00 Ow a Sae See N.
TvesowWilliamessssnee se. Buftaloweeeee Hrieseieve si: 42 50 | 78 56 600 |A.
SEE Fe { Schenectady. Schenectady..| 42 49 | 73 55 300 |T.
Kelsey, Kathalo......- Great Valley.|/Cattaraugus..| 42 12 | 78 45 |.....--- N.
handon, Anna S2s-s-< Hden= secre Hriessseveene 42 30 79 11 700 |T.
Mackie, Matthew....... Clydeste2c=- Wayne.tece. ASP 1OF| che LO 400 |B. T.
MalcommiWmos -</-iim52 Oswego...... jOswego...--. 43 28 76 30 250 |B. T.R.
Matthews, M. M., M. D_|Rochester....;Monroe. -..-| 43 08 Well 525 |A.
Morris, Professor O. W..|New York...)/New York--.| 40 43 74 05 25 |A.
Paine SHep Mer eM. D2 -2 = Clinton ..\...|Oneidai ss 222. AZA0 3M Os 500 |T. P.R.
Rotter, ChD) M.D eee. Adams Centre|Jefferson ....| 43 48 | 75 52 32 |R.
Riker;) Walter-H- 222.22! Saratoga...../Saratoga....-| 43 06 74 00 306 |A.
Sartwell, Dr. H. P.....- Penn Yan= <.|Wates -2s-ae 42 62 | 77 11 740 |A.
Sias, Professor Solomon-.|Fort Edward_|Washington.-| 43 13 | 73 42 |..._.--- A.
Spooner, Dr. Stillman...|/Wampsville..|Madison- .--. 43 041} 75 50 500 |T.R.
Sylvester, Dr. E. Ware. .|Lyons.----.- Wayletaten. ut eee eee oe Gels See B. T.
Titus, Henry Wm.-..-.-- \Bellport_--.- Suffolk ac... 40 44 | 72 54 15 |A.
Tompkins, William. ---- Germantown |Columbias--. |<<. 2s=|=se5=-— 175 |N.
Van Kleek, Rev. R. D_-|Flatbush ..._|Kings-.-..-- 40 37 74 01 54 |B. TR.
Wadsworth, A. S....... East Henrietta|Monroe...-.. 3 06 higow 600 |B. T.P.
Wihtte:Aaron= ss ecacces Cazenovia. -.|Madison_.--- 42 55 75 46 1,260 |A.
Yaley Walter D2. - 25 Houseville...|Lewis. ...... ASA 0 a) lowa2ea|seeeee== ft R.
Young, Jude M..._...- West Day. -.|Saratoga. ---- 43 20 (a ule 1,200 |T.
ZaepHel, Joseph.----..- West Morisa- |Westchester.-; 40 53 | 74 01 190 |"
nia.
Zimmerman, Godfrey. .-|Pine Hill..._/Erie.-_. -..- 42 45 79 06 680 |N.
NORTH CAROLINA.
Pe eines (Baleich <=] Wakol ee: | 3540] 7852] 317 IN.
Kerr, Professor W. C.-- aes Col-/Mecklenburg.| 35 30] 80 54 850 |B. T.R
ege.
McDowell, Rev. A..-..- Murfreesboro’ |Hertford.-_-.- 36 30 el Olen eee A.
Moore, Geo. F.,M. D --/Green Plains.|Northampton| 36 32 | 77 45 |.------- TR.
Phillips, Prof. James, D.D.|Chapel Hill--|Orange--.--- 35 54 TS Ti! Wi fo famesh eee Beak
Westbrook, Samuel W-..|Greensboro’..|Guilford....- 37 00 | 80 O01 840 |N.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. 89
OHIO.
a i ae &
3 2 a
Name of observer. Station. County. = 5p 3 |
3 Ss Te E
! Ca % et a
Pal = bn a
|
OD! Oa Feet.
Abell BB atwenas see cio Welshfield ..-|Geauga.----| 41 23 | 8112] 1,205 |T.R.
Ammen fees ac= sete see Ripley =.= - Brownyeeue=s Bi) Bit |) eB HE eeeeooe Baler:
Anthony, Newton------ Mount Union.|Stark -.-..-- ADW54 Sd Sh | cosa ee is
Atkinge Rew) lS se ao Madison _.--- Lake sssisecs 41 49 S000 sees fits
Benner; Jew. oc scee oe New Lisbon_-|Columbiana.-|} 40 45 80 45 961 |B.T.R.
Bennett, Sarah E.------ Toledow@ee-- (Wucaseesia. 41 49 3 o4u eee De
Bowens Wim.) hase se Sharonville --|Hamilton.-.| 39 19 | 84 30 | 800 |N.
Boy Ch Sieber eem eee eee [beria 222252 Morrow ...-- 40 46 | 82 52 1,160 |T. R.
Chasesh sos 22h ee ek Marion’ .222|Maxionss.s2 40 30 832 Ziletesze sees N.
ClarkaiWinebesssemece = Medinas2.3=2 \Medina.....| 41 07 SIVAT A TAZ DRA.
Colbrunn, Edward -.---! Cleveland ..-|Cuyahoga -..| 41 30 | 81 40 665 |T.
Cotton, D. B., M. D...-|Portsmouth-.|Scioto.....-- 38 45 82 50 529 \B.T. R.
CranenGeoteW 225 See Bethelioe 2a Clermont_...| 39 00 84 00 S5 ovo.
Davadson-H. Mosse oe) Freedom ....|Portage ...-. 41 13 81 08 1,100 |B.1. RB.
Davis aWeehe os -eS ee Lancaster....|Fainfield -- ..| 39 41 82 37 1,020 |B.T. R.
Dilletwaisraci= <--> = Newark -.... |Licking --..- 40 07 82 21 | 825 |T.
Gamblen Jen Wisse see cee Russell’s Sta’n)/Highland....| 39 13 83 36 1,000 IN.
Hammitt, John W ----- College Hill _|Hamilton..-.| 39 19 84 25 800 |N.
Hampton eweiCoasenoe= Mt. Victory --|Hardin._.-.- 40 35 83 36 1,500 |N.
Harper, Geo. W.-2-25-=" Cincinnati ___|Hamilton....| 39 06 84 27 | 500 j|A.
Haywood, Prof John.--|Westerville _.|Franklin ---.| 40 04 | 83 00 |.------- |A.
A We) Grete oe Dallasburg . .|Warren ..... 39030)" 84:3 800 |N.
Hillier, Spencer L..-..-| Breckville ...|Cuyahoga --.| 41 15 | 81 30 800 |A.
Huntington, Geo. C...-|Kelley’s Isl’nd|Erie -...---- 41 36 | 82 42 | 587 |B.T. R.
Hyde, Gustavus A....-- \Cleveland ...|Cuyahoga -..| 41 38 81 40 | 643 |B.T. R.
Ingram, John, M. D..--/Savannah..../Ashland_..-- 41 12 82 31 1,098 |A.
Johnson, Bnoch Dos] 222 psec ea = ~~ | Monroenesas = 39 30 81 00 | 540 IT. R.
King, Mrs. Ardelia C_..|Madison- ---- |Lakevaseris- 41 562; 81 00} 620 |T. R.
bubhersS avis. Se a \Eirams ee 252 Portage ...-- 41 20} 81 08 1, 290 |T. R.
Mathews, J. McD.. D. D.|Hillsborough |Highland.-..| 39 13; 83 30 1,134 /A.
McClung, Charles L. ---- Proves ae Miamijao22.. 40 03 | 84 06 “404 |B.T.R
MeMellanasi) Bi. a5 22 \East Fairfield|Columbiana_.| 40 47 80 44 1,152 |A.
Peck Wark M.D-t2-2 Bowl’g Green| Wood -- ---- 41 15 83 40 | 700 |B.T.R
Peters,pAdam 2-2 522-22 iZanesvilleys..|Muskingumse|Ses—seoe| Seo ses lee eem ee iD:
Phillips, R. C. and J. H./Cincinnati ...|Hamilton..--| 39 06 | 8&4 27 540 |B.T. R.
Raffensperger, E. B_..-- Poledo~sasse |bvicasinje aoe 40 30 ay AVM Sp oeeoe N.
Rhoades, Dr. John -.--- Hocking Port-|Athens--..-- 39 00 SIZ OR eeo cease N.
Shaw; Joseph. =. 2-22. 6- Bellefontaine_|Logan ~. __-- 40 21 83 20 | 1,040 |T.R.
Ree a Aye Bellecentre ..|Logan ....-- 4030) 8345) 1,170 |BT.R
Treat, Samuel W.-.....- |Windham -..|Portage -_.-- 41 10 81 05 939 |I-
Tweedy, David H..-...- Mt. Pleasant-|Jefferson -.--; 40 20 SS 34elisecosee N.
Ward Reve bah 2 soe Atvonesseeee Lorain PP ay 41 27 82 04 | 800 JA.
Warder, A. A._...--.--|Cincinnati ...|Hamilton....| 39 08 | 84 365 | 800 |T. R.
Williams, Prof. M. G...|Urbana_----- Champaign -.| 40 06 Seashell OLSa|B kek
WalsontyProinJesceee College Hill..|Hamilton...-; 39 19 84 26 800 |B.T. R.
See ae | Hudson oes ‘Summit -...- 4115| 81 24) 1,187 [BTR
OREGON.
| } |
|
Stebbins, George H...-- ‘Portland ---.|Multnomah.-} 45 24 | 121 80 | 170 R.
|
* Above Ohio river at Cincinnati.
a --- —_”
90
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
PENNSYLVANIA.
oad a a oe
: ie] 2
Name of observer. Station. County. & ee es |
ei 2 ) ee
: . ‘oO a2
Zi = ca i
ica |
Alsop;) Samuel _.-- 2-2: Westchester.../Shester. ----| 39 57 | 75 34 550 |A.
Baird mkohne H's s-cesiac= Tarentum. .--|Alleghany..-.| 40 358 79 46 950 <r.
Barrett, James.-------- Linden...... Lycoming..--| 41 14 | 77 11 514 JA.
iBoversssWensaensia= === Altoona ----- Blairs sss s2 AOPSONG 7187314 TAGS siBileR:
Brewster, Wm., M. D.--|Huntingdon ..|Huntingdon -| 40 35 | 78 03 734 \B.T.R.
Brugger, Samuel_...... Fleming. ---- Centre....-.- 40 55'| 77 53 780 IT.R.
Burrell, J. Ilgen..--.-- Bellefonte -..|Centre....... AOS O Ni oil Mi Sere pee ee
Coffin, Selden J..-.-- Sai - : ;
al anaes Easton ------ Northampton.| 40 43 | 75 16 320 A.
Cook, Thos. E. & Sons --|Bendersville..|/Adams ...-.-|.-------|-------: seseiersese N.
Darlington, Fenelon..--|Parkersville--|Chester-----| 39 54 | 75 37 218 |T.R.
Hegert, John......-.-- Berwick....=- Columbia.---| 41 05 | 76 15 583 jA.
at sl see aes = Meee yee i Shamokin ~..|Northumber’d} 40 15 76 30 700 |T. RB.
Hance, Ebenezer-.----- Morrisville. ..|Bucks. .----- 40 12 | 74 48 30 |B.T.R
HAnVveyin mi taaasamtsctee Nazareth.. --|Northampton.| 40 43 | 78 41 530 |B.T.R
Heckerman, Henry..-.- Bedford ..--- Bedford se.6 AQMO GE iSeo On asee ane PSR.
Heisely, Dr. John...... Harrisburg .--|Dauphin. ---- AQWUG ATG Sig saaece es B.T.R.
Heyser, William, jr.---- Chambersburg|Franklin...-- SOOO a4 618 jA.
CKO Wel Oe ay atetare Harrisburg..-|Dauphin -..-| 40 20 | 76 50 320 (A.
Hoffer, Dr. Jacob R.---- Mount Joy.--|Lancaster.---| 40 08 (ErSOn sao See iA.
Jacobs Reva Mas. 282222 Gettysburg. --|Adams.-..-- 39 49 Uihs Jes) 624 |B.T.R
James, Prof. Charies S..-|Lewisburg ---|Union ~--.-- 40 58 UO DomMaqecioass |A.
Kirkpatrick, Prof. J. A.--|Philadelphia -|Philadelphia -| 39 57 ise 1 50 |A.
Kohler, Edward.---.--- Whitehall st’njLehigh....-.. 40 40 | 75 26 250 |T.
Meehan, Thomas--:--.- Germantown'=|Philadelphias: |2caaaos- |e aswe es eee iN.
Moore, Mahlon.-....... Morrisville2.2|Buckst 22s. o|-22 Sen ee eee eters N.
Mowry, George.....---- Somerset ----|Somerset --.-| 40 00] 79 03 | 2,195 jA. »
Ralston, Rev. J. Grier---|Norristown.--!Montgomery .| 40 08 75 19 153 JA.
Scott, sSamuelia. =3 222 28 Worthington.|/Armstrong.._| 41 50 79 31 TRO Omens
Smedley, John H.-....- lima 222-7 Delawaress 2) 5397550 1h 975025 226 \T.P.R
SmithsiwWim, DD) Dress s22 Canonsburg. -|Washington..| 40 17 80 10 936 jA.
Speer, Alex. M., M. D.--|Pittsburg ---.| Alleghany..--| 40 32 80 02 850 B.T.R
Stewart, Thos. Hi. -..... Murrysville .-|Westmorela’d| 40 28 19°35 960 |A.
SwiiteOrbanless aaeece W. Haverford|Delaware...-| 40 00 owen 400 T. R.
Tracy, James K......--|E. Smithfield_|Bradford ._-- - 41 58 | 76 37 1,000 \N.
Travell, John To. 35. 222 |Sewickleyville|Alleghany...-| 40 38 | 80 14 |....----|B.T.R
Wilson Prof.W.:C..-2 2 Carlisleso S22 Cumberland .| 40 12 Chie 500 |A.
RHODE ISLAND.
Caswell, Prof. A.-...-.- Providence...|Providence .-| 41 49 WL 25 120 jA.
:
oe] a
Name of observer. Station. County. = 43 EI
Re “Ep 5
Zi ss ie
o) Feet.
Barton, E. H., M. D----jColumbia-.-.-|Richland....- 33 33 |A.
Cornish, Rev. John H...|Aiken....... Barnwell...-- 33 565 IT. R.
Glennie, Rev. Alex’r.---/Georgetown.-/All Saints.---} 3 20 jA.
Pa aaa a Charleston...|Charleston. ..| 32 20 |B.T.R.
Ravenel, Thomas P.---.- Black Oak. -.|Charleston....| 33 50 A.
Superintendent Arsenal |Columbia..--|Richland. ---.- 34 00 295 JA.
Academy.
TENNESSEE.
Barney, Chas), Rica-aec= |University Pl.|Franklin..--- 3512) 86,00} 2,000 iT. R.
Blakes Jnshiveoe ssasaes {are Guirao. ro) Hes yie bbe erste sta western eterna ate ta eters Bel Rs
Dodge, J. W. & Son..-..|Pomona--..- Cumberland -| 36 00 85 00 2,200 |T.
Houghtony S37 Wies-.=--2 Winchester...|Franklin. ---- Sy LUO etek) JUS econ T.R.
Stewart, Prof. Wm. M--.|Clarkesville. -|Montgomery -| 36 28 | 87 13 481 |A.
AUG KW hetkdle 5) cy re Sei np au < 9
ne { Memphis. _.|Shelby-- ---- 35 08 | 90 00 262 |A.
|
TEXAS.
|
Allis, Melvin H.....-.. Gonzales .... |\Gonzales -2.5|. .29):35).1 9730) |-.ceccce IN.
Colman, William. ...... Mexanag=a sa sclJacksOno. > -o 29 00 96 30 60 IN.
Crockett, Jno. M --.---.|Dallas ---.-- (Dallaswea ss Dae AO) nO Of AG i este ele IT.
Cunningham, J. D..-.-.- \Bastrop ----- |Bastropae tos .|leaeeceen Cae 225 onl Soaeeer Ne
De Graffenried, W. G., M.|Columbus -..|Colorado ..--; 29 43 | 96 36 198 |N.
D.
LeJernett, R., M. D .-.-/Greenville..-|/Hunt .....-- Sol Oo ee oulaseeeeee N.
D7Spain,; wor. yess eile c s
mee NTS oe ee Tarrant -...-|Hopkins.-.-..- 33 3 SORA IN eee meer N.
Hppersons Wek so a2 ee \Jeiferson ...2|\Cass--2- 2... 32 30 | 94 38 65 IN.
reese, | Greeacmics Gon ittets Boston ...--..| BOWilesciasclnr 33 25 94 40 600 {N.
Friedrich, Otto -------- New Braun- |Comal --.-..- 29 41 SOuml Oi ee aete ser Batons
fels.
Gaffney, James O ---.-.. ‘San Patricio -|San Patricio -| 27 45 | 98 31 |.------- IR.
Gantt, Dr. Wm. H.....- Union. 25. - \Washington -| 30 11] 96 3 540 |T.R.
GardinenyJass-<- oo-s- Port La Vaca. Calhoun.-..- 28 38 96 37 25 IN.
Gills tule Sine alata mia Etumtsyil lea so | \Wiallkence aca) Serene een iain ore ee iR.
Glascoy JMG, oo22 Soo 2c iGilmers= 2c |Upshuriecs = 32 46 | 94 49 (Ofc
Kapp ebimsts.-secec ane Sisterdale....|Blanco ...... 29 54} 98 35 1,000 |A.
Rellog Miya o-ssemeecinae Wheelock ~.-;Robertson ..-| 30 50] 96 30 450 JR.
Moke, Dr. James H-.--- |Woodboro’ ..|Grayson....- SOMA 29,0115,0) leetoiaseee N.
Palm Swantes. soso. Auptinyss oss Drawvisireeersiae 30 15 97 AT, | -2 28282 iA.
RayalJast@ a se5 se Kaufman ....| Kanfman ....| 32 30 96:400n|-Seeeees iN.
Hucker; -B> Hi L253: Washington .|Washington -| 30 26] 96 15 |....---- iBYLeRs
Schuman, Bruno-....... (Roundtop ..-/Fayette -...- ZOK0GE | | 96037 | -eaeeee IT. R.
Sias, Prof. Solomon ....|/Bonham..... |Fannin...... 33 40 96 13 435 JA.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
SOUTH CAROLINA.
Jl
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
TEX AS—Continued.
Name of observer. Station. County. 5 2 < 2
3 = | 80 teh aes
Re sete
Zz = an) =
oF, Y Ore Feet.
TurnerwrA = --sciss Springfield -.|Limestone ..-| 31 30 | 96 15 | 4,500 \N.
Van Nostrand, J-.----- Atastinys= so (Dravisieeee= 30 20 | 97 46 650 |T.P.R.
Wradestiais oe siocte a's ae Cross Roads.-|Williamson-.| 30 29 97 26 672 iT. R.
WiestaiDrwNinib = s-sa see Burkeville...|Newton .-.-- 3100))). 930310 | eeese abs
Yellowby, Prof. C. W---|/Webberville ./Travis -...-- BOOLOR Oo asile) eee Byte.
Yoakumiyph, G2 22. 22. \Larissa...... Cherokee! 2... |, (Sl 45.12 95.20) eeeee ae TsP:R.
UTAH.
|
helps aWeaWwieenseo aa Great Salt} Salt Lake-.-| 40 45; 111 26 | 4,250 /A.
Lake City. |
VERMONT.
Buckland, David...-..- iBrandon _-_--|/Rutland_-.-- | 43 45 TSRO 0K eee ee cea
Cutting, Hiram A--.... Lunenburg --|Essex Te 44 28 71 41 1,124 |A.
Fairbanks, Franklin.-.-|St. Johnsbury|Caledonia....; 44 25 | 72 00 640 |B. T.R.
Jackman, Prof. A .....- Norwich..... Windsor ..-.| 43 42 Cee oilen| Sera cece ‘B.
Paddock, James A....-- Craftsbury ---|Orleans ----- 44 40 72 29 1, 100) |aeR:
Parker JOsepheejeeeacs West Ravert-|Bennington.-, 43 15 | 73 11 750 \T.
Retiyay Mickey esses. =- Burlington -./Chittenden -.| 44 27 | 73 10 367 \A
VIRGINIA.
Abell JsRallsser sees Charlottesv’le|Albemarle_../ 38 00 | 78 31 521 |T. R.
Astrop Col RK: BY occsoe Crichton’s Brunswick ..-} 36 40 77 46 500 |T. R.
Store
Boyers-eWin. hae see os Buffaloss-se Rutnameee se (I SSeo OM Sled 480 |B.T. R.
Dickinson, George C....|CobhamDepot/Albemarle...| 38 05 78 21 450 |T. R.
IBIS ARID Ee ateimtnim saree Wardensville |Hardy .....- 39°30) %8 03. ayr20e Ben:
HraservJaMmessaoeass cee New England.|Wood-....... 39420) - 8100 |es2eeee— N.
Hotchkiss, Jed--.2-.5.- Stribling Augusta. ...- 38 20 | 79 05 1,600 |T.
Springs.
JonesssilasiBe oe secee fork Union..|Fluvanna ...| 37 40 82210 | Eaaee oe N.
Kendall, James E......- KanawhaC, H/Kanawha..-.-| 38 20 | 81 30 720 |T. R.
Lockwood, George P__--.|Wheeling..._|Ohio._..__.- 41 09 80) 46nooe eee ADS Re
MackiesReva@ Base Anna see ease Hairfaxtetee 38 56 77 O04 180 |T.R.
Meriwether, Chas. I’..-_|Richmond ..-_jHenrico .....}.-....--|.-----4-1 Asse eee ERs
Marvin. Johnuweeooneee Winchester ._|Frederick....| 39 15 7810) eset ae aR
Pickett; Johnesseeee see The Plains ...|Nauquier!=.--|'_ 3850! 77 Sl |e yee iT’.
Purdie, John R., M. D._.|Smithfield _--|Isle of Wight.| 37 02 | 76 37 100 |T.R.
Reynolds; Wi Csseenece. Kanawha Sa-|Kanawha.-.-} 38 30 S30) eceeeeee TPR:
lines.
Robeys Chass Hi. 222 au Fredericksb’g |Spottsylvania} 38 30] 77 30 600 N.
Ruffin, Julian ©. 22.222 ‘(Garysville -..!Prince George} 37 21 | 77 3 100 'B.T.R.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
VIRGINIA—Continued.
: c #
oy fe 5
o} na o
Name of observer. Station. County. Be Sp a0 =|
E is) = ie
Bs : oS z
Z = hy 4
Oey Ori Feet.
Sanders; Bap ee so ssc cce Wellsburg:-:|Brooketee. caleasseeeoleemseeerl= assem os Au ley.
Slaven, James..-.-.-..-- Meadow Dale.|Highland....| 38 23 | 79 36 1,800 |T.R.
Spence, Edward E.--.-- Montross ---.|Westmoreland) 38 07 76 46 ZOO Ee ie
Stalnaker, J. W., M. D_--|Lewisburg ---|Greenbrier...| 37 49 80 28 2,000 |f. R.
Upshaw, George W...-- loydisatcss I DISIS{e cee pea a an (ey Re | a Ne eek:
Van Doren, Abram ...-- Falmouth _../|Stafford ...-- 38 15 77 34 Ayah) kde ey
Webster, Prof. N. B_..-.- Portsmouth--|Norfolk -.-.- 36 50 76 19 12 |B.T.R
WISCONSIN.
Armstrong Sse. ecc es cce ‘Pardeeville -- SE AME 43 44 SOP OM iy pee te
Atwood isaac asmee ae Lake Mills..-|Jefferson -.-.| 43 00 SOOO Rese sees N.
Bean, Professor 8. A.---- \Waukeska.--| Waukesha...) 42 50 88 1l 833) (Bie.
Clarke, Prof. Ambrose W.|Delafield -...|Waukesha...| 43 20 88 31 900 |B. T.
Curtis; Wo We scecn clans Rocky Run -.|Columbia_...| -43 26 |). 89 20 |--.-5... bau ea
Doylewls pHs seas = Otsegosecee- Columbia ss! 43) S04 |eeeccces lbeoeteee = N.
Ellis, Edwin, M. D.--...- Whittlesey. ..|/La Pointe....| 46 33 91 00 658 |T. Rh.
Gordon, W. A., M. D....)/Wausau ----- Marathon)==-) 45 00) 89) 30: |-22-22-- Dp:
Gridley, Rev. Johns 52 Kenosha ..--|/Kenosha --..; 42 35 | 87 50 600 |B.T. R.
Haeusernphmiles= saree Black River|Jackson .-.--| 44 17 GOSS 0k ee cee ik
Falls. |
Johnson AG Kase caeeee| Platteville. _.|Grant....... | 45 00 90 00m ss Saanae iar
Kellogg, George J--..-.- Janesvillet=2s|Rock. sees s22 42 43 89 90 780 |L.
Lapham, Increase A ...-|Milwaukie--~-.|Milwaukie.-_| 43 03 87 54 5950 Bars e
Larkin, Prof. E. P......- Milwaukie .--|Milwaukie.-. 43 02 | 87 55 684 |B.T.
MiUps Wacoba= cee ee ees |Manitowoc...|Manitowoc...; 44 07 | 87 45 = 80 |B.T.
Mann Wimesss ao se aces Superior. .--- Douglass. ---- | 46 46 92 03 680 |T. R.
Mason) ProfoR.Zice focae Appleton...-|Outagamie...| 44 10 | 88 35 800 JA.
Matthews; Disses sa scas Burlington. ..|Racine -...-- | 42 39 |.-..---- 700 IN.
Nourse, J. Harvey .----- Bayfield.....|La Pointe....| 47 00 | 91 00 |.----..- Te
Pashley,.J:i5., Mi. DE. 2. Mosinee ..--.- Marathon -..) 44 44 890359) See ee
Pickard, Jdu),,,00. DEes- \Platteville...|Grant......- | 42 45 90) 00) Boa noes. esaR
Pomeroy eC sseecasss Milwaukie- --|Milwaukie_..! 43 03 87 57 658 |T.
Porters Brot wim) esses iBeloitz- <=. .< Rockeesenaa| 42 30 89 04 750 |B.T.R
Sterling, Prof: J.. Wi... -- Madison. ---- Danersaae ass 43 05 89 25 1,068 |A.
Underwood, Col. D..--- (Green bay. -|Browai-=.-- 6 44 3 88 00 584 IT. R.
Winkler, (\C:, Mo Dezeeae Milwaukie. -./Milwaukie--- 3 08 87 57 600 |B.T.R
‘
* Above Lake Michigan.
94 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
MEXICO.
a
| 3 +
o “S) oS
Name of observer. Station. 3 2 a E
6 g = wm
3 S i a
OF RG ya Feet.
Berendt, German, M. D.} Vera Cruz, Vera Cruz..----- LOM te9. Gul09 26 A.
1sbEWoy, Wo doe aeooooS Cordova, Vera Cruzscecesce Rtv AND | Pe ore 2,820 |B, T.R.
: Minititlan, Tehuantepec ----) 17 59 | 94 07 60 |A.
Laszlo, Charles. ---- i Chinamaca, Tehuantepec....|_ 18 02 | 94 15 100 /A.
Sartorius, Charles*..--} Mirador, Vera Cruz......--- 19 15; 96 25 | 3,600 |A.
CENTRAL AMERICA.
Canudas, Antonio ---- Gaal, Gusta... 1430) ORSON Saoseane A.
WEST INDIES.
Haynewda) bases seeeee Morkisyisland S2ee cece ee | seeateee | shag ates | Rete Baus
BERMUDA.
Royal Engineers, (inthe} Centre Signal Station, St. |-.....-.|/....----|.-..-..- A.
Royal Gazette. ) George’s.
SOUTH AMERICA.
Dorsey, Edward B.---- Chanarcillo, Chile.........- 27 8 70 28 | 3,860 lb. 7.
Henney Cals ccmeenes Plantation Catharina Sophia, 5 48 SbnaT. | Poa A.
Colony of Surinam, Dutch
Guiana.
ASIA
arclay, R. G@., M. D_-| Jerusalem, Palestine .-...-- ol 47 | 35 1 2,610 lA.
* Sent observations also for 1858,
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. 95
METEOROLOGICAL RECORDS RECEIVED FROM PERSONS NOT REGULAR
OBSERVERS.
From ANDREW Scotr.—Copy of journal kept at the public library,
Nassau, N. P., Bahamas, lat. 25° 05’, long. 17° 21’, by A. M. Smita,
Librarian, January, 1858, to August, 1859, observations of barometer,
thermometer, and wind.
‘From Dr. Epwarp P. Voiium, U. 8. A.—Twenty-four slips ozone
paper, kept at Fort Umpqua, Oregon, from June 12 to August 5, 1859.
From Captain A. W. Wuippne, U. §. A.—Observations of ba-
rometer, thermometer, psychrometer, rain, clouds, and winds, from
May 16 to September 30, 1859, made at Lake George, Chippewa
county, Michigan. The observations for May were taken by J. H.
Foster; for July, August, and September by Epwarp PERRAULT.
From A. Mattison, Paducah, Ky.—Observations made at Bogota,
South America, on barometer, thermometer, and rain, by EZEQUIEL
Uricorecuea, for June, 1857, and March, April, and May, 1859.
Printed slips.
From Lieutenant Jonn Muuuayn, U.S. A., in charge of the military
wagon road expedition from Fort Walla-Walla to Fort Benton. Ob-
servations made on barometer and thermometer at Cantonment Jordan,
in the valley of the St. Francis Borgia river, for December, 1859, by
W. W. Jounson.
From B. F. Saumarp, Austin, Texas. —Observations en barometer,
thermometer, winds, and clouds, for the year 1859, made on the geo-
logical and agricultural survey of Texas, under his direction, by
GEORGE G. SHUMARD, M. D.
From JoHn H. Cuark, commissioner, United States and Texas
boundary survey.—Barometric record from January 15 to September
21, 1859; the record not continuous, but made from time to time at
the various astronomical stations. Received through the Interior
Department.
From 8. T. Ancrer, of Columbia, Texas.—Desultory notes of
weather made in Sussex county, Virginia, during the year 1820.
From Captain Joun Popr, U. 8. A.—Observations with full set of
instruments on expedition in Texas and New Mexico, made by James
M. Reape, from March, 1855, to December, 1857.
Stations from which Telegraphic Reports of the weather were received at
the Smithsonian Institution in the year 1859.
New York, N. Y.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Pittsburg, Pa.
Baltimore, Md.
Frederick, Md.
Hagerstown, Md.
Cumberland, Md.
Richmond, Va.
Petersburg, Va.
Norfolk, Va.
Staunton, Va.
Charlottesville, Va.
Lynchburgh, Va.
Wytheville, Va.
Grafton, Va.
Wheeling, Va.
Parkersburg, Va.
Marietta, Ohio.
Chillicothe, Ohio.
Cincinnati, Ohio.
3ristol, Tenn.
Knoxville, Tenn.
Chatanooga, Tenn.
Raleigh, N. C.
Wilmington, N. C.
Columbia, 8. C.
Charleston, S. C.
Augusta, Ga.
Savannah, Ga.
Macon, Ga.
Columbus, Ga.
Atlanta, Ga.
Prairie Bluff, Ala.
Montgomery, Ala.
Lower Peach Tree, Ala.
Mobile, Ala.
Gainesville, Miss.
Jackson, Miss.
New Orleans, La,
96 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
DEATHS OF OBSERVERS.
SamugL Brown, Bedford, Pa., died in end of 1858 or beginning of
1859. He commenced observing before 1854. The last register re-
ceived from him was for October, 1858.
Joun Lerrerts, observer at Farmer, Seneca county, N. Y., died
on the 14th of January, 1859.
WitiiamM Crancu Bonn, an eminent American astronomer and di-
rector of the Cambridge observatory, died on the 29th of January,
1859, in the 69th year of his age.
Dr. J. W. Tuck, secretary of the Board of Health, Memphis, Tenn.,
died about the first of June, 1859. Observer since 1857.
Dr. E. H. Barron, formerly of New Orleans, died at Charleston,
S. C., in September, 1859.
Dr. Joun James, Upper Alton, Illinois, observer since 1854, died
October 11, 1859.
Dr. Joun F. Posey, Savannah, Ga., died in January, 1860. Ob-
server since previous to 1854.
REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.
on
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.
—___
The Executive Committee respectfully submit to the Board of Re-
gents the following report of the receipts and expenditures of the
Smithsonian Institution during the year 1859, with estimates for the
year 1860:
Receipts.
The whole amount of Smithson’s bequest deposited in
the treasury of the United States is $515,169, from
which an annual income, at six per cent., is derived, of
Extra fund of unexpended income, invested as
follows:
In $75,000 Indiana 5 per cent. bonds,
piling: Gk WANs, Fe) days « «1.0 wegen
In $53,500 Virginia 6 per cent. bonds,
yielding Rees Rn “eaegh esis y 16insi's coy SuSE
In $7,000 Tennessee 6 per cent. bonds,
yielding I SER OI OEE Soc! ch ane
In $500 Georgia 6 per cent. bonds,
yielding aisihs:, atten akes gah chlevige sh eicka) «or sh qu pmanteuelrenet ts
In $100 Washington 6 per cent. bonds,
yielding skein RURSMIS wie ioples ©) onus euaktckee sana ev eicen &
Balance in the hands of the Treasurer
January i, BOR eels 5 cciualigiewepel lee voce
Expenditures.
For building, furniture, and fixtures.--.
For items common to the different objects
Of the DrSlHtutiOn sae sce den eee.
For publications, researches, and lectures
For library, museum, and gallery of art. -
$3,750 00
3,210 00
420 00
30 00
6 00
$1,720 57
11,519 04
11,072 32.
10,521 46.
Balance in the hands of the Treasurer January 1, 1860,.
including $5,000 of the extra fund not yet invested: -.
i
$30,910 14
7,416 00
38,326 14
16,141 36
54,467, 50
34,833 39»
19,634 11
—_—-——_
— +
98 REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.
Statement in detail of the expenditures in 1859.
BUILDING, FURNITURE, AND FIXTURES.
Repairs and inementals v-.. << SPs to $1,054 28
Furniture and fixtures in COMMON+-++-++ seers 274 28
Furniture and fixtures for museum: +--+ ++++:+- 135 21
Mapnetic observatory: si. + seis tos ace 256 80
Se 20no7
GENERAL EXPENSES.
Meetings of the Board --+--+++++ess sess eres $14 50
Lighting and heating «--+--* 2+: ++2se+++es-s 902 68
Postage Soha ewe, cehechmleneks Robe ke toMet site te teliane)e) fouieiselin)1.6), such 558 65
Transportation and exchange +++-+++++++++++++ 1,458 34
Stationery «+ +--+ cece ee cece ee eee ee cece eee 289 37
General printing Uses Buta Re el cD elokcnains), folisfiegeieis noe 569 60
Apparatus Bey AGIOS NS SSIES Pane ae RR WG ic a oreo Reue 766 13
Laboratory Bites eb -rPChOLGs OF DI Ons De RO On aca SECT CLO IAG 68 36
Incidentals general... ++ seers eee eee eee ees 570 06
Salaries—Secretary +++ + +++ sess see e eee eens 3,500 00
(Olanvent @ieidie oibegdo coodpo Gob doce aoe 1,400 00
Book-keeper, janitor, &c- +++. ++++-- 1,064 00
Bixtray clerks ie lteteler -iekoitons) ch tcienste Nich ol shreaiotot mail fetcr 35T 35
PUBLICATIONS, RESEARCHES, AND LECTURES.
Smithsonian Contributions. -++-+++++++++eeeees 3,964 15
Reports on progress of knowledge.---+-+++-+-+ 1,831 19
Other publications OC SOO ok Ooo oO 686 37
Meteorology sireBate anasotig dat ote oy ols Maho R Ie te eMeme: ie eeevowes: 8 cae 3; IAT 36
Investigations, computations, and researches-- 464 065
IGANGA oboe o606 DOGomS bOo0 DOdbbC 8d oD OGo8 879 20
LIBRARY, MUSEUM, AND GALLERY OF ART.
Library—Cost of books ---.+- see. e cece eee. 2,530 83
Pay of assistants.-++++ eee. cece eee 1,347 00
Transportation «+++. esse ee eee eee 217 74
Inetdentallig(cs «ccs. s.<igerales oe cnslba eee rene 25 00
Museum—Salary of Assistant Secretary: --.--- 2,000 00
Explorations. . .. see osietemctioats eters 315 65
CollectYons* =... . etx aeeeaee Se Se 16 87
Incidentals, jars, alcohol, &c-...--- 1,115 65
Assistants and labor «---.. 2.5. ..05 2,378 38
Transportation DOGO Canddo Hoon UGE6 544 34
Gallery Of Art ++ 22.5 6.5 snyeiinirc ccna n cw ese 30 00
11,519 04
11,072 32
Lists calle VAIO OA AG
—_—
34,833 39
eee
Total expenditure ay slate Nan cheliat so) allege’ a0 a LON eT eee
REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 99
The estimated income for the year 1859, inclusive of the balance
in the hands of the Treasurer, was $54,495 56, and the actual
income $54,467 50; showing a difference of $28 06 less than the
estimate. This difference arises from the fact that in the previous
reports the whole amount of $3,210 interest on Virginia stock was
‘assumed to have been placed to the credit of the Treasurer, although
Riggs & Co. retained $16 06 for commission, &c., at the time of the
purchase.
In addition to the above, the interest for two years on the Wash-
ington corporation stock, amounting to $12, was considered as in the
hands of the treasurer, although it had not actually been drawn.
The estimated expenditure was $38,000. The actual expenditure
$34,833 39; showing a difference of $3,166 61 less than the esti-
mate, due principally to a less expenditure on the building, furniture,
and the publications.
The amount of income above that of the expenditure was $3,492 75,
which, added to the actual balance ($16,141 36) in the hands of the
Treasurer at the beginning of the year 1859, makes $19,634 11. It
is necessary to mention that $5,000 of this belongs to the extra fund,
which has not yet been invested.
The annual appropriation from Congress for keeping the museum
of the exploring expedition has been expended, under the direction
of the Secretary of the Interior, in assisting to pay the extra ex-
penses of assistants and the cost of preserving and arranging the
specimens.
An appropriation has also been continued during the past year by
the Patent Office for the collection of meteorological statistics for the
Agricultural Report.
It is believed the expenditures under these heads have been eco-
nomically and judiciously made, and that the services rendered to
government have been strictly and faithfully performed.
The specimens intrusted to the care of the Institution are now
undergoing a thorough examination, and, being scientifically arranged,
are in a better condition to meet the wants of the naturalist, and to
interest the public, than ever before.
The committee respectfully submit the following estimate of the
expenditures for the year 1860:
Estimate of appropriations for the year 1860.
BUILDING, FURNITURE, AND FIXTURES.
Repairs and incidentals --+++--ee+eee ee eres $1,500 00
Furniture and fixtures .----- +--+ e+e +e: 800 00
Magnetic observatory --++++ sess cree eters 350 00
—___—__—. $7, 650 00
Meetings of the Board. +-+-- s+. +++. eeeeee 250 00
Lighting and heating aeraNadiaif's) Toi fattartsietslysile {eso/.« site) =) s\iei-s 1,000 00
100 REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.
Postage tte haa Weeobep etal w. sllebere stacis ole) «Monge eiene «%= $600 00
Transportation and exchange «+--+ +++-++* +: 1,500 00
Stationery fae SA Re ois ccstarveikesenuoyohierene pipel sale vse 300 00 ;
General printing ..--+-+++++++ errr tet 600 00
Apparatus Nem i) nly et aaveliet« jeliel atohe ren os 800 00
Laboratory Fee ey SE HERE LONS CROECE CM LONGER. Cho OrO/0 Gl 100 00
Incidentals general ----- Oc au 00 Orne 00.0. 500 00
Salaries. —-cecretary ---2+ 2: = 22-2 tee ses oc 3,500 00
Chief clerk, messenger, book-keeper,
laborers, &C-++++s esse eset res 3,000 00
Extra clerk hire «---+-+- +++: eeeee? 500 00
OS UE
PUBLICATIONS, RESEARCHES, AND LECTURES.
Smithsonian Contributions:+---+++++: errs: 6,000 .00
Reporisyom PROGTESS api sys par reso op 500 00
Miscellaneous collections. +++++++++sssrreee 1,000 00
Meteorology BEN Oe Veen Ta hy arcuate tetebaperte: execs! ‘onshs te 3,000 00
Investigations « Ginhe doech Ore me Geprorokouano, Us ows Gad) Ge ONS 700 00
SGU AIG Sisisueks “usller=yebole ae ore) washieh ain pease aliens 800 00
— 12,000 00
LIBRARY, MUSEUM, AND GALLERY OF ART.
Library.—Cost of books-----+-+++++++e+++:- 2,500 00
Pay of assistants. ++-++ veee eeeeee 1,500 00
Transportation +--+ -++++ ees. sees 250 00
line Gani! GoaaoG Godagtios so5co0 50 00
Museum.—Salary of Assistant Secretary: ---- 2,000 00
Explorations BR MeHO! Gc, Gar “ONO ENGL OIG a O oge 300 00
(OONINEGuVeINS coo 6 couo os CboGKs cmos 200 00
IMeTdenitalSiets sier- ote els siekede tte. 1,000 00
Assistants and labor..---------- 2,000 00
Transportation «+--+ s++eee eee eee 600 00
Gallery MNeIMGAROCo6 So CHD O OCHO OO A Obd Ooo D000 300 00
-—— 10,700 00
38,000 00
The committee have carefully examined all the books and accounts
of the Institution for the past year, and find them to be correct.
Respectfully submitted.
J. A. PEARCE,
A. D. BACHE,
Executive Committec.*
W ASHINGTON.
: me General Totten, the other member of the Executive Committee, is temporarily absent
in California on official duty. ;
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 101
JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.
OF THE
BOARD OF REGENTS
OF
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
WASHINGTON, January 18, 1860.
In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution fixing the time of the beginning of their an-
nual sessicn on the third Wednesday of January of each year, the
Board met this day in the Regents’ room of the Institution.
Present : Hon. Jas. A. Pearce, Hon. W. H. English, and the Sec-
retary.
No quorum being present, the Board adjourned to meet on the 28th
of January.
JANUARY 28, 1860.
The Board of Regents met this day, at 103 o’clock a. m., in the
Regents’ room,
Present: Hon. Mr. Breckinridge, Hon. James A. Pearce, Hon. J.
M. Mason, Professor C. C. Felton, Professor A. D. Bache, Hon. J.
G. Berret, W. W. Seaton, esq., Treasurer, and the Secretary.
The Secretary announced the reappointment, by the Vice-Presi-
dent, under a resolution of the Senate, of the Hon. 8. A. Douglas, as
a Regent for the term of six years, and stated that the House of Rep-
resentatives not having organized, the vacancies in the Board from
that body had not been filled. He regretted to state that the Chan-
cellor of the Institution, Chief Justice Taney, was confined to his bed
by temporary illness; that Mr. Hawley, of Albany, was unable to at-
tend on account of bad health, and that since the last meeting of the
Regents a vacancy had occurred in the Board by the death of the
Hon. Richard Rush, of Philadelphia.
Hon. Mr. Pearce then made the following remarks:
Since the last meeting of the Board of Regents, as announced by
the Secretary, one of its earliest and most distinguished members,
the Hon. RicHarp Rusu, has departed this life.
The history of his public career is familiar to all the Regents, to
102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.
whom I need scarcely detail even its more prominent incidents; but
T may remark that it is seldom the good fortune of any man to fill so
many important offices,* and to execute so many responsible public
trusts, not only with credit, honor, and usefulness, but with ever-in-
creasing reputation. Mr. Rush’s life was along one, and he entered
into the service of his country while yet in the spring of manhood.
He was Comptroller of fhe Treasury at a time when the fiscal affairs
of the government were in disorder, when the public accounts were
numerous and complicated, and often required difficult legal adjust-
ment. He was next Attorney General. Soon after the peace of 1815
he was minister to England, and occupied that important post during
eight years, when various national questions of difficulty and delicacy
required for their proper settlement diplomatic skill, firmness, and
caution. He was Secretary of the Treasury when measures of rev-
enue were violently disputed; minister to France when the mon-
archy was a second time overthrown and a republic again proclaimed.
To these great and varied employments he brought integrity,
ability, intelligence, firmness, courtesy, and a directness of purpose
which scorned all finesse, and which served his country to the full
extent of all that could have been demanded or hoped. He was a
good scholar, having graduated at Princeton College, and cultivated
literature, as wellas the severer studies of his profession, with great
zeal and success.
Withal he was remarkable for the kindness of his temper, the
amenity of his manners, and the charms of his conversation.
With this establishment he had the earliest connexion, having,
under the authority of the government, caused the institution. of legal
proceedings in England for the recovery of the fund with which it
was founded and endowed, and superintended their progress to the close.
The act of Congress of 1846 having established the Smithsonian
Institution, he was appointed one of its first Regents, and was con-
stantly continued by Congress a member of their Board. His zeal
for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men, and_ his
sound judgment, contributed to the adoption of the system of opera-
tions which, so far, has borne the happiest fruits; and his interest in
and care for its successful management furnished one of the enjoyments
of a tranquil old age, ‘‘ attended by reverence and troops of friends.”’
I offer the following resolutions:
fesolved, That the Board of Regents have learned with deep regret
the death of the Hon. Richard Rush, one of their members, whose
long and distinguished career of public usefulness commanded their
entire respect, and whose moral and social worth won their highest
esteem and regard.
Resolved, That a copy of this resolution be transmitted to the family
of the deceased.
The resolutions were unanimously adopted.
On motion of Mr. Mason, it was ordered that a copy of the remarks
of Mr. Pearce be included in the proceedings, and also transmitted
to the family.
The Treasurer presented the account of receipts and expenditures
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 103
for the year 1859, and a general statement of the finances, which
were read and referred to the Executive Committee.
The Secretary read the following letter from the Duke of North-
umberland, and presented the books to which it refers:
NORTHUMBERLAND Houses, July 4, 1859.
Sir: Permit me to present to the Smithsonian Institution some
books which I have had privately printed as materials for the history
of the county of Northumberland. There is a survey of the Roman
wall which was built across the north of England; coins of the Roman
families, some of which were found in this country; and an account
of some ancient castles which have historical interest.
I again beg to express my thanks to the members of the Smith-
sonian Institution for the valuable publications which they have had
the kindness to send me.
Iam, sir, your obedient servant,
NORTHUMBERLAND.
The Secretary exhibited a burning lens and a condensing air-
pump, which had been presented to the Institution by J. R. Priest-
ley, esq., of Northumberland, Pa., a grandson of the celebrated Dr.
Priestley, and made the following remarks:
This lens is undoubtedly connected with the history of one of the
most important chemical discoveries of the latter part of the last
century. Dr. Priestley, who has been styled the father of pneumatic
chemistry, made a series of experiments on different kinds of air,
which greatly extended the science of chemistry, and has been of
material importance in the improvement of various practical arts.
‘“At the time of my first publication,’ [says Dr. Priestley, ]* ‘‘I
was not possessed of a burning lens of any considerable force, and for
want of one I could not possibly make many of the experiments
which I had projected, and which in theory appeared very promising.
But having afterwards procured a lens of twelve inches diameter and
twenty inches focal distance, I proceeded with great alacrity to ex-
amine by the help of it what kind of air a great variety of substances,
natural and factitious, would yield, putting them into glass vessels,
which I filled with quicksilver, and kept them inverted in a_ basin of
the same. With this apparatus, after a variety of other experi-
ments, on the Ist of August, 1774, I endeavored to extract air from
mercurius calcinatus per se, and I presently found that by means of
this lens air was expelled from it very readily. Having got three or
four timesas much [air] as the bulk of my materials, [admitted water
to it, and found that it was not imbibed by it. But what surprised
me more than I can well express was, that a candle burned in this
air with a remarkably vigorous flame.’’
The gas thus discovered, to which he gave the name of ‘‘ dephlo-
gisticated air,’’ was what is now known as OXYGEN.
* Experiments and observations on different kinds of air, &c., by Jos. Priestly : vol. ii,
pp. 106-112. Birmingham, 1790.
104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.
Dr. Priestley, however, though he made a large number of experi-
ments in regard to it, remained in ignorance of its true nature until
March, 1775; but in the course of this month, says he, ‘‘I not only
ascertained the nature of this kind of air, though very gradually, but
was led by it, as I then thought, to the complete discovery of the con-
stitution of the air we breathe.”’
That the lens now exhibited to the Board is the one with which
this important discovery was made cannot be doubted, since, accord-
ing to the statement of his grandson, it has never been out of the
family—is twelve inches diameter, and has a focal length of precisely
twenty inches.
The annual report of the operations and condition of the Institu-
tion was presented by the Secretary, and read in part.
On motion of Mr. Pearce, the Board then adjourned to meet on
Saturday next, at 10 o'clock.
SaturpDay, Lebruary 4, 1860.
A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day, at 100’ clock a.m.
Present: Hon. John C. Breckinridge, Hon. James A. Pearce, Hon.
S. A. Douglas, Professor C. C. Felton, Professor A. D. Bache, Hon.
J. G. Berret, and the Secretary.
Mr. Breckinridge was called to the chair.
The minutes were read and approved.
The Secretary announced the death of the following persons who
had been connected officially and otherwise with the operations of the
Institution: Washington Irving, an honorary member; Professor Par-
ker Cleaveland, also an honorary member; Professor W. W. Turner,
Professor James P. Espy, and G. Wiirdemann, esq.
Professor Felton then addressed the Board as follows:
Mr. CHANCELLOR: The year 1859 will be memorable in the history
of civilization for the number of illustrious men who have passed away
from the scene of their earthly labor in its course. The year 1769
was remarkable for the number of men born in it, who have changed
the whole aspect of science and letters and the political condition of
the world. Of the great men born in that year, one, Humboldt, the
most eminent of all, lived to the year 1859, thus spanning over the
interval between them by a life of 90 years consecrated to the highest
objects of human pursuits.
The Smithsonian Institution has to lament an unusual number of
those connected with it among the distinguished dead of the past
year. The venerable Mr. Rush has already been fitly commemorated
by a member of the Board. I take the liberty of offering a few re-
marks upon two others whose death the country deplores.
Professor W. W. Turner was born in England in 1810. At the age
of five years he was brought by his father to the United States. The
fortunes of his family being humble, he learned the trade of a carpen-
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 105
ter; but at the age of nineteen he became a printer. During his
youth and early manhood he exhibited an ardent love of knowledge,
and devoted every moment he could spare from the necessary labors
of his trade to its acquisition. His taste led him especially to the
study of philology, and his acquisitions in this department of knowl-
edge were surprising. He studied not only the ancient languages,
including the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Samaritan, Coptic and San-
scrit, but the modern EKuropean and Oriental tongues. To these rich
and varied accomplishments he added an extensive knowledge of the
dialects of the American aborigines, which form a group so peculiar
in their characteristics, and so important in their bearings upon com-
parative philology. But Mr. Turner possessed not merely the talent
of learning languages. His mind was of a philosophical cast; he
mastered easily and rapidly the general principles of the science of
comparative philology, which has become within the present age one
of the surest guides in tracing the history and affinities of the different
branches of the human race. ‘This science but few men of his age
have so thoroughly explored as our departed friend.
In 1842 Mr. Turner was elected professor of Oriental literature in
the Union Theological Seminary of the city of New York. The duties
of this office he dischar ged with signal ability for ten years. In 1852
the Commissioner of Patents invited him to W ashington to take charge
of the library in that department. His labors in forming a library
for the special use of the department and adequate to its wants have
been highly appreciated by those who knew them best.
His literary activity has been various and effective. He assisted
the learned Dr. Nordheimer in the preparation of his Hebrew gram-
mar. He executed the greater part of the translation of Freund’s
Latin Lexicon from the German for the American edition. He wrote
many valuable papers for the ‘‘ Bibliotheca Sacra’’ and other kindred
periodical publications. A few years ago an inscription was found
near the ancient Sidon, cut on the lid of the sarcophagus of an ancient
king of that city, and copies of it having been transmitted to this
country by the American missionaries, it attracted the earnest atten-
tion of Oriental scholars, and among the rest, of Professor Turner.
The discovery was important, because the inscription contains the
longest continuous text yet known in the Phenician language: a lan-
guage closely connected with the Hebrew. The labors of Professor
Turner upon this curious document were among the last of his life.
Two of the principal philological works published by the Smith-
sonian Institution were moulded into their present shape by Professor
Turner: the Dacota grammar and dictionary, and the grammar of
the Yoruba language. The materials furnished him were elaborated
with great skill and learning; and these two admirable volumes form
an inter esting addition to philological science—the Dacota grammar
illustrating in a philosophical manner the characteristic peculiarities
of the American type of the agglutinating or polysynthetic languages,
and the Yoruba grammar illustrating the African type of the same
great division in the classification of human speech.
The unremitting labors of Professor Turner gradually undermined
his constitution. In October last he visited New York, vartly for the
106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.
benefit of his impaired health, and partly to attend a meeting of the
American Oriental Society, of which he was an active member. On
his return to Washington, in November, he rapidly declined, and on
Tuesday, the 29th of that month, expired, without pain, at the age
of 49 years. bi
Professor Turner was not only distinguished for his abilities as a
scholar, his extraordinary capacity for labor, his great power of grasp-
ing the generalization of the science to which he was devoted, but
his private life was marked by singular purity. His manners were
simple and cordial; his conversation lively and instructive. He was
modest, without reserve; he was unobtrusive, but always ready to 1m-
yart his affluent knowledge whenever the occasion seemed to call for
it. he death of such a man is a loss to science and the country. I
move the adoption of the following resolution:
Resolved, That this Board have learned with deep regret of the
death of Professor W. W. Turner, a scholar of rare gifts and large
acquirements, whose abilities and learning have in many ways been of
great value to the Smithsonian Institution. As a philologist, he had
but few equals; as an earnest laborer in the pursuit of knowledge, he
was a high example to American students. As a public officer, he
was upright, conscientious, and prompt in the discharge of every duty.
His social virtues endeared him to his friends in no common measure.
By his death American scholarship has sustained a heavy loss, this
Institution has been deprived of an efficient collaborator, and the com-
munity at large of a virtuous and distinguished citizen.
On motion of Hon. J. G. Berret, it was
Resolved, That a copy of this resolution, with the introductory
remarks, be transmitted to the family of the deceased.
The resolutions were adopted.
Professor Felton then addressed the Board as follows:
I have also, Mr. Chancellor, to call the attention of the Board to
the death of an honorary member of the Smithsonian Institution—the
beloved and illustrious Washington Irving, the most venerated repre-
sentative of American literature. He was born April 8, 1783, in New
York, and died at his residence, at Sunnyside, on the banks of the
Hudson, November 28, 1859, in the T7th year of hisage. His literary
career extends over a period of more than half a century. For many
years he has stood undoubtedly at the head of American literature.
He enjoyed only the common opportunities of education in his youth;
but the oldest universities of England and America honored themselves
by conferring their highest honors on him in his manhood. At an
early age he commenced the study of the law. His health failing, he
travelled two years in Europe, and resuming his professional studies
on his return, was admitted to the bar. Not finding the practice of
the profession congenial to his tastes, he relinquished it, and became
a partner in a mercantile house with his brother. But he was not
destined to remain long in the career of trade; the failure of the
house in the crisis that followed the peace of 1815 turned his attention
to literature as a permanent pursuit. He had already shown by the
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 107
most decided proofs that nature had endowed him with the richest
gifts of genius. His early writings, especially his contributions to
Salmagundi, and Knickerbocker’s ‘History of New York, exhibit the
keenest power of observation, the most brilliant wit, and an English
style at once pure, copious, and expressive. But when he vesolaad to
devote himself to letters as the business of his life, instead of the
amusement of his leisure hours, he gave to the culture of style the
thought, care, and labor that the painter and the sculptor expend in
acquiring a mastery over the materials, principles, and processes of
their respective arts. In the choice of his words and the structure of
his sentences he exercised a refined taste and a delicate discrimination,
allowing nothing to escape him which was not justified by the most
fastidious judgment. He studied the best authors of the best ages in
English literature, and disciplined his genius by a strict conformity to
the ‘esiabliahed idiom of the mother tong: ue. Oddity and extravagance
of expression, which some writers of our age mistake for originality of
genius, found no favor with him. His genial nature, his sensibility to
all that is beautiful in the works of God, his ready sympathy with the
best affections of the human heart, were thus embodied in a style of
marvellous grace, purity, and harmony. His imagination, gentle yet
powerful, brightened everything it fell upon; his wit exhilarated and
gladdened; his humor charmed by its sparkling play; his pathos, so
true, so tender, colored with the unforgotten sorrow of his own early
bereavement, touched the chords of sympathy in every heart. He
was an elegant essayist, a delightful biographer, a profound and
brilliant historian, and his whole life was loyal to the highest interests
of humanity. In private friendships he was faithful and genereus.
He had all the excellencies of the literary character, with none of its
defects. He had no rivalries to disturb the serenity of his days, no
jealousies to irritate his temper. While enjoying his own brilliant
success, with a modest appreciation of its value, he rejoiced in the
successes of others, and delighted to aid them with his powerful influ-
ence. He never had an enemy, for all men were his friends. He
never uttered a word that could wound the feelings of the most sensi-
tive; he never wrote a sentence that could offend the most delicate;
he never printed a line which, dying, he could wish to blot. His genius
has been recognized throughout the civilized world; his works are read
and his name revered wherever a cultivated language has been the
organ of a national literature. The legends of Spain and Italy have
furnished congenial subjects for his pen. The manners and life of
England have been more brilliantly illustrated by him than by any
English writer of our time. His native land, however, has been
crowned by the richer and mature products of his genius. The
picturesque banks of the Hudson have been made classical by the
charm with which his creations—poetical in all but the form—have
invested them. It is his peculiar felicity to have built the most
enduring monument to the discoverer of America and to the Father
of his Country, with the latter of whom he was associated by his
baptismal name.
Mr. Irving took a lively interest in all that concerned the intellectual
progress of the country; in all that concerned humanity, beyond the
108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.
circle of his own literary interests. He was the first named trustee
of the Astor Library under the will of its munificent founder, and for
many years acted as the president of the board. He served as a
director in the Savings Bank in the place of his residence until his
death; and he was an officer of the village church, from which his
own lifeless remains were borne to their final resting place by his
mother’s side. He had the prospects of this Institution much at
heart, and gave his constant attendance to its proceedings during a
whole season passed by him in Washington. Ripe in age, crowned
with the most enduring honors of the world and with the warmest
affections of his countrymen, having finished the work which was
given him to do and laid aside his pen forever, after a short period
of repose in the midst of his friends, at the close of an evening of
social and domestic enjoyment, he passed away in a moment by a
blessed euthanasia. We cannot be surprised at such an event, though
it excites our sensibility. His death was in beautiful harmony with
his life, for he died as he had lived, the beloved of men and the
favored of Heaven.
Thinking thus, Mr. Chancellor, of Mr. Irving’s life, character, and
death, I offer the following resolutions:
Resolved, That the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution
recognize in the character of their late associate, Washington Irving,
a conspicuous example of the noblest virtues and the most generous
qualities that belong to human nature.
Resolved, That while lamenting his death with the peculiar sorrow
of countrymen and associates in this Institution, yet, in common with
the whole civilized world, they gratefully appreciate the services he
has rendered to literature, and hold in reverent remembrance his long
career of labors as an author no less loyal to truth and virtue than
brilliant with the gift of genius and graced with the amenities.and
courtesies that are the fairest ornaments of social life.
On motion of Senator Douglas, it was
Resolved, That a copy of the above resolutions, together with the
remarks that preceded them, be transmitted to the family of the
deceased. :
The resolutions were then adopted.
Professor Bache made the following remarks:
James P. Espy, one of the most original and successful meteor-
ologists of the present time, died in Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 24th of
January, 1860, in the seventy-fifth year of his age, after an illness of
a week, at the residence of his nephew, John Westcott.
The early career of Mr. Espy as an instructor was marked by the
qualities which led to his later distinction in science. He was one
of the best classical and mathematical instructors in Philadelphia,
which at that day numbered Dr. Wylie, Mr. Sanderson, and Mr.
Crawford among its teachers.
Impressed by the researches and writings of Dalton and of Daniell
on meteorology, Mr. Espy began to observe the phenomena, and then
to experiment on the facts which form the groundwork of the science.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 109
As he observed, experimented, and studied, his enthusiasm grew, and
his desire to devote himself exclusively to the increase and diffusion
of the science finally became so strong that he determined to give up
his school, and to rely for the means of prosecuting his researches
‘upon his slender savings and the success of his lectures, probably the
most original which have ever been delivered on this subject. His
first course was delivered before the Franklin Institute of Penn-
sylvania, of which he had long been an active member, and where he
met kindred spirits, ready to discuss the principles or the applica-
tions of science, and prepared to extend their views over the whole
horizon of physical and mechanical research. As chairman of the
committee on meteorology, Mr. Espy had a large share in the organi-
zation of the complete system of meteorological observations carried
on by the institute under the auspices and within the limits of the
State of Pennsylvania.
Mr. Exspy’s theory of storms was developed in successive memoirs
in the Journal of the Franklin Institute, containing discussions of the
changes of temperature, pressure, and moisture of the air, and in the
direction and force of the wind and other phenomena attending re-
markable storms in the United States and on the ocean adjacent to
the Atlantic and Gulf coast. Assuming great simplicity as it was
developed, and founded on the established laws of physics and upon
ingenious and well-directed original experiments, this theory drew
general attention to itself, especially in the United States. A me-
moir submitted anonymously to the American Philosophical Society
of Philadelphia gained for Mr. Espy the award of the Magellanic
premium in the year 1836, after a discussion remarkable for ingenuity
and closeness inits progress, and for the almost unanimity of its result.
Mr. Espy was eminently social in his mental habits, full of bonhom-
mie. and of enthusiasm, easily kindling into a glow by social mental
action. In the meetings and free discussions in a club formed for
promoting research, and especially for scrutinizing the labors of its
members—and of which Sears C. Walker, Professor Henry, Henry
D. Rogers, and myself were members—Mr. KEspy found the mental
stimulus that he needed, and thegriticism which he courted, the best
aids and checks on his observations, speculations, and experiments.
But there was one person who had more influence upon him than all
others besides, stimulating him to progress, and urging him forward
in each step with a zeal which never flagged—this was his wife.
Having no children to occupy her care, and being of high mental en-
dowment and of enthusiastic temperament, she found a never-failing
source of interest and gratification in watching the development of
Mr. Espy’s scientific ideasy the progress of his experiments, and the
results of his reading and studies; the collection and collation of ob-
servations of natural phenomena in the poetical region of the storm,
the tornado, and of the aurora. Mrs. Espy’s mind was essentially
literary, and she could not aid her husband in his scientific inquiries
or experiments: her health was delicate, and she could not assist him
in his out-door observations; but she supplied what was of more im-
portance than these aids—a genial and loving interest ever manifested
in his pursuits and successes, and in his very failures. Alere flam-
110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.
mam was the office of her delicate and poetical temperament.
Younger than Mr. Espy, she nevertheless died several years before
him, (in 1850,) leaving him to struggle alone in the decline of life
without the sustaining power of her devoted and enthusiastic nature.
Having ina great degree matured his theory of storms; having
made numerous inductions from observations, and having written
a great deal in regard to it, Mr. Espy took the bold resolution, though
past middle age, to throw himself into a new career, laying aside
all ordinary employments, and devoting himself to the diffusion of the
knowledge which he had collected and increased, by lecturing in the
towns, villages, and cities of the United States. This proved a suc-
cessful undertaking, and by its originality attracted more attention
to his views than could have been obtained, probably, in any other
way. He soon showed remarkable power in explaining his ideas.
His simplicity and clearness enabled his hearers to follow him without
too great effort, and the earnestness with which he spoke out his con-
victions carried them away in favor of his theory. The same power
which enabled him to succeed in his lecturing career procured sub-
sequently for Mr. Espy the support and encouragement of some of the
leading men in Congress, and especially in the Senate, and also in
the executive departments. Their attention was arrested by the
originality of his views and his warmth in presenting them, and he
imparted so much of his conviction of their truth as to induce many
of our statesmen and official persons to exert themselves to procure
for him, under the patronage of the government, continued oppor-
tunities for study, research, and the comparison of observations. To
the consistent support of his scientific friends, and particularly of the
Secretary of this Institution, Mr. Espy owed also much in obtaining
the opportunities of keeping in a scientific career. His reports to
the surgeon general of the army, to Congress, and to the Secretary
of the Navy, are among his latest efforts in this direction.
The earnest and deep convictions of the truth of his theory in all
its parts, and his glowing enthusiasm in regard to it; perhaps, also,
the age which he had reached, prevented Mr. Espy from passing
beyond a certain point in the develgpment of his theory. The same
constitution of mind rendered his inductions from observation often
unsafe. His views were positive and his conclusions absolute, and
so was the expression of them. He was not prone to examine and
re-examine premises and conclusions, but considered what had once
been passed upon by his judgment as finally settled. Hence his
views did not make that impression upon cooler temperaments among
men of science to which they were entitled—obtaining more credit
among scholars and men of general reading,in our country than among
scientific men, and making but little progress abroad.
Feeling that his bodily vigor was failing, and that his life must soon
close, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution induced him to
re-examine the various parts of his meteorological theories of storms,
tornadoes, and water-spouts, and to insert in his last report, while it
was going through the press, an account of his most mature views.
I trust that the Secretary will, in one of his reports, give usa thorough
and critical examination of the works and services of this remarkable
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. TRI
contributor to a branch of science, the knowledge of which the Smith-
sonian Institution has already done so much to advance and to diffuse.
On motion of Professor Bache, the following resolutions were adop-
ted:
Resolved, That the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution have
learned with deep regret the decease of James P. Espy, one of the
most useful and zealous of the meteorologists co-operating with the
Institution, and whose labors in both the increase and diffusion of
knowledge of meteorology have merited the highest honors of science
at home and have added to the reputation of our country abroad.
Resolved, That the Regents offer to the relatives of Mr. Espy their
sincere condolence in the loss which they have sustained.
On motion of Mr. Pearce, it was resolved that the remarks of Pro-
fessor Bache be entered in the proceedings.
The Secretary introduced the subject of warming the Smithsonian .
building, stating that it was important to provide better means for
this purpose, to insure the safety of those parts of the building which are
not fire-proof. The subject was referred to the Executive Committee,
and the Secretary was instructed to procure estimates for the intro-
duction of steam or hot-water apparatus.
The reading of the report of the Secretary was continued.
The Board then adjourned.
SatuRDAY, March 17, 1860.
The Board of Regents met this day, at 10 o'clock a. m.
Present: Hon. John C. Breckinridge, Hon. James M. Mason, Hon.
James A. Pearce, Hon. 8. A. Douglas, Hon. William H. English, Hon.
Benjamin Stanton, Hon. J. G. Berret, Prof. A. D. Bache, Mr. Seaton,
Treasurer, and the Secretary.
Mr. Breckinridge was called to the chair.
The minutes were read and approved.
The Secretary announced the reappointment, by the Speaker of the
House of Representatives, of Hon. William H. English, of Indiana;
Hon. Benjamin Stanton, of Ohio; and Hon. L. J. Gartrell, of Georgia,
as Regents for the term of two years.
The Secretary presented the following letter from Kdward Cunard,
Esq. :
New York, February 25, 1860.
Dear Sir: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the
16th instant, and, in reply, I beg to inform you that I shall have much
pleasure in conveying in our steamers fr om New York to Liverpool
every fortnight one or more cases from the Smithsonian Institution to
the extent HE half a ton or 20 cubic feet measurement. ‘The cases
to be addressed to your agent in Liverpool, or to his care. The
WE PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.
arrangement of free cases is intended only to apply to those shipped
by you from this side of the water.
Your obedient servant,
HE. CUNARD.
JosePpH Henry, Esq.,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution, Washington.
The Secretary presented the following letter from Sir W. E,
Logan:
MontreEAL, March, 1860.
My Dear Sir: Understanding that the shells of the United States
exploring expedition are being arranged, and that there are many
duplicates, I should be rejoiced if a set of them could be obtained for
our Provincial Museum. It may be the case that what we may be
able to return for them may not equal their value; but the Canadian
territory is a large one, and we shall have duplicates of our fossils
from various parts, extending from Labrador to Lake Superior.
In our geological expeditions to the eastern part of the province,
advantage has been taken of the opportunity to dredge in the Gulf
of St. Lawrence, and we shall undoubtedly have duplicates of many
of the specimens obtained. This season I hope to send an exploring
party to the Straits of Belle Isle.
We are so much pressed with work at present that it may be a
little time before our duplicates are ready, particularly as the pro-
tracted want of Professor Hali’s third volume of the paleontology of
New York disables us from naming many of our fossils according to
his authority, while a regard for him prevents us from naming them
for ourselves: Our Lower Silurian fossils will be the first that will
be ready.
I am, my dear sir, very truly yours,
W. KE. LOGAN:
Professor HENRY,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington.
A letter was read from Hon. Alfred Ely, chairman of the Com-
mittee of Claims of the House of Representatives, relative to an
application of an officer of the navy for remuneration for specimens
of natural history, &., collected by the United States exploring ex-
pedition.
The subject was discussed, and referred to the Secretary and the
Executive Committee.
A letter was read from Sir George Simpson, governor of the Hud-
son’s Bay Territory, offering to aid the Institution in collecting me-
teorological and other information.
A letter was read from C. Zimmerman, of Columbia, South Caro-
lina, on the subject of the preparation by the Institution of manuals
on entomology.
The Secretary stated that a proposition had been made by Lieu-
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 113
tenant Gilliss relative to an expedition to the coast of Labrador to
observe the total eclipse of July 18, if the necessary means could be
secured to defray the expenses, towards which, if the Institution
would subscribe $500, the balance, it was believed, could be secured
from individuals.
Professor Bache addressed the Board, commending highly the pro-
posed expedition, and stating the advantages which would result to
science if the observations could be made.
On motion of Professor Bache, it was
Resolved, That an appropriation be made, not exceeding $500, to aid
in the proposed expedition to observe the eclipse of July 18, 1860,
The Secretary called the attention of the Board to another expe-
dition, proposed by Dr. I. I. Hayes to the Arctic regions, and sug-
gested the propriety of aid in furnishing that gentleman with the
requisite instruments of observation.
On motion of Mr. Pearce, it was
Resolved, That the Secretary of the Institution be authorized to
furnish such aid to the expedition of Dr. Hayes, in the way of instru-
ments, as may be deemed advisable.
The Secretary introduced the subject of the Stanley gallery of In-
dian paintings, and stated that Mr. Stanley asked for an allowance of
one hundred dollars a year to pay the interest on a debt he had in-
curred to prevent the sacrifice of the paintings by sale.
The subject was referred to the Secretary and the Executive Com-
mittee. i
A letter from Professor Secchi, of Rome, was read, stating that he
had obtained permission for the Institution to procure casts or moulds
of celebrated works of art in that city.
The Secretary stated that Mr. Corcoran, of Washington, was about
to found a gallery of art, and it was very desirable that the Institu-
tion should co-operate with him, especially in relation to copies of
works of art from Italy.
The subject was referred to the Secretary and the Executive Com-
mittee.
The Secretary presented the continuation of his annual report;
which was read.
The opinion was expressed by several of the Regents that a less
number of lectures should be given than heretofore, twelve being
considered sufficient for each season.
The Board then adjourned.
8
114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.
SaturDAy, April 1, 1860.
The Board of Regents met this day at 10 o’clock a.m. Present:
Hon. James A. Pearce, Hon. 8. A, Douglas, Hon. W. H. English
Hon. Benjamin Stanton, Hon. George E. Badger, Professor Bache,
and the Secretary.
Mr. Pearce was called to the chair.
The minutes were read and approved.
Mr. Pearce presented the Report of the Executive, Committee
which was accepted, and the estimates for the year 1860 adopted.
On motion of Mr. Douglas, it was
Resolved, That the Executive Committee invest the five thousand
dollars now in the hands of the Treasurer, belonging to the extra
fund.
The Secretary laid before the Board the eleventh volume of Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge, which had just been issued.
The Secretary brought before the Board the subject of the pay of
the assistants; which, after some remarks, was referred to the Secre-
tary and the Executive Committee.
Professor Bache made the following remarks:
Mr. Gustavus Wurdemann, in charge of the tidal observations of
the Coast Survey on the Florida reefs and Gulf of Mexico, died at
his home in New Jersey on the 30th of September. His health had
been failing for some years, and during the last year he had discharged
his duties with ereat difficulty, owing to great physical debility. Mr.
Wurdemann entered the survey under my predecessor, and served,
throughout a somewhat extended career with a fidelity and single-
ness of purpose that has never been exceeded. Exact truthfulness
was the leading trait of his character, and his observations, even
the most minute, were always reliable. It is easily seen that it
is no exaggeration to say that such a man was invaluable in his
place, and an example worthy to be held up as the type of faith-
fulness. During the discharge of his laborious duties he found time
and opportunity to make collections in natural history, which have
been acknowledged by the Smithsonian Institution as among the
most valuable contributions to the knowledge of the fauna of Florida.
On motion of Professor Bache, the following resolution was unani-
mously adopted:
Resolved, That the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution have
learned with regret the decease of Gustavus Wurdeman, tidal ob-
server in the Coast Survey, whose collections of specimens from the
coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and especially of the birds of Florida,
liberally furnished to the Smithsonian Institution, have proved of
great importance in increasing our knowledge of the natural history
of the southern part of the United States.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 115
Resolved, That this resolution be communicated to the widow of Mr.
Wurdemann.
The Secretary read the following authentic notice, which had ap-
peared in a recent periodical, respecting the late Professor Cleave-
land :
‘Professor Parker Cleaveland died on the 15th of October, 1858.
He was born in Rowley (Byfield parish)Massachusetts, January 15,
1780, graduated at Harvard College in 1799, taught school and studied
law until 1803, when he was appointed tutor in mathematics in Har-
vard College. He was made professor of mathematics and natural
philosophy, chemistry and mineralogy in Bowdoin College in 1805,
and discharged with distinguished ability the extended duties of that
professorship until 1828, when a professor of mathematics was ap-
pointed, and he was relieved from that part of hislabor. He contin-
ued to be the professor in the other departments until hisdeath. He
became widely known in the United States, and in Europe, by his
early and successful treatise on mineralogy and geology, published in
1816, and in a second edition in 1822. A third was called for, and
he labored in its preparation more or less for thirty-five years, leav-
ing it nearly ready for the press. His high reputation as a lecturer
was spread through the country by a succession of graduates of Bow-
doin College of more than fifty years. He was a member of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and of many literary and
scientific societies in this country and in Europe. In 1824, the hon-
orary degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred on him by Bowdoin
College. In private life he was universally respected for his unblem-
ished moral character, and his genial and affable disposition. His
death called forth unusual and remarkable demonstrations of respect.
to his character and memory. In June, 1853, he was elected an
honorary member of the Smithsonian Institution.’
On motion of Mr. Douglas, the following resolutions were adopted:
Resolved, That the Regents of this Institution have learned with
deep regret of the decease of Professor Parker Cleveland, of Bow-
doin College, one of the honorary members of this establishment,
who was highly esteemed on account of his labors as a man of
science and a teacher, and whose memory will be held in grateful
remembrance.
Resolved, That the Regents offer to the family of the deceased
their sincere condolence at the loss which they and the country have
sustained.
The Secretary presented the following letter from Mr. Ross, chief
factor of the Hudson’s Bay Company:
Fort SIMpPson,
McKenzies river, 30th November, 1859.
Dear Str: At the period of the departure of our usual winter ex-
press I sit down to write you a few lines upon the subjects mentioned
116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.
in your communicatiofi of the 2d of April, 1859. I trust that the
various cases sent you last summer from Portage La Loche reached
you in safety, and that the contents proved satisfactory and of in
terest. It will be my endeavor during the present and succeeding
seasons to collect the animals mentioned as being wished for by the
Smithsonian Institution, but I will not merely restrict myself to
these particular objects of research, the whole field of either science
or curiosity will be considered in all contributions which I may here-
after forward to your collection.
The Meteorological Register for the months of September, October,
and November, will be forwarded by this conveyance, and I will en-
deavor to organize a systematic series of observations at all the posts
throughout this district. -These of course will vary as to complete-
ness and accuracy according to the tastes and acquirements of the
officer who conducts the registry, as there are very wide differences
in the education and talents of the various persons in the progressive
grades of our service. A series of spirit thermometers of assured
correctness would be useful, in fact are absolutely necessary for this
purpose.
As my attention will hereafter be particularly directed to ethno-
logical pursuits; and my public duties in conducting the affairs of this
large district are not very light, it will be impossible to keep the
regular series of meteorological observations here myself, but I will
delegate this duty to Mr. Andrew Flett, a very careful and intelligent
person, though not of a finished eduction; but any extraordinary
phenomena I will note myself in addition.
By the usual summer boats a packet will be forwarded to your ad-
dress, containing such observations as I can collect in our journals,
and a complete Auroral and Weather Register taken by myself for
Colonel Lefroy in 1850 ~ 51, if I can find the latter.
In conclusion I will merely say that all that lies in my power will
be done to oblige you in any way. Every facility will be given to Mr.
R. Kennicott to collect and forward specimens of natural history;
free passage will be allowed him from post to post throughout the
district, and to all his plans the various officers under my command
will, [am sure, gladly render assistance.
I have the honor to remain, dear sir, yours faithfully,
BERNARD R. ROSS.
Proressor Henry,
Snuthsonian Institution.
The reading of the report of the Secretary was then continued.
On motion of Mr. Badger, the following resolution was adopted:
Resolved, That the thanks of the Board of Regents are hereby
given to the various companies and individuals who have generously
aided in advancing the objects of the Smithsonian Institution and the
promotion of science, by the facilities they have afforded in the trans-
portation of books, specimens, &c., free of charge.
The Board then adjourned to meet at the call of the Secretary.
GENERAL APPENDIX |
TO THE
REPORT FOR 1859.
The object of this Appendix is to illustrate the operations of the
Institution by the reports of lectures and extracts from correspond-
ence, as well as to furnish information of a character suited especially
to the meteorological observers and other persons interested in the
promotion of knowledge.
LECTURES
ON AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
BY PROFESSOR SAMUEL W. JOHNSON, OF YALE COLLEGE, CONNECTICUT.
LECTURE I.
- THE COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE PLANT.
The objects of agriculture are the production of certain plants and
certain animals which are employed to feed and clothe the human
race. The first object in all cases is the production of plants.
Nature has made the most extensive provision for the spontaneous
growth of an immense variety of vegetation; but, except in rare cases,
man is obliged to employ art to provide himself with the kinds and
quantities of vegetable produce which: his necessities or luxuries
demand. In this defect, or rather neglect of nature, agriculture has
its origin.
The art of agriculture consists in certain practices and operations
which have grown out of an observation and imitation of the best
efforts of nature, or have been hit upon accidentally.
We distinguish here between agri-cultwre, or the culture (improve-
ment) of the field, and farming, which may be anything but the imita-
tion of nature, which often is the grossest violation of her plain
precepts.
The science of agriculture is the rational theory and exposition of
the successful art.
Nothing is more evident than that agricultural art impedes its own
growth by holding aloof from science. In many respects the Egyptians,
the Romans, and the Chinese, had, centuries ago, as perfect an agri-
cultural practice as we now possess; but this fact so demonstrates the
extreme slowness with which an empirical art progresses, that incal-
culable advantage must be anticipated from yoking it with the rapidly-
developing sciences. In fact, the history of the last fifty years has
proved the benefits of this union; and no farmer who by the help of
science has mastered but one of the old difficulties of his art that for
all time have been tormenting the thoughtful with doubt and misleading
every one into a wasteful expenditur e of labor or material would willingly
return to the days of pure empiricism. On the other hand, those who at-
tempt to unfold the laws of production from considerations founded mere-
ly in the pure sciences, without regard to, or knowledge of, the truths
of practice, are sure to go astray and bring discredit on their efforts.
Agriculture, 7. e. field culture, not husbandry or farm management
in the widest sense, is a natural science, and is based principally upon
physics, chemistry, and physiology.
By physics (natural philosophy) is meant the science of matter con-
sidered in relation to those forces which act among masses, or among
120 LECTURES ON
particles, (atoms,) in such a manner as not to alter their essential
characters.
The forces of cohesion, gravitation, heat, light, electricity, and
magnetism, are physical forces. A thousand fragments of iron, for
example, may be made to cohere together or gravitate to the earth, may
be changed in temperature, illuminated, electrified or magnetized, with-
out any permanent change in that assemblage of properties which
constitutes this metal.
Chemistry is the science of chemical force or affinity, which causes
two or more bodies to unite with the production of a compound pos-
sessing essentially new characters. Thus a hard lump of quicklime
when brought in contact with water greedily absorbs it, with the pro-
duction of great heat, and falls to powder. In slacking, it has combined
chemically with water.
Physiology is the science of the processes of life, which require, in
addition to the chemical and most of the physical forces, the co-opera-
tion and superintendence of the vital principle.
The first inquiries in the natural science of agriculture are: What
is the plant? Out of what materials, and under what conditions is it
formed ?
The plant is the result of an organism, the germ, which under
certain influences begins an independent life, and grows by con-
structively adding to itself or assimilating surrounding matter.
The simplest plant is a single cell, a microscopic vesicle of globular
shape, which, after expanding to a certain size, usually produces
another similar cell division either by lateral growth or by its own.
In the chemist’s laboratory it is constantly happening that, in the
clearest solutions of salts, like the sulphates of soda and magnesia,
a flocculent mould, sometimes red, sometimes green, most often
white, is formed, which, under the microscope, is seen to be a vege-
tation consisting of single cells. The yeast plant (fig. 1) is nothing more
than a collection of such cells now
existing singly, now connected in
one line or variously branched.
The cell is the type of all vege-
tation. The most complex plant, a
stalk of cane or an oak, is nothing
nore than anaggregation of myriads
of such cells, very variously modi-
fied indeed in shape and function,
but still all referable to this simple typical form.
In the same manner that the yeast plant enlarges by budding or
splitting into new cells, so do all other plants increase in mass; and
thus growth is simply the formation of new cells.
So far as the studies of the vegetable physiologist enable us to
judge, all vegetable cells consist, at least in the early stages of their
existence, of an external, thin, but continuous (imperforate) membrane,
the cell-wall, consisting of a substance called cellulose, and an interior
lining membrane of slimy or half liquid character, variously called
the protoplasm, the formative layer, or the primodial utricle, (fig. 2.)
6 6,
“408
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. BLA
At one or several places, the formative
layer is thickened to the so-called nucleus,
(a fig. 2) the point from which growth
and transformations proceed. Within
the cell thus constructed exists a liquid, Ip
the cell-contents, from which, in course -—6//
of time, solid cell contents of various a
character are found to develope. =
In a chemical sense, not less than in a atiichter the single globu-
lar cell is the type of ‘all vegetation.
The outer wall of the cell is formed of that material which is
itself the most abundant product of vegetable life, and which rep-
resents an important group of bodies, that are familiar to all, as large
ingredients of our daily food.
The table which here follows gives the names and the chemical
» formule of what we may term the CELLULOSE GROUP or the VEGETAL
CARBO-HYDRATES.
Welllmlose veces: a elielelelenieislisi hela Cr lcs 0,
SIAN OOO Gos DODO GoUSa Sod Ce 1 bs oH
Tnulin =) @(ef.e 6 (0, © 40,6) e).0 6) 0) @).@ (0' 0 e) e\.0 Ci EL OF
Demir woretciswekenioveterereren cnet iotene (OFF EE, Or,
GrUlimusreter keneucceionh seicuer omen eremsaniene Cr Ee OF
Cane SUGAT + +25 se++ os eeece Cis 15 ae OF
Fruit SULAT+ sores e eee ee eee Cie lel Or
Grape sugar--+-+-++- +++ eee. C.. is By Om,
Cellulose is the body already alluded to as constituting the material of
the outer coating of the cells. It often accumulates in some parts of
the plant by the thickening of the cell Pie ae:
walls, thus forming the greater share
of the wood (fig. - 4) of trees and shrubs. ®y
Linen,hemp,(B fig.3) and cotton (A fig.
3)are nearly or quite pure cellulose. It
exists largely in the stones or shells of
fruits andnuts. The so-called vege-
table ivory is chiefly a very compact
form of cellulose. In general, this
proximate organic element is the
frame-work of the plant, and the
material that gives. toughness and
solidity to its parts.
Cellulose is characterized by its
great indifference to most ordinary
solvents. Water, alcohol, &c., do
not dissolve it, and the stronger rea-
gents of the chemist rarely take it
up without occasioning essential
changes in its constitution.* | With
strong nitric acid it yields nitro-cel- 4 ~
*According to Pelouze, cellulose is dissolved by strong hydrochloric acid, and separates
again in part (part is converted into sugar) on dilution. Schweitzer has recently made the
122 LECTURES ON
lulose or gun cotton. By the continued action of oxydizing agents
itiis converted into that series of brown bodies known under the
3 name of Humus, or finally into
oxalic and carbonic acid.
Next to cellulose, starch (fig. 5)
is the most abundant vegetable
body. It usually occurs as micro-
scopic grains, which for many spe-
“0 99 cies of plants possess a character-
ii/ ; ' rc 5
v ¢ ~ istic form and size, being some-
timesangular asin maize,but most
often oval or spherical as in the
other grains, the potato, &c.
Starch is insoluble in and un-
affected by cold water; in hot
water it swells up and forms a
translucent jelly, and in this
state is employed for stiffening
linen.
Starch is always enclosed in the cells of the plant as seen in the ac-
EIEN companying figure 6, and is exceedingly
abundant, existing not only in the grains
and esculent roots, but also in the trunks
of trees, especially the sago-palm, and
throughout nearly the whole tissue of the
~ higher orders of plants.
Inulin closely resembles starch in
many points, appearing to replace. that
body in the roots of the artichoke, elecam-
pane, dahlia, dandelion, and other com-
posite plants. It occurs in the form of small
\ round transparent grains, which dissolve
\ easily in boiling water, and mostly sepa-
rate again as the water cools. Unlike
starch, inulin exists in a liquid form in
the roots above named, and separates in grains from the clear
pressed juice when this is kept some time. The juice of the dahlia
tuber becomes a semi-solid white mass in this way, after reposing 12
hours from the separation of 8 per cent. of this interesting substance,
(Bouchardat. )
Dextria is a colorless transparent body, soluble in water, and
it appears universally distributed in the juices of plants, though
existing in but small amount compared with the previously de-
scribed proximate principles. The solution of an impure and arti-
ficially prepared dextrin, called British gum, is largely employed in
calico printing, as a substitute for the more expensive natural gums,
and closely resembles them in its adhesive properties. It is an im-
Fig. 5.
interesting observation, that a solution of oxyd of copper in ammonia dissolves cellulose
to a clear liquid, from which the cellulose may again be thrown down by an acid.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 123
portant ingredient of bread, being formed in the loaf by the process
of baking, from the transformation of starch.
Gum is a generic term, and includes a number of substances, as
gum tragacanth, gum Arabic, gum Senegal, cherry gum, &c,, which,
though unlike in some respects, agree in composition, and have the
property either of dissolving or swelling up in water with the forma-
tion of an adhesive mucilage or paste. In the bread grains there is
usually found a small quantity of gum soluble in water, and in meal
from the seed of millet it has been observed to the amount of 10
per cent.
The sugars are so familiar that they scarcely require special notice.
Cane sugar or sucrose is the intensely sweet soluble crystallizable
principle found in the juice of the cane, maple, and sugar beet. It
is found, besides, in many other plants.
Fruit sugar or fructose is uncrystallizable, and exists in the juice
of acid fruits, in honey and in the bread grains.
Grape sugar or glucose is found solid and crystallized in dried fruits,
especially in the grape. It gradually separates from honey as the
latter candies.
In the young cell this group of bodies is represented by cellulose,
as the cell wall, and by dextrin and the sugars existing in its fluid
contents.
The machinery of the vegetable organism, which all the while
operates as perfectly in the single cell as in the complex mass of cells,
has the power to transform most if not all these bodies into every
other one, and we find them all in every individual of the higher
orders of plants—at least in some stage of its growth. From dex-
trin, which is dissolved in the juice of a parent cell, is moulded the
cellulose which envelopes a new cell.
From starch, and perhaps cellulose in the stem of the maple, cane
sugar is formed in the changeful temperature of spring, and, as the
buds swell, this sugar is reorganized again into cellulose and starch.
The analysis of the cereal grains oftentimes reveals the presence
of dextrin, but no sugar or gum; while at other times the latter are
found, but not the former.
It is easy to imitate many of these transformations outside of the
vegetable organism. By the agency of heat, acids, and ferments,
either singly or jointly, we may effect a number of remarkable
changes.
Cellulose and starch are converted, first, into dextrin, and finally
into grape sugar, by boiling with a dilute acid. In this way glucose
is largely manufactured from potato starch, and has, in fact, been
made from saw-dust. This transformation is also effected by the
digestive apparatus of herbivorous animals, and in case of starch by
a roasting or baking heat. So, too, in the sprouting of seed, the same
changes occur, as exemplified in the preparation of malt.
By heat and acids inulin is also converted into a kind of sugar, but
without the intermediate formation of dextrin. The same is true of
the gums. By these agencies cane sugar is converted into fruit
sugar, and this spontaneously passes into grape sugar.
124 LECTURES ON
Grape sugar is thus seen to be the final product of the transfor-
mation of the carbo-hydrates, either in the vessels of the chemist or
in the digestive process of animals. It is the form in which the
carbo-hydrates of the food pass into the blood, and, in consequence,
it is a constant ingredient of the latter.
It will be noticed that while physical and chemical agencies pro-
duce these metamorphoses in one direction, it is only with the assist-
ance of the vital principle that they can be accomplished in the
reverse manner.
In the laboratory we can only reduce from a higher, organized, or
more complex constitution, to a lower and simpler one. In the vege-
table cell, however, all these changes, and many more, take place
with the greatest facility.
The ready convertibility of one member of this group into another
is to some extent explained by the identical or similar composition of
these bodies. It will be observed by reference to the table that they
are all composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
That they contain carbon is made evident by their yielding charcoal
when heated with imperfect access of air. When heated they also
yield water, which, as all know, is a compound of oxygen and hydro-
gen.
Furthermore, several of these bodies contain the same proportions of
these elements. The formule of cellulose, starch, inulin, and dextrin
are identical. The remaining compounds only differ by the elements
of one or several atoms of water.
The term carbo-hydrates (very convenient for our present purpose,
though to the chemist absurd) was applied here because we may in
a certain sense consider all these substances as hydrates of carbon.
They are, in fact, composed of carbon and the elements of water.
These bodies in their transformations have merely to undergo a
rearrangement of atoms, just as the rearrangement of a few blocks
enables the child to build a variety of toy-houses; or at most they
need only lose or assume a few atoms of water—an omnipresent body,
characterized by the facility with which it enters into all manner of
combinations—and the work is accomplished.
To furnish a more complete illustration of the typifying of all vege-
tation by the single cell, and at the same time to extend our inquiry
into the composition of the plant, we may now advert to the lining
membrane of the cell-wall, or, as physiologists term it, the pro-
toplasm, formative-layer, or primordial utricle. This. consists
chiefly of some body that differs in chemical composition from the
group just described by containing, in addition to the three elements
that form the carbo-hydrates, about 16 per cent. of a fourth element,
nitrogen, and small quantities of sulphur, and perhaps sometimes
phosphorus.
The following table gives the names and percentage composition of
the most important.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 125
Albuminoids or Nitrogenous Vegetal Principles.
Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Nitrogen. Sulphu.
Vegetal albumin---.--+++-- 54.8 5: 21.1 15.9 0.9
Vegetal fibrin, or gluten--- 54.0 ied 22.3 15.7 0.7
Vegetal casein-++++++-+--- 54.6 T.4 | 15.8 0.5
These bodies differ considerably in certain characters, though
their similarity in others is very strongly marked. In composition
they are almost identical. From the difficulty of obtaining them in
the pure state their precise composition is not definitely known. The
figures in the table represent the mean results of the best analyses.
The names albumin and casein originated from animal substances,
and in fact we find in the animal kingdom a series of bodies corres-
ponding almost perfectly with the vegetable nitrogenous principles.
In the white of the egg, in the serum of blood, and in many diseased
animal secretions, we meet with albumin which has the property of
passing from its usual fluid condition into the solid form on the appli-
cation of heat. It is said to coagulate.
In the vegetable, albumin exists in much smaller relative quantity
than in the animal; but it may be found in the juice of nearly all
plants. If potatoes, turnips, or flour be digested for some time in
water and the liquid then allowed to clear by settling, it contains a
minute quantity of albumin in solution, as may be made evident by
heating it, when a coagulum of this body separates.
Casein 18 an ingredient of the milk of animals. Heat does not
coagulate it, but acids have this effect. Cheese has casein for its
characteristic constituent.
In the seeds of leguminous plants, as the peaand bean; in the pea-
nut and almond, this body exists very abundantly.
If crushed peas are soaked some hours in warm water, to which a
little ammonia is added, they yield casein to the liquid, and on the
addition of an acid it is separated as a curdy matter like the casein
of milk. In Chinaa kind of cheese is thus largely manufactured. In
smaller quantity casein is found in all the grains and seeds used as
food.
Gluten exists in wheat, and may be obtained by slowly washing a
dough made from wheat flour, whereby the star ch is removed and a
glutinous mass remains which is the substance in question. As thus
seen, it is mingled with more or less albumin and casein, as well as
oil and starch. Gluten is the characteristic ingredient of those grains
from the flour of which a light raised bread may be made. Liebig
has given to gluten the name vegetable fibrin, from its analogies with
the fibre of flesh or animal fibrin.
The albuminoids, like the carbo-hydrates, are easily susceptible
of mutuak transformation. In the animal the casein of milk or beans,
the albumin of eggs or of vegetables, and gluten, are converted first
into albumin and ‘liquid fibrin in the shape of blood, and afterward
into the solid flesh. So, too, in the plant, similar changes, without
doubt, occur.
To some extent these conversions may take place outside the or-
ganism. If, for example, animal fibrin be exposed with water to the
126 ° LECTURES ON
air for some days in a warm place, it disappears or dissolves; if now
Fig. 7. the liquid be heated to near boiling, a
coagulum separates, having all the char-
acters of albumin. After removing the
albumin, the addition of an acid causes
another coagulation, separating a body
that agrees in its properties with casein.
As has been already stated, the albu-
minoid bodies form the hning membrane
of the young cell and are diffused in the
dissolved state throughout its liquid con-
tents. In those parts of the plant where
these bodies accumulate, they are found
nearly filling entire cells and series of cells.
e, fig. T.
: meee to Hartig (Entwickelungsgeschichte des Planzen Keims)
the albuminoids exist in the seed in an organized form, usually in
Fig. 8. grains that are scarcely to be dis-
tinguished from starch by the eye,
(A, fig. 8) often, however, in per-
fect polyhedral crystals. (Fig. 8,
_ Band C.) This alewron, as Hartig
|) \\y terms it, is not a pure albuminoid;
YY as according to an analysis made
from material prepared by him,
it contains but 9.46 per cent. of
nitrogen. The aleuron grains dur-
ing the hfe of the plant suffer
metamorphosis into starch and
other organized matters, of course
undergoing radical chemical chan-
ges at the same time. .
While the two great classes of organic proximate elements, just
considered, make up the larger share of vegetation, and suflice to
show in the most beautiful manner how the single cell represents
the whole plant, both structurally and chemically, we should stop
short of the object of these lectures did we not consider some other
vegetal principles of great importance both to the vegetable and ani-
mal economy, which agree with the cellulose group in consisting only
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but differ again from the carbo-hy-
drates in the fact that their hydrogen and oxygen are not in the pro-
portions to form water.
We may notice these substances under three divisions, viz:
Pectose and its derivatives.
The vegetal acids.
The oils and fats.
The pectose group includes pectose, pectin, pectosic, and pectic
acids. These bodies exist principally in fleshy fruits and berries,
and in the roots of the turnip, beet, and carrot. They are an important
part of the food of men and domestic animals. :
Pectose is the designation of a body which occurs with cellulose in
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, . 127
the flesh of unripe fruits, and of the roots just mentioned. Its prop-
erties in the pure state are quite unknown, since we have no method
of separating it from the associated cellulose. Nearly the entire mass
of green fruits and of these roots consists of pectose, which is rec-
ognized to be a special organic body by the products which it yields
when submitted, either naturally or artificially, to the action of vari-
ous chemical or physical agents.
Pectin is prepared from pectose in a way analogous to that by which
cellulose or starch yields dextrin, viz: by the action of heat, acids, and
ferments. When the fruits or roots that contain pectose are subjected
to the action of gentle heat and an acid, the cellulose they contain is
more or less changed into dextrin and sugar, and at the same time tho
firm pectose begins to soften, and in a little time becomes soluble in
water, being converted into pectin. In the baking or roasting of apples
and pears, and in the boiling of turnips and beets, it is precisely this
transformation that occtrs. When fruit ripens, either on the tree or,
as happens with winter apples and pears, after being gathered, the
same metamorphosis takes place. The hard pectose, under the influ-
ence of the acid (or ferment) that exists in greater or less quantity
in the fruits, gradually softens and passes into pectin. If the clear
juice of ripe pears be mixed with alcohol the pectin, which cannot
dissolve in the latter liquid, is separated as a stringy gelatinous mass,
that, on drying, remains as a white body, easily reducible to a fine white
powder. The concentrated solution of pectin in water has a viscid
or gummy consistence as seen in the juice that exudes from baked
apples. :
Under the further action of heat, acids, and ferments, pectin itself
undergoes other transformations. We shall only notice its conver-
sion into pectosic and pectic acids. These bodies, chiefly the first,
together with sugar and flavoring matter, compose the delicious fruit
jellies, which, as is well known, are prepared by gently heating for
some time the expressed juice of strawberries and raspberries, or the
juice obtained by stewing apples, pears, grapes, currants, gooseberries,
plums, &c. They are both insoluble in cold water, and remain sus-
pended in it as a gelatinous mass. Pectosie acid is soluble in boiling
water, and hence most fruit jellies become liquid when heated to 212°.
On cooling, its solution gelatinizes again. Pectic acid is insoluble
even in boiling water. It is also formed when the pulp of fruits or
roots containing pectose is acted upon by alkalies or by ammonia-
oxyd of copper. This reagent (which dissolves cellulose) converts
pectose directly into pectic acid that remains in insoluble combina-
tion with oxyd of copper. )
Our knowledge of the composition of the bodies of the pectose
group is very imperfect, from the difficulty or impossibility of pre-
paring them in a state of purity. Below is a table of their composi-
tion according to the most recent investigations:
IPEGEORES cuatehe) «jo! 0) ele stohatiel +a cues '> or ede @ Wal.
IPaeiiiio els g's aos 65. weeeee eee Oy lala O, + 4HO.
Pectosic acid -+--+++ ese.s.---- Oe Hs 7 On rs oa
Pechicacid: s,- - <eiselhaepagesiaae Oey) dlgy Og eo.
io 4)
bo
oa)
128 ; LECTURES ON
From the best analyses, and from analogy with cellulose, it is prob-
able that pectose has the same composition as pectin, or, like the
pectic and pectosic acids, differs from it only by one or more equiva-
lents of water. This relatedness of composition assists us here, asin
case of the preceding groups of organie principles, to comprehend, in
some measure, the ease with which the transformations of these bodies
are effected.
It will be perceived, by a glance at the composition of the pectose
group, that their oxygen exceeds the quantity necessary to form water
with their hydrogens by eight equivalents.
The vegetal acids are exceedingly numerous. They are found in all
classes of plants, and nearly every family in the vegetable kingdom
has one or more acids peculiar to itself.
Those we shall now notice are few in number, but of almost uni-
versal distribution. They are oxalic, tartaric, citric, and malic acids.
In plants they never occur in the free or pure state, but always com-
bined with lime, potash, ammonia, &c. They are most often accumu-
lated in large quantity in fruits.
Oxalic acid exists largely in the common sorrel, and, according to
the best observers, is found in greater or less quantity in nearly all
plants. The pure acid presents itself in the form of colorless bril-
liant transparent crystals not unlike Epsom salts in appearance, but
having an intensely sour taste. It is prepared for commerce by sub-
jecting starch or cane and grape sugar to rapid oxydation, generally
by means of nitric acid. Salt of sorrel, employed to remove ink-
stains from cloth and leather, is an oxalate of potash and water.
Tartaric acid is especially abundant in the grape, from the juice of
which during fermentation it is deposited in combination with potash,
as argol, which, by purification, yields the cream of tartar of com-
merce. Tartaric acid, when pure, occurs in large glassy crystals very
sour to the taste. It has recently been observed by Liebig as one of
the products of the artificial oxydation by nitric acid, of the peculiar
sugar found in milk, and is also probably a result of the oxydation of
gum by the same reagent.
Malic acid is the chief sour principle of apples, currants, gooseber-
ries, and many other fruits. It exists in large quantity in the garden
rhubarb, in the berries of the mountain ash and barberry, and in the
leaves of the beet and tobacco plants.
Citric acid is most abundant in the juice of the lemon, lime, and
cranberry.
All these acids usually occur together in our ordinary fruits, and in
some cases it is certain that they are converted the one into another
during the development of the plant.
Their composition is expressed in the following table: |
Oca varendiaeee eters scsyeisie cana bepens. « C, O, + 2 HO.
Malic acid cede ets am. 4 C, HH, Oe aloe
Tartaric acid --------......... O, H, 0, + 2 HO.
Citric acid---. ------......... ©, H, 0, +3 HO.
The vegetal acids exert an important influence in the plant as
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, 129
well as in the food of animals, by effecting the transformation of cel-
lulose and starch into dextrin and sugar, and of pectose into pectin.
Tn all plants, and in nearly all parts of plants, we find some fixed
oil, fat (or wax;) but it is chiefly in certain seeds that they occur
most abundantly. Thus the seeds of maize, oats, hemp, flax (fig. 7 /),
colza, cotton, pea-nut, beech, almond, sunflower, &c., contain from
6 to 70 per cent. of oil, which may be in great part removed by
pressure. In some plants, as the African palm and the Nicaraguan
tallow-tree, the oil is solid at ordinary temperatures, while many
plants yield small quantities of wax, which either coats their leaves
or forms a ‘‘bloom’’ upon their fruit. The oils differ exceedingly in
taste, odor, and consistency, as well as in their chemical composition.
They all contain much carbon, and less oxygen than is requisite to
form water with their hydrogen.
The oil or fat of plants appears to be, in many cases, a product of
the transformation of starch or other member of the cellulose group,
for the oily seeds when immature contain starch, which vanishes as
they ripen, and in the sugar-cane the quantity of wax-is always
largest when the sugar is least abundant, and vice versa.
It has long been known that the ‘brain and nervous tissue of ani-
mals contain several oils of which phosphorus is an essential ingredi-
ent. Recently Knop has discovered that the sugar-pea yields a sim-
ilar oil containing 1.25 per cent. of phosphorus, in addition to carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen.
The bodies to which attention has thus been briefly directed, con-
stitute by far the larger share of the solid matter pot only of the
young cell but of all vegetation. ‘They comprise, nearly all, those
vegetable substances which are employed as food or otherwise pos-
sess any considerable agricultural significance. The numberless acids,
alkaloids, resins, volatile oils, coloring matters, and other principles
existing in small quantity in the vegetable world, are unimportant to
our present purpose.
We find under the microscope that certain of these bodies have an
organized structure; such are cellulose, starch, inulin, and gluten,
(aleuron of Hartig;) while others, as dextrin, gum, sugar, albumin,
and casein, are the products of the disorganization of those above
mentioned—the structureless materials, out of which the organized
portions of the plant renew themselves.
To return to the cell. As the life of the plant progresses, not only
does the form of the cell greatly change in many cases, but it under-
goes very marked internal transformations. The liquid that fills the
young cell contains both dextrin and albumin; from the former 1s
elaborated the walls of new cells, or else the existing cells are filled
up more or less completely with some solid carbo-hydrate resulting
from the transformation of dextrin. Thus in the potato tuber the
cells are almost entirely occupied with starch. In the stem of trees
the cells are lengthened and thickened by the continuous deposit of
cellulose with other ill-defined bodies, and the result is wood. In
the seeds of the cereal grains and numerous other plants we find the
cells densely crowded, (hence polyhedral in figure.) and filled with
9
130 LECTURES ON
starch and gluten, the latter often crystallized. In leguminous seeds
casein accumulates; while in the exterior portions of most seeds occur
cells containing, in addition to these bodies, numerous droplets of
fixed oil.—(See the figures already given.) Some cells are largely
occupied with coloring matier, which is green in leaves, red, yellow,
&e., in petals. In many cells we meet with crystals of salts; some are
compounds of vegetal acids with lime and magnesia; others are phos-
phates and sulphates.
In every plant, and in each cell, there may be found, by chemical
analysis, though generally not by the microscope alone, a certain,
never-failing content of mineral matters, which remains as ash when
the vegetable is burned. The ashes of all agricultural plants contain
the following mineral matters, to which in the table are appended
their chemical symbols:
Ingredients of the ash of plants.
eal i2Ne A eS Ses HERIINS he cae Cee ds KO
oy ae SiG bas sec a Re ene aca oe caer eens de Na O
Athaline earths. {MOU ge
: Oxyd of Tron sees ee cee eee eee eee eee ees Fe, O
Metallic oxyds , 1 Oxyd of MANGANESE - ++ eee eee ee cece ces Mn, O,
(Pind vemlocsso ooes Soon Go - Aid eG ore Ut ec CO,
Mare : Sulphuric Ae ren Gio Bosc oie Btcdotc us Cras SO,
en Pica pnOre Seta sere eet cs ocr PO,
SiGe s & aeee en amo ce halberd eae. Sune Socc Si OF
jf eae og Carne cia ook aera ct Se Cl.
These matters taken together form but a small part of the plant—
usually from one to five per cent. of its weight—yet they are indis-
pensable to its development, as is evident from their constant presence,
and as has been likewise proved by the most careful and extended
synthetic experiments. Without the co-operation of all these earthy
and saline matters it is impossible for plants of the higher orders to
develop themselves. ;
The Prince Salm Horstmar, of Brunswick, has made the function of
the mineral food of the plant the subject of a most extended and
laborious investigation. In experiments with the oat he found that
when silica was absent from the soil, everything else being supplied,
the plant remained smooth, pale, dwarfed, and prostrate.
Without lime the plant died in the second leaf. .
Without potash or soda it reached a height of but three inches.
Without magnesia it was very weak and prostrate.
Without phosphoric acid it remained very weak, but erect and of
normal figure, bearing fruit.
Without sulphuric acid it was still weaker; was erect and of normal
figure, but without fruit.
Without iron it was very pale, weak, and disproportioned.
Without manganese it did not attain perfect development, and bore
but few flowers.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 131
Other experiments proved that chlorine is essential to the growth
of wheat.
Wiegmann and Polstorff found that when seeds of cress (Lepidium
sativum) were sown in minced platinum wire, contained in a platinum
crucible, and moistened with distilled water, the experiment being
conducted under a glass shade, out of reach of dust, they germinated
and grew naturally during twenty-six days, when, having reached a
height of three inches, they began to turn yellow and to die down.
On burning the plants thus produced, their ash was found to weigh
exactly as much as was obtained from a number of seeds equal to that
sown. Prince Salm Horstmar found that oats grown with addition
of fixed mineral matters (ash ingredients) only, gave four times the
mass of vegetable matter that was obtained when these were withheld.
The plant, as we have seen, is an assemblage of cells, which are
situated in more or less close contact with each other. The plants
that consist of but a few cells, like yeast, simply lie or float in the
medium in which they are naturally found. Agricultural plants, how- °
ever, and the higher orders generally, possess roots, whose functions
are performed underground, and stems, leaves, and flowers, that exist
in the air.
The yeast plant finds its food in the fermenting solution, and the
cells have a power of absorbing their nutriment out of this solution.
Marine plants wholly immersed in the ocean abstract their food
from the sea water.
The higher land plants derive the materials from which their cells
are multiplied, partly from the soz/, by their roots, and partly from the
atmosphere, by their foliage.
In the living plant, then, there is provision for the access of liquids
into the cells from without, and for the transmission of the same from
one end of the plant to the other, or in any direction; for if we plant
a seed in pure sand mingled with ashes and duly watered, we shall
find in a few weeks that a plant has resulted containing in every por-
tion of it carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, which could only kave been
derived from the atmosphere, and also saline and earthy matters, which
must have been imbibed from the ashes and carried upward to the
points of its branches and leaves.
The young cell, though its wall reveals no perforation to the most
powerful magnifier, is porous; and though the older cells, which form
the cuticle of a somewhat developed plant, are often impermeable to
water and air, from the fact that they are indurated or glazed by the
formation of a corky or waxy coating, yet the young cells that are
continually forming at the extremities of the advancing rootlets, and
those of the still fresh leaves, are highly porous, and no more oppose
resistance to the passage of water or of air than does a sieve.
We have only to immerse the roots of a vigorous plant in a solution
colored with some harmless pigment, and in a short time we can trace
its diffusion throughout the plant.
If liquids thus easily permeate these tissues, there is every reason
to suppose that they may admit the vastly more subtle particles of a
gas; and of this we have abundant experimental evidence, as will be
set forth bye and bye.
132 LECTURES ON
LECTURE II.
THE ATMOSPHERE AND WATER IN THEIR RELATIONS TO VEGETABLE LIFE.
In the former lecture we have seen that the plant is a collection of
cells, and the residence of an organizing up-building agency—the
vital principle. We have seen that the cells. are composed of, or
occupied with, carbo-hydrates, albuminoids, fats, and salts. The
structure of the plant admits the entrance of gases and liquids, and
their diffusion throughout its mass.
We are now prepared to inquire what are the materials employed
by the plant in its development—what is the food of vegetation?
A seed sown in a moist sand may grow into a perfect plant, and
roduce a hundred new seeds, each as large and complete as the first,
although the sand, the water, and the air, which only can have
nourished the plant, contain no traces of cellulose or starch, of al-
bumen or oil. .
These proximate elements of vegetation are then obviously con
structed by the plant out of other forms or combinations of matter
belonging to the mineral world, and to be sought in the atmosphere,
in water, and in the soil.
Of the entire mass of the plant, but a small portion is derived from
the soil, ninety-five to ninety-nine per cent. of it coming originally
from the atmosphere.
The general composition of the pure and dry atmosphere, according
to the most reliable data is, by weight, as follows: (To the names of
the ingredients are appended their chemical symbols.)
Oxygen, O---- seer eee eee eee eee Ly aces els
Nitrogen, N---+ s+e2++ cree cece tee ee eee eee 76.82
100.00
Besides the above ingredients, whose proportion is very constant,
there occur in it the following substances in more variable quantity:
Water, (as vapor,) HO, average 1-hundredth.
Carbonic acid, CO,, average 6 ten-thousandths.
Ammonia, NH,, average 23 billionths.
Nitric acid, NO,?
Carburetted hydrogen, CH?
Nitrous oxyd NO?
Let us now inquire with reference to each of these substances,
how is it related to the nourishment of the plant? A number of ex-
ceedingly ingenious experiments have been instituted from time to
time for the purpose of throwing light on this subject, and we are
thus fortunately able to present it in a quite satisfactory manner.
As to oxygen, we have no evidence that it directly feeds the plant,
or is assimilated, so as to increase the mass of its organic matter.
On the contrary, plants when growing exhale oxygen, separating it
from the carbon and hydrogen of their proper food.
The presence of oxygen in the atmosphere is, however, in many
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 133
ways, essential to the perfection of the plant; for in its absence seeds
cannot germinate, flowers cannot yield fruit, and fruits cannot ripen.
In germination the larger bulk of the seed, the cotyledons, by the
absorption of oxygen, are disorganized and converted into structure-
less and soluble bodies, which become the food of the smaller part of
the seed, the embryo, a and by its vital operations are again organized
as the young plant. In the process of flowering, matters stored in
organized form in other parts of the plant are transported to the
blossom to serve for its rapid development. The flower itself cannot
absorb food from without; and in the transformation of the already
elaborated food from the stem and leaves of the plant into the new
forms required by the flowers, oxygen plays an essential part. The
reawakening of life in the tree at spring time, and the ripening of
fruits, are accompanied with changes of a similar character, and from
them result many oxydized products. Vegetable physiologists have
furnished microscopic evidence that similar alternations of the orga-
nizing and disorganizing processes take place in the individual cells,
SO that we are warranted in assuming that oxygen (whether that of
the free atmosphere or that evolved in the cells themselves is in-
different) plays an important and unceasing part in the development
of vegetation.
Nitrogen in the free state also appears to be incapable of direct
assimilation. Within a few years the subject has been studied by
various investigators, but with contradictory results. Ville, of Paris,
in 1853, published a volume describing his experiments, which led to
the conclusion already arrived at by Priestley, in 1779, viz:. that
nitrogen is assimilated. Other investigators, however, by means of
trials carried out under conditions less complicated and more adapted
to yield reliable evidence, have uniformly been conducted to the
opposite view.
Especially to Boussingault do we owe a most careful investigation of
this question. His plan of experi- Fig. 9.
ment was simply to cause plants :
to grow in circumstances where,
every other condition of develop-
ment being supplied, the only source
of nitrogen at their command, be-
sides that contained in the seed it-
self, should be the free nitrogen of
the atmosphere. For this purpose
he prepared a soil consisting of
pumice stone and the ashes of clover,
freed by heat and acid from all
compounds of nitrogen. This soil
he placed at: the bottom of a large
glass globe, (see figure 9,) of 15 ‘to
20g gallons capacity. Seeds of cress
or of other plants were deposited inf
the soil, and pure water supplied to 7
them. After germination, a small ““””7”
glass vessel (D) filled with carbonic acid (to eigally carbon) was secured
134 LECTURES ON
air-tight to the mouth of the large globe, and, the apparatus being
disposed in a suitably lighted place, was left to itself until the plants
began to turn yellow and show signs of decay. Then they were re-
moved, separated from the soil, and, by chemical analysis, the amount
of nitrogen in them was ascertained. It was found in every instance
(the experiment being several times repeated) that the nitrogen in the
plants thus raised was no more than that contained in the seed from
which they had grown. Our ingenious countryman, Dr. Evan Pugh,
now president of the Farmers’ College of Pennsylvania, while resi-
dent in England a few years since, made an elaborate investigation
of this subject, with results confirming those of Boussingault.
So far from the external free nitrogen being assimilated, it appears,
especially from the researches of Dr. Draper, of New York, that
plants constantly evolve this substance in the gaseous form; al-
though, according to the investigations of Unger and Knop, made
more recently, and with more exact methods, the nitrogen found by
various observers in the exhaled air of plants comes only from the
atmospheric air absorbed by them.
It thus appears that the two gases which, together, make up
ninety-nine per cent. or more of the atmosphere, do not constitute
in any way the direct food of vegetation. It is, in fact, in the small
quantity of other and somewhat variable ingredients that we must
look for the atmospheric nutriment of the vegetable kingdom.
Water in the vaporized form we find never absent from the air,
and it is especially abundant in the warm period of the year when
vegetation is active. Its presence is made evident by its deposition
in the states of dew, fog, rain, and snow, when the temperature of
the atmosphere is reduced.
It has been universally taught that the watery vapor which is thus
in perpetual contact with the leaves of plants is readily and largely
absorbed by them. According to Unger and Duchartre, however, it
is never imbibed by foliage in even the slightest degree. On the
contrary, under all circumstances there occurs a constant loss of water
by evaporation from the leaves, which does not wholly cease even
when they are confined in an atmosphere saturated with moisture.
Duchartre admits that liquid water in contact with the leaves is
slightly absorbed; but it would appear that the root is the organ of
absorption for water, and that the soil must perform the function of
supplying this indispensable body to the plant. 4
It has long been known that water is absorbed by the roots in
large quantity, and exhaled through the leaves into the atmosphere.
The well-known trials of Hales prove this. He found, in one in-
stance, that a single cabbage exhaled 25 ounces of water in 24 hours.
We owe to Mr. Lawes, of Rothamstead, England, a series of experi-
ments on the transpiration of water through wheat, barley, beans,
peas, and clover, continued throughout nearly the whole period of the
growth of these plants. The result was, that for every grain of solid
matter added to the mass of the plant 150 to 270 grains of water
passed through it. From these, and especially from very recent in-
vestigations of Knop and Sachs, it is seen that the transpiration is
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 135
very variable, as might be anticipated. It takes place most rapidly in
a dry, warm air, but is not absolutely checked when the atmosphere
is saturated with moisture. Transpiration is remarkably diminished
by the presence of many soluble salts, and of the alkalies, in the water
of the soil; while free acids increase its rapidity and amount.
As is well known, water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen;
although we have no direct evidence, the inference is fully warranted
that a portion of the water which enters the plant by the roots is
arrested in its upward path, to become itself a part of the tissues.
It is either held in the form of hygroscopic moisture, or is united
chemically to carbon; or, finally, it is decomposed, its hydrogen being
retained, and its oxygen eliminated wholly or in part. In fact, we
must regard water as the chief source of the hydrogen which is a com-
ponent of almost every vegetable principle.
Carbonic acid is a compound of carbon and oxygen. It exists in
immense quantities in solid combination with lime in the various mar-
bles, limestones and marls, and in chalk. Separated from these bodies
by pouring on them sulphuric or nitric acid, it may be collected as a
gas, which, unrecognizable by the other senses, is agreeably sour to
the taste; is two and a half times heavier than common air, and con-
siderably soluble in water. This gas is never absent from the air, and
although it occurs there in relatively small quantity, its absolute
amount is so great that, taking the atmosphere up to its entire height,
we have no less than seven tons of carbonic acid over every acre of
surface.
A plant confined in an atmosphere free from this gas cannot enlarge
itself.* Some plants will live and grow in a confined space, as for
example, sealed up in a bottle ; but in this case the carbonic acid con-
sumed by the growing parts of the plant is supplied by the decay of
the lower leaves.
Priestly and Saussure long ago, furnished experimental evidence
that carbonic acid is absorbed by growing plants, and Boussingault
has described the following illustration of the rapidity with which the
gas is imbibed by the foliage of vegetation. Into one of the orifices
in a three-necked glass globe he introduced the branch of a living
vine bearing twenty leaves; with another opening he connected an
apparatus by means of which-a slow current of air, containing a small,
accurately known proportion of carbonic acid could be passed into the
globe. This air after streaming over the vine leaves, escaped by the
third neck into an arrangement for collecting and weighing the car-
bonic acid that remained in it. The experiment being set in process
in the sun-light, it was found that the enclosed foliage removed from
the current of air three-fourths of the carbonic acid it at first con-
tained.
The absorption of the gas in question by the leaves is found to take
place only under the influence of the light of the sun, or of the accom-
panying chemical rays. Through the roofs, carbonic acid, when held
in sohition of water, may be absorbed at all times.
* Unless, indeed, as is probable, carburetted hydrogen may, to a small extent, be an actual
source of carbon to plants, a point not yet satisfactorily determined.
136 LECTURES ON
It is, however, only in the sun-light, and with many plants (accord-
ing to the recent researches of Corenwinder) only in direct sun-light
that carbonic acid or, more properly, carbon is assimilated. We have
already alluded to ‘he fact that oxygen is exhaled by the plant. This
oxygen comes from the decomposition of carbonic acid (and water) in
the interior of the plant. The vegetable cell aided by the sun has
the power of separating the elements of this compound with the great-
est ease, and it retains the carbon to add to its structure while the
oxygen escapes entirely or in part into the general atmosphere.
As already mentioned, however, oxygen itself, under certain cireum-
stances, more particularly at certain stages of vegetable development,
is absorbed; and as a consequence of this and at just the same time,
carbonic acid is evolved. This separation of carbonic acid may be
observed in all young plants (still depending upon the disorganization
of the parent seed) when situated in the shade; and some plants exhale
it at all periods of their growth when not exposed to direct sun-light.
All plants exhale carbonic acid during the night or in the entire
absence of sun-light; but the amount of this eas that is absorbed and
decomposed by day vastly exceeds that evolved by night. In fact,
one hour or half hour of direct sunshine enables it to absorb and de-
compose more than has escaped from it in a whole night.
Carbonic acid gas is unquestionably the chief source of the carbon
of agricultural plants. Some writers, with Liebig, consider it to be
practically the exclusive means of supplyi ing this element. Others,
after Saussure and Mulder, regard the slightly soluble compounds re-
resulting from the decay ae vegetable matter (humus) in the soil, as
capable “of directly supplying a portion of carbon to a new generation
of plants. While there is perhaps no satisfactory evidence that humus
is entirely excluded from immediately nourishing vegetation, it is plain
from considerations founded in the growth of forests and prairie grasses
that the atmosphere, and indeed carbonic acid is now entitled to rank
as the great storehouse of carbon for this purpose, as once, before
humus existed, it must have been the exclusive source of this element.
From what has been already remarked with regard to the compo-
sition of the vegetable carbo-hydrates, it is seen that a certain general
theoretical view of their formation in the plant may be at once gath-
ered from the facts now set forth. In order to form the members of
the cellulose group, it is only needful that the carbon retained by the
cells from the carbonic acid which they decompose so readily, should
enter into union with adue amount of the water that perpetually streams
upward through them. By the elimination of a portion of oxygen
from the water itself, we have remaining the elements that form the
fats and fixed oils. To yield the vegetable acids and the pectose
group, it suffices that a portion of oxygen be retained or be reabsorbed.
These considerations are purely hypothetical, yet, although the real
processes of decomposition and organization are in many cases vastly
more complex, they possess great interest in a survey of the economy
of vegetation.
For the elaboration of the albuminoids, a source of nitrogen must be
present tothe plant. This essential element is supplied, so far as the
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. Hai
atmosphere is concerned, almost entirely in the form of ammonia.
This substance, familiar under the common name of hartshorn or spirits
of hartshorn, is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen, and is charac-
terized by its alkaline or basic properties, having a caustic burning
taste and uniting with avidity to acids, forming a large class of salts.
In the atmosphere, in presence of an excess of carbonic acid, it
cannot occur in the free state, but always exists as bicarbonate of
ammonia, the same form in which it usually constitutes ‘* salt of harts-
horn’”’ or ‘‘smelling salts.’’
Bicarbonate of ammonia may not only occur in the solid state as a
white powder, but also readily assumes the condition of a gas, as 1s
evident from the volatile pungency of smelling salts. It is readily
dissolved to a very great extent by water ; but as readily evaporates
from solution again, leaving the water almost entirely free from it.
For this reason its amount in the atmosphere is so variable and so
small, it being removed by every shower of rain or deposition of dew
and again restored by warmth and wind, or such causes as favor
vaporization.
In fact it is not by examining the air itself that we gain any ade-
quate idea of the amount of ammonia it may furnish to vegetation.
We must rather look to the atmospheric waters, to dews, rains, and
fogs, in order to estimate this matter rightly. In rain water (the entire
fall) the quantity of ammonia is also quite variable, ranging in the
country from 4 to 19 parts in ten millions; while in the rain falling in
cities a 10 times larger amount has been observed.—(Boussingault,
Bineau, and Way.)
In the first. portions of rain or in slight showers, as well as in fog
and dew, the proportion of ammonia is considerably larger. Thus, in
the first 10th of a slow falling rain, Boussingault found 66 parts in
10 million of water; in dew, he found 62, and in fog 72, and in one
extraordinary instance 497 parts of ammonia in 10 million of water.
Way has determined the entire amount of ammonia contained in
the rain water that fell during the years 1855 and 1856 at Rotham-
stead, 20 miles from Linden. He found that the water which fell on
an acre of surface contained in 1855, 7.11 pownds, and in 1856, 9.53
pounds of ammonia.
The evidence that ammonia is capable of absorption and assimila-
tion by the plant is as various as it is conclusive. Numerous field ex-
periments made with artificial ammonia-compounds, as well as the
fact that all animal manures in the very process of decay, whereby
they appear first to acquire their full activity, yield this body in
abundance—practically establish the point; nor are there wanting
more precise investigations.
Ville especially, also Chlebodarow, have shown that the addition
of ammonia to the ordinary atmosphere, as well as watering with its
dilute solution greatly increases the mass of vegetation produced,
and makes the same much richer in albuminoids. Ville has intro-
duced the use of ammonia into conservatories with quite striking
effect, diffusing into the air of the green-house from two to four 10-
thousandths of its weight of carbonate of ammonia by placing a lump
of this salt upon the steam pipes that supply the space with heat.
138 LECTURES ON
Nitric acid, the well-known compound of nitrogen and oxygen, oc-
curs in the atmosphere in very minute quantity, usually in the form
of nitrate of ammonia. This body being incapable of existing in
vapor, and readily soluble in water, is brought to the earth in dews
and rains. Its quantity is even more minute than that of ammonia.
The most trustworthy estimations are those of Way, who found in the
waters that fell upon an acre at Rothamstead, in 1855, 2.98 pounds,
and in that of 1856, 2.80 pounds of nitrie acid, or about one part of
nitric acid to two million parts of water.
In the soil, nitric acid often occurs in considerable quantity, (the
result of chemical processes which we shall presently notice.) Here it
exists in combination with various bases, usually as nitrates of lime,
soda, and potash. The fertility of soils in which nitrates accumu-
late, and the remarkable effects of their application as fertilizers, are
evidence that nitric acid feeds vegetation.
Fig. Ul. Fig. 10. It is again to Boussingault
qe that we owe the more careful
| study of its effects. Among
other experiments he made
the following: Two seeds
of Helianthus argophyllus were
planted in each of three pots,
the soil of which, consisting
of a mixture of brick-dust and
asand, as wellas the pots them-
“selves, had been thoroughly
freed from all nitrogenous com-
pounds by ignition and washing
with distilled water. To the soil
of the pot A, fig. 10, nothing was
added save the two seeds, and
distilled water, with which all
the plants were watered from
time totime. With the soil of
pot C (fig.12)were incorporated
small quantities of phosphate
of lime, of ashes of clover and
bicarbonate of potash, in or-
der that the plants growing
in it might have an abundant
supply of all the mineral mat-
ters they needed. Finally, the
soil of pot B, fig. 11, received
the same mineral matters as
} pot C, and in addition, a small
quantity of nitric acid as ni-
trate of potash. The seeds
were sown on the 5th of July, and on the 30th September, the
plants had the relative size and appearance seen in the figures, re-
duced to one-sixth of the natural dimensions.
0) 4
Tp 3 Ep LOTT
Ant GE PETG
\ Wi =:
y a ‘
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 139
This striking experiment demonstrates that nitric acid directly
serves to supply nitrogen to plants. In fact, it appears to equal
ammonia in its assimilability.
Liebig was formerly of the opinion that ammonia was the only form
in which vegetation could be supplied with nitrogen, and that nitric
acid was not appropriated by the plant untilafter it had become con-
verted into ammonia in the soil. We know that under the influence
of certain bodies having strong affinities for oxygen, nitric acid is
transformed into ammonia, hydrogen displacing oxvgen. This change
was supposed to occur in the soil by virtue of the action of the car-
bonaceous matters (humus) there present. Now, while this may
actually happen under certain circumstances, it is well ascertained
that the soil and natural waters more generally contain nitrates than
salts of ammonia, and the actual conversion of ammonia into nitrates
in the soil has been experimentally traced.
The presence of nitrous oxyd in the atmosphere is not as yet directly
proved, from want of a proper method of detecting it when forming
but a small proportion of a gaseous mixture; but Knop has shown the
probability of its occurrence there, and has proved that it may serve
as a source of nitrogen to plants. What may be its significance in the
actual nourishment of vegetation remains to be determined.
The important questions now arise, what are the sources of the
water, carbonic acid, ammonia, and nitric acid, that exist in the atmos-
phere? are these minute quantities liable to exhaustion? are they
sufficient to supply vegetation with carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen?
The time was—so the reasonings of geology convince us—when the
soil, having scarcely cooled down from a state of fusion by fire, could
contain no carbon, or at least no nitrogen, ina form capable of feeding
plants. Consequently, at this period all the nitrogen, and by far the
larger share of the carbon, destined to aid the growth of plants must
have existed in the air; and although processes subsequently came
into operation whereby portions of these substances were incorporated
with the soil, the final result of natural operations is to restore them
in great part to the atmosphere.
The effect of oxygen, as manifested in the processes of decay, com-
bustion, and animal nutrition, is to bring down the vegetable organism
to the inorganic level—to convert the carbo-hydrates, the albuminoids
and other proximate principles of vegetation, into carbonic acid, water,
ammonia, and nitric acid, the very materials out of which, under the
influence of the vital principle, they were constructed.
These three varieties of chemical disorganization, which were par-
allel with the vital up-building of vegetation, deserve a somewhat
extended notice.
Decay is a general term expressing the wasting or destruction of
organic bodies under the influence of warmth, oxygen, and water.
The carbo-hydrates, when perfectly pure and dry, may be preserved
indefinitely without undergoing any change. This we know in the
case of cellulose, (cotton, paper,) sugar, starch, &c. In presence of
a certain amount of water, and exposed to the air at a warm tempera-
ture, they undergo change; which, in case of cellulose, is very slow,
140 LECTURES ON
in sugar is more rapid. The oils in the pure state, as well-as the
organic acids, are extremely slow in alteration. The albuminoids,
also, when dry may be kept at ordinary temperatures for an indefinite
time with no symptoms of change. If, however, they be exposed to
warm air in the moist state, they speedily undergo the process of
putrefaction; they decay with great rapidity, and with the production
of volatile bodies having a most intense and noisome odor.
The albuminoids are highly complex in their chemical composition;
their atoms are, so to speak, delicately poised, and in a condition
of unstable equilibrium, and, for this reason, liable to easy disturbance
by any external agency. Hence, they at once break up into several
less complex and more stable compounds when heat and oxygen act
upon them with the intervention of water. Not only so, but in their
fall they entangle the carbo-hydrates, the oils, the acids, and in fact
all the organic constituents of the plant. In this way the soluble
albuminoids act as ferments. Sugar dissolved in water is slow to
change, until a decaying albuminoid, furnished by yeast, be added,
when it is rapidly transformed into alcohol or acetic acid and carbonic
acid. Butter, if carefully made, keeps sweet a long time; but if the
casein of the milk be not thoroughly removed, it speedily becomes
rancid, when air and warmth act upon it.
It is possible that the carbo-hydrates, if they could be absolutely
separated and protected from matter containing nitrogen, would be
found capable of perpetual preservation, even in contact with water,
for in the presence of a minute quantity of some metallic salt, or other
body that makes insoluble (inactive) compounds with the albuminoids,
they do remain unaffected for long periods. Thus wood, which, though
chiefly consisting of cellulose or other non-nitrogenous bodies, is not
free from albumin, when exposed to the weather—7. e., to oxygen,
water, and warmth—undergoes that form of slow decay known as
mouldering or humifaction, the immediate visible result of which is
vegetable mould or humus. If, however, the wood be first saturated
with corrosive sublimate (kyanized) or blue vitrol, it resists decay for
a long time.
As it happens naturally, with very few exceptions, the organic
matter of vegetation, or of animals that have subsisted upon and
been formed from vegetation, falling upon the surface of the earth or
buried a little way beneath it, find just the conditions of decay; and
their nitrogenized ingredients yielding first to the sway of oxygen,
involve with them the whole organism, so that nothing but their
mineral matters, which are already oxyds, escape the destruction.
The process of decay, thus sketched in outline, includes, however,
numberless intermediate stages. Thus wood in its decay yields a
large series of bodies which have the collective name of humus, but
are distinguished into several groups, as the humic acids, ulmic acids,
and geic acids, the latter comprising crenic and apocrenic acids. These
bodies all differ from wood, out of which they originated, by containing
much less hydrogen and oxygen compared to carbon. We can, in fact,
trace the gradual removal of these elements up to a certain point, after
which other products arise from the simple oxydation of those first
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 141
formed. The fact that hydrogen is more susceptible of oxydation than
carbon, to a certain extent explains the production of these bodies.
In the decay of sugar under the action of ferments there appears
in an analogous manner a series of intermediate bodies, which differ
in character according to the circumstances under which the fermen-
tation is conducted.
The intermediate products of the decay of vegetable matters, wood,
&c., accumulate in large masses, especially where submersion in water
cuts off the free access of oxygen and keeps the temperature reduced.
In this way the peat of swamps and bogs is formed, and the immense
coal beds now buried in the rock strata of the earth are doubtless
nothing but the peat of a former geological epoch altered in its
character by further chemical agencies.
The final products of complete decay are universally the same,
whatever may be the intervening stages. The carbon of organic
bodies is oxydized to carbonic acid. The hydr ogen is mainly converted
into water. Nitrogen unites more or less with hydrogen, forming am-
monia; in part, however, it escapes in the free state. Sulphur and phos-
phorus are converted into sulphuric and phosphoric acids. The jixed
mineral eeu remain.
Combustion, or burning, is likewise a process of oxydation. It
differs from ee in the rapidity with which it occurs, and in the
different intermediate products that result; but otherwise it is the
same, its final issues being identical with those of decay. Combus-
tion may, in fact, be called a quick decay, as decay has been termed
by Liebig, a slow burning—eremecausis. It is easy to illustrate, by
simple experiments, the ioe mation of water, carbonic acid, and am-
monia in the burning of organic substances.
When burning non-nitrogenous bodies, as the wax and cotton of a
lighted taper, are looked upon, under ordinary circumstances, we
gain the impression, indeed, that they themselves waste away, but
we perceive no result of the fire except light and heat. If, how-
ever, an inverted dry glass bottle be lowered over the flame, and
held so for a time, a mist presently gathers on its interior walls, and
after a little drops of a liquid may be collected which are pure water.
The bottle still being kept in the same position, we shortly see the
flame becoming smaller, and its light dimmer, making it evident that
something in the air which feeds the flame is being exhausted from
the limited space that surrounds it. If, now, the bottle be removed,
and have a little clear lime-water agitated in it, there will at once be
formed a copious precipitate, as the chemist technically designates it,
of carbonate of lime, the lime-water having served to make the in-
visible carbonic acid that resulted from the union of atmospheric
oxygen with the carbon of the wax, evident to the sense of sight.
During the combustion ofa nitrogenous body, in addition to water and
carbonic eal we may detect ammonia. Thus, if the smoke ofa cigar be
puffed against moist turmeric paper, (paper saturated with the yellow
coloring principle of the turmeric or curcuma root, which is turned
brown by alkalies,) the change of color at once shows the presence of
ammonia. This body is always found in the soot of chimneys, where
142 LECTURES ON
wood is burned. It is collected, too, in great quanties in the gas-
works of large cities, being formed from the nitrogen of the bitumin-
ous coal which is distilled and imperfectly burned in the gas retorts.
The common name, spirits of hartshorn, originated in the fact of the
preparation of this substance from the horn of deer, (hart.)
When combustion goes on with full access of oxygen a good deal
of nitrogen escapes in the free state, the hydrogen it might unite
with to form ammonia being chiefly appropriated by the more active
oxygen. In proportion as the burning proceeds with a limited sup-
ply of oxygen, and at a lower temperature, more ammonia is proba-
bly formed. In presence of a fixed alkali, as potash, soda, or lime,
all the nitrogen of organic bodies may be converted into ammonia;
and it is by an ingenious use of this fact that the chemist is enabled
to determine with the greatest ease and accuracy the proportions of
nitrogen which organic bodies contain.
As in decay, so in combustion, it easily happens that numerous in-
termediate products occur, especially when the supply of oxygen is
deficient. The oil, tar, smoke, and soot of ordinary fires are ex-
amples. All these substances, however, by access of more oxygen
at the proper temperature, may be fully consumed into the same final
products as mentioned under decay. The mineral matters of organic
bodies remain in this process as ashes.
The third means of restoring to the gaseous state the elements so-
lidified by vegetation is found in the results of the animal functions,
viz: in nutrition and respiration.
The non-nitrogenous food of animals, consisting always of the vege-
table carbo-hydrates, oils, &c., or of certain products of their trans-
formation, are chiefly burned in the body by the oxygen that the
lungs inhale, and the carbonic acid and water thus formed are
thrown out of the system with the exhaled air. If one breathes
through a tube into a glass bottle, the deposition of moisture proves
the existence of water in the expired air; and by forcing the breath
through lime-water the formation of the white precipitate of carbo-
nate of lime reveals the presence of carbonic acid.
The lungs and the skin, which also constantly throw off the same
substances by perspiration, are the agencies whereby the gaseous
products of the oxydation of the food are restored to the atmosphere.
The kidneys and lower intestines remove a portion of the waste; the
former in the liquid, the latter in the solid form. A small part of
the nitrogen, of which animals require constant supplies in their
nutriment, is exhaled as ammonia from the lungs and skin; but as
the caustic characters possessed by this body, even when in combi-
nation with carbonic acid, would not be compatible with its copious
separation in the gaseous form, we must look to the liquid or solid
dejections for the excretion of nitrogen. In animals we find that the
kidneys dispose of this element. In the blood of man and quadru-
peds there may be detected a substance which the kidneys collect
and discharge from the body in large quantities through the urine.
This substance, from its occurrence, is termed wea. When pure, it
1s a colorless or white body that may be procured in beautiful erys-
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 13
tals, and has a not unpleasant saline taste. In a state of purity its
solution in water may be kept indefinitely without change; but in
presence of a ferment, (an oxydizing albuminoid,) with which it is
always naturally associated, it speedily undergoes decomposition; and
by simply involving a certain amount of water in its change falls into
the same substances which we have so often referred to as among the
termini of vegetable and animal disorganization, viz: c: iene acid
and ammonia. The following scheme illustrates this change:
One atom urea --+++--+--+-+.+++.+... = C, N, H, O,
Two atoms water «+--+. -..- .ss.s.-. = EO,
STR IMAyios cice bs ten susbee ieueuadawe) were eme coos Fax ODN els I O,
Equal to—
Two atoms carbonic acid.---...-...- =O, O
WO; AbONIS AMMONIA, «+5 <5 <j. «ss oye oe — NESE
OUI Poke o enero oterer aces ea ener Nal ea
Besides urea there occurs in the urine of man, and in large quan-
tity in that of herbivorous animals, a body containing nitrogen which
bears the name Aippuric acid. In the urine of carnivorous animals,
and especially in the solid urine of birds and reptiles, is found wrie
acid. Both these substances readily undergo conversion into carbo-
nate of ammonia.
In the solid excrement of animals are found other bodies contain-
ing nitrogen, which by decay shortly restore the same to the atmos-
phere.
The processes we have thus briefly noticed do not, as already inti-
mated, fully and immediately change the organized matter of vegeta.
bles and animals back again into the substances which, according to
our present knowledge, are to be regarded as the food of the plant.
In the immense coal beds of former epochs and in the vast deposits
of peat and sunken drift-wood that are now accumulating in marshes
and river deltas, an enormous quantity of carbon and of nitr ogen too,
is, so far as the historical age is concerned, permanently set aside from
the great circulation of matter.
What is of more agriculturai importance, a large amount of nitro-
gen escapes in the free state into the atmosphere, and thus becomes
lost. to the staves of: nutriment for plants. But there are other re-
sources provided in nature’s economy to maintain the requisite equi-
librium.
The numerous voleanoes from which the smoke of central fires is
perpetually escaping, pour daily into the atmosphere vast volumes of
carbonic acid and not a little ammonia. In many regions, not in the
usual sense volcanic, the earth is full of fissures that give forth un-
ceasing streams of these gases. In the district of the Eifel, on the west-
ern shore of the Rhine, it has been estimated that 100,000 tons of
carbonic acid are annually thrown into the atmosphere.
But the principal means of resupplying carbonic acid and ammonia
consists in the combustion of the coal and peat that represent the
144 LECTURES ON
vegetation of former times, or, indeed, of pre-Adamite epochs. It
it is calculated that the carbonic acid yearly produced by the consump-
tion of bituminous and anthracite coals in Great Britain amounts to
fifty millions of tons, a quantity capable of supplying carbon to seven-
eichths of all the cultivated crops of that country.
‘The deficit of nitrogen-compounds is made up in part by electrical
discharges in the atmosphere. Cavendish was the first to notice that
the electric spark causes nitrogen and oxygen, In a state of mixture,
to combine into nitric acid. In accordance with this observation, it
is found that the rain which falis during thunder storms contains more
nitric acid than at other times. Although in our latitude the amount
of plant food thus formed may be very trifling, it is possibly other-
wise in tropical regions, where, according to the testimony of trav-
ellers, the rumbling of thunder may be heard at any hour of the day
during a considerable portion of the year.
The conversion of free nitrogen into ammonia is not known to take
place in the atmosphere, nor are we certain that it is accomplished in
the soil. It has, indeed, been asserted by Hermann and Mulder that,
during the decay of wood, hydrogen is evolved, which, at the mo-
ment of liberation, unites itself to nitrogen with the production of
ammonia, but the experiments on which this assumption was based
do not now appear to be worthy of confidence. .
In the soil, however, there does occur a constant formation of nitric
acid, especially where lime or other alkaline bodies are present that
may combine with it. It appears, indeed, that the greater share of
this nitric acid results from the oxydation of the nitrogen of organic
debris, but 1t is probable that the free atmospheric njtrogen is, to
some extent, involved.
When electrical discharges are made to pass through the air or
through pure oxygen gas, the latter shortly acquires entirely new
properties. The most remarkable change it undergoes consists in its
obtaining a powerful and peculiar odor, the same which is so often
perceived near where lightning has struck. The oxygen, thus modi-
fied, is found to be capable of much more rapid and intense action
upon other bodies than is exerted by ordinary oxygen. It at once
oxydizes ammonia to nitric acid and water, and also, in presence of
an alkali or lime, unites direct with free nitrogen producing a nitrate.
Oxygen thus altered, and intensified in its affinities, is termed ozone —
or active oxygen, and not only is it produced by electiicity, but like- —
wise by certain processes of oxydation. When phosphorus slowly
oxydizes in the air, when the oils of turpentine and bitter almonds
are exposed to the atmosphere for atime, the same ozonization oc-
curs. Schoenbein, to whose assiduous researches we owe these highly
interesting facts, is of the opinion that all instances of nitrification
are due to the action of ozone. Although we are not as yet able to
make a probable estimate of the amount of free nitrogen that is thus
oxydized in any given time, or to form any notion of the quantitative
importance of the effects of this agent, we have the satisfaction of
standing on a threshold which promises us an entrance into the full
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 145
understanding of the processes by which the element nitrogen is
made assimilable to vegetation.
Within a few years numerous investigations relative to this subject
have been made. Luca has observed that when air (freed from am-
monia) is passed through a solution of potash, nitrate of potash is
formed, in case the air has been in previous contact with the foliage
of plants, but not otherwise; thus indicating that the oxygen is ozon-
ized by the oxydations going on in or about living vegetation (espe-
cially when ethereal oils are exhaled?) and, according to Pless and
Pierre, ozone is also produced in the decay of the organic matters of
the soil.
If, as thus appears probable, it is the case that the very existence
of living plants, and certain later stages of their destruction by
decay, are means of recombining nitrogen to an extent equal to or
slightly greater than that to which this element is placed beyond the
reach of vegetable assimilation in the earlier steps of organic decom-
position, we see that the vegetable germ carries with it, so far as this
element is concerned, the possibility of an almost unlimited, reproduc-
tion or expansion.
Allusion has already been made to the possibility of the occurrence
of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere, but we have as yet no positive
evidence of the fact.
Having thus shown the origin of the compounds out of which, for the
most part, the plant organizes itself, and explained, so far as the
present state of science allows, how the supplies that are continually
being consumed are as continually maintained, we now come properly
to consider the question, Are the atmospheric stores sufficient for the
purposes of vegetation ?
To this inquiry we must undoubtedly reply, that while the quantity
of carbonic acid absolutely contained in the atmosphere is so large as
to feed an abundant vegetation, it being experimentally shown that
some plants are able to grow well with none other than the ordinary
atmospheric supplies, it appears that a concentration of this substance
in the vicinity of the absorbing organs not only develops, but is essen-
tial to the intense growth which characterizes agricultural production.
Liebig and others have instanced forests and prairies as proving the
sufficiency of the atmosphere in this respect, for, say they, under the
occupancy of trees and grasses the soil is constantly enriched in car-
bon drawn from the atmosphere by these plants and annually deposited
upon the soil as fallen foliage. In our view, however, the fact that a
forest does not come into its most vigorous growth before the soil has
been covered with decaying leaves, proves that the general atmos-
phere is insufficient, not indeed in the amount, but in the rapidity of
its provision, and that an atmosphere more highly charged than usual
with the products of vegetable decay, near or in the soil, is essential
to the full supply of carbonic acid. The same doctrine must obtain
with reference to the other forms of plant-food. It is, in fact, needful
that the soil become a medium for the condensation and more speedy
transmission into the plant of the originally purely atmospheric sup-
plies. We shall recur to this subject in subsequent pages,
10
146 LECTURES ON
Closing here our study of the atmosphere considered as a source of
the food of plants, we still need to remark somewhat upon the physi-
cal properties of gases in relation to vegetable life; so far, at least, as
may give some idea of the means by which they gain access into the
lant.
: Whenever two or more gases are brought into contact in a confined
space, they instantly begin to intermingle, and continue so to do until,
in a short time, they are each equally diffused throughout the room
they occupy or pass into a condition of osmotic equilibrium. If two
vessels, one filled with carbonic acid, the other with hydrogen, be con-
nected by a tube no wider than a straw, and be placed so that the heavy
Fig. 13. carbonic acid is below the fifteen times lighter hy-
drogen, we shall find after the lapse of a few hours
that the two bodies are in a state of uniform mix-
ture. On closer study of this phenomenon it has
been discovered that gases diffuse with a rapidity
proportioned to their lightness. Hence, by inter-
posing a porous membrane between two gases of
unequal density, the lighter passing more rapidly
into the denser than the latter into the former, the
space on one side of the membrane is overfilled
while the other side is partially emptied of gas.
This fact is taken advantage of for the visible illus-
tration of the fact of gaseous diffusion.
In the accompanying figure 13 is represented along
glass tube 6 widened above into a funnel, and having
cemented upon this an inverted cylindrical cup of
unglazed porcelaina. The funnel rests ina round
aperture made in the horizontal arm of the support
while the tube below dips beneath the surface of
some water Contained in the wine glass. The porous
cup, funnel, and tube being occupied with common
air, a glass bell cis filled with hydrogen gas and
placed over the cup as shown in the figure. In-
stantly bubbles begin to escape rapidly from the
bottom of the tube through the water of the wine
J glass, thus demonstrating that hydrogen passes into
the cup faster than air can escape outward through its pores. If the
bell be removed, the cup is at once bathed again externally in common
air, the light hydrogen floating instantly upward, and now the water
begins to rise in the tube in consequence of the return to the outer
atmosphere of the hydrogen which before had diffused into the cup.
It is the perpetual action of this diffusive, or, as it is scientifically
termed, osmotic tendency, which maintains the atmosphere in a state
of such uniform mixture that accurate analyses of it give for oxygen
and nitrogen almost identical figures, at all times of the day, at all
seasons, all altitudes, and all situations, except near the central sur-
face of large bodies of still water. Here the fact that oxygen is more
largely absorbed by water than nitrogen diminishes by a minute amount
the usual proportion of the former gas.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 147
If into a limited volume of several gases be placed a body in the
solid or liquid form, which is capable of uniting with chemically, or
otherwise destroying the gaseous condition of one of the gases, it will
at once absorb those particles of this gas which lie in its immediate
vicinity and thus disturb the osmotic equilibrium of the remaining
mixture. This equilibrium is at once restored by diffusion of a por-
tion of the unabsorbed gas into the space that has been deprived of
it and thus the absorption and the diflusion keep pace with each other
until all the absorbable air is removed from the gaseous mixture and
condensed or fixed in the absorbent.
In this manner a portion of the atmosphere enclosed in a large
glass vessel may be perfectly freed from watery vapor and carbonic
acid by a small fragment of caustic potash. A piece of phosphorus
will in a few hours absorb all its oxygen, and an ignited mass of the
rare metal titanium will remove its nitrogen.
A few words will now suffice to apply these facts to the absorption
of the nutritive gases by vegetation.
The cells of plants are permeable to gases, as is especially manifest
from what has been stated regarding the separation or evaporation of
gaseous water from leaves. They too, or some portions of their con-
tents, absorb or condense carbonic acid and ammonia in a similar way,
or at least with the same effect as potash absorbs carbonic acid. As
fast as these bodies are removed from the atmosphere surrounding or
occupying the cells, so fast they are re-supplied by diffusion from
without; so that although the quantities of gaseous plant-food con-
tained in the air are, relatively considered, very small, they are by
this grand natural law made to flow in continuous streams toward
every growing vegetable cell.
LECTURE III.
THE SOIL AS RELATED TO AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION.
No agricultural plant flourishes naturally except its roots are sit-
uated inasoil. The soil is that upon which the farmer spends his
labor; the atmosphere, the weather, he cannot control. His art
enables him, however, so to modify and adapt the soil that all the
deficiencies of the atmosphere or the vicissitudes of climate cannot
deprive him of a reward for his exertions.
The soil has a two-fold function. In the first instance, it forms the
appropriate support and home of the plant, is its birthplace, the
station where it runs through all the stages of its development, and
the protection beneath which its roots or seeds survive the desolation
of winter to gladden every spring-time with renewed growth. In the
second place, it is the exclusive source of an indispensable part of the
food of all agricultural plants, and the medium through which another
larger share of their nutriment is accumulated and presented to them.
In nature we observe a vast variety of soils, which often differ as
much in their fertility as they do in their appearance. We find large
148 LECTURES ON
tracts of country covered with barren, drifting sands, on whose arid
bosom only a few stunted pines or shrivelled grasses find nourish-
ment. Again there occur in the highlands of Scotland, Bavaria,
Prussia, and other temperate countries, enormous stretches of moor-
land, bearing a nearly useless growth of heath or moss. In Southern
Russia occurs a vast tract, two hundred millions of acres in extent,
of the tschornosem, or black earth, which is remarkable for its extra-
ordinary and persistent fertility. The prairies of our own west, the
bottom lands of the Scioto and other rivers of Ohio, are other ex-
amples of peculiar soils; while on every farm, almost, may be found
numerous gradations from clay to sand, from vegetable mould to
gravel—gradations in color, consistence, composition, and produc-
tiveness.
Some consideration of the origin of soils is adapted to assist in
understanding the reasons of their fertility. Geological studies give
us reasons to believe that what is now soil was once, in chief part,
solid rock. We find in nearly all soils fragments of rock, recogniza-
ble as such by the eye, and by help of the microscope it is often easy
to perceive that those portions of the soil which are impalpable to
the feel are only minuter grains of the same rock.
We have space for only the merest general outline of what was
probably the original condition of the earth, and of the successive
changes that have wrought it to its present state. During the lapse
of the uncounted ages that have been forming our globe, rocks have
been ground to soil, and soil has been recemented into rock, and to-
day the same transformations are slowly and silently proceeding.
When the earth first cooled down from the primal heat, it had no
soil, in the proper sense of that word, but was a mass of crystalline
granitic rocks and volcanic scoriw, incapable of supporting vegeta-
tion. When the vapors condensed upon its surface, began that strife
between fire and water which, under the mild forms we call weather,
has never since ceased. Rains then began to fall upon the mountain
wrinkles produced by the contraction of the cooling crust. Streams
flowed downward into the valleys, cracking the still hot rock, whirling
fragments along in their courses until they settled as gravel, sand, or
finer powder to the bottom of some quiet sea, or were dissolved in
boiling wells. In later epochs vegetation began to flourish; then,
after slow centuries had passed, animal life was set in process; each
department of organized éxistence, in its own way, adding to the list
of changes. From the first the atmospheric oxygen was omnipresent,
and carbonic acid too, began to act upon the rocks; and as the result
of the solvent, decomposing, breaking-up, and commingling course of
operations, thus carried on through long periods of continual action,
we have the soil in its present characters and aspects.
The mechanical force of running water has been among the most
effective agencies in the pulverization of rocks. During what is
termed the diluvial or drift period, a current of water passed from
north to south over the northern portion of this continent, wearing
down the rocks, and bearing with it an enormous mass of solid matters,
which now remain as then deposited, constituting gravelly hills, and
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 149
soils which are filled with pebbles or boulders, that were then
rounded and polished in their transit from distant nothern latitudes.
Since the opening of the human epoch, lesser local floods in the
waters of rivers have made numberless so-called alluvial deposits
(river bottoms and deltas) in like manner.
Changes of temperature, especially the alternate freezing and thaw-
ing of water, exercise great influence in the pulverization of rocks.
Water, as is well known, expands with great force in the act of freez-
ing, and by insinuating itself while liquid into the fine cleavage rifts
of rocks, and there congealing, breaks asunder the particles. The
dense limestone of the Jura formation, as found in polished nodules
in the soil near Munich, in Bavaria, if moistened with water and ex-
posed to frost a single night is so disintegrated that, as the ice melts,
it yields a water turbid with the loosened atoms of rock.
Oxygen exerts a perpetual disintegrating effect, by uniting with
the protoxyd of iron, which occurs in nearly all rocks, setting free
the acids and bases before in combination with it, and yielding
peroxyd of iron. Sulphid (sulphuret) of iron is an exceedingly
abundant ingredient of rocks, and, under the influence of oxygen, is
readily converted into soluble sulphate of iron—a product which, in
turn, reacts upon other constituents of rocks to dissolve or alter them.
Carbonic acid, especially in conjunction with water, dissolves or com-
bines with the alkalies and earths existing in rocks, and thus destroys
their integrity and causes them to crumble away to soil.
The composition and chemical characters of soils depend upon the
kind of rock or rocks from which they originate. A glance at the
nature of these will therefore be of service tous. As to chemical
ingredients, we find that the most abundant and widely diffused are
precisely those which are found in the ash of plants. They mostly
occur in certain definite combinations, and form the minerals, quartz,
feldspar, hornblende, augite, mica, serpentine, kaolin, zeolite, carbo-
nate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and numerous others of less im-
portance. ‘The composition of specimens of these minerals is given
in the annexed table. They occur, however, in very numerous varie-
ties, and vary greatly in the kind as well as proportions of their in-
eredients.* It is seen from the table that many of them contain
nearly all the inorganic ingredients of plants.
* This fact may appear to stand in contradiction to the statement above made that these
minerals are definite combinations. In the infancy of mineralogy great perplexity arose from
the numberless varieties of minerals that were found—varieties that agreed together in cer-
tain characteristics, but widely differed in others. In 1830, Mitscherlich, a Prussian phi-
losopher, discovered that a number of the elementary bodies are capable of replacing each
other in combination, from the fact of their natural crystalline form being identical; they
being, as he termed it, isomorphous, or of like shape. Thus, magnesia, lime, protoxyd of iron,
and protoxyd of manganese; potash, soda; silica, and alumina may replace each other in
such a way as to greatly affect the composition without altering the constitution of a
mineral. Of the mineral hornblende, for example, there are known a great number of
varieties ; some pure white in color, containing, in addition to silica, magnesia and lime ;
others pale green, a small portion of magnesia being replaced by protoxyd of iron; others
black, containing alumina in place of a portion of silica, and with oxides of iron and man-
ganese in large proportion. All these minerals, however, admit of one expression of their
constitution, for the amount of oxygen in the bases, no matter what they are, or what their
proportions, bears a constant relation to the oxygen of the silica (and alumina) they con-
tain, the ratio being 4: 9.
LECTURES ON
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AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 151
These minerals, while they make up the chief bulk of rocks or of
the soil, are always associated with minute quantities of other com-
pounds, such as phosphates, chlorids, sulphates, or bodies yielding
sulphates, &c., upon which the geologist scarcely bestows attention,
which are, however, for the scientific agriculturist of great moment.
In consequence of this wise provision and of the beneficent inter-
mingling of the fragments of rock from widely distant regions, during
the drift period and by alluvial agencies, it has resulted that, almost
everywhere, there exist in the soil all those mineral bodies which are
found in plants. Some one has been, indeed, so impressed with the
universality of the distribution of each elementary form of matter as
to offer the opinion that all the sixty simple bodies which constitute
the globe might be found in every handful of soil or cup of water
existing on its surface did we but possess sufficiently delicate tests.
It sometimes happens, indeed, that where a soil is in place, i. e.,
has not been transported, but lies covering the rock from which it
has been formed, it is very poor and supports only a sparse vegeta-
tion, or, perhaps, is totally naked and destitute of all organic life.
But these instances are comparatively rare, and their infertility is
more often due to want of water, or some external cause, than to the
absolute deficiency of those ingredients which are needful in a pro-
ductive soil.
It often happens that a close connexion exists between the rock
and the overlying soil; as often, however, the one serves as no indi-
cation to the value of the other.
The mechanical analysis of any soil separates it into portions of
different fineness. A coarse sieve removes gravel, consisting of the
larger fragments of rock; a finer one, coarse sand; by washing with
water, fine sand is left, while the turbid washings deposit after a time
a quantity of impalpable matter which may consist in part of the
exceedingly fine particles of rock, and in part of clay, or it may be
entirely formed of the latter.
In most inferior soils the gravel and sand, when abundant, are an-
gular fragments of quartz, feldspar, hornblende, augite, and mica, or
of rocks consisting of these minerals. It is only these harder and
less easily decomposable minerals that can resist the pulverizing
agencies through which a large share of our soils have passed. In
the more fertile soils, formed from secondary limestones and slates,
the fragments of these stratified rocks occur as flattened pebbles and
rounded grains.
The fine portion of the soil bears, either in quantity or composition,
the most direct relation to its fertility. It is this which is capable of
yielding to the growing plant the food it requires. The coarser parts
of the soil are a vast store of materials in reserve for the distant fu-
ture, since, by their slow disintegration, they themselves gradually
become so comminuted as to serve the wants of vegetation.
Clay, which is almost invariably a chief part of the impalpable
matter of the soil, has been marked by us asa mineral, and its general
composition indicated in the table (p. 150.) It is a product of the
action of water and carbonic acid upon such minerals as feldspar,
mica, hornblende, and augite. Under the influence of these agents,
152 LECTURES ON
the silicates of alumina and potash, lime, &c., yield carbonates of
potash, lime, &c., which dissolve and wash away, while a silicate of
alumina and water, mingled with free silica, and mechanically retain-
ing more or less of the other substances remains, and this is clay.
When formed from feldspar alone it is often pure white in color, |
and bears the name kaolin. This, the purest form of clay, is the
material which constitutes the basis of porcelain. In mines, excavated
through feldspathic rocks, nothing is more common than to find masses
of the whitest kaolin in the fissures or cavities, which give a down-
ward passage to the percolating water. The clay of ordinary soils,
is, however, a material greatly admixed with other substances, and
therefore exceedingly different and variable in its composition, and
all the better adapted by this for its agricultural applications.
Many soils contain much carbonate of lime in an impalpable form,
having been derived chiefly from the mechanical wearing down of
lime rocks, as marble and chalk—from the shells of mollusks or coral
branches, or, finally, being clays that have originated by the chemi-
cal decomposition of feldspathic rocks containing much lime.
Organic matter, especially the debris of former vegetation, is
almost never absent from the impalpable portion of the soil, existing
there in some of the many forms assumed by the Protean humus.
From consideration of the relative proportions of the principal me-
chanical ingredients has chiefly arisen the customary classification and
nomenclature of soils. Silicious sand (grains of quartz, feldspar, &c.)
and clay make up the chief proportion of many soils. The mixture
of the two forms a loam which may be sandy (light) or clayey (heavy.)
A further division is into loamy sand and loamy clay. When, in ad-
dition to these, lime is present the soil is said to be a marl, either
sandy, clayey, loamy, &c., according to the relative quantities of the
ingredients.
Soils containing organic matter to the amount of 5 to 10 per cent.
are termed vegetable moulds; if this ingredient exceeds 10 per cent.,
which rarely occurs, except in wet situations, we have a peaty soil.
If coarse rounded fragments of rock be present in large quantity
the soil is gravelly. Where much oxyd of iron exists, as evinced by
a red or yellow color, the soil is ochery. The epithets peaty, gravelly,
ochery, come then, in many cases, to further modify the designations
of sands, clays, marls, and moulds. '
Other divisions are current among practical men, as, for example,
surface and sub-soil, active and inert soil, tilth, and hard pan. These
terms mostly explain themselves. When, at the depth of four inches
to one foot or more, the soil assumes a different color and texture,
these distinctions have meaning. The surface soil, active soil, or
tilth, is the portion that is wrought by the instruments of tillage—
that which is moistened by the rains, warmed by the sun, permeated
by the atmosphere, in which the plant extends its roots, gathers its
soil food, and which, by the decay of the subterranean organs of
vegetation, acquires a content of humus. Where the soil originally
had the same characters to a great depth, it often becomes modified
down to a certain point, by the agencies just enumerated, in such a
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 153
manner that the eye at once makes the distinction into surface-soil and
sub-soil. In many soils, however, such distinctions are entirely ar-
bitrary, the earth changing its appearance gradually or even remain-
ing uniform to a considerable depth.
Again, the surface soil may have a greater downward extent than
the active soil, or the tilth may extend into the sub-soil.
Hard-pan is the appropriate name of a dense, almost impenetra-
ble, crust or stratum of ochery clay or compacted gravel, often under-
lying a fairly fruitful soil. It is the soil reverting torock. The parti-
cles once disjointed are being cemented together again by the solu-
tions of lime, iron or alkali-silicates that descend from the surface soil.
Such a stratum often separates the surface soil from a deep gravel
bed, and peat swamps thus exist in basins formed on the most porous
soils by a thin layer of moor-bed-pan.
With these general notions regarding the origin and characters of
soils, we may proceed to a somewhat extended notice of the pro-
perties of the soil as influencing fertility. These divide themselves
into physical characters—those which externally affect the growth
of the plant; and chemical characters—those which provide it with
food.
Among the physical characters* we first notice the state of division
in which the soil is found.
On the surface of a block of granite only a few lichens and mosses
can exist; crush the block to a coarse powder and a more abundant
vegetation can be supported on it; if it is reduced to a very fine dust
and duly watered, even the cereal grains will grow and perfect fruit
on it. Thus two soils may have the same chemical composition, and
yet one be almost inexhaustibly fertile, and the other almost hope-
lessly barren. There are sandy soils in the Eastern States, which,
without manure, yield only the most meagre crops of rye or buck-
wheat; and there are sandy soils in Ohio, which, without manure,
yield on an average 80 bushels of Indian corn per acre, and have
yielded this for twenty to fifty years in unbroken succession. Ac-
cording to David A. Wells, (American Journal of Science, July,
1852,) these two kinds of soil yield very similar, practically identical,
results on chemical analysis, so far as their inorganic ingredients are
concerned. What is the cause of the difference of fertility? Our
present knowledge can point to no other éxplanation than is furnished
by the different fineness of the particles. The barren sandy soils
consist in great part of coarse grains, while the Ohio soil is an ex-
ceedingly fine powder.
It is true, as a general rule, that all fertile soils contain a large
proportion of very fine or impalpable matter. How the extreme
division of the particles of the soil is connected with its fertility is
not difficult to understand. The food of the plant must enter it in
a state of solution, or if undissolved, the particles must be smaller
In treating of the physical characters of the soil, the writer employs an essay on this
subject, contributed by him to vol. XVI of the Transactions of the N. Y. State Agricul-
tural Society.
154 © LECTURES ON
than we can discover with the best optical aids, because the pores of
the roots of plants are not discernible by any microscope. The
mineral matters of the soil must be dissolved or diffused in water.
The rapidity of their solution is in direct proportion to the extent of
their surface. The finer the particles, the more abundantly will the
plant be supplied with its necessary nourishment. In the Scioto
valley soils the water which is transpired by the crops comes in con-
tact with such an extent of surface that it is able to dissolve the soil-
ingredients in as large quantity and as rapidly as the crop requires.
In the coarse-grained soils this is not the case. Soluble matters
(manures) must be applied to them by the farmer, or his crops refuse
to yield handsomely.
It is furthermore obvious, that, other things being equal, the
finer the particles of the soil the more space the growing roots have
in which to expand themselves, and the more numerously are they
able to present their absorbent surfaces to the supplies which the
soil contains.
It will presently appear that other very important properties of the
soil are more or less related to its state of mechanical division.
The soil has, secondly, a power of withdrawing from the air vapor of
water and condensing the same in rts pores. It is, in other words,
hygroscopic.
This property of a soil is of the utmost agricultural importance,
because, 1st, it is connected with the permanent moisture which is
necessary to vegetable existence, and, 2d, since the absorption of
water-vapor determines the absorption of other vapors and gases.
In the following table from Schiibler we have the results of a
series of experiments carried out by that philosopher for the pur-
pose of determining the absorptive power of different kinds of earths
and soils.
The column of figures gives in thousandths the quantity of moisture
absorbed by the previously dried soil, under the same circumstances,
in twenty-four hours:
Quartz sand, CODTSE Hisraeee Sobt Ciera greene inal aittaltetahouadonysy caeWe Ttomren cea toie 0
Gry OSIM Newt crete: wale: Soave egal ors av atiatio els eke fat neta tOneAUCNCNE tee cram 1
(aici (outer his PCAs Ge Le eer Si oor SRL RL Ay 3
Plouginland!\..%s.o5' eee ashi Sees Nes Re ae eee morte 93
Glayssoilt(C0" per Contsiclay) a0. vs v= serene steteh soles eee ere 98
MA Ly MIME Lessa eave votecurec 5, aealcrs Mhatetas g Site cat eveeme ATR URE ye 33
OLIN esate tesco e eas aisha 55g tes GRRE NAS CL ke ee 35
Binexcarbonatovof limes > cass Soke seen eee 35
Heavy clay soil, (80 per cent. Clay) +--+. sees were ee eee 4}
Garden mould, (7 per cent. Fitamaus)) >< «285 2 ue ee Sloane hoon te
Pure clay eure [eRorrelied's cei foiei's)sn: “6) sel ecetio io treda ie tee celal afore tema SICH Io rratat one 49
Carbonate of magnesia, (fine powder) ----..+...-+e+ ences 82
Tamas veictees ects ates es AOR Ons Be, A ee ee 120
®
An obvious practical result follows from the facts expressed in the
above table, viz: that sandy soils which have little attractive force
for watery vapor, and are therefore dry and arid, may be meliorated
in this respect by admixture with clay, or better with humus, as
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 155
is done by green manuring. The table gives us proof that gypsum
does not exert any beneficial action in consequence of directly attract-
ing moisture. Humus, or decaying vegetable matter, it will be seen,
surpasses every other ingredient of the soil in absorbing moisture.
This is doubtless in some degree connected with its extraordinary
porosity or amount of surface. How the extent of surface alone may
act is made evident by comparing the absorbent power of carbonate
of lime in the two states of sand and of an impalpable powder. The
latter it is seen, absorbed twelve times as much vapor of water as
the former. Carbonate of magnesia stands next to humus, and it is
worthy of note that it is a very light and fine powder.
Finally, it is a matter of observation that ‘‘silica and lime in the
form of coarse sand make the soil in which they predominate so
dry and hot that vegetation perishes from want of moisture; when,
however, they occur as fine dust, they form too wet a soil, in which
plants perish from the opposite cause.’’—(Hamm’s Landwirthschaft.)
In the fact that soils have a physical absorbing power for the vapor
of water, we have an illustration of a general principle, viz: That the
surfaces of liquid and solid matter attract the particles of other kinds of
matter. In the same way that water is absorbed, oxygen gas is con-
densed, especially in certain highly porous bodies. Platinum, copper,
lead, and iron, when in the state of fine sponge, exert a remarkable
condensing power on oxygen, and it is probable that thereby this
element is ozonized. Platinum sponge exhibits the characters of a
body charged with ozone, and it is to be anticipated that investiga-
tion will shortly demonstrate the occurrence of gaseous condensa-
tions in the soil, the effect of which is to produce chemical changes
of the most important character. It is not unlikely that the organic
matters of the soil, which possess the extremest porosity may thereby
acquire their power of ozonizing the oxygen which combines so
readily with them, and thus accomplish the formation of nitric acid
from atmospheric nitrogen.
Of exceeding influence on the fertility of the soil is, thirdly, its
permeability to iquid water.
A soilis permeable to water when it allows that liquid to soak into
or run through it. To be permeable is of course to be porous. On
the size of the pores depends its degree of permeability. Coarse
sands, and soils which have few but large pores or interspaces, allow
water to run through them readily—water percolates them. When,
instead of running through, the water is largely absorbed and held
by the soil, the latter is said to possess great capillary power; such a
soil has many and minute pores. The cause of capillarity is the same
surface attraction which has been already mentioned.
When a narrow vial is partly filled with water, it will be seen that
the liquid adheres to its sides, and if it be not more than one-half
inch in diameter, the surface of the liquid will be curved or concave.
In a very narrow tube the liquid will rise to a considerable height.
In these cases the surface attraction of the glass for the water neu-
tralizes or overcomes the weight of (earth’s attraction for) the latter.
The pores of a sponge raise and hold water in them, in the same
156 LECTURES ON
way that these narrow (capillary*) tubes support it. When a body has
pores so fine (surfaces so near each other) that their surface attrac-
tion is greater than the gravitating tendency of water, then the body
will suck up and hold water—will exhibit capillarity; a lump of salt or
sugar, a lamp-wick, are familiar examples. When the pores of a
body are so large (the surfaces so distant) that they cannot fill them-
selves or keep themselves full, the body allows the water to run
through or to percolate.
Sand is most easily permeable to water, and to a higher degree
the coarser its particles. Clay, on the other hand, is the least pene-
trable, and the less so the purer and more plastic it is.
When a soil is too coarsely porous it is said to be leachy or
hungry. The rains that fall upon it quickly soak through, and it
shortly becomes dry. On such a soil, the manures that may be ap-
plied in the spring are to some degree washed down below the
reach of vegetation, and in the droughts of summer plants suffer and
perish from want of moisture.
When the texture of a soil is too fine, its pores too small, as happens
in a heavy clay, the rains penetrate it too slowly; they flow off the
surface, if the latter be inclined, or remain as pools for days and even
weeks in the hollows. Ina soil of proper texture the rains neither
soak off into the under earth nor stagnate on the surface, but the soil
always (except in excessive wet or drought) maintains the moistness
which is salutary to most of our cultivated plants.
The part which the capillarity of the soil plays in the nutrition of
the plant deserves a moment’s notice.
Ifa wick be put into a lamp containing oil, the oil, by capillary
action, gradually permeates its whole length, that which is above as
well as that below the surface of the liquid. When the lamp is set
burning, the oil at the flame is consumed, and as each particle disap-
pears its place is supplied by a new one, until the lamp is empty or
the flame extinquished.
Something quite analogous occurs in the soil, by which the plant
(corresponding to the flame in our illustration) is fed. The soil is at
once lamp and wick, and the water of the soil represents the oil. Let
evaporation of water from the surface of the soil or of the plant take
place of the combustion of the oil from a wick and the matter stands
thus: Let us suppose dew or rain to have saturated the ground with
moisture for some depth. On recurrence of a dry atmosphere with
sunshine and wind, the surface of the soil rapidly dries; but as each
particle of water escapes (by evaporation) into the atmosphere, its
place is supplied (by capillarity) from the stores below. The ascending
water brings along with it the soluble matters of the soil, and thus the
roots of plants are situated in a stream of their appropriate food. The
movement proceeds in this way so long as the surface is dryer than
the deeper soil. When, by rain or otherwise, the surface is saturated,
it is like letting a thin stream of oil run upon the apex of the lamp-
a Et EE ee
_ “From capillus the Latin word for hair, because as fine as hair; (but a hair is no tube, as
is often supposed. )
=
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 157
wick—no more evaporation into the air can occur, and consequently
there is no longer any ascent of water; on the contrary, the water, by
its own weight, penetrates the soil, and if the underlying ground be
not saturated with moisture, as can happen where the subterranean
fountains yield a meagre supply, then capillarity will aid gravity in
its downward distribution.
The most rational conclusion from all the facts at our command is
that all the mineral matters, as well as a portion of the organic bodies,
which feed the plant, are carried into it by water. So long as evapora-
tion goes on from the surface of the soil, so long there is a constant
upward flow of saline matters. Those portions which do not enter
vegetation accumulate on or near the surface of the ground; when a
rain falls, they are washed down again to a certain depth, and thus
are kept constantly changing their place with the water, which is the
vehicle of their distribution. In regions where rain falls periodically
or not at all, this upward flow of the soil-water often causes an accumu-
lation of salts on the surface of the ground. Thus in Bengal many
soils which in the wet season produce the most luxuriant crops, during
the rainless portion of the year become covered with white crusts of
saltpetre. Doubtless the beds of nitrate of soda that are found in
Peru have accumulated in the same manner. So in our western caves
the earth sheltered from rains is saturated with salts—epsom salts,
glauber salts, and saltpetre, or mixtures of these. Often the rich
soil of gardens is slightly incrusted in this manner in our summer
weather; but the saline matters are carried into the soil with the
next rain.
It is easy to see how, in a good soil, capillarity thus.acts in keeping
the roots of plants constantly immersed in a stream of water or moist-
ure that is now ascending, now descending, but never at rest, and
how the food of the plant is thus made to circulate around the organs
fitted for absorbing it.
The same causes that maintain this perpetual supply of water and
food to the plant are also efficacious in constantly preparing new sup-
plies of food. As before explained, the materials of the soil are always
undergoing decomposition, whereby the silica, lime, phosphoric acid,
potash, &c., of the insoluble fragments of rock, become soluble in
water and accessible to the plant. Water charged with carbonic acid
and oxygen, is the chief agent in these chemical changes. The more
extensive and rapid the circulation of water in the soil, the more
matters will be rendered soluble in a given time, and, other things
being equal, the less will the soil be dependent on manures to keep
up its fertility.
No matter how favorable the structure of the soil may be to the
circulation of water in it, no continuous upward movement can take
place without evaporation. The ease and rapidity of evaporation,
while mainly depending on the condition of the atmosphere and on
the sun’s heat, are to a certain degree influenced by the soil itself.
We have already seen that the soil possesses a power of absorbing
watery vapor from the atmosphere, a power which is related both to
158 LECTURES ON
the kind of material that forms the soil and to its state of division.
This absorptive power opposes evaporation. Again, different soils
manifest widely different capacities for imbibing liquid water—capa-
cities mainly connected with their porosity. Obviously too, the
quantity of liquid in a given volume of soil affects not only the
rapidity, but also the duration of evaporation. bea
The following tables by Schiibler illustrate the peculiarities of dif-
ferent soils in these respects. The first column gives the per cents of
water absorbed by the completely dry soil. In these experiments the
soils were thoroughly wet with water, the excess allowed to drip off,
and the increase of weight determined. In the second column are
given the per cents of water that evaporated during the space of one
hour from the saturated soil spread over a given surface:
Quartz sand sielielietiotel sirsiejielehelclie/leie lee) isiteilelelaile/.e)l <lie/elelelielisiielenetene 95 88.4
Gypsum Rete aoa It eowerodseheia ton ie) aneiaons ercoxeveliouelieh ai eievon oleae sreleders OT Tie
ANNE EBINOld 64agloo bo bous Con 6 GUUS con ouD sooo SuonUs 299 75.9
Slaty IVAN lioMoto lay stellar e ers: iiegehe: « ; oe shisllislieheielile)iohelfehlelieve eehohelielene me Bate
Clay soil, (sixty per cent. clay,)-----++++++ sees eeeee :
iene pease So G6 Bo Ooo Teer ca, i BY ies 51 45.7
Plomen Vande oss ok coches reece eee 52 ~—s«:882.0
Heavy clay, (eighty per cent. clay,)- +--+ ++++++e+-ee- 61 34.9
Pure gray clay 5 OOOO GOGO UOb.O ONO U OUG.0 COOSOd GID OO bGOC 70 31.9
HN OECATDOMATGMO ET MLLINIG Tolle. siasieie stirs, eile lo lake relloliot olla gemete!suel) seicee 85 28.0
‘oanclerm: miowliGl a aoloo cooobe OCGuOor oD COU MoCo oUD ddooDe 89 94.3
lSkigTTIER oOo Glo to olGts Cade 000,00.C1080.00.0 doo BOIS OID OSE Gude 181 95.5
Fine carbonate of magnesia-.+++++ sees seers cece eee 256 10.8
It is obvious that these two columns express nearly the same thing
in different ways. The amount of water retained increases from quartz
sand to magnesia. The rapidity of drying in the air, diminishes in the
same direction.
The want of retentive power for water in the case of coarse sand is
undeniably one of the chief reasons of its unfruitfulness. The best
soils possess a medium retentive power. In them, therefore, are best
united the conditions for the regular distribution of the soil-water under
all circumstances. In them this process is not hindered too much either
by wet or dry weather. The retaining power of humus is seen to be
more than double that of clay. This result might appear at first sight
to be in contradiction to ordinary observations, for we are accustomed
to see water standing on the surface of clay but not on humus. It
must be borne in mind that clay, from its imperviousness, holds water
like a vessel, the water remaining apparent; but humus retains it
invisibly, its action being nearly like that of a sponge.
One chief cause of the value of a layer of humus on the surface of
the soil doubtless consists in this great retaining power for water, and
the success that has attended the practice of green manuring, as a
means of renovating almost worthless shifting sands, is in a great
degree to be attributed to this cause. The advantages of mulching
are explained in the same way.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 159
The relations of the soil to heat are of the utmost importance in
affecting its fertility. The distribution of plants in general, is deter-
mined by differences of mean temperature. In the same climate and
locality, however, we find the farmer distinguishing between cold
and warm soils.
The temperature of the soil varies to a certain depth with that of
the air; yet its changes occur more slowly, are confined to a narrower
range of temperature, and diminish downward in rapidity and amount,
until at a certain depth a point is reached where the temperature is
invariable.
In summer the temperature of the soil is higher in day time than
that of the air; at night the temperature of the surface rapidly falls,
especially when the sky is clear.
In temperate climates, at a depth of three feet, the temperature
remains unchanged from day to night; at a depth of 20 feet the an-
nual temperature varies but a degree or two; at 75 feet below the
surface, the thermometer remains perfectly stationary. In the vaults
of the Paris Observatory, 80 feet deep, the temperature is 50° Fah-
renheit. In tropical regions the point of nearly unvarying tempera-
ture is reached at a depth of one foot.
The mean annual temperature of the soil is the same as, or in higher
latitudes a degree above, that of the air. The nature and position
of the soil must considerably influence its temperature.
The sources of that heat which is found in the soil are two, viz:
first, an internal one, the chemical process of oxydation or decay;
second, an external one, the rays of the sun.
The heat evolved by the decay of organic matters is not inconsid-
erable in porous soils containing much vegetable remains; but this
decay cannot proceed rapidly until the external temperature has
reached a point favorable to vegetation, and therefore this source of
heat probably has no appreciable effect one way or the other on the
welfare of the plant. The warmth of the soil, so far as it favors ve-
getable growth, appears then to depend exclusively on the heat of
the sun.
The earth has within itself a source of heat, which maintains its
interior at a high temperature; but which escapes so rapidly from the
surface that the soil would be constantly frozen but for the external
supply of heat from the sun.
The direct rays of the sun are the immediate cause of the warmth of
the earth’s surface. The temperature of the soil near the surface
changes progressively with the season; but at a certain depth the
loss from the interior and the gain from the sun compensate each
other, and, as has been previously mentioned, the temperature remains
unchanged throughout the year.
During a summer day the heat of the sun reaches the earth
directly, and it is absorbed by the soil and the solid objects on its
surface, and also by the air and water. But these different bodies,
and also the different kinds of soil, have very different ability to ab-
sorb or become warmed by the sun’s heat. Air and water are almost
incapable of being warmed by heat applied above them. Through
160 LECTURES ON
the air especially, heat radiates without being scarcely absorbed.
The soil and solid bodies become warmed according to their individ-
ual capacity, and from them the air receives the heat which warms
it. Ftom the moist surface of the soil goes on a rapid evaporation,
which renders latent* a large amount of heat, so that the tempera-
ture of the soil is not rapidly but gradually elevated. The ascent of
water from the sub-soil to supply the place of that evaporated goes
on as before described. The liquid water of the soil has combined
with (rendered latent) a vast amount of heat therefrom, and passed as
gaseous water (vapor) into the air. Whenthe sun declines, the process
diminishes in intensity, and when it sets, the reverse takes place.
The heat that had accumulated on the surface of the earth radiates
into the cooler atmosphere and planetary space, the temperature of
the surface rapidly diminishes, and the air itself becomes cooler by
convection.t As the cooling goes on, the vapor suspended in the at-
mosphere begins to condense upon cool objects, while its latent heat
becoming free hinders the too sudden reduction of temperature. The
condensed water collects in drops—it is dew; or in the colder seasons
it crystallizes as hoar-frost.
The special nature of the surface of the soil is closely connected
with the maintenance of a uniform temperature, with the prevention
% When a piece of ice is placed in a vessel whose temperature is increasing, by means of
a lamp, at the rate of one degree of the thermometer every minute, it will be found that
the temperature of the ice rises until it attains 32°. When this point is reached, it be-
gins to melt, but does not suddenly become fluid: the melting goes on very gradually. A
thermometer placed in the water remains constantly at 32° so long as a fragment of ice
is present. ‘The moment the ice disappears, the temperature begins to rise again, at
the rate of one degree per minute. The time during which the temperature of the ice
and water remains at 32° is 140 minutes. During each of these minutes one degree of
heat enters the mixture, but is not indicated by the thermometer—the mercury remains
stationary; 140° of heat have thus passed into the ice and become hidden, Jatent; at the same
time the solid ice has become liquid water. The difference, then, between ice and water
consists in the heat that is latent in the latter. If we now proceed with the above experi-
ment, allowing the heat to increase with the same rapidity, we find that the temperature
of the water rises constantly for 180 minutes. The thermometer then indicates a temper-
ature of 212, (32-+180,) and the water boils. Proceeding with the experiment, the water
evaporates away, but the thermometer continues stationary so long as any liquid remains.
After the lapse of 972 minutes, it is completely evaporated. Water in becoming steam
renders, therefore, still another portion, 972°, of heat latent. The heat latent in steam is
indispensable to the existence of the latter. If this heat be removed by bringing the
steam into a cold space, water is reproduced. If, by means of pressure or cold, steam be
condensed, the heat originally latent in it becomes sensible, free, and capable of affecting
the thermometer. If, also, water be converted into ice, as much heat is evolved and made
sensible as was absorbed and made latent. It is seen thus that the processes of liquefac-
tion and vaporization are cooling processes; for the heat rendered latent by them must be
derived from surrounding objects, and thus these become cooled. On the contrary, solidi-
fication, freezing, and vapor-condensation are warming processes, since in them large quan-
tities of heat cease to be latent and are made sensible, thus warming surrounding bodies.
+ Though liquids and gases are almost perfect non-conductors of heat, yet it can diffuse
through them rapidly, if advantage be taken of the fact that by heating they expand and
therefore become specifically lighter. If heat be applied to the upper surface of liquids or
gases, they remain for a long time nearly unaffected; if it be applied beneath them, the lower
layers of particles become heated and rise, their place is supplied by others, and so currents
upward and downward are established, whereby the heat is rapidly and uniformly distrib-
uted. This process of convection can rarely have any influence in the soil. What we have
stated concerning it shows, however, in what way the atmosphere may constantly act in
removing heat from the surface of the soil.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, 161
of too great heat by day and cold by night, and with the watering or
vegetation by means of dew. It is, however, in many cases only for
a little space after seed-time that the soil is greatly concerned in
these processes. So soon as it becomes covered with vegetation the
character of the latter determines to a certain degree the nature of
the atmospheric changes. In case of many crops the soil is but par-
tially covered, and its peculiarities are then of direct influence on the
vegetation it bears. Among these qualities the following may be
noticed: ,
1. The color of the soil.—It is usually stated that black or dark co-
lored soils are sooner warmed by the sun’s rays than those of lighter
color, and remain constantly of a higher temperature so long as the
sun acts on them. An elevation of several degrees in the tempera-
ture of a light colored soil may be caused by strewing its surface
with peat, charcoal powder, or vegetable mould. To this influence may
be partly ascribed the following facts. Lampadius was able to ripen
melons even in the coolest summers in Friberg, Saxony, by strewing
a coating of coal dust an inch deep over the surface of the soil. In
Belgium and on the Rhine, it is found that the grape matures best
when the soil is covered with fragments of black clay slate. Girar-
din found in a series of experiments on the cultivation of potatoes,
that the time of their ripening varied eight to fourteen days, accord-
ing to the color of the soil. He found on August 25th, in a very dark
humus soil, twenty-six varieties ripe; in sandy soil, twenty; in clay,
nineteen; and in white lime soil, only sixteen. It is not difficult to
assign other causes that will account in part for the results here men-
tioned; and although it has been observed that dark soils range from
three to eight degrees higher in temperature than contiguous soils
having a lighter color, it is not to color so much as to other qualities
that the soil owes its peculiar temperature, as is proved by the recent
observations of Malaguti and Durocher. They found that the tem-
perature of a garden soil, just below the surface, was on the average
6° Fahrenheit higher than that of the air, but that this higher tem-
perature diminished at a greater depth.. A thermometer buried four
inches indicated a mean temperature only 3° above that of the atmos-
phere. Besides the garden earth, just mentioned, which had a dark
gray color, and was a mixture of sand and gravel containing but little
clay, with about five per cent. humus, the thermometric characters
of the following soils were observed, viz: a grayish-white quartz
sand; a grayish-brown granite sand; a fine light-gray clay (pipe clay;)
a yellow sandy clay; and, finally, four lime soils of different physical
qualities.
It was found that when the exposure was alike, the dark-gray
granite sand became the warmest, and next to this the grayish-white
quartz sand. ‘The latter, notwithstanding its lighter color, often ac-
quired a higher temperature when at a depth of four inches than the
former, a fact to be ascribed to its better conducting power. The
black soils never became so warm as the two just mentioned, demon-
strating that color does not influence the absorption of heat so much
as other qualities. After the black soils, the others came in the fol-
va
162 LECTURES ON
lowing order: Garden soil; yellow sandy clay; pipe clay; lime soils
having crystalline grains; and, lastly, a pulverulent chalk soil.
To show what different degrees of warmth soils may acquire, under
the same circumstances, the following maximum temperatures may be
adduced: At noon of a July day, when the temperature of the air
was 90°, a thermometer placed at a depth of a little more than one
inch, gave these results: .
In quartz AT Glen aie: o's isi st steve allel allele’ s elfelic!'s s ekalle) of elicteicl cl clay coc eilieiens oo 126°
In crystalline lihancGiuba Sebad od odiaid WG oon bo oo ODad DOI Codd oUC 115°
In garden RO kwco bo OUOn Obed Dodo DOC KO OoOd ooo BbIoe B65 a croc 114°
In yellow sandy Clay: + -+++ sere ee ee eee cece eee eee eee 100°
In pipe clay: +--+ sete eect tee te eee eee e eee ee ee AO
lige Send itarsoy hocks CRBS Oo CU OUGnOIS Olds iotnbio ls can cue bagioioiG Hignoie Glo oa Jo)
Here we observe a difference of nearly 40° in the temperature of
the coarse quartz and the chalk soil. The experimenters do not men-
tion the influence of water in affecting these results; they do not state
the degree of dryness of these soils. It will be seen, however, that
‘the warmest soils are those that retain least water, and doubtless
something of the slowness with which the fine soils increase in warmth
is connected with the fact that they retain much water, which, in
evaporating, appropriates and renders latent a large quantity of heat.
The chalk soil is seen to be the coolest of all, its temperature in
these observations being three degrees lower than that of the atmos-
phere at noon day. In hot climates this coolness is sometimes of great
advantage as appears to happen in Spain, near Cadiz, where the
Sherry vineyards flourish. ‘‘The Don said the Sherry wine district
was very small, not more than twelve miles square. The sherry grape
grew only on certain low chalky hills where the earth being light-
colored, is not so much burnt; did not chap and split so much by the
sun as darker and heavier soils do. A mile beyond these hills the
grape deteriorates.’’ —(Dickens’ Household Words, November 13, 1858.)
In explanation of these observations we must recall to mind the fact
that all bodies are capable of absorbing and radiating as well as
reflecting heat. These properties, although never disassociated from
color, are not necessarily dependent upon it. They chiefly depend
upon the character of the surface of bodies. Smooth polished sur-
faces absorb and radiate heat least readily ; they reflect it most per-
fectly. Radiation and absorption are opposed to each other, and the
power of any body to radiate is precisely equal to its faculty of absorb-
ing heat. It must be understood, however, that bodies may differ in
their power of absorbing or radiating heat of different degrees of intensity.
Lampblack absorbs and radiates heat of all intensities in the same
degree. White lead absorbs heat of low intensity (such as radiates
from a vessel filled with boiling water) as fully as lampblack, but of
the intense heat of a lamp it absorbs only about one-half as much.
Snow seems to resemble white-lead in this respect. If a black cloth
or black paper be spread on the surface of snow, upon which thé sun
is shining, it will melt much faster under the cloth than elsewhere,
and this too if the cloth be not in contact with, but suspended above
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 163
the snow. In our latitude every one has had opportunity to observe
that snow thaws most rapidly when covered by or lying on black
earth. The reason is that snow absorbs heat of low intensity with
greatest facility. The heat of the sun is converted from a high to a
low intensity by being absorbed and then radiated by the black mate-
rial. But it is not color that deteymines this difference of absorptive
Power, for indigo and Prussian blife, though of nearly the same color,
have very different absorptive powers. So far, however, as our
observations extend, it appears that usually, dark colored soils absorb
heat most rapidly, and that the sun’s rays have least effect on light
colored soils.
2. The degree of moisture present is of great influence on the tem-
perature of the soil. All soils when thoroughly wet seem to be nearly
alike in their power of absorbing and retaining warmth. The vast
quantity of heat needful to gratify the demand of the vapor that is
constantly forming, explains this. From this cause the difference in
temperature between dry and wet soil may often amount from 10° to 18°.
According to the observation of Dickinson, made at Abbot’s Hill,
Hertfordshire, England, and continued through eight years, 90 per
cent. of the water falling between April Ist and October Ist, evapo-
rates from the surface of the soil, only 10 per cent. finding its way into
drains laid three and four feet deep. The total quantity of water that
fell during this time, amounted to about 2,900,000 lbs. per acre; of
this more than 2,600,000 evaporated from the surface. It has been
calculated that to evaporate-artificially this enormous mass of water,
more than seventy-five tons of coal must be consumed.
Thorough draining, by loosening the soil and causing a rapid re-
moval from below of the surplus water, has a most decided influence,
especially in spring time, in warming the soil and bringing it into a
suitable condition for the support of vegetation.
It is plain then that even if we knew with accuracy what are the
physical characters of a surface soil, and if we were able to estimate
correctly the influence of these characters on its fertility, still we must
investigate those circumstances which affect its wetness or dryness,
whether they be an impervious sub-soil, or springs coming to the sur-
face, or the amount and frequency of rain-falls, taken in connexion
with other meteorological causes. We cannot decide that a clay is
too wet or a sand too dry, until we know its situation and the climate
it is subjected to.
The great deserts of the globe do not owe their barrenness to neces-
sary poverty of soil, but to meteorological influences—to the continued
prevalence of parching winds, and the absence of mountains to con-
dense the atmospheric water and establish a system of rivers and
streams. This is not the place to enter into a discussion of the causes
that may determine or modify climate, but to illustrate the effect that
may be produced by means within human control, it may be stated that
previous to the year 1821, the French district Provence was a fertile
and well-watered region. In 1822, the olive trees which were largely
cultivated there were injured by frost, and the inhabitants began to
cut them up root and branch. This amounted to clearing off a forest,
164 LECTURES ON
and in consequence the streams dried up, and the productiveness of
the country was seriously diminished.
3. The angle at which the sun’s rays strike a soil is of great influence
on its temperature. The more this approaches a right angle the
greater the heating effect. In the latitude of England the sun’s heat
acts most powerfully on surfaces having a southern exposure, and
which are inclined at an angle of @6° and 30°. The best vineyards
of the Rhine and Neckar are also on hill-sides, so situated. In Lap-
land and Spitzbergen the southern side of hills are often seen covered
with vegetation, while lasting or even perpetual snow lies on their
northern inclinations.
4. The influence of a wall or other reflecting surface upon the warmth
of a soil lying to the south of. it, was observed in the case of garden
soil by Malaguti and Durocher. The highest temperature indicated
by a thermometer placed in this soil at a distance of six inches from
the wall, during a series of observations lasting seven days, (April,
1852,) was 32° Fahrenheit higher at the surface, and 18° higher at a
depth of four inches than in the same soil on the north side of the
wall. The average temperature of the former during this time was
8° higher than that of the latter.
In the Rhine district grape vines are kept low and as near the soil
as possible, so that the heat of the sun be reflected back upon them
from the ground, and the ripening is then carried through the nights
by the heat radiated from the earth.—(Jowrnal Highland and Agricul-
tural Society, July 1858, p. 347.)
5. Malaguti and Durocher also studied the effect of a sod on the
temperature of the soil. They observed that it hindered the warm-
ing of the soil, and indeed to about the same extent as a layer of earth
of three inches depth. Thusa thermometer four inches deep in green-
sward acquires the same temperature as one seven inches deep in the
same soil not grassed.
It is to be remembered that the soils that warm most quickly, also
cool correspondingly fast, and thus are subjected to the most exten-
sive and rapid changes of temperature. The greensward which
warms slowly, retains its warmth most tenaciously, and the sands that
become hottest at noon-day, are coldest at midnight.
Of no little practical importance is the shrinking of soils on drying.—
This shrinking is of course offset by an increase of bulk when the
soil becomes wet. In variable weather we have therefore constant
changes of volume occurring. Soils rich in humus experience these
changes to the greatest degree. The surfaces of moors often rise and
fall with the wet or dry season, through a space of several inches.
In ordinary light soils containing but little humus no change of bulk
is evident. Otherwise, it is in clay soils that shrinking is most per-
ceptible; since these soils only dry superficially they do not appear
to settle much, but become full of cracks and rifts. Heavy clays may
lose one-tenth or more of their volume on drying, and since at the
same time they harden about the rootlets which are imbedded in them,
it is plain that these indispensable organs of the plant must thereby
e ruptured during the protracted dry weather. Sand, on the other
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 165
hand, does not change its bulk by wetting or drying, and when present
to a considerable extent in the soil, its particles being interposed be-
tween those of the clay, prevent the adhesion of the latter, so that,
although a sandy loam shrinks not inconsiderably on drying, yet the
lines of separation are vastly more numerous and less wide than in
purer clays. Such a soil does not ‘‘cake,’’ but remains friable and
powdery.
Marly soils (containing carbonate of lime) are especially prone to
fall to a fine powder during drying, since the carbonate of lime, which
like sand, shrinks very little, is itself in a state of extreme division,
and therefore more effectually separates the clayey particles. The
unequal shrinking of these two intimately mixed ingredients accom-
plishes a perfect pulverization of such soils. Professor Wolff, of the
Academy of Agriculture, at Hohenheim, Wirtemberg, states that on
the cold heavy soils of Upper Lusatia, in Germany, the application
of lime has been attended with excellent results, and he thinks that
the larger share of the benefit is to be accounted for by the improve-
ment in the texture of those soils which follows liming. The car-
bonate of lime is considerably soluble in water charged with carbonic
acid, as is the water of a soil containing vegetable matter, and this
agency of distribution in connection with the mechanical operations
of tillage, must in a short time effect an intimate mixture of the lime
with the whole soil. A tenacious clay is thus by a heavy liming
made to approach the condition of a friable marl.
We may give a moment’s notice to the cohesiveness of the soil.—
A soil is said to be heavy or light, not as it weighs more or less, but
as it is easy or diflicult to work. The state of dryness has great influ-
ence on this quality. Sand, lime, and humus have very little cohesion
when dry, but considerable when wet. Soils in which they pre-
dominate are usually easy to work. But clay has entirely different
characters, and upon them almost exclusively depends the tenacity
of a soil. Dry clay, when powdered, has hardly more consist-
ence than sand, but when thoroughly moistened its particles adhere
together to a soft and plastic, but tenacious mass; and in drying
away, at a certain point it becomes very hard, and requires a good
deal of force to penetrate it. In this condition it offers great resist-
ance to the instruments used in tillage, and when thrown up by the
plough it forms lumps which require repeated harrowings to break
them down. Since the cohesiveness of the soil depends so greatly
upon the quantity of water contained in it, it follows that thorough
draining, combined with deep tillage, whereby sooner or later the
stiffest clays become readily permeable to water, must have the best
effects in making such soils easy to work.
The English practice of burning clays speedily accomplishes the
same purpose. When clay is burned and then crushed the particles
no longer adhere tenaciously together on moistening, and the mass
does not acquire again the unctuous plasticity peculiar to unburned
. Clay.
Mixing sand with clay, or incorporating vegetable matter with it,
166 LECTURES ON
serves to separate the particles from each other, and thus remedies
too great cohesiveness.
When water freezes its volume increases, as 1s well known. The
alternate freezing and thawing of the water which impregnates the
soil during the colder part of the year plays thus an important part
in overcoming its cohesion. The. effect is mostly apparent in the
spring, immediately after ‘‘the frost leaves the ground,’’ but is
usually not durable, the soil recovering its former consistence by the
operations of tillage. Fall-ploughing of stiff soils has been recom-
mended, in order to expose them to the disintegrating effects of
frost.
In turning now to the chemical characters of the soil, we have
first to notice its composition. It being understood that the soil is
the exclusive source of mineral food to the plant, we of course expect
to find all the ingredients of the ash of plants in every soil that is
able to maintain vegetation. Great differences however, are found
to exist in the proportions, and especially in the condition as regards
solubility of these matters, as seen from the following analyses:
Ist. Analysis of a productive wheat soil (clay) from Renfrewshire,
Scotland, by Dr. Anderson:
Cage ise Sl, CRT AY 0.0231
Teer eee Se a a 4, 0.0475
Chlorid of calcium .-...-+....e.--- 0.0205
Chlorid of magnesium.---+.-..+++- 0.0061
Chlorid of potassium.-.-.-+-++.++. 0.0003
Chiorid of sodium.+.- 5.5... 0-.- "O20015
Sulphuric EW OIG Gr SCRE RIOR MACON SLO CRcMEREtC 0.0309
Organic TVA EST oreo rere Cle a aeliene ten tereere 0.2084
0.3373
Soluble in actd—
SUG area ac ue teers ay cuca ewes ania ls Me geniclaay eatye 0.0838
PAN aimmatineasetchercteuene ddrects Makan wiie, athomenheet eeewe 1.6104
Peroxyd of iron----.-.- sess eee, 3.4676
Palanan Alten ee ea 8 oo Bn RE PE ciate 3 1.0771
Magnesia BS Oe Sy SOO ene eee ey OTe 0.1262
IBotashecs-scpechui se Geel hie eee 0.0469
SO eiraneysesieie ds cae yekte oR p ano Ae eR orto 0.0920
Sulplrumie ta cideiess-naei-! 9h<p-/ane en eae 0.0039
Phosphoric acid....-....+--+.-.-- 0.0749
————— §, 5828
Insoluble in acids—
Silncameaee ees! Op as ae 74.4890
WATT aeeeteetne vk erate te ele ce oteeeena 7.2540
MOTOR VGUGE ATOM «16 sj. eats ees. chores 1.4167
Mitek. Sees OI ee a 0.3150
Magnesia CMAs ibenelis ss ou ateWs wicevia ere ean ee 0.4043
: 83.8790
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 167
Organic matter— e
Insoluble organic matter---------- 6.1209.
aA sa CiGlsle's wie sare chosceterens hs in | hea
Apocrenic acid++-. +--+ ++++++-++++ 0.1280
ENGI Ch OIC booth Cncl GO Gnord oicln-Sko: cites citar RCI Oe
Way ieied da 5. OCU NO O10 Ooo, pag rod vl 2.0930
9.2471
99.9462
Amount of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in 100 parts
of soil—
Garb OMiieiectel'slecotelesetols ciewe as! ketamine 3.1400
Oxygen a's 6 Sal. suey st ode Jevloiaiiee sbetolio te palseeronetenade te 3.5060
Nitrogen aaa aire oat sineke caneatotate ereate 0.1428
Hydrogen Sie Si bh let eteuel ion sheveu or ewerclede we Rater ene 0.4200
2d. Analysis, by the writer, of sterile soil from the upper Palati-
nate, Bavaria— :
\WGhetRG Go Gb 6 OID G Oo 6000 Cobo do door 0.535
Organic WATLOL taicte/cetoharereceternere RAN 1.850
ST SONAR MIN RTE Sey i UNUM aN! hae 0.016
Oxyd of iron and alumina-------.. 1.640
| RA eat Mam PPR! Vib k aen chant 0.096
Magnesias--++- +++ seer eee ab trace.
OarboniGraclaieios cho cickoWenoleneratesisienerete trace.
Phosphoric acid-+-+.+ +++. sees ees - trace.
Glalkerancvsecroris Gio een onl ODM ole ooo trace.
/\ilrea iene vee seapicionG Gis 6, Ioiaeimou So uw none.
Quartz and insoluble silicates...--- 95.863
100.000
In fertile soils there is always to be found a quantity of fixed min-
eral as well as organic matters that are soluble in pure water. In
the wheat soil this quantity amounted to but three parts in 1,000, and
in this Dr. Anderson found no phosphoric acid and no oxyd of iron,
although all the other mineral ingredients of plants were present.
In the sterile soil nothing weighable, when, as was the case, but a
small sample was operated on, could be separated by water alone,
but as even this soil supported some vegetation—the whortleberry and
various grasses as well as lichens, all the minerals found in vegeta-
tion might have been detected by exhausting a sufficiently large
quantity. In the fertile soil is found a larger amount of matters solu-
ble in acid, in the above instance six and a half per cent.; and here
the analyst had no difficulty in finding all the mineral food of vegeta-
tion. In the sterile soil but little more than four per cent. of matters
were dissolyed by acids, and in this phosphoric acid and alkalies
were not present in appreciable quantity. Finally, the larger share
of the soilin both cases resists the solvent action of acids nearly
altogether.
168 LECTURES ON
The portion soluble in water represents*the presently available
stock of plant food in the soil. As already intimated, plants receive
their nutriment either as gas or as liquid. The fixed mineral matters
of the soil are taken up by the plant from solution in water. If we
examine the soil with sufficient care, we do not fail to find everything
in it in a soluble state that is needed by vegetation.
Quite recently, Grouven and Stéckhardt have given renewed proof
of this statement. Below is a tabular view of the matters found by
these chemists in three soils—one poor, the others very productive:
Grouven. Stockhardt.
1,000 parts of soil yielded to
water. Poor Rich Very rich clover
sandy soil, from | garden soil, from soil, from St.
Bickendorf. Heidelberg. Martin, Tyrol.
Carbonic acid.....--.-.------- 0. 0920 OPTLOL Sy) PR 1s courant
Silicapese+ceee reese eceeesses= 0. 1992 0. 384 0. 110
Sulphuriclacidieeesse-- eee se 0. 0152 0. 009 - 0.055
Chlorine 3. ee eseec cee onese es 0. 0007 0.015 0. 012
Phosphoriciacidesseseeaseemieeee trace. 0.014 | 0. 021
Oxydlof iron Sacco ecee anes OOO Feely taping mes t 0. 052
lamina ee ees eee cee cee ONOOSi em eee ¥
Lime ene eae aes See 0. 0840 0. 234 0. 182
Mapnesia- ioc ccestenicesiciscinatec 0. 0062 * 0.016 0. 020
Potashe-camecccensnam ees ceee 0. 0050 0. 069 0.131
Soda esse seetescccee ces osse 0. 0357 0. 046 0. 083
Organic matter containing nitric
ee en cou t 0. 1010 0. 306 0. 530
Nitrogenase sets emacs ee cel eile gey o nieeision Pbalwee ® aakemtes 0. 160
0.529 1. 156 1, 356
That portion which comes into solution only by the use of strong
acids represents the reserve forces of the soil. Here we find stores
of plant food, which, under natural agencies, require many years to
become fully available to vegetation; but which are, nevertheless,
constantly, though very slowly, contributing to the fertility of the
soil. The least soluble matters, again, do not wholly escape slow
alteration and partial solution, and, as analyses show, often contain
alkalies, lime, &c.
As to the solubility of the food of the plant in water, it may be
remarked that while the analyses quoted sufficiently demonstrate the
general fact, science enables us to comprehend, to some extent, the
detail of the processes which bring about this result. The chemist
is in the habit of considering certain bodies, viz: silica, oxide of iron,
and phosphate of iron or phosphoric acid in presence of oxide of iron,
as absolutely insoluble, and under most circumstances’ they are so, in
pure water, when alone. But in presence of other bodies, especially
when the mixture is so complicated as in the soil, they manifest
a very different action. Many bodies which do not yield to the
solvent action of pure water are very perceptibily taken up by car-
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 169
bonated water, (i. e., water saturated with carbonic acid.) Thus, to
use a well-known instance, carbonate of lime is as good as insoluble
in pure water, but in carbonated water it dissolves quite readily.
Salts of ammonia dissolve phosphate of lime to a very appreciable
extent, as has long been known, and as Liebig has recently shown by
quantitative trials. Silica is not absent from natural waters, although
the conditions of its solution are not well understood. The chemist
has succeeded in preparing strong solutions of silica in pure water,
artificially, and the so-called infusoria of all fresh water streams,
which sometimes have accumulated to form beds of many miles in ex-
tent and many feet in depth, are but the silicious skeletons of micro-
scopic vegetable organisms that collected their silica from the clearest
and purest water. Phosphate of iron is soluble, or at least yields its
phosphoric acid, under the conjoint action of carbonate or silicate of
lime and carbonated water. Sulphate of baryta, even, is decomposed
in the soil, and yields its sulphuric acid to a growing plant.
Allusion has already been made to the importance of those matters
which, originally belonging to the atmosphere, have become a portion
of the soil.
Pulverized rocks do not constitute a good soil until they have be-
come weathered—4. e., chemically decomposed, so as to contain a
portion of soluble matters, and also acquire a certain content of car-
bon and nitrogen. - It happens that these two effects are conjointly
brought about. The neighborhood of a volcano affords opportunity
for tracing the formation of a fertile soil in a manner analogous
to, or identical with what occured over all the land before the
human epoch. The lava that lies on the slopes or fills the con-
tiguous valleys, once melted rock, remains after cooling, almost
bare for years. Then lichens begin to cover its surface. These
succeed each other for generations, slowly increasing in number
and size, hastening by their decay the disintegration of the rock,
and causing the accumulation of humus and nitrates. So the weath-
ering of the rock, the use and enrichment of the sparse soil, goes
on, perhaps, for centuries before the earth is deep and fertile
enough to produce low shrubs. After another similar period a forest
is formed, with a soil rich in all that is needed for agriculture, being
stored with the fixed minerals that have been detached or solved
from the original lava, and having gathered during these ages mate-
rials from the atmosphere to make up the complement of fertility.
We often see railroad cuttings through beds of gravel or clay which
perfectly resemble the adjacent productive soil, but which remain for
years perfectly naked and barren, and only after a long period of time
assume a state of tolerable fertility.
The humus of the fertile soil, as already stated, does not, perhaps,
act to much extent in directly feeding vegetation, although we have
no positive evidence against the assumption that it is thus useful in
some degree. It does, however, in many indirect ways contribute to
the welfare of the plant. Its influence on the physical characters of
the soil, its mediating agency in maintaining the proper consistency,
moisture, and warmth of the earth, has been already noticed. The
170 LECTURES ON
carbonic acid resulting from its ceaseless oxydation is of vast import-
ance, both as a supply of this form of plant food, in more ‘abundant
measure than the atmosphere alone could yield, and as the most pow-
erful means of maintaining the requisite store of solved saline and
earthy food in the soil.
The general statement that humus, or, in other words, condensed atmo-
spheric plant food, is needful in the soil, requires some qualification.
It is not essential to all, even, of the so-called higher orders of plants,
or, indeed, to all agricultural plants. The cactus has its home on
the most naked arid sands. Pines and firs flourish in soil equally
destitute of humus. Buckwheat commonly grows on light, poor soils;
and it is asserted that in Peru and Chili, maize prospers in soils free
from humus, if started by a little guano, and afterward supplied with
water. We may, however, safely assert, that in temperate climates,
for the usual course of crops, a soil to be productive, in a practical
sense, must either contain originally, or have added to it, nitrogen
and carbon in assimilable form. Natural growth, in soil, destitute of
atmospheric ingredients, either of those plants just mentioned, whose
proper habitat is such a soil, or of the grains and common agricul-
tural plants, is, other things being equal, invariably too slow for the
purposes of agriculture. Not, indeed, for all purposes of agricul-
ture, for in what is called agriculture many very inferior crops
are annually reaped; but for the general purposes of a culture which
seeks to be ina high degree remunerative, the telluric elements are
insufficient.
The same holds true of the atmospheric as of the earthy ingre-
acne of soil in respect of varying quantity and different assimila-
ility.
In the poorest sand, analysis reveals the presence of nitrogen,
often one hundred times as much as is needed by the largest grain
crop; while in good soil the quantity of this element may amount to
from one to two thousandths of the entire weight. Of this nitrogen,
a portion exists as ammonia, another as nitric acid, but another and
far larger share of it, is in a form that is insoluble in water and una-
vailable to the plant.
In a rich garden soil that had been cultivated for many years,
Boussingault found in 100 parts—
Nitrogen ohetohar erence caettenetetre 0.261
Ammonia -+-++ +++. 4+... 0.0022 Containing nitrogen ----0.00181
INIEGRCHACT stage er tree + oh soe 0.00034 Containing nitrogen ----0.00009
By actual trial with this soil, the same distinguished experimenter
found that only the small amount of nitrogen existing as ammonia
and nitric acid was of present use to vegetation; the remainder,
96-100 of the whole, being for the time quite inert.
The inert nitrogen appears to exist chiefly in the humus of the
soil, in a form analogous to that assumed by the same element in
bituminous or anthracite coal. It is, however, most probable not
utterly unassimilable; but, as the carbon and hydrogen which are
combined with it oxydize, it appears in the form of nitric acid,
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. ail
especially in presence of lime or alkalies, or perhaps under other
conditions as ammonia.
As to the amount of assimilable matters needful to constitute a
fertile soil, we have hardly any just notion, nor, indeed, can we easily
form one.
If we assume what is as yet not altogether warranted, the right
of distinguishing between the assimilable and non-assimilable parts
of the soil by the solvent action of carbonated water, we still en-
counter the variable influence of physical characters as affecting the
distribution of the plant-food, and above all, there stands in our way
the capital fact that as the growth of the plant is progressive, so are
its wants, and likewise those solving mediating agencies which supply
its food. So that we cannot, by observations made at any one mo-
ment, determine the value of ingredients which extend their action
over a considerable period of time.
The same soil may vary exceedingly at different times in its con-
tent of soluble matters, as analysis has proved. In the garden soil
above alluded to the content of nitric acid given is that found in
June; but Boussingault informs us that in the following September
the same earth contained near thirty times as much of this ingredient.
There is doubtless a rigorous reciprocal relation between the
quantities of soluble (assimilable) matters in the soil and the mass
of soil needed to feed a plant during the vegetative period.
The greater the proportion of soluble matters, the less volume of
earth is neeeded to sustain a given crop. In practice it is found that
each kind of plant requires a certain and pretty large quantity of
soil for its development. The farmer has his rules as to the space
which shall intervene between individual plants of wheat, of potatoes,
of maize, &c.; and in regions widely distant from each other these
rules, adopted as the best result of experience, are more or less
unlike, varying with climate, soil, and other circumstances. It is
found, also, that on a given soil nearly the same crop is obtained,
whether the plants be closer to, or farther from each other, within
certain limits. In case of fewer plants, each one is more vigorous,
and gives a larger return; while in the other instance, the smaller
individual yield is made up by the greater number of plants.
Boussingault, to whose numerous and admirable researches the
student of scientific agriculture must constantly make reference,
found by actual measurement that, according to the rules of garden
culture as practiced near Strasburg, a dwarf bean had at its disposition
65 pounds of soil; a potatoe plant, (hill?) 190 pounds; a tobacco
plant, 480 pounds; and a hop plant, 3,000 pounds.
In respect to chemical composition, we may assert that the absence
of several, or even of one essential form of plant-food, must stamp
a soil with utter infertility, no matter how abundant its other ingre-
dients may be. It is equally true that the absence of one ingredient
in assimilable condition must constitute:a soil barren and worthless.
We may likewise lay down the proposition that the deficiency, up to
to acertain point, of one or several substances in available form,
renders a soil infertile. On the other hand we cannot, with any
riz LECTURES ON
hope of success, undertake to show what is this certain potnt or
define the limits which, over-passed, make the soil unproductive.
It not unfrequently happens that the presence of noxious com-
pounds greatly injures an otherwise excellent soil. Soluble salts of
iron and alumina, especially the sulphates of these bases, are, so
far as we now know, the principal causes of this kind of mischief.
Some soils are formed from rocks that contain numerous grains and
larger masses of iron pyrites or sulphid of iron, which, exposed to
the weather, oxydize to sulphate of iron (copperas) and the solution
of this salt in a certain stage of concentration destroys the vegetable
tissues, and thereby renders the soil in which it exists unfavorable
to growth. Ina specimen of peat from Brooklyn, Conn., the writer
found a not inconsiderable quantity of sulphate of iron, and likewise
sulphate of alumina. Both these salts have a powerful decomposing
effect on the rootlets of plants.
The importance which attaches to the proper availability or solu-
bility of the nutriment in the soil leads at once to the inquiry, may
not the soluble matters be washed out and lost by rains, or may they
not accumulate in too great quantity ?
There are certain influences external to the soil, which, acting re-
ciprocally, tend to maintain in it a nearly constant content of soluble
matter. On the one hand the disintegration of the soil, the decay of
vegetation, rain, and dew, are perpetually enriching; while vegetable
growth, springs, and streams, (rain that has passed through the mould, )
and evaporation, are as continually wasting the soil. Since the mass
of soil is so great, and the most rapid and exhausting of these pro-
cesses operate so slowly, their effect is in general to leave the soil in
possession of the requisite small amount of soluble matters, and only
in exceptional cases can positive excess or deficiency occur.
In the soil itself we find, however, a remarkable property which
enables it to convert excess of soluble matters into an appropriate
quantity. and at the same time to store up this excess against what
might otherwise be a period of want. The soil has, in fact, a power
of regulating its supplies to vegetation, in a manner that was not
dreamed of but a decade since.
The fact has been already alluded to, in treating of the physical
characters of the soil, that it has a power of absorbing vapor of
water, and in general other gaseous bodies—a power shared by the
soil to more or less extent with all porous bodies.
Besides this purely physical quality, we find the soil to possess
another absorptive capacity, which, though not independent of phy-
sical conditions, appears to be chemical in its nature, that is, depends
upon the presence of certain kinds or combinations of matter.
Without this chemical absorption the other quality would be of
little avail in directly nutrifying the plant, because water alone is
capable of nullifying the latter, and at the same time performing any
office that it might appear to exercise in a much more effectual man-
ner. Ammonia has long been known to be taken up by the soil, and
to be retained init. Previous to the year 1850 it was supposed that
this gas underwent absorption by surface condensation, exerted by
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 1%
the more porous ingredients of the soil, namely, humus, oxyd of iron
and alumina; an agency which is exhibited most strikingly in case of
ammonia by charcoal, which, when freshly ignited, may absorb as
much as ninety times its bulk of this gas. The ammonia thus con-
densed is, however, easily removed. Water or exposure to moist
air at once displaces it, for it is only the absolutely dry charcoal that
absorbs ammonia. Common moist charcoal has no appreciable faculty
of this kind, its pores being already fully occupied, having satisfied
their absorptive power on vapor of water and the ingredients of the
atmosphere.
Liebig, reasoning from these facts, asserted in his ‘‘ Chemistry
applied to Agriculture and Physiology,’’ that ‘‘the ammonia absorbed
by clay or ferruginous oxyds is separated by every shower of rain
and conveyéd in solution to the soil.”’
The chemical absorption consists in the fixation and retention in
the soil of volatile or dissolved matters, by their entering into com-
paratively insoluble combinations. This fixation is not, however,
absolute, as we shall presently see.
Thompson and Way of England, in 1850, (see Journal Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England for that year,) first began to develope the
interesting facts which relate to this subject. Since the date of their
investigations Liebig, Voelcker, Henneberg & Stohmann, Eichhorn,
and Brustlein, have occupied themselves with its study.
The main facts are, briefly stated, as follows:
Free ammonia and lime, and their carbonates, are absorbed and
chemically retained by the organic acids, (humic, crenic, &c.,) the
ammonia in a non-volatile, but to some extent soluble form. Am-
monia is also absorbed by oxyd of iron and alumina, and held in a
non-volatile and very slightly soluble state.
Salts of ammonia, namely, sulphate hydrochlorate and nitrate, are
at once decomposed by the soil when their dilute solutions are agitated
with or filtered through it; the ammonia being retained, the acid re-
maining in solution united to lime. ~
The same salts of potash are likewise decomposed as above; the
potash being retained, the acids uniting with lime.
Salts of lime, in general, are not absorbed, especially when added
alone to the soil, or when the soil is rich in lime; but in several of
Voelcker’s experiments the liquor from a dung-heap containing a con-
siderable quantity of sulphate of lime lost this ingredient nearly or
entirely by filtration through a sandy soil, and at the same time the
amount of carbonate of lime in the solution was diminished.
Salts of soda and magnesia are also retained, though usually in a
less degree.
When solutions of phosphates and silicates of the alkalies are em-
ployed in these experiments, we find that the acids are also retained;
and from the trials of Voelcker already referred to, we have evidence
that sulphuric and hydrochloric acids are also liable to absorption.
In no instance has a fixation of nitric acid been observed.
According to Brustlein’s late researches, the retention of the bases
when employed in saline combinations cannot occur except in presence
of carbonate of lime. This view is, however, erroneous.
174 LECTURES ON
Way, after studying separately as far as possible the effect of each
ingredient of the soil without arriving at any satisfactory conclusion
as to the seat of this peculiar absorptive power, as a last resort inves-
tigated the relations of the silicates to saline solutions. Silicates con-
taining but one base he found ineffectual, and next had recourse to
compound silicates. He experimented then with feldspar, but found
that it was without action on solutions of ammonia salts, and hence
concluded that the powder of granitic rocks is not the agent of these
decompositions. Hisnextstepwasamoresuccessfulone. Heattempted
to imitate the compound silicates that may occur in the soil as products
of the weathering of rocks, such as most probably exist in all soils to
a greater or less degree. He artificially prepared silicates of alumina
with potash, soda, lime, and ammonia, respectively; and these he found
to possess the property of suffering decomposition in saline solutions,
with the mutual replacement (fixation) of isomorphous bases.
But it was reserved for Hichhorn, in 1858, to set forth in a true
light the action of the double alumina-silicates. This experimenter,
in cognizance of the fact that Way’s artificial silicates contained water
as an essential ingredient, was led to make trials with natural compounds
ofasimilarcharacter. Heselected for this purpose the zeolites, chaba-
zite, and natrolite, whose composition is given among those minerals
from which soils originate in the table on page 150. The chabazite
he employed was essentially a silicate of alumina, lime, and water.
The fine powder of this mineral being agitated and digested for some
days with hydrochlorates (chlorids*) of potash, soda, dilute solutions
of ammonia, lime, &c., fixed in the solid and nearly insoluble form a
portion of the basic ingredient of these salts, while the acid was found
in the solution combined with a quantity of lime equivalent to the
absorbed base. In one experiment the powdered chabazite was
digested for ten days with a dilute solution containing a known
amount of pure common salt. The mineral was then found to have a
composition, compared with that it originally possessed, as follows:
Composition of Chabazite.
re Before digestion After ¢ digestion
in solution of common salt. in solution of common salt.
aT Gen selec ici Biche Seat ohlT aR eed ens AT*44 48°31
ASIAN ese None ek 20°69 21-04
1 BEC oY 2” a SH Bi cakes mre nee oh teh Geen See 10°37 6°65
ADO GSA ea cio fey « <sho gel aoc 5'e ys rereeemoee oie 0°65 “ 0°64
Gis ch: SEV OR a dees iegeilidnat cs 0-42 5-40
ARGH Sip SGN SISO RIE plea ieee ere Rat 90.18 18°33
99°75 100.37
Comparing the two statements, we see that nearly one-half the lime
of the original mineral is replaced by soda. A loss of water also has
occurred. The solution separated from the mineral contained nothing
but soda, lime, and chlorine, and the latter in precisely its original
quantity.
PVR evans BORE: SUEDE 3S U7 pe) ea) 81 ly e Ee REESE RST Scs
«In chemistry the hydrochlorate of an oxzyd signifies the same as the chloride of a meal; thus
hydrochlorate of soda and chlorid or chloride of sodium mean the same thing.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 175
By acting on chabazite with dilute chlorid of ammonium for ten days
the mineral was altered, and contained 3°33 per cent. of ammonia.
Digested twenty-one days, the mineral yielded 6:94 per cent. of
ammonia, and also had lost water.
Hichhorn found that the artificial soda-chabazite re-exchanged soda
for lime when digested in a solution of chlorid of calcium; in solution
of chlorid of.potassium both soda and lime were separated from it and
replaced by potash. So, the ammonia-chabazite in solution of chlorid
of calcium exchanged ammonia for lime, and in solutions of chlorids of
potassium and sodium both ammonia and lime passed into the liquid.
The ammonia-chabazite in solution of sulphate of magnesia lost
ammonia but not lime, though doubtless the latter base would have
been found in the liquid had the digestion been continued longer.
It thus appears that in the case of chabazite all the protoxyd bases
may mutually replace each other, time being the only element of
differences in the exchanges.
In experimenting on natrolite, however, Hichhorn found that it was
not affected by solution of chlorid of calcium, owing perhaps to some
peculiarity in the constitution of this mineral, its soda being probably
more firmly combined than that of chabazite.
These valuable researches, though serving but as an introduction
to the study of a highly-complicated subject, present so close an
analogy to what is observed in case of the soil, no matter whether it
be fertile or barren, clay or sand, that we are fully warranted in
assuming the presence in all soils of hydrous double silicates which
determine the absorption and retention of potash, ammonia, &c., from
solutions of their salts.
As regards the fixation of the acids, we know that oxyd of iron and
alumina, as well as lime and magnesia under certain conditions, form
insoluble phosphates and silicates; we are also acquainted with an
insoluble chlorine compound, viz: chloro-phosphate of lime, which
occurs abundantly as the mineral apatite, while sulphuric acid forms
insoluble combinations with excess of peroxyd of iron anda lumina.
We know, however, no insoluble compounds of nitric acid with any of
the bases found in the soil, excepting oxyd of iron and alumina, and
these require a high temperature for their formation.
The fixation of the bases in the circumstances described, both in the
soil and with hydrated aluminous silicates, is influenced by a variety
of conditions, physical and chemical. The only points which further
require notice are: 1st. That an ordinary soil is capable of fixing a
vastly larger quantity of ammonia, potash, or phosphoric agid—the
three generally most rare, and therefore most precious forms of plant
food—than is ever likely to be brought into the soil either by natural
or artificial means. 2d. That the soil never completely removes any of
these bodies from even the most dilute solution. 3d. The soil which
has saturated itself from a solution of these bodies restores them again
slowly to pure water or to a weaker solution.
Way, Russell, and Liebig, from a partial apprehension of the nature
of this absorption, drew the premature inference that land plants do
not receive their food from solutions, but themselves attack and solve
176 LECTURES ON
the soil. In the light of the facts we have set forth, this view is not
for a moment admissible.
In seeking the means by which the dissolved matters of the soil
find entrance into the plant, we must have recourse to the same
agency which accounts for the imbibition of its gaseous food. Differ-
ent liquids or solutions of different solids in the same liquid, if capable
of mixture at all, exhibit the osmotic or diffusive tendency, which
has been considered in case of gases.
If a tall vessel be partly filled with salt and then completely with
water, the salt as it dissolves forms a solution much heavier than
pure water, which therefore tends to remain unmixed at the bottom
of the vessel. In fact it is easy to add the water so carefully that at
first no salt shall be perceptible by taste or otherwise near the surface.
In time, however, although every possible means of mechanical
admixture be perfectly avoided, the salt will diffuse into the pure
water until every portion of the liquid be uniform in composition.
Diffusion will take place equally well through porous membranes,
provided they are capable of being wetted by (have surface attraction
for) at least one of the liquids.
The apparatus shown in figure 14 is one commonly employed to
Fig. 14. illustrate the fact of liquid diffusion. The tube a
F is fastened to the neck of a bladder filled with brine,
solution of sugar, or other dense Jiquid, and the
latter is immersed in the water of the large vessel.
Immediately water passes inwardly to the brine
(endosmose) and salt passes outwardly to the water
(exosmose.) The endosmose being more rapid than
the exosmose, the brine shortly rises in the tube to
a considerable height.
The rapidity and even the direction of the osmose _
is greatly dependant on the nature of the membrane.
Alcohol and water diffuse into each other without
difficulty when brought into direct contact; if we
separate them by a bladder we find that water will
rapidly pass into the alcohol, but the reverse flow
will take place with great slowness, for the reason
that alcohol cannot wet the surface of this membrane.
On the other hand india-rubber is readily moistened
by alcohol but not by water; and if a thin sheet of
this substance be interposed between these liquids,
it will be seen that alcohol passes the membrane
into the water much more rapidly than water tra-
verses in the opposite direction.
Schacbt has made observations on the cell-mem-
brane of the Caulerpa prolifera, a plant presenting
———— single cells of sufficient size for ‘such purposes, and
fou that it admitted of all the phenomena of diffusion exactly as
manifested by other membranes.
The rootlets of a plant being immersed in the water (or moisture)
of the soil, act towards it as the bladder filled with brine in our
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. jr ed
figure. The liquids of the root-cells being of different composition
roue the soil-water, and the cell-membranes ‘admitting (having surface
attraction for) the soil-water, the latter with its contents penetrates
the cells, so long as difference of composition or want of equilibrium in
the surface attractions, either of the membrane for the liquid, or of
the dissolved matters for the solvent, exist. The diffusion goes on
from cell to cell in the same manner throughout the whole plant, as
long as any cause produces inequality in the toutual surface attractions
of any two of its ingredients, whether solid or liquid.
Since perpetual changes are progressing in every part of the grow-
ing vegetable organism, we have no difficulty in finding the causes
which keep up diffusion in or into the plant.
Let us suppose that in any cell there exists at the moment a liquid
containing in solution all the food of vegetation. If now carbonic
acid and water unite to form dextrin, and this solidifies in the shape
of starch or cellulose, there is foumed in this cell a vacuum which
disturbs the nee equilibrium of the whole plant, and determines
a movement towards this cell of carbonic acid from the leaf cells and
of water from the root cells to restore the same.
An atom of lime coming in contact with newly formed oxalic acid
combines with it to form an insoluble salt; the lime thus removed
from solution is at once replaced from an adjacent cell; this again
supplies itself from another in the direction of the soil, until the
extremity of a rootlet is reached, and here an atom passes in from
the soil water, this again to be replaced from the surrounding stores.
The vast amount of water that is removed by evaporation (the
attraction of dry air for water) from the foliage of vegetation is in
the same manner supplied from the soil, and it traverses in its upward
way all the cells of the plant. The supply of saline matters is
however partially or wholly independent of this ascending current of
water, for it must be very greatly checked in circumstances where
the atmosphere is saturated with moisture, as in a conservatory or
Wardian case, although here growth goes on with the greatest vigor.
It thus appears that whenever any chemical or physical change
occurs in the plant, we have the origin of a disturbance which may
set in motion the juices of the cells, the water, and dissolved matters
of the soil, and the gases of the atmosphere.
In this manner our cultivated plants are able to gather their food
from solutions like the water of springs and wells, or the aqueous
extract of soils, which are so dilute that but one part of potash or
phosphoric acid is present in one or even twenty thousand parts of
water. So, too, we may find in plants, substances which it is im-
possible to detect in the soil, and it is not a little interesting that
iodine, a substance largely employed in medicine and photography,
is almost entirely procured from the ashes of sea-weeds, although it
has never yet been detected with certainty in sea-water, even by
the use of methods that would enable the chemist to.find it, did it.
form but one part in a million.
12
178 LECTURES ON
LECTURE IV.
IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL BY TILLAGE, DRAINAGE, AMENDMENTS, AND
FERTILIZERS.
Having attempted to define at length the reasons of fertility in the
soil, we may appropriately recapitulate this part of our subject in
order to set in a clearer light the means of improvement.
1. A fertile soil must contain all the mineral matters (ash) of the
plant.
2. It must include a certain store of atmospheric ingredients, viz:
organic matters or their equivalents—ammonia or nitrates—in short,
some store of nitrogen, and usually of carbon.
3. It must contain these matters in an available or assimilable form,
i. €., ina certain degree of solubility in water, thus yielding them to
vegetation as rapidly as required.
4. The soil must be free from noxious substances.
5. Must possess favorable physical characters, be neither too porous
nor compact, neither too wet nor too dry; must afford a congenial
home and lodgment for the plant.
It is comparatively rare that these conditions are perfectly fulfilled
in nature, or if they exist in any given place at a certain time they
suffer disturbance after a longer or shorter period. Hence the ancient
and wide spread art of cultivation or improving the soil. Hence,
too, the immense practical importance of a scientific, 7. e., accurate
and complete understanding of the conditions of fertility and of the
means of communicating or restoring them.
The method of improvement, like the characters of the soil, fall
naturally into the two classes, mechanical or physical, and chemical.
The first class of improvement comprehends tillage, drainage, and
mixture.
In the second class is included whatever contributes to the nourish-
ing qualities of the soil, either by direct addition of the food of plants,
or of agents that collect, solve, or otherwise prepare this food, as
manures and amendments.
This division, though warranted for convenience of study, has no
practical existence, for the chemical and physical phenomena of
nature are always so intimately associated that their rigorous sepa-
ration 1s, In most cases, impossible.
In a very fertile soil it is only needful to deposit the seed in favor-
able circumstances as regards temperature and weather, and in due
time the harvest is ready. In such a soil there is a suflicient store
of plant food, and all the external conditions of rapid vegetable
growth. In the poorer soil, in most soils, in fact, there is some want
to be supplied, some improvement to be attempted. The first step
in meliorating the soil, the one almost universally indispensable even
in fertile soils, as a preparation for the seed and young plant—the
step always first made in practice and the one in general first required
by enlightened theory, is tillage.
Z AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 179
The operations of tillage, viz: spading, ploughing, harrowing, &c.,
have the mechanical effect to break up and admix the earth. They
convert the surface compacted by rain and sun into a loose and friable
mould suitable for the deposition of the seed and for the enlargement
of the roots of the young plant. Beyond this, these operations, “really,
though but to a slight extent, mechanically lessen the size and increase
the number of the e earthy particles.
It is chiefly the loosening of the earth and the consequent better
admission of water and air, which facilitate the disintegrating effect
of these atmospheric agents, whereby, as already explained, the rock
fragments are decomposed and dissolved with perpetual increase of
the stores of assimilable food.
Tillage likewise assists, in the same manner, in converting any
poisonous matters into innocuous or even salubrious forms. Soluble
salts of protoxyd of iron, which might accumulate in the deeper soil,
are, by exposure to oxygen, changed into insoluble and harmless com-
binations. E ixposure e of the soil by tillage to the atmosphere also has
the effect to increase the absorption of ammonia, and to hasten the
process of nitrification.
Finally, the circulation of water and the consequent distribution
of plant food, the removal of excessive moisture after rains, and the
absorption of water vapor after droughts, as well as the regulation
of the temperature of the soil, are promoted to a most advantageous
degree.
In that stage of agricultural which first follows upon pastoral or
migratory husbandry, the simplest modes of cultivation are the only
ones practiced ; the amount of tillage is small, just sufficient to prepare
way for the seed, and it is accomplished by the rudest implements.
With the progress of the arts, ploughing, harrowing, &c., are em-
ployed to a greater extent. The implements used in these operations
are improved in construction, and adapted to all varieties and situa-
tions of soil, so that they may be worked at a greater depth and more
frequently, as well as at a reduced cost.
A matter of great importance in tillage is to secure a proper depth
of soil. It is obvious that, other things being equal, the deeper the
soil the more space the roots of crops have in which to extend them-
selves, and the more food lies at their disposal. By deep culture new
farms are discovered beneath the old, and it is possible to realize the
apparent absurdity of ‘‘more land to the acre.’’
Deep culture is one of the most efficacious means of counteracting
drought, as we shall notice presently in discussing drainage.
Deep tillage is not, however, always practiced. The grain fields of
Germany, even in the most carefully tilled provinces, as Saxony, are
to this day mostly ploughed with rude wooden tools often not unlike
those figured in classical dictionaries as in vogue among the ancients,
which merely score up the soil to the depth of two, three, or rarely
four inches. In our country, which surpasses every other in the real
merit of its agricultural implements, and where the means of deep
tilth are in the hands of every farmer, tillage is notwithstanding
180 LECTURES ON
shallow im the main, and our agricultural journals are often occupied
with discussions as to the advantage or disadvantage of deep culture.
There are, indeed, some instances in which deep ploughing is in-
jurious, either permanently, or as most generally happens for a short
period. In the latter case the temporary injury most often turns out
to be a lasting benefit.
Where a thin surface soil of fair quality rests upon a gravel or other
leachy stratum, too cae ploughing may, so to speak, knock the
bottom out of the po . é., by breaking through into the open sub-
soil, may injure the vain capacity of the upper soil for water and
manures. In case ie sub-soil is of a ‘‘cold’’ ochery, noxious char-
acter, the bringing it to the surface may occasion detriment for the
time.
The plough is the instrument most extensively employed for tillage,
and the one to which recourse must be had whenever large fields are
to be broken up. In ordinary ploughing the soil is inverted, and ac-
cording to its texture more or less pulverized and mellowed to a depth
of from three to six inches. Trench ploughing consists in a similar in-
versing of the soil to a considerably greater depth, as far as one foot or
more, ‘and is practiced to advantage where the soil is good to this
depth, especially with the view of bringing up manures which are sup-
posed to descend and accumulate below. Sub-soil ploughing is intended
merely to break up and loosen the lower soil without bringing it to the
surface. The sub-soil plough is merely a narrow share or wedge that
follows the furrow of the common plough, and disturbs the ordinary
plough bed to the depth of several inches. Itse Senos ae is expen-
sive and less in vogue than it was a few years ago. It is mainly
useful where the sub-soil is with diflic ulty penetrable to water.
In garden culture, or even in field culture in certain countries, as
in parts of sae where labor is cheap, spading and forking are em-
ployed instead of ploughing, and with great advantages in heavy soils,
because the tread of beasts of draught is entirely avoided, and the
soil is much more throughly pulverized, intermixed and loosened up.
After ploughing and if need be cross- ploughing, the harrow,
scarifier or cultivator, some form of toothed implement, is drawn over
the field to accomplish a sufiiciently perfect comminution and levelling
of the surface for the seed-bed. On heavy clays which, especially
in wet weather, are thrown up by the plough in tenacious lumps that
further harden in the wind and sun, the clod crusher, a system of
toothed disks revolving at a little distance from each other on a com-
mon center, at right angles to the line of draught is employed.
On very light soils. the roller is used to make the earth more com-
pact, especially above the seed. 7
In late years a countless number of modifications and not a few
improvements in the implements and methods of tillage have been
suggested, and to a greater or less degree employed, in practical agri-
culture; but it is not the place here to enter further into details.
Tn seis localities, tillage may completely and profitably replace
all other means of improving the soil.
It is obvious that with each harvest there is removed from the soil
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 181
a quantity of potash, lime, phosphoric acid, and other fixed mineral
matters, and likewise more or less ammonia and nitric acid. With
every crop the field yields, its own stores of fertility are drawn upon,
and, in fact, lessened, and after a certain number of crops are gath-
ered, the available food of most soils is so far diminished that the
succeeding crops fail of full development; in other words, the soil 1s
exhausted. By exhaustion ina practical sense is meant, be it noticed,
no absolute removal of plant food, but such a relative diminution as
eauses the harvests to fall below a medium or standard yield.
It is the business of culture to replace this spent material, to restore
the capacity of the soil, to keep it up year after year to a remunera-
tive degree of productiveness.
Jethro Tull, a distinguished Englishman, who worked and wrote in
the last century, was led to adopt the theory—not at all improbable,
viewed from the scientific stand-point of his day—that the impalpably
fine particles of earth are the real food of vegetation. and accordingly
he sought to fit the soil fora more rapid and perfect nutrition by
pulverizing it. He introduced the horse-hoe, or cultivator, into
English husbandry, and actually succeeded, by the diligent use of his
improved implements, and by a peculiar mode of oceupying his field,
in obviating the necessity of any manures and in raising successive
crops on the same field uninterruptedly for twelve years. He failed,
however, in maintaining this system for a longer time, having adopted
one fatal rule, ‘‘never plough below the staple.’ It is but just to
the memory of this eminent agricultural philosopher to explain why
he adhered to a notion to us so absurd. Tull was aware of the im-
portant part played by the atmosphere in the nutrition of plants.
The use of stirring and pulverizing the soil was to enable the parti-
cles of earth to attract from the atmosphere ‘‘the nitre or acid spirit
of the air,’’ which, in his view, further dissolves and prepares the
soil to support vegetation. He had no chemistry to teach him that
the indispensable mineral matters of the soil exist in it in such
minute quantity, and are therefore liable to exhaustion. He had no
analytical data to reveal the difference between the chemical statics
of the vineyard—from the sagacious observation of which his theory
originated—and the wheat field, which more largely robs the soil of
alkalies and phosphates, and so he found it reasonable to use only
that portion of the soil—the staple or usual tilth—to which the at mos-
phere has obvious access.
The system of Tull has, however, been revived, and, with the modi-
fications suggested by.modern science, has been eminently successful
in the hand of its ingenious advocate, the Rev. S. Smith, of Lois
Weedon, Northamptonshire, England. Mr. Smith has produced large
wheat crops continuously on the same soil for a series of years by
simply laying off his fields in strips five feet wide, and growing his
crops in drills, with frequent and deep hoeing, on alternate strips in
successive years. The tillage of the vacant strip this year prepares
it to sustain a crop next year—enables the solution and absorption of
‘food enough to feed a full crop.
By this plan of culture Mr. Smith raised the yield of his wheat
182 LECTURES ON
grounds from 16 bushels to an average (for ten years) of 34° bushels
per acre. Although he asserts that he has never known this pl n—
which differs from Tull’s chiefly in the depth of tillage—to fail where
carried out according to his directions, it is easy to see that not every
soil will admit of its successful application, even independently of
considerations of cost. This method demands for its success that the
soil be so deep and so readily decomposable that the plant may find
its needful supplies in one-half the accustomed superficies, and there-
fore must possess physical properties that, under the treatment, are
in the highest degree favorable to vegetation.
On large holdings the maintenance of such an amount of assimilable
food as constitutes the soil fertile, is often profitably accomplished by
the ancient practice of summer-fallow, which is the same thing for a
whole farm as the vacant strips in the Lois Weedon system are for
the wheat fields. A field is left void of crops, and is repeatedly
ploughed and harrowed during the whole of one summer, generally re-
ceiving the seed of some winter grain in the autumn. The fallow is
thus an extra period of rest for the soil—enables it te accumulate
within itself a store of fertility against future harvests, and is often
attended with collateral advantages that alone are sufficient to war-
rant its employment, viz., the destruction of weeds, insects, and the
improvement of the texture of the soil.
In many situations these processes of tillage are so laborious or in-
effectual that recourse must be had to other operations to change®
radically the characters of the soil.
Heavy clays, especially in a moist climate, are very difficult of
tillage from their peculiar physical qualities. In spring time they
become so exceedingly tenacious and compacted by the rains, that
they dry with extreme slowness.- While wet they resist any attempt
at pulverization, because if ploughed in that condition the plastic up-
turned masses harden in drying to intractable clods. It hence results
that heavy clays need to be tilled when they have arrived at a certain
stage of dryness, and then the operation of ploughing is exceedingly
laborious, while the full preparation of the seed-bed is brought late
into the season. As clay soils dry, the surface is baked into a crust
which impedes the circulation of water, and which, shrinking and
cracking apart in innumerable places, ruptures the rootlets of plants.
Is is especially difficult to induce a deep tilth in such soils, so that
during protracted drought the crops suffer greatly on them.
When clays are not continuous in depth, but rest upon a gravelly
and open sub-soil; or when, by art, underground channels are pro-
vided for the removal of surplus water, these impediments to tillage
and to profitable culture are greatly lessened or entirely removed.
Many soils of lighter character, and in wet climates, sandy soils
even, are remarkably benefited by artificial provision for the removal
of surplus or bottom water.
It is but a few years since the introduction into general practice of
a system of drainage intended to effect this purpose took place in
Great Britain, James Smith, of Deanston, Scotland, led by an in-
ductive study of the evils, and the true means to be employed in the
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 1838
improvement of cold soils, devised what, under the name of Thorough
Drainage, has become one of the most ‘useful appliances in cultiva-
tion.
Thorough drainage consists essentially in constructing underground
channels, ‘sufficient in number and size, for the re moval of surplus
water down to a certain depth. * A, clay field, for example, has a
system of parallel ditches dug in it, three or four feet in depth, and
sixteen to thirty feet apart. These have such an inclination, and so
connect with cross or main ditches, as to give the water th: it may
collect in them a ready discharge. The bottoms of the ditches are
then filled with small stones to the pete of about one foot, or have
carefully laid in them a pipe of baked clay, (drain tile,) one to three
inches in diameter, and are thereupon filled up with earth. These
channels at once discharge the water of rains and melting snows when
the soil is sufficiently porous; and if at first, as happens with clays,
the soil is too retentive to allow the ready renova of water, this evil
mends itself in a year or two. We know that a mass of clay exposed
to the air in dry weather gradually dries off superficially, and ap-
pears full of minute fissures or larger rifts. In time it becomes
entirely friable; and if water be poured on it the liquid, for the most
part, rapidly filters through. It is only by a prolonged immersion in
water that the dried clay | absorbs so much of it as to become tenacious
and plastic again. The under drains are the effectual means of drying
out the clay soil to such a point that excess of water flows off without
hindrance, and they are no less effectual in preventing the recurrence
of a too retentive state.
The fact that we are in possession of extended treatises on drain-
age, renders it unnecessary to do more here than to allude to some
of the more striking results of this s¥stem which have been observed
in practice, and to indicate their scientific explanation.
One of the most important effects of thorough drainage consists in
tempering the extremes of moisture and dryness, of heat and cold,
so that a drained soil is dryer in the wet seasons and moister in the
dry seasons—is warmer in cold weather, and cooler in hot weather,
than an undrained soil.
The result of the rapid removal of surplus water on the soil is such
as enables it to be tilled from two to four weeks earlier in the spring
than might otherwise happen, a gain which, in cold climates or back-
ward spring-times, is often the saving of a crop.
The vast mass of water that is thus removed without evaporation
corresponds to a large increase in the amount of heat which may
accumulate in the soil, an increase that isnot only perceived in the
rapid growth of veg etation after the ground is prepared for seed, but
also is manifest in the earlier melting “of snows. The official inquiries
of the Royal College of Rural Economy of Prussia show that the
snow in that country thaws away on the average one week earlier on
drained than on contiguous undrained land.
It is said that Smith, of Deanston, was led to his study of drainage
by an observation made on ridged fields. From time immemorial it
has been a custom in some countries, especially in those overrun by
184 LECTURES ON
Roman civilization, to ridge up the fields by the plough, thus bringing
the soil into beds of a rod or thereabouts in width, which are several
inches higher in the centre than at the edges. It was observed that
in time of dry weather the plants stationed upon the centre of the
ridges fared best, while those at the borders were liable to suffer,
although it might be supposed they occupied the most favorable
position, so far as access to the subterranean moisture is concerned,
On a moment’s reflection, it is obvious that the deeper the ‘‘staple’’
or penetrable friable soil is, the greater space will be occupied by
the rootlets of plants, and the larger will be the supplies of capillary
moisture; so that if the soil under the influence of protracted drought
becomes surface-dry to the depth of one inch or two inches, less in-
jury will accrue to the crop whose roots are diffused through a deep
soil than to one stationed in a shallow tilth. The fact seen in the
ridged fields is far more plainly exhibited on comparing drained and
undrained lands. In fact, drainage is recognized, among practical
farmers, as the best protection against drought. Not only does it
regulate the use of the water which falls upon the fields as rain, but
by exposing an immense amount of absorbent surface to the atmos-
phere, which freely permeates the drained soil, large quantities of
water are collected and condensed from the vapor of the air. It has
been recently observed at Hinxworth, England, that the flow of
‘water from drains sometimes increases considerably when the baro-
meter falls, although no rain-fall has occurred. :
The various chemical advantages that have been already attributed
to tillage, viz: aeration of the soil, solution and preparation of plant-
food, oxydation of unwholesome matters, are evidently to be antici-
pated from drainage in an eminent degree. In wet climates it is
found to be the best preparation for effectual tillage, and where the
condition of the soil requires it, the indispensable pre-requisite to
profitable husbandry,
The tenacious and intractable characters of clay soils are also effec-
tually overcome by the operation of heat—by burning the clay. A
heat of redness expels the combined water of clay, and destroys for-
ever its tenacity. A part of the soil is converted into something like
brick-dust, and the admixture of a small proportion of this is suffi-
cient to amend the heaviest soils. The same burning likewise makes
soluble the alkalies, and, in fact, nearly all the fixed mineral matters
of the clay, thus rendering it more fertile by increasing its power of
feeding vegetation.
It often happens that contiguous soils are greatly improved by
mixing together. A few loads of clay remedy the too great porosity
of a sand, and vice versa.
The physical characters of the soil being set to rights, the next
point is to feed the plant. So soon as crops fall below a certain unre-
munerative rate of yield, which, in most soils, happens in a few years,
other means of improvement, viz: manures, are called into requisition.
We have already spoken of tillage as a substitute for manure; but
the word manure originally included tillage, coming from the French
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 185
maneuvrer, (main ouvrer,) or Latin manus operor, signifying to work
with the hands, a sense in which it was employed by Milton. The
term manure is now used in a general way to signily any substance
added to the soil to make it more productive.
Substances added in large quantity often act chiefly by qualifying
the physical properties of the sou, and are then appropriately termed
Amendments. Matters which operate in the main by feeding vegeta-
tion are more properly Fer tilizers. These again May nouri ish, directly,
by supplying at once to the growing plant one or all the nutrient in-
gredients it requires; or indirectly, “by making soluble the stores of
the soil, or otherwise disposing them to assume assimilable forms, or
by absorbing matters from the atmosphere. Most manures combine
these various offices to a greater or less degree.
While the popular name of those materials that are successfully
employed as manures is legion, the chemist, by his analysis, recog-
nizes in them all only the same ‘dozen kinds of matter which consti-
tute plants and soils.
The use of manures has been known from the earliest times, and
there has been no lack of attempts to explain their effects; but it is
only after the sciences of chemistry and vegetable physiology had
entered upon the modern development that it was possible to begin
understanding their mode of action. So difficult is the subject that
We are as yet by no means advanced to its full comprehension, which
requires a complete knowledge of the relations of each nutritive
element and compound with the plant, with the soil, and with the
atmosphere.
During all the centuries in which agricultural experience, with
reference to the operation of manures, has accumulated, we find that
the opinions of practical farmers have been almost endlessly at
variance; and as these conflicting opinions have faithfully reflected
the facts and phenomena which have presented themselves to agri-
culturists, we are prepared to find that at the present day there is
a constant recurrence of endlessly differing results in the use and
estimate of manures. We find in our current agricultural journals
abundant examples of crops being benefited by application of nearly
every one of the ash ingredients of the plant, as well as by ammonia
and nitrates, or bodies yielding these; and, on the other hand, re-
peated instances of their failure. <A scientific consideration of these
results enables us to explain much that is obscure, and reconcile
much that is conflicting, by taking into the account differences of soil,
climate, and crop; and by a careful study of the circumstances which
alter cases to sucha great degree, it will be possible, in time, to
unfold every mystery and elucidate every variety of effect.
The space at command here does not allow any detail with refer-
ence to the action of manures, except as may illustrate some of the
general principles which alone can serve to initiate us into the
method of their operation.
185 LECTURES ON
These general principles are the following:
1. Plants require various kinds of fixed mineral matters, and derive
the same exclusively from the soil.
The only exceptions to this statement are, perhaps, to be found in
case of chlorine and sodium, which appear to be carried inland from
the sea in the direction of prevailing winds, both in the spray and
dissolved in the vapor that ascends from the ocean.
2. Some plants which, in the natural state, derive a large portion of
the volatile elements of their ydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen—from the air, must be supplied with much more of these matters
Jrom the soil, in agricultural production.
As already remarked, the increased supply of these matters by the
soil is requisite only to insure that rapid and abundant growth which
constitutes agricultural production.
The very fact of an artificially increased supply of food to plants,
in connexion with the care otherwise provided by cultivation, in a few
generations enlarges their capacity for assimilating nutriment, greatly
increases the mass of vegetable matter that can . develop on a given
surface, and, in consequence, makes a fertile soil necessary for exhib-
iting the capabilities of the crop. Many of our agricultural plants are
the result of high cultivation, including, as one of its most efficient
factors, a fertile, and, in most cases, artificially fertilized soil. The
wretched weeds from which our numerous varieties of turnip, ruta-
baga, kohl rabi, cauliflower, broccoli, and cabbage have been derived,
are hardly recognizable as the originals of so many useful plants,
and these, as well as the wild e egilops of southern Europe, from which
the w Hea grain appears to have come, are no less inferior to the cul-
tivated plants, in appearance and value, than is the soil required for
their natural development, to that demanded in their agricultural pro-
awevion:
3. Different plants require different proportions of these substances for
their luxuriant growth.
4. Different plants require different absolute quantities of food to ma-
ture a full crop.
These propositions are illustrated by the accompanying table,
which represents, in average figures, the weight, in pounds, of total
produce, and of the chief ingredients, removed ‘annually from an acre of
good land, in case of several of the more commonly cultivated crops.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 187
i cs
3 3 &
ha : a "Sa oS
wu [>| a ° ral
4 o a . A
~ a0 o Q, a on] .
3 fe) = a D © a
RN encore pl cet AT A peme V eah MVi
| Zi cs) a ow a w
Wheat—
Grain eae cece eeises sealsicciaes 1,840 34 32 15 10 5 4
SUA Wae eee wee eee ees cstiee cs. 4,600 14 207 8 39 TAB Nh ess
Mota iat ahs ens ns ok 6, 440 48 239 23 49 | 16 1454
Rye— Pea EG, eae
Graineeecee ees eteests a teeenicle 1,470 28 25 12 9 4
DSttaae aise eee ee ee aid mina ties 3.500 12 140 4 27 9 93
Totals eae eee oes 4,970 40 165 16 36 13 934
Beans— iguana
GCOS e osic a trattate ara Seimyaiselslateae as 1,840 76 60 20 27 8 4
DtlLaWaneoe es ose eSee eee cae | 2,700 33 138 14 34 50 134
Motal idee: Meat he ciate | 4640 |. 209'|) 19sehapBat | wer}. SS.) 414
———
Beets— |
TROQOS Rode SO eee OOOO OBOEECaC | 36, 800 88 353 22 158 40 20
Tops: :=--- aces ea sebicsesosics 9,200 26 173 iui 69 28 12
Rota a mecs see eee ee 46,000 114 526 33 227 68 32
Clowerscs- 2 esas Weiaioe ete wise 6,000 150 390 25 105 121 21
Meadowscrassis oon See see cee coe 4,000 53 | 246 13 58 62 78
This table shows, that, other things being supposed equal, a supply
of nitrogen sufficient for a full rye crop would answer but for one-
third of a clover or beet crop; the phosphoric acid sufficient for a
meadow is but little more than half enough for a wheat field, and
only one-third as much as a crop of beans requires. It appears that
the potash which would fully nourish a crop of wheat is nearly enough
for grass or beans; while for clover twice, and for beets four-and-a-
half times as much is needful. A clover crop demands almost ten
times as much lime and magnesia as suffices for rye, and a wheat crop
must have more than ten times as much silica as serves the growth
of an equal yield of beans.
The erroneous conclusions which a hasty deduction might bring
out of the foregoing instructive table are checked by the fact ex-
pressed in the next proposition, viz:
5. Different plants, from peculiarities in their structure, draw differ-
ently on the same stores of nutriment.
There are some plants which flourish on the poorest soils, being
adapted to resist the extremes of drought, and accumulate their food
188 LECTURES ON
under what are, for nearly all agricultural plants, the most unfavor-
able conditions. Rye, for example, will grow well where wheat is
utterly unprofitable. Buckwheat yields a fair crop on exceedingly
poor soils; and the lupine is so extraordinary in this respect that by
its help the farmer may cover the most desolate blowing sands with
a luxuriant vegetation.
On the other hand, some crops are easily spoiled by overfeeding.
Thus wheat, and the slender-stemmed grains generally, are unremu-
nerative on the newly broken up prairies of our west, while maize
flourishes even on the richest soils, being in practical language ‘‘a
rank feeder.”’
It is plain that, other things being equal, a plant with long-branch-
ing numerous roots does not require so rich a soil as one with these
organs short and few, because it has a greater mass of earth at its
disposal out of which to collect its food.
Again, those plants which expose to the air a large leaf surface
should, other things being equal, flourish better than the sparsely-
leaved plants in a soil poor in atmospheric elements.
A plant which is of slow, regular, and protracted growth may, in
the same manner, organize more vegetable matter on a given soil
during a summer than one which quickly runs through all the stages
of its life, and therefore requires more rapid supplies of food—de-
mands more in a given time.
In general, also, those crops which produce seed require a better
soil for their continuous production than such as yield only foliage.
6. Different soils abound or are deficient, to a greater or less degree, m
one or more needful ingredients im assimilable for m.
With the original differences of soils are to be likewise classed the
changes in condition which tillage and cropping are perpetually
inducing. By the continued removal of crops the soul suffers a dimi-
nution of its resources, and often some one or a few of the nutritive
elements are soon brought to a minimum, while the others still remain
in quantity sufficient for hundreds of harvests. According to the
original composition of the soil, the failing ingredient may be potash
in one case, sulphuric acid in another lime i in another; and applica-
tion of these substances, respectively, may then form the most profit:
able manuring.
T. Jt appears from experience that the ingredients which are rarest in
the soull—which are therefore most liable to exhaustion, and most needful
to be replaced—are, in general, phosphoric acid, assimilable nitrogen, (be tt
in the form of ammonia or nitric acid,) and potash.
The substances just named are therefore important ingredients in
all those manures by whose continued and exclusive use the soil is
kept fertile, and constitute the chief part of such fertilizers as bring
up exhausted lands to immediate and remarkable, though it be tem-
porary, productiveness.
The above is intended as a very general statement, the truth of
which, as such, is not invalidated. by the numerous and important
exceptions which occur.
In examining the question of the direct action of manures, we have
first to notice the value of deductions from the composition of a sub-
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. \ 189
stance as to its fertilizing effect. Can we, by the study of the com-
position of a crop, decide what manure is most likely to benefit it ?
or can we determine, from the composition of a manure, what crop it
is best adapted for? The answer to these questions is, in many
cases, No! In laying down the general principles which are to be
regarded in a rational theory of manuring, we have had frequent
occasion to make the truth of a proposition depend upon ‘‘ other
things being equal.’’ Now it happens, unfortunately for the sim-
plicity of our science, that ‘‘other things’’ are often in the highest
degree unequal and unlike, so that we must busy ourselves with the
slow work of induction from facts mostly yet to be extricated by toil-
some experiment from their present confusion, rather than incumber
theory and disgust practice by generalizing de ductions that cannot
fail to be premature and erroneous. There are many cases in which
the effect of a fertilizer can be immediately connected with its com-
position. It not unfrequently happens that pasture lands from which
the only matters agriculturally removed are the ingredients of cheese,
after long use, deteriorate, refuse to nourish dairy animals, and be-
come nearly worthless. The’ use of bones or phosphatic manures
restores such fields to perfect pasturage; and the explanation afforded
by chemistry—viz: that all the phosphate of lime put in the milk as
a provision for the formation of the bones of a young animal is
permanently alienated from the soil in the exports of cheese, so
that exhaustion of this substance is caused, unless phosphates be ap-
plied—is entirely satisfactory.
The leguminous plants, though the richest in nitrogen of all our
crops, do not by any means require nitrogenous manure to the extent
demanded by wheat, which removes from the soil but one-half as
much, or less, of this substance. The difference here is obviously
due to the fact that the leguminous plants have deeper roots, more
foliage, and a longer period of growth.
Leguminous plants are rich in lime and sulphur, and hence are
often remarkably grateful for applications of gypsum. Fruit and
shade trees yield an ash largely consisting of carbonate of lime, and
their growth, especially on meager sandy soils, is often wonderfully
enhanced by the accident of some oyster shells or old mortar being
thrown on the ground over their roots.
The grasses and grains contain a large amount of silica in their
stems and leaves; but the artificial use of soluble silicates of potash
and soda has rarely been attended with more benefit than that of the
corresponding chlorids, and for the reason that silica is so universally
distributed.
Mr. Lawes, of England, found that on his farm wheat might be
grown for a dozen years or more in succession on the same field, and
give an average crop of 17 bushels per acre, without manure; while
a contiguous field, planted in turnips, in three years came to yield
scarcely anything. Mr. Lawes then found that, by the use of nitro-
genous manures, the wheat crop was at once doubled, while the
turnip crop was hardly affected; and, on the other hand, a mixture
of sulphate and soluble phosphate of lime (super-phosphate of lime)
190 LECTURES ON
had little influence on the wheat crop, but at once raised the turnip
field to a considerable degree of productiveness. These facts, borne out
by the quite general result of practice, indicate the conclusion which
some eminent authorities have unhesitatingly adopted, that soluble
phosphate of lime exercises a specific action on the turnip, indepen-
dent of the actual need of this plant for phosphates. There are,
however, such grounds for doubting this doctrine that, until further
investigations give us more complete data for judgment, a decision
must be suspended.
Some recently described experiments of Mr. Lawes on the effect of
fertilizers upon meadows are very interesting. He found that when
a manure consisting of phosphates and sulphates of lime, potash,
soda, and magnesia was applied to grass land, the development of
clover was at once astonishingly increased; while, when nitrogenous
manures were used, either alone or in addition to the above mixture,
the true grasses maintained the mastery.
The attempt made not long since to manure, plants with mixtures
representing what is taken off the field by a crop, turned out unsatis-
factorily, as the facts we have instanced make evident such a scheme
must; and we are led every day more and more to seek explanations
of the anomalous effects of manures in their indirect action.
The most familiar instance of indirect action is that of gypsum or
sulphate of lime. In contact with carbonate of ammonia, with so
much water as to make the mixture wet, an interchange of ingredients
takes place, so that sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime are
formed; and Liebig accounted in part for the beneficial operation of
gypsum by assuming that it thus ‘‘fixed’’ the volatile carbonate of
ammonia of rains and dews, and held it in the soil for the use of
vegetation.
On the other hand, Boussingault showed that when the mixture of
sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime, from being wet, dries so
far that it is only moist, like the soil is ordinarily, the reverse decom-
position ensues, and the ammonia once fixed, is unfixed. While we
can conceive of circumstances in which both these properties come
into play, beneficially or otherwise, it must be remembered that the
more late discovered absorbent power of the soil sets these effects of
gypsum quite out of the account in nearly all cases.
Humus, which, in the form of peat or swamp muck, or as resulting
from the decay of litter and the carbonacious ingredients of the ex-
crements of cattle, is a most common and useful manure, doubtless
accomplishes more hy indirect than by immediate action. It is the
most energetic absorbent of ammonia, as carbonate (according to
Brustlein, not of other salts) is the source of carbonic acid in the
sou, thus, by its presence, setting in operation the endless train of
changes whose result is the solution of mineral matters, and by its
hygroscopic character it assists to maintain the proper physical con-
dition of the soil.
_ Lime, which is one of the greatest renovators in use in agriculture,
1s, In a similar manner, of more indirect than immediate effect. Its
influence is especially manifest in fluxing the insoluble stores of plant-
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 191
food, and compelling the soil to yield its ingredients to the support of
vegetation.
Ammonia, when acting on the soil as carbonate, (coming from the
decomposition of urea, uric acid, and other nitrogenous bodies, ) is not
inferior to lime in its solvent effects.
Gypsum, common salt, carbonate of lime, nitrates of potash and
soda, and in fact all the saline compounds which are incorporated with
the soil in manures, may exert important physiological effects on the
plant in addition to their mere nutritive function.
We have already intimated that the transpiration of water through
the plant is very remarkably hindered when lime, potash, or the salts
just named are present in the absorbed liquid. This fact, observed
for the first time by Mr. Lawes, in 1850, and recently brought
again more strikingly into notice by Dr. Sachs, of Tharand, Saxony,
appears to be of great importance in the theory of manures. Dr.
Sachs experimented on various plants, viz: beans, squashes, tobacco,
and maize, and observed their transpiration in weak solutions (mostly
containing one per cent.) of nitre, common salt, gypsum, (one-fifth
per cent. solution) and sulphate of ammonia. He also experimented
with maize in a mixed solution of phosphate and silicate of potash,
sulphates of lime and magnesia, and common salt, and likewise ob-
served the effect of free nitric acid and free potash on the squash
plant. The young plants were either germinated in the soil, then re-
moved from it and set with their rootlets in the solution, or else were
kept in the soil and watered with the solution. The glass vessel
containing the plant and solution was closed above around the stem
of the plant by glass plates and cement, so that no loss of water could
occur except through the plant itself, and this loss was ascertained
by daily weighings. The result was that all the solutions mentioned,
except that of free nitric acid, quite uniformly retarded transpiration
to a degree varying from 10 to 90 per cent., while the free acid ac-
celerated the transpiration in a corresponding manner.
As the processes of elaboration—the chemical and structural me-
tamorphoses going on within the cells of the plant require time for
their performance, we can easily perceive that a too rapid upward
current of liquid, by diluting the juices, might measurably interfere
with the assimilation of the food, and that the presence of a body
may be no less useful by its regulating influence on the circulation of
the water than by contributing an ingredient necessary for the forma-
tion of the substance ot the plant itself.
It is also obvious that if a substance added to the soil retard the
transpiration of water through vegetation, a given store of hygro-
scopic moisture in the soil will serve the needs of vegetation longer
will reach further into time of drought than it otherwise could. Dr.
Sachs found that gypsum exerted the greatest effect in preventing
loss of water, and this observation gives a scientific ground of evi-
dence to the opinion long maintained among farmers, but rejected by
men of science, (and very properly, as no cause could be discovered
for such an effect, and the effect is not capable of measurement in
192 LECTURES ON
field culture,) that gypsum has the influence of a body that attracts
moisture.
The facts brought to light by the researches of Way, Hichhorn,
and Voelcker, already described, indicate another general mode by
which fertilizers, especially soluble saline bodies, may operate indi-
rectly. The investigations referred to, show that the bases (and
acids?) may replace each other in insoluble or slightly soluble combi-
nations, 7. e., soluble lime may displace insoluble ‘potash, making this
soluble and becoming insoluble itself. Soda may, in the same manner,
displace lime or potash, or ammonia, the rule being that the body
in excess goes into combination and expels those before combined.
We observe here a tendency to bring all the bases into what we may
designate as an equilibrium of solution. This principle appears adapted
more than any other yet discovered to generalize the phenomena of
indirect action, and enables us to forsee and explain them. Proofs
are not wanting of the actual operation of this principle in the soil.
Wollf (Naturgesetzlichen Grundlagen des Ackerbaues, 3d ed., p. 148,)
found in fact that the ashes of the straw of buckwheat grown with
a large supply of common salt, compared with the ashes of the same
part ‘of that plant grown on the same soil minus this addition, con-
tained less chlorid of sodium but much more chlorid of potassium,
there having occurred an exchange of bases in the soil.
Closely connected in many points with these phenomena of dis-
placement, yet in many respects different and peculiar, are the sol-
vent effects of saline bodies, alkalies, and carbonic acid in dilute
watery solution, to which allusion has been so frequently made in the
foregoing pages. We refer to this subject once more in this place
in order to give the results of some actual trials as to the disintegrat-
ing effect of these substances on soils and rocks. Dietrich, to whom
we owe these investigations, found that from a diluvial loamy soil con-
taining humus, the amount of matters rendered soluble by a dilute
solution of carbonate of ammonia (containing one per cent. of the salt)
was twice as great as that set free by water saturated with carbonic
acid, and of the alkalies, potash and soda, four times as much were
dissolved by the former as by the latter liquid. Solution of sulphate
of ammonia dissolved six times as much as carbonated water.
The action of carbonated water and carbonate of ammonia extended
chiefly to the alkalies. Sulphate of ammonia, while equally effective
in their solution, likewise dissolved a large amount of lime and mag-
nesia as sulphates. Caustic lime (one per cent.) in most cases pro-
duced a remarkable increase of volume in the earths submitted to its
action; the loam just mentioned became nearly three times as bulky
as it was at first, a decomposition of the silicates having taken place.
Carbonate of lime, in solution in carbonated water, had the most
vigorous action in eliminating the alkalies. Even gypsum, (sulphate
of lime,) in moist contact with powdered basaltic rock, sets free a
considerable amount of alkalies in a few days. Ammonia salts exert
a strong action on insoluble silicates, the ammonia and silica being
partially set free, the other acids and bases remaining in soluble com-
binations.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 193
The most abundant, most generally employed, and most permanently
useful manures are the excrements and waste of animals. These
matters are, in fact, the residue, more or less concentrated, that
remains from the oxydation of vegetables which have served as food.
By the vital processes, the hydrogen and carbon of the vegetable
nutrient principles are chiefly consumed to the gaseous form, while a
portion of these, together with nearly all the nitrogen and all the
fixed mineral matters, are separated from the animal in the liquid or
solid shape, either immediately prepared, or under the agencies of
warmth and moisture speedily assuming a suitable condition for
nourishing a new vegetation.
The excrements of domestic animals, containing, as they do, all the
ingredients of plants, and those in greatest relative amount which
veget: ition is obliged to seek for in the soil, constitute the most gen-
erally and durably efficient manure in countries like our ow n, where
cattle are largely depended upon as means of supplying food. The
dejections of man are amore concentrated and more powerful fertilizer,
and. though less adapted for maintaining the fertility of large farms
tilled by a few hands, because they are not associated with matters
that amend and modify the physical characters of the soil, are a main
reliance in countries like China, where the dense population subsists
almost exclusively on vegetable food, and under any circumstances
are an invaluable adjunct to the resources of the farmer. Human
excreta should never be suffered to waste so long as the soil is capable
of stimulation to higher productiveness.
Certain animal manures, viz., those very rich in nitrogen, though
usually exhibiting great energy of action, are liable to abuse, and often
ultimately impoverish the farmer. Peruvian guano, the excrement
of piscivorous sea-fowl, yielding sixteen per cent. of ammonia by the
decomposition of its uric acid, and the flesh, blood, hair, and wool
of animals are manures of this character. Nitrogen i is their principal
active ingredient; it passes into ammonia or nitric acid, excites a quick
growth of vegetation by furnishing abundance of material for cell
development, and at the same time rapidly solves the fixed minerals
of the sol. The latter, being as rapidly removed by the vigorous
vegetation, soon fall into a state of relative deficiency, especially on
the poor soils where these applications exhibit their effects most
strikingly; and unless restored by some other manure, the absence of
them produces the phenomenon of exhaustion.
It is an objection, indeed, commonly raised against manures con-
taining but one or a few nutritive ingredients, that they exhaust the
soil. “Obviously it is the crops, or ‘what is taken off ‘the soil, that
exhaust it; and if a manure assists a crop to rob a field, the abetting
farmer cannot rightfully complain, so long as the price of the produce
goes into his pocket, although, to be sure, there are various ways of
exhausting land, some of which are vastly more profitable than others.
The great practical lessons taught by experience and confirmed by
science, relative to the use of manures, are, save all refuse which
contains any of the elements of vegetation ; apply abundantly the mixed
ingredients of the dung and compost heaps. As concerns commercial
194 LECTURES.
and saline manures, such as guano, salt, plaster, lime, &c., experiment
with them repeatedly and accurately on the small scale, so as to learn what
the crops say about their value. Where phosphates have been heavily
applied, it is probable that ammonia or nitrogenous manures, or per-
haps lime or potash, may next exert the most beneficial action, and
vice versa. Be sure of enough, not only as regards the quantities, but
also the kinds of matters applied.
But our subject requires treatment which only a volume can give
space for. The recent progress of knowledge, thanks to the scientific
farmers and agricultural philosophers of England, Germany, and
France, demands a series of chapters on manures that are as yet
unwritten, but, when rightly produced, will be alike novel, interesting,
and useful to the true American farmer, who cultivates with equal
assiduity the ‘‘soil and the mind.’’
LECTURES
ON THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA.
BY PHILIP P. CARPENTER, OF WARRINGTON, ENGLAND.
The pearl fishery carried on by the Spaniards in the ‘*Sea of
Cortez’’ during the 17th and 18th centuries, bore testimony to its
richness in molluscan life. To obtain the ‘‘pearl oysters,’’ eight
hundred divers were regularly employed, and the annnal value of the
exports was $60,000. So exhaustive was this fishery that it was
gradually abandoned; and the very limited trade between the gulf
ports and the Old World did not lead to more than the most fragmen-
tary knowledge of its marine fauna. A few of the shells of Acapulco
had been brought home by Humboldt and Bonpland as early as 1803;
and collections had been made at various stations on the Central
American coast by Captain Beechy and Lieutenant Belcher, R. N., in
the voyage of the Blossom, 1825-1828 ; by MM. Du Petit Thouars,
La Perouse, and Chiron, in the Venus, 1836-1859 ; and in the Sulphur,
by Sir EH. Belcher and Mr. Hinds, in 1836-1842. The shells of
Panama and the coast of Ecuador, closely related to those of the Gulf
of California, had been obtained in great abundance by Hugh Cuming,
esq., whose vast collection of shells is not only by far the largest in
the world, but, through the generous courtesy of its owner, the most
accessible to students of every nation. Scarcely any shells, however,
had been collected in the gulf, and indeed the records of scientific
voyages, rich as they are in additions to our knowledge of fresh forms,
rarely afford satisfactory data as to the fauna of any particular district.
Unfortunately, it has been the custom, in the accounts of these voy-
ages, only to describe the (supposed) new species ; besides which,
the locality marks, even if accurately noted at the time, are exposed
to many chances of error before the information is made accessible to
the scientific world.* Whether the shells of the gulf most resembled
those of Panama or those of California, (which were described by Mr.
Conrad from collections made by the late Mr. Nuttall in 1854,) was
still a matter of doubt up to the period of the Mexican war in 1846~8.
When Major Rich and Captain Green visited Mazatlan, they became
acquainted with a Belgian gentleman, M. Reigen, who had been em-
ploying himself in making a vast collection of the shells of that region.
This collection ultimately passed into the hands of a merchant who
* The works of Mr. Hinds are, however, in every respect reliable, in consequence of the
great skill and accuracy of the Jamented author.
196 LECTURES ON
divided it into two portions: the smaller was sent to Havre; the
larger, occupying no less than 560 cubic feet, to Liverpool.
A collection of such magnitude, known to have been made only at
one spot, had never before been thrown open to the public ; and,
knowing that its contents were likely to afford very valuable informa-
tion in reference to the geographical distribution of species, I em-
braced the opportunity which circumstances afforded me to pass the
whole under careful review. The result of my labors will be found
in # ‘report on the present state of our knowledge of the mollusca of
the wést coast of North America,’”’ prepared at the request of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, and published in
the volume of transactions for 1856; and, in a more detailed form, in
the ‘‘descriptive catalogue of the Reigen collection of Mazatlan mol-
lusca’’ printed by order of the trustees of the British Museum, 1857.*
The best duplicate series, amounting to about 6,500 shells, I have
lately given to the State of New York. Having come to this country to
arrange it in the natural history rooms at Albany, Professor Henry
requested me to visit Washington, and arrange the shells of the United
States exploring expedition. For this difficult task, the sorting out
of the Mazatlan shells, amounting probably to 100,000 specimens, was
perhaps no unfit preparation.
In the present lecture, it is proposed to confine our attention to a
single shell from this collection. It belongs to a group nearly related
to the oysters, and still retains the name of Spondylus given to it by
Aristotle more than two thousand years ago, from the resemblance of
the thorny processes outside the valves to the vertebra of the higher
animals. Ihave named the species calcifer, from the use made of it
by the natives, who dive for it in order to burn for lime. _ Its solid,
ponderous growth affords a striking contrast to the great ‘‘ water-clam ”
of the Pacific islands, in which the shell-layers are generally separate
from each other.t Unfortunately the cumbrous size of these shells
led the Liverpool dealer to dispose of the whole stock before I had an
opportunity of examining them; their ignominious fate being to adorn
the ‘‘museum’’ of a large drinking saloon, the owner of which had
no idea of their scientific interest, and was unwilling to part with
any of his duplicates. The very few which fell into my possession
proved, however, to be a little museum in themselves; each specimen
so abounding in parasites, within and without, that I have described
upwards of a hundred entirely new forms of molluscan life derived
from this source alone; besides about 250 others which had been pre-
viously investigated, or which are not yet determined; and a variety of
Annelids, Crustaceans, Zoophytes, Sponges, Protozoas, Protophytes,
= Both of these works are in the library of the Smithsonian Institution. In order
to aid in their compilation, Mr. Herbert Thomas purchased for me what remained of
the Reigen collection. The first fruits of this, amounting to nearly 9,000 specimens, I
presented to the British Museum.
} A very remarkable specimen of this shell was brought home by the United States ex-
ploring expedition, in which the free as well as the attached valve displays the long, flat,
triangular ligament area, presenting somewhat the appearance of the gigantic fossil Pla-
giostomata.
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. 197
and alga, which are yet awaiting the attention of naturalists acquainted
with those special departments. We propose first to examine the
creatures which make their abode on the outside of these oyster
valves.
Certain smooth, oval spaces bear testimony to the former presence
of many kinds of limpets. Some of those creatures, (as e.g. the Pa-
tella Mexicana, or giant limpet, which is sometimes a foot in length
and large enough for a basin) prefer to live on the rocks; others are
always found on dead shells; others again always adhere to living
ones. The irculation of water caused by the breathing currents of
the larger animal is no doubt congenial to their tastes. Most mollusks
have the power not only of forming, but also of absorbing shelly
matter ; and these limpets, by the constant action of their strong
muscular foot, eat into the shell of the spondylus and leave a mark by
which each species can generally be recognized. Some of them make
regular excursions to browse on the alge and nullipore which they
rasp off with their thousand-toothed lingual ribbon, always returning
to their own hole to sleep; but others appear to lead a sedentary life,
depending, like the bivalves, on whatever nutriment the water brings
within their reach. These, which go by the common names of ‘‘bon-
net,’’ ‘‘slipper,’’ or ‘‘cup-and-saucer’’ limpets, are more highly or-
ganized than their more active neighbors; the gill being a delicate
little comb at the back of the neck, and the sexes being distinct. The
Calyptreids (‘‘slipper’’ and ‘‘ cup-and-saucer’’ limpets) found on the
Spondylus valves are the most beautiful and varied that are known in
any part of the world. The shells are large and thin, delicately fur-
rowed, and as it were engine-turned with a profusion of tubercles,
which sometimes rise up into long hollow spines. ‘The colors vary
from white to a rich black-brown, or are variously mottled with sienna,
while the shape may be either an elevated cone or a widely spreading
disk. Sometimes the same individual will begin with one form and
sculpture-pattern, and suddenly change to ancther ; others again seem
to develop permanent and widely differing varieties. Occasionally a
starved or diseased Mazatlanian will present the aspect which is
normal on the colder shores of South America; exchanging its thin
texture and delicate sculpture for a coarse, solid, and nearly smooth
shell. So far the views lately propounded with such ability by the
celebrated author of the.‘‘ Voyage of the Beagle’’ meet with sufficient
confirmation ; and yet, amid all its changes, there is a habit of growth,
hard to describe and yet easily recognized by the practised eye, which
not only unites the most aberrant forms, but at once separates them
from neighboring species found on the same coast and appearing very
similar to the common observer. The ordinary plan of only preserv-
ing in collections a few picked specimens displaying marked pecu-
liarities, is by no means favorable to the elimination of truth im
reference to specific variation. These extreme forms are very natu-
rally described ag distinct species, the intermediate connecting links
not passing before the view of the naturalist. On showing to a dis-
tinguished author a carefully eliminated suite of Mazatlan specimens
connecting the smooth, thin, flat Crepidula squama, Brod. with the
198 LECTURES ON
coarse, arched, laminated C. Lessonii, passing through the forms C.
nivea, C. B. Ad.and C. striolata, Wke., he complained that I had ‘‘kept
all the puzzling shells.’’ In the very useful work of Messrs. H. and A.
Adams on the genera of recent Mollusca, these forms appear under
different subgenera.*- It is not fair to blame authors for these mis-
takes, which naturally result from the imperfection of the material on
which they work. But the prevalence of such errors should lead us
to embrace every opportunity of studying large numbers of specimens,
both from the same and from different localities. Patience, accuracy,
and honesty may thus render as valuable service to sciencé as brilliant
genius, and may supply the materials from which some master-mind
may hereafter develop the most important generalizations.
Those who describe species from minute differences founded on in-
dividual specimens, might do well to study the plates appended to
the ‘‘B. A. report on the West Coast Mollusca” before quoted. Take,
e.g., the Crucibulum spinosum, pl. 9. The shell is at first spiral, like
asnail. It then surrounds its entire margin with a rim, which is the
first beginning of what in the adult becomes the ‘*saucer,’’ or outside
shell; that is, the hardened skin of the animal's body; (for shells are not
to be regarded as a house constructed for the animal to live in, but as an
integral part of the animal itself, like the feathers of birds or our own
nails and hair.) At the same time it raises a slight lamina from the
labium, or ‘‘pillar-lip,’? which ultimately becomes the ‘‘cup.” At
first, however, it is like the ‘‘deck”’’ in the slipper limpets, from some
species of which it can scarcely be then distinguished. The Crepidule,
however, continue their deck in a horizontal direction, while the Cru-
Fig. 1. cibulum turns the edges upwards at a more
or less obtuse angle.’ Gradually, during the
progress of adolescence, this angle becomes
right and then acute; the outer shell mean-
while taking various forms, round, oblong, or
irregular, according to the nature of the sur-
face to which it has chosen to adhere. Often
this immature state is continued to a late
period; if permanent, it would belong to the
subgenus Dispotea (Say) of Messrs. Adams.
But, normally, the sides of the cup close in,
Crucitbulum imbricatum, jun. ani S si payde = . ra 1
Ten ee siowicptis anise hile its body becomes greatly swollen in
beginning to double in. front. This cup now assumes the form which
is always characteristic of the species under every modification of ex-
ternal growth ; being well rounded in C. imbricatum, angular at the
side in C. spinosum, and with the sides flattened against each other
in C. radiatum. In C. rude, the adolescent stage is very soon com-
pleted, and the cup is permanently detached from the side of the
shell, forming a veritable ‘‘cup and saucer,’’ one, too, after the fashion
so prevalent in America, where the cup-handle has never been formed.
*The plan adopted by D’Orbigny in his classification of Foraminifera, was to pick out
from a large mass of material the leading forms; which he grouped into genera, families,
and orders. In my brother’s papers on Orbitolites, &c , in the transactions of the Royal
Society, it is shown that individuals belonging, according to D’Orbigny, to different orders
are really aberrant forms of the same species,
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. 199
It is a remarkable fact in geographical distribution, that the forms
imbricatum and rude, which are typical in the west tropical fauna of
Central America, reappear, but very sparingly on the Caribbean
shores; while C. spinosum, which is far more common, more variable,
and more widely distributed, being found (under various names) from
California to Chili, has not yet been discovered on the eastern side.
Again, the C. radiatum, which is the most delicately formed of the
whole group, confines itself to the equatorial western seas, not having
been found further north than the Panama district.
An extremely remarkable specimen of C. spinosum was dredged
by Mr. Cuming in comparatively deep water. The net brought up
a large stone ’with a small hole in it, on looking down which Mr. C.
perceived a number of spines as though a sea-urchin was lodging
there. A blow of the hammer discovered the existence of a large
cavity within, communicating with the external world only through
this narrow opening. In the hollow of this cavity lay the limpet,
turned, as it were, nearly inside out. The creature had gone to live
there when young, and being of sedentary habits it did not occur to
him that he might be imprisoned for life by his own corpulence, else
he would probably have made his escape before he had grown too
large. As it was he grew larger and larger, and as the walls of his
prison rose up round him on every side, he was obliged to flatten out
his shell till it became a plate instead of acone. «At the same time,
his body protruding into the hollow, the cup protruded along with it
till it stood considerably beyond the shell, of which it was normally
an inside partition. Thus our Calyptreid was fixed as immovably
as any Pholas, but with this difference in their condition: that the
Pholas, being designed for that kind of life, is not troubled with use-
less head and eyes, and, moreover, is furnished with two long pipes
to convey the water to and from the mouth and gills; while the Cruci-
bulum had eyes simply to stare at the wall in the dark, feelers to
push tke stone, and a long ribbon tongue, armed with hundreds of
teeth, to rasp the water. And while encumbered with these unneces-
sary appendages, he had not the bgnefit of water pipes to bring what
alone this lock-jawed subject had to feed upon. For this want,
however, the economy of the animal provided a remedy. The C.
spinocum, in its normal growth, is either spinose or not; the flatter
forms being almost always smooth. The spines are developed from
prolongations of the mantle, (or thin shell-bearing skin of the animal, )
which appear at irregular intervals, though in a regular pattern.
Sometimes the whole shell is covered with crowded prickles, (C. his-
pidum, Brod.,) sometimes a very few long spines appear at the edge
on one side of the otherwise smooth shell. Sometimes the spines are
few, large, and hollow, (C. tubiferum, Less.,) each of the outer row
communicating through a hole with the inner margin, which is after-
wards filled up. Our prisoner worked for his living by constructing
very large, long, and open spine pipes, which, instead of standing
up at right angles to the shell, were directed back towards the narrow
opening in the stone. It w ould appear that by this means the animal
was amply supplied with nourishment, for the shell was above the
ordinary size.
200 LECTURES ON
The most common Calyptreid on the backs of our Spondylus valves,
however, was Crepidula aculeata, Gmel. It was first described from
West Indian specimens, which are generally dead and worn, in col-
lections, and afterwards re-described from fine West Coast shells as
C. hystrix and C. echinus, Brod. The stunted Northern form was
named ©. Californica by Nuttall. The rule is laid down by some
American authors of great celebrity that no species can be common
to the Atlantic and Pacific waters. Accordingly, when the same
form reappears on the wrong shore, it is their custom to re-describe
it, there being always differences by which a few individuals can be
separated from each other. But it is well known by those who have
examined extensive series from different localities that each locality
may present the same species under very different aspects. A large
number of British shells live also in the Mediterranean, but in a
mixed collection it is generally easy to pick out northern specimens
from their southern congeners. So again the Panama shells (of iden-
tical species) can generally be separated from the Mazatlan; and these
again from those of Acapulco and Cape St. Lucas. Now if the east
and west coast shells do not differ more than those of Panama and
Mazatlan; nay, do not differ so much as those of either place among
themselves; it appears an argumentum ad ignorantiam to describe
them as distinct species, merely because we cannot tell how they have
become distributed. On comparing Dr. Gould’s descriptions of Pur-
pura pansa (Pacific) and P. patula, (West Indian,) with my own well
authenticated specimens, it appeared to me that the diagnosis of patula
was exactly fitted to the Mazatlan shells, while that of pansa belonged
rather to the shells collected by my brother at St. Vincent’s. Our
knowledge of the fauna of each region is as yet too meagre to speak
on doubtful matters with any dogmatism, but the researches of modern
geology have already determined the fact that in the tertiary (Miocene)
epoch there was a communication between the two oceans; that very
remarkable Pacific shell, Malea ringens, having been found f6ssil on
the Atlantic coast. This interesting solution of a doubtful problem
is due to the research of Dr. New berry, and is an instructive e example
of the light which different branches of study throw upon each
other. ;
We may now be allowed to predicate that old species, which have
survived since the Miocene epoch, may be expected to appear on both
sides of the peninsula; while those of modern creation may be ex-
pees to be distinct. Furthermore, the old species may be expected
to have more power of living under varied influences, and, therefore,
to be more variable in shape, and more widely diffused than those
more constant and local in their characters. The history of British
shells, which are more thoroughly known than those of any other
district in the world, furnishes. many instructive instances of these
facts. In Mr. Searles Wood’s work on the Crag Mollusca* the newer
tertiaries are divided into the Coralline crag, the Red crag, and the
Mammaliferous crag, (answering perhaps to the Miocene, Pleiocene,
* Published in three parts by the British Paleontographical Society, of which a copy
is in the Smithsonian Liban
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. 201
and Pleistocene of American authors,) in each of which we have
species represented still living in the same seas or in the Mediter-
ranean or Boreal districts. If the species is in mature vigor, it may
still be found widely diffused. If, on the other hand, it be dying out
in its general area, it may preserve a lingering existence in very
remote localities which once were connected. Thus the Orbitolites
of the Paris basin is still living in the East Indies, although now
unknown in European seas; while the common gulf weed of the
modern Atlantic is believed by Prof. Forbes to be a further develop-
ment of the very same plant which floated (as now) in huge masses
in the ancient ocean of the Eocene.
When the tertiary fossils on each side of the Rocky mountains
shall have been thoroughly explored, when the age of these moun-
tains in the narrow isthmus shall be better understood, when the
deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific coast shall have
been well dredged, we may be in a position to speak with confidence
on the points of similarity and of contrast in the two oceans. At pres-
ent we can do little more than accumulate facts for future explanation.
In the case of Crepidula aculeata, however, the perfect specimens
brought by Mr. Dyson from Honduras correspond so exactly with
those from Mazatlan that it is hardly possible to resist the impression
that they are identical. Specimens from South Africa, from Sydney,
(Australia,) and from the Pacific islands also present no marks of
specific distinction. It appears to be one of the ubiquitous species,
of which several are found in various genera, and some are known to
have existed far back in time. Of this number is Saxicava arctica,
which has been found in all the three epochs of the English crag; is
now flourishing in the boreal as well as the temperate regions of Ku-
rope and America; has been found in the China seas and in Australia,
(C. testo, Forbes,) and attains respectable dimensions in the cavities of
our Mazatlan Spondylus. The Crepidula not only undergoes the
changes of form from nearly flat to deeply arched, from obese to elon-
gate, which every observer of the common slipper-limpet of the At-
lantic (C. fornicata, abundant from the icy shores of the St. Lawrence
to the tropical waters of the Gulf of Mexico) knows to prevail in that
species; but in sculpture it may either be crowded with short spines
(C. echinus, Brod. ;) or have afew radiating lines of longer spines with
nodulous interstices (C. hystrix, Brod.;) or be covered with an irregu-
lar mass of spiny knobs (normal state;) or lose the spines altogether
in roughened striew (smooth-water form;) or even become almost des-
titute of sculpture, like some northern specimens of the stunted va-
riety (C. Californica, Nuttall.) Through all these changes it is recog-
nized by its spiral stomatelloid growth, exemplifying a section of the
genus the extreme forms of which approach Trochita; and by its
beautifully waved deck-margin, which resembles a —*—. The
pointed centre, as the shell increases in size, generally leaves a char-
acteristic line on the surface of the deck, passing up to the vertex. But
often the point is rounded off, and even degenerates into a broad wave.
In one specimen, co-ordinate with this degeneracy, a sharp angle was
abnormally formed on one of the sides, so as to give the margin the
202 LECTURES ON
aspect of a brace turned the wrong way—thus —~—~ ; a very good
specific distinction, if no intermediate specimens had been found. A
series of deck margins, belonging to this and the following species,
will be found represented on plate 8 of the British Association report,
fiesial ys, Big: :
Fig. 2.
The best means of
distinguishing the
species of slipper-
limpets from each
other was found to be
Deck margins of Crepidula aculeata. The straight line represents the situa- the shape of the nu-
tion of the medial rib. clear portion and the
-mode of growth of the very young shell. Whatever be the abnormal
character of the adult, it did not appear that the offspring had a ten-
dency to the same degeneracy, but rather to the resumption of the
normal type. In the case of local varieties, the peculiarities are repro-
duced, because they depend on circumstances which affect all alike.
But in such cases as those under consideration, where the extremes
and all the intermediate forms of variation are found in the same local-
ity, the changes depending on the accidents of the individual, it is not yet
proved that the idiosyncracies are transmitted. In fact, the frequent
instances in which the individual itself changes its form and sculp-
ture at different periods of its life is against such a hypothesis. In
the higher animals, where there is, as it were, an innate vital power
shaped according to the species, with an additional power shaped ac-
cording to the individual, and these powers are to no slight extent
irrespective of the immediate external surroundings, there is a much
stronger tendency in the offspring to imitate the parent—as in the
black faces of the Southdown sheep, or the stump-tailed cats of the
Isle of Man. This tendency on the part of the parent to reproduce
itsel7, and even that particular phase of self which obtains at the pe-
riods of conception and gestation, culminates in man; who, of all ani-
mals, is the most independent of external circumstances. But, in the
lower forms of life, the nature both of the species and the individual
becomes more and more plastic, responding to the accidents of the
moment; there is accordingly proportionally less of the innate power
which leads to the transmission of variety. As instances of this plas-
ticity the reader is referred to Dr. W. B. Carpenter’s papers on Or-
bitolites and other forms of Rhizopods in the Transactions of the Royal
Society of London.
It is a fact worth noticing, that while some species of shells are
extremely variable, others, inhabiting the same localities, are very
constant in their characters. These are seldom widely diffused, and
are often rare in individuals. A few young specimens of such spe-
cies were found among the slipper-limpets on the Spondyli; but the
bulk of the specimens belonged either to ©. aculeata, which, as we
have seen, is a somewhat ubiquitous species, or to OG. nivea, which,
under many shapes and many names, spreads over the principal part
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA, 203
of the Pacific coast of America, representing there the very distinct*
C. fornicata of the Atlantic. Two extreme forms were first described
by Broderip, from Mr. Cuming’s collection: the one, C. squama, thin,
flat, and smooth; the other, C. lessonii, solid, often arched, and coy-
ered with concentric lamine. These sometimes appear at regular
intervals, and then seem to be the normal and unique sculpture of the
shell. It appears, however, that C. squama, (which is the calm water
form,) if exposed to rougher influences, arches its back, adds layer
after layer of porcellanous matter, hiding the color rays, and leaving
the margin like the edge of a quire of paper. Nowif, co-ordinate with
this laying on of extra coats, the creature advances forward, turning
up the previous portion, the form Lessonii is produced: in general
very roughly and irregularly, which is the C. striolata of Menke, but
sometimes very delicately, with fine sculpture between the lamina,
as described by Brod. It is common to find shells living for* some
time as squama, and suddenly plunging into the Lessonii types, with
one or two strong lamine. Every stage of intermediate form was
found among the Mazatlan shells. The degraded specimens of the
Chilian seas form a part of the C. protea of D’ Orbigny—a convenient
receptacle, as the type specimens in the British Museum show, for
the dead and puzzling shells which the author did not know where
else to place. The ordinary condition, intermediate between the
extremes first described, is the C. nivea of C. B. Adams. As it is
the normal state, the usual rules of priority have been set aside, and
C. nivea taken for the name of the species, leaving squama and Les-
sonii for the principal varieties. The White Slipper is known under
all forms (when in good condition) by its shaggy, light-green skin,
and by the very peculiar character of the nuclear whirls. These are
remarkably small, though the shell is large, standing out from the
surface, of areddish tinge, and crowded with regular transverse ribs.
The characters have Fig. 3.
been observed in
specimens of all the
forms, although the
influences which pro-
duce Lessonu, draw-
ing the shell away
from the vertex, gen-
erally lead to its ab-
rasion. Sometimes
the White Shpper
goes to live, when
young, inthe empty
burrow of a boring
mussel. In these
cases, as soon as it
has grown to the Crepidula nivea, jun.—Outside. a, nuclear spiral portion, ribbed; 4, 5,
width of its cave, margin of deck, seen through the transparent shell.
_
© It does not follow, because certain aberrant forms from different localities resemble
each other, that the species are] therefore identical, if the normal state and general habit
204 ; LECTURES ON
it is obliged to develop itself longitudinally, at the same time turn-
ing up its sides in the vain attempt to get more room. The corre-
sponding slipper limpet of the Californian coast appears to have a
special fancy for this mode of life, as most of the specimens sent have
assumed the form now described. It was first found by Mr. Nuttall,
and distributed by him as C. exuviata. It was so published in Dr,
Jay’s catalogue. Dr. Gould, however, figured and described it as C.
explanata. It had been previously figured by Valenciennes, in the
Voyage de la Venus, as C. perforans, that author supposing that it
had made the burrow in which it was found. The designation repre-
senting an untruth, it must yield to the latest name, which alone is
accompanied by a description.* A very singular groove, not found
in the Mazatlan specimens, appears in all the specimens of C. expla-
nata, and gives name to the shell. It is, however, a mere accident
of growth, differing in every individual, and often not appearing till
the animal approaches maturity. A specimen, 7m situ, in the Smith-
sonian Institution fortunately reveals the cause of this unique appear-
ance. The creature goes to live at the outer or pipe-end of the
burrew of a bivalve,t which remains at the other end after the ant-
mal has perished. The growth of the shell is normal till it has
attained the breadth of the pipe, be that greater or less. It then
increases down the pipe, the vertex of the shell being always turned
towards the outer end. There is no groove at this period of its
growth; and when the vertex is rubbed off, (as it generally is in elon-
gated specimens, ) it can hardly be distinguished from similar speci-
mens of the White Slipper. But as soon as it has reached the bottom
of the pipe, where the dead bivalve (generally a Petricola, a creature
with rather short siphons) still remains undecomposed, it suddenly
encounters an unexpected obstacle. It wedges itself under this (to
it) mighty globe, and turns its delicate mantle, exuding the shelly
skin, up the sides of the new-moon-shaped cavity, but in vain. There
is nothing for it but to retrace its steps, and back out. As it does
80, every new portion, formed under the arched bivalve, repeats the
previous concave impression, and the Grooved Slipper is the result.
The sharp instrument of the ‘‘explanation’’ of one author, and the
‘‘ perforation’ of the other, is nothing but the little rounded ‘‘ clam,’’
tightly wedged at the bottom of its burrow; and the same slipper-
limpet, freely developed under unconstrained influences, is probably
the C. navicelloides of Nuttall, to ascertain the characters of which
we are still in want of perfect specimens.
To return to the White Slippers on the back of our Thorn-Oyster.
Among the young shells which appeared to the naked eye to be the
are essentially distinct. Man is not a monkey, although certain unhappy idiots may
appear less highly organized than the lower order.
* It is greatly to be regretted that in this country, where type series, named by Mr.
Nuttall himself, were readily accessible, his labors should have been so often disregarded.
On the other side of the Atlantic they have frequently found their way into the mono-
graphs, but unfortunately too late for preservation.
{ These burrows will be found described at page 209, et seq.
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. ° 205
young ©. nivea were some which under the microscope displayed a
much larger but smooth and imbedded nuclear portion. On comparing
these with similarly situated specimens from the west coast of Africa
and from other places, I found them exactly identical. They pro-
bably belong to the C. unguiformis of Lamarck. Now, it so happens
that Provessor C. B. ee who in general described every shell of
Atlantic types as a new species, if found on the Pacific coast, in this
one instance felt constrained to adopt the Lamarckian name for the
unguiform slippers of Panama. It is not certain that in this one
instance he was correct. Some of the specimens he distributed under
that name are undoubtedly compressed and inverted forms of his own
C. nivea; for every species may take the form of unguiformis when
grown inside a dead spiral shell, especially with a hermit crab press-
ing against it. But there seems sufficient evidence to believe that
while each coast has its special species of slipper limpets, each one
of which assumes protean changes, there is this one species which
has been scattered, it may be in dead shells and on ballast, round the
world, and to be distinguished from all neighboring species by the
peculiar character of the nuclear whirls. It is too much the custom
among ‘‘collectors,’? and even among naturalists, to examine and
preserve only well-conditioned adult specimens. More may often be
learned from deformed and ‘‘ugly”’ shells; and especially from series
in all ages of development.
We might easily fill the lecture with additional particulars concern-
ing the shpper-limpets, but it is time to pass on to other matters.
There is another family, the bonnet-limpets, (Capulide,) nearly re-
lated to the cup-and-saucer tribe, but without the peculiar internal
appendage. Of these, two interesting species were found which
appear to be peculiar to the West tropical American fauna; while
others, the Hipponyx antiquatus, H. barbatus, and H. Grayanus, have
a very wide distribution in one or both hemispheres.
Differig considerably in shape, but presenting remarkable points
of similarity in the habits of the animals, are the Vermetide, (worm
shells, ) of which some interesting forms belonging to new types were
found on our Thorn- Oysters. At first sight these shells would not be
distinguished from the serpule, (shelly marine worms,) which are
found adhering to almost every dead shell from any sea-coast. The
shell-cases of both seem to crawl irregularly over the shell or stone
to which they adhere; and while some of the serpulz assume the re-
gular spiral form of the Mollusks, some of the Vermetids assume a
looseness of growth as great as that of any worm. And yet the
animals which have exuded these similar habitations from their soft
skins, are more widely removed, the one from the other, than lions
are from snakes or fishes. The Serpule belong to the same sub-
kingdom as the Insects and Crabs; and are, in fact, red-blooded worms
with ring-jointed bodies, without head or eyes, and with the nervous
system pretty regularly diffused. While the Vermetids claim kindred
with screw-shells and Periwinkles, having their little heads, with
feelers and armed tongue-ribbons, and their nervous power collected
into irregular knotted centres, The true aflinities with regard to
206 LECTURES ON
one species were long ago ascertained by Adanson, the very accurate
though eccentric naturalist of the west African coast. Since that
time the animals have been so far investigated that various genera
have been established by Dr. T. E. Gray and others. The typical
Vermetids begin life free, and so continue for some time, making a
delicate spiral shell exactly like Turritella. They then begin to tire
of their freedom, and long for some protecting support, They sud-
denly give up their beautiful spiral shape, and twist themselves any-
how in search of a secure foundation. Having moored themselves to
it for life they writhe in shelly contortions, crystallized (so to speak)
as soon as formed, during the remainder of their sedentary existence.
Of this tribe, the Ivory Worm-shell, (VY. eburneus,) furnished by our
Thorn-Oysters, is perhaps the most beautiful species.
But the other Vermetids for the most part only show their con-
nexion with spiral shells in the nuculear portion. These shells, in
the Indo-Pacific ocean, generally have a deeply concave operculum, *-
with only a loose trace of spiral development. Of these, many
specimens were brought home by the Exploring Expedition, unfortu-
nately without the animal. But it was found that though the Gulf
shells could hardly be distinguished from the Australian, their oper-
cula most resembled those of Turritella. This was the more remark-
able as the Turritelloid worin-shells have a very different operculum.
The new group was named Aletes, the ‘‘Wanderer.’’ It appears, how-
ever, not to wander from the west coast of America: those found
from the Mediterranean to the Pacific islands (as far as known) all
belonging to the concave type. Wandering among the Wanderers
are some equally large and equally highly-colored shells with an oper-
culum formed on a still more intricate pattern. From the horny plate
rise up two long processes branching exactly like stag’s horns. They
are made, bowever, by a headless annelid, and are not so much worm-
shells as shell-worms. The Annelids have generally an earthenware
texture; while the Vermetids are porcellanous. But on breaking
across some specimens of a very small species, closely though irregu-
larly twisted, I was surprised to find a structure which had not before
been described in any recent spiral shell. An extremely thin lamina,
like the deck of the slipper-limpets, proceeded from one wall of the
shell, doubled itself over at a right angle, and met a similar lamina
proceeding from below, so as almost to divide the body of the animal
into two parts one within the other.
c
Petaloconchus macrophicEema-sqmection across the shell at three periods of growth: a, one lamina first com-
mencing, or ending; 6, upper Jamina prolonged, lower commencing; c, upper lamina doubled over to meet
the lower, while a rudimentary one appears between. ‘
a a a
= The operculum is a horny or shelly appendage to the end of the foot, drawn in last
when the animal retires into its shell, and thus protecting it. It may be called in com-
mon language the trap-door or toe-nail.
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. 207
This singular structure, to which there is some approach in the
fossil genus Nerinza, ran along most of the whirls, becoming evan-
escent in the earlier and later portions. On examining similar shells
from other seas, I found species in all the principal zoological
provinces, each characterized by a different growth of the internal
lamine. They had escaped observation before, J presume, because
of the love entertained by collectors for ‘‘perfect’’ shells. Mr.
Woodward, the author of the invaluable ‘‘ Manual of the Mollusca,”
(Weale & Co., London; 3 parts,) enabled me to affiliate them toa
genus established by Dr. Lea, (under the name Petaloconchus, ) for a
tertiary fossil of the United States, in which, however, the peculiar
character is but slightly developed.
If time allowed we might dwell on a number of other interesting
shells which were found either living on the backs of the Thorn-oyster
shells, or accidentally lodged between the foliations of the valves.
’ We must confine our attention to a few. Among them were eleven
species of Chitonide or Woodlouse shells, of which eight were new.
This strange family of Mollusks, while agreeing in many essential
particulars with the true limpets, present some curious points of
analogy with the articulated animals, having their skin-skeleton
broken up into joints, and exhibiting a symmetrical and double arrange-
ment of the organs of the body. Among them was one specimen of
extraordinary beauty, though not much more than the tenth of an
inch in length. Under the microscope each of the valves displayed
a very elaborately ornamental sculpture, richly tinged with green,
purple, pink, and brown; their shape, with the pointed beak and the
transparent wing like processes at the side, bore no very fanciful
resemblance to a bird in flight; while the thick skin in which they
are imbedded was covered with minute transparent prisms, and at
regular intervals with what the microscope revealed as clusters of
white crystals, glittering in the reflected sunlight lke the finest
specimens of arragonites. The same species has just been sent to
the Smithsonian Institution, adhering to similar shells from Cape St.
Lucas, by that indefatigable collector, Mr. Xanthus.
Sheltered from rough usage between two layers of shell Was a new
form of Isognomon, which may be called, in English, the ‘‘ shoulder-
of-mutton shell with the double face ;’ having one of its valves
smooth, while the other has beautiful radiating lines covered with
imbricated scales. These creatures, along with the Pinna shells,
(which, like the Spondyli, have preserved the same name since the
days of Aristotle,) the Hammers, and the Pearl-oysters, moor them-
selves to fixed objects by a byssus or anchor cable of their own spinning.
Whenever the most minute fragment of shell belonging to any species
of this family is examined under the micrescope it always presents
a prismatic cellular structure, like basaltic rocks in miniature, or like
the ‘‘float’’ of a belemnite. When a large old Pinna has long been
exposed to the action of the weather, its surface will crumble into
these prisms in the hand. They are formed by the breaking down of
a longitudinal row of ordinary cells, like the ducts of plants. It appears
that all shells are originally formed by the aggregation of cells in the
208 LECTURES ON
same way, but it is seldom that they are so distinctly marked. This
affords a safe clue to the true affinities of certain Aviculoid shells
found in the palewozoic rocks, among the earliest forms of life in the
Lamellibranchiate or Plate-gilled class. They are uniformly nacreous
within, and it is found that the pearly lustre is due to the minute and
irregular corrugation of the extremely thin film of animal matter
which separates each layer of the shell ; this membrane preserving
the same pearly lustre after the shelly matter has been removed by
acid, but losing it when the corrugations are pressed out between two
pieces of glass.*
Another very rare and remarkable bivalve found sparingly on the
Thorn-Oysters, was the Placunanomia pernoides, a transition form
between the true adhering oysters and those which fasten them-
selves by a solid plug passed loosely through a round hole in the
shell. I had long known this species, (which is so different from any
other that a distorted individual was described as a new genus by ~
Dr. T. E. Gray,) having observed it on the back of some very large
oysters, of which a large supply was sent to the Bristol Institution, by
the captain of a ship engaged in the West African trade. There is
no doubt whatever that they came from the Senegambian coast. The
oyster itself, (O. iridescens, Gray,) possesses very distinctive charac-
ters—a rare thing in that genus ; and other specimens from the same
coast are preserved in the British Museum. ‘To the disturbance of
the prevailing theories on geographical distribution, I found the same
gigantic oyster among the Mazatlan shells, accompanied by the same
Placunanomia, and by a boring mussel, (Lithophagus aristatus, ) which
is abundant on the warmer western coasts of Europe and Africa. I
believe that neither of these shells are found in the Caribbean sea ;
and this is only confirmatory of other evidence, that just as some forms
of life are peculiar to islands, not being found on contiguous continents;
so others may have been created with a special adaptation to coasts
facing the west, while others prefer the currents from the east. Those
to whose great labors and critical acumen we owe the present state
of our knowledge on the distribution of forms of life in time and
space, have perhaps sometimes considered principles as established
which rest on, as yet, insufficient data. It becomes us to pause before
we arrive at conclusions. One little fact, like the finding of the fossil
Malea ringens on the Atlantic side of Central America, may open the
door to a new course of research, rich in results, important alike to
geology and to recent zoology, and at the same time close it to very
ingenious theories that have before been considered unassailable.
Our principal duty, in the present state of our knowledge, at any rate
in Malacological science, is the patient, thorough, and honest investi-
gation of facts; guided, indeed, by previously developed theories,
or by those which we are ourselves eliminating, but in no sense con-
trolled by them. And in doing so, it is only a false modesty or reverence
for authority which would prevent us from following the advice
* Full particulars on the microscopic structure of shells will be found in Dr. W. B. Car-
penter’s Report to the British Association, 1844, p. 1, seq.
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA, 209
repeatedly given by the late Professor EH. Forbes to a beginner,
‘‘follow your own judgment;’’ or, as expressed in the phraseology of
an American politician, ‘‘be sure you are right, then go ahead.”
But let us leave the surface of our Thorn Oy ster, and examine what
lies hidden in the ponderous substance of the valves. If the outside
swarms with life, it is only the portal to the vitality which teems
within. We will not speak yet of the worm-eaten passages, the
entrances to which often riddle the external surface, making it look
like solid sponge, but we will direct attention to certain ominous-
looking holes, bearing the same relation to the oyster that the
entrance to the great cave does to the State of Kentucky. (We may
be allowed to compare small things with great, for in nature all small
things are in one sense great; in another, all great things small.)
These cavern-mouths are of various shapes, but e evidently not irregular.
Some of them are always round, others always oval, others 8- shaped.
Out of some of the windows, opened but a little way, may be seen
protruding a pair of stony lips, belonging to a mouth so straight in
outline that, according to physiognomical diagnosis, its possessor must
be of secretive turn of mind. The diagnosis is true. Other mouths
protrude from other holes, but with bird-like bills projecting, duck-
shaped, as though to zobble the delicate morsels of the sea, or long and
twisted, ta in an attitude of defiance. But some display neither
lips nor beaks; which after all have no conhexion with mouths, but
rather w ih noses, as will be presently explained. Let us take our
glass, and for once imitate King George IIL, as described by Peter
Pindar, and stare down the vacant holes ‘like a mag ple peeping into
a marrow bone.’? The wise bird can see nothing but darkness. As
the awkward bulk of our bodies precludes our entering the dark
chambers of the cave with lighted lamps, we must find other means
of exploring the penetralia. Let us set to work like geologists, with
hammer and chisel, and not grudge an hour or so in observing how
the creatures of a former generation spent their lives, like the Kings
of Egypt, in making their own sepulchres. Carefully we remove
layer after layer of thie oyster shell, and lay bare the underground
passage. Its floor and sides and roof are all wrinkled, presenting in
miniature the appearances often caused by the running water in the
great caves of this country. It is not wi ater, however, that has so
regularly roughened these. And why is it divided all along, like the
Thames tunnel, by a stalactitic ridge ‘along the upper surface, almost
meeting > cenen layer of what might he thought stalagmite rising
from below ? Suddenly it makes a turn. We have chiseled through
the colored portion of the shell, which we find riddled and compara-
tively soft; now we are on a bed of solid white marble. Indeed, as
re try our chisel against it, we find it much harder than marble or
even than the ancient limestone. Life, though it be that of the tender
oyster, can build more solid structures than the ocean, with its mighty
force of waves. Weare obliged to spend some time in chiseling shafts,
levelling mounds, and preparing a field of operations to follow ‘the new
direction. The bipartite rugose tunnel suddenly widens, and we find
ourselves in a spacious cave beautifully smooth and regular. Its shape
14
210 LECTURES ON
is oval; and loosely reposing within is a bivalve shell of peculiarly
graceful shape and delicate sculpture, with abundant room to open
and turn round at the pleasure of the ammal. This isa ‘‘clam,’’ with
very long projecting siphon pipes, which fit into the two lobes of the
long passage. bey are covered with a rough skin, which produces
the wrinkles on the surface of the shelly layer. One of these siphons
‘is constantly drawing water into the gill cavity, while the other carries
back the waste. When in the cavity, the delicate frills which form
the ‘‘plate- -gills,’’ characterizing the class Lamellibranchiata,* float
loosely in the water, aerating the blood in its intricate labyrinth of
veins. At the same time the large, flapping lips, which are so enor-
mously developed in the bivalves, (like the nose processes in the bats, )
move through the water, tasting its infusorial contents, and choosing
from among them what they shall convey to the mouth, whence a
highly organized digestive, circulatory, and generative system is at
work to transform the animalcules into molluscous life and shell. The
animalcules thus transformed excavate these wonderful caverns; how,
we shall presently inquire. Here is a living creature entombed from
its earliest days, or rather voluntarily entombing itself; hidden from
view and from the society of its kindred; maintaining no more con-
nexion with the outer world, except at the pipe ends, than a fossilin the
paleeozoic rocks; and yet see how its wants are all provided for by this
one exception. That little 8-shaped hole maintains within a structure
of such delicate beauty, with its tissues, nerves, blood-vessels, secre-
tions, respiratory, and reproductive apparatus, that the due description
of them would require a volume to itself, with an atlas of plates requiring
the utmost skill of the artist, as well as the most delicate manipulation
of the microscopist. Although at the end of a long and often twisted
gallery, how fresh is everything in that inner chamber! The best
cleaned dwelling room in regal palaces is impure by contrast. No
flies make spots upon the ceiling, or mice leave their unfragrant odors
behind the wainscot; no closing of windows retains the impure air,
or sting of mosquitos disturbs the equanimity of Gastrochcenoid exist-
ence. If our solitary friend has not the pleasures of eyesight, he never
dreads to see his enemy; nor has he once suffered from ache in head,
tooth, or ear. He has an inner hght of happiness, though his body
dwells in the profoundest darkness. He has no more trouble than a
child for the supply of his temporal wants. The all-pervading care
* The name Acephala has precedence, but expresses nothing distinctive. All the lower
classes of Mollusks and Articulates, as well as the whole of the Radiates, are destitute of that
to us necessary appendage. The proper name of every individual (the genus and species)
should follow the modified law of priority. But classification is a matter of opinion, and
must change (with the nomenclature founded on it) with advancing knowledge. ‘The name
Conchifera was applied ky Lamarck to the Lamp shells as much as to the Uockles. When
these are divided into two classes, it is well to find names which sufficiently express the
main differences between them. ‘J he Terebratula breathes through pores in the surface of
the mantle, while the Anomia, which Linnzus (following the best light of his time) placed
in the same genus, breathes by overlapping lamina. Blainville’s names, Lamellibranchiata
and Pallicbranchiata, exactly express this difference; while, asin the case of the Dibranchiate
and Tetrabranchiate ‘Cephalopods, these gill differences are co-ordinate with others of great
importance in the whole economy of the animals. The name Brachiopoda is very good,
though it does not bring out the contrast.
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. pa |
of the mighty Father places what to him is the choicest food before
his very mouth. He does not cry and suffer hunger like the young
lions, but, like some mentioned in the Scriptures, he does not want any
good thing. He has the pleasures of childhood, of youth, and of
mature life. He emerges from the maternal egg, and finds himself
swimming about in the mighty ocean. He lies in his transparent —
cradle, like the hollow of two fairy hands joined together to nurse the
little str anger, and enjoys the opening and shutting of his tiny valves
as much as any infant catching at the moon. His mother’s rest is
disturbed by no plaintive wail, nor is her hfe shortened by minister-
ing to its diseased wants. Our little Gastrochena sails on in the
ocean of life with a literal placidity, realizing the most perfect descrip-
tions of the novelist or the sweetest dreams of the sleeping child. The
clairvoyant is said to have his eye-sense diffused over the membranes
of his body; so does our infant see with the tissues of the fairy mantle
in which he lies enveloped. No storms ruffle the tranquillity of his
temper; no sudden frost cuts off his early bloom. He breathes, he eats,
and pe erforms all the other functions of life, as it were, unconsciously,
simply happy in being alive. How the Lord has filled that mighty
purifier which covers three-fourths of the surface of our globe, even
in the darkness of its depths, with life and enjoyment! But the happy
days of childhood are crowded into a few short hours; fulfil their term,
and pass. Ah, young Gastrochena, thou art tired so soon of freedom?
Like the slave foolishly tempted away from his master under the
glittering idea of liberty, thou hast tired of that bauble, and art going
back, a willing captive tillthy death? ‘* Not so,’’ answer the instincts
that have been slumbering in that transparent form; ‘‘but I have a
purpose to fulfil in life; I must work.’’ And pray what art thou going
to do, thou tiny living skin? ‘‘I must dig; I must riddle out those
living rocks that are growing up beneath me, and threaten to choke
up the very channels “of the ‘harbor. But for me and such as I, even
man may hereafter be stopped in the mighty works which he carries
on in the divine image. But for me and suchas I, his vessels, fraught
with the material uses of his fellows, and with the evangelists of
eternal truth, would be wrecked on sunken rocks where his charts
described old soundings of sufficient depth.’? Thy idea is grand,
thou floating jelly; but how wilt thou accomplish these great things?
‘He that implanted such ideas within me, will He not work through
me, and enable even my frail substance to accomplish the allotted
portion of the task? I must dig. Behold my foot!”
As we look through the glass in our aquarium (that is to be, when
the school of science is established on the shores of the sea of Cortez,)
and see the tiny creature turning towards us the wide pear-shaped
opening in its furrowed valves, ‘and from a chink in the protecting
mantle protrude a still more tiny, finger-like organ, calling it its
‘‘foot,’? the unbeliever might be tempted to scoff, and even the
reverent student of nature to doubt its powers. But our infant
Gastrochena pays no heed,-and steadily sets himself to fulfil his mis-
sion. Being heartily tired of a mere sportive existence—well enough,
212 LECTURES ON
for a time, that the species may become properly diffused—he now
seeks a home of work and rest. He swims to the bottom, and alights
on the oyster bed. Admiring the many caves already disintegrated
by the action of other living creatures, he chooses one for his abode.
If no such cave exists, he shelters himself behind a corner and sets
to work to make one. Fancy a man on a desert island planting him-
self against a rock, with a deliberate purpose of hollowing out a cave
to det in by rubbing with his hand or foot! And yet this is what
the young Gastrocheena proposes to himself, when the ‘*days of
helpless infancy’? are hardly ended. And he does it. Those who
have witnessed the polishers of fancy marbles smoothing hard stones
by rubbing them in their hands may form some idea how the Gastro-
cheena does it. <A soft living tissue 1s always stronger than a hard
dead one. The coral-polype weathering the bung breakers proves
how a feeble vital force may resist a mighty energy which is only
mechanical. Long as the boring bivalves have been known and
studied, their mode of operation is still matter of conjecture. But
the study of our oyster burrows threw some lght on the dark places.
If the account here given be incorrect, let naturalists, with the marine
aquaria that are to be, correct it. It used to be supposed that they
dissolved away the rock by secreting acid; but not only was the said
acid never detected among the secre Hons of the body, it was also
suggested that the same solvent which destroyed the calx of the cavity
would also destroy that of the shell itself. The hypothesis, however,
answered sufficiently well so long as the borers were only found in
shells or limestone rocks. But at last they were found burrowing in
hard, primitive silex, which no acid could touch.* It was then sug-
gested that the animal spun itself round and round, like a tetotum, or
backwards and forwards, like an awl, and so filed away the matrix.
The delicate imbrications on the valves of the Pholas tribe seemed to
favor this view; but even here we should expect to find the fragile
file worn out by rubbing, which is not the case, the points in well-
conditioned specimens being as little injured as the remainder of the
shell. Moreover, it is the open, gaping portion of the shell that is
turned first towards the resisting medium. Besides, even if the
Pholads were proved thus to bore, the Gastrochenids are generally
devoid of sculpture, except lines of growtb; the Lithophagi are often
so twisted that they cannot move coun in Ae holes; and the bur-
rows of many of the Petricolidx are heart-shaped, like the valves. If
not the only agent of disintegration, I am convinced that in all cases
the foot is the principal weapon of attack. This is known to be often
strengthened by silicious particles, and I found its dried remains, as
hard as horn, in adult burrows of (I think) every species of borer
found in the Spondylus. This organ, which forms the principal part
of the solid substance of the animal in all the burrowing and leaping
ribes, is variously modified either to scoop out soft sand with
# = A very beautiful specimen of Pholas in its flinty home will be found in the State
Museum, at Albany.
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. 213
astonishing rapidity, as in the Razor shells; or to crawl slowly, as the
River Mussels; or to spin an anchor cable, as the true Mussels; or to
jump, as the Cockles.* In the Borers it answers the purpose of
grindstone, scraper, and polisher. In Gastrochaena its comparatively
small size is compensated for by the freedom with which the creature
can move round and round in the capacious chamber. It is supported
by a beautiful system of muscles which are moored to the fulcrum of
the shell, and the nutritive material is abundantly poured into it to
supply the waste. Our little tunneler sets to work with all the ardor
of youth. His feeble finger, more delicate than any lady’s, and as
little used to toil, handles. the rough surface of his cave, presses and
rubs, rubs and presses, and finds the occupation as congenial to his
instincts as whipping a wooden horse is to a little boy. His skin
hardens with exercise. The invisible animalcules contribute their
quota of silex and cartilage. The work of life has commenced in
earnest. Would that we men, who have.offered to us the grandest
and the noblest destiny, had but one small fraction of the untiring
perseverance of these headless and uncared-for hermits. How often
we talk of drunkards and debauchees reducing themselves to the level
of the beasts. It is a libel on the brute creation. They fulfil their
mission. Even the httle Gastrochena is obedient to the will of the
Lord, and is the instrument to accomplish his work. It is man alone
that is disobedient.
The work progresses. The terrestrial changes of day and night
do not reach the ocean-covered cavern. But “still, in the absolute
darkness of that solitude, tired nature craves and ‘finds her stated
intervals of repose. The Gastrochena draws its finger-foot within its
mantle, like the squirrel rolling itself in its protecting tail, and goes
to sleep. So does the Laplander know the time of night, though the
unsetting sun is high above the horizon; and the spiritual world has
its Sabbaths of repose.
As our bivalve wears out his tissues so fast in his hard labor, it is
necessary that the renewing functions of assimilation and respiration
should be carried forward with considerable vigor. This is provided
for by the long siphon pipes, already mentioned. The creature gets
his air and victuals from behind, while he is at work in front. Unceas-
ingly he finds himself surrounde 2d, even permeated, with a nutritive
and cleansing atmosphere. The active muscles at the extremity of
the pipes are forever inducing currents in the watery medium, both
“My friend Mr. S. Stutchbury, formerly curator of the Bristol Institution, England, when
dredging in the Australian seas, had the good fortune to obtain the first living specimen
of Trigonia, a beautiful and remarkable tribe of animals which, after first appearing in the
secondary rocks, culminated in the higher oolites and cretaceous rocks, and suddenly disap-
peared in the tertiaries. He placed his solitary treasure on the middle of the rower’s seat,
when suddenly the blind and apparently passive little creature opened its valves, put out its
leaping-pole, and in an instant, by one spring, had cleared the side of the boat and was safe in
its native element. Specimens may be seen in the Smithsonian Museum, obtained by Dr,
Stimpson. This is only one among the many indications that in the Australian regions we
have the last remains of peculiar types of organic life, which in other portions of the world
have given place to more perfect developments.
214 LECTURES ON
inhalent and excurrent. Could we see in those dark regions of the
abyss, and could we make the flow of water evident by colored par-
ticles, we should wonder to see such a commotion going on around
our oyster valve; so many eddies, whirlpools, ‘‘lost channels,’’ con-
flicting currents, produced by hidden but evidently powerful causes—
the muscular energy of the soft creatures inside the rocky holes. It
is said by sanitary reformers that the great questions of public health
resolve themselves into two problems—how to bring pure water in,
and how to earry foul water out. These problems our Gastrochena
has most satisfactorily solved. The pipe muscles are the engine,
pumping the water at high pressure; the siphon is the main which
keeps the reservoir within on fall supply; from this the service pipes
of blood vessels branch to every atom of the body. Dissolved in
the water is the ever-vivifying oxygen, and swimming in every drop
are the dainty infusoria. The water, cleared of its nourishment by
the net-like lips, and of its renewing functions by the reticulated
films which float like fairy tissues in the living stream, (the plate gills
of our bivalve,) now receives its dose of heavy carbonic acid, as well
as the wasted tissues of the body. Meanwhile it has been washing
round the house, and has received its particles of almost invisible
dust which the young scraper has cleared out. The sand of the street,
as well as the drainage of the house, having been thus poured into
the sewer, it is at once flushed out by the same high pressure of the
incurr ent w ater, and is expelled by the muscular force of the second
siphon. Thus the house is always washed, the drains always cleansed,
the air always fresh, the table ever spread with dainties, and our
tunneler finds his refuse always carried away without the expense of
tram-road or even the labor of wheelbarrow. Truly, nature’s works
are as perfect in their minutiz as in the guiding of the stars.
As the animal increases in size his instincts (unlike those of many
other borers) lead him to work deeper, and retire farther from the
outer world. He adopts the sentiment of La Fontaine’s hermit rat,
‘Les choses d’ici bas ne me regardent plus.’? As he advances, he
carefully fills up the empty space behind with layer after layer of
shelly matter, lest the spawn of obnoxious individuals should enter
and occupy the deserted mansion. Occasionally some unlooked for
event disturbs the even tenor of his existence. His diffused sensa-
tions, not specialized into the functions of sight and hearing, become
conscious of the slow but steady approach “of some intruder on his
peace; it may be his brother, working from the opposite side of the
oyster; it may be a cre Series of some other race. It is all one to
him; he displays neither blind partialities, nor special aversions; all
he asks is to be let alone; and he gives his own answer by making a
sudden turn. His neighbor does the s same, and the great event of
their two lives is over. They never fight.
The same siphonal currents carry forth j in their season the fecund-
ating influences which renew the species. They enter the branchial
cavity of the other sex; whence, also, the matured eggs are carried
orth
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. 215
We have taken a peep into the 8-shaped holes on the back of our
oyster; let us now see to what differences Fig. 5.
the round holesarean index. Thecreatures
which leave these as their means of com-
munication with the outer world were called
Pholas by Linneus, and were the first
among the borers (if we except the ship-
worm, which long ago acquired even a
political importance from its ravages in
the Holland dykes) to attract the Attention
of naturalists. They are eaten on the
south coast of England, where they are
called Piddocks; and are esteemed a dainty
morsel on the Californian shores, where
they go by the name of date Boh, Our
oyster borers belong to the section called
‘‘Cup-pholas,”’ from the capacious cup-like
appendage of delicate skin which rises
from the end of the shell in the English Gastrochena, in situ.
species, (Pholadidea papyracea, ) like a @ a, spondylus valve, broken across; &,
goblet resting on an alabaster pe edestal bivalve shell in its burrow, valves closed,
? showing large gape; g g, shelly lining of
and furnishes a receptacle into which the previous exeavation ; A, siphon pipes, with
&-shaped opening; 4 {, inhalent and expel-
siphon pipes may be withdrawn from in- tant currents.
jury. ‘To find this delicate fabric, with its translucent, elegantly-
sculptured valves, in the middle of the hard silicious rocks of the
New Red sandstone, must have been a puzzle both to the acid and the
valve-file theories. Our oyster-lover (other devourers of oysters de-
light themselves in the ‘‘savory fish;’’ this creature devours the shell)
is fashioned in a somewhat coarser mould: j is somewhat wedge-shaped,
with the thin end of the wedge turned away from: the seat of boring;
and, instead of one delicate capacious goblet, has a series of cup-
Jamine, laid one over the other, on each valve, like the shingles or
tiles of a roof. Their extremely delicate structure would fare but
badly were the tetotum or the awl process the principal source of
oyster abrasion. During the adolescent or boring stage, the two
valves only touch each other at the point of the hinge. (where the
cartilage and teeth, so characteristic of ordinary bivalves, do not
exist, ) “and at a stout projecting knob on the ventral margin. It is
evident that then the powerful muscles of the foot, emerging from
the large anterior gape in the shell, have ‘‘ample room and. verge
enoug h? to work from their hinge fulcrum, which is strengthened in
this family alone by a long spoon- “shaped clavicle, enabling the animal
to direct its operations in many different points of attack. Having
rubbed and scooped all round in one direction, the valves have power
to twist and direct the undermining engine to another portion of the
cave. But when the creature has attained maturity, (and there are °
dwarfs and giants among these, as among men, it being common to
find adults not one-fourth the size of more highly pampered favorites
of the ocean,) it not only, like the Gastrochwna, and other Pholads,
lives retired from the world in its own burrow, but it lives retired
216 LECTURES ON
from its own burrow. First it closes in the enormous gape, that
capacious portal for the egress of the foot, with an unsculptured
layer of shelly matter; then it lays 1 ina plank (so to speak) between
the ventral knob and the ‘‘cups,’’? and another on the back extending
from the hinge; a plug is securely wedged between this and the beaks
of the valves; and, finally, the principal part of the outside of the
valves, which is not already protected by the cups, is coated over
with large ‘‘accessory plates,’’ which, even in their small develop-
ment, as shown in the European species, caused Linneus to group
them with the limpet-like Chitons and the crab-like Barnacles 1n the
heterogeneous order of ‘‘multivalves.’’
These accessory plates so tightly wedge the creature into one par-
ticular position that 1t seems impossible for it even to twist round;
and in extricating specimens from the matrix it is hard to avoid
breaking the Shell. When a burrow is broken across longitudinally,
a stratified gray lining is seen in the part between the siphon pipes
and the tangent to tie burrow. ‘Phe, same part in Gastrochena is
filled with shelly layers; but the Pholad appears to swallow, and, so
to speak, digest the abraded matter, as he goes along, giving the
matter out again in this altered form. In addition to this singular
structure, the burrows, especially of aged individuals, frequently dis-
play an irregular chamber communicating with the furthest extremity,
the sides of which are’ fashioned in very coarse wrinkles, presenting
very much the aspect of some of the water-worn chambers of the
Mammoth Cave in extreme miniature. Now in these cavities 1s fre-
quently found the hard, black, horny substance before alluded to,
which I take to be the dried foot of the animal, and which is probably
strengthened with silicious particles. +
The only explanation I can offer of these curious excavations,
which have never before been observed, is, that the foot having lived
an active life so long, but being no longer aeeelet for the economy of
the animal, does not feel easy in subsiding into a state of complete
inactivity, but edges its way through-the very narrow anterior chink
(or more likely remains permanently outside it) and employs itself in
moving backwards and forwards, thus producing the irregular wrin-
kles. Sometimes these ‘‘ foot- prints” make their way to the inner
surface of the Spondylus valve; in which case the oyster lays a coat-
ing of shell over it. The foot wears away this, and the oyster lays
= Tt is very easy, from our advanced point of view, to show the strange errors of the
very artificial system of classification which Linnzeus devised for the Mollusks; far more
untruthful, though not more artificial, than his arrangement of the plants. It was all,
however, that we had a right to expect at that time; and necessarily resulted from the ‘‘ col-
lector spirit”’ which had prevented the shells from being regarded as a part only of a living
animal. His arrangement of these animals (apart from the shells) prefigured the classes of
Cuvier, which still maintain their place, if not their rank. If we are disposed to find fault,
let it not be with the old naturalists, whose works it were, perhaps, better for science some-
times to disregard; but with those who now persist in adhering to the Lamarckian ideas,
which are quite as much behind our present knowledge as Linneus was behind his stand-
point. The last six years have, perhaps, contributed more to our knowledge of Malacology
than the whole of previous researches put together.
t Any chemist desiring to analyze the gray lining or this black matter will find specimens
preserved for that purpose in the Albany Museum.
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA, 217
on another coat, and the process goes on alternately till one of the
party dies. The warty excrescences thus produced, often with the
black foot at the top, if the oyster has died first, present a strange
appearance inside the Spondylus valve, till the true cause of them is
discovered. The same process from outside the pearl oysters or ear-
shells produces the irregular pearls which resemble a human foot,
(said to be a sovereign remedy against gout,) a horse’s head, &c.
Time would fail to describe Fig. 6.
the heart-shaped burrows of
Petricola robusta, and the cylin-
drical cavities of several species
of Lithophagus, all of which
have their ‘‘noses’’ or breath-
ing end of the shells close to the
outside. The Lithophagus or
Boring-mussel tribe are remark-
able for arranging the abraded
matter outside the horny skin
enveloping their fragile shells;
each species according to a fixed
pattern. One of these, before
mentionedas being found abund- Haranhalar tneitu.
antly on the west coast of Spain a, a, Spondylus valve broken across ; b, the shell in its
: burrow ; c, the cup lamine; d,d, accessory valves; e, por-
and Africa, but not (so far as tion of the shell whieh gapes in the adolescent state, filled
known) in the Caribbean fauna, ¥jt ty agus fsremuar fo coy es gray ‘unig
makes a long pair of twisted lent and expellant currents.
prongs, which look (when we examine the shell alone) as though
they were formed for the express purpose of boring; unfortunately,
however, lke analogous ‘‘boring plates’? in the ship-worm, they
are situated at the outer, not the inner portion of the burrow. They
seem connected only with the breathing apparatus. One new type
gf Boring-mussels was found having siphon pipes hke Gastrochena,
but smooth inside (Leiosolenus. )
_ After these borers have accomplished their work of destruction on
the hard fabric of the oyster banks, other bivalves come and live in
the empty burrows, which they are often thought to have themselves
excavated. They are, however, more truly zestlers than borers; and
as several individuals often crowd themselves into a narrow cavity, they
become very irregular in form, and have been divided up unnecessa-
rily into species. Such are the Saxicave, Cumingiz, Sphenia, &c.,
as well as the more regular Kelliade and Diplodontide. Occasionally
several different kinds are found, one inside the other, each having
gone to live inside the skeleton of his predecessor. Thus nature fills
up death with life.
But the boring bivalves are not the only, perhaps not the principal
agents of destruction on the oyster valves. The whole colored layer
is generally found riddled with a labyrinth of galleries excavated by
humble worms, and still more humble perforating sponges. These
galleries again, after the death of their makers, form the pasture
fields for many tiny species of Gasteropods, the largest of which are
218 / LECTURES ON
only about a line in length and a few hundredths of an inch across,
which craw] about browsing on the minute alge and nullipores, or
quietly inhaling their infusorial food; and also ‘the hunting grounds
for equally tiny but predacious tribes which feed upon their vege-
tarian neighbors. Of all these, and especially the very interesting
tribe of Cacide, full particulars will be found in the “ Descrip-
tive Catalogue of the Mazatlan Mollusca.’?
The foregoing i is offered as a sketch of an investigation carried on
by an ordinary student without scientific name or talents, in order to
show that any one of ordinary patience and accuracy may do some-
thing to advance our knowledge of the works of God. It is by en-
deavoring to work out one province carefully, however humble that,
province be, that the interests of science are best advanced. There
is no one but gas the materials for some branch of inquiry within his
reach; he has only to make choice, educate his eye, observe patiently,
and be faithful. Those endowed with the peculiar faculty for elimi-
nating and combining already existing details, may construct the
beautiful fabric of general truths; but if this be attempted before we
have obtained the. facts with sufficient accuracy, the fabric must
crumble away. The humblest fact duly placed in connexion with its
kindred facts, is of far more value than a grand but hasty generali-
zation. The coral polypes build more islands than the voleanic fires.
The noble science of Geology, ably defined as dealing with un-
limited time as Astronomy deals with space, cannot be prosecuted
with certainty without the study of recent shells, especially in con-
nexion with their station and geographical distribution. The micros-
copic species of the Tertiary formations have lately been much
studied in Europe, and will, doubtless, soon meet with the attention
they deserve in the vast beds of this continent. These will have to
be carefully compared with existing forms, both in the Caribbean and
West American faunas, and it is not improbable that facts may be
eliminated from therm not less important than the discovery of thé
Atlantic Malea ringens before quoted. The study of recent and of
fossil shells are but branches of the same inquiry, like the study of
the fossils of two consecutive formations. No one department can be
safely investigated without a knowledge of the others, any more than
one existing geographical fauna can be ascertained without the rela-
tions supplied by other faunas. To the ordinary student a general
knowledge of the whole subject, as it is presented in time and space,
should lay the foundation for the special knowledge of his particular
department. By this means his study of the details will be conducted
in an enlarged spirit, and presented in that form in which it can best
be collated with other ascertained facts.
The study of Natural History is commended not only to those of
leisure and abundant resources, but especially to those busily oc-
cupied in the works and cares of life.
‘“ Nature never did betray
The heart that loved her; ’t is her privilege,
Through all the scenes of this our life, to lead
From joy to joy. For she can so inform
The mind that is within us, so impress
THE SHELLS OF THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA. 219
With quietness and beauty, and so feed
With lofty thoughts, that neither evil tongues,
Rash judgments, nor the sneers of selfish men,
Nor greetings where no kin {ness is, nor all
The dreary intercourse of daily life,
Shall e’er prevail against us ; nor destroy
Our cheerful faith that all which we behold
Is full of blessings.’’— Wordsworth’s lines on Tintern Abbey.
Not merely is the study of the works of God a constant source of
the most delightful relaxation in the regular concerns of life; but in
those times, which come to almost all, ‘of deep sorrow, of physical
prostration, or of unfitness, from whatever cause, for the discharge
of ordinary duties, the words of Coleridge speak the literal truth
in the living experience of many:
‘* With other ministrations thou, O Nature,
Healest thy wandering and distempered child. a
Thou pourest on him thy soft influences,
Thy sunny hues, fair forms and breathing sweets,
Thy melody of woods, and winds, and waters,
Till he relent, and can no more endure
To be a jarring and a dissonant thing,
Amid the general dance and minstrelsy,’
LATEST RESEARCHES OF M. MADLER
RELATING TO THE GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS
AROUND A CENTRAL POINT.
[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution from the Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve,
1859, by C. A. ALEXANDER. |
The number of the Bibliotheque Universelle, of Geneva,.for September,
1846, contains an abridged translation of a memoir by M. Meedler,
from Nos. 566, and 567 of the Astronomische Nachrichten, having for
its title ‘‘The Central Sun.’”’ The same astronomer has since pub-
lished in 1847 and 1848, at Mitau and Leipsic, two volumes in folio,
entitled ‘‘ Untersuchungen neber die Fixstern Systeme: or, Researches on
the System of the Fixed Stars,’ of which the first part is devoted to
the consideration of partial systems of stars, or the reciprocal move-
ments and determination of the orbits of double and multiple stars;
while the second part, with which we are at present concerned, has
for its subject the general system of stars, or the study of facts, tending
to prove that there is a common movement of the stars around a
central point. Finally, M. Medler, in the 14th volume in quarto of
the collection of observations made at the university of Dorpat, of
which he has been director since 1841, and published in 1856 in that
city, has returned to the subject, greatly extending at the same ume
his researches, and showing that the results are confirmatory of his
previous deductions. It is here proposed to follow up the former
notice of this subject by presenting a summary analysis of the later
labors of M. Medler—labors which in themselves offer a subject of
high interest, to which the name of their author, so long and advan-
tageously known to astronomers, gives great weight, and which yet
have not commanded, perhaps, so much attention as they merited.
It is natural to presume that the stars, which, in reference to the
planets that revolve around our sun, we are generally accustomed to
designate as fixed, are not in reality and altogether such, but that
they, too, have movements subjected to certain laws. That in view
of the immense distance of those stars, their movements must appear
to us very small is readily comprehended, as well as that, to be properly
verified, they must require precise observations made at long intervals
of time.
In comparing observations of the same stars made at different
epochs, and taking into account causes of apparent variation, already
recognized, such as the precession of the equinoxes, the mutation of
the earth’s axis, and the aberration due to the velocity of light,
astronomers had still been long aware of small differences of reciprocal
position which might be attributed to a movement proper to the stars
themselves. But we can scarcely go back higher than to the observa-
tions made by Bradley, about 1755, to obtain a point of departure, in
GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS. ype |
positions sufficiently exact, for what relates to these proper move-
ments.
Sir William Herschel, in studying this subject with the sagacity
which distinguished him, arrived successively at two discoveries of
very high importance.
In the first place, about the year 1783, he showed that when these
proper movements of the stars are considered collectively, a reason
may be assigned for a great part of them by admitting that our sun
has itself a movement in space in a certain direction. This movement,
by a simple effect of perspective, would produce a gradual apparent,
separation among the stars on the side to which the sun was directing
its course, and an apparent diminution of relative distance among those
from which it was receding. Though long contested, even by astrono-
mers of great merit, the movement in question seems now placed
beyond dispute, since the labors of Argelander, Lundahl, Otto Struve,
Bravais, Galloway, and Meedler, directed to this subject, have given
it full confirmation, and indicated its direction towards a point in the
constellation Hercules, very near to that assigned by Herschel
himself.*
The second great discovery of Herschel in reference to this subject
dates from the first years of the present century, and relates to those
stars which appear to the naked sight so near one another as to be
blended into one, which, from this ciroumstanae, we denominate double,
triple, and multiple stars. It was shown that in examining these
closely there might be detected, at the end of a certain number of
years, evident changes in the relative positions of the stars composing
some of these groups, from which we may conclude that such stars
form systems of suns revolving around their common centre of gravity.
It is well known what an extension has been given to this interesting
part of science by the subsequent researches of astronomers, in which
Sir John Herschel, Sir James South, Messrs. Dawes, Hind, Jacob, &e.,
of the British empire; the elder and younger Struve, Savary, EH neke,
Bessel, Kaiser, Meedler, &c., on the continent of Europe, he ive par-
ticularly distinguished themselves by their labors of observation and
calculation.
From divers considerations set forth in the memoir above cited, and
from comparing together the proper movements of some hundred
stars, M. Meedler had, in 1846, already attained a firm persuasion that,
besides the causes of apparent displacement just spoken of, the
collective body of stars visible to us has a real and common move-
ment of revolution around a centre, situated in the group of the
Pleiades, and corresponding to the star Aleyone, or 7 of Taurus, of
the third magnitude, the most brilliant of the numerous stars of
that group.
= We feel satisfaction in recording that among the first to confirm the results obtained
by Herschel respecting the proper movement of the sun were two French philosophers,
Pierre Prevost and Frederic Maurice, in a memoir inserted in the collection of the Academy
of Berlin for 1801. M. Arago has shown that the idea of the possibility of such a move-
ment had been already announced by Fontenelle, Bradley, Mayer, and Lambert, though he
fully recognizes Herschel as the first who proved its existence.
Dae, GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS.
In the first part of the great work on this subject, which was pub-
lished in 1847 and 1848, he subjected to a detailed examination all
the observations made by himself and others relative to double stars
and the orbits they describe, with a view to ascertain if there were
among these or other stars any central body competent by its mass
to exert a preponderant attractive action on all the other stars, so as
to be controller of the general system, or central sun, in the literal
sense of that word, as isour sun for the partial system w hich it governs.
The result was to negative any esult which no
one has contested.
In the second portion of the work, the author has shown that the
idea of a distribution of the stars into simply partial systems, without
any general connexion among themselves, is not admissible, inasmuch
as it fails sufficiently to account for the proper movements already
ascertained. This idea once eliminated, there remained for M.
Medler, while admiting the law of universal gravitation, no other
assumption but the existence of a general system without a pre-
dominant central body, or of a globular system in which the stars
all revolve about their common centre of gravity, according to
a force directly proportional to their distance from the central point.
With this assumption as a basis, the investigation turns upon the
question whether the observed movements proper to the stars satisfy
the conditions which result from it.
The conditions which the central point and the neighboring region
of the heavens ought to satisfy are the following:
i. Dhe*central point should have no real movement proper, and its
apparent movement, though to be taken in the opposite direction,
would represent that of the sun.
2. If around the central point there be any group of stars physi-
cally connected with it, the proper real movements of the stars of
that group should be very small and equal as regards one another.
3. If we describe around the central point © a concentric sphere,
whose radius, C$, is equal to the distance of our sun from that point,
all the stars situated within the interior of such sphere should have
a real movement proper, smaller than that of the sun, and so much the
smaller as they are nearer to C; the real movements proper should
increase in departing from C to the circumference of a great circle
described with C as a pole.
4, The point of the heavens towards which the sun is directing
itself should be some 90 degrees from the centre C.
5. If we denote by ¢ the. fanele of direction of the proper move-
ment of any observed star, and by ¢ the angle of direction of the
proper movement of the sun, the difference g — of those two angles
should be null at the centre, and should increase in all: directions at
departing from that point, without ever excee oding 90 degrees within
the interior zone.
6. The region of the heavens when the central point is determined
should be ane only one in regard to which the whole of the above con-
ditions is fulfilled.
GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS. 2735
M. Meedler afterwards gives in detail, by means of long tables, the
positions and proper movements of 861 principal stars observed by
Bradley, calculated for the epoch of 1840, and subdivided into differ-
ent sections according to the distances of those stars from the central
point or from Alcyone.* The following table presents a summary of
the results:
owe ;
jee | 28
Zp 520 e a A
a aEES °
aA Deseelo ye a
Place of the stars. ona ||
S
3 ee g = on
Ps} Fae ca eo 2
g Bye lmte aes
3 oa hO o & o9
A a =
” 1}
GEnuraspoumipereeyes ty fee ge CNN “ated co Ve |’ Alcyone. 0. 0673 Is6
Pleiades yes hs Lye Sea ye ee i hans Sea Hil 0. 0699 13.3
Zone of 1° to 5° of distance from Alcyone- -- - 12 0. 0702 29.9
OM ETOMN OS UOMO O alee sie eyere ee nee eee 31 0. 0699 36. 1
AOVNS Ores HNO Noy AN Sa RES Re Dr a, 101 0.0890 | 44.3
FON 20OOnS0OR Sa sos Se see eee ee 159 0. 1067 48.6
AOTC TO lis UONUON A OO} mien aia cjsiapearee tae oe 224 0. 1096 46.1
ONCNO LES 2 LO CO) IMO. O Dasa a eee ele a ame 302 0.1183 | 65. 2
These values, it will be seen, satisfy in general the principal con-
ditions announced above; but as the author has since much extended
the field of his researches we shall pass at once to the exposition of
his last labors, in what relates to thew principal object.
M. Medler has devoted the greater part of the 14th volume of the
observations at Dorpat to a new catalogue of 3,222 stars, of from the
Ist to the 7th magnitude, observed by Bradley, of which the posi-
tious in right ascension and in declination are calculated by himself
for the beginning of 1850, as well after the old as the new observa-
tions. These values are accompanied by the precession and secular
movement proper of each star; the latter expressed both in right
ascension and declination, and in polar co-ordinates. This catalogue
is subdivided into four sections ranged each in the order of right
ascensions. The first is composed of stars situated to the south of
the equator as far as to 30° of south declination; the second of those
north of the equator up to 30° of north declination; the third of stars
situated between 30° and 60° of north declination; and the fourth of
those comprised between the north pole and the 60th degree of north
declination.. The author has also calculated, after the observations
of Lacaille and of Johnson. the proper movements of 97 stars of first
to fourth magnitude, whose southern declination is more than 30°.
% M. Meedler, in his calculations of the positions of stars, has made use, among others,
of the determinationsof right ascensions resulting from observations made at Geneva under
the direction of Professor Piantamour, and he judges them altogether comparable in point
of precision to those obtained at the principal observatories of Europe.
224 GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS.
The sum of M. Medler’s calculations gives for
80 stars, Ist to 2d magnitude, a mean secular movement proper Of------------ 25. 09
200 stars, 3d magnitude, a mean secular movement proper Of --.------------- 17.10
348 stars, 4th magnitude, a mean secular movement proper of-.------------- 14.18
690 stars, 5th magnitude, a mean secular movement proper of ---.----------- 11.09
994 stars, 6th magnitude, a mean secular movement proper of....--.-------- 9.05
921 stars, 7th magnitude, a mean secular movement proper of.-.--- Pea eBEoS 8. 65
Although, according to this table, the most brilliant stars are those
which in the mean have the greatest proper movement, yet the
author, in comparing the strongest of those movements in each order
of magnitude or apparent brilliancy, and adopting the opinion that the
stars of considerable proper movement ought to “be in general nearer
the sun than the others, concludes that among the stars nearest us
those of the least brilliancy appear, absolutely speaking, more nu-
merous than those which are more brilliant. In effect, if alpha of
the Centaur, Arcturus, Procyon and Sirius have, respectively, a proper
annual movement of 3.67, 2’.26; 1.33, and 1.25: on the other hand,
Rigel, (the 4th star in order of brilliancy according to Sir John Her-
schel,) @ of Cygnus and f# of Perseus have scarcely any proper move-
ment at all, while of Cassiopeia, the 40th of Eridanus, the 61st of
Cygnus, and the two stars named after Argelander, which are of 5th
to 7th magnitude only, have proper annual movements of from 4 to 7
seconds. It should be also remarked that of 52 stars of the 2d mag-
nitude observed by Bradley the mean value of their annual proper
movements, as reported by Medler, page 192 of volume 11 of his
Researches, is but 0.138; while of 150 stars of the 3d magnitude it
is 0.173. Thus, contrary to the ideas adopted by W. Struve, in his
Etudes Stellaires, the degree of brightness appears to M. Medler to be
a bad indicator of the relative distance of the stars.
We have already seen that, admitting that all the stars move around
a common centre, without any preponderant mass, and according to
the Newtonian law of attraction, the velocities will be very nearly
proportional to the distances from that centre; the more uniform the
distribution of masses the less will the form of the described orbits
vary from the circle. From the central point C, which is in repose,
the proper movements of the net as of the remote stars would be
equal; but from another point, 8, situated at a certain distance from
C, the stars nearest to S will appear to move more quickly. M.
Meedler is disposed to admit that our sun is situated at about half the
interval between the central point and the exterior limits of the space
comprised by the stars with which he is engaged; but those stars
form not a millionth part of the whole of the visible fixed stars, with-
out even taking account of the Milky Way.
‘he author commences his new researches with the determination
of the movement of the sun and its direction. In this view he sub-
divides the stars whose proper movements he has determined into
three classes, viz: |
1. Those, to the number of 227, whose proper secular movement
is greatest, ‘and amounts to a mean of 55’.4.
GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS. 225
2. The stars, to the number of 663, for which that mean is 15”.25.
3. Those, to the number of 1,273, whose mean secular movement
is but 7”. 79.
He has left out of view in this inquiry, as well as in that which
relates to the angles of direction g—¢g, those stars whose proper
movement is less than 4” a century on account of the great uncer-
tainty which results therefrom respecting their direction.
M. Medler makes use of the formulas given by Argelander in his
memoir of the proper movement of our solar system, in applying
thereto the method of least squares and successive approximations.
He arrives finally at the following values for the right ascension A
and the north declination D of the point of the heavens towards which
the Sun was directing its course in 1800:
By the Ist class of stars--++++. ss. se- A=262° 818; D==39925'.2
By the 2d--do-.-.. GO A==261°0 144° Da=31Qo3ale
By the 3d--do----. (Oe AS26132). 2) Daa
These results, it will be seen, differ but little from one another, or
from those previously obtained by other astronomers.
As to the general movement of the stars, the author presents, in
the first place, new and detailed tables of the proper movements of
the groups Pleiades and Hyades, of which he employs only the
mean values in his ulterior calculations; not including, however, in
that relative to the Hyades the two stars Aldebaran and s of Taurus,
whose movements are not in correspondence with those of the other
stars of the group.
He obtains thus, respectively, for the secular movement proper
and the angle g—d¢:
Of Alcyone .-.- +. cece ee cece ee eee cence nee 4.70; 9° 8
Of the mean of 15 Jam of the Pleiades .--.---- 5/82; 4 Saat
Of the mean of 27 stars of the Hyades....----- 11.26; + —60°.65
He afterwards subdivides the heavens, around Alcyone as pole, by
means of concentric circles, described at from 10 to 10 degrees, into
eighteen zones or regions, as far as the pole diametrically opposite.
In the following table we give, for the stars comprised in each of
these regions, the mean values of the observed secular movements
proper and of their direction, resulting from his calculations. The
number of stars of which he has made use, indicated in this table,
refers only to the proper movements, those numbers being smaller for
the angles g—, in view of the limit of 4”, alluded to above
15
226 GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS.
Number of | Number of stars. | Mean of secular movements Mean of angles ¢—y.
the region. proper.
4“ (0)
1 45 (ertla! 39. 98
2 100 8. 20 46.43
3 189 9. 78 55. 45
4 264 eae) 56. 86
5 269 10, 41 61. 72
6 275 INS OY 62. 59
7 273 10. 03 61.19
8 246 10. 95 67.95
9 277 10. 89 62.75
10 218 ois Ce 68. 80
11 221 9, 56 58. OL
12 163 reat 67,97
13 163 12.51 63. 26
14 123 12. 07 61.90
15 92 10. 01 58. 92
16 87 13. 33 61.21
17 58 9. 16 54. 41
18 44 7. 30 47, 27
We see by this table that for the first six regions the proper move-
ments and the angles of direction go on regularly increasing. In the
first there is but one case in 32 where g—¢ exceeds 90 degrees,
while there are 55 in 186, in the sixth comprised between 50° and
60° of distance from Alcyone. The twelve following regions, which
are less complete and more and more removed from the central point,
do not offer the same regular progression; and there is even a decrease
in the value of the two elements in the last, situated towards the
point diametrically opposed to the central point.
‘M. Medler admits that his last researches have not confirmed the
opinion announced in the former, that the proper movements ought
to increase gradually up to a distance of 90° from the central point,
and perhaps even a little beyond. But he observes, Ist, that with
regard to the southern zones it is impossible yet to conclude anything
positively, so long as we have not in those regions a greater number
of proper movements exactly determined; 2d, that as to the regions
Nos. 10 to 12, they are situated in the neighborhood of the point Q,
towards which the sun is moving, a circumstance which would dimin-
ish the apparent proper movement of a part of the stars comprised in
those regions; that, besides, the number of stars observed by Bradley,
and even by modern astronomers, is smaller in those regions some-
what distant from the ecliptic than it is near the Pleiades. The
author remarks that taking the regions from 7 to 12 by pairs, we
shall still find a gradual increase in the mean proper movements. In
regard to the last regions, if the decrease in the elements with which
we are concerned should be confirmed, that, according to M. Meedler,
may be because all the stars have not a movement in the same direc-
tion with our Sun, and like the comets, their movement may be some-
times towards one, sometimes towards another point. He regards
GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS. 227
the first as the most probable cause, but believes, in the meantime,
that the conformity of movement is not so great for the stars as for
the planets of our solar system.
According to the last researches of this astronomer, the central
point C and that towards which the Sun is moving are distant from
one another by an are of 111° 30.7; and the proper movement of
Alcyone, taken in an inverse direction, conducts to a point situated
2°.6 south of Q. According to the preceding calculations, these
numbers were, respectively, 113° 36’ and 1°.5. Ifthe position of Q
is well determined, it may be that the orbit described by our Sun is
not acircle, but an ellipse analogous to that of the planet Polymnia.
The ideas promulged by M. Medler from the time of his first re-
searches having encountered divers opponents, it was incumbent
upon him to reply in the later to those whose arguments merited
a serious attention.
Sir John Herschel, in his Outlines of Astronomy, has objected to the
central point adopted by our author, that its position was unlikely,
because the group of the Pleiades does not project itself upon the
Milky Way. To this objection M. Meedler replies, that it is evident
that the point which is the common centre of gravity of the Milky
Way, and the whole mass of stars which environ it, ought to be found
on the central plane of the ring constituting that, celestial belt, and
be projected on the plane from some point within its circuit. But if
our Sun be in that plane, it is apparent that the middle of the belt
must correspond to a great circle of the celestial sphere. Now, the
admirable charts published by Sir John Herschel himself show that
such is not the case in reality. The Milky Way is not at the same
distance from the two poles of the equator, and it does not divide-
into two equal parts either that circle or the ecliptic. According to-
the researches of G. Fuss, the small circle to which the Milky Way~
best corresponds, is distant 33 degrees from the great circle to whick
it is parallel. It follows from this that an interior point situated in
the plane of the ring, without being in the ring itself, cannot, from
the sun or the earth, be projected on the Milky Way, and would be
removed from it by an angle equal to that which a straight line
drawn from the sun to the central point would make with the plane
of the Milky circle. M. Argelander having previously, on the occa-
sion of his investigations of the proper movement of the Sun, thrown
out the opinion that the central point of the movement of the stars:
was perhaps in the constellation Perseus, M. Medler had, in his:
first memoir, objected to this idea, the situation of that constellation
on the Milky Way. M. Argelander since then seems not to have
pursued his researches on this subject; and no one, to my knowledge
at least, has indicated any other point of the heavens for adoption as
the central point in preference to that situated in the Pleiades.
Professor C. A. F. Peters, director of the observatory of Altona, and
present editor of the Astronomische Nachrichten, had also, from the pub-
lication of M. Meedler’s first researches, raised some objections as to
their results. The latter has replied to them, (pages 254, 257, 14th
vol.of the Observations of Dorpat.) It would appear that this reply, with
228 GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS.
the new developments that our author has.given to his researches,
have led Professor Peters to admit the validity of the conclusions
deduced from them; for the second and forthcoming number of the
new publication of Professor Peters, Zeitschrift fiir populdre Mitther-
lungen, designed as a continuation of the Annuaries published by Schu-
macher from 1836 to 1844, is to contain, it seems, an article by M.
Medler on the Central Sun.
Having thus cursorily exhibited the results obtained by M. Meedler
in the principal object of his labors, it is proper now to pass in
review certain consequences which he has deduced from his researches
at the end of his Untersuchungen. It should be remarked, however,
that he presents them only as first views, still quite uncertain, which
furnish at the most but very rough approximations towards the values
of the elements to which they relate.
‘As the mean proper movement of Alcyone ought, from what has
been said, to correspond to the angular movement of the Sun taken
in a contrary direction, if first we adopt, agreeably to the earlier re-
searches of the author, 0/’.0673 as the annual value of that movement,
this quantity being the 19,256,000th part of the circle, it would
thence result that the complete revolution of the sun and all the fixed
stars around the central point would be accomplished in about 19
millions of years. According to the later valuation, 0.047 of this
annual proper movement, the period of revolution would be still
longer, or about 273 millions of years for such of the stars as are not
in the vicinity of the central body, nor at the extreme exterior
limits of the circuits of the Milky Way. It is evident, more-
over, that the value of the proper movement of the central point
is still quite uncertain, and we may observe in the table of the proper
movements of each of the Pleiades given by M. Medler, (p. 259 of the
14th vol. of Observations of Dorpat,) four stars of that group whose
secular proper movement is smaller by some tenths of a second than
that of Aleyone. The smallest, which is 3.9 only, would correspond
to the star designated by the letter 7; but that star is only of the sixth
magnitude, and its angle of direction is 39°, so that it can by no
means be regarded as constituting the central star.
The author admits that the subordinate systems should have shorter
revolutions. He shows that the non-existence of any star having an
annual parallax of several seconds of a degree proves that our Sun has
no other star associated with it, and belongs to no partial multiple
system. He has concluded from his researches on the double stars,
that there can scarcely be any system of this sort where the companion
is distant from the principal star more than six minutes of a degree.
The case of a considerable number of stars being close to one another,
is hence the only one where there is any likelihood of a partial
physical system. Thus, for the largest number of stars there exists
only a common bond, and with the exception of perturbations com-
paratively insignificant, resulting from certain conjunctions of stars
among themselves, they exert no particular action on one another,
nor on the system of planets.
We have already seen that M. Medler is not disposed to admit, in
general, ‘that the distances of the stars are inversely proportional to
GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS. 229
their brightness, and he thinks that the difference in their light may
often be referred either to a real difference in their diameters, or
possibly in their specific luminous intensity. He cites as a striking
example of this kind, the two stars of the constellation Cygnus, Alpha
and 61; the first having a parallax and proper movement almost imper-
ceptible, while the value of these elements in each is respectively
0.348 and 5’.22; whence he concludes that the latter must be at
least 30 times nearer to us than the former, andits absolute brilliancy
20,000 times less.
It is to the attentive observation of the proper movements, com-
bined with the parallaxes directly obtained, that, according to our
author, we should attach ourselves for the determination of the dis-
tances and special physical relations which exist between the systems
of stars. As an essay towards absolute determinations in this way,
he compares among themselves the proper movements and parallaxes
for the stars to the number of 7, where this last element is approxi-
mately known, after the researches of Bessel, Maclear, and Peters.
These respective values are as follows:
Proper movement «. Annual parallax z.
GiOletMeLG enitatlinmers cisnseucls -eelevovelen Oke evstiehouche UG At at Mate eh ovekoiks 0°.912
61st of Cygnus avel-altalascaufon oueuensues eile: susteteedon al ems amens Lea Dailitay olselsherieteneire 0 .348
a of the Lyre Sp DIS UC Oo Oloctmoom orci do 06S oad (0) Peebles Gg Oooo 6 0). 103
1830 of the catalogue of Groombridge ---.. TsO) 20) 05; Sigs: szereyoge 0 .226
POL AST Teneo ca aue cous eile etre ce Konze ve Regtance aed che ustioe Oh GBSiietsuvetetommens 0 :067
POLE: GLCALCE’ GOAL « «vsislstste sxe oepemers somone sic app ophe rors: oy e¥ehrer ene 0 .133
IAT GETS iis Aiehen ocelot! oe sceile ora) lsuseilel emtmenerepen sis Wee Dey Sieuene ouokencuciiene 0 .127
With the exception of the Polar star, in regard to which the small-
ness of the two elements renders their values very uncertain, we see
that the first much surpasses the second in magnitude, their mean
relation being that of 10 to 1. Macleare thinks the parallax of Sirius
less than the fourth of a second, while its proper movement is one
second and a fourth.
M. Meedler, after having endeavored to determine anew, with all
possible care, the precise value of the annual proper movement of 61
of Cygnus, finds it to be 4.282. Now, that of the Pleiades being,
in the mean, 0.0582, is consequently 73 times smaller. We may
then admit that in the rectilinear triangle PSC, which joins .the
Pleiades, the Sun, and 61 of Cygnus, the side SC is much the smallest.
The angle at the Sun S being 83°.4, the angle at C should be near
90°, without by possibility exceeding 96°. The author admits, then,
the equality of the sides PS and PC to be very close, and conse-
quently that also of the real proper movements of the Sun and 61
Cygnus. Thus the annual proper movement of our Sun ought to be
seen very nearly under an angle of 4”.284 from a point in the celestial
space where the radius of the earth’s orbit would appear under a
parallactic angle of 0’.3483; whence it follows that the proper move-
ment of the Sun corresponds very nearly to 12,295 radu of the ter-
restrial orbit.
This result is much greater than that of 1,623 obtained by W.
Struve, at the end of his Etudes Stellaires, the grounds of which are
230 GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS.
contested by Medler. He observes, however, that the recent re-
searches of Johnson and Otto Struve on the parallax of 61 Cygnus,
which raise its value to about one-half second, reduce the annual
proper movement of the Sun, if this last result be admitted, to about
81 radii of the earth’s orbit, or 276 millions of leagues of 25 to the
degree; and he remarks that this velocity is very nearly that of the
planet Mercury in the orbit it describes round the Sun.
Let us again assume for the moment, with M. Medler, the value
of the Sun’s annual movement to be 12,295, as obtained above;
this movement, as it would be seen from the Pleiades, would be
expressed, according to the estimate before given of the arc CQ, by
the formula, 12,295 X sin 1119.5; which reduces the movement to
11.44.
We have, then, for the parallax z of the group of the Pleiades,
assuming the estimate on a former page of its mean movement and
angle gp — ¢:
P miigins WE seater
Seer area
The distance to the Sun corresponding to this parallax is about 403
million times the radius of the earth’s orbit, a distance which it would
require about 640 years for the light to traverse. The two last num-
bers would be still greater if we assume the values relative to
Alcyone.
The author shows that from the proper movement of our Sun, and
its distance from the central point, may be deduced, by means of
Kepler’s third law, the proportion of the whole attractive mass which
revolves around Alcyone as a centre, to the mass of our Sun.
According to the preceding numbers, that whole mass would be about
one hundred and eleven million times that of the Sun.
M. Meedler considers our solar system to be situated in a region of
the heavens comparatively very destitute of stars, but the regions of
mean stellar abundance to rate much lower in point of mass than the
space occupied by our planetary worlds. In this latter system, the
central mass exerts over the subordinate bodies, which are in limited
number, so considerable a force that the perturbations are there for
the most part of little importance. In the general stellar system an
analogous result is obtained ina different manner, namely, by the
immense number of the members of that system, obviating in this
respect the necessity for any preponderant central mass.
The regions of the heavens near the group of the Pleiades, north
and south, are comparatively quite destitute of stars, especially from
f of Perseus to A of Taurus. Farther away from the constellation,
there is again, in every direction, but chiefly towards the east, a great
abundance. Still farther on, we presently meet towards the west
another deficiency, along the zone which traverses Pisces and Pe-
gasus; while more to the east there occurs first the remarkable group
of the Hyades, and then a great diminution in the number of stars.
In other regions of the heavens we may observe that the richest in
stars have not the form of rounded groups, but rather that of
elongated zones, almost parallel to the Milky Way, and that between
these there are seen others destitute of stars. The southern heavens
GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS. Zo
present this appearance ina still nore striking manner than the
northern. The Milky Way is itself composed of several concentric
rings, situated one behind the other, forming circular zones rich in
stars, comprised between others which are less so.
At the centre of this great system exists a rich group, forming in
the whole a considerable and well-defined mass, whose diameter,
nearly equal to the distance from our Sun to the 61st of Cygnus, is
about 600,000 radii of the earth’s orbit. It has already been said that
the zone in which our Sun is now found is poor in stars; and it is to
this situation that we may chiefly attribute the fact that the mean
distances of the stars so little correspond for us with their apparent
magnitude. It may be, also, that what we term richness in stars is
referable to a greater luminous power, increasing or decreasing by
alternating zones.
The double stars, and the most considerable groups of stars, occur
in regions poor in stars as well as in those which are rich. Thus the
two stars considered the nearest to us are double, and situated in the
same zone with the Sun, which is placed not far from the middle of
the interval comprised between them.
This constitution by alternative zones is not, as M. Medler re-
marks, so different from that of our planetary system as might appear
at the first glance, for around our Sun there is first a void space of
0.38 of a radius of the earth’s orbit; then we find a zone occupied
by four very dense planets of mean size, to which succeeds that of
the asteroids of very shght mass, and then that of the great planets,
attended by numerous satellites.
The extent of the rings of the Milky Way may be determined up
to a certain point. In effect, the shortest distance from Alcyone to
the middle of that belt is 21°, and the mean divergence of the Milky
Way from a great circle, as has been said above, is three degrees and
a half. If we draw right lines between the Sun §, the group of the
Pleiades P, and the points M and M’, the nearest and the most dis-
tant from the Milky Way, we shall have two triangles having a com-
mon side PS, supposed to be known from what precedes. M. Meedler
deduces therefrom the, following values:
The half-diameter of the Milky Way corresponds to a distance which
the light would require 3,648 years to traverse. The distance from
the. Sun to the nearest point of that belt would be traversed by the
hight in 3,166 years, and its distance to the most remote in 4, 140 years.
But as the belt is double, and for the points in question the two
portions, by an effect of perspective, appear blended, the interior
ring ought to be a little less distant, and the exterior one, on the
contrary, considerably more so. It had already been supposed that
the more remote regions of the Milky Way would correspond to a
distance which light would occupy nearly 4,000 years in passing over.
From this it results that the orbit described by our Sun in space is
very nearly to that of the circumference of the Milky Way in the
proportion of the orbit of Jupiter to that of Neptune; and, pursuing
the analogy, it may be remarked that the portion of stars compara-
tively the smallest is on the interior, and the largest on the exterior.
When the stars which surround the Pleiades to a distance of 25 to
232. GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS.
30 degrees, those situated at %he point of the heavens diametrically
opposite, and those of the zone of the great circle of which these two
points are the poles, shall have been completely observed, (as has
begun to be executed at Dorpat for a part of them,) we shall be
enabled step by step to attain a more profound insight into the
organism of our stellar system.
‘‘T reeard,’’? adds M. Medler in terminating his great work, ‘‘ the
complete assemblage of stars which revolve around the group of the
Pleiades, their common centre of gravity, as forming a sort of isle in the
universe; and I admit that there are in the vicinity of and beyond this
stellar system, other analogous isles, of which the nebulx offer us
various examples. We cannot as yet decide, if some among them
stand in a relation of neighborhood and connexion with our own; but
it may be possible that there exists between them and our Milky Way
a common bond, the Jast being always to be considered as of a more
elevated order. Yet it does not appear to me probable that the par-
ticular configuration of our isle in the universe should be a model for
the others, as well because this conformity would but little accord
with the variety which prevails in the subordinate systems, as that
the very different forms under which the nebule present themselves
to our,view could scarcely be explained by merely optical differences.
Still itis true that some of these isles have an appearance which
offers a striking similitude to that of our own; such being particularly
the case with the beautiful annular nebula of the Lyre, whose interior,
according to recent explorations, is not entirely void and obscure,
and which, taken as a whole, sufficiently represents our stellar system
as it would be seen at the distance of the nebule.
‘‘'The preceding considerations have led us to the contemplation
of an extent of space and time, which, relatively speaking, we: may
well term infinite, and the number of bodies in the universe is far
beyond our powers of computation. When, from our terrestrial dwel-
ling-place, we strive to penetrate deeper and deeper into space, every
scale of measurement, however colossal it may at first appear to us,
is annihilated, so to speak, before the immensity of the heavens. It is
not so much the infinity of numbers which renders this grand organism
so worthy of admiration, for this. manifests our own littleness still
more than the greatness of the universe; it is the inexhaustible multi-
tude of forms and figures which sets forth before our eyes in the
most striking manner the infinite power and wisdom of the Creator.
Nature works not after models; she knows how to combine with the
strictest subordination to a single general law, the most pliant liberty
of action and the richest variety of development. Hence, the medita-
tive spirit may range through this infinite without fear of ever
losing the guiding thread. Hyery new member, each successive
gradation in the universe, is not a repetition on a wider scale fof
what was already known; it presents to us formations which, whether
from without or within, extend beyond all prevision our previous
conceptions.
‘The greatest explorers of the skies in the two last centuries,
attached themselves strongly to the idea that our planetary system
was a model, in itself, of the system or systems of the fixed stars; they
GENERAL MOVEMENT OF THE STARS. p33)
sought for a single Sun, which should be to the universe what our Sun
is to the planets, and not having found it, they were tempted to re-
nounce the idea of a general organization of the stars, and no longer
to recognize anything but partial systems.
‘‘Tf, while leaving unimpaired the validity and comprehensiveness
of Newton’s great law of universal gravitation, I have succeeded in
proving that the organization of our stellar system has a substantial
existence, wholly different from that of the systems which are subor-
dinate to it, and in determining the most probable central point of
the grand whole, my aim will havé been attained, and the principal
task which I had proposed to fulfil during life, will have been ac-
complished.’’
We cannot terminate this notice without rendering ajust homage to
the perseverance with which M. Meedler has conducted his researches,
and to the important progress which, in any event, will have been
achieved in the determination of the proper movement of the stars by
virtue of his labors. It is now a long time that philosophers and
scientists have been occupying themselves with the constitution of
the universe. The first part of the interesting memoir published
in French, in 1847, by the celebrated astronomer, W. Struve, di-
rector of the Russian observatory of Pulkova, under the title of
Etudes d’ Astronomie Stellaire, comprises among others a summary
and very curious exposition of the ideas, always ingenious and in part
conformable ‘to truth, which have been successively promulgated
on this subject by Kepler, Huygens, Wright, Kant, Lambert,
Mitchell, and Sir W. Herschel. But before this last, these ideas
were most frequently rather speculative than founded on investiga-
tions and positive observations. It is Herschel, then, who has
opened the most direct and surest route, by the help of his powerful
telescopes; and M. Medler is beyond doubt one of the astronomers
who has followed him with most ardor and success, while profiting by
the labors of his predecessors, and above all by the precise determi-
nations of the positions of stars recently obtained.
There remain, doubtless, many points still uncertain in the results
obtained by the latter, and time only can confirm in a definite manner
the solution which he has given of this important problem. But as
the author has in general sustained himself by observations as exact
and numerous as circumstances permitted, giving them in all their
details, without making an arbitrary choice among them, and without
dissembling the weak points of his system, but with the sole desire of
arriving at the truth, and with the conviction of having attained it,
it would seem that we ought to be disposed to admit the validity of
his principal deductions, corroborated as they now are. The case of
the determination of the general movement of the stars by M. Medler
will, perhaps, prove analogous to that ofthe first determination of the
movement of the Sun in space by Sir W. Herschel; that is to ‘say,
that having been a long time contested or neglected, it will be finally
confirmed and generally admitted, and will constitute a fair title of
honor for the skilful and bold astronomer who will have been the
first to prove its reality.
234 REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF
REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA, FROM
JULY, 1858, TO JUNE, 1859.
BY PROEESSOR DE LA BIVE, PRESIDENT.
[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution from the Memoires, &c., Tome xv., Premiere
Partie, 1859, by C. A, ALEXANDER. |
GENTLEMEN: An existing regulation of the society devolves on its
president the duty of presenting to you, at the moment when he is
about to lay aside his functions, a detailed report on the labors of the ~
body during the year just elapsed. This order, which for the year
previous was fulfilled by our former president, Professor Gautier, I
now propose on my own part to execute.
The Society of Physics and of Natural History embraces in its
field of labor, as its title indicates, alike the physical sciences and the
natural sciences, that is to say, every part of the domain of human
knowledge which has for a basis observation and experiment in the
field of nature. Pure mathematics, therefore, do not fall within its
compass, though applied mathematics are by no means excluded; for
how could such be the case where astronomy, mechanics, and physics
occupy so prominent a place? But as there is no one versed in pure
mathematics who does not more or less make an application of them,
it follows that association with us lies always open to the learned
mathematician, and thus we are warranted in saying that no scientific
notability of our country is excluded on system from our circle.
The division between the physical sciences and the natural sciences
which the name of the Society recalls is not purely arbitrary. It is
founded on a true principle, namely, that in the study of nature
there are two points of view strictly different: the one having for its
object more particularly the study of forces and laws, the other at-
taching itself essentially to the examination of bodies themselves.
Not that in the former kind of study bodies do not play an import-
ant part, since it is only through their medium that we take cogni-
zance of forces, nor in the latter that forces should not be taken into
consideration, since without them we could not know the properties
of bodies. But the dominant and characteristic division is in strict-
ness that which I have indicated.
The distinction, however, is not always very definite, and if we
place physiology in the division of natural sciences and not in that of
the physical sciences, it is solely because physiology is inseparable
from organic natural history, which furnishes its elements, and to
which at the same time itself serves as a basis.
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 235
Thus, then, in the report which we are about to present, we
comprehend under the same head of Physical Sciences, mechanics,
astronomy, physics, both mathematical and experimental, terrestrial
and meteorological, as well as chemistry—sciences whose points of
contact are so numerous and so multiplex that it is difficult to deter-
mine the limits which separate them. Geology, mineralogy, and
organic natural history, botany, and zoology, (comprising therein
physiology) form the second group, which, under the head of Natural
Sciences, constitute hkewise an assemblage sufficiently compact, to
which paleontology accedes as a cement binding all the parts together.
We confess that we are at a loss to know to which of these groups
statistics should be referred, which, like mathematics, find a place
among us:only by virtue of their application, and whose labors, there-
fore, ought to be classed, it would seem, according to the nature of the
application which is made of them.
PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
It is natural to place at the head of the physical sciences that
which, lifting the regards of man towards the celestial vault, seems
more suited than any other to recall to him the magnificence of the
creation and the greatness of its Author. Some years ago, and as-
tronomy might have been thought to have uttered its last word.
Certain stars®to be discovered in the immensity of the heavens, im-
proved methods to be invented for calculating the courses of the
celestial bodies—these seemed to be the only lines in which progress
was possible after the labors of the Herschels and La Places; but
thanks to the improvement of instruments and the perseverance of
observers, a new era has dawned for this part of the sciences. New
planets, announced, like Neptune, through the potency of the genius of
mathematics, or discovered simply by a conscientious exploration of
the skies, are constantly ranging themselves in our astronomical cata-
logues; a more profound study of the physical properties of the stellar
bodies leads to inductions of the highest interest with regard to their
physical constitution; and the aid of powerful glasses unveils to us
in the fixed stars the nebule and the comets—appearances till now
unknown.
I have mentioned comets. Of course there was much question in
the society respecting that of Donati, which was the great astronom-
ical event of the year 1858. Professor Thury was the first who oc-
cupied our attention with some observations he had made on that
body, the tail of which he had found to be double near the nucleus.
Still later, Professor Plantamour communicated a summary of the ob-
servations made upon it at the observatory of Geneva, from August
28, to October 18. In that interval of time, the number of days of
observation was 29, for which the position of the comet was deter-
mined by comparison with the neighboring stars. From these obser-
vations, and those made by different astronomers, it results that the
part of the orbit traversed by the comet before passing to its peri-
helion is an ellipsis which would require from 2,100 to 2,400 years as
236 REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF
the duration of a revolution, and the determination of which is de-
ducible to quite a close approximation from this single appearance
by a comparison of all the observed places after and before the pas-
sage to the perihelion. M. Plantamour has entered into many details
on the physical appearance of the comet, which he has reproduced in
a series of drawings. He has described the presence of an obscure
space situated immediately behind the nucleus in the part opposed
to the sun; this obscure space, which often appeared darker than the
ground of the sky, varied sensibly in its form and extent during the
course of the observations; and he remarks that it is equally to be
observed in the delineations of Halley’s comet published by Bessel.
Lastly, he has added some remarks on the size, both apparent and real,
on the form and direction of the tail, the apparent length of which
was 41° on the 5th October, and the linear length 13.5 millions of
leagues, (25 to the degree,) while on the 13th October the apparent
length was not more than 32°, and the linear length 10.5 millions of
leagues. M. Thury and M. Wartman have also described some pecu-
liarities relative to the light emitted by this body, and M. Wartman,
the younger, as likewise M. De la Rive, have pointed out the analogy
which the bifurcation of the tail of the comet into two parts, separated
by an obscure space, presents to the appearance which flames affect
under the action of the magnet—an analogy which might, perhaps,
confirm the idea already promulgated, and more particularly by
Bessel, of a magnetic influence of the sun. e
An astronomical labgr of an entirely different kind is that which
M. Ritter has been engaged in, being the calculation of observations
of the fixed stars. This work has been undertaken with the view of
ascertaining the cause of the abnormal result presented by the re-
duction of observations of the star 7 of the Dragon, as made by M.
Main in the XXIV volume of the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society
of London. After different calculations, made with great care and
checked by numerous verifications, M. Ritter continues to find, like
M. Main, a negative parallax, but of less value, though he took
account, which M. Main did not, of the influence of the ellipticity of
the earth’s orbit in the phenomena of the aberration and the parallax.
It results therefrom that the observations are infected with errors,
proceeding, no doubt, from a defect in the stability of the instrument.
In effect, as M. Plantamour has remarked, there are reasons for doubt-
ing the exact steadiness of the old zenith sector of Greenwich, and in
submitting the observations to calculation it were to be wished that
those only were employed which are made with the new sector of M.
Airy. At all events, it has been made to appear by M. Ritter’s labors
that the calculation of an elliptical parallax essentially modifies the
results found by the circular parallax, which demonstrates the abso-
lute necessity of taking account of the ellipticity of the earth’s orbit
in calculations of this kind.
Independently of the original memoirs just spoken of, the society
has had several interesting communications on astronomy. Professor
Gautier has kept it constantly advised of the researches made by
foreign astronomers, particularly those of M. Carrington on the exist-
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 237
ence of a solar atmosphere and on the eclipse of Tth September, 1858;
those of M. Wolf, of Zurich, on the relation. Which exists between
the annual mean of the magnetic declination and the abundance of the
solar spots, and of the influence of certain planets on those spots;
recent investigations relative to the moon, namely, those of M. Adam
on the ellipticity and inclination of the moon’s orbit, and the series of
observations made at Greenwich under the direction of M. Airy on
the movements of that planet. M. Gautier has dwelt particularly
on a very important inquiry of M. Airy relative to the progressive
movement of the sun in space, an undertaking in which, by the em-
ployment of a new method, the learned English astronomer has suc-
ceeded in finding a movement somewhat less in quantity than that
indicated by M. Meedler, and a direction for that movement slightly
different. Finally, I must not omit the exhibition by Professor Plan-
tamour of a very beautiful relief of the crater of Copernicus, executed
This relief, when illuminated by a bright artificial light properly dis-
posed, represents perfectly the appearance of the crater in the differ-
ent phases of the moon.
Meteorology and terrestrial physics border as much on astronomy as
on physics, and establish a very natural bond between them. Thus
it is to our learned professor of astronomy, M. Plantamour, that we
owe several communications on the meteorological peculiarities of the
years 1857 and 1858. Independently of his meteorological resumé
of 1858 for Geneva and the Great St. Bernard, he has brought to the
notice of the society the extraordinary dryness which prevailed from
the last months of 1856 up to the middle of 1858, and the anomaly of
temperature exhibited at Geneva and in a great portion of Hurope at
the commencement of November, 1858. From the 28th of October,
before which it had been higher than its normal rate, the temperature
began rapidly to sink, and the depression became particularly re-
markable at the Great St. Bernard. It would seem that this anomaly
was caused by a northeast wind, which in the northern regions was
superposed on a southwest current, but in the regions of the south-
west of Hurope descended to the level of the earth’s surface, where it
produced the extraordinary refrigeration which was generally ob-
served. M. Plantamour noticed, moreover, the extremely mild tem-
perature of the 25th of December, 1858, (Christmas day,) and in refer-
ence thereto took occasion to state that the extremes of temperature,
as observed for the same day, were the maximum of + 17°.4 in 1857,
and the minimum of —21°.7 in 1830.
Professor De Candolle has given the society interesting details on
the organization of Russian meteorological observatories, in particular
that of Tefflis, whose director is M. Moritz. This latter savant fur-
nished observations to M. Candolle, and besides gave him information
with regard to an ascent of Mt. Ararat, during which efforts were
made to ascertain the depth of the cap of snow which covers the
mountain, a depth which was found to exceed 30 feet, and is perhaps
still more considerable.
A quite remarkable fact noticed by M. Chaix is the absence of
238 REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF
snow in the summer of 1858 in many localities which he visited, and
which, being situated above the limit of perpetual snow, are habitually
covered with it. M. Marcet, from his own observation, remarked
upon the great inequality in the distribution of snow during the
winter of 1858, so that while so little had never within the memory
of man fallen in the valley of Zermatt, there had, on the contrary, been —
extraordinary falls of it in the canton of Uri in May of the same year.
We are indebted to’M. Chaix for several other communications on
different points of terrestrial physics and of meteorology. Such are
those relative: 1st, to the meteorology of Africa, according to obser-
vations given in the travels of Barth; 2d, to the change in the bed —
of the Yellow river during the last three years, as noticed by Captain
Osborne; 3d, to the geographical labors executed by the English, and
more particularly by the brothers Gregory, in Australia, from 1842
to 1858, in the course of 24 expeditions, which traversed in the whole |
a distance of 32,000 miles, and which led to the discovery of a great
number of salt lakes, often ephemeral, of twelve large rivers subject to
the same defect, and of a great number of esculent vegetables, whose
existence in that continent was not before suspected.
M. Henri de Saussure, on his part, has communicated observations
which he had made on the distribution of the waters in the basin of
Mexico. From these he concludes that the lakes which environ the
city of Mexico have heretofore occupied a much larger surface than —
at present, the retreat of the lakes having been due chiefly to a canal
excavated by the ancient Mexicans, and he proclaims the danger of
inundation which now threatens the city of Mexico in consequence of
the heedlessness of the inhabitants, who have allowed the canal to
become completely obstructed.
We must not forget to mention that our notice has been called by
M. Chaix to the levellings made by M. Bourdalone with a view to the
opening of the Isthmus of Suez, from which we learn that the differ-
ence of level between the two seas is but a few inches.
General Dufour has likewise communicated the results obtained by
M. Bourdalone in his levellings of the course of the Rhone, the descent
of which is 389 metres in its passage across the canton of Geneva, ad-
mitting that the mean level of the Lake of Geneva is 373 metres above
the mean level of the Mediterranean. It is true that previous level-
lings gave an altitude of 375 metres above the ocean; but the difference
between the two numbers would appear to be owing in great part to
the level of the Mediterranean being higher than that of the ocean.
While speaking of the Rhone and the lake, Jet us recall the obser-
vation of Professor Colladon on the azure color of their waters, which
he attributes to particles from the bottom of the lake held in suspen:
sion by the agitation of the water. He founds this opinion on a fact
observed by himself, viz: that while the dredging machine was at work
in winter on one of the shores of the lake, the corresponding arm of the
Rhone assumed the deep blue tint which commonly is only seen in
summer, at which season a greater quantity of water and stronger
current would produce the same effect. The cause assigned by M,
Colladon may possibly contribute in part to the remarkable phenom-
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 239
enon of the coloration of the waters of the Rhone, but, as was objected
at the time, will not suffice for a complete explanation.
An interesting communication was received from M. Mousgon, of
Zurich, through M. Soret, the object of which was to show that, in
the phenomenon of water-spouts, a superior degree of validity must
be conceded to the theory which refers them to the meeting of two
currents of air exerting a gyratory force over that which makes them
depend on an attraction produced by the electric tension of a cloud.
M. Mousson has succeeded in calculating what force of aspiration is
to be supposed in the case of a water-spout, and does not find it out
of proportion with what is possible upon his own theory.
It is to M. Mousson that we are also indebted for some curious
experiments on the effect of strong pressure in hindering water from
solidifying even at very low temperatures, such as 20° below 0°.
These experiments, communicated first to the Helvetic Society of
Natural Sciences, were imparted also to our own.
Here, then, we find ourselves on the confines of physics, properly
so called, and we enter completely upon them in recalling the com-
munications of M. Soret and M. De la Rive on the remarkable facts
respecting the congelation of water observed by M. Forbes, M. Tyn-
dall, and M. Faraday—facts which prove the error of considering only
_ the influence of temperature to be concerned in the solidification of
water, without taking cognizance of that of the molecular attraction
_ which plays so important a part in this as well asin other crystalliza-
_ tions.
It is to electricity above all that the greatest number of communi-
cations this year relate in what concerns physics, properly so called.
First come those of M. Volpicelli on the electrostatic induction, made
one by himself in person, the other through the medium of M. Soret.
A great number of experiments, conducted under varied conditions,
and subjected to different modes of proof, seem to have uniformly
strengthened the confidence of M. Volpicelli in his ideas on the theory
of induction; but, without entering into details, we here merely re-
mark that it has been objected that these experiments may be also
interpreted in a sense favorable to the older theory, so that, although
very well performed, they cannot be deemed perhaps as conclusive
as he maintains, at least in that relation.
Professor Wartman favored the society with an account of some
attempts he had made, on occasion of the transatlantic cable, to deter-
mine the effects of pressure on electric conductibility. In submitting
a copper wire covered with gutta percha to a pressure exceeding
thirty atmospheres, he observed a small diminution of conductibility,
recovering, however, its primitive value when the pressure ceases.
He has also observed that strong compression on any member—an
arm, for instance, of a person conveniently seated for the purpose—
determines a slight but sensible current to a galvanometer of 24,000
coils, in a contrary direction to that of the current which would be
due to the contraction of the same member.
M. Tirtoff, a learned foreigner, who was present at one of our ses-
sions, communicated some experiments made with a view to ascertain
240 REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF
the influence of the atmospheric pressure on galvanic polarization;
by which he has found that this influence is Inappreciable, and that
the polarization depends only on the disengagement of the gas in the
nascent state. New researches on the heat disengaged by the current,
when it produces an external effect, have satisfied M. Soret of the
correctness of the results which he had previously obtained, but at
the same time he insists on the fact that, for an equal quantity of
chemical action, the external effect produced by a current is not
always proportional to the diminution of intensity, and he has given
a proof derived from the action of currents of induction.
It remains for us to notice two communications of M. De la Rive,
the one relating to the electro-magnetic rotation of liquids, the other
to the propagation of electricity in gaseous mediums highly rarefied.
On occasion of an investigation relative to the rotary action of
helices and magnets on liquids traversed by electric currents, M.
Bertin had contested the accuracy of an experiment made thirty-five
years ago by M. De la Rive, by means of which he had demonstrated
that when a magnet is hollow the rotation of the mercury placed
within it takes place in a contrary direction to that of the mercury
without, the two liquid conductors having the same level and being
equally traversed by a current radiating from the centre, or converging
towards the centre. M. De la Rive has resumed this experiment,
and has varied it by employing as well a hollow magnet of tempered
steel as a tube of soft iron magnetized either by an encircling helix
or by a strong electro-magnet. He has made use of tubes of different
dimensions, both of cast and wrought iron, and has verified the accu-
racy of his first assertion. A single case only occurred in which the
rotation took place in the same direction within and without, and that
was, when employing the hollow magnet of steel, the level of the
mercury both without and within was below the magnetic pole and
near the middle of the magnet—an exception which is referable
probably to the influence of the second magnetic pole.
In his second experiment relating to the propagation of electricity
in gaseous mediums, greatly rarefied, M. De la Rive proceeded to the
consideration of the subject under two distinct points of view, namely,
the action of the magnet upon currents transmitted across such me-
diums, and the propagation of the currents with the phenomena
which accompany it—such, among others, as the stratification of the
electric light. He began with describing the effects obtained under
the former point of view, and particularly those relating to the rota-
tion of luminous currents in different planes and with different veloci-
ties, according to the conditions of the experiment—a rotation which
he had already made known ten years ago. As to the second point,
he can be said as yet scarcely to have approached it; yet he has been
able to conclude even from his first attempts, of which he will com-
municate the sequel at some future time, that the gaseous medium,
when traversed by electricity in motion, undergoes, conformably to
the ideas of M. Riess, mechanical and physical modifications consist-
ing essentially in alternations of condensation and dilatation. M. De
la Rive terminates his memoir by pointing out that his new researches
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 241
have tended constantly to confirm the theory which he had given of
the aurora borealis.
Besides the communications just mentioned, M. De la Rive submitted
to the society the remarkable improvements introduced by M. Leon
Foucault, in the construction of curved plated mirrors designed for
telescopes, and the labors of M. Hoffman, of London, in regard to the
vegetable parchment which for some years has been manufactured in
England with great success.
The last-mentioned communication already touches rather on chem-
istry than physics, and in effect there remains only, to terminate this
first part of our report, an account of two important memoirs on
chemical subjects presented by their authors to the Society. The
first, by MM. Deville and Troost, is directed to the determination
of the densities of vapors at very high temperatures, its authors hav-
ing successively employed, as the source of heat, the vapor of sulphur,
which boils at 450°, and that of cadmium, which boils at 850°. They
hope to be able to make use of that of zinc, which boils at about 1200°.
Among the results obtained, we will distinguish that relating to sulphur,
which , gives 2.2 for the density of the vapor of that substance at a
very hig h temperature, contrary to determinations generally received,
which pointed to too high a number and one not in accordance, as has
been now shown, with the theoretic value. The researches of MM.
Deville and Troost are in general favorable to the opinion that at a
very elevated temperature, the elements of compound bodies are dis-
sociated, ceasing thus to exist in a state of combination.
The second communication alluded to is that by M. Pyrame Morin,
on the presence of iodine in the mineral waters of Saxony, in Valais.
The author had, in 1853, already indicated that this principle is pre-
sent in the fountain only in an intermittent way—a result which,
though confirmed by other chemists, had been contested by M. Ossian
Henry, of Paris. M. Morin has resumed his investigation by employ-
ing still more sensible reactives than at first; and new experiments
have been made on sixty-one bottles of the water drawn at different
times and under different circumstances. He has succeeded in estab-
lishing with certainty that the quantities of iodine are very variable,
and that between 0.2257 grains and five millionths, all intermediate
quantities are met with. These variations take place at intervals of
time sometimes very distant, sometimes very close; so that several
oscillations may be observed in the course of a day, which proves
that the presence of iodine is really intermittent. Sulph-hydricacid,
whether free or combined, was not detected in the water by M. Morin,
contrary to the assertion of M. Henry. Bromine and chlorine exist
in minute quantity; the latter very constantly, the former only when
there is iodine. It would seem highly probable that this water of
Saxony proceeds from two sources, having their origin, the one in a
certain rock, and the other, from which is derived the iodine, in the
Cargneule.
16
242 REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF
NATURAL SCIENCES.
Having mentioned rocks and localities in connexion with the water
of Saxony, we pass quite naturally, in commencing the second part
of this report, which regards the natural sciences, to the subject of
geology. The study of our globe, moreover, in what relates to its
constitution and its composition, would seem a needful preliminary
to the examination of the organized bodies which cover it, although
in turn the former is singularly facilitated by the study of these same
bodies in a fossil state; geology and paleontology thus forming a whole
whose different parts it would be difficult to separate from one another.
There is no branch, indeed, inthe physical and natural sciences which
involves more numerous relations to every part of our knowledge.
We see a striking exemplification of this ina memoir relating to
geologico-archeological researches in Denmark and Switzerland, which
M. Morlot has communicated to the society, and which signalizes the
remarkable relations which subsist between the development of
archeology and that of geology. In effect, it is only from material
indications buried beneath the soil that we can ascertain the existence
of men at an epoch anterior to all traditional accounts. In imitation
of the Scandinavian archeologists, M. Morlot divides this ante-historic
period into three ages—the age of stone, that of bronze, and that of
iron. It is only with the age of iron that figures of men and plants
make their appearance, as well as coins and alphabets; it is the aurora
of history. Different details are presented by M. Morlot respecting
these three ages, and the material traces of them which have come
to light.
As regards geology proper, we have first to notice a memoir by M.
Marcou on the classification of the new red sandstone in Europe, North
America, and India. The author considers this great series of strata
as intermediate between the primary and secondary periods, deciding
for this middle term after having discussed the often controverted
question whether the permian ought to be annexed to the secondary
formations. He distinguishes two formations in this group: Ist, the
trias, the composition of which is known; and 2d, the dyas, com-
prising the zechstein and the rothliegende.—(See Archives des Sciences,
Ph. et, Nat., 1859,..t.. V.)
Another geological memoir is that of M. Favre on the geology of
the Mole, which forms a portion of the great work of our colleague
on the liasic and keuperian formations of Savoy, (printed in our
memoirs.) Among other observations of M. Favre we must make
mention of that which relates to a fine deposit of fossils near the
summit of the Méle, in which he has succeeded in discriminating forty
species which pertain to the lias formation; but a remarkable circum-
stance is, that the fossils of three stages of this formation are asso-
ciated in one and the same stratum. M. Favre has noticed several
localities of the Alps and the Cevennes where this association has
been recognized, and he has been led to the conclusion that the causes
°
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 243
are to be found in the physical nabane of the deposit and in the sub-
marine character of the soil.
Professor Pictet on this ‘béantn submitted to the Society some
general observations on the association, in the same locality, of the
fossils pertaining to different formations, an association which he
thinks may be explained by three different causes: Ist, by the fact
that the relics of dead animals belonging to one epoch might be pre-
served for a certain time in the waters containing the living animals
of the succeeding period—a case which would be very rare; 2d, by
the fact that some robust species, that is to say, very abundant in one
stratum, have survived the cataclysm which had occasioned the
destruction of the general fauna, and reappear in small numbers in
the succeeding fauna; 3d, by the fact, finally, that one portion of
the sea has undergone changes less decided than others, and that in
a gulf, for instance, we find the fossils of two different epochs
associated, while elsewhere the two faunas remain perfectly distinct.
We have passed, almost without perceiving it, from geology to
paleontology, sciences which in truth are now inseparable; and here
M. Pictet must be again cited for remarks submitted to the Society
on a communication by M. de Saussure respecting the discovery of
fossil bones of domestic animals in the environs of Charleston. These
bones pertain only to thet postpliocene formation, of which the fauna
is composed: Ist, of extinct animals; 2d, of animals not living at this
time in South Carolina, but still existing in other parts of America;
3d, of species still living in the country. After having shown that
this formation, in a paleontological point of view, presents the same
character as the correspondent formations of Europe, and having
discussed different hypotheses to explain the presence of the fossil
bones of domestic animals, M. Pictet seems disposed to believe that
there has been simply an accidental mixture of recent bones with
postpliocene remains.
Besides the communications just noticed, M. Pictet read before the
Society a memoir, in the preparation of which M. Campiche, of Ste.
Croix, was associated: on the nautili, and more especially cretaceous
nautili. After reciting that the nautili are one of the kinds, not many
in number, which are met with in all geological epochs, M. Pictet has
shown that their distinctive characters may be classed under four
heads; and though he has essentially occupied himself, in that part
of his investigation prosecuted in common with M. Campiche, with
the nautili of the Jura, he and his associate have compared a very
great number taken from all formations and all countries, with the
view of arriving at a decision as regards the order of succession in
their forms. They have ascertained that the definite species of the
same epoch are exactly alike in all countries, and that this is also the
case with the types imperfectly defined, so that it becomes an imme-
diately accessory question whether these types are species or varie-
ties. This special question recalling M. Pictet to some general con-
siderations on the subject, he is led to regard the three following laws
as being at the basis of all paleontology: Ist, every species has had
in its paleontological development a limited duration; 2d, the co-
¢
944 REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF
temporary species have appeared and disappeared at the same time,
the causes of appearance and disappearance having been the same
for all; 3d, neighboring formations present analogous forms. As
to exceptions which may occur with respect to the two last laws, we
have indicated a moment ago in what manner M. Pictet has sought
to account for them.
Professor D. Candolle, in reference to the geological duration of
species, cited the investigations of M. Gaudir respecting the fossil
vegetables of the quaternary epoch in the repositories where certain
actual species of Europe are found—as the beech, for instance—
mingled with species which now live nowhere but in the United States;
this forming an additional exception to the law of the simultaneous
extinction of species.
M. De Candolle made, besides, several communications relating to
vegetable physiology and botany proper, among which may be cited
an analysis of the researches of M. Duchartre on the organ which
produces the perfume in the vanilla, and a monographic study of the
family of Begoniacee, of which one species (the begonia® aptera)
presents the remarkable peculiarity of being furnished with parietal
and unequal placentas, contrary to what takes place in other species
of that family. He directed attention, also, to the existence of a
small insect which had, last year, occasioned the destruction of num-
bers of fir trees.
In the province of botany we have still further to cite communica-
tions by MM. Choisy and Duby.’ The former described to us an
ivy-plant which he had observed near Peissy, growing on a horse-
chestnut, and remarkable for its exceptional dimensions as well as for
the singular ‘fact that the branches hanging free bore leaves of a
beautiful form and different from those of the branches which had
attached themselves to the tree. He communicated, besides, a
memoir on two kinds of plants little known, assigned to the family of
guttiferee, (gynotroches and discotigene,) which both belong to the
island of Java. The second of these should continue to be retained
in the family of guttifere; the first should be transferred to the family
of rhizophoracee, as Blume and Bentham had already pronounced.
M. Duby, besides some communications on the botanic investiga-
tions made by learned foreigners, read to the society a paper on a
species of dothidea, a cryptogam which grows on the Barbary jessa-
mine, (lyceum europeum,) and which in the same pustules passes
through three successive states, viz: a pulviscular state, a spermatic
and a thecasporic one. M. Duby, in presenting the history of the
development of this minute object, dwelt upon some questions of
taxonomy which connect themselves with that development, as weil
as on the necessity, in the actual state of cryptogamy, of multiplying
observations on the evolution of the reproductive organs of cham-
pignons.
It remains, in order to complete what we had to say on organic
natural history, to speak of transactions relating to zoology and ani-
mal physiology. First in order we find the researches of M. Edouard
Claparede on the organization of infusoria, presenting, after a review
*
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 245
of the different opinions put forth on this subject for twenty-five years
past, the result of his own observations on the structure of these ani-
mals, accompanied by a series of drawings relative to that structure.
He first showed that the general type of the infusoria presents an
exterior cuticle covering a parenchyma of more or less thickness,
which itself circumscribes the general cavity of the body; the cuticle
and parenchyma pierced by two openings, which are the mouth and
anus; then, after describing the mechanism of the circulation of ali-
ments in the interior of the general cavity of the body, and of their
digestion in the same, he passes to the examination of the circulatory
apparatus, which he regards as a closed vascular system comparable
in all respects with sanguineous systems. After some other details,
M. Claparede has indicated what are the natural affinities of infusoria,
and what position should be assigned them as animals related on one
hand to une vermes tubellarizw, and still more on the other to the
cxlenteres , (polypi and acalephi,) as regards their digestion chiefly,
yet differing from them in a radical symmetry y of fone while the
celent®res proper are characterized by a radiate symmetry not to be
mistaken.
M. Claparede has likewise communicated his microscopic observa-
tions on the organs in the antenne of insects described as auditory
by M.. Lespes, and has shown that the auditory and otolithic sac
imagined by that author is but an optical illusion, and that an exami-
nation of transverse sections, delicately conducted, proves those sup-
posed organs to be only hairs fantastically modified. In regard to
the use of the microscope, he has noticed a singular effect observed
in looking, in the direction of its axis, into a very minute capillary
tube, which plays the part of a bi-coneave lens, although the lhquid
which fills the tube be the same with that which bathes. all the parts
of the body in which the tube is pierced, and although the surfaces
which limit the liquid be perfectly plane.
We have yet to recall some other communications by M. Claparede:
ist, the demonstration of the electrical organs of the malapteruwre and
the mormyrus oxythyneus, derived from a dissection of these electric
fish, specimens of which had been sent him by M. De la Rive; 2d,
an examination of the researches of M. Lebert on the malady of silk
worms, from which it seems to result that there is no other remedy
to be hoped for but the destruction of all the animals attacked; 3d,
an account of the experiments of M. Heidenheim relative to the appli-
cation of ligatures on different points of the hearts of frogs, the effects
of which are entirely contrary, according to the place where the liga-
tures are placed; 4th, an analysis of the researches simultaneously
but independently made by MM. Kolliker and Wedl, from which it
results that the minute channels noticed by English naturalists in the
shell of most of the molluses are due to the action of a perforating
vegetable parasite; channels which M. Claparede had himsef distin.
guished, in 1855, as not pertaining to the mother shell, but as hol-
lowed by some parasite, which he then wrongly judged to be of an
animal nature.
M. Henri de Saussure continued his account of the interesting
246 REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF
observations made by him on the habits of Mexican birds, illustrating
many facts regarding them which had escaped the attention of former
travellers. To M. Duby we were indebted for a report on the micro-
scopic researches of M. Amici relative to the constitution of the
muscular fibre.
The investigations of which we have been speaking, however
special they may be, are none of them deficient in point of general
interest. whether as forming necessary links in the great chain which
binds together all the phenomena of nature, or because, considered
in themselves, they reveal some of the mysteries, every day more
remarkable, of the physical world. But this is not the only advan-
tage derived from the introduction of specialty into the study of the
sciences; one still'more considerable is that from this very specialty
there spring up between the different parts of those sciences new and
more intimate relations, in virtue of the greater perfection introduced
into researches. This connexion is particularly striking in animal
physiology, to such a degree, indeed, that sometimes we know not to
what branch of the sciences, physical or natural, we ought t® refer
such or such an investigation. Is it to physiology or to physics that
the researches of MM. Thury and Claparede belong? the former on
the amount of mechanical force expended in walking, the latter on
the horopter. Whatever the place to be assigned them, we must
not omit them in this report, as the authors have communicated them
to the Society.
M. Thury has found 7.2 kilogrametres as the value of the labor
performed by a man for every metre of distance which he travels,
answering to 10 or 12 kilogrametres a second, according as the -daily
course is 8 or 10 leagues, the mean weight of the body being fixed at
65 kilograms. He “deduces from his calculation that the longest
line over which a man can pass in a day on a horizontal level, without
permanent exhaustion of his force, is 48,000 metres, (157,473.6 feet, )
and that the greatest vertical height a man can attain, under dies same
conditions, in ascending along an inclination of §, is 4,000 metres,
(13, 122.8 feet.)
M. Claparede communicated a series of experiments designed to
show that the form of the horopter* is different from that which, as
a consequence of the investigations of M. Meissner, German physiolo-
gists at present assume it to be. The horopter, as Meissner con-
ceived, is In a majority of cases a right line inclined on the plane of
vision of a quantity which varies with the distance of the point of
view. After demonstrating by conclusive experiments that this deter-
mination is erroneous, and that the line experimentally found by
Meissner is always perpendicular to the plane of vision, M. Claparede
believes himself authorized to conclude that this lino belongs to a
horopteric cylindrical surface, having for its base the horopteric cir-
ele of Pierre Prevost, rejected by M. Meissner. Subsequent experi-
ments have convinced him that the horopter is really formed but of
* The surface of single vtston corresponding to any given binocular paralian is called the
horopter.—(See Nichol’s Encyclopedia of Physical Science )
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 247
two lines, to wit: the circumference of the circle determined theo-
retically by Prevost and wrongly attributed by authors to Vieth, a
circumference situated in the plane of vision, and of the right line
perpendicular to the plane of vision, to which allusion has just been
made, and of which M. Alex. Prevost, and later M. Fritz Burkhardt,
had already given a theoretical determination. The horopter of
Meissner must therefore be entirely rejected.
It is above all with electricity that animal physiology has relations
which become every day more intimate. The Society has been occu-
pied on two or three several occasions with questions which connect
themselves with this subject. M. Lefevre, of Dijon, has called atten-
tion to his experiments on muscular and nervous excitability and
irritability after death. which he has succeeded in measuring by
determining the intensity of the current necessary to produce excita-
tion. In operating on the frog he has found that the irritability of
the sciatic nerve goes on at first augmenting for an hour after death,
then that it gradually loses its excitability while the muscular con-
tractibility develops itself and attains its maximum at the end of 36
hours; four or five hours before the cadaveric rigidity supervenes.
Professor De la Rive offered, on his part, some considerations on
the relations between electricity and the nervous action, while dwell-
ing more particularly on the experiments recently published by M.
Bernard, which appear to him more favorable to the identity of the
two forces than the author seems to believe. M. De la Rive points
out especially the analogy whiclr exists between the action of electri-
city and the nervous action as to the peculiar state in which one and
the other place the nerve, this last not acting as a simple conductor,
as some physiologists have supposed, but really in virtue of its electro-
molecular constitution, which may be altered by cheinical means, such
as the vegetable poison known by the name of curare. Recalling the
remar kable observations of M. Dubois Reymond, which are altogether
favorable to this way of thinking, he judges that it is not necessary
to admit in the organic molecules other electric properties than those
which belong in general to the molecules of inorganic matter, and
that it is sufficient to suppose that every atom, whether it forms part
of an organized body or one not organized, is endowed with two
opposite electric poles. Only in the first case, namely, that in which
there is life, a new force, the vital force, determines, by the particu-
Jar disposition which it impresses on the particles, an arrangement
which permits the manifestation of their electric properties.
I have mentioned the vital force, and here would’be the occasion of
giving an account of the long and interesting discussion to which the
simple enunciation of the existence of this force gave rise. There
was here a general question connected at the same time with the
most difficult points of organic natural history, and with the most deli-
cate conceptions of the philosophy of the sciences, namely, those
which relate to forces, their nature, their mode of manifestation, and
the relations which exist among them. Hence, the physicists and the
chemists, as well as the naturalists, took part in this discussion, which
we must content ourselves here with merely commemorating, without
248 REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF
pretending to reproduce what would far exceed the necessary limits
of this report.
M. Claparede, who first directly entered on the subject, which an
incidental remark by M. De la Rive had thus introduced, maintained
that there is an impossibility of pronouncing positively in the actual
state of physiology, on the existence of vital forces, and that there is
a necessity, if we admit their existence hypothetically, of considering
them as general forces of nature, manifesting themselves only under
certain circumstances, the result of which is organization.
Dr. D’Espine and M. Thury, in written memoirs, pronounced
strongly in favor of the existence of special vital forces, proper only
to organized beings—forces to which M. Thury assigns a peculiar
character, distinct anes that of inorganic forces, considering them as
schematic for ces, that is, producing the type and needing ‘for their
manifestation the concurrence of the organic forces from which they
borrow the law of their operation.
MM. De la Rive, Pictet, Marignac, and Colladon gave in succession
their ideas on this subject, and while agreeing as to the necessity of
admitting that there are in organized bodies phenomena which known
physical “forces do not suffice to explain, they yet differed both as
regards the nature of their arguments in favor of the existence of a
vital force, and as to the importance of the part fulfilled by this force
in physiological phenomena.
After having taken part myself in this discussion, as just stated,
and having followed with care its different phases, there have re-
mained on my mind some personal impressions which i may be allowed
here to reproduce. A first impression is that whatever may be said,
there is an abyss between the ordinary forces of inorganic matter and
those which produce life, with the phenomena which accompany it;
it appears to me, then, impossible not to admit a force, or, if one
chooses, a special principle of activity. in living beings, the absence of
which constitutes the state of death. A second impression is that
the notion of a vital force has been often abused by supposing it to
intervene directly where the intervention of ordinary forces is
perfectly sufficient, and thatin this respect vitalism badly understood
may have injured the progress of physiology. A third impression is
that the principal objections urged to the existence of the vital force
themselves rest on hypotheses still more improbable than the
hypothesis which they are designed to combat. Thus resort is had
to the hypothesis of one unique matter and a unity of force, whereas
nothing rests on less proof; and as to the unity of force in particular,
they found it on the principle of the transformation of forces one into
another, without considering that the principle is only true* of the
mechanical effect produced by those forces and not of the forces them-
selves, and that 1t is besides impossible not to acknowledge that there
must be forces or principles of activity not subjected to the law of the
mechanical effect.
But enough of this subject. As we have seen, our Society, though it
is esse ntially areunion of men of specialities, does by no means disdain
general questions. Doubtless it ought not to surrender itself to them,
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 249
nor does it but in moderation; yet it does not fear, when the occasion
arises naturally, to broach them with freedom, for it is due to the
union which subsists between its members, to the kindly familiarity
which presides at its sessions, that it should indulge in discussion at
once perfectly free and perfectly courteous, equally remote from too
much compliance and too much insistence. Let us always preserve,
Gentlemen, this custom, consecrated by our predecessors, and although
Tam far from proscribing men of genius, if our good fortune should
introduce such into our circle, let us at least avoid the reproach
which was attached to them of old, genus irritabile vatum.
I have thus presented a summary of the transactions which have
occupied the nineteen sittings of the Society from July, 1858, to the
end of June, 1859. I have not entered into administrative details,
which have been few during the year, and which have consisted es-
sentially in some elections and the publication of the second part of the
14th volume of our memoirs. In the month of January, Professor Pictet
De la Rive was designated as vice-president, to become president from
July, 1859, to June, 1860. M. Edouard Claparede was elected secretary
for three years, succeeding M. Louis Soret, whose functions had
expired, and who had declined a re-election. You have provided,
lastly, by numerous nominations, for the places rendered vacant by
death in the ranks of our honorary members, and at the same time
limited to seventy the maximum number of those members.
Our Society has never made pretension to offer its diplomas to all
the men who honor science by their labors; hence your choice has
fallen, as on previous occasions, only upon those among them who
have been kind enough to give us some testimony of their good will,
either directly or indirectly:
I have said that death has made numerous vacancies among our
honorary members, and though it has not been our custom to speak
here of those whom we have thus lost, you will permit me, I am sure,
to make one exception in favor of the individual whom the whole
scientific world considered as its chief and honored as its presbyter.
Alexander de Humboldt was the oldest of our honorary members;
the intimate relations which he had sustained with our two illustrious
compatriots, Marc-Auguste Pictet and Pyrame De Candolle, had con-
stantly predisposed him favorably towards our society and towards all
the Genevese who were occupied with science. Having myself expe-
rienced his kindness, I still retain the impression of the friendly
reception which he extended to me at Berlin in April, 1858. I found
him then as [ had known him thirty years before; his intellect had lost
nothing of its extent and clearness; his conversation was always as rich
and animated, his conceptions as lively and as rapid. I shall not
attempt to recount that long and noble life, nor even to sketch it: it
is a work of time which would be beyond my strength. I aspire but
to one thing, to render a modest but profound homage to that vast in-
telligence which touched on almost all the points of human knowledge,
and which has left monuments of its activity in every branch of the
sciences, physical and natural. What essentially characterized Hum-
250 REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF, ETC.
boldt was the necessity of embracing in his researches the whole of
nature—the Cosmos. Thus it was, above all, the study of our globe
itself which was the object of his constant predilection, and for which
he went to gather materials in every quarter of the world. Did uni-
versality theme impair in him to a certain extent originality, and were
his discoveries less brilliant on that account than those of his
illustrious cotemporaries? It is possible: one cannot be at the same
time a Humboldt and a Volta. But his part has been sufficiently
honorable and his influence sufficiently great in the world of science
to leave nothing wanting to the lustre which attends his name. He
died the 6th of May last, at the age of 90, in the plenitude of his facul-
ties, full of years and of glory. I cannot better characterize him
than by recalling here the judgment which he passed upon himself :
‘‘T am not a savant, ”’ he said to me at Berlin, eighteen months ago.
A ie world, then, ny promptly rephed, ‘‘is much deceived in regard
to: your’ /: “SSNo: I am not a savant, such as they represent me,’’ he
rejoined earnestly; ‘‘my principal discoveries have been the discovery
of learned men, and my principal merit is to have caused science to
be loved.’’ Perhaps he had reason to regard this kind of glory as his
first title to the admiration and the gratitude of posterity. There will
always be savants who will cause science to advance, but the Hum-
boldts and De Candolles who cause it to advance at the same time
that they cause it to be loved, who encourage labor in others and
themselves set the example—these are types as rare as they are
precious, and when they disappear it is not science alone, but still
more those who cultivate it, who ought to mourn for them.
PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY IN RELATION TO THE
FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL.
By Proressor ANDERS Rerzius, of the Carolinska Institute, Stokholm.
[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution from the Archives des Sciences Physiques et Natu
relles, Geneva, 1860, by C. A. ALEXADDER. |
Twelve years ago I presented to the assembly of Scandinavian nat-
uralists some considerations on the form of the human skull among
different nations, considerations based upon facts which I had com-
municated two'years before. Thedoctrine sketched at that time was
entirely new, and had been submitted to no competent proof; its
destiny seemed uncertain, and many gaps remained to be filled up.
But since that epoch, the classification proposed for skulls of different
form has been more solidly established, and may be affirmed to be
complete, as I here propose briefly to show.
A.—FOoRMS OF THE SKULL IN EUROPE.
At the time referred to, I had indicated that the majority of the
nations of western Europe are dolichocephale, while the brachy-
cephale predominate in eastern Europe.* This assertion has since
been confirmed from different quarters.
aw
=A communication from Professor J. Aitken Meigs, of Philadelphia, furnishes the trans-
lator of this paper with material for a note which cannot be otherwise than acceptable,
whether to the general reader as an explanation of scientific terms, or to those who propose
to enter on such inquiries, especially to the observant traveler in little-explored countries,
as an indication from a highly competent source of the measurements proper to be taken
for determining the ethnographic character of the human head.
‘*The late Professor Anders Retzius, of Stockholm, divided the races of men into two
great groups according to the form of the head, or rather according to the ratio existing
between the Jength and breadth of the skull. Nations in whom the head is developed
chiefly in the occipito-frontal or longitudinal diameter he called dolichocephala, or long-heads,
(from dodryos, long, and xepady, head;) races whose skulls are developed in the bi-parietal
diameter particularly, or in the direction of the breadth, to such an extent as to exhibit a
more or less rounded or square form, he termed brachycephale, or short-heads, (from Bpaxus,
short, and xedadn.) Both the dolichocephale and brachycephale he again subdivided into
the orthognathe, or straight-jawed, (from 6pos, upright, and yva0os, jaw,) and the prognathe,
or prominent-jawed, (from zpe, forwards, and yvados )’’ In other words, nations with a per-
pendicular profile are orthognathic, as the Germans, Anglo-Saxons, &c ; those with a retir-
ing profile are prognathic, as the negro.
‘*Retzius’s division of the human family,’’ continues Professor Meigs, ‘‘is liable to the
objection that it forces into one or other of these two classes races whose skulls in point
of Soa eation occupy an intermediate position. The measurements by which differences
in size and form of crania are determined are variously taken by different cranio-
graphers. Some systematic writers make many of these measurements, others apply buta
few. ‘The occipito-frontal or longitudinal diameter is ordinarily measured from the glabella
to the most prominent point of the occipital bone. ‘Ihe glabella is the prominence on the
frontal bone, between the orbits and just above the root of the nose. The most projecting
point of the occiput correspon 's in the majority of cases with the external occipital pro-
tuberance or boss. This diameter gives the length of the head. The bi-parietal diameter
coincides with the breadth of the head, and is generally measured from one parietal protu-
berance -to the other. The depth or vertical height of the skull is measured from the
’
DNS)) PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY
Dolichocephalee of Europe.
( Norwegians and Normans of France and
England,
Swedes,
Danes,
Hollanders,
Germans. + Flemings,
Burgundians,
Germans of the German stock,
Franks,
Anglo-Saxons,
Goths in Italy and Spain,
{ Scottish Celts,
Trish Celts,
English Celts,
Welsh,
Gauls of France, Switzerland, Germany,
&e.,
Romans proper,
Ancient Hellenes and their descendants,
Since the period when for the first time I announced this classifi-
cation, which may be found in the transactions of the first meeting
of Scandinavian naturalists at Christiana, I have examined a great
number of individuals descended from Norman families in France and
England. All these, without exception, have preserved the same
oval form of the skull which characterizes the Normans properly so
called in Norway. I have studied, besides, by hundreds, the Swedish
heads found in ancient tombs or in cemeteries, or obtained from ana-
tomical amphitheatres, and in all these skulls the same form which
IT had described has been found to prevail.
Some years ago, in levelling the Riddarholm, an entire cemetery
was laid open, in which were found skulls and relics of skeletons. A
| Orthognathic.
Celtise-\7-
middle of the anterior margin of the great foramen in the base to a point in the vault of
the cranium directly above. The frontal diameter or breadth of the forehead is measured
between the most protuberant points of the frontal bone, behind and above the external
angular processes. The breadth of the face is taken between the zygomatic arches. The
height or length of the face is the distance between the point of the chin and the root of
the nose. The horizontal periphery is measured by means of a graduated tape passed
around the cranium below the superciliary ridges of the os-frontis, and over the eaternal
occipital protuberance. This is the horizontal circumference of the calvaria or head proper.
The occipito-frontal arch is measured from the root of the nose over the top of the head
in the median line, to the posterior margin of the great foramen at the base. These are
the most important external measurements of the skull; many others, however, might be
enumerated. In my own system, as yet unpublished, I have adopted 54 different dimen-
sions as necessary to express fully all the ethnological peculiarities of the cranium.’’
Other terms, it may be added, have been proposed for the designation of particular forms
of the cranium, as platycephalic for those distinguished by horizontal expansion of the ver-
tical region, a feature which, when joined with somewhat low elevation of forehead and
great width between the angles and condyles of the lower jaw, imparted to the counte-
nance, says Professor J. B. Davis, of England, that quadrangular appearance so commonly
observed in the statues of ancient Romans of consular and imperial times. Acrocephalie
or elevated, whose leading characters are ‘‘ great antero-posterior length; smallness of bi-
parietal measurement, with apparent compression of the sides; roundness and projection of
frontal region; absence of sagittal suture; this last being the determining cause of all the
other peculiarities.’’—(Report of the Britis!: Association, 1857, p. 146.)
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 253
large provortion were in perfect preservation, and the skulls pre-
sented, almost without exception, the characters of the German type.
A result altogether similar was furnished by the examination of skulls
found in the city of Stockholm itself, at the place known by the name
of Sjilagaordsgata, (Street of the Abode of Souls, ) near which there
vas once the cemetery of a convent.
Since the epoch of my first researches I have visited Copenhagen
and studied a great number of skulls belonging to the museum of that
city; I have also had an opportunity of examining the skulls of a great
number of Danes, and have found the German. dolichocephalic form
well maintained. I have verified the same fact in Holland and in the
Flemish portions of Belgium and France. Moreover, Professor Vro-
lik, of Amsterdam, has sent me skulls of the same form found in the
ancient tombs of Holland.
During an excursion in Great Britain in 1855 I was able to satisfy
myself anew that the dolichocephalic form is predominant in England
proper, in Wales, in Scotland, and in Ireland. Most of the dolicho-
cephalz of these countries have the hair black and are very similar
to Celts.
Through the kindness of a distinguished archeologist, M. Frederic
Troyon, whose activity is well known, I have received for the museum
of Stockholm several skulls of Burgundians, derived from the ancient
tombs of that race in the Canton de Vaud. All present the same
Germanic form.
The first Roman skull that I had an opportunity of seeing was sent
to me by the late Dr. Prichard. It had been picked up on an ancient
field of battle near York with another skull of different form. Dr.
Prichard desired to know my opinion on the nationality of these two
skulls, but he studiously kept from me any information which might
serve to guide my conclusions. I ascertained that the first of these
two skulls had a dolichocephalic form altogether peculiar, which was
not yet represented in the collection of the Carolinska Institute. I
found, however, that this form coincided perfectly with the descrip-
tion ond figures of Roman skulls which have been left by Blumenbach
and Sandifort. The other skull was smaller, much elongated in form
straight and low, and had evidently belonged toa Celt. My con-
clusion then was that the former was a Roman and the latter a Celtic
skull. This judgment fully satisfied Dr. Prichard, since these two
skulls had been found, as he told me afterwards, in a field called in
other times the field of the emperor Severus, and that the Celts
(Belge Brittanorum) had been defeated in that place by the Romans.
The Celtic skull bore on its posterior part the mark of a mortal blow,
received, doubtless, in the act of flight, while the wound which had
caused the death of the Roman had passed athwart the orbit. Since
that time many authentic Roman skulls have been found and studied
by Drs. Davis and Thurmam. Some of them were shown at the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, which met at Glas-
gow in 1855, and Dr. Davis has conferred on the museum of the Carolin-
ska Institute at Stockholm a specimen of a Roman skull in good pre-
servation, taken from a columbarium near the Appian Way, not far
from Rome, All these skulls offer a remarkable resemblance in form
254 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLYGY
and dimensions. They are of dolichocephalic form, but extraordina-
rily large, principally above the ears, with the parietal tuberosities
largely developed, the occipital protuberance very projecting, and
altogether of considerable volume.
I have introduced the Hellenes into my enumeration of the doli-
chocephale of Europe. My reasons for this were elsewhere given
in 1847.* Nevertheless, according to all the facts that I have able to
collect, the doliehocephalic form has never appertained to the ma-
jority of the Greek nation, which presents, on the contrary, the char-
acters of the brachycephale. The brachycephalic form appertains
to the Greek Sclaves, as well as to the majority of the Levantines and
of the Pelasgi, the Albanians of the present day. In the paper before
cited I have already drawn attention to the fact that certain antique
statues, such as those of the Apollo, the Venus, and others of the
most noble character, pertain to the dolichocephalic type, while
others, like those of the Jupiter and Hercules, are brachycephalic;
which differences result, no doubt, from the difference of the races to
which the individuals belonged whom the artist wished to represent.
Brachycephale of Europe.
Under this head are comprised—
Samoieds,
Laplanders,
Woeuls,
Ostiacks,
Permians,
Wotiacks, Orthognathic.
Tsheremisses,
Mordwins,
Tshuwashes,
Magyars,
Finlanders,
Finns---- ~ Esthonians,
Ougrians,
(Muller, Latham)
Qo ee
Livonians,
“Mtoe ood ie aGodabdun OfGooemog oO OOo oaoG Orthognathic.
( Czéckes, (Bohemians, )
Wends,
Slovacs,
Morlacs,
Sclaves. Croats,
Servians,
Poles,
Russians,
Modern ‘Greeks,
Lettes or Lithuanians,
Albanians,
Etrurians,
Rhetians,
Basques,
Orthognathiec.
Orthognathie.
—- S TS TE
* V. Oefversigt af Kongliska Vetensk. Academ. forhandligar, 8 September, 1847.
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 255
I have not myself had the opportunity of examining several of the
populations enumerated in this table; relying, however, on data de-
rived from various sources, I venture to provounce the opinion that
they all ought to be ranged among the Brachycephale. It seems,
indeed,a feature) in the order of the Saore that all the dominant races
of eastern Europe, which occupy the vast tract of Russia in Europe,
Turkey, Greece, and a great part of the Austrian empire, are brachy-
cephalic. °
Many interesting skulls belonging to some of the tribes just enu-
merated have been recently received by the museum of Stockholm.
Thus the celebrated anatomist of Vienna, Professor Hyrtl, has sent
me the skull of a Croat of the military frontier, characterized by its
height, its capacity, and its almost cubic form; also a Morlac skull
from Dalmatia, large, lofty, and brachycephalic. Several Slovac
skulls from Olmutz have been procured for me by Professor Bons-
dorff, with two Esthonian skulls, a Turkish, and several Finnish ones.
Professor Willebrand, of Helsingfors, has sent me two Carelian skulls.
Moreover, I have myself examined several living Rhetians, as well as
Basques; and I have received from Dr. Eugene Robert, of Paris, some
superb Basque heads for our museum. On different occasions I have
met with brachycephalic Scots from northern Scotland and the isles to
the north of it. During my last sojourn in Scotland I encountered again
divers individuals pertaining to this same type, having an expression
altogether peculiar, their visage being often short and somewhat large,
their hair red, the skin of their faces marked with freckles. Since
then I have learned from the report of travellers that this type is
common in the Highlands, where it is indigenous from a remote an-
tiquity. I suppose that it has descended from the Finns, or perhaps
the Basques.*
B.—ForMSs OF THE SKULL IN ASIA.
Dolichocephale of Asia.
Hindoos,
Arian Persians,
Arabs,
Jews,
Tongouses ‘
52 ’ Prognathic.
Chinese, 5
Orthognathic.
The area inhabited by these populations is restricted to the southern
regions of the great Asiatic continent, viz: the following countries:
® Since this was written, the author has been able to examine a considerable number of
skulls of Tuscany, Lombardy, Piedmont, Tyrol, and Switzerland, and has arrived at the
conviction that the brachycephalic form prevails in those countries in company with the
black color of the hair. The same remark may be made with regard to a majority of the
inhabitants of Baden, Wirtemberg, and Bavaria. In France, the Basques offer the same
characters as to the form of the head and color of the hair. It is nearly the same with
the population of Saxony and Austria. In these last countries the population is, without
doubt, of Sclavic origin, while it is probably of Greek origin in Italy, Tyrol, and Switzer-
land.— Vote by the author.
256 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY
Arabia, Persia, Hindostan, and China, (not comprising Mongolia and
Chinese Tartary.) Whether to the north or south of this area, we
find brachycephalic populations, which are, moreover, disseminated
here and there among dolichocephale of Asia.
I have here arranged the Chinese and Tongouses among the doli-
chocephalw, though they have been generally classed by others among
the Mongols. Jn effect, the examination of a great number of skulls
has confirmed ¢he observation which I had made long ago, and which
Latham has cited,* that the Chinese proper have the head elongated,
with the occipital protuberance very prominent; but this promi-
nence is associated with a decided jutting out of the parietal tuberosi-
ties, which causes the contour of the skull to approximate to an
elongated pentagon more than an oval. I have received several
skulls of Chinese, whether real or moulded in plaster, from England,
through Dr. J. B. Davis; from Holland, (Prof. Van der Hoeven;) from
St. Petersburg, (M. V Baer ;) and from the expedition around the
world of the frigate Eugenia, (Messrs. Andersson, Kinberg, Hckstré-
mer;) all present, as it seems to me, the same characteristic form.
As regards the Tongouses, I ought to observe that Ihave but a single
skull to serve as the basis of my decision, to wit,amould in gypsum, which
was sent me in exchange by Professor Purkinje, of Prague. I have
every reason to believe that this mould is from the Tongousian skull
which Blumenbach has described and figured in his second decade:
“Facie plena ad arcus zygomaticos latissima, fronte depensa, &c., olfactus
officina amplissima, occiput mirum in modum retro eminens ita ut
protuberantiz occipitis externe distantia a dentibus incisoribus supe-
rioribus 9 pollices zquaret.’’+ The collection of Blumenbach belongs
now to the museum of the Physiological Institute of Gottingen, where
it is in charge of the learned director, Professor Rudolf Wagner,
who has had many of the most semanas skulls of the collection
moulded by a skilful artist, in order to place them within reach of °
other museums.
A striking resemblance is to be remarked between this Tongousian
skull and those of the Esquimaux. ‘The form of the face is identical:
the visage is flattened, very large above the zygomatic bones, the
upper jaw ample and prominent; the arch formed by the alveolar
processes and the teeth is large, as among the Esquimaux and Green-
Janders. The same conformity exists in the capacity of the head, the
elongation and size of the occipital protuberance. These characters
again are to be found in a large portion of the Chinese skulls of our
collection, and it is on this account that I have thought that in this
Tongousian skull might be discovered the intermediate link between
the form of the skull of the Chinese and that of the Esquimaux.
* Natural History of the Varieties of Man, 1850, p. 16, ‘‘ Physical Conformation.’’
} Decas Collectionis suze Craniorum diversarum Gentium, II, Table XIV.
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 257
Brachycephale of Asia.
Ugrians, (Samoiedes, Yakouts, &c.)
Turks.
Circassians, and probably a majority of the numerous tribes of the
Caucasus.
Turcomans,
Afghans, f
Lascars,
Tartars and Mantchoo-Tartars,
Mongols, as well in Asiatic Russia as in Mongolia, |
Malays,
The ‘‘ Indian Mongolide,’’ in Dr. Latham’s Varieties of Man, pro-
bably belong also to this division.
These populations embrace all the great Asiatic continent, with the
sole exception of the countries of the dolichocephalic organization
which I have given above, namely, India, Persia, Arabia, China, and
a small part of Siberia. The brachycephale, however, as before in-
dicated, form small communities disseminated through the midst of
the dolichocephalic tribes already enumerated. In Asia, then, as in
Europe, the brachycephalic form of the skull is predominant, but with
this difference, that the Asiatic brachycephale are, the greater part
of them, prognathic.
all prognathic.
]
C.—ForMS OF THE SKULL IN AUSTRALIA.
Dolichocephale of Australia.
Australian negroes, all prognathic.
Our information relative to these people is yet so incomplete that
I have not ventured to present a table of denominations, and I limit
myself to saying that by the study alike of the Carolinska Institute
collection and of others, and by an examination of many published
works, I have acquired the conviction that dolichocephalic tribes exist
on nearly all the Australian islands. All the savage nations of the
Australian continent proper, New Holland, and of Van Dieman’s
Land, appear to be prognathic dolichocephale. On the other isles
we find in addition brachycephale, (Malays, Polynesians, and Papous
of Guoy and Gaimard.) Most frequently these tribes are black or black-
ish. Hence the name of Australian negroes has been given them. More-
over the form of their skulls resembles altogether that of the negroes.
Many of these tribes have the hair closely crisped, but long and, so
to say, felted into a bushy perruque; others have it straight. Our
collection possesses the skulls of such brought from a great number
of the isles of the South Sea and Pacific. They resemble one another
in a striking manner, and in general are small, but thick, presenting
in this point of view also an approach to the negro type. They are
in size much less than the Chinese, but they have, like them, large
parietal protuberances which rarely occur among the negroes. Their
sy
258 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY
occipital protuberance is much developed and a little compressed
laterally. The zygomatic arch is not greatly salient, nor is the nose
flattened as in the negro; the brow is narrow and low. Ihave lately
received from Professor Bonsdorff, of Helsingfors, skulls of this form
brought from Woahu, in the archipelago of the Sandwich islands.
The Danish frigate Galatea has furnished several others from the
Nicobar islands, on which Professor Ibsen made an interesting report
to the convention of Scandinavian naturalists at Stockholm, in 1851,
besides having had the kindness to remit one of the specimens to our
anatomical museum.
Through the kind offices of Dr. R. G. Latham, our museum is also
‘In possession of a skull of the nation of Borneo, which is known by
‘the name of Dayak. This is equally dolichocephalic. The half of
‘another is preserved in the collection of the University of Christiana,
-and presents the same peculiarities of form. I have seen, moreover,
many altogether similar at London. These Dayak skulls are small, but
‘solid; their parietal protuberances are rather smaller than those of
Australian negroes. All the skulls of Dayaks that I have seen are
ornamented with figures symmetrically carved on the front, vertex, and
temporal regions as far as the lambdoidal suture; some of which
figures are colored a dark brown, with here and there small spots of a
‘bright red or blue. ‘‘ Before a young man can aspire to matrimony,”’
says Dr. Latham, speaking of these Dayaks, ‘‘he must lay at the feet
of his betrothed the head of a man of another tribe, slain by his own
hand. Every marriage, then, supposesa murder. I suspect, however,
that this observance is not so general as the rule exacts. Another
‘characteristic trait of the Day: aks is their passion for possessing skulls;
hence skulls form the chief ornament of a Dayak house, and their
possession is the best proof of virility.’’
From all that I can draw from different data, the Dayaks are black
of color, like the majority of the Australians. I believe that all the
tribes called Alforous, or Haroforous, are prognathic dolichocephale,
like the majority of those to whom we give the name of Papous or Pa-
puans,* but who are not to be confounded with the brachycephalic
Papous described by Guoy and Gaimard. A great number of tribes
among these Australian negroes construct their habitations on piles
reared above the water. M. Troyon has shown that the ancient in-
habitants of Switzerland had dwellings of a like construction, as was
the case also, according to Herodotus, with the Peonians of Mace-
donia. Most of the Australian negroes occupy the interior of islands,
and certain tribes inhabit the mountains.
Brachycephale of Australia.
Malays,
Polynesians, (Dieffenbach, ) all prognathic.
Papous, (Guoy and Gaimard, )
The above are, in my opinion, properly called Oceanic Mongols by
Dr.Latham. ‘The Malays, recognizable by their yellow skin, their black
* Ethnological Library, conducted by E. Norris, vol. I.
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 259
and shining hair, their projecting mandibles, pertain likewise to the
peninsula of Malacca. They are so well known as the most intelligent
and, after their manner, the most civilized of the islanders of the
South Sea, that it would be useless in this short sketch to dwell upon
them. Their skulls are scarcely wanting in any ethnographic col-
lection.
I class as Polynesians the dusky or brownish skinned inhabitants of
the Tonga islands, of New Zealand, of Otahiti, of the Sandwich
islands, and of a great number of groups of less considerable islands
dispersed through the Micronesian archipelago of the Pacific. The
skulls of Polynesians have generally the occiput more flattened
than the Malays; their jaws and teeth are less prominent; the
skulls themselves larger than those of the Malays proper. The
Polynesians are commonly large, well proportioned, and rather
muscular, and in character and temper compare favorably with the
Malays. Inthe royal ethnographic collection of the Carolinska Insti-
tute, there are skulls from the Sandwich islands and New Zealand
which might be ranked in the first class for size, and particularly for
height.
PAPOUS OF GUOY AND GAIMARD.
(Mops-Papus of Dampier. )
Dampier, Forrest, and several old travellers mention a particular
people of blackish brown color, inhabiting the shores of the islands
near the north coast of New Guinea, who are to be distinguished from
the other islanders of the Pacific by many peculiarities, especially by a
profuse head of black hair, which is so finely crisped as to present the
appearance of being frizzled. Guoy and Gaimard, who accompanied
De Freycinet on the corvettes Uranie and Physicienne had made us
more exactly acquainted with this people and the particular form of
their skulls. The most important point which results from their ob-
servations, as appears to me, is that their skulls are entirely different
from those of a Australian negroes. While these latter, as indi-
cated above, are quite low, narrow, of elongated oval form, and
provided ae a greatly projecting occipital protuberance, the skulls
of these Papuans are, on the contrary, according to Guoy and
Gaimard, high, short, large, and flattened on the occiput. ‘<The
heads of these Papuans, a they s say, ‘present a flattening both before
and behind, accompanied with a considerable development of the
jaws. The skull is of remarkable height, the parietal protuberances
salient, and the temples very convex; the anterior part of the temporal
regions, across which the coronal suture prolongs itself below the level
of the semicircular line of the temples, presents a peculiar and ver
marked projection.* The nasal bones are placed almost vertically,
compressed backward as it were. The nasal apophysis or frontal of
the upper maxilla is large and made much more prominent than usual
* J discover that this peculiar projection exists also in general in the heads of Malays
and Polynesians.— Author.
260 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY
in consequence of the position of the nasal bones. The upper maxilla
is much larger than in the Kuropean, because of the great develop-
ment of the dental process which gives to the visage of these
islanders an unusual amplitude. The nasal openings are very large
towards the base, even more so sometimes than in the negro. The
alveolar process is unusually thick at the sides where the molars are
inserted; the palatal vault rather large than long.’’
The museum of the Carolinska Institute possesses three samples of
brachycephalic Papuans, which all strikingly resemble one another,
and correspond perfectly with the above description. I shall only
add that they strongly resemble the skulls of Polynesians previously
mentioned, only differing from the latter ina greater depression of
the bridge of the nose, the largeness of the zygomatic arches, and the
amplitude both of the fossz nasales and the alveolar arch.
Guoy and Gaimard, who describe only the Papuans of the two
islands Vagiou and Ravak, report that their inhabitants call them-
selves Papua, and are distinguished by positive marks from the
indigenous blacks of New Guinea, who entirely resemble the negroes
of Hastern Africa; that they live on the coasts, subsisting chiefly on
fish and mollusks, and build their houses on piles in the waters of the
country. Those who inhabit the mountains of Vagiou call themselves
Alifourous, and are mentioned as Alfours, Haraforas, &c., by different
travellers. The skulls in our possession from the islands of this
quarter, present the dolichocephalic negro form before spoken of,
being narrow, low, and oblong, with a prominent occipital protu-
berance.
We find an interesting paper* in the Ethnological Library, con-
ducted by Ed. Norris, vol. I, descriptive of the Papuans of these
parts, from which we learn, on the authority of Lieutenant Bruijn
Kops, of the royal marine of Holland, who accompanied an expedition
in 1810, and landed on the coast of New Guinea opposite the island of
Dori, that the men of the latter, whom he calls Papuans of Dori, are
five and a quarter feet, sometimes five and a half, in height, ofa dark
brown color, occasionally black, having black crisped hair, often very
long, though with the appearance at times of having been shaved.
In a plate we see one of them represented with the hair dressed after
the fashion of a turban, to which these Papuans are indebted for the
name of Mops-Papus. M. Bruijn Kops states that the indigenes
of New Guinea divide themselves into Papuans and Alforous, the
former inhabiting the coasts, the latter the interior and the moun-
tains, though the distinction of race between them can at present
only be accounted a probability, owing to the imperfect indications
afforded by M. Kops. He extols the Papuans as a people intrinsi-
cally good, not addicted to theft, holding the aged in respect, kind to
their children, and faithful to their wives. Chastity is held in great
honor, and but one wife is permitted, the union to whom is for life.
They are, however, partial to strong drinks, nor is it discreditable
among them to steal children and make an article of commerce of
* By Mr. George Windsor Earl.
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 261
them; but the children thus taken are well treated and restored for a
ransom. The trade in slaves isgeneral, though these are well treated.
Of the manner in which crimes are punished, we have the following
- particulars: The incendiary becomes the slave of the injured party
with all his family. The man who intentionally wounds another is
fined the price of a slave. The thief is condemned to restore what is
taken and something in addition. All waste committed in a fruit
grove or plantation must be repaired. The sin against the sixth com-
mandment is punished with death, or in case the injury admits of repa-
ration, still with severe punishment. The man who does violence to
a woman is bound to espouse her and pay to her parents the ordinary
value of ten slaves. When illicit association occurs, the woman is
exempt from punishment, and if not married is free from all dishonor.
Everything is here estimated according to the standard value of a
slave.
The majority of the Papuans of Dori are idolaters; a small number
are Mahometans, with priests from the islands of Ceram and Tidore.
The idol of the Pagans, called Karwar, is rudely sculptured in wood,
about eighteen inches high, deformed, having a large head with pointed
nose and wide mouth, “ail farmienedl with foot Its body is usually
clad in a piece of calico, and its head covered with a handkerchief.
Every house has its idol, which must be present on all important oc-
casions and is consulted as an oracle. ‘These Papuans have also
fetiches, most frequently images of serpents and lizards, suspended
from the roof or carved on the posts of the doors. They have a kind
of priests, who are also their physicians and sorcerers. Their houses
are built on posts in the lakes, with plank walls. According to the
drawing given us by M. Harlin the paper we are following, these
houses resemble large shallops with openings like port-holes; the inte-
rior divisions are formed by mats, and the floor by rude planks tied
together.
These Papuans work in iron and other metals, and in some sort
devote themselves to agriculture, or rather, to speak more exactly, to
the culture of legumes; but the training of domestic animals is un-
known to them. The chase and fishing constitute the principal occu-
pation of the men, the women being employed in the work of the
household; both in the chase and in war they use bows and arrows,
but do not poison the latter. Even the fish are taken with arrows
and with lances, and sometimes also with nets.
The Papuans passing much of their time on the sea, the canoe
forms an important part of their riches. They have small canoes for
children, larger ones for daily use, requiring two rowers, and others
still larger, for twenty rowers. Hach of these skiffs is formed from
the trunk of a tree; those of larger size having a mast and mat sail.
Such frail barks be sing unequal to Tong voyages, a6 commerce of these
coasts is in the hands of strangers, especially of the Chinese. The
government of Holland founded, in 1852, a factory at Port Humboldt,
on the northern coast of New Guinea, which authorizes us to hope for
more exact information respecting the inhabitants of the interior.
I have allowed myself to enter into somewhat circumstantial details
262 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY
regarding these Papuans of the northern coast of New Guinea, be-
cause our knowledge of them is still involved in much obscurity. We
see, meantime, that M. Kops considers them as belonging to a differ-
ent race from the Alfourous. Though no great ethnographic rigor
seems to have been employed in applying the names Papuans and
Alfors, or Alfourous, it would seem to be generally understood that
by ine former are Rant the indigenes of the coast, and by the latter
those of the interior and the mountains. The term Papow seems
derived from the Malay expression for crisped or woolly hair, (rambut
uc pua,) which has come to be applied to the inhabitants of the coast,
whose hair is of that description. The name of Alfourou comes from
the Portuguese word alforas, which properly signifies an enfranchised
slave. The Portuguese employed this term to des signate the free
indigenes of the interior of the Moluccas, wishing thereby to dis-
tinguish them from the inhabitants of the cities. As applied at
present to the inhabitants of the coast and the interior, the two
denominations appear, as far as can be gathered, to pertain to two
distinct races.
Imay be permitted to cite here an important passage from Dr.
Prichard on the subject of the Alfourous of these countries. ‘‘ What
can we make,’’ he says, ‘‘of the Alforic race, which has been de-
scribed as a people apart, with a peculiar type and a peculiar form
of the skull? It continues to be one of the most remarkable varieties
of the human race. We must join with it the mountaineers of Arak,
in New Guinea, seen and apparently well described by Lesson, as well
as the other indigenes of the great continent of Australia.”’
In his instructive work before cited, Dr. Latham hag admitted two
varieties under the head of the Papuan branch of the Kelonesian stock,
New Guinea. He publishes two remarkable profiles of their skulls,
taken from the ‘‘ Voyage of the Uranie and Physicienne,’’ one of
which has the traits of a dolichocephalic negro, while the other is
brachycephalic, like those of the brac hycephalie Papuans cited above.
May not these figures pertain respectively, the former, or dolicho-
cephalic skull, to an Alfourou, and the latter, or brachycephalic one,
toa Papou? Yet the author attributes to the former frizzled hair
and to the latter straight.
In relation to the place assignable to the brachycephalic Papous,
the main object of this section, I shall conclude by expressing the
opinion that it should be sought in the immediate neighborhood of
the brown Polynesians, of whom these Papuans are probably the stock
or the progeny, modified after some special manner by peculiar modes
of life, climate, &c. Mr. Earl rejects entirely the opinion that they
might be hybrids, and, as far as I can judge, with very sufficient
reasons. *
*The celebrated academician of St. Petersburg, M. C. de Baer, has recently enriched
ethnological bibliography with two productions of great merit, entitled Crania selecta ex
ean anthropologicis Academie Imp. Petropolit. Petrop., 1859, and Ueber Papuas und Alfu-
ren, ein commentar zu den beiden ersten Abschnitten der Abhandlung ‘‘ Crania Selecta,’’ &c., 1859.
The learned author of these publications expresses very positive doubts as to the fact that
the skulls brought from Waigion by Guoy and Gaimard really belonged to indigenous
Papuans. ‘The skulls in question were taken froma tomb, and M. de Baer considers it
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 263
D.—AFRICA.
All the people of this continent are dolichocephale. This fact, to
which I have heretofore had occasion to draw attention at different
times, and which I do not know to have been contradicted by any
one, is altogether peculiar to this portion of the world. Europe,
Asia, the lands of the South Sea, America, comprise populations be-
longing to the two forms of head. In Europe, and still more in Asia,
the brachycephalz much exceed in point of numbers; in the isles of
the South Sea the two forms are nearly balanced, I think, as to num-
bers, but the brachycephale have the moral preponderance. On
the other hand, the brachycephalic populations are, to all appearance,
completely unrepresented in Africa. The museum of the Carolinska
Institute possesses an important collection of African skulls, of North
Africans, Abyssinians, Copts, Berbers, and Guanches. All present
the same form of the upper half of the skull, being large, capacious,
oval, resembling much those of the Arabs. The Abyssinian skulls,
which we owe to the liberality of our countryman, M. Behm, and the
Copts, are slightly prognathic. The Guanches, of which we have
four, all belonged to individuals of advanced age, who had lost their
teeth; their alveolar processes having consequently become rudimen-
tary, their prognathism is but shghtly perceptible.
In all these skulls, whether of Abyssinians or Egyptians and Gu-
anches, the vault of the skull is depressed in an arch elongated
towards the occipital protuberance, which is a little compressed at
the sides; the parietal tuberosities are little prominent. We may
regard this form of skull as prevailing on the coasts and the flat
country of northern Africa. It is again found on the other side of
the Atlantic, in the Carib islands and in certain of the eastern parts
of the American continent. The museum possesses, for the south of
Africa, a considerable number of skulls pertaining to divers of the
Caffre tribes. They much resemble negro skulls. Some are a little
larger than a majority of these last, but the greater part have jaws
and teeth horribly prominent. One among them, from the interior
of the country near Port Natal, is remarkable for its diminutiveness,
for the complete absence of all trace of parietal protuberance, and for
an occiput nearly pointed. Our museum contains, also, the entire
skeleton of a Hottentot, but neither in this nor in the figures of Hot-
tentots and Bosjessmans left us by Blumenbach and Sandifort can I
discover any important difference from the heads of negroes in gene-
extremely probable that the remains found in this tomb had pertained to some hostile race
of the Malayan branch. He maintains, on the contrary, that the Papuans are dolichoce-
phalic, although they deviate in some respects from the indigenes of the interior (Alfou-
rous) as regards the form of the skull. In brief, he expresses himself on the subject in the
following manner: ‘‘ Cranium Alfurorum aliquorum similitudinem habet cum cranio Papuarum,
nam ad dolichocephala etiam pertinet ; est vero amplius et potissimum altitudine et latitudine preecedit.’’
Loci cit., p. LI.
The same observations might be made with regard to other skulls obtained under anala-
gous conditions. With a view to decide the question, it were to be wished that skilful
naturalists who hereafter visit the country of the Papuans would examine the form of the
skull ef living individuals.— Note of the Author.
264 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY
ral. Many ethnologists have considered the Australian negroes as
nearly related to the Hottentots, but the skulls of the former which
have come under my observation have the parietal protuberances
more marked than the latter. These protuberances are deficient,
however, in the Dayak of Borneo, in our collection.
E.—ForMSs OF THE SKULL IN AMERICA.
In an ethnological point of view there can properly be no question
here but of the savage or half savage tribes which inhabited the con-
tinent before its discovery by the Spaniards. The number of these
tribes amounts, we know, to some hundreds, of which many are
already extinct, and the rest are perishing from year to year. Pro-
found and extensive researches have been made respecting them, but
chiefly on the subject of their languages. No European savant, since
Blumenbach, has produced a craniological work so instructive as the
Crania Americana of Dr. Morton; nevertheless, the results of this
work cannot entirely satisfy us. This author, who has given us such
numerous and valuable facts, as well as the linguists who have studied
these American languages w Ath indefatigable Peal have arrived at the
conclusion that both race and language in the New World are unique.
I am obliged to avow that the facts adduced by Morton himself, and
the study. of numerous skulls with which he has enriched the museum
of Stockholm, have conducted me to a wholly different result. I can
only explain the fact by surmising that this remarkable man has al-
lowed the views of the naturalist to be warped by his lnguistic
researches. For, if the form of the skull has any thing to do with the
question of races, we cannot fail to see that it is scarcely possible to
find anywhere a more distinct distribution into dolichocephale and
brachycephale than in America. It would be only necessary, in
order to show this, to direct attention to certain of the delineations
in his own work, pute the skull of the Peruvian infant, (pl. 2,) the
Lenni-Lennape, (pl. 32,) the Pawnee, (pl. 38,) the Blackfoot, (pl. 40,)
&c., as clearly present the dolichocephalic form as, on the other hand,
his Natchez, (pl. 80 and 31,) and the greater part of his representa-
tions of the skulls of Chili, Peru, Mexico, Oregon, &c., are distinct
types of the brachycephalic. Conclusive, ‘however, as the plates are,
I should scarcely have ventured to advance these remarks if the rich
series of our own collection, and the numerous and excellent figures
of Blumenbach, Sandifort, Van der Hoeven, &c., did not declare in
favor of my opinion.
From all, then, that I have been able to observe, I have arrived at
the opinion that the dolichocephalic form predominates in the Carib
islands and in the whole eastern part of the American continent, from
the extreme northern limits to Paraguay and Uruguay in the south;
while the brachycephalic prevails in the Kurile islands and on the
continent, from the latitude of the straits of Behring, in Russian Amer-
cea Oregon, Mexico, Equador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, the Argentine
Republic, Patagonia, to Terre del Fuego.
There can be no doubt that the Carib race was the predominant
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 265
one, not only in the lesser Antilles, but the neighboring continent
where we now find Venezuela and Guiana, and all the Carib skulls
which I have observed, or of which we have any account, are dolicho-
cephalic. With regard to the Indians of Brazil there is a general
concurrence in assigning them to the Tupi of the Portuguese, who,
more to the south, received from the Spaniards the name ‘of Guarani,
of whom Dr. Prichard has somewhere said: ‘‘This great race, Tupi
or Guarani, is spread over the whole eastern coast of South America,
from the mouth of the river De la Plata to that of the river Amazon.”’
Towards Upper Paraguay it extended over almost the whole central
part of the continent, and in the province of Dhaco it reached the
eastern slope of the Andes s, and even penetrated the valleys of that
great chain. Mention is also made of the Guarani in Bolivia, New
Grenada, and other countries. Apparently the ancient Peruvians of
Morton and the Huanchas of M. de Tschudi are also Guarani, though
their skulls were much deformed by the elongation produced by arti-
ficial compression. The skulls of this race, as well as the Carib, are
dolichocephalic, and of much capacity, with the jaws quite large.
Towards the north we find on the Atlantic coast, both of the United
States and Canada, a predominance of the dolichocephalic form among
the tribes, that is to say, who pass under the general name of red-
skins, as the Algonquins and Iroquois. The same result may be
definitively arrived at from a study of the delineations given by Mor-
ton of Cherokees, Chippeways, Miamies, Oneidas, Hurons, Pottawato-
mies, Cayugas, (par ticularly remarkable, ) Cotonays or Blackfeet, &e.
' To these facts it must be added that the Esquimaux, who extend
also to the eastern coast, belong equally to the dolichocephalz, though
holding an altogether special place among them. Many authors con-
sider the Esquimaux as related to the Tschjoudes, as well as to the
Mongols. Morton himself, in the ethnographic part of his work, classes
them in a common family with the Samoiedes and the Laplanders,
and gives it the name of the polar family; stating that this singular
race is found only on the northern limits of the continents of Hurope,
Asia, and America. He calls them Mongol-Americans. Nothing could
be more inexact than this assertion, as far at least as the form of the
skull is admitted to have weight in the question of the affinities of
race. In my first essay on this subject, laid before the Assembly of
Scandinavian Naturalists in 1842, I placed the Greenlanders among
the prognathic dolichocephale, and had the pleasure of finding myself
fully sustained in this view by such competent judges as Eschricht,
Van der Hoeven, Ibbsen, and Nilsson. Messrs. Eschricht and Ibbsen
have probably seen more skulls of Greenlanders than any other phy-
siologists of our age, and the former, in a discourse before the Associ-
ation at Christiana, in 1844, delivered himself to this effect: ‘‘The
Greenlanders and Esquimaux pertain to a people among whom the
form of the head is of an altogether special type, and I rest my deci-
sion on the skulls of Greenlanders in the physiological museum of
Copenhagan.’’ Now these skulls, which he exhibited, have exactly
the form of those on which I based my own opinion. I find myself
sustained also by the figures and descriptions of Esquimaux skulls
266 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY
given by Blumenbach and Sandifort, and even by those of Morton
himself. It is evident that this latter accomplished naturalist has
allowed himself to be more guided by opinions already formed than
by a scrupulous examination of facts. He saw that the form of the
Esquimaux visage has something of the Mongol, and paid no attention
to the salient occipital protuberance and other characters so little like
the Mongol. I have already adverted to the great resemblance in
form which exists between the Esquimaux skull and that of the
Tengousian which we have at the Carolinska Institute, and to the
description which Blumenbach has given of a Tongousian skull, which
coincides entirely with the characters of the Esquimaux. In the
large collection of Chinese skulls in our Institute I trace a striking
resem blance: inform with those of both the Tongousians and the Green-
landers. The inference would be that the Esquimanx i is a polar race
only in America; that it is thinly scattered over the islands of the
polar sea, the most northern regions of America, and thence, passing
from east to west, through Asia towards China, where we might
identify it with the pure “Chinese part of the population, but little
distinguishable in appearance from the Tartaro-Chinese portion.
With regard to the other primitive dolichocephale of America, I
entertain an hypothesis still more bold perhaps, namely, that they
are nearly related to the Guanches.in the Canary islands, and to the
Atlantic populations of Africa, the Moors, Tuaricks, Copts, &c.,
which Latham comprises under the name of Hgyptian-Atlantide.
This is not the first time that, in speaking of our collection of skulls,
I have called attention to the resemblance of those of Guanches and
Copts on the one side, and the Guaranis of Brazil on the other.
Above I have shown that the latter are related to the race of the
ancient Caribs of the Antilles. We find, then, one andthe same form
of skull in the Canary islands, in front of the African coast, and in
the Carib islands on the opposite coast which faces Africa. The
color of the skin on both sides of the Atlantic is represented in all
these populations as being of a reddish brown, resembling somewhat
leather tanned brown; the hair the same; the features of the face
and build of the frame, as I am led to believe, presenting the same
analogy.
These facts involuntarily recall the tradition which Plato tells us in
his Tineus was communicated to Solon by an Egyptian priest, re-
specting the ancient Atlantis, situated in the ocean in front of North
Africa, and afterwards engulfed through some great change in the
distribution of land and water. Thoug h embracing many particulars
of pure invention, would it be unreasonable to claim that, coming as
it does from a quarter to which common consent refers the origin of
our sciences and arts, this tradition deserves attention in connexion
with facts which seem to point in the same direction?* A Swedish
——
* We leave to philologists the task of showing how little probable it is that the Indians,
whose languages are polysynthetic, should be related to the Semites, whose linguistic sys-
tem is based on dissyHNabic roots. But with regard to the tradition of the Atlantis, we
must remark that the submersion of a large continent situated so near the tropics, would
have had the effect of a considerable refrigeration of the northern hemisphere, pro-
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 267
geometer, M. Helleberg, who resided long in Ohio, learnedly defends
the opinien maintained by many others, that the Indians of North
America are descended from the tribes of Israel, alleging that their
features are essentially Jewish, that McKenzie saw the Chippeways
practice circumcision, &c. Without meaning to adopt this opinion as
my own, I yet refer to it as bearing favorably on the hypothesis ad-
vanced above respecting the primitive kindredship of the Carib and
Guaranic races on one side of the Atlantic, and the. Guanches on the
other, the latter being in turn nearly allied to the races of North
Africa, whose resemblance to the Jews, as regards the face and form
of the skull, is very close, and who present a complete contrast to the
Mongol type on the Asiatic side. Morton has remarked that ‘‘the
primitive Egyptians, the Misraimites of Scripture and descendants of
Ham, were directly affiliated with the nations of the Lybian family,
and in their physical traits were intermediate between the Indo-Ku-
ropean and Semitic races.’’ In view of the developments of modern
geology respecting the rise and subsidence of vast tracts of land,
there would seem to be nothing absurd in admitting that America
was once united with Africa or Asia, and obscure traditions to this
effect are said still to exist among the American Indians.
The brachycephalic tribes of America are found for the most part on
that side of the continent which looks towards Asia and the islands
of the Pacific, and they seem to be related to the Mongol races. A.
de Humboldt, the first of modern naturalists, has expressed himself
in favor of this view, which new proofs appear every day to corrobo-
rate. Some of these American brachycephalics possessed a high
degree of culture at the period of the Spanish conquest, and the in-
fluence which this civilization exerted over most of the inhabitants
of the continent has disposed many eminent ethnologists to infer the
unity of the whole American race. Thus Dr. Latham has been led
to comprise them all under the significant appellation of American
Mongolide, an extension which ethnological craniology will by no
means countenance. Morton, too, as has already been said, main-
tained a unity of race, with the exception of the Esquimaux, esteem-
ing the brachycephalic type as predominant among all the tribes, and
furnishing positive proofs of its existence at least on the western
coasts. For my own part, I have long been convinced of the con-
sanguinity between the brachycephale of America and those of Asia
and the Pacific islands, and that this characteristic type may be
traced uninterruptedly through the long chain of tribes inhabiting the
west coast of the American continent from Behring’s Straits to Cape
‘Horn. In my work on the skulls of the Indians of the Pampas, (Om
Pampas Indianernas Cranier, 1855,) I announced the opinion which
I now reaflirm, respecting the distribution of the Indian tribes into
dolichocephale and brachycephale; as well as the relationship of the
ducing a complete revolution in vegetation, especially in the basin of the Mediterranean,
and was, therefore, much more likely to have engraved itself on the memory of the Egyp-
tians than any other circumstance of the supposed catastrophe. Yet we hear of no coin-
cidence of such a revolution of climate with the disappearance of the Atlantis. —Jote by M,
E. Claparede, (French translator.)
268 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY
former to the Guanches and other Atlantic populations, and of the
latter to the Mongols. A strong confirmation of this last position
may be found in the learned researches of M. Daa, respecting the
linguistic affinities of the people in question.
The observations of intelligent travellers in all the countries bor-
dering on the Pacific leads us to the same definite conclusion with
regard to the predominant type in all of them. Thus, for Russian
America, we have the testimony of M. H. J. Hohnberg, who has
long resided in that distant country, and whose useful researches
have been given to the world in a separate series of the Actes de la
Societe Findlandaise des Sciences, Helsingfors, 1855. The skulls of
Oregon were familiar to Morton, to whose liberality we ourselves owe
the possession of two, as we are indebted for another to Professor
Meigs, of Philadelphia. I have shown elsewhere that they belong
to the brachycephalic Mongol type, and afford the better indications
from not having undergone the artificial vertical compression in use
among the people of those regions. The Aztecs are represented in
our museum by three skulls found in an ancient cemetery near Mexico,
which was uncovered in digging intrenchments to protect the Mexi-
can capital against the armies of the United States. They are re-
markable for the shortness of their axis, their large flattened occiput,
obliquely truncated behind, the height of the semicircular line of the
temples, the shortness and trapezoidal form of the parietal plane.
They present an elevation or ridge along the sagittal suture; the base
of the skull is very short, the face shg htly prognathic, as among the
Mongol-Kalmucs. They bear a strong analogy to the skulls of Peru-
vian brachycephalx delineated by Morton.
‘Every one,’’ says this last-mentioned savant, ‘‘who has studied
this subject attentively, knows that the skull of Peruvians presents a
flattened and almost vertical occiput. It is, besides, characterized by
an elevated sinciput, great inter-parietal breadth, considerable weight
of bone, prominent nose, with the maxillary region large and prog-
nathic. Itis the type of the skull among all the tribes from Cape
Horn to Canada, in a degree more or less marked.’’ There can be
no doubt that the skulls of the Araucanians of Chili are brachycephalie,
and present a striking resemblance in form to those of the Peruvians
and Mexicans. The same type is again recognized in the Pampas of
the republic of Buenos Ayres, and throughout Patagonia, to the limits
of Terra del Fuego. With the skulls of the Indians of Terra del
Fuego I am only acquainted through the excellent portraits in profile
taken during the voyage of Captain Fitzroy, (Narrative of the Sur-
veying Voyage, &c., 1839.) These show that the inhabitants of this
country are even more distinctly brachycephalic than the Indians of
the Pampas.
To the tribes which we have thus cursorily reviewed, in proceed-
ing from the north towards the south, we are disposed, after Dr.
Latham, to apply the name of American Mongolidz. Our review
has chiefly been confined to the coasts, but they have also penetrated
very far into the interior, in the direction of the east. Thus, on the
authority of the great work of Morton, Crania Americana, we encoun-
IN RELATION TO THE FORM OF THE HUMAN SKULL. 269
ter them on the banks of the Lower Mississippi, (the Natchez,) in
Louisiana, (the Chetimachees,) in Georgia, Alabama, and Florida,
(the Muskogees or Creeks, and the Uchees or Seminoles of Florida, )
in Wisconsin, (the Menomonees and Ottigamies,) in Arkansas, (the
Osages.) Morton has, besides, described and drawn skulls of a like
form from tombs in the States of Virginia, Ohio, and Tennessee.
Two skulls of the Mongol type of the United States were presented
by him to the Carolinska Institute, the one a Sac Indian of Missouri,
the other a Menomonee of Michigan. As regards the dolichocephalic
family, I have previously traced its progress as far as Peru; but since
the occupation of America by Europeans, no considerable change in
their place of residence has occurred in the case of any of the tribes.
It would not seem out of place, before terminating this rapid esti-
mate of the influence which the study of the human skull has exer-
cised on the development of ethnology, to say something respecting
the artijicial deformation of the skull. This pagan custom, which had
been mentioned by different writers, Oriental, Greek, or Roman, was
long totally forgotten by the civilized world till it was discovered, as
an unheard-of wonder, to be the usage among several Indian tribes
in America. Blumenbach, in describing a Carib skull from St. Vincents,
notices that the possibility of such artificial deformation had been de-
nied by Sabatier, Camper, and Artaud, but himself completely refutes
their opinion. Even after this, for a long interval, the subject ceased
to attract attention, till Pentland brought from Peru the singular
skulls described by Tiedmann, (Zeitschrift fiir Physiologie, Band V,
p- 107,) moulds of which in plaster are to be found in many collec-
tions, public and private. Many other heads, artificially deformed in
different ways, were subsequently procured from the same part of the
world, and at last the publication of the Crania Americana of Morton
placed before us a complete history of this custom and of the manner
in which these deformations are produced by the Indians of different
tribes. The accounts thus received from America had the effect of
causing this absurd and pagan custom to be generally regarded as of
essentially American origin. Still the real existence of these artifi-
elal deformations continued to be called in doubt; the celebrated
anatomist, Tiedmann, himself declared for the natural origin of these
strange forms, and the Swiss traveller and naturalist, Tschudi, shared
his opinion. In 1849 appeared a remarkable memoir by M. Rathke,
showing that similar skulls had been found near Kertsch, in the
Crimea, and calling attention to the book of Hippocrates De dere,
Aguis et Locis, Lib. IV, and a passage of Strabo, which speak of the
practice of modifying the shape of the head by means of bandages as
being in-use among the macrocephalic Scythians. Many similar skulls
from the country of Kertsch have since been described by Dr. Carl
Meyer.
In 1854 Dr. Fitzinger published a learned memoir on the skulls of
the Avars, a branch of the Uralian race of Turks. . He pointed out
that the practice of compressing the skull had been signalized by
ancient authors as existing in several parts of the Empire of the Hast,
and at the same time described an ancient skull greatly distorted by
270 PRESENT STATE OF ETHNOLOGY, ETC.
artificial means which had been found at a more recent epoch in
Lower Austria. In 1854 I received from M. Troyon, of Switzerland,
two ancient skulls of like shape derived from Switzerland and Savoy,
respecting which I made a report to the Academy of Stockholm in
1854. From the account given by Amedée Thierry, in his History of
Attila, I had learned that the custom of artificially deforming the
head proceeded of old from the Mongols, from whom it was borrowed
by the Huns, and that it was employed as the means of conferring a
certain aristocr: atic distinction, just as Hippocrates reports it to have
been practiced for the same purpose by the Scythians, and as is still
the case among the Indians of Oregon. At the same time I was
enabled to show that this custom still exists in France, where it has
without doubt been perpetuated since the time when the Huns were
masters of the country. This custom, still existing in certain parts of
France, has been mentioned and described by Dr. Foville in his work
on the anatomy of the head, though the author seems scarcely to
have perceived the historical significance of the fact. Shortly after
the date last referred to I received from Professor Geffroy, of Mar-
seilles, a confirmation of the fact that this custom is still persisted in
in the south of France, not far from Marseilles. From a passage in
the works of Vesalius we are led to infer that it exists also in several
parts of Turkey.
We can no longer doubt, then, that this practice of giving an arti-
ficial form to the ‘skull has subsisted from a remote epoch among the
Oriental nations. As Thierry, moreover, pronounces it to be a Mon-
gol usage, I have submitted the question, in the memoir before spoken
of, whether this fact does not speak in favor of an ancient communi-
cation between the Old and the New World? Such a communication
seems, indeed, to be now placed beyond doubt by the proofs which
have been accumulated, from time to time, through the efforts of
numerous and zealous inquirers. It would seem likely that the usage
in question has been introduced by the Mongols into America, where
it has become diffused even among tribes not of the Mongol stock.
Among the greater part of these the compression seems to have been
effected on the occiput with the view of rendering this flat and short.
The compression of the top of the head among the Indians of Oregon
(Flat-heads) has no doubt sprung from their proximity to the Esqui-
maux, whose heads are full and large. The frontal compression
(Huanchas, Caribs) seems to have been designed to render the head
more dolichocephalic, and was exclusively practiced by dolicho-
cephalee, for whom I propose, in analogy with the term used by Dr.
Latham, as mentioned above, the name of American Semites.
bal
MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE. 271
MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE.
By M. Fuourens, PERPETUAL SECRETARY OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES, 1842.
[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution by C. A. ALEXANDER. ]
The Academy has lost, within a few years, three members whose
labors he ave profoundly influenced the progress of the natural sciences:
Georges Cuvier, to whom we owe the widest application of those
sciences of which probably the genius of man is capable ; Laurent
de Jussieu, who seems by his method to have given them a language
for ideas, as Linneus by his nomenclature had given them one for
hings; and it has but just lost M. de Candolle, who opened with a
brilliant theory the long series of happy conceptions and daring aims
of the nineteenth century.
Augustin-Pyramus de Candolle was born at Geneva the 4th of
February, 1778, a month after the death of Linneus, two months
after the death of Haller, and three after that of Bernard de
Jussieu—a circumstance which we may be permitted to recall, as he
would almost appear to have imposed on himself the task of replacing
those three great men in the service of botany.
He was descended through his father from one of the most ancient
families of the nobility of Provence—a member of which, having
embraced the reformed religion, had taken refuge in Geneva in 1590.
This ancestor, as well as the father of our subject, had reached sta-
tions of much eminence in the service of their new country, the latter
having attained, at a very early age, the post of first syndic, which is
the highest of the republic. ‘ His mother was grand-niece of the cele-
brated Genevese, Le Fort, who was, at one and the same time, grand
admiral, general-in-chief, and first minister of Peter the Great.
The infancy of De Candolle reminds us in some respects of that of
Cuvier; in both cases there was an intellectual and tender mother;
in both an infant of delicate health and the most happy disposition.
Debarred by bodily weakness from the usual sports of childhood,
the young De Candolle formed a decided taste for the pleasures which
attend the development of the understanding. From the age of six
to seven years he exercised himself in the composition of comedies.
At this period, Florian, who wasa friend of the family, came to spend
a winter in Geneva. ‘‘You see this gentleman,’’ said Madame de
Candolle, one day, to her son, ‘‘he is the author of many charming
theatrical pieces.’ Ah)” replied the child, with the tone of one
of the fraternity, ‘‘ you ite comedies; soll: so do I.”’ A serious
malady placed his life for some time in jeopardy, and the studies of
college were necessarily pursued with reserve, but literature, and
especially poetry, lost nothing thereby. What he wrote w as, for the
most part, in verse, and masters and scholars stood always between
the chances of an epistle or an epigram, according to the humor of
the moment. Nothing as yet presaged the future savant or botanist,
272 MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE.
but it was impossible to mistake the indications of an ingenuous char-
acter and of elegant tastes, which needed but suitable circumstances
for their development.
The course of these peaceable studies was, however, soon to be
interrupted. In 1792aFrench army occupied Savoy and approached
the sates of Geneva. The women and children were sent to seek an
asylum in the interior of Switzerland. In vain did the young De
Candolle entreat to be allowed to remain with his father and par ‘take
in the defence of his country. His years were judged too immature,
and he was obliged to withdraw with his mother and a young br einen
A village at the foot of the Jura, near Lake Neufchatel, was ‘the place
of their refuge.
Here the charms of nature first touched and captivated him.
Flowers were at first gathered only to copy them; but he soon en-
gaged with ardor in forming a collection, and undertook long and
adventurous excursions for the discovery of new plants. Already
this future rival of the law-givers of botany, though he knew only
the vulgar names of plants, felt himself tormented by the necessity
of classifying them, and as he was without books, he classed them
according to their natural relations, as the mind is always prompted
to do when not spoiled by false systems.
Some years after this period, a French mineralogist, distinguished
by his useful labors, and since still more celebrated for his illustrious
misfortunes, traversed the mountains of Switzerland. Dolomieu saw
the young De Candolle and was struck with his ardor for study. His
patronage was offered and accepted; and our Genevese, already secure
of his own powers by the trial which he had made of them in soli-
tude, came to seek in Paris at once masters and rivals. Here, from
the first, all the higher courses of instruction received his attention;
but, irresistibly attracted by botany, he gave a decided preference
to the garden of plants.
On quitting Geneva he had promised his father to devote himself
also to the study of medicine. He tried to do so, but in vain. The
sight of the sick plunged him into profound sadness. He could not
bear the idea, which is, in truth, a formidable one, of taking upon
himself the responsibility of their sufferings. His was a daring intel-
lect, but a sensitive heart, and he longed for pursuits in which he
might err without dread. Thus when, i in after times, he happened to
fall into some error with respect to the name or classification of a
plant, he would say with a sort of satisfaction, ‘‘ thanks to heaven, it
is only a plant which is wrongly named.’’
Having renounced medicine, he thenceforward scarcely left the
garden. Day after day he might be seen engaged, from morning till
night, in observing or describing plants. All respected a youth whom
nothing as yet distinguished but industry, while the gardeners , Seeing
him pass whole days on the same modest bench, came to des signate
him from its situation as the young man a U arrosovy.
Such perseverance did not escape M. Desfontaines, who, one day,
approaching him, said: ‘‘M. Redouté has made a collection of draw-
ings of succulent plants, and wants a botanist to describe them;
MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE. Qs
would you charge yourself with that labor?’ Startled at this unex-
pected proposition, the youth would have excused himself, as well on
account of the difficulty of the subject as his own defect of knowledge.
‘¢You will see,’’ said the good Desfontaines, ‘‘ that it is not as difficult
as you imagine; come and work at my house; I will direct you.’’
The reputation of De Candolle commenced at tw enty years of age
with the Histoire des Plantes Grasses. But shortly a labor of a higher
and more original character designated more clearly the rank which
he was to take in science. He had fortunately conceived the idea
of occupying himself with the sleep of plants.
The first step was to assure himself that air goes for nothing in
this phenomenon; for plants which sleep, when immersed in water,
pass as usual from sleep to waking and from waking to sleep. Setting
aside, then, the action of air, there remained that of light. The plants,
there sfore, were placed in darkness, and alternately exposed to its in-
fluence and to that of light. By illuminating these plants during the
night, and leaving them in obscurity during the day, De Candolle: sue-
ceeded in completely changing the hours of their waking and sleeping;
he saw the nocturnal plants open in the morning, and the diurnal in
the evening.
These curious experiments, being communicated to the Academy,
excited the most lively interest; and, indeed, the results obtained by
the author may be said, without exaggeration, to have possessed
something of the mar vellous, even for the vulgar. By the aid of arti-
ficial light alone he had colored etiolated plants green;* had changed
the hours of sleep and waking; and had proved the remarkable fact
that plants have habits; for it is not all at once, but only at the end
of a certain time, that they discard their ordinary hours and adopt
others. Thus the life of plants is shown to be a more complicated
phenomenon, and one much more nearly approaching that of animals
than had been yet suspected. They have their activity and repose,
their sleep and waking, and likewise their habits; so that when De-
lille, celebrating these results in verse, proceeds to say,
The calyx of the credulous flower is duped ;
we feel that poetry, in view of such facts, has almost lost the privi-
lege of being metaphorical.
Fontenelle has remarked ‘that botany is no sedentary and slothful
science which may be acquired in the repose and shade of the closet;
it demands that its votary should traverse mountains and forests,
climb the acclivities of rocks, and expose himself on the edge of
precipices.’’ Applied in the first instance to Tournefort, these ex-
pressions would have been doubtless thought by their author equally
applicable to De Candolle. The lore Fy ancaise, the flora of that
vast empire which was every day extending its frontiers by victory,
furnished him with the occasion for many fatiguing expeditions. His
=——
* Tt is necessary to remark, however, that the coloration was imperfect—the plants, as
he himself said, remaining intermediary between etiolated and green; nor had the arti-
ficial light, which he employed, sufficient intensity to develop oxygen gas. M. Humboldt
had already observed the same phenomenon: Comptes rendus de l’ Academie, Tome XV, p.
1194 —Author.
18
274 MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE.
exploration of the higher Alps would alone prove that the enthusiasm
of science has an intrepidity which yields to no other. On one occa=
sion, wishing to reach the Great Saint-Bernard by the almost im-_
practicable col Saint- Remi, he found himself, after climbing the col,
obliged to descend a frozen declivity, excessively steep, and termi-
nating ina precipice. The guides were before, marking the steps with
their iron-shod staves, while our traveller followed in silence. All at
once his footing fails him, and sliding with frightful rapidity, he hears
cries of distress from his euldes, ort can afford him no succor. Af
last he perceives a slight fissure in the ice, and, thrusting his staff
forcibly into it, 1s stopped. To cries of distress succeed those of joy;
the most intrepid of his guides comes to him by a long circuit, and,
tracing a path in the snow, conducts him to a place of safety. BONN!
said this brave man, embracing him, ‘‘no one has ever caused me so
much anxiety.’’
On occasion of the inquiries, before mentioned, respecting the
habits of vegetables, De Candolle, though but twenty- two years of
age, had been inscribed by the Academy on the list of its candidates.
Adanson said of him, that ‘‘he had established himself on the high-
way of science.’’ Cheer had chosen him for his substitute in the
chair of Natural History at the college of France, and Lamarck cons
fided to him the second edition of his lore Francaise. This edition
became in the hands of De Candolle an original work, which may well
serve for a model in extended labors of its kind. He had but just
executed it when a vacancy occurred in the Academy by the death of
Adanson. Besides the works already mentioned, De Candolle had
published an important one on the Astragali; an essay full of interest
on the medical properties of plants; researches, equally new and in-
structive, on the pores of leaves, on the vegetation of the misletoe, &c. ;
and, resting on such titles, might well aspire to the nomination. But
it was carried in favor of Palissot de Beauvais by two or three voices,
to the sensible chagrin of De Candolle. He had been for some time
ressed by the faculty of medicine of Montpellier to accept the chair
of botany, which had been successively occupied by Gouan and Brous-
sonnet, and though hesitating till now, he hesitated no longer. He
accepted the chair, and resolved to quit Paris.
Was this well or ill done? To consider the motive only of his
resolution, the hasty counsel of a wounded susceptibility, assuredly not
well; but if we consider the important results which accrued to botany
from his sojourn at Montpellier, perhaps the answer will be altogether
different. Would Paris have left him the same leisure for pr otr acted
labors? The same calm for abstract meditations? The same liberty of
ideas? The same originality of views? And to say allina single word,
would De Candolle have been as completely himself as he has been?
At the moment of his departure from Paris an embarrassment arose
which threatened wholly to disconcert his purpose. On concluding
the Flore Francaise, he had devoted himself to a not less important
work on the botanical geography of France, Geographie Botanique de
la France, and with so much ardor that rather than abandon it, and
thus lose the modest salary which scarcely defrayed the expense of
MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE. 275
his excursions, he would have promptly renounced the professorship.
Fortunately for Montpellier, M. Cretet, minister of the interior, when
consulted on the difficulty, replied, ‘‘Let M. De Candolle choose: he
shall either have both the places, or neither one nor the other.’? And
a few days after the same dignitary gave even more distinct expres-
sion to his high estimate of De Candolle, though still couched under
the brisk form of as sally. M. Laplace having “called on him in com-
pany with De Candolle, and wishing to give in some way expression
to the high esteem he entertained for the latter, had said to the minister,
‘‘ Your excellency does us an ill turn; we had hoped to have soon had
M. De Candolle at the Institute.’’ ‘Ah, your Institute! your Insti-
tute !’’ exclaimed M. Cretet. And while Laplace looked at him with
surprise, he added, ‘‘Do you know that I sometimes feel inclined to
order a battery of guns to ‘be pointed against your Institute? Yes, a
battery, in order to disperse the members throughout France. Is it
not deplorable to see all the luminaries congregated in Paris, and the
provinces in ignorance? I send M. de Candolle to Montpellier to
carry thither the spirit of activity.’’
In effect, the influence and efforts of De Candolle soon infused life
into all the studies of Montpellier. The spirit of Linneus reigned
there almost exclusively; and unfortunately, by the spirit of Linneus
must here be understood the spirit of artificial methods.* All the
labors of the last halfof the eighteenth century, all the new philosophy
of science, all the grand ideas elaborated by the Adansons, the
Jussieus, the Cuviers, had remained unknown or disregarded. Hence
the lessons of De Candolle had all the freshness of novelty for this
isolated province; those admirable lessons, which afterwards repro-
duced in three great works, have afforded valuable instruction to all
Europe.
These three works are the Theorie Hlementaire de la Botanique, the
Organographie, and the Physiologie Vegetale. Of these, the first, pub-
lished in 1813, is the most important, for it was in this that the
author laid the first foundations of his general theory of the organiza-
tion of beings.
Every age seems to impose on itself the solution of some new
problem; thus, as regards the phenomena of life, the eighteenth
century was chiefly engaged with the problem of methods. and the
problem of the revolutions of the globe. The question of methods, so
ably discussed in the seventeenth century by Tournefort and Ray, in
the eighteenth by Linneus, Adanson, and Bernard de Jussieu, finds
its solution, towards the end of the latter century, through the
labors of Laurent de Jussieu and Georges Cuvier. The question of
the revolutions of the globe commences in 1575, with some specula-
tions of the potter, Bernard Palissy; two centuries afterwards Buffon
= They had been introduced there by Sauvages, and directly applied by him to the regular
classification of maladies by classes, genera and species See his Nosologia Methodica, a re-
markable work for the time at which it appeared In justice to Linnzus, it should be
observed that no one better understood than he the different parts assigned to the natural
and the artificial methods, nor better marked the characters which distinguished them,.—
Author.
276 MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE.,
conceives the grand idea of the ages of the world, and produces his
Epoques de la Nature; at length Georges Cuvier gives to the world his
Recherches sur les Ossemens Fi Fossiles, and the question of the revolutions
of the globe cannot long remain without its solution.
The problem which the nineteenth century seems to have proposed
to itself in the same province is the determination of the intimate
laws of the organization of beings; and on this occasion the hight has
proceeded from a source from which we could scarcely have expected
it. In 1790 a small work was published in Germany, entitled the
Metamorphosis of Plants. The author, who seemed to unite the
genius of the two neighboring nations in the flexibility of his powers
and the extent of his inquiries, was the first to see in the transformation
of one part into another all the secret mechanism of the development
of the plant. Thus a first transformation changes the leaf into the
calyx; a second, the calyx into the corolla; a third, the corolla into
organs of a still more delicate texture. All these organs are there-
fore but the modifications of one organ, all the parts of the flower are
but modifications of the leaf; transformation is the predominating
principle, and the generalized expression of this striking fact con-
stitutes the celebrated theory of Goethe.
For the theory of De Candolle even a greater degree of elevation
may be claimed. According to this, each class of beings is submitted
to a general plan, and this seneral plan i is always symmetrical. All
organized beings, regarded in their intimate nature, are symmetrical.
But this primitive symmetry, on which all reposes, and from which all
emanates, what is it? how define it? how even determine it ?* for
symmetry, the primitive fact, is rarely the fact which subsists. The
abortion, the adhesion, the degenerescence of the parts almost always
alters or masks it; and to rediscover this symmetry, which is the
primitive fact, we must ascend through all the subsequent irregulari-
ties, which are but secondary facts. And yet these views of De Can-
dolle, bold and striking as they are, may be already announced as, in
more than one instance, a demonstrated truth. To show this, an
* Doubtless the idea of a primitive symmetry subsequently altered is still in many cases
but a supposition, yet in many others it is the fact itself; in the Marronier d’ Inde (borse-
chesnut) the primitive symmetry is changed under the eyes of the observer; in a multitude
of species the primitive symmetry, masked by the ordinary irregularities, disengages itself
momentarily from those irregularities, and all at once reappears. De Candolle was the
first who made what are termed monstrosities in the vegetable kingdom enter into a general
theory; he defines them as ‘‘ returns to symmetry.”’
“Tt is by the observation of certain monstrosities,’’ he says, ‘‘ that we have been enabled
to detect the true nature of certain abortive organs, and consequently the true symmetry ©
of the plants. Thus the observation of the Peloria has proved that a certain filament which
is found on the inner base of the corolla of the antirrhinum linaria and some others, is an
abortive stamen, since we have seen it change into astamen ’’—T'heor. Elem. dela Bot., p. 98. —
The causes which produce anomalies, constant and predisposed, are subject to laws so fixed
and regular that De Candolle finds in those anomalies the very source of genera and species.
‘* The arrangement of plants in natural orders supposes,’’ he says, ‘‘ that we may one day
establish the characters of those orders on that which constitutes the ground of their sym-
metry, and refer the varied forms of species and genera to the action of causes which tend
to alter the primitive symmetry, Thus each family of plants may be represented by a
regular condition, sometimes visible to the eye, sometimes ccnceivable by the intellect; this
is what I call its type: adhesions, abortions, degenerescences or multiplications, separate or
combined together, modify this primitive type so as to give rise to the habitual characters
of the objects which compose them.’’—Organogr. Vegetale, Il, p. 240.—.Author.
MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE. 277
example or two will suffice. If we take the fruit of the common
horse-chesnut, we shall find but three seeds at most, sometimes but a
single one; but on recurring to the flower we shall see three cells, and
two seeds in each cell, that is to say, six seeds. The fruit of the oak,
the acorn, exhibits in all cases but one seed; and here we see the
primitive type altered. But in the flower of the same tree the ovary
has always six ovules, and here we have the primitive type re-dis-
covered.
The theory of De Candolle reveals a new world to the observer. In
a group of plants whose corolla is polypetalous, should an ordinary
naturalist find one whose corolla is monopetalous, he would probably
rest satisfied with having verified the fact; but with the naturalist
inspired by theory, inquiry commences where it terminates with the
other. Such an one sees, in the species which he is comparing, the
consolidated corolla occupy the place of the corolla with several petals;
he finds the ribs (nervvures) of the former correspond with the divisions
of the latter; he reverts to an earlier stage of the flower, and seeking
this consolidated corolla in the bud, he there finds it composed of
several pieces; and thus the profound analogy of the group, masked by
the soldering of the petals in one species, reappears in all its entirety.
What De ‘Candells calls degenerescence constitutes, when taken in an
inverse order, the metamorphosis of Goethe. The latter, following an
ascending scale, sees the leaf metamorphosed into the calyx, the calyx
into the corolla, the petals into stamens, the stamens into pistils,
ovary, and fruit. De Candolle, pursuing the opposite course, sees
fruit, ovary, and pistil degenerate into the stamen, the stamen into the
petal, the corolla into the calyx, the divers parts of the calyx into
leaves. Thus our double flowers are for the most part but the result
of the transformation of the stamens into petals, as in that most beau-
tiful of all transformations which changes the simple flower of the
eglantine into the many-leaved rose of our wardens. While meta-
morphosis, taken in the sense of Géethe, evolves, so to say, from the
leaf all the parts of the flower, degenerescence, in the sense of De
Candolle, brings all the parts of the flower back to the leaf. One of
these facts proves the other; and the theory of Géethe, under a proper
point of view, is but a part, though an admirable part, of the theory
of De Candolle.
It was long ago said, and with reason, that books also have their
destiny. When Goethe, towards the close of the last century, gave
his doctrine to the public, the poet damaged the botanist; the fame
of the author of Werther and Faust caused the more modest merit of
the author of the Metamorphosis of Plants to be overlooked. When
De Candolle published his theory in 1813, he was far from Paris, in
an obscure province, and his book succeeded but slowly, almost
imperceptibly, in attracting general attention. It was, in fact, nearly
twenty years later, and only when a dispute between two eminent
rivals had carried the discussion into the halls of this Academy, that
public opinion learned at last to comprehend the force and weight of
the new ideas.
Yet why not confess it? Without doubt, the new spirit of the
278 MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE.
sciences, whatever praise may be due to its boldness, has not always
known how to restrain its flight or master its audacity. Even in De
Candolle, whose judgment is so firm and logic so sound, there is more
than one generalization which surprises, more than one consequence
which it appears difficult to admit. We cannot well explain to our-
selves how it is that the primitive symmetry, that mysterious key to
the whole system, is so rarely the dominant fact, while the habitual
fact is, on the contrary, almost always the anomaly.* But, on the
other hand, who can fail to recognize the grandeur of so many daring
and profound conceptions? Who but must wonder at so many results
obtained by new methods, so many truths which it was necessary to
surprise, as it were, by yet unattempted methods of approach? Who
but must be struck at the number of ancient difficulties resolved, and,
what is more remarkable, the number of new difficulties which as yet
had no existence for science—which science had as yet not sufficient
insight to suspect?
The Theorie Elementaire de Botanique had appeared in 1813, quickly
followed by the disastrous events of 1814, when France, afte: unpar-
alleled successes, began to experience reverses equally without a
parallel. During the Hundred Days, De Candolle was appointed rec-
tor of the Academy of Montpellier. During the administrative anarchy
which followed the second Restoration, the local authorities of Mont-
pellier, without consulting the higher authorities, or rather, as re-
garded De Candolle, in contrariety to the express orders of those
**As an elucidation of some portions of the text relating to vegetable morphology, the
following passage from an able article in the Foreign Quarterly Review, April, 1833, may
not be unacceptable, at least to the general reader :
‘©A marked law of symmetry regulates the conditions under which the vegetable struc-
ture is presented to us, in such plants as are closely allied in natural affinity, however much
they may differ in certain individual peculiarities, those peculiarities always depending
upon some modification in the mode of development in certain organs, or upon the partial
or entire suppression of them in one and not in the other species | Repeated examples have
shown us that certain organs may sometimes be accidentally developed in plants in which
they are generally absent, or else may disappear in some individuals of a species where they
are usually present. It is by the study of these peculiar * monstrosities’ that we are enabled
to ascertain the actual existence of particular organs in a latent or undeveloped state; and
it has been by connecting the results of such inquiries that the whole theory of the natural
classification of plants has of late years undergone a complete revolution The chief phe-
nomena which regulate the conditions essential to the extension of this kind of knowledge
are the abortion, degeneration, metamorphosis, and adhesion of certain parts. The account
of these belongs more especially to the organographical department of botany, and very
little is known to the physiologist of the causes which produce them. The non-develop-
ment or abortion of any latent organ in a plant seems to arise very frequently from its
compression by some contiguous part, or else from an abstraction of its nutriment by
another part which exerts a greater vital activity. As these effects depend upon the rela.
tive position of such parts, the influencing canse begins to operate even from their nascent
state, and long before their form is discernible by us. We have consequently no control
over these causes, and their influence could never have been noticed by us if nature herself
had not assisted in the discovery by producing those occasional aberrations from the ordi-
nary state of plants which are known by the name of ‘ monstrosities.’ That all the vari-
ous parts of the fructification are modifications only of the leaf, is demonstrable by an
appeal to numerous examples of monstrosities in which these parts may be seen to possess
an intermediate character. But we are still utterly ignorant of the nature of those pre-
disposing causes which are capable of effecting such wonderful modifications in the form,
color, consistency, and nervation of this single organ§ and, above all, such a complete dis-
similar ity between its various functions.’’—Nole by Translator.
MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE. iD
authorities, decreed that all the functionaries of the Hundred Days
should be deprived, and De Candolle was deposed from the rectorate.
What was the rectorate to De Candolle? He was still professor of
the faculty of medicine and dean of the faculty of sciences; he was
more endeared than ever to his pupils, to his colleagues, to the entire
population; but the susceptibility of his Ciawieteus always so lively,
again prevailing, he threw up all his appointments, and left Mont-
pellier for Geneva.
It is easy to imagine how he was received. The enlightened country
of the Trembleys, the Bonnets, the Saussures, felt a ‘pride i in regain -
ing him. There was no chair of natural history—one was created for
him. There was no botanic garden—one was founded, and he was
soon pursuing the scarcely interrupted course of his lessons and his
labors. Nor were these long in reflecting a new lustre on Geneva.
In 1827 appeared the Organogr aphie Vegetale, a work which in
substance, is but a reproduction of the Z’heorie Hlementaire, but with
an extraordinary extension and development of its doctrines. In
1832 the Physiologie Vegetale made its appearance, and was imme-
diately crowned by the Royal Society of London with the high prize
which it had just institute alike to the wide and
elevated views, the superior method, and the lucid expositions of this
admirable work. The year 1817 had seen the first volume of the
Systeme Naturel des Vegetaua; the second appeared in 1820.
Let us pass now to another order of facts and ideas, in order to
exhibit the merits of De Candolle under a new aspect.
The ancients were acquainted with but a small number of plants;
Theophrastus, the most learned of them in this matter, having reck-
oned but five hundred. Many centuries after Theophrastus, Tourne-
fort counted ten thousand, but without separating varieties from
species. Linneus, in rendering one of the most important services
to botany by separating species from varieties, reduced the number
of species, properly so called, to seven thousand.
When, about the year 1815, De Candolle conceived the design of
drawing up a complete catalog ue of the vegetable kingdom, the num-
ber of known species sci wrcely amounted to more than twenty: -five
thousand. But no sooner had the general peace of 1815 opened the
entire world to the researches of travellers, than every year witnessed
the arrival of vast numbers of unknown plants from all quarters. De
Candolle, in a paper published in 1817, already counted fifty-seven
thousand species. ‘‘An immense host,’’? he added, ‘‘ where order
the most methodical and natural can alone avoid confusion! Marvel-
lous fecundity, which might abate the courage of the botanist, if the
first sentiment were not that of admiration for the cause of this count-
less variety! Would that botanists might draw from these calcula-
tions the conclusion that much remains to be accomplished; that there
is fame to be acquired by all; and that consequently it is fitting neither
to sleep, as if all were done, nor to be jealous of one another, as if
nothing remained to do.’’
Thus in two years, from 1815 to 1817, the number of known vege-
tables had more than doubled. In 1840 this number, according to
280 MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE.
the computation of De Candolle, had reached eighty thousand. A
single family, that of the Composita, as described by him, embraces
more than eight thousand species; thus presenting more species in
that family alone than was contained in the entire vegetable kingdom
of the times of Linneus. The work in which these eighty thousand
known plants are brought together and definitively classed bore at
first the title of Systema Naturale Regni Vegetabilis, but was recom-
menced in 1824, under a more abridged form, with the title of Pro-
dromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis. Yet in this abridged
form it is not the less an immense work. Eighty thousand plants are
there ranged in an admirable order—the order, that is to say, of na-
ture itself; each with its characters, its relations, its entire descrip-
tion, and that description of a precision of detail till then without
example. This work was left unfinished by its author, though com-
prising seven massive volumes of from seven to eight hundred pages
each. The energy evinced by such vast labors reflects honor not on
the individual alone, but on the race; it seems to enhance our idea of
the forces of human nature.
The Prodromus, as has been just said, remained incomplete. In
the memoir which the author has left of his own life, he alludes to
the impression produced upon him when he felt that strength would
fail him for the completion of his undertaking. ‘‘ That,’’ he says,
‘is a great and solemn epoch in life when one acquires the convic-
tion that he has wrongly calculated his plans, and that it is necessary
to renounce that to which he attaches the highest price. It should
be observed, however, that my own error of ‘calculation has resulted
not from idleness on my part, but from the sudden augmentation in
the number of known plants.’”’” Who might not be dismay ed when
such a man as De Candolle is found defending himself from the impu-
tation of idleness? He has himself computed that he had established
more than seven thousand new species, and nearly five hundred new
genera; that is to say, nearly the fourteenth part of known species
and the sixteenth part of admitted genera.
As only the more important labors of De Candolle can be here no-
ticed, a multitude of memoirs on pure botany must be omitted; nor
can more than an allusion be made to his important studies on the
fertilization of downs, on the theory of the distribution of crops, on
botanical geography, &c. It is by such of his works as had a direct
influence on his age that we must be content to remember him—works
which led to his adoption into all the learned societies of the world,
and to the inscription of his name, in 1814, among those of the eight
foreign associates of this Academy.
Allusion has been made above to the memoir which he left of his
own life; and if, in the study of his scientific works, we are struck
with the pre-eminence of his intellect and the extent of his acquire-
ments, here we are taught to appreciate the gracefulness, the kind-
ness, and the simplicity of his character. ‘‘I have always loved,’
he says, ‘‘those persons who speak of themselves; they are generally
persons of good disposition, and who have little to reproach them-
selves with, And my pleasure,’’ he continues, ‘‘in the perusal
MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE. 281
of personal memoirs has always been in proportion to the equality of
position between the writers and myself. It is not only on account
of the style that the Confessions of Rousseau have met with such
success, but because he was neither king nor prince, and most readers
could trace certain analogies between his position and their own. The
memoirs of Marmontel, of Morellet, and, above all, of Gibbon, enable
us to see howa mediocrity of condition causes us to overlook, if I may
Bay 80, the mediocrity of incidents and the slenderness of the narra-
tive.
De Candolle had a decided fondness for society, and, as Fontenelle
said of Leibnitz, ‘‘often amused himself with the ladies, and did not
count for lost the time which he gave to their conversation.”’ Qualified
to please by the characteristic brilliancy and freshness of his imagi-
nation, he was excited in turn by the interest and attention of the
sex to clothe the driest and most abstract subjects in those terms of
animation and imagery which render the lesson which he improvised
at Coppet on the ‘actual state of botany,”’ for the benefit of such a
society, one of the most remarkable resumés of his theory. Of the
interest which he inspired the following may serve as an instance :
Soon after his return to Geneva he was obliged to send back to
Spain the beautiful designs of the Flore du Mexique. The author of
this Flora, the learned Mocino, exiled from his country by the vio-
lence of politics, had saved himself from the storm, bearing, like
Camoens, his work in his hands. During his sojourn in France, as
he despaired of publishing it, he had confided it to De Candolle, with
these words: “It is thr ough you that I shall become celebrated.’
Recalled to his country, now become more calm and just, he was not
willing to return without this Flora of Mexico, one of the most valu-
able services which the Spanish government has rendered to science.
De Candolle was about to lose these precious and indispensable mate-
rials for his great work. At this news Geneva bestirred itself. De
Candolle had hardly thought of having more than a few of the rarest
of the specimens copied; it was decided to copy for him the entire
Flora; more than a hundred ladies took part in the task, which was
completely executed in ten days. e
Montesquieu has said ‘‘that he never knew a chagrin alion an
hour’s reading had not dissipated.’’ De Candolle might have said as
much of society; he not only relaxed himself therein, but his genius
acquired new animation and vigor. From the first of his residence
at Paris he had had the good fortune to reunite himself with several
friends, natives, like himself, of French Switzerland. The family for
which J. J. Rousseau had written bis Letters on Botany, was naturally
the first to appreciate De Candolle. The head of that family, Ben-
jamin Delassert, joined to the care of vast commercial enterprises an
enthusiastic love for botany. This taste was the occasion of the
closest friendship between him and De Candolle, and it might be
here that the latter caught that ardor for the public good w hich led
him to devote himself to active public services. A member of the
Philanthropic Society, of a special commission for the hospitals, one
of the founders of the Society for the Encouragement of National In-
282 MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE.
dustry, &c., he carried into these functions the same fervor as into
his studies; and this he called joining a practical life to his theorizing.
life. ‘‘I have no doubt,’’ he says, in the memoirs before cited, ‘‘of
the utility of the sciences in general for society, taken in the mass;
but it has always seemed to me that I owed, as an individual, some
more direct service to my cotemporaries.’’ And this way of thinking
seems to have formed the rule of his life. Elected, at Geneva, on
three successive occasions, a member of the sovereign council, and,
as one might say, an obligatory member of every commission of pub-
lie utility, he found time and activity for all.
The friends of his youth were those of his entire life. It would be
difficult to say in which of the three cities where he had lived, Mont-
pellier, Paris, and Geneva, he counted the most and truest friends.
Two of them, Desfontaines and Cuvier, preceded him to the tomb; and
the names of these two may stand as a eulogy for all the rest. For
his tastes he manifested the same constancy as for his friendships.
He began with making verses, and he continued to make them to the
last. But having discovered, in good time, that. poetry, and especially
French poetry, demands great labor, and all the forces of his mind
being otherwise employed, he made verses only for his friends, and
never published any of them.
His childhood had been delicate, but at the age of fifteen or sixteen
his constitution underwent a happy revolution. From that time his
body seemed formed, like his mind, for great labors. During more
than forty years he preserved a sound health in spite of excessive
fatigues. In 1835 he was seized with a violent malady, from which
he recovered only to return to his occupations. Since then he has
published, perhaps, the most difficult and incomparably the most ex-
tensive part of his great work. His fine genius seemed restored to
us entire, but his health was never re-established. He died Septem-
ber 9, 1841.
‘To the happiness due to success, and still more to assiduous employ-
ment, he jomed the yet more precious happiness of an honorable
alliance, contracted in 1808, which constituted the charm of his life.
He has left a son worthy of bearing his name and of continuing his
renown. His last words were: ‘‘I die without disquietude; my son
will finish my work.”’
Such was the life of De Candolle, and such the nature of those
great works which mark a new epoch in the progress of botany.
Tournefort had constituted the science; Linnzus had given it a lan-
guage; the two Jussicus had founded its method; it remained to open
to botany the study of the intimate laws of life; and this has been
done by De Candolle. He is the only one, since Linneus, who has
embraced all the parts of this science with an equal genius.
Considered as a professor he stands without a rival; botany had
never before appeared with so much eclat. The perspicuity of his
ideas, the soundness of his method, the grace of his elocution, all
conspired to captivate and reward attention. When explaining facts,
he seemed to communicate the art of judging them; when detailing
observations, he appeared to lay open the art of observing; and, as
MEMOIR OF PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE. 283
Fontenelle has said, ‘‘the art of observing or discovering is more
precious than the greater part of what we discover.”’
In his writings, it is true, De Candolle exhibits neither the charm-
ing style of Tournefort nor the singularly original expression of Lin-
neus, but he has all the attributes of a writer which result from
vigorous thought. He is both elevated and clear—qualities which
are often erroneously supposed to be incompatible, as if clearness
were not inherent in elevation. Transcendentally clear, is an expres-
sion of Descartes, the most luminous intellect of France.
As an innovator, the quality which distinguishes him beyond all
others is a perfect logic. Logic is the secret guide of genius when it
dares successfully.
Considered, finally, as a man, De Candolle must always be regarded
as one who, to usefulness as a citizen, added those personal graces of
character and gentleness of temperament which make us forget the
man of science, and dispose us to pardon his superiority,
284 SUN’S DISTANCE.
ON THE MEANS WHICH WILL BE AVAILABLE FOR COR-
RECTING THE MEASURE OF THE SUN’S DISTANCE IN
THE NEXT TWENTY-FIVE YEARS.
By the Astronomer Royal. From the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.
At the meeting of the Society, on the 8th of April, the Astronomer
Royal gave an oral statement ‘‘on the means which will be available
for correcting the measure of the Sun’s distance in the next twenty-
five years 7 the substance of which is contained in the following
abstract:
The members of the Society will not be surprised at our looking so
far in advance as twenty-five years. The special opportunity, which
will then present itself, is the last which will occur for nearly a cen-
tury and a half from the present time. Some years of preparation
will be required to enable us to secure the full advantages which may
then be within our reach. But, with all possible care, it will be found
that the risk of total failure is not inconsiderable. The recognition
of this danger naturally leads us to examine whether there will not be
some earlier opportunity, of a different kind, for arriving at the same
determination. And it will appear (in the judgment of the Astrono-
mer Royal) that circumstances will be favorable, in the course of a
few years, for obtaining a very good measure by the use of a different
principle; less accurate, undoubtedly, in each of its individual appli-
cations than the method upon which reliance has usually been placed,
but admitting of almost indefinite repetition, demanding no co-opera-
tion of distant obser vers, and requiring only that, in each instance,
the observations which are to be compared be made with the same
instrument and by the same observer (or with observers only so far
changed that any personal equation would correct itself.) But even
this method requires appliances, which cannot be constructed at the
moment of observation; and it is necessary to study well, some time
before the operations shall actually commence, what equipment, in-
strumental and literary, is desirable for giving the best chance of suc-
cess. It will appear that we are not beginning too soon to direct our
attention to these matters in the present year.
The measure of the Sun’s distance has always been considered the
noblest problem in astronomy. One reason for this estimation is, that
it must be commenced as a new step in measures. It is easy to
measure a base-line a few miles long upon this Earth, and easy to
make a few geodetic surveys, and easy to infer from them the dimen-
sions of the Earth with great accuracy; and, taking these dimensions
as a base common to every subsequent measure, it is easy to measure
the distance of the Moon with trifling uncertainty. But the measure
of the Moon’s distance in no degree aids in the measure of the Sun’s
distance, which must be undertaken as a totally independent opera-
tion. A second reason is that, in whatever way we attack the prob-
Jem, it will require all our care and all our ingenuity, as well as the
application of almost all our knowledge of the antecedent facts of as-
SUN’S DISTANCE.
tronomy, to give the smallest chance of an accurate re-
sult. <A third reason is, that.apon this measure depends
every measure in astronomy beyond the Moon; the dis-
tance and dimensions of the Sun and every planet and
satellite and the distances of those stars whose paral-
laxes are approximately known.
The received measure of the Sun’s distance depends
on the transits of Venus of 1761 and 1769, but mainly
on the latter. Very careful discussions of these will be
found in the two books published by Encke, and ina
memoir of great value by Don Joachim Ferrers, printed
in ourownmemoirs. On examining these it will be found
that, though there is very close accordance in the results
obtained by the different investigators and from the
different transits, yet all investigators have expressed
their doubts upon those results. In the transit of 1761
the result depended almost entirely upon an accurate
knowledge of the differences of longitude of very dis-
tant stations, which are undoubtedly subject to great
uncertainty. In the transit of 1769 it happened that
the result depended almost entirely upon the observa-
tions made by Father Heil at Wardhoe; and to these
great suspicion has attached, many astronomers having,
without hesitation, designated them as forgeries. It is
evidently desirable to repeat the practical investigation
when opportunity shall present itself.
It is desirable, for clearness, to begin witha reference
to the simplest operation for me: asuring distance by
parallax; as applied, for instance, to the Moon. In figure
1, let A and B be two observatories on the same meri-
dian, and at A let the star C be observed to touch the
moon’s limb, and at B let the star D be observed to
touch the limb. (It will readily be understood that it
is not essential that the observatories should be on the
same meridian, if, as is in fact true, the Moon’s appa-
rent change of place can be exactly computed; nor is
it necessary that the star touch the limb, if its angular
distance can be very exactly measured.) After commu-
nication of the observations, the observer at A can mea-
sure the angle C A D. This angle differs from A M B
by the angle A D B; but such is the distance of the
stars that the angle A D B is in every case unmeasurably
small; and A M B, therefore, is to be taken as equal to
C AD. Now,the dimensions of the Earth being known
the length and direction of the line A B will be known,
and the directions of AM, BM, are known; and there-
fore the length of A M, BM, or of any other line drawn
from M to any other part of the Earth is easily found.
A small error in the angle at M—that is, in the angle
C A D—will produce agreat error in the result for A M or
BM. With this caution the problem is completely solved.
1 farallax of ne
A
Cc
286 SUN’S DISTANCE.
The question naturally rises, cannot the same method be applied
to the Sun? Practically it cannot, for the following reasons: First,
if errors of equal amount were committed in determining the inclina-
tion of the two lines AM, BM, for the Sun and for the Moon, their
effects on the results would be enormously unequal. Thus, if the
error were 2’, it would produce an error of one hundred miles in the
Moon’s distance; but it would produce an error of sixteen millions of
milesin the Sun’s distance. Secondly, no stars can be seen for obser-
vation in apparent contact with the Sun’s limb. Thirdly, if for want
of observable stars we rely upon the instrumental measure of the
angular elevation of the Sun’s limb, we introduce the risk of instru-
mental errors, and (far worse) of errors in the computation of atmo-
spheric refraction at the most unfavorable of all times of observation;
and these are sufficient completely to vitiate the method.
In consequence of these difficulties, astronomers have always
sought to determine the distance of the Sun indirectly by determining
the distance of a planet, either by referring the planet’s apparent
place to stars or by referring it to the Sun. In order to make this
indirect process available, it is necessary to rely upon the antecedent
determination of the proportion of the distances of the different plan-
ets from the Sun.
It is a historical fact that, in the time of Copernicus and Keppler,
when astronomers did not know whether the Sun’s distance from
the Earth was nearer to ten millions or to a hundred millions of miles,
Fig. 2. the preportion of the distances of the different
Proportions of Orbits planets was known almost as exactly as at present.
of Planets The first and rudest means of obtaining these pro-
portions may be understood from figure 2. Com-
mence with the assumption that the planets move
in circular orbits. At the Earth E the apparent
angle S EV. between the Sun and Venus, reaches,
but does not overpass, acertain value. At this
time, then, the angle E V S is a right angle.
a Therefore, in the triangle E V §, two angles
are known, (namely, at Hand at V,) and therefore
the proportions of the three sides can be found,
and two of these sides are the distances of
the Earth and Venus from the Sun. Again, conceive that from the
Earth E’ the planet Mars is seen in the direction EH’ M’. By an ac-
quaintance with the movements of Mars, derived from the observa-
tions of many preceding years, it is known that his position, as seen
from the Sun, isin the directionS M’. The angular difference between
these two directions is the angle S M’ E’.. Also we know the angle
S E’ M’, the apparent angular distance of Mars from the Sun. Hence
(as in the instance of Venus) we know two angles of the triangle
S E’ M’, and therefore we know the proportion of its three sides, two
of which are the distances of the Earth and Mars from the Sun.
These, at first, are very rude determinations; but they aid materially
SUN’S DISTANCE. 287
in introducing more exact ones. It is found by degrees that some
alteration must be made in the inferred mean distances of the planets
from the Sun; it is found by degrees that this will not suffice, and
that the supposition of different degrees of ellipticity and in different
directions must be introduced; and at length, by infinite repetitions
of the process of trial and error, of which. scarcely a trace remains,
except in the results, proportions of very considerable accuracy are
obtained. In all this there is not the smallest reference to any of the
absolute distances.
In figure 3 is shown the first practical infer- Hig
ence from this knowledge of proportion of dis-
tances, as applied to a transit of Venus. Let bo
Venus V be so exactly between the Sun and the
Karth that she can be seen upon the face of the
Sun. An observer at A sees her upon the point |
S, and an observer at B sees her upon the point
S’. Suppose the relation between the points §
and 8’ to be such as to admit of record (the
mode of making this record will be considered S
shortly,) and suppose, by means of that record, s
the angle S A 8S! is measured. The angle which
we desire to obtain, in order to measure the &
Sun’s distance is A §’ B. Now, the proportion is
of our measured angle § A 9’ to the desired an- ©
gle A'S’ B, is sensibly the same as the propor- y | |
tion of S' V to:A V, or as 12: 28, very nearly. &
Thus it appears that we measure a large angle
in order to infer from it a small one: and this is
the circumstance which is the most favorable of
all for obtaining an exact result. (If we tried
to use a transit of Mercury in the same way, it
would be found that the measured angle at A is
to the required angle at S’ in the proportion of
4 to 6 nearly, that is, that we measure a small
angle in order to infer from it a larger; hence
the transits of Mercury are inapplicable to the
measure of the Sun’s distance.) It is further to
be considered that, in this reference of the ap-
parent place of Venus to the disk of the Sun, no
use is made of stars, and nothing depends on . |
the difficulty of computing refraction, inasmuch | <8
he
2
ree
«
Parallax of Venus
as Venus and the Sun are, at the time of the ob- |
servation, subject to the same refraction. wv
This method then appears likely to be excel- , ae
lent, provided that we possess a practical pro- 2
cess for measuring the angle S AS’. The mode of finding this will
be our next consideration.
288 _ SUN’S DISTANCE.
Fig. 4. In figure 4 is represented by a black
Suns Disk reversed line the path which Venus will appear
to describe across the Sun’s disk in the
transit of 1882, (reversed in regard of
right and left, for the convenience of
subsequent investigations) as seen from
the centre of the Earth. For the
present let us lay aside the considera-
tion of the EKarth’s rotation. An ob-
server in the northern portion of the
Karth will see Venus describe, not the
black line, but the fainter line below
the black line and parallel to it. An
observer in the southern portion of the Earth will see Venus describe
the fainter line above the black line. The path seen by the southern
observer is longer than that seen by the northern observer, and there-
fore occupies a longer time. Consequently the mere observation of
the duration of the transit at these two stations would give informa-
tion on the lengths of the two chords, and therefore would give
means of computing the amount of separation of the two chords: and
this apparent separation corresponds to the angle S A & in figure 3.
We have therefore all the means of computing the angle A S’ B, and
of inferring from it the Sun’s distance; although, as may be imagined,
the intervening calculations are sufficiently complicated.
But this is on the supposition that the Earth has no motion of rota-
tion. Let us introduce the consideration of rotation, and see how it
modifies the result.
Let us place ourselves over a globe with its south pole elevated to
represent the illuminated portion of the Earth on the day of transit.
By bringing the meridian of 135° E. to the vertical, we shall see the
portion of the Earth turned toward the Sun at the i ingress of Venus
on the Sun’s disk; by bringing the meridian of 75° E. to the vertical,
we see that portion turned toward the Sun at the egress. The re-
versed form given to the solar disk in the cut (fig. 4) enables us to
refer lines on the globe and on the diagram to corresponding geomet-
rical directions, when we imagine ourselves to be looking through
the diagram upon the globe.*
Now, fixing our attention on a northern station, in the United States
of America for instance, it will be seen that the translation of this
place by the movement of rotation carries it to meet the motion of
Venus. Consequently it tends to shorten the duration of the transit.
But by virtue of the northerly position of that station, the duration
of transit is already shortened. Consequently, by combination of
these two effects, the duration of the transit at the northern station
is very much shortened.
Now, can we select a southern station such that the same rotation
= On account of the unavoidable omission of the diagrams representing the illuminated
portions of the Earth at the times of ingress and of egress of the two transits, a few pas-
sages have been omitted, and equivalent ones introduced, using the globe as a means of il-
lustration.—J. H.
SUN’S DISTANCE. 289
of the Earth shall tend to lengthen the duration of transit as seen
there? The transit at southern stations is already the longer by
virtue of their southern position; and if to this we could superadd a
further lengthening by virtue of the Harth’s rotation, we should have
a very long duration of transit there which we might hope to com-
pare with the very short duration at the north station, with the pros-
pect of obtaining a combination which would be most advantageous
for obtaining the measure sought.
We can select such a station.
It is essential to remark, that the transit will take place in the
month of December, and that at that time the Earth’s south pole will
be turned towards the Sun, and therefore, that those regions of the
earth which are included between the south pole and the southern
limit of illumination will be carried by rotation in a direction oppo-
site to the direction of movement of all the northern parts of the
earth. If we fix our attention on a part of the Antarctic continent,
between Sabrina Land and Repulse bay, it will be seen that it is car-
ried in the same direction as Venus, that the apparent movement of
Venus is therefore made slower, and that the duration of transit is
thereby lengthened. And as it is lengthened already by the southern
position of the station, it will by the combination of these causes be
very much lengthened. Comparing this with the observed duration
in the United States, where it is very much shortened, we shall have
a large difference, depending entirely upon the proportion which the
Earth’s radius bears to the distance of the Sun, and most favorably
available for the determination of that proportion. The difference of
the times of duration would probably be not less than twenty-five
minutes.
Thus the circumstances of the transit of 1882 are peculiarly favor-
able (subject only to certain practical considerations, to be noticed
hereafter,) for the determination of the proportion of the Earth's
radius to the Sun’s distance, (usually called the Sun’s horizontal par-
allax, or more strictly the sine of the Sun’s horizontal parallax.) A
discussion of the transit of 1874 will show what are the conditions
on which this favorable state depends.
In figure 5, where Venus is seen Bigis:
crossing the northern part of the Sun’s Suns Disk, reversed.
disk, it will be perceived that the
northern station has (independently of
the Earth’s rotation) the longer dura-
tion of transit and the southern has
the shorter. Now when we introduce
the consideration of rotation — for
which purpose we regard the globe
with the meridians of 30° W. and
120° W., brought to the vertical to
represent the illuminated portions at
the ingress and egress, respectively— Se
no selection of stations on the principle adopted for 1882 will tend to
exaggerate this difference. If both stations are on the north side of
19
Pao
290 SUN'S DISTANCE.
the south pole, the movement of rotation shortens both durations in
no very unequal degrees. If we take a station between the south
pole and the southern limit of illumination, the motion of rotation
tends to lengthen the duration, which by virtue of southernly position
is shorter, and thereby the inequality is diminished. Thus it appears
that the transit of 1874 cannot be used with the same adyante age as
that of 1882 for determining the Sun’s horizontal parallax.
An examination of the characteristics of these transits, and also of
those which occur in the month of June, (as 1761 and 1769,) when
the north pole of the Earth is turned towards the Sun, suggests the
following remarks: The transits favorable for the determination of the
Sun’s horizontal parallax are those in which the part of the Sun’s disk
crossed by Venus has the same name (north or south) as the pole of
the Earth which is turned towards the Sun. Now, in general (but not
always) the transits of Venus will occur in pairs, (as 1761-1769, 1874—
1882,) with an interval in each case of eight years. This interval
depends on the circumstances that the transits can only be visible
when the conjunction of the Earth and Venus takes place very near to
one of the nodes of the orbit of Venus on that of the Earth; and that
in eight years Venus has revolved almost exactly thirteen times, so
that a conjunction at any one degree of heliocentric longitude is fol-
lowed by a conjunction very near to the same degree e after an interval
of eight years. But in consequence of the proportion of 8: 13 being
not quite exact, and because in eight years Venus revolves a little
more than thirteen times, the successive conjunctions take place in
23 days less than 8 Julian years. Therefore, at the second conjunc-
tion Venus is less advanced in respect of the node than at the first.
At the December conjunctions Venus is near the ascending node; at
the June conjunctions she is near the descending node. In the former,
therefore, she will be at the second transit more southerly, and in the
latter more northerly, than at the first transit. These indications
correspond with those of favorable transits. Therefore, in all cases
the second transit of each pair is the more favorable for determining
the Sun’s horizontal parallax. The exceptional case is when Venus
crosses the middle of the Sun’s disk, as then the latitude of Venus is
too great at both the next preceding and the next following 8-year
interval to give a visible transit. |
In the explanation, up to this point, we have gone on the supposi-
tion that the observations of transit to be employed are those of
duration of transit. And this method possesses the very important
advantage that it is entirely independent of the assumed longitude of
the place of observation. But there is another method, namely, that
of observing the absolute time (as referred to Greenwich time) of
ingress only, or of egress only, at different stations on’ the Harth.
The best way of considering this is to conceive that figure 3 is not in
the plane of a meridian, but in the plane passing through the observ-
ing station and through the Earth’s centre. Then it is plain that the
apparent disturbance of the point S, from the point at which Venus
would be seen from the Earth’s centre, is in the plane which passes
through the observing station and through the Earth’s centre. Now,
SUNS DISTANCE. 291
if this plane is parallel to the Sun’s limb at the point of ingress, the
disturbance of the apparent place of Venus will merely cause its place
to slide along the Sun’s limb, and will not affect the time of ingress.
If the plane is perpendicular to the Sun’s limb at the point of ingress
the disturbance will tend to throw Venus upon or off the Sun’s disk
in the greatest possible degree, and therefore to accelerate or retard
the ingress in the greatest possible degree. But the observed time
of ingress must necessarily be expressed, in the first instance, in local
time; this can be converted into Greenwich time only by application
of the assumed longitude of the place, and, therefore, when we com-
pare the Greenwich times of ingress as observed at two stations, the
result is necessarily affected by the possible errors of two longitudes.
The same remarks apply to the egress.
We are now in a state to consider the applicability of the two
methods to the transits of Venus in 1874 and 1882. The calculations
of the places of the Earth and Venus, upon which the ages. or
figure 4 and figure 5 are founded, have been made by Mr. Bre
assistant to the Royal Observatory, and may be accepted as ee a
At the commencement of this evening’s meeting an independent set
of calculations was handed to the Astronomer Royal by Mr. Hind,
superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, which do not sensibly differ
from Mr. Breen’s. In the exhibitions of the illuminated side of the
Earth, the nearest integral hour of Greenwich mean time is taken,
because (as will be mentioned) there is yet a little uncertainty on the
exact time.
First. On the application of the method of difference of duration
of transit to the transit of 1874.
It has already been remarked that in this transit there is no possi-
bility of combining the effect of Earth’s rotation with the effect of
difference of latitude of stations, so as to exaggerate the difference of
durations of transit depending on difference of latitude alone. And
if we consider the effect of difference of latitude only, we find that
circumstances are not very favorable. The most northerly stations
are to be found in Siberia, Tartary, and Thibet, (which will scarcely
be visited by astronomers in December,) on the coasts of China, a
in North British India. The most southerly stations will be Ker
elen’s island, Van Dieman’s Land, and New Zealand. But on
observable difference of duration will probably not be half of that
in 1882.
Second. On the application of the method of the difference of abso-.
lute times to the transit of 1874.
For the ingress, favorable positions will be found at Owhyhee-
(where the displacement tends to throw Venus upon the Sun’s disk,
or to accelerate the ingress) and at Bourbon, Mauritius, and Kergue-
len’s island, (where the displacement tends to throw Venus from the
Sun’s limb, or to retard the ingress.) For the egress, Sicily, Italy,,
and portions of Hurope west of the Black Sea, are so situate as to
throw Venus upon the Sun’s disk, or to retard the egress; and New
Zealand, New SARE REE Van Dieman’s Land, and Beerern, Australia,
are well situated for accelerating the egress. But it is doubtful,
292 SUNS DISTANCE.
whether the longitudes of any of the stations named, except those in
Europe, are yet “known with sufficient accuracy.
Third. On the application of the method of difference of duration
of transits to the transit of 1882
It has been already pointed out that there are two tracts, each
sufficient to contain a number of observing stations, which are par-
ticularly well adapted to these observations. And it is specially to
be remarked that the command of a number of stations, sufliciently
near together to see the astronomical phenomenon in nearly the same
way, but sufficiently separated to take the chances of different states
of the sky, is very important. On occasion of the eclipse of 1842 the
astronomers at Turin saw nothing, in consequence of the cloudy state
of their sky, while the Astronomer Royal on the Superga, not five miles
distant in a straight line, saw all the phenomena of the eclipse.
Bearing this caution in mind, we will consider the circumstances of
the two tracts in question.
The northern tract includes the whole of the United States of North
America. The observatories are numerous, and they possess an ad-
vantage which even yet is little known in Europe, namely, that from
the extent of ¢ ealvanic telegraph, the habit of using it in the United
States, the public spirit of the nation and of the telegraph companies,
which would assuredly induce them to devote that wonderful auxil-
iary to the exclusive use of astronomy on an occasion so important,
and the absence of political suspicions, all the observing-stations
would for an observation like this be connected by the galvanic tele-
graph. (The Astronomer Royal adverts to the political suspicions,
not without some bitterness, for he has been prevented by them from
using a Kuropean telegraph for a single hour to determine the longi-
tude of an important continental point.) The peculiar advantage of
connecting, at least of comparing, all the observers’ clocks, would be
of this kind. Suppose that there were ten observing-stations, and
that, in consequence of the changeable weather, the ingress only was
observed at five of these stations, and the egress only at the other
five: If the clocks of the observatories were not connected or com-
pared, these observations would be totally lost. But if they are con-
nected, then every observation is referred to the absolute time of one
clock, say the Washington clock; and from a knowledge of the geo-
ere aphical position, a correction of the absolute time m: ary be computed,
so as to deduce, from every observation of absolute time of ingress at
any station, w hat would have been the absolute time of ingress had
it been aeeoeved at Washington, and from every observation of the
absolute time of egress at any statiea! what would have been the ab-
sohite time of egress had it been observed at Washington; and thus
we snall have five observations of ingress and five observations of
egress, all as if they had been observed at Washington and noted by
the Washington clock. Humanly speaking, the refore, we may say
that the probabilities for the accurate and efficient observation of
these phenomena in the United States are vastly superior to any that
could have been reckoned on in any former time, or to any that could
now be reckoned on in any other region.
The southern tract is a part of the Antarctic land discovered by
SUN’S DISTANCE. 293
Lieutenant Wilkes, of the United States navy, included between Sa-
brina Land and Repulse bay, and occupying an extent of about 400
miles. The Astronomer Royal is informed by General Sabine that
the 6th of December is rather early in the season for a visit to this
land, but probably not too early, more especially as firm ice will be
quite as good for these observations as dry land. It must, however,
be borne in mind that it is indispensable to secure observations both
of ingress and of egress in this tract, without which all the advan-
tages of the North American observations will be useless. For this
purpose it appears absolutely necessary to establish a chain of ob-
serving posts, and to furnish some means of comparing the clocks.
We are in possession now of two powers, unknown in former times,
applicable to this purpose. One is the galvanic telegraph, which
possibly (but not very probably) might be laid down in a temporary
way. The other is the use of shear &. by. which the observers
would be distributed to their several posts, and which would be con-
stantly employed for some days before and some days after the transit
in running up and down the line of coast with a number of chronome-
ters, and comparing them with the stationary chronometers at each
observing post. It would be extremely desirable that the country
should be reconnoitered some years before the transit, in order to
ascertain at a sufficiently early time the practicability of these or some
equivalent plans, without which the risk of entire failure would be
great.
Fourth. On the application of the method of the differences of ab-
solute times to the transit of 1882.
For the ingress, the islands of Bourbon, Mauritius, and Kerguelen’s
island, are very favorably situated for accelerating the ingress; and
the United States of North America for retarding it, For the egress:
Van Dieman’s Land, Eastern Australia, New Zealand, and New Cale-
donia, will have the egress much retarded; while the United States,
the West India asin le. and the coast of South America as far as the
Rio Plata, will have it accelerated.
In the transits of 1761 and 1769 great difficulty was found to attach
to the observations of the internal contact of the limb of Venus with
the Sun’s limb, from the phenomenon which in late years has attracted
attention under the name of Baily’s Beads. The Astronomer Royal
expressed his opinion as entirely coinciding with that of Professor
Powell, that this phenomenon is simply due to irradiation, as arising
partly from diffraction, partly from fault of the telescope, and partly
from the nervous excitement of the eye. From his own experience
in two total eclipses of the Sun, in which he had taken great pains to
see the phenomenon, and had (as he believes simply because he took
care to see the Sun very distinctly) been unable to see the shghtest
trace of it, he had not the smallest doubt that when proper care is
taken for distinct vision, the phenomenon will not be seen at all. He
referred specially to his delightful view of the very beautiful phenome-
non of the disappearance of the last portion of the Sun in the valleys be-
tween the lunar mountains, in the eclipse of 1851, which with less
distinct vision would probably have created strings and beads. This
294 SUN'S DISTANCE.
distinctness of vision he ascribed principally to the use of a graduated
dark glass, constructed under his direction by Mr. Simms. It consists
of a long wedge of red glass and a long wedge of green glass, their
edges turned the same way, combined with an equivalent wedge of
colorless glass, its edge turned the opposite way. Nobody would
suppose without trial how fastidious the eye is as to the proper intensity
of shade, and how distinctly, when intent on clear vision, it rejects a
shade in the most trifling degree lighter or darker. He thought it
highly important that such shades should be used for observing the
transits of Venus. It is desirable also that the color left by the shade-
glass should be agreeable to the observer’s eye.
Still there is one caution which must not be put out of sight. The
selection of places depends entirely upon the portion of the Earth
which is illuminated at the times of ingress and egress; and if the
tables of the movements of Venus are erroneous in 1882 to the amount
of an hour’s motion, the illuminated face of the Earth will be altered
to the amount of two or three hours’ rotation of the Earth, and the
selections of stations may be totally changed. It is therefore most
important that the tables of Venus should be thoroughly examined,
and where necessary rectified. A great mass of observations of Venus
exist, already reduced so far as to require only the very last step of
substitution of errors of planetary elements. The Astronomer Royal
referred particularly to the Greenwich Planetary Reductions from
1750 to 1830, to the reduction of certain Cambridge observations, to
the reduction (in the annual Greenwich volume) of the Greenwich
observations down to the present time, and to the discussion of some
of the Greenwich observations by Mr. Main and Mr. Glaisher. And
he took the opportunity of expressing his opinion that fifty pounds
spent on calculations with an object like this would confer much
greater benefit on astronomy than a thousand pounds employed in the
foundation and equipment of an observatory. ,
On viewing the expense and the risk of the determinations of the
Sun’s distance by transits of Venus, as well as the distance of time,
which must necessarily place them beyond the knowledge of many
observers of the present day, it appears natural to consider whether
other methods cannot be used, less stringent as to the moment of ob-
servation, requiring less co-operation of observations, and occurring
atan earlier time. Such are the direct determinations of the parallaxes
of Venus and of Mars, when near to the Earth, by simultaneous
observations at northern and southern stations, as in figure 1, or by
successive observations at the same observatory when it is brought to
different positions by the Earth’s rotation, as in figure 6.
Venus cannot be compared with stars on the meridian. She may
be compared with stars in extra-meridional observations before sun-
rise or after sunset, but she is then uncomfortably bright, and rarely
well defined; and she has only one illuminated limb admitting of ob-
servation, and therefore in the comparison of observations made at
different stations there is great risk of error from difference in the
estimation of her semi-diameter. Moreover, she does not remain long
in the position nearest the Earth, and the nearer she is the more con-
SUN'S DISTANCE. 295
tracted are the daily hours of observation. It seems unlikely that
trustworthy results will be deduced from the observations of Venus.
Figure 6.
* Parallax of
ai BES) COR Ne ese oe cS
The circumstances of Jars in opposition to the Sun (figure 6) are
much more favorable. Jars may then be compared with stars
through the whole night; he has two observable limbs, both admitting
of good observation; he remains much longer in proximity to the
Earth, and the nearer he is the more extended are the hours of ob-
servation.
Here, however, a circumstance is to be considered which has not
previously called for attention. The orbit of Jars is much more
eccentric than those of Venus and the Earth. At some oppositions,
therefore, he will be so far from the Earth that little advantage will
be derived from attempting to observe his parallax. (It is understood
that such observations were made in the United States expedition of
a few years past, which, from the great distance of Mars, must have
been nearly useless.) At other oppositions he is almost as near as
Venus is about conjunction. The following table expresses roughly
the distance of Mars from the Earth, at some of the nearest and some
of the most distant oppositions. The unit of measure is the EKarth’s
mean distance from the Sun:
1860 about July 21. ---6 eee eee cee eee eee 0.38
IS62 about October Wie. <i. ciate ie, wisiele| w aleee gs Ooo
1869 about Pebuasye stoi pions oceroitorents eraidty haere
Sly about) March, 22) Qepepes-tevelensntelery- pete Pee cen OA:
1877 about September 3.--- +e. e+. ee eee ee 0.37
The years 1860, 1862, and 1877 are, therefore, favorable for the
determination of parallax. But they require the following special
considerations:
When, as in figure 1, the method of comparison of observations
made ata susan observatory and a southern observatory is em-
ployed, the most favorable position of the planet is that of verticality
to the point midway between the two observatories. The north lati-
tude of the northern observatories (Greenwich, Berlin, Pulkowa) is
greater than the south latitude of the southern observatories, (Cape
of Good Hope, St. Jago.) Hence, ceteris paribus, a north declination
of Mars will be preferable to a south declination. In this respect the
opposition of 1862 is preferable to that of 1860.
But there is another method of making observations for parallax
not applicable to Venus, but applicable to y Mars, namely, by observing
the displacement of Mars in right ascension, when he is far east of
the meridian and far west of the meridian, as seen at a single observa-
tory. Thus, in figure 6, conceive the pole of the Karth to be turned
tow: ards the eye, and conceive the Earth and J/ars to be stationary
in space, the Earth, however, rotating round its axis. By the diurnal
rotation, an observatory is carried from the position A to A’; and, at
296 SUNS DISTANCE.
one of these times, Wars is seen in contact with one star, and at
the other time with another star. These observations give the means,
as in figure 1, of determining the distance of Mars. And though, in
fact, both the Earth and Mars are moving, yet the effects of “those
motions can be so exactly calculated as to sive to the determination
the same accuracy as if both were at rest.
In order to compare the value of this method with that of observa-
tions on the meridian at two observatories, we must estimate the
length of the base line A B in figure 1, or A A’ in figure 6. The
greatest meridional base line, from Pulkowa to the Cape of Good
Hope, is = Earth’s radius x 2 sine 47° nearly. The measure of the
greatest base line A A’ depends on the latitude of the observatory.
‘At Greenwich it is = Earth’s radius < 2 sine 38° 30’; at the Cape
of Good Hope and at St. Jago (Chili) it is about = Harth’s radius X
9 sine 57°; at Madras it is nearly = Harth’s radius x 2 sine TT°.
Thus it appears that at each of the three last-mentioned observatories
the base line which can be obtained is considerably greater than
the best which can be obtained by meridional combination of two
observatories. At Madras the angle to be measured would be about
44”, To this is to be added that the method is attended with no ex-
pense whatever; that the observations which are compared are made
with the same telescope and by the same observer, or the same series
2 observers; that there is none of the tediousness, the wearying cor-
espondence, or the doubt, which are inseparable from observ ations
a distant co-operation; and that the observer is supported by
the feeling that his own unassisted observations will give a perfect sys-
tem of means for deciding one of the most important questions in
astronomy. The Astronomer Royal expressed his opinion that this
method is the best of all.
In order to use the process to the greatest advantage, Jars ought
to be visible at six hours’ distance from the meridian on each side,
and therefore his declination ought to have the same nameas the 3 lati-
tude of the observatory. Thus 1860 will be a favorable year for the
Cape of Good Hope and St. Jago; 1862 will be favorable for North
Amerfcan and European observatories. It is scarcely necessary to
discriminate between them for Madras, where both years are good;
1862, however, is preferable to 1860.
The first equipment for this observation, on the necessity for which
special stress must be laid, is an equatorial, firm in right ascension.
Many modern equatorials are de sficient in this important quality. It
would be well in using them to apply a temporary mechanism for fixing
the instrument in right ascension, such as its construction may permit.
The next, which will be found advantageous, though not strictly ne-
cessary, is the apparatus for the American or chronographic method
of transits, by which the number of observations may be greatly in-
creased, and something will be gained in the accuracy of each. These,
with the ordinary clocks and chronometers, &c., of an observatory,
are all that are required.
The principal rules for the observer would be: To make the obser-
vations, as near as practicable, to the six-hour intervals from the
SUN’S DISTANCE. 297
meridian on both sides, and to repeat the observations in continued
sequence morning and evening, morning and evening. If different
observers are employed, to take care that each observer is charged
as often with morning as with evening observations. To determine
the difference between the right ascension of Mars and the right
ascensions of two stars, one having greater N. P. D. and the other
smaller N. P. D. than Mars. To use the same stars in at least two
observations of different names, morning and evening, and in as many
more consecutive observations as can be conveniently arranged.
When it becomes necessary to change the selection of stars, to ob-
serve both the old pair and the new pair in one morning or evening
observation. In all cases to observe, by such alternation as is most
agreeable to the observer, both limbs of Jars, (the preceding and
the following.) The observations might with advantage commence a
fortnight before opposition and terminate a fortnight after it.
In the nature of external preparation, applying generally to all
observatories, the principal requisite is a chart of the apparent path
of Mars in considerable detail, giving the place of the planet for
every hour or every few hours, and giving the places of all the stars,
little and great, in its neighborhood. The observer in possession of
this will be able to select stars of such a magnitude as he judges most
agreeable to his eye, and at such intervals as will be convenient for
his system of wires; and to attend rigorously to the condition of
always comparing the planet with two stars, one of greater and one
of less N. P.D. It might be proper that the color of the stars should
be noted, in order that, to avoid possible inequalities of refraction,
stars of the same color as Mars (if there are such) may be selected.
It would not, perhaps, be too much to expect such charts for 1860
and 1862 from the superintendents of our national ephemerides.
On reviewing the whole subject, the Astronomer Royal presses on
the attention of astronomers the importance of observing Mars in
1860 and 1862; and for this purpose the necessity of speedily making
the preparations, instrumental and literary, which he has described,
especially that of the charts of stars with the path of Mars. ,At the
same time he urges that the future astronomical public will not be
satisfied unless all practical use is made of the transits of Venus of
1874 and 1882; and that for these a thorough discussion of the ele-
ments of the orbit of Venus, the determination of some distant longi-
tudes, and a reconnoissance of Wilkes’s land must be effected within
a few years.
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF KNOWLEDGE OF RADIANT
HEAT, MADE TO THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, AT THE MEETINGS. IN 1832,
1840, AND 1854.
By the Reverenp Bapen Powett, M. A., F. R.S., Savilian Professor of Geometry in the
University of Oxford. *
REPORT FOR 1832.
In attempting to give a condensed account of the present state of
our knowledge of the science of Radiant Heat, 1t appears to me that
I shall be best consulting the design of such a report by offering, in
as brief a form as possible, a sketch of what has been formerly done
in this department ; and thence proceeding to a more detailed sur-
vey of what is now doing. And we shall proceed with greater clear-
ness if we distinguish the several different departments into which
the subject divides itself, agreeably to certain known distinctions in
the properties and species of heat acting under peculiar circumstances.
All these have been too commonly confounded together under the
general and vague name of Radiant Heat, whence not unfrequently
the most erroneous views have resulted. By distributing our sub-
ject, however, under the few well-marked divisions which the scanty
results of observation as yet supply, we shall at once secure perspt-
cuity in our views, and be treating the subject in a way most accord-
ant with the inductive process : which, it must be distinctly avowed,
has not yet enabled us to advance to any such comprehensive knowl-
edge of the facts as can warrant us in generalizing them, or in
ascribing to a common principle the radiation of heat from a mass of
hot water, from aflame, and from the sun.
We shall take each of these principal divisions separately, and
under each shall consider what is known in reference to those prop-
erties to which experiment has been directed.
Division I.
Radiation of heat from hot bodies below the temperature of lumin-
osity.
* We regret to state that since the date of the present Report of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, we have received intelligence of the death of the gifted author of these admirable
articles. In his departure from this life science has been called to mourn a successful and
industrious investigator, an able defender, and an accomplished expounder of her princi-
ples. Asascholar, a writer, and a christian gentleman, we can but seldom hope to look
upon his like again. The republication and wide diffusion of these reports, in a collected
form, will, we trust, be considered of importance in the advance of science, and we hope
to be able to publish a continuation of them by some worthy successor of Professor pemeyy
5 lels
RADIANT HEAT. 299
a.) Radiation (or communication of heat to sensible distances) is distinct
JSrom its conveyance by conduction through the air; since,
1.) It takes place perpendicularly downwards :
2.) Only in elastic media.
The relative cooling in different media is seen in the following ex-
periments. —(Rumford’s Hssays, 1, 425; Torricelli ; Murray’s Chem.,
i, 328.)
Thermometer cooled from 212° to 32° Fahrenheit :
In Vacuo... -----:- Coe eee te eees coon es Gn LO Umm. Oo Sec:
INTIME Goeoo OOOO DOGO Goo soo cob Ds 7 3
AWG sich chs) steiweneuererare Vo OO Ses ono i 5
Mercury... ---+- cece cece eee cee 0 36
Dulong and Petit, in their elaborate researches on the cooling of
bodies, have investigated the law of cooling in the most perfect
vacuum they could form: but they admit that there was always a
minute portion of air present. The radiation, therefore, of heat in
an absolute vacuum is by no means conclusively established.—(See
Annals of Phil., vol. xiii, p. 241.)
3.) Professor Lesle ascertained that the effect from a mass of
given size is nearly proportional to the angle which it subtends at
the thermometer ; and that the heat suffers little or no diminution in
its passage through the air.
The radiation is most copious in the direction perpendicular to a
plane surface of the hot mass, and is proportional to the sine of its
inclination to the direction of the thermometer.—(Inquiry into the
Nature and Propagation of Heat, p. 51, &c.)
For the same position the effect is proportional to the excess of
temperature of the hot body above that of the air.
4.) Pictet made an attempt to estimate the velocity with which
heat radiates, by means of concave reflectors at sixty-nine feet dis-
tance. The effect on the focal thermometer was absolutely instanta-
neous.—(Hssais de Phys.)
b.) Reflection of simple heat from non-luminous hot bodies.
1.) The general principles are established by Professor Leslie.—
(Inquiry, pp. 14, 51.)
2.) He shows that the quantity of heat reflected is proportional to
the sine of incidence on a plane surface.
3.) It is affected by the polish of the surface.—(Leslie, Inquiry, pp.
81, 20, 98, 106.)
4.) The most exact experiments are those made with conjugate con-
cave reflectors ; a ball of iron below luminosity in one focus, a ther-
mometer in the other : a glass of boiling water may be substituted
for the iron ball. In either case a great effect 1s produced in the
opposite focus, though little out of it.—(Saussure, Voyages, t. iv, p.
120; Sir W. Herschel, Phil. Trans., 1803, p. 305.)
300 RADIANT HEAT.
Professor Leslie made extensive use of reflectors, but observed
that there was a very considerable degree of aberration in the focus from
an exact position ; considerably nearer to the reflector than the true
focus, the effect continued undiminished.—(Inquiry, p. 64.)
5.) Alleged reflection of cold.
An account of the earliest erguiey iments will be found in the Memoirs of
the Florentine Academy, (Waller’s Transl., p. 103; also Gertner, 1781.)
Pictet, with conjugate elie ore) found the thermometer sink when
ice was in the opposite focus. —(Essais de Phys., p. 82.)
Count Rumford employed a tube, a frustrum of a cone, open at
both ends ; placing ice at the small end, the thermometer at the
large end sunk very little. The ice being at the small end, the ther-
mometer at the large end fell considerably. Rays reflected by the
inside of the tube from the body at the large end would be concen-
trated on that at the other.
6.) M. Prevost (Hssai sur la Calerique Rayonnant, Geneva, 1809,
and Stecherches sur la Chaleur, p. 15) proposes a theory of radiation,
that heat is a discrete fluid, every particle of which moves in a straight
line, and such motions are constantly taking place in all directions,
whether there be more or less heat present. Hence all bodies,
whether of a higher or lower temperature, are supposed to be con-
tinually radiating heat ; and this going on mutually tends to bring
them all to an equilibrium of temperature.
On this theory explanations are given of the apparent radiation of
cold.
The thermometer in the conjug ate focus, when nothing is in the
other, remains stationary, because the rays reflected from “all the sur-
rounding Space so as to cross at the focus of the opposite mirror, and
be reflected in a parallel state to the other, and thence on to the ther-
mometer in the focus, are exactly equivalent to those which the ther-
mometer radiates. But when a mass of ice is placed in the opposite
focus, it intercepts and absorbs a portion of the rays which would
otherwise have fallen on the first mirror, and so have reached the
thermometer, which in consequence radiates more than it receives,
and therefore sinks.
A similar explanation applies to Count Rumford’s experiment.—
(See Thomson On Heat, &c., p. 163.)
In the Quarterly Journal of Science (June, 1830, p. 378) some ob-
servations are given on this subject, and an explanation offered, which,
though very ingenious, appears somewhat complicated.
It may not be improper to observe, that if the above be a correct
view of Prevost’s theory, it can hardly be conceived as otherwise
than partially hypothetical. The idea, viz: that bodies even of a
lower temperature than those about them actually give out a small
degree of heat, is extremely difficult to conceive ; and it does not
appear absolutely e essential to the explanation of the facts.
Without reference to any theory, I venture to propose the follow-
ing as the simple experimental law :
All bodies of unequal temperature tend to become of equal tempe-
RADIANT HEAT. 301
rature ; if in econtact—by conduction; if at sensible distances—by
radiation, of the excess of heat; and (in the latter case) whether the
radiation reach the cooler body: directly or by an intervening reflection.
This appears sufficient to include the facts of Pictet’s and Rum-
ford’s experiments.
7.) Alleged polarization of simple heat by reflection.
Mons. J. H. Berard (Mémoire sur les Propriétés des differentes
Espéces de Rayons qu’on peut séparer au moyen du Prisme de la
Lumiére solaire, Mem. de la Société d’ Arcueil, Paris, 1817, tome iil;
see also Annals of Phil., O. S., ii, 164; Biot, Zraité de Phys., iv,)
tried experiments for the polarization of heat. His apparatus was
the same as Malus’s, having the axis of revolution vertical ; but no
precautions of screening, &c., are mentioned. He used an air ther-
mometer containing a bubble of alcohol in the tube, in the focus of a
reflector, moving round along with the second glass: a ball of copper
about two inches in diameter was in the focus of a reflector placed
in the position for polarization of light. (His experiments on heat
with light will be referred to in another place.) He tried the effect
with the metal heated below luminosity, and assured himself that
there was a difference in the degree of heat reflected in the two rec-
tangular azimuths of the second glass.
I have attempted to repeat these experiments with the same kind
of apparatus, carefully screened and arranged with the tube horizon-
tal ; but could produce no diminution in the proper position. —(Ldinb.
Journal of Science, N. 8., vol. x, p. 207.)
I also tried the experiment with a delicate mercurial thermometer,
comparing this case with others, (referred to in their proper place, )
in which light accompanied the heat ; but in the former could detect
no difference in a long series of repetitions.
The total effect is in all cases extremely small, and the disturbing
causes considerable, especially the heating of the glasses, &c. The
whole experiment was very unsatisfactory.—(Edinb. Journal of Sci-
ened: NiS:, vol. vi, sp. 291.)
c.) Effect of the nature of surfaces on the emission of simple heat.
1.) Count Rumford (Nicholson’s Journal, ix, 60) employed two simi-
lar vessels of hot water of the same temperature—one naked, the
other coated with linen, glue, black or white paint, or smoked with
a candle ; the results were,
Naked vessel cooled 10 degrees in 55 minutes.
Coated “10 ute <P AS@ee i nee
Mr. Murray supposes a relation between radiating and conducting
powers.—(System of Chem., i, 326, 334. See Pll. Trans., 1804, p.
90, &c.)
2.) The most complete investigation of this and other parts of the
subject has been made by Professor Leslie in his Jnguzry ‘nto the Na-
ture and Propagation of Heat, 1804.
He first used hot water in a globe of tin, in which the inserted
thermometer fell a given quantity, with the tin bright, in 156 minutes;
with the tin coated with lampblack, in 81 minutes.
302 RADIANT HEAT.
The difference was greatest in still air, and diminished with the
violence of its motion :
Time of cooling.
pet dS ee a
Wind. Bright. Blackened.
Gentle..... Cee rtoenys 44 minutes-....- 35 minutes.
Strong eeu TeNs ies aie ahels a3 iCal Mets. sifore 204 66
\Wrolleiitis Seo o eine 92 36 ASG cad 9 sie
Hence the effect is different from conduction by air.
3.) The most exact series of experiments was that in which he used
conjugate reflectors, a differential thermometer having one bulb in the
focus, and a cubical tin canister of hot water, (the temperature of
which was seen by the projecting stem of a thermometer,) and each
side of which could be coated with a different substance, and pre-
sented successively towards the reflector.
The following results collected together afford the best view of the
general nature of the conclusions relative to the influence of the
state of the surface on the radiation of heat.—(Jnquiry, pp. 81, 90,
110.)
Lampblack Rate etotsiab eu eaieretene tel evelie cereiioteisiel recede! et «reier's 100*
Water , (estimated) BOING en Scee eo isieieen is: seraee ie sODIo On 100
Wri iting paper: ++++-- 4 Sala GiSiicrola orale: a Orauomnuo aajonaee 9R*
[Ra ayeit alsa sicsns Sricinck dtocth cicnicha cations on ioVGloyapoxnuice Gad Geel 50 O00 96
Sealing wax 4G Ee BGG oo CeoloNO UE iontnd solo eG O OAdiok do ach ond 95
Crown glass Susviev ey esis PAAR Cancale CIC RAGA NVC crc mar 90
(Horanawimbnler se cladiok BING KCNA ACT eee SCC HCIRN MERCH Succes les SR*
Miceucisrmencneterenerariencnancisuoetemenenecsuentsistere se erteverere tery anemones 85
JY Gavouneh os (eueSIGNNtG 1 ClOlicNe Bucibho loaions to toroldromtlod Sign aenibhcia' cc 80*
Isinglass Ridiioe Bios ehOL IS oLaed Ciclo b ByO lo Guo eNaOrG oO Loriard 80
Plumbago BUAIGIS GAGIO1G, SGU Gl G. 0/6 Gh Olauo GsolanS. BisO ata one 15
4 Manvele salbtnerope \@yllo. do blow: o0.6.b80 cidto al c'ao!olo suevatetel ate 59
Fil of jelly ---- +--+ eee e eee eee eee cee eee 5At
AMnipaiaveye aula Olt Wl ooca nocd Fo0 cobs Dono obo bc Sy lg
“Mavens nerel IWernGlisno oc coomo oom ogo ddodbolSoro Ot 45
Film of jelly, (4 of former quantity)----.-++--- 38
Tin scratched with sandpaper-------- Bislienetal’s tis 22
Mercury Brean, BINA Siler saa nuch os Bic ho Cobo Oo bis cinch crea 9()
(esi dee Glavod ld6 hb oo sco o ono b O66 O10 Sto.olD oie 19
Polished raw «se eth ieee sents Sees 15
Polished tin, gold, silver, copper- setae . 12
Thin lamina of gold, silver, or anpoer niga on lee 12
* From comparing the results marked, it appears that the effect
follows no relation to color. Softness probably tends to increase radia-
tion.
+ Thickness of film increased beyond a certain limit does not in-
crease the radiation.
{ The tenuity is not sufficient to produce any diminution of effect,
which probably would take place if thinner films could be applied.
RADIANT HEAT. 303
4.) The effect of the surface on radiation is beautifully exemplified
in the laws which regulate the formation of dew as developed by Dr.
Wells.—(Hssay on Dew, 1814. See also Dufay, Mem., Paris, 1736,
p- 852; and Harvey on Dew, Quarterly Journ. of Science, No. 33:
Edinb. Journ. of Science, i, 161.)
5.) Dr. Ritchie (Zdinb. Phil. Journ., xxiii, 15) explains his theory
of the mode in which the radiating power of surfaces is increased by
making them rough, or furrowing, &c. He contends that it is not
owing to the increase of surface, but to the quantity of heat reflected
by the sides of the furrows.
He adopts the hypothesis of material caloric, and that its mole-
cules are mutually repulsive.
The effect of surface is an essential distinction between radiation
and conduction by air; the latter being shown by Dulong and Petit
to be a independent of the nature of the surface.—(Annals
of Phil., xii, 322.)
d.) Effect of surface on the absorption of heat from non-luminous hot bodies.
1.) De Saussure and Pictet, with the apparatus before described,
found that the thermometer rose in two minutes:
el eiliaecsusye:se. ot iets siaterer oven caeleniee Mae menoneme a Azo Fahrenheit.
IBlae@kemed sic a cisnerstrersis te sre Pasidesils, ahesereis 34
2.) By the same apparatus before described, Professor Leslie found
that on coating the bulb of the thermometer with the different sub-
stances, the absorptive power was very nearly in the same proportion
as the radiative; and by making the same modifications in the surface
of the reflector, he found that reflective power is inversely as the ra-
diative or absorptive.—(Inquiry, pp. 19, 81,98.) He also gives a very
precise set of experiments on the effect of coatings of jelly of increasing
thicknesses.—(p. 106.)
3.) Dr. Ritchie has devised avery elegant mode of showing that the
absorptive power of surfaces is precisely proportional to their radiating
power.—(Royal Inst. Journ., vol. v., p. 305.)
The instrument consists of a large differential thermometer, whose
bulbs are chambers of considerable size, presenting large and equal
plane surfaces on the sides which are towards each other; of these
one is plain or polished, the other coated. Midway between them is
placed a canister having equal plane surfaces facing each of the former
respectively, and one ‘polis ed, the other coated with the same pig-
ment as before; this canister is filled with hot water, and is capable
of turning on a vertical axis; thus the coated surface of the canister
can be turned to the coated bulb or to the polished; in the former
case a great effect 1s produced on the coated bulb, and a very small
effect on the plain; in the second case the better radiating surface is
directed to the worse absorptive one, and the worse radiating to the
more absorptive, and the liquid in the tube remains perfectly stationary ;
the exact equality, therefore, of the absorptive and radiating powers
is established. The whole is on a large scale, and can be exhibited
to a class.
304 RADIANT HEAT.
4.) The most recent and curious researches on this part of the sub-
ject (and extending, as we shall see, to other parts also) are those of
MM. Nobili and Melloni.—(Annales de Chimie, Oct.,1831; Recherches
sur plusieurs Phénoménes Calorifiques, &c.)
The authors commence by describing their thermo-multiplier, by the
aid of which their researches were carried on. This consists in a
thermo-electric combination, susceptible of excitation from the feeblest
conceivable application of heat, and connected with a delicate gal-
vanometer, which gives a measure of the effect produced, and conse-
quently of the heat.
The pile is in a case coated with the smoke of a flame when used
for radiant heat, but left naked when for heat of temperature, on
account (as they observe) of the bad conducting quality of this coating.
They applied this instrument to the examination of the different
reflecting, absorbing, and radiating powers of surfaces.
They confirmed in general the results of Leslie and others already
mentioned. They found that polish augments the reflecting power
much less than usually supposed. Non-metallic substances possess
scarcely any reflecting power, whatever be the state of their surfaces.
They examined the absorptive power of different substances, taking
lamin of equal thickness and similarly fixed, &c.; these having been
heated for a few minutes in the rays of the sun, were placed in pairs
on apertures at the opposite sides of the thermo-multiplier, and in
this way the order of their absorptive powers was considered to be
obtained by the degree of heat they respectively radiated; and the
results were, that the effect increased by blackness of color and with
roughness of surfaces. Also the following surfaces were in this order:
silk, wool, cotton, flax, hemp, (all white,) which is the inverse of their
conducting powers. In like manner, with metals of nearly the same
color and polish, the order was—copper, silver, gold, steel, iron, tin,
lead, exactly in the inverse order of the conducting powers; the same
with several woods and minerals.
On these experiments I must remark, that the heat acquired from
the sun’s rays is so obviously dependent on color that it is astonishing
that any experimenter should adopt this as affording any ground for
making conclusions respecting the comparative absorbing or radiating
owers for heat in general. The later results, when the surfaces were
all of the same color, are extremely important. Supposing they all
acquired the same degree of solar heat which was thus converted into
heat of temperature, and then radiated from the surfaces as simple
heat, the real conclusion established is, that the RADIATING powers of
surfaces for simple heat are in the inverse order of their conducting
powers.
e.) Effect of screens on heat from non-luminous hot bodies.
1. Pictet found a difference in the interceptive effect, according
as the plain or the silvered side of a glass screen was towards the
source of heat.
RADIANT HEAT. 305
© Ratio of effects on
Towards hot body. thermometer.
(IBKGigsS colo a 0-600 Om OOUOUD 0 056 od mB pao Ob c00.4 a5 5
Amalgam A00 oooOO Bo COS oO. No. clO' O BHORDOR OS OU Re 3 45)
Amalgam, blackened Ce ©) Jewels 0) @ele.e «6 92
Amalgam removed,—glass blackened.---...--.-. 180
(Essai, d&e., p. 72.)
2.) He tried to refract simple heat without effect.
Sir W. Herschel tried with a lens, and supposed it effected: this
has been refuted by Sir D. Brewster.—(Vide infra; Phil. Trans. 1800,
Part TH, No. 15,'Exp. 19, 20.)
3.) Professor Lesle’s experiments on screens are perhaps the most
valuable portion of his inquiry.
He found the effect of a screen increase rapidly with its distance
from the source, (p. 28,) and less so with its thickness, (p. 38.)
Different substances appear to have a different interceptive power;
but this upon examination appears always to be dependent on their
conducting power, and the absorptive nature of their surface jointly. —
The most decisive experiment on this point was that made with
two panes of glass, each having one side coated with tin foil; accord-
ing as the plain or coated sides were placed in the contact, the com-
pound screen had a greater or less apparent interceptive power; that
is, a greater or a less power of absorbing and subsequently radiating
the heat. Again, either might be used separately, or the two at an
jnterval.—(p. 39.)
4.) Prevost concluded that a certain portion of heat is directly trans-
mitted through transparent screens, by employing moveable screens.
which continually presented a fresh surface, so that it was suppesed’
all communication of heat and conveyance by way of secondary radi-.
ation would be prevented.
But it must be considered that it is impossible to prevent eutirely
any portion of a screen in the most rapid motion from acquiring heat:.
no such experiments therefore can be strictly conclusive.
Dr. Ritchie tried experiments with the same view, by means of a.
film of liquid adhering to threads stretched across a frame continually
renewed.—(Phil. Trans. 1827, Part I, p. 141.) But tothis.a,similar
objection must apply.
5.) The results of Professor Leslie do not apply to temperatures
above those of boiling water.
This extension of the inquiry formed the subject of the-researches
of De la Roche. The complete account of these is given in its
proper place; at present we have to consider them only as far as
relates to bodies below luminosity. He tried the effect of a screen
of glass, first transparent, and then with one surface blackened, on
the heat radiating from mercury at 180° centig. and at 346 when it
was boiling.—(Biot, Z’rarté de Phys., iv, 640.),
The results were as follows:
20
306 RADIANT HEAT.
Rise of focal thermometer (centig.) in 1".
No screen, Transparent Blackened
screen, screen.
Mercury at 180°...---- 3°.94.+.+ 2.000. 0°22....-.-6-, 0°.07
Mercury at GULR. ls GR BiStaupall UbyuI Rates 610-0020 Uo OD Gon IW iysloldioo aod. ods oO! elad
He hence infers a partial transmission of heat at these high tem-
peratures; and the more so, viewing these results in connexion with
the rest of the subsequent series (considered i in another place.)
These are the only ones of his experiments referring really to
simple radiant heat; and the inference of an actual transmission in the
way of direct radiation is open to several objections.
6.) The blackened screen causes a greater diminution of heat than
the transparent, and it was therefore inferred that a portion of heat
radiates freely through the transparent screen, and is stopped by the
opaque one; but there are several circumstances which show that this
is not a necessary conclusion.
The coating was towards the source of heat, and rendered this
screen more absorptive of heat where exposed to it, that is, at its
central part, and a better radiator towards the edges without the
area of the incident rays; so that it radiated its heat most copiously
on the side away from the thermometer. With the plain screen there
was no such tendency to radiate more on one side than on the other,
and hence the greater effect on the thermometer.
This explanation I suggested in the Annals of Philosophy, xlv, 181.
Some observations bearing upon this subject occur in Sir David
Brewster’s elaborate paper on ‘‘New Properties of Heat,’’ &., in
the Phil. Trans. 1816, Part I. His 40th proposition is directed to
prove that radiant heat is not susceptible of refraction, and is incapa-
ble of permeating glass like the luminous rays. The truth of this is
demonstratively shown from the curious properties examined in the ©
previous parts of the paper, and shown to be communicated by heat
to glass; and by the progress of which, the passage of the heat
through the glass may be as clearly traced as if the heat itself were
visible.
He applies this conclusion to the experiment of Sir Wm. Herschel,
in which the concentration of simple heat by a lens appears to be
proved. The thermometer must have received the heat radiated by
the lens itself; and from the circumstance that the edges will cool
first, the most copicus radiation of heat will be in the direction of the
axis.
In connexion with the same point, he also examines the conclusions
of MM. De ja Roche and Prevost, and observes: ‘‘The ingenious ex-
periments of M. Prevost, of Geneva, and the more recent ones of M.
De la Roche, have been considered as establishing the permeability
of glass to radiant heat. M. Prevost employed moveable screens of
glass, and renewed them continually, in order that the result he ob-
tained might not be ascribed to the heating of the screen: but such is
the rapidity with which heat is propagated through a thin plate of
glass, that it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to observe the
RADIANT HEAT. 307
state of the thermometer before it has been &ffected by the secondary
radiation from the screen.
‘*The method employed by M. De la Roche, of observing the differ-
ence of effect when a blackened glass screen and a transparent one
were made successively to intercept the radiant heat, is Hable to an
obvious error. The radiant heat would find a quicker passage through
the transparent screen, and therefore the difference of effect was not
due to the transmitted heat, but to the heat radiating from the
anterior surface. The truth contained in M. De la Roche’s fifth
proposition is almost a demonstration of the fallacy of all those that
precede it. He found that a thick plate of glass, though as much or
more permeable to ight than a thin glass of worse quality, allowed a
much smaller quantity of radiant heat to pass. If he had employed
very thick plates of the purest flint glass, or thick masses of fluid that
have the power of transmitting light copiously, he would have found
that not a single particle of heat was capable of passing directly
through transparent media.”’
7.) Ihave further attempted a direct experimental examination of.
the question in a paper inserted in the Phil. Trans., 1826, Part ITI,
Dp. 12.
The substance of my observation is as follows :
De la Roche found that if radiant heat be intercepted by two trans-
parent screens, the additional diminution of effect occasioned by the
second is proportionally much less than that produced by the jist ;
and the same conclusion is extended fo any number of screens. This
was explained by the supposition that the heat in its passage through
the first glass undergoes a certain modification, in some respects
analogous to polarization, by which it is enabled to pass with very
little diminution through the second and subsequent glasses.
In those cases where the source of heat is luminous, such phenomena
would receive an obvious explanation on the principle investigated in
my other paper.— Vide infra. ;
But if the same effect is still observable below the point of lumi-
nosity, we must have recourse to some other principle of explanation
That deduced by De la Roche appears at least plausible; and though
it should be considered proved that, in general, heat is incapable of
being radiated directly through glass, it perhaps would not necessarily
follow that it might not, under peculiar circumstances, have a power
of doing so communicated to it. Thoagh, on the other hand, it must be
confessed that in the present case some difliculty would attend such a
sup position.
It certainly would not be easy to conceive such a property to be
communicated to the heat by the mere act of being conducted through
the first glass. Again, a new property of heat is thus introduced,
which, it must be conceded, is not absolutely and exclusively
established. meh)
It appeared to me, therefore, a point of some interest to examine, In
the case of non-luminous heat, in the first place, the accuracy of the
fact, and secondly, if verified, whether there might not be circum-
stances observable in the conditions of the experiment by which it
308 RADIANT HEAT.
°
might be accounted for, without the necessity of supposing any pe-
culiar property of heat, or a direct transmission even through the
second glass.
My apparatus, in following up this inquiry, was similar to that
described by M. De la Roche, and consisted of two tin reflectors; in
one focus the bulb of a thermometer coated with Indian ink, and in
the other an iron ball two inches diameter, which was heated to red-
ness, and then cooled till it ceased to be visibly red in the dark, at
which point it was placed on its stand, and a thick screen withdrawn.
The indications were observed, first, for the direct effect ; secondly,
with one glass screen interposed; and thirdly, with two. ‘The tem-
pereture of the screens was observed by means of a small thermometer
attached to the face of each away from the ball, towards its central
part; the bulb being kept in contact by the spring of a wire with
which the thermometer was fastened.
The results are: First. That the additional diminution occasioned by
the second screen is proportionally much smaller than that occasioned
by the first. Thus De la Roche’s conclusion is shown to hold good,
not only in the case of luminous, but also of non-luminous hot bodies,
which 1s perhaps of consequence, as I believe doubt has been enter-
trined respecting it; and it may be remarked that here the greater
thickness of the second screen would be against sucha result. Secondly.
‘If the progress of the indications of the direct effect be followed, it
appears that the rise in the figst 30 seconds is the greatest, and that
those in the subsequent periods gradually diminish. Thirdly. With |
one screen the effect in the first period is equal to or even less than
those in the subsequent ones; and if we follow the temperature of the
first screen, it appears to sustain a rapid increase at first, and after-
wards continues gradually to rise till some time after the focal ther-
mometer has become’stationary. The progress of the focal thermom-
eter exactly accords with what must be the heating effect of the
screen as a source, viz: rising slowly at first as the screen acquires
heat sufficient to supply it, and remaining stationary so long as the
still increasing temperature of the screen could balance its loss of
heat. Fourthly. With two screens there is no rise till the second half-
minute, when it is not greater than in the next half, after which the —
thermometer becomes ‘stationary, and this trifling effect exactly ac-
cords with what the temperature of the second screen should produce.
It does not begin till the second screen has acquired a higher
temperature, and it is stationary while the temperature of the screen
continues to increase, and the temperature of the second screen is
such as is clearly accounted for from the heating effect of the first. It
does not begin to rise till after that of the first has risen; it continues
stationary some time after the first has begun to cool, as the first
screen did when the iron was cooling. But as in this case the source
of heat was cooling during the whole time of the experiment, whilst
in the other it was heatins during the first part of the time, it follows
that a greater proportional tempe erature should be communicated to
the second screen by the first, than to the first by the iron ball.
Other circumstances will partially co-operate in producing this
RADIANT HEAT. 309
effect, as the greater proximity of the secend screen to the ther-
mometer; also more heat might be lost in communicating an equable
temperature to the first screen from its central and more heated part;
whilst the heat would be thus more equally radiated to all parts of the
second without such loss.
Thus it appears that the fact stated by M. De la Roche is fully sub-
stantiated, while, on the other hand, it is satisfactorily accounted for
without supposing any new property of heat or any direct. radiation
through glass.
In some unpublished experiments of my own, I found, upon observing
the temperature acquired by a screen exposed to iron below luminosity,
first plain, and then coated with Indian ink towards the source of
heat, the thermometer being in contact at the central part on the
outside, that it rose rather more on the plain than on the coated screen,
8.) MM. Nobili and Melloni, in the memoir before quoted, applied
their instrument to estimate the effects of transparent screens. Over
the thermo-multiplier were placed successively transparent screens of
glass, sulphate of lime, mica, and of water, oil, alcohol, and nitric acid
(enclosed between plates of glass?) and also of ice.
The source of heat was a ball of iron, heated to a point below lumi-
nosity, suspended, or rather passed rapidly, at a certain distance
above the screen.
The index indicated an istantaneous effect, greater or less in all
cases except those of water and ice, in which none was produced, even
when the iron was kept a longer time over the instrument, or even
heated to redness, and the screen reduced in thickness.
9.) A set of experiments presenting some important results with
respect to the absorbing and radiating properties of surfaces, as well
as the action of screens in air and in vacuo, are given by Mr. W. R.
Fox, in the Piil. Mag. and Annals, New Series, No. 65, p. 245. A
brief statement of the results is as follows :
A cylindrical tin vessel of hot oil with its surface polished, and
another similar, painted black, had their times of cooling a certain
number of degrees observed under a receiver first highly exhausted,
and then full of air; the cylinders being respectively first exposed,
and secondly enclosed in one and sometimes more tin cases with in-
tervals; the outer and inner surfaces being one or both polished or
blackened. From all the different combinations of these results, of
which he states in detail, I collect the following general inferences:
I. In vacuo: (1) the polished vessel had its cooling always accelerated
by the cases, and in this order—
Case.
=
f Inside. Outside.
IMG@RT ACCCLOTALEC « «io seemetes fete tcla ote teres -- bright ---- Sean black
black *.’:'-. - .-.”: black.
: bright (3 cases) black.
bright (3 cases) bright.
bright (1 case) bright.
Ge acteecColeracediete «cronies ie cies oo. IDG] its Wis: Oiaisic - bright.
310 RADIANT HEAT.
(2.) The coated vessel had its cooling in all cases retarded ; and in
this order—
Inside. Outside.
east revardedienune cece. Hialeah Ply seicceln GucmAueunl gli Y @)eemcirancucicu oucecncal Ou EY Oke.
bright »-..-.-+-+ black.
black .....-.-+-bright.
Most retarded .-.....+--+-+-+e+-++-+++++es-bright -------- bright.
Il. In air: both vessels in all instances had their cooling retarded
by the cases.
Mr. Fox also found the boiling of water in a bright vessel before a
fire accelerated nearly doubly by % a case blackened externally.
He considers the results inexplicable, except on the hypothesis of
an attraction between matter and heat.
Mr. Fox has also communicated to me in manuscript an account of
some further experiments of the same kind on iron raised to a red
heat, but which, nevertheless, are of such a nature as properly to
come under this division of the subject.
The precise temperature to which the iron was raised in each
experiment was estimated by the remarkable cessation of its action
on a magnetic needle at a certain stage of-incandescence
The iron was enclosed in tin cases of two different sizes, within
which the air could be exhausted, the inside being either plain or
coated with lamp-black.
The whole was immersed in vater, and the temperature communi-
cated to the water in a given time noted. After observation the iron
was plunged in water, and the residual heat thus communicated to
the water noted.
The general results were, that in the smaller case the cooling was
more vapid than in the larger; and in either the internal coating accel-
erated the cooling; in no case was any material difference produced
by exhausting the air.
0.) Dr. Ritchie (Edin. Phil. Journal, xxii, p. 281,) has shown that
when a hot non-luminous body is placed between the two bulbs of a
differential thermometer, blown out very large and thin, and both
remaining plain, the liquid is stationary ; the outside half of one being
coated with black, the liquid sinks from ‘that side.
Hence he infers that the coating has here stopped the heat, which
otherwise radiates freely through “the very thin glass.
He varied the experiment by using portions of glass blown thin as
screens over an aperture: when blackened in a flame or coated with
silver leaf they intercepted heat; when transparent, not. That this
was not from increase of thickness was shown by using three thick-
nesses transparent, then removing the middle one, and blackening
the inner surface of the others.
He explains the subject by the theory of material caloric and mu-
tual repulsion of its particles.
The same author in another paper (Ann. of Phil., 2d series, xii,
123,) gives a variation of the experiment: the hot body is placed
between two large and very thin bulbs; one of the hemispheres of
RADIANT HEAT. a (|
one bulb, formed by a plane passing through the centres of both, is
coated with China ink, as are also two of the alternate quarters of the
.other, formed by a plane cutting the former at right angles.
A greater effect is produced on this second bulb.
Tei is an argument against the effect being due to greater radia-
tion from the outer surface of the bulb.
Dr. Ritchie has also maintained the same conclusions in his paper
before referred to, (Phil. Trans., 1827, Part II, p. 142,) by varying
the distance of the screen, which he found to produce no sensible dif-
ference in the effect, though with screens of moderate thickness it
diminishes rapidly with the distance, according to Lesle’s experi-
ments.
Drivisron II.
TERRESTRIAL LUMINOUS HOT BODIES.
a.) Nature of radiation.
The earliest observers noticed differences between this case and
that of heat from non-luminous bodies.
The heat from flame, &c., at least in part, passes through air, &c.,
without heating it. ‘
Scheele observed this with a fire, and that currents of air did not
change the direction of the rays. ml Treatise on Air and Fire, ke.)
Cavallo (Phil. Trans., 1780,) founda blackened thermometer affect-
ed by the light of a lamp.
Leslie UInquirs y, p. 448,) found a fire affect his photometer; also
candles, &c., (p. 447,)—a distinction pointed out betw een this and
the solar rays, (p. 83, 54.)
The light from putrescent substances does not appear to be accom-
panied with any appreciable degree of heat, according to Dr. Hulme.
(Thomson’s Chem, i, 414, 4th edit.) But the effect, if any, must be
so small that we cannot positively assert there is none.
The same remark may apply to many other very faint lights.
b.) Reflection of heat.
1.) Mariotte collected the heat of a fire in the focus of a reflector.
—(Mem. Acad. of Sciences, 1682.)
Lambert, with burning charcoal in the focus of conjugate reflectors,
found a combustible body kindled in the other focus.—(Lambert,
Pyrometrie ; Saussure, Voyage, iv, 119.)
Scheele (On Air and Fire, p. Ge 71,) observes that a glass mirror,
though it reflects the light of a fire, does not reflect the heat, (it is
not stated by what means the heat was estimated,) but the mirror
becomes heated. A polished metallic mirror reflected both the light
and heat, and did not become much heated itself; if blackened it was
soon hot.
Pictet extended the experiments with conjugate reflectors to this
case, by placing a candle in one focus. The thermometer rose nearly
10° in six minutes. —(Hssais de Phys., p. 63.)
alg RADIANT HEAT.
Sir W. Herschel (Phil: Trans., 1800, p. 297,) placed a candle at
twenty-nine inches from a concave’metallic reflector; the focal ther-
mometer in five minutes rose 34°; another out of the focus was not °
affected.
The same took place with a fire, and with red hot steel.
2.) Polarization by reflection.
Berard (Memoir before cited) tried the polarization of heat from
luminous sources, and found a considerable diminution in the posttigy
when the light ceases to be reflected.
There was of course here no distinction drawn between the ene
accompanying the light and the simple heat. Of the latter nothing
is proved; the former may be merely an effect of the absorplion of light,
and if so, the term pdlarization is applied to the heat without any
proof.
I repeated these experiments, and, after all precautions, thought
there was a small perceptible effect, (when the simple heat was cut
off by a glass screen,) which was diminished in the position of non-
reflection for the light; when the whole heat was admitted no propor-
tional diminution took place.—(Hdinb. Journ. of Science, vi, 303.)
c.) Effect of surfaces on emission of heat.
Nothing ascertained under this head, unless we except some remarks
in the Edinb. Journ. of Science, No. Ip 302
d.) Effect of surfaces on reais of heat.
All experimenters have usually blackened their thermometer.—
(Cavallo, Phil. Trans., 1780.)
Prof. Robison exposed a thermometer on charred oak under a glass
cover to the rays of a fire, when it rose to 212° Fahr.—(Black’s Lect.,
1, 547; Thompson, i, 127.)
e.) LEifect of screens.
1.) Mariotte interposed a glass screen between the fire and concave
mirror, and found the heat no longer sensible at the focus. —(Biot, iv.,
606; Mém. Paris, i, 344.)
Scheele interposed a glass screen in the experiment before men-
tioned, and found the heat of a fire so much intercepted as to be no
longer sensible to the hand—not even sensible in the focus of a re-
flector.
Pictet with the conjugate reflectors interposed a glass screen. The
focal thermometer, which had risen 10°, fell 7° in nine minutes; on
removing the screen it rose again.—(Hssais de Phys., p. 63.)
2.) Sir W. Herschel tried experiments on this point.—(Pdil. Trans.,
1800.) Two moveable objects illuminated by a lamp were viewed by
the eye, one through an open hole, the other through a hole covered
successively by different transparent media. One object was moved
to greater or less distance, till they appeared equally bright; the
RADIANT HEAT. 313
interceptive pojver was estimated directly as the illumination required
to produce the equalization, that*is, inversely as the square of the
- distance.
Two equal thermometers enclosed in a box, with apertures over
the bulbs, (which were plain,) one open, the other covered succes-
sively by the different transparent media, were exposed to different
sources of heat, and the interceptive effects compared together and
with those of the same media for ight. Thus among the results were
the following:
Common Fire. Candle.
oO —_—_ ht FF
Light. Heat. Light. Heat.
Coach glass +--+ sees eee eee eee eee eee e 750 86 1625
Dark red glass------ MO oOo sono CHIE.) iG: 999) 526
3.) Refraction by lenses.
Lambert collected the rays of a fire by a large lens and found the
heat scarcely sensible to the hand.
Sir W. Herschel (Phil. Trans., 1800, pp. 272, 309, 327,) received
the rays of a candle on a lens, with a pasteboard screen, having an
aperture nearly equal to that of the lens; the thermometer in the
focus rose 25° Fahr. in 3 minutes; the same with the rays from a fire,
and from a mass of red hot iron.
M. Brande found the rays of a flame, concentrated by a lens, pro-
duced an effect on a blackened thermometer in its focus; the lens did
not become heated.—(Phil. Trans., 1820, Part I.)
4.) Dr. Ritchie found that if Leshe’s photometer be placed opposite
a ball of iron heated almost to redness no effect whatever will be
produced; but if the temperature of the ball be raised so as to shine
in the darle with a dusky red color, the fluid in the stem of the black
ball will sink a considerable number of degrees. If the temperature
of the ball be raised still higher it will produce a greater effect upon
the instrument than the flame of the finest oil-gas, though the one
possesses a much greater illuminating power than the other.
Dr. Turner and Dr. Christison have found that Leslie’ s photometer
‘tis powerfully affected by heat’’ when placed ‘‘ before a ball of iron
heated 80 as not to be luminous, or even before a vessel of boiling
water.’’ The opposite result of Dr. Ritchie may possibly be owing
to some difference in the surface, Peg or thickness of the Wack
bulb employed.—(Edinb. Journ. of Science, iv, 321.)
I have found differences, which I am nm a loss to account for, be-
tween the effects on a differential thermometer with the bulbs of
equal height, and one in which they are in a vertical line.
5.) That there exist essential differences between the constitution
of the heating power of luminous hot bodies and that of the same
power proceeding from those which are non-luminous was remarked
by former experimenters. But it is a point which does not seem to
have excited any close or systematic inquiry until the subject was
*Out of 1,000.
314 RADIANT HEAT.
taken up by M. De la Roche, whose researches are justly entitled to
the high celebrity they have acquired. The report ‘of the French
Institute upon them'will be found in the Annals of Plul., O. 8., 11,
161; and a full account of the experiments in Biot’s Trailé de Phys.,
iv, 640.
The whole series of results is as follows:
RISE OF THERMOMETER IN 1 MIN. CENTIG.
Source of heat. ee Y
No screen. | Transparent | Blackened
screen. screen.
oe cee
° ° °
1. Vessel of mercury, temp. 180° cent -_-. -... 3. 94 0. 22 0. 07
2. Vessel of mercury, boiling, 346°._.......--.. 1G} 1,36 0.17
Sip TOME DiC ae pee eee eerie eee ne ee cee cael 32.8 4,70 0.31
4. Copper: 9600s (i) soa amass so Se eicle 38. 97 11. 83 0. 40
See Ditton eee ee (672) AEE PR a ee Se 71.54 21.41 0.73
6. Argand lamp—no chimney -.-------------- 21. 12 7, 29 0.21
7. Argand lamp—chimney-... ....-..-----.-.- 23. 44 12. 82 0. 23
|
The first two experiments of this series have been already consid-
ered. The third, or iron, at 427° centig. was at a red heat, its
temperature of luminosity in the dark being about 400°. This, there-
fore, and the subsequent part of the series are affected by the con-
sideration that ight was emitted, which materially alters the case, as
we shall presently observe.
De la Roche infers from these experiments that a portion of simple
radiant heat is transmitted directly in the way of radiation through
glass, and that this increases as the temperature is raised.
A thick glass, though very transparent, stops heat more than a
thin glass less so; the difference is less as the temperature is raised.
A ‘portion of the heat having been intercepted by one screen, a
proportionally much less diminution is caused by the introduction of
a second; hence he infers that the rays emitted of a hot body are of
several kinds, possessing different degrees of power to pass through
glass.
He views the results, when the source of heat is raised to the tem-
perature of luminosity, as forming one connected series with those
below that point, and thus conceives a gradual advance in the radiant
matter or agent from the state of simple heat towards that of light or
‘luminous heat.’’
6.) The theory adopted by De la Roche, as well as by Biot (Zraité
de Phys., iv, 640) and Leslie, is that of one simple agent, which, as
the temperature of the source is raised, is gradually brought more
into the state of light, which on absorption is reconverted into heat.
At low temperatures it is wholly or nearly all stopped by transparent
ezreens. At increasing intensities more of it is enabled to pass in
the way of direct radiation.
RADIANT HEAT. Say
In order to establish this theory, it would be necessary to show
that whatever may be the particular law of relation to the surfaces of
bodies by which the action of the ‘‘igneous fluid’’ is determined at
any stage of its evolution, the portion transmitted by a screen should
act upon any two given surfaces in precisely the same ratio as the
part intercepted, or as the whole. Such a ratio will obviously differ
at different stages of incandescence or inflammation; but at the same
stage it ought to be found exactly the same—only diminished in the
actual magnitude of its terms when the glass screen is interposed, as
when there is none.
But no such experimental proof had been offered by any of the
experimenters before named. It was obviously called for to support
or refute their theory, and was capable of ping easily supplied by
experiment. That the conclusion is not a necessary one will be
evident by merely observing that the phenomena may just as well be
explained by supposing two distinct heating influences, one associated
in some very close way with the rays of light, carried, as it were, by
them through a glass screen without heating Lb; the other being
merely simple radiant heat stopped by the screen, exactly as in the
case of 2 non-luminous hot body
To ascertain by experiment which of these suppositions was the
true one, was the object of an inquiry which I communicated to the
Royal Society, and which is published in the Phil. Trans., 1825, Part
J, p. 187. I also gave an abstract of the results, accompanied by
other illustrative remarks, and some theoretical views in a paper in
the Quarterly Journal of Science, No. XIX, p. 45. Some remarks
also on the experiments are madegin the Edinb. Journ. of Science, N.
S. No. VI, p. 304.
These experiments combine the examination of the effect of screens
with those of surfaces. It is assumed, on the authority of previous
experiments, that simple heat affects a thermometer in proportion to
the absorptive nature of its surface: for example, a surface washed
with a paste of chalk is rather more absorptive than one coated with
Indian ink; and this kind of heat is stopped by transparent screens of
ordinary thickness. It would seem, from some experiments already
mentioned, that from luminous hot bodies the effect is greater in ref-
erence to the darkness of color of the surface, and is transmitted
through glass. But when a body is heated to luminosity, how does
this change in its properties take place? Are its relations gradually
altered in themselves? or are there two sorts of heating effect emanat-
ing from it at the same time? These are the questions which my
experiments were directed to answer, and the mode of trying the
point is extremely simple; it is only to ascertain whether of the total
heating effect from a luminous hot body, the portion intercepted by a
transparent screen is of the same nature as, or different from, the
part transmitted, in its relation to the surfaces on which it acts.
The experiments were conducted simply by having two thermome-
ters, one coated with smooth black, the other with absorptive white,
observing the ratio of the effects when they were exposed together
316 RADIANT HEAT.
to the direct influence of a luminous hot body, and comparing it with
the ratio similarly observed when a glass screen was interposed.
The screen acquiring, and therefore radiating, heat from the first
moment of the experiment, will affect the thermometers in a ratio (as
before observed) differing little from equality; and these equal quan-
tities added to the ont of the ratio of the direct effects of the
luminous body, will, of course, diminish the inequality of that ratio.
This cause of error may not have operated to any great degree, but
its tendency is obviously to a diminution of the ratio.
Notwithstanding this, the observed result in all cases with a lamp,
or with iron raised to a bright red heat, was, that the ratio of the
effect on the black to that on the white thermometer was increased by
the interposition of theggereen.
A summary of the results of two sets of experiments, (conducted
with some slight variation,) and in the second of which the tempera-
ture acquired by the screen was carefully noted, is as follows
Rise of thermometer (centig.) in 1 min.
Glass screen. No screen.
Tron bright hot (9) 9g vos. 1 25s cs 2 O50 8B
Mewlompe ed ak ae ee
These numbers are the means of several repetitions.
The necessary conclusion from ghis difference in the ratio of the
direct and screened effects is, that the portion of heat which has the
property of permeating the screen, has also the property of affecting
the two surfaces in a ratio different from that in which the part tnter-
cepted acts upon them.
As in researches of this kind great numerical precision is unattain-
able, I was especially, at every step of the inquiry, anxious to devise
as many variations of the experiment as possible; these all tended to
confirm the results just given.
Thus I used a large differential thermometer having its bulbs dif-
ferently coated, and exposed each of them in turn to the luminous source
of heat, the other being completely screened, and invariably found
the ratio of the effects on the black and white bulbs considerably
greater when affected only by the transmissible part of the heat than
when exposed to the whole. As before, the part added on the remo-
val of the screen was of a nature tending to add to the terms of the
former ratio quantities in a ratio much nearer equality, viz: that which
the effects of simple radiant heat would give when acting respectively
on the two bulbs.
Other variations of the fundamental experiment were as follows:
A differential thermometer having one bulb black was exposed to
the radiation from luminous hot bodies, first with and then without
the interposition of a glass screen, the same position being preserved.
If the screen had no influence, it is evident that in whatever pro-
RADIANT HEAT. aa
portion the radiant matter affects the two bulbs, if it be of one simple
kind, the only difference on removing the screen will be that its
intensity will be increased, but will act on the two bulbs in the same
proportion as before. Consequently an increase of effect, or motion
of the liquid in the tube in the same direction as before, must take
place.
In various experiments of this kind, after using several precautions
against the influence of the screen, I never found an increase, and gene-
rally « decrease; that is, the action on the other bulb was now in-
creased, or the portion of heat before intercepted and now admitted
has a different relation to surfaces from that transmitted.—( Quarterly
Journal of Science, xix, p. 45.)
Similar experiments were tried with the t&vo bulbs in a direct line
from the hot body, each placed nearest alternately, with and without
ascreen. The difference of ratios in the two cases was very striking.
—(Annals of Phil., June, 1825, p. 401. See, also, Ldinburg Journal
of Science, No. IV, 323.)
Upon the whole, the unavoidable conclusion is, that if the total
direct effect were the result of one simple agent, the intervention of
the glass would, by intercepting some portion of it, produce no other
alteration than a diminution of intensity; the ratio ot the two effects
would remain unchanged. But the reverse being the case, it follows
that there are two distinct agents or species of heat acting together.
Upon combining these results with those of previous experimenters,
we are led to the following general statement of the case:
When a body is heated, at lower temperatures, it gives off radiant
heat stopped entirely by the most ee ‘ent glass, and affecting bodies
in proportion to the absorptive texture of their surfaces.
At all higher temperatures it continues to give off such radiant heat,
distinguished by exactly the same properties.
At a certain temperature it begins to give out light; precisely at
this point it begins also to exercise another heating power distinct
from the former; this is capable of direct transmission through glass,
and affects bodies in proportion to their darkness of color.
This second species appears to agree with what the French philos-
ophers have called ‘‘ calorique lumineux,’’ or the ‘‘igneous fluid’’ of
Professor Leslie, but they seem to have considered it as constituting
the entire effect.
The distinction thus established easily applies to the explanation
of De la Roche’s results, before stated. On inspection, it appears that
the numbers in the column belonging to the blackened screen are
almost exactly in the same ratio to the first or direct effect through-
out the whole series.
Upon the principle here laid down, the effects with the blackened
screen would be those arising from the absorption and subsequent
radiation of both species of heat; these in each: instance being ab-
sorbed in the proportions in which they existed in the original radia-
tion, produce a secondary effect proportional to the primary.
The effect with the transparent screen does not follow any propor-
tion to the primary; and this is explicable as due to the glass inter-
318 RADIANT HEAT.
cepting the one kind of heat which follows no proportion to the other,
this last being wholly transmitted. Also by comparison of the
latter experiments with the two first of the series, it is probable that,
throughout, a certain degree of heat was in this case also absorbed
and radiated again by the screen.
The existence of this distinction, and the proportion between the
two species of heat in the radiation from different sources, as various
kinds of flame, metal at successive stages of incandescence, &c.,
afford many topics of inquiry, on some of which I attempted some
rough determinations, confessedly very imperfect.—(Annals of Phil.,
N.S. lui, 359; liv, 401.) The distinction applies to some results of
Mr. Brande on the flames of different gases, (Phil. Trans., 1820, Part
I, p. 22,) and of Count Rumford on increased intensity of combustion
and on the coalescing of several flames.—(Lssays, 1, 304.)
T.) Melloni states (Ann. de Chim., December, 1831, p. 385,) that
by using his thermo-multiplier he has found the permeability of trans-
parent bodies to heat to be also dependent on their refractive power.
He has compared twenty such media, and finds the order of permea-
bility constantly the same, whatever be the temperature of the source.
Chloruret of sulphur has the greatest power, oil next, and water least;
he exposed them to the rays of a candle, an Argand lamp, or the sun.
He finds the differences of permeability less, the higher the tempera-
ture. The full account is promised in another memoir.
All this obviously applies only to luminous hot bodies.
MM. Melloni and Nobili, in their former paper, (Annales de Chimie,
October, 1831) p. 211,) also Spey the heat from phosphorus hav-
ing been by these means found sensible, though it is often supposed
to give light without heat.
8.) For information on various points connected with the subject,
and on the theories of the evolution of light and heat, the following
references may be useful:
Wedgewood (Phil. Trans., 1792, p. 28) thinks that light from
attrition is produced by a heat of from 400° to 600° Fahrenheit.
Dizé on Heat as the Cause of Shining.—(Journ. de Phys., xlix, 117.
Gilbert, Ann. iv, 410.)
Fordyce on Light from Inflammation.—(Phil. Trans., 1776, p. 504.
Morgan, Phil. Trans., 1785, p. 190. M. Hermstaedt, Nicholson’ s
Quarto Journal, v, 187.)
Mr. Davies on Flame.—(Annals of Phil., December, 1825.)
Mr. Deuchar on Flame.—( Edinb. Phil. Journal, iv, 374.)
M. Seguin on Heat and Motion, &¢.—(Hdinb. Journ. of Science, xx,
280.)
Dryviston III.
HEAT OF THE SUN’S RAYS.
®
Speaking according to our ordinary sensations, we are accustomed
to say that the sun communicates both light andheat. Light is trans.
mitted in a way which we term radiation. The heat from non-lum1
RADIANT HEAT. 319
nous hot bodies is transmitted to a distance in a way closely analogous,
and to which the same name has been applied.
In the first instance, we might suppose that the sun sends out two
separate emanations—one of light, and another distinct from it, and
similar to that of radiant heat from a mass of hot water; and this,
perhaps, was the first view taken of the subject, though a confused
idea of some very close and intimate connexion subsisting between
the solar ight and heat appears to have prevailed.
This subject, as might naturally be expected, attracted the early
notice of experimenters. A very slight examination sufficed to show
that the rays of solar heat, (whi atever their nature might be,) differed
essentially in many properties from those of terrestrial heat, whether
radiated from Juminous or non-luminous bodies. Whether there ex-
isted a separate set of heating rays distinct from those of light, and
at the same time differing in many respects from rays of terrestrial
heat; or whether these differences depended on some unknown prop-
erty of the rays of light, was a question which for a long time remained
without any direct investigation, and on which even now we have,
perhaps, no very precise ideas. ;
I.—Solar rays in their natural state.
a.) Nature of radiation.
1.) The solar heat is transmitted through the air without heating it.
It invariably accompanies the H&ht.
Scheele conceived that the sun’s rays of light produced heat not
when in motion but when stopped by the interposition of solid bodies.
—(On Air and Fire, &c.)
Mr. Melville seems to have adopted nearly the same theory, and to
have conceived reflection at an opaque surface to be the cause of an
excitation of heat from the sun’s rays.—(Hvans on the Calorific Rays,
&c., Phil. Mag., June, 1815.)
In general, for light of the same composition the heat appears
nearly proportional to the illuminating intensity.
2.) Measures of radiation.
Theory of the sensibility of thermometers especially for experiments
of this kind.—(Sir W. Herschel, Phil. T'rans., 1800, Note, p. 447.)
Leslie contends for the exact proportionality of intensity of light
and heating power.—(/nquiry, pp. 160 and 408.)
Theory and construction of his ‘‘ Photometer,’’ ch. xix, p. 403.
Ritchie’s ‘‘ Photometer,’’ of the same kind.—(Phil. Trans., 1825
Part I, p. 141.) See his Remarks on Leslie’s Photometer, Ldinb.
Journ. of Science, No. IV, 321, and V, 104.
Mr. Daniell, in his work on Meteorology, has collected a great
number of observations on the heating power of the sun’s rays in dif-
ferent latitudes from the polar to the equatorial regions. Most of
these observations were made by comparing two thermometers, one
of which was kept in the shade, whilst the other, having its bulb
320 RADIANT HEAT.
blackened, was exposed to the direct rays of the sun; but, as Dr.
Ritchie observes, no correction seems to have been made for the
variable causes which abstract caloric from the blackened ball of the
exposed thermometer. —(Kdinb. Journ. of Science, v, 107.)
In the same paper is described the method proposed by Sir J. F.
W. Herschel; his object was to ascertain, by direct experiment, the
relative heating power of the sun’s rays; this he did by exposing in
a glass vessel, or large thermometer, at different times and places,
a dleep blue liquid, for a given time, to the direct rays of the sun,
noting the increase of temperature, which was purposely rendered
very small by properly adjusting the capacity of the instrument, then
shading the sun’s direct rays, and leaving it exposed for an equal
time to the free influence of all the other heating and cooling causes,
radiation, conduction, wind, &c., and again noting the effect of these.
The same difference of these, according to their signs, was the effect
of the mere solar radiation. Dividing “this by the time of exposure,
he had the momentary effect or differential co-efficient, which is the
true measure of the intensity of radiation. :
Professor Cumming has been engaged in researches, the object of
which was to obtain a measure of the ‘total heating effect of the sun’s
rays. He has communicated for this report an account of his inves-
tigations, of which the following is the substance.
His instrument consists of a bent tube in the form Q, one side ter-
minating in a black bulb containing ether, or sulphuret of carbon; the
other a graduated tube closed at the bottom; into this, on exposure
to the sun, some of the liquid is distilled over from the bulb; and the
quantity measured on the scale gaptid ove: to the amount of radia-
tion, when all interfering causes are allowed for; and these are esti-
mated by comparative observations.
The experiments have been varied by exposing the bulb and
screening the other part, or by exposing the whole instrument equally
to the sun; and by*making contemporaneous observations with the in-
strument wholly incovered, or covered totally or partially by a glass
to protect it from currents of air.
The Professor has endeavored to make a standard scale by regis-
tering the sun’s radiation on clear days every half hour, or hour, in
the usual manner, and comparing them with the contemporary distil-
lation; or by placing the two sides of the instrument in two vessels of
water at unequal temperatures, and noting the distillations in given
times by ascertained differences of temperature.
The instrument is filled with ether in the same manner as Wollas-
ton’s Cryophorus (from which the sug gestion was taken;) but there
is an inconvenience, arising from the circumstance of the difference
of pressure under which the instrument is herme stically sealed, which
renders two instruments not strictly comparable; this he proposes to
remedy by sealing a standard instrument when exhausted to a known
pressure by the air pump.
The ether or sulphuret of carbon employed must be perteetle pure,
or there is a re-absorption. The circumstance of being exposed to
the air, or covered, makes great differences in the indications ;
RADIANT HEAT. Syl
especially in windy weather. To avoid an inconveniently long scale,
there should be two instruments constructed, one for winter and the
other for summer. The Professor has kept for nearly a year a regis-
ter of sunshine.
b.) Reflection of solar heat.
1.) It takes place exactly by the same laws as that of the light.
The heat is collected in the focus of concave reflectors along with
‘the light.
2.) The sun’s rays reflected from the moon are probably much too
feeble to allow of any heat being made sensible.
Dr. Howard, however, states that, with a peculiar differential ther-
mometer, he has obtained an effect.—(Siliman’s American Journal, vol.
329.)
MM. Melloniand Nobili (with the apparatus before described) tried
to detect heat in the moon’s rays, but without success; they mention,
however, that terrestrial radiation interferes greatly with such exper-
iments, and do not describe fully their contrivances for obviating this
cause of error.—(Ann. de Chimie, Oct., 1831, p. 210.)
3.) Berard (memoir before cited) tried the polarization of the solar
heat; that is, polarized the sun’s light; and in the position of non-
reflection found that the heat had disappeared with it.—(See Ldinb.
Journ. of Science, vi, 297.)
c.) Under this head nothing known.
d.) Effect of surface on the absorption of solar heat.
1.) I am not aware of any experiments directly showing how far the
same relation to the texture of surfaces which has been found in ab-
sorption of simple heat may hold good in regard'to the sun’s rays.
But for surfaces of the same texture it has been ‘incontrovertibly estab-
lished that the effect in this case increases in proportion to the dark-
ness of color, or in proportion to the absorption of light; and it would
seem most probable that this relation is the only one which really
holds good, the texture of the surface being probably quite indifferent
except so far as it tends to the better absorption of the light.
2.) Among the earliest experiments on the subject, if not actually
the first, were those of Mr. Boyle, on the different degrees of heat
communicated by the sun to black, white, and red colored surfaces.
He caused a large block of black marble to be ground into the form
of a spherical concave speculum, and found that the sun’s rays reflected
from it were far from being too powerful for his eyes, as would have
been the case had it been of any other color; and although its size was
considerable, yet he could not set a piece of wood on fire with it,
whereas a far less speculum of the same form, made out of a more
reflecting substance, would presently have made it inflame.
It was remarked by Scheele that the thermometer, when filled with
alcohol of a deep red color, rose more rapidly when exposed to the
21
Bu RADIANT HEAT.
sun’s rays than another filled with the same kind of spirit uncolored;
but that the fluid rose equally in both when dipped together into the
same vessel of warm water.—(On Air and Fire, &c.)
Dr. Franklin found that the hand, when applied alternately to a
black and to a white part of his dress in the sun, would feel a great,
difference in their warmth.
He observed that black paper was sooner fired by exposure to the
focus of a lens than white.
His well known experiment of placing differently colored pieces of
cloth on the snow in the sun, and observing them sink deeper in pro-
portion to the darkness of color, was first suggested by Dr. Hooke.
3.) Cavallo observed that a thermometer, with its bulb blackened,
stands higher than one which had its bulb clear when exposed to the
light of the sun, or even of the clouds.—(Phil. Trans., 1780.)
“Pictet made a similar observation, observing that when the two
thermometers remained for some time in a dark place they acquired
precisely the same height. He also found that when they had both
been raised to a certain point, the clean one fell much faster than the
coated one.—(Sur le Feu, ch. iv. Thomson, i, 126.) This last state-
ment is so contrary to all other experiments that we must suppose
some mistake.
De Saussure received the sun’s rays into a box lined with charred
cork, containing a thermometer with a glass front; it uae ina few
minntes to 221°, when the temperature of the air was 75 —( Voyages,
ilps Deer)
Professor Robison, in a similayexperiment, Sahin three vessels
of flint glass within each other at one-third of an inch distance, set on
a base of charred cork, and placed on down in a pasteboard cylinder;
the thermometer within, in clear sunshine, rose to 230°, and once to
237°.—(Black’s Lect. 1, 5A. Thomson, 1, 127.)
Sir H. Davy took several small disks of copper of equal weight, size,
and figure, on one side painted respectively white, yellow, red, green,
blue, and black. A mixture of oil and wax, which became liquid at
a temperature of 76° Fahr., was attached to the other surface of each
disk ; and on exposing the colored surfaces together to the sun’s rays,
the length of time elapsed before the mixture on each began to be
affected was in the order in which they are above enumerated.—(Bed-
doe’s Medical Contributions, p. 44.)
4.) The experiments of Sir E. Home (Phil. Zrans., 1821, Part I,)
are particularly deserving of attention, as exhibiting what might at
first sight be considered an exception to the above remarks a greater
effect being produced in some instances on a white than on a black
surface. A more attentive examination, however, will show us that
these experiments prove thus much: The heat occasioned by the
rays of the sun when received directly, or when in some degree inter-
cepted, as by thin white cloth, on the skin, is greater than that com-
municated by conduction to the same skin through a black cloth in
contact with it, which is itself, in the first instance, heated by absorb-
ing the rays.
He observes, also, that a white skin is scorched, and that of a negro
RADIANT HEAT. ove
is not, in 10 minutes, by the direct rays of the sun; that is, as before,
the outer coat of the skin allows some of the direct rays to pass through
and affect the sentient substance beneath; whereas, in the case of the
black, the rays are absorbed and converted into heat of temperature,
which diffuses itself equally, and does not produce the effect of
scorching.
5.) The most singular facts connected with the absorption of the
sun’s rays, are those exhibited by the substances called ‘‘ phosphori’’
; ‘pyrophori.’? —(Thomson’s Chem. i, 17.)
The general fact is, that after exposure to the sun, on being
removed into the dark they give out light, but it is after a time
exhausted; it is given out more copiously and exhausted sooner if
heat be applied. Many solar phosphori will always emit light of one
color only, to whatever colored ray they may have been exposed.
Thateey chert notice given by Dr. Young, in his valuable Catalogue of
Authors, it appears that M. Grosser found that such phosphori as
emitted red hght only were made to shine most by exposure to blue
hight. — (Lozer Risxexe 270.)
“Beccari, in a memoir ‘‘de Phosphoris,’’ extracted in the Phil.
Trans., 1 146, p- 81, gives as one of his results, that the light emitted
was brightest when the surface of the mass was of a rough texture;
those which were smooth and polished retained little or none, but
(supposing the color the same) a rougher surface would evidently
absorb more light than a smooth one, and therefore might emit more.
Mr. T. Wedgewood compared two pieces of phosphorescent marble,
one naked, the other painted black; on applying uniform heat the
coated marble gave out no light, though the other did.—(Piil. Trans.,
1792.)
But the coating increased the radiating power, and it therefore
probably did not retain heat enough to cause the extrication of light.
Mr. Morgan, (Pil. Trans., 1785,) after examining many of the
phenomena of phosphorescence, generalizes his views by maintaining
that all phosphori emit light, proceeding in order from violet to red,
in proportion as the process is effected by the application of an in-
creasing degree of heat.
This is a very curious subject, as connected with the whole theory
of the relations of light and heat. Some valuable information might
probably be obtained as to the degree of heat necessary, and whether
there is any loss of heat when light is evolved, compared with cases
when no light is evolved; as there should be, on the hypothesis of
conversion of heat into light, or on that of heat becoming latent in
the light.
In Mr. Wedgewood’s paper, above cited, is an account of the prin-
cipal researches on the subject.
1)
e.) Lffect of screens.
1.) That no diminution of the effect of the sun’s rays on a blackened
thermometer is occasioned by a transparent screen was remarked by
several experimenters, particularly De la Roche.—(Diot, iv, 611.)
324 RADIANT HEAT.
2.) I tried the point by two thermometers (as in the case of terres-
trial heat) and found no perceptible difference in the ratio, with and
without the screen, of the black and white thermometers.—(Annals of
Phils) xii 3202)
The same result was found with a differential thermometer, with a
glass screen over the bulb, which was not blackened. No difference
was observable between ane indication under these circumstances,
and when both were exposed.—(Annals of Phil., xiii, 401.)
Hence, I think we are entitled to conclude that there does not exist
in the solar beam, in its natural state, any simple radiant heat, (as
before defined;) but that the whole emanation consists of the other
species, distinguished by the two characteristics of affecting sub-
stances with heat in proportion to the darkness of their color, and
being wholly transmissible through glass without heating it, and in-
separable from the rays of light.
This applies to the rays of the sun which come within the reach of
our examination. It must, however, be admitted, as by no means
improbable, that the sun may originally give out a separate radiation
of simple heat. None of this kind reaches us; but we must consider
the very different degree in which any medium, as air, absorbs or
intercepts the passage of those two sorts of radiant agents. The heat
from a hot body will not be perceptible at a short distance, while its
light will traverse an amazing extent of length; and thus at different
distances the ratio between the two sorts of heating effect will be
very different. Some degree of simple heat, therefore, may actually
be initially radiated by the sun and be lost before it reaches us. We
do not know that there is : any medium between the different parts of
the solar system capable of absorbing heat. The highest regions of
our atmosphere into which observation has penetrated are uniformly
the coldest; but they are known to have a greater capacity for heat.
Thus, though it is possible that some heat may reach to that distance
and be absorbed without becoming sensible to us, its quantity must
be very small; if, therefore, we suppose any simple heat to be initially
radiated Bao, the sun, it must be all, or nearly all, absorbed by some
parts or appendages of that luminary exterior to the part where it
is generated.
3.) The concentration of the sun’s heat by a lens is a familiar experi-
ment.
Sir W. Herschel (Phil. Trans., 1800, Exp. 25) concludes that there
is a focus of greatest heat farther from the lens than that of light;
sealing-wax was scorched in the same time when in the luminous
focus, “and at half an inch further from the lens; this affords no proof
of its being separated from the light.
That the heat is found to accompany the rays of light in the most
constant and inseparable manner through various refractions, as in
the instance of the four lenses in the eye-piece of a telescope after
reflection, is also remarked by Sir W. Herschel, (Phil. Trans., 1800,
Exp. 11)
RADIANT HEAT. 325
II.—Solar rays subjected to analysis by the prism.
1.) The different heating powers belonging to different parts of the
spectrum were probably first observed by the Abbé Rochon.—(Phil.
Mag., June, 1815; and Biot, T'raité de Phys., iv.,600.) He found the
maximum in the yellow-orange rays: the prism was of flint glass: his
thermometer was filled with spirits, probably therefore tinged red ;
this may account for his result.
1 tried some experiments. with the bulb of the thermometer painted
red, which appeared to agree with his result.—(Annals of Phil., li,
201.)
Professor Leslie applied his ‘‘ photometer’’ to these experiments.—
(Inquiry, p. 454.)
Dr. Hutton observed the different heating powers, and that they
are not proportional to the illuminating.—(Diss. on Light and Heat,
p. 38.)
Landriani found the maximum in the yellow rays, as also did Sene-
bier.—(Volta, Lettere, &c., 136.)
Berard (Mém d’ Arcueil, iii; Ann. de Chimie, \xxxv, 309) repeated
the experiment with a heliostat. He found the maximum in the red,
but some heat beyond. He repeated the experiment in both the
spectra formed by Iceland spar.
2.) Sir W. Herschel (Phil. Trans., 1800, Part IT) first observed the
maximum of heat beyond the red end of the visible spectrum, and
considered the effect as due to essentially invisible rays of a separate
kind from those of light.
Yet he found them subject to the same laws of refraction, and
their dispersion corrected by another prism: they were concentrated
by a lens (Ibid., p. 317,) and by reflection (pp. 298, 302.)
Leslie objects to the conclusion of invisible rays, and tries to
account for it as owing to an optical cause.—(Inquiry, Note, p. 559;
see also Nicholson's Journal, 4to, iv, 3844 and 416.)
Sir H. Englefield (Nicholson’s Journal, iii, 125,) found heat beyond
the visible red; it does not appear whether it was there at a maxi-
mum: the rays were such as to be concentrated by a lens, and he
compared the effects on a black and white bulb. The exterior effect
on the white bulb was in a much less ratio to that within the visible
spectrum than on the black.
Sir H. Davy repeated these experiments in the clear atmosphere
of Italy, and with thermometers of extremely minute size, to secure
an instantaneous effect: he found the maximum beyond the red.
These experiments were also tried by Ritter and by Professor
Wiinsch (Magazin der Gesellsch, &c., Berlin, 1807.) He used prisms
of different substances; with alcohol, oil of turpentine, and water, the
maximum was in the yellow; with green glass in the red; and with
yellow glass on the extreme boundary.
3.) But by far the most important and conclusive researches on this
subject are those of Dr. Seebeck, who in a memoir read to the Royal
Academy of Berlin, after discussing the conclusions and views of pre-
vious experimenters, proceeds to an elaborate series of experiments
326 RADIANT HEAT.
of his own, in which he has discovered the cause of all their discrep-
ancies. The position of the maximum heat in the spectrum depends
entirely on the nature of the medium employed—a circumstance
almost wholly unnoticed by former experimenters.
The heating intensity is very small towards the violet extremity;
it thence gradually increases in prisms of water, alcohol, or oil of tur-
pentine; the maximum is in the yellow space: in those of solution of
sal-ammoniac and corrosive sublimate, or sulphuric acid, it is in the
orange; in crown glass and common white ‘glass, in the middle of the
red; in those glasses which contain much lead, it is in the limit of the
red; and in flint glass, beyond the visible boundary, but nearer to it
with Bohemian than with English glass. In all cases it gradually
diminishes from the maximum, and is perceptible to some distance
beyond the visible boundary.—(Schweigger’s Neues. Journ., x, 129.
Annals of Phil., Sept., 1824; Abhandl. der Kénigk. Acad. Wissenschaf-
ten in Berlin, 181819, p. 305; Phil. Mag., Nov. and Dec., 1825;
Edinb. Journ. of Science, No. I, 358.)
4.) Analysis of the solar rays by the absorption of media.
In respect to light, the remarkable variety in the absorption of dif-
ferent rays exhibited by different media has been well established,
and affords a new sort of analysis of light.
In regard to the solar heat, similar researches have been made,
though as yet to little extent. The first observations of the kind
were those of Sir W. Herschel (Phil. Trans., 1800.) He found the
absorption of several kinds of glass for his invisible rays and for the
middle red to be proportional to the following numbers out of 1,000
rays incident:
Invisible rays. Red rays.
Flint Glasser ee vee ce eee eee OOO e cee ee cere eee ee 143
Coach Oasys reese cece ee ee TAB. ee ee cree oe ees 200
(Olam ales a too gdp ola mike igeeaigeeamuc ees S204
Dark red glass+---+------+-000.---.--.----~+-.692
5.) Sir D. Brewster has lately been engaged in some researches on
this subject, an abstract of which he has kindly communicated in
Reaccrbt for this report. Agreeably to the view he has established
of the scolar prismatic spectrum as consisting of spectra of three primary
colors superposed, and having their maxima at different points, he re-
gards the heating power as due, in like manner, to another primary
specirum superposed in the same way, and similarly the chemical rays.
He makes the following statements with respect to the heating rays:
ist. Therevis no proof whatever of the existence of invisible rays
of any kind beyond the red or the blue extremity of the spectrum.
Sir W. Herschel’s experiments prove the existence of heat beyond
the visible extremity of the spectrum which he used, but Sir D. Brewster
has succeeded in rendering the spectrum visible at every point where
any heat was produced.
By particular processes he has traced the light at that end greatly
beyond the place where Frauenhofer makes the spectrum terminate.
RADIANT HEAT. Sie
The same he considers established in regard to the blue end of the
spectrum and of the deoxidizing rays. He thinks it extremely probable
that the heating and illuminating rays are different rays, but they have
never yet been found ina state. “of complete separation.
2d. Until it is proved, therefore, or rendered probable, that the
same intensity of light of different colors, as it proceeds directly from
the sun, is accompanied with different degrees of heat, we must
assume it as true that the heating power is proportional to the illumi-
nating power of the different rays of solar light.
3d. It appears from Dr. Seebeck’s experiments on the water
spectrum, that this relation holds generally in it, as he found the
maximum of heat to be in the yellow. rays, or coincident with the maai-
mum of light. Hence Sir D. Brewster draws the important conclusion
that water has the same degree of transparency for the solar heating rays
that it has for light, which is the same as all colorless transparent media
have for light; that is, water absorbs equally all the different rays of
solar heat in the same manner as it does all the different rays of solar
light.
4th. It has been found by experiment that with prisms of crown
glass the maximum heating effect is in the middle of the red space.
Unfortunately the relation between the maximum heat in the water
spectrum and in the crown glass spectrum has not been ascertained.
If we suppose them equal, it appears that the crown glass must have
exercised a greater absorptive action than the water upon the more
refrangible rays, and a less absorptive action upon the less refrangible
rays, 1a the same manner as is done by red glasses upon light.
A prism of sulphuric acid gives the maximum ordinate ‘of heat in
the orange space, or the fluid Alnsonte more of the red rays than crown
glass, and less of the rays on the other side of the orange
In flint glass, where the maximum heat is at the very ‘ext? emity of
the spectrum, scarcely any of the red rays are absorbed, while great
proportions of all the others are.
Dr. Turner (Chem., p. 84, 3d edit.) says that it is difficult to account
for Seebeck’s results, without supposing that different media differ in
their power of refracting caloric, (7. e., the heating rays of the sun.)
Sir D. Brewster considers that the true explanation is that which
the above principles afford, viz: that colorless transparent bodies, in
acting upon the solar heat, exercise the same sort of absorptive action
upon it that colored transparent bodies do upon light, the maximum
ordinate shifting its position with the nature of the body. Colored
media give sometimes two or more maxima of light, with large spaces
and small lines entirely defective of light, in consequence of the ab-
sorption being total at those places.
In like manner he is persuaded it will be found that there are de-
fective spaces and lines in the spectrum of solar heat; these he thinks
may possibly be detected by using as thermometers the minute natural
cavities in topaz, &c., filled with fluid or vapor, and not more than
0.001 inch in magnitude.
5th. These views are exactly accordant with the results of Sir W.
Herschel above stated.
328 RADIANT HEAT.
They are equally consistent with the facts, whether the curve of
heat terminate abruptly at the extremity of the red space, or continue
beyond the visible spectrum.
Sir D. Brewster has, by particular methods of condensation, suo-
ceeded in detecting both heat and light at considerable distances
beyond the maximum of heat with a flint glass prism, that is, rays
undergoing very little refraction.
He considers it highly probable that the deoxidizing rays will be
found to be subject to the same laws of absorption as those of heat and
light; the media we commonly use may absorb them copiously, whilst
others may be found which may transmit them more abundantly.
Similarly with the magnetizing rays. And thus we may account
for the contradictory results hitherto obtained on this point by sup-
posing that some ingredient rendered one prism absorptive of these
rays, and another not so.
6th. Sir D. Brewster extends these views to the analogies between
solar and terrestrial heat.
He considers those rays ef the solar spectrum just mentioned, which
undergo little refraction, to be analogous to those thrown off by bodies
slightly heated. The waves of heat are broad and slow in their
motion; as the temperature is raised they are thrown off with more
velocity, and become smaller and suffer a greater refraction. When
the velocity is such as to give them a refraction equal to that of the
red rays, then red hight is produced; and successively the other colors
are added, till at a very high temperature white light is radiated.
He proposes to examine what transparent body transmits most heat,
and, by converting it into a lens, expects to find a series of foci at
different distances, beginning from that of the violet rays to that of
those corresponding to rays of very little refrangibility.
Tth. He applies these views as affording an explanation of De la
Roche’s result before mentioned, viz: that a second screen intercepts
a much smaller proportion of the heat after passing a first than the
first did of the whole effect. This De la Roche ascribed to something
analogous to polarization.
On the principle just stated the explanation is very simple. The
first plate intercepts those rays which it has a tendency to absorb,
and transmits the rest; the second, being of the same kind, of course
will transmit these with scarcely any further diminution.
He observes that thick masses of colorless fluid or of glass transmit
scarcely any radiant heat in a way analogous to that in which thick
masses of colored glass are opaque to all rays of light.
He conceives that substances may be found w hich are opaque to light,
and yet transparent to heat. These should be carefully sought for,
as they would be of great practical value. Red glass, for example,
which scarcely itanetnite any light, or one ray in 2,000, transmits all
the invisible rays of Herschel, “692 of the 1,000 red rays, 606 rays
out of 1,000 of solar heat, and 630 of ‘‘culinary’’ heat, according to
Sir W. Herschel. We may expect, therefore, to find an opaque me-
tallic glass, or thin plate of metal, which, though quite — for
light, may transmit heat copiously.
RADIANT HEAT. 329
Sir D. Brewster considers Sir W. Herschel’s experiment on the
refraction of ‘culinary’? heat by lenses to be very unsatisfactory, as
before noticed. He recommends a lens composed of zones, so as to
have no greater thickness in the middle than towards the edges, a
construction which he has described in his ‘‘ Optics,’’ p. 322, (Cabinet
Encyclopedia, ) and made of glass, which unites the highest refractive
power with the smallest absorptive power for heat.
It is also important to find, as sources of heat, bodies which do not
become luminous till at extremely high temperatures.
6.) The researches of M. Melloni have also been extended to this
part of the subject.—(Annales de Chimie, December, 1831, p. 388.)
From known observations on the spectrum, he remarks that there
exists, on opposite sides of the maximum, isothermal points—one in a
colored part, the other without the red end of the spectrum.
On causing the different rays to pass through a plate of water, and
noting the effect on the thermo-multiplier, the heat of the violet ray
was undiminished, but its isothermal totally intercepted.
That of the indigo slightly diminished; its isothermal not totally
intercepted.
Proceeding in this way with the other rays, he found in general
that the portions of heating power intercepted in the colored rays,
and those which are transmitted in their isothermal rays, increase in
proportion as they approach the position of the maximum, where, of
course, upon the whole, the interception is greatest; or, in other
words, the rays of the calorific spectrum undergo an interception by
water in proportion as their refrangibility is less.
He gives a table of the numerical results. He views his results as
precisely according with and explaining those of Seebeck. With a
water prism the heating orange and red rays are more intercepted
than the yellow; in this, therefore, the maximum appears.
Conclusion.
We have thus far taken as close a survey as is consistent with the
limits of a report like the present, of the successive and varied re-
searches which have been made with the view of tracing the laws of
radiant heat. In the present state of our knowledge it must, upon
the whole, be avowed that we have little to contemplate but an
assemblage of facts, or alleged facts, determined with more or less
accuracy; few, indeed, with any great precision—many resting upon
very vague evidence, and in several instances the results of different
observers exhibiting a wide discrepancy, or even direct contradiction;
whilst, with very few exceptions, any general laws can hardly be said
to be established with that certainty which can substantiate their
claim to be received as legitimate physical theories.
In offering suggestions for the advance and improvement of this
branch of science, the first and most essential point to which atten-
tion ought to be directed is the improvement, or rather invention, of
the means of obtaining accurate indications of radiant heat down to
its most minute and feeble effects. In reference to this point good
330 RADIANT HEAT.
determinations are much wanted of the degree to which the expan-
sion of the bulb influences the accuracy of air thermometers. The
improvement of mercurial thermometers so as to produce an instrument
of extreme sensibility to the minutest effects of heat, is an object the
attainment of which would probably be more important than that of
any other means for accomplishing the end in view. But other
methods, founded on good principles, should be diligently sought for
and tried; for example, it might be matter of inquiry whether we
could render available to this purpose the incipient melting or soft-
ening of some substances by a very slight increase of heat, or the
evaporation of volatile liquids.
But it is more particularly desirable that the instrument of MM,
Nobili and Melloni should be tried, and a precise examination set on
foot of its real accuracy and the causes of error to whose influence it
may be lable. This is the more necessary from the very remarkable
character of many of their results, whilst the alleged sensibility of
the instrument, as they describe it, is such as almost to exceed belief.
When we shall have succeeded in obtaining that prime requisite,
an unexceptionable measure of minute effects of radiant heat, we may
then proceed with some hopes of success to examine the points on
which there at present prevails so wide a discrepancy between differ-
ent experimenters.
The polarization of heat is, perhaps, the question which, of all
others, requires the most extreme sensibility in our thermometer, or
rather thermoscope, in order to its satisfactory determination. It may
be tried, either directly, with the simple heat from non-luminous hot
bodies, or with luminous sources, with and without a glass screen,
comparing the total compound result with that due to the transmis-
sible part, or heating power of light alone, and thence deducing the
part due to simple heat. .The main difficulty is that of « getting any
indication at all, after two reflections from plane surfaces.
Another point which requires further investigation is the apparent
transmission of simple heat through very thin transparent screens,
but not through opaque. This should be examined in connexion with
the acute remark of MM. Nobili and Melloni, that a thin stratum of soot
may retain its low conducting power, and thus intercept the effect.
This, of itself, would form a subject for an accurate series of experi-
ments, viz: whether the ratios of the conducting powers of substances
remain the same for all thicknesses.
The very nature of the transmissive and interceptive powers of
screens is little understood. Supposing simple heat transmitted with-
out diminution, how far is the mode of such transmission analogous
to that of light? what time is required for a body to commence ra-
diating heat after it has begun to acquire it? whether it acquires it
from a distant source instantaneously? how the heat distributes itself
upon or through a screen? what is precisely. the effect of a coating
on one side of the screen in relation to the last question? upon what
the singular exceptions and anomalies pointed out by Melloni and
Nobili depend? whether any other such apparently anomalous cases
can be found? These are a few of the most obvious questions which
RADIANT HEAT. Jou
arise out of the slightest survey of the present state of our knowl-
edge, and on which accurate determinations are wanted before we
can be said to possess even the elements of a scientific theory.
May it not be the law that if a body be placed in the rays from a
source of heat it will be acquiring and giving out heat till the inten-
sity of radiation at the points before and behind it resumes its original
proportionality ?
The time in which this takes place will depend on the extent of the
body, tts thickness, its conducting power, tts capacity for heat, and the
stale of both rts surfaces.
These may be such that the effect may be sensibly instantaneous,
and the radiation therefor appear to go on without interruption. In
this case, also, the distance of the screen from the source (within
moderate limits) may make no sensible difference, though if any of
the above circumstances retard the effect to a sensible amount, then
there will be a difference with the variation of distance. In this way
we may, as it were, regard the medium between the souree and the
thermometer as merely a compound, of which the screen is one por-
tion and the air the other.
Another class of questions respecting which little, if anything, is
accurately known may be put with regard to the nilogiacaton (if any)
which radiant heat may undergo in passing through small apertures.
This will again be connected with the interceptive power of net-work.
A very curious and delicate subject of inquiry is the repulsion exerted
between heated bodies at sensible distances, of which a short notice
is given in the Quarterly Journal of Science, xxxix, 164.
The reflection of heat has been little examined, except in the single
case of its concentration by spherical reflectors; and here (according
to Leshe) it is not brought to the same focus as light; this requires
examination, as well as the simpler case of plane fares. and the
proportion of heat reflected at different incidences. There will prob-
ably in all cases be a very large deduction to be made for the heat
acquired by the reflector and radiated again.
But another class of such questions yet remains in connexion with
that fundamental point which was the object of my first inquiries.
The conclusion from my experiments, viz: that luminous hot bodies are
sending forth at the same time two distinct species of heat distinguished
by different properties, is the unavoidable conclusion from the experi-
ments, depending on the mathematical truth, that if a ratio be altered
by the addition or subtraction of quantities from its terms, the quan-
tities added or subtracted must be in a different ratio from the origi-
nal one. I here repeat this, because the nature of the reasoning has
not been perceived by some persons. This conclusion undoubtedly
introduces a complexity into the view we must take of the phenomena;
whereas, if we were at liberty to adopt the simpler theory of De la
» Roche and others, many of the apparent anomalies would be recon-
ciled. Hence the verification of my results becomes a point of con-
siderable importance. If any experimenter with more accurate ap-
paratus shall succeed in showing them to be erroneous, he will achieve
San RADIANT HEAT.
an important step towards simplifying the theory. In this instance
again the improvement of the thermometer is a primary requisite.
I may here mention that I have recently had a more delicate ap-
paratus made, with which I have repeated my former experiments,
still with the same yesult; it consists of two thermometers mounted
together, as before described. They were contrived for me by Mr.
Cary, so as to have very large degrees for a small part of the scale a
little above ordinary temper rature. 1° Fahrenheit occupies about half
an inch; but the bulbs are large, which is unfavorable to the rapid
communication of the effect. These experiments are of a very tedious
nature to repeat with precision, owing to the necessity of waiting
between each repetition for the thermometers to cool and become
' stationary.
But it should be observed that there is nothing in my results which
contradicts the idea that simple heat may have ina very slight degree
a power of transmissibility through elass; all I have assumed i 18, that
it is sufficiently distinguishable in this respect from the heating power
which accompanies the light, and which undergoes no diminution.
Connected with these points, again, is the question, whether if simple
heat can radiate through solid transparent media, it cannot also com-
mence radiating IN them. It is commonly asserted that radiation can
only take place, or commence, in elastic media. This, then, is an in-
quiry which will lead into a wide field of research, and may be found
connected with the intimate nature of radiation. It will also be a
question whether, and how far, radiant heat passes through elastic
media without heating them, and what support this gives to Leslie’s
theory of pulsations. The whole subject should be viewed in con-
nexion with the admirable remarks of Sir J. Herschel in his Discourse
on the Study of Natural Philosophy, p. 205.
The radiation of heat in vacuo is another point on which further in-
quiry is much wanted. The greater capacity of air for heat, as it is
more rarefied, would occasion a more rapid abstraction from the hot
body; and thus in an atmosphere of extreme rarity the cooling ought
to be extremely rapid, and this must be accurately estimated in
measuring the radiation. But it appears from the experiments of
Gay- Lussae, (see Edinb. Phil. Journ., vi, 302,) that when air is re-
duced to the most extreme degree of rarefaction possible a very con-
siderable compression makes so little difference in its actual density
that the giving out of heat which ought to take place from diminishing
its capacity is absolutely insensible.
But even in this case it is very questionable whether so complete
an approach to a real vacuum is obtained as to warrant inferences
respecting the radiation of heat in an actual vacuum.
In fact, we want a connected series of determinations to show the
order and increase of conducting powers, as connected both with the
radiation in and through different media, and the interception which
they offer to its passage.
In solids it is presumed no radiation can commence; it is disputed
whether it can continue even partially; but conduction goes on rapidly
RADIANT HEAT. 330
In liquids it has been disputed whether there can be radiation; and
they are worse conductors than solids.
In elastic media radiation can commence and continue; but they
are still worse conductors.
In vacuo it might be presumed by analogy that a yet more free
radiation might take place; yet some experiments (as we have seen)
show the contrary; and here there is no conduction.
With regard to that portion of the heat which accompanies or be-
longs to light, the theory which I originally suggested, (merely as an
hypothesis representing the facts,) viz: that it was simply the latent
heat of light, developed, of course, when the light was absorbed, is con-
nected with the hypothesis of the materiality of light; but it may be
worth inquiry whether it does not apply even better to the elastic
ether, in whose undulations light is now proved to consist.
REPORT FOR 1840.
Having been one of those who at the first institution of the British
Association were applied to to prepare reports on the state and pro-
gress of the different branches of science, and having in consequence
laid before the Association at the Oxford meeting in 1832 such a
review of the subject of Radiant Heat, I have felt peculiar satisfac-
tion in being again honored by a request from the council to furnish
a second report supplementary to the former, embracing the progress
of knowledge in that department from the period to which the first
report extends, up to the present time.
Such a supplementary account has been rendered peculiarly neces-
sary, from the great number and high importance of the results which
have been arrived at by several eminent experimenters in the interval
which has elapsed; and though much is still required to be done before
we attain complete and satisfactory grounds for an unexceptionable
theory of radiant heat, yet the discoveries recently made have at
least tended greatly to modify all our previous conceptions, and to
enable us to refer large classes of the phenomena to something like
a simple and common principle.
In my former report I divided the subject under various heads, de-
rived from what appeared, in the existing state of our knowledge,
well-marked distinctions between several kinds of effects ascribed to
radiant heat. The more recent discoveries have in agreat degree so
changed our views of the subject that these divisions cannot with any
advantage or convenience be adhered to. One grand principle of
arrangement, however, has been newly supplied in the capital dis-
covery of the polarization of heat; so that all the researches we have
to describe will be conveniently classed under.two heads, as they
relate—first, to radiant heat in its ordinary or unpolarized state; and
secondly, to its polarized condition.
334 RADIANT HEAT.
Division I.—UNpoLaRizep HEAT.
Transmission and Refraction of Heat: Melloni.
®
Since the period to which my former report extends, various notices
have from time to time been given to the British Association relative
to the more important discoveries connected with radiant heat. My
former report includes a statement of some of the first researches of
M. Melloni. At the Cambridge meeting, in 1833, Professor Forbes
gave some account of the further investigations in which M. Melloni
was then engaged, including a brief abstract by M. Melloni himself
of the chief results he had then obtained.* The full details were
subsequently embedied in his several memoirs.
In the earlier part of these researches, M. Melloni had found that
the quantity of calorific rays which traverses a screen is proportional
to the temperature of the source: but the difference constantly dimin-
ishes as the thickness of the screen is less, until with very thin
laminze it 1s insensible.
This proves that the resistance to the passage of heat is not exerted
at the surface, but in the interior of the mass.
With the solar rays, he observed that with various thicknesses of
sulphate of lime, water, and acids, the increase of interception, owing
to increased thickness, is greater for the less refrangible rays of the
spectrum.
With terrestrial sources he found that a plate of glass, 2 mm. in
thickness, stops, out of 100 rays, from flame 45, from copper at 950°
cent. (incandescent) 70, from boiling mercury 92, from boiling water
100.
Comparing the transmissive powers of a great number of substances
in a crystallized state, he concluded that the diathermaneity for the
rays of a lamp was proportional to their refractive powers; but in
uncrystallized bodies no such law could be traced.
It was in the course of these researches that the author made the
important discovery of the singular property possessed by Rock Sat,
viz: that it is almost entirely permeable to heat even from non-lum-
inous sources. He found its transmissive power six or eight times
greater than that of an equal thickness of alum, which had nearly
the same transparency and refractive power. He also discovered
that (unlike other diathermanous media) it is equally diathermanous to
all species of heat, 7. e., to heat from sources of all degrees of lumin-
osity or obscurity; or that it transmits in every case an equal propor-
tion of the heat incident.
Thus he found a plate of T mm. (.28 inch) in thickness transmits
about 92 out of 100 rays, whether from flame, red-hot iron, water at
212°, or at 120° Fahrenheit. A plate 1 inch thick gavea similar
constant ratio.
M. Melloni’s ‘Memoir on the Free Transmission of Radiant Heat
® See Third Report, p. 381-"82.
RADIANT HEAT. 330
through Solid and Liquid Bodies,’’ was presented to the Academy of
Sciences at Paris, Feb. 4, 1833, and published in the Ann. de Chimie,
No. lili, p. 1; a translation of it is given in Taylor’s Scientific
Memoirs, Part I.
The author commences with a slight sketch*of the researches of
previous experimenters, but omits to notice any distinctions between
the characters of the heat from different sources, or the different
kinds of heat from one and the same source, when luminous, espe-
cially as indicated by my experiments published in the Phil. Trans.
for 182:
He Ben proceeds to some ‘‘general considerations on free trans-
mission of caloric through bodies, and the manner of measuring it by
means of the thermo- mult ipher.’’ This, in fact, constitutes a sup-
plementary and more enlarged portion of his former researches. He
goes into extensive details on the precautions necessary to be used in
such investigations; especially for guarding against the interference
of secondary 1 adiation: as this changes with the change of place of
the screen, he thus allows for its effects. He also gives some general
observations on the use of the galvanometer, and fhe correct estan
tion of the forces acting upon it.
The next subject of inquiry is the effect due to ‘‘ the polish, thick-
ness, and nature of the screens.’’ The source of heat being a lamp,
screens were employed of glass rendered of different degrees of
opacity by grinding, &c.; and the effects by transmission “through
them were found to be in proportion to the transparency, or that the
heat follows the same proportion as the light.
The effect of liquids between glass plates was then tried; and more
rays were found to be absorbed in proportion to the increase of thick-
ness. Different numbers of glass screens were also employed in com-
bination; the same conclusion also held good.
The results with a numerous series of screens of various media,
‘solid and liquid, were then tried, and are stated in a series of tables:
Table I. Various kinds of uncolored glass.
Table II. Liquids: to give a general sketch, the order of trans-
mission was as follows, beginning with the greatest:
Carburet of silver.
Chlorides.
Oils.
Acids.
Water.
Table III. Crystallized bodies, transparent and opaque; the results
follow no relation to transparency; the following is the general order:
Rock salt.
Various crystals.
Alum.
Sulphate of copper—no effect.
Table IV. Colored glasses. Red and Violet transmitted most—
yellow, see, and blue, least—heat.
The author concludes, in general, (the source being a lamp,) that
the diathermancy is not proportional to the transparency; and makes
336 RADIANT HEAT.
some general remarks on these results as related to those of Seebeck
on prismatic dispersion.
A supplement to the last paper was presented by the same author
to the Academy, April 21, 1854, entitled ‘‘ New Researches on the
immediate Transmission of Radiant Heat through different Solid and
Liquid Bodies.’’ It is published in the Ann. de Chimie, lv, 337, and
translated in Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, Part I, p. 39.
The author first investigates ‘‘ the modifications which calorific
transmission undergoes in consequence of the radiating source being
changed.’’
He employs four sources of heat. 1. A Locatelli lamp. 2. Incan-
descent platina. 3. Copper heated by flame to about 730° Fahren-
heit. 4. Hot water in a blackened copper vessel. The heat from
each of these sources was first compared as transmitted through plates
of glass of different thicknesses, from .07 millims. to 8 millims. The
results are given in a table, from which it appears that with copper
and hot water the diminution of effect is rapid, with an increase o
thickness in the screen; with water it is nothing beyond a thickness
of 5mm. A second table gives results for about 40 solid media of
different kinds of the same thickness: most of them were wholly im-
pervious to dark heat; the most remarkable exceptions being fluate
of lime and rock salt.
In another table are the results with black glass and black mica;
these substances, though diathermanous to the lamp and incandescent
platina, are wholly impervious to the rays from hot water, and nearly
so to those from heated copper.
The discovery of the entire diathermancy of rock salt has been
before referred to, and has furnished the means of prosecuting the
author’s yet more remarkable researches on the ReFRAcTION oF Heat.
To this important point M. Melloni devotes a portion of the same
memoir. After a sketch of previous attempts to establish this prop-
erty, he describes his successful experiment by concentrating to the
focus of a rock-salt lens the rays of dark heat from hot copper ¢ ‘and hot
water. A similar lens of alum produced no effect. This proves that
the effect is not due to the mere heating of the central part of the
lens.
He next advances to the refraction of heat by a rock-salt prism ;
describing an apparatus for the purpose. That the effect is not due
to secondary radiation is shown by turning the prism on its axis into
a different position, when no effect is produced.
He then discusses the ‘‘ properties of the calorific rays immediately
transmitted by different bodies.’’ Under this head are detailed one
of the most remarkable species of effects which the whole range of
the subject presents.
The rays of the lamp were thrown upon screens of different sub-
stances in such a manner that either by changing the distance, or by
concentration with a mirror, or a lens of rock salt, the effect trans-
mitted from all the screens was of a certain constant amount. This
constant radiation was then intercepted by a plate of alum, and it was
found that very different proportions of heat were transmitted by the alum
RADIANT HEAT. aon
in the different cases. This very singular result is established by
numerous detailed experiments, of which a tabular statement is given;
and the author states it in the following terms: ‘‘ Zhe calorific rays
issuing from the diaphanous screens are, therefore, of different qualities,
and possess, if we may use the rm, the diathermancy peculiar to each of
the substances through which they have passed.”’
He next investigates the effects of different colors in glass on the
absorption of heat. He infers, in general, that the coloring matter
diminishes the power of transmission, and examines the question,
Does it stop only rays of a definite refrangibility analogous to what
happens in the absorption of light ?
With this view (following a similar mode of operation to that
adopted in the last instance) he used, successively, glasses of different
colors, for each of which the distance of the source was varied till a
standard effect (about 40° deviation of the needle) was produced on
the galvanometer. In this position, in each case, a plate of sulphate
of lime was then interposed, and diminished the deviation to about
18° for all the colored glasses, except green, in which case it was to
about 8°. When alum was substituted the deviations were reduced,
in the first case, to 8°, in the second to 19.6. Hence he concludes
that all the colored glasses, except green, produce no ‘‘elective
action’’ on heat; green glass, on the contrary, transmits rays more
easily stopped than the others.
Connecting this with his other inference, that rays are stopped in
proportion to their refrangibility, he instituted another series of ex-
periments to put this to the test. The sources of heat compared
were an argand lamp and incandescent platinum, the rays of heat
from the former being the more refrangible. The quantities of heat
from the lamp and the metal transmitted by the green glass were
nearly equal; by all the others, nearly in the ratio of 2 to 1. Hence
he infers that green glass is more diathermanous for rays of less
refrangibility.
Again, the rays transmitted by ‘citric acid and some other sub-
stances are those only of the greatest refrangibility. They should,
therefore, be the least transmissible by green glass. This was found
to be the case. Of 100 rays passed through citric acid, all the other
glasses transmitted various preparations, from 89 to 28, while green
glass transmitted only from 6 to 2.
Without the citric acid the rays from incandescent platinum were
more copiously transmitted by the green glass than by the others.
The whole of the rays of low refrangibility emitted by the platinum,
and for which alone the green glass is transparent, had been stopped
by the interposition of the plate of citric acid, which had, as it were,
sifted it free from these rays.
Hence, the author concludes that ‘‘green glass is the only kind which
possesses &@ COLORATION for heat, (if we may use the expression, ) the others
acting upon it only as more or less transparent glass of uniform tint
does upon light.’’
In a subsequent part of the memoir, M. Melloni gives a tabular
view of the effects, observed in the same manner, of the constant
22
338 RADIANT HEAT.
radiations emitted from six different substances, each intercepted
successively by 24 minerals and 10 colored glasses, from which it
appears that the transmission is very different, according to the
nature of the first medium.
He afterwards describes an experinfnt with the solar rays trans-
mitted by a green glass, and then intercepted by other media. They
pass copiously through rock salt, but feebly through alum. Hence he
concludes that there are among the solar rays some which resemble those
of terrestrial heat, and, in general, that ‘‘ the differences observed between
solar and terrestrial heat, as to their properties of transmission, are there-
fore to be attributed merely to the mixture in different propor tions of these
several species of rays.’’
In a note to this memoir, M. Melloni refers to my original experi-
ment, (Plil. Trans., 1825,) in which the action of the rays on surfaces
is observed in connexion with their transmissibilty.
He confirms the accuracy of my result by a careful repetition of the
experiment with the thermo-multiplier, but makes no reference to the
conclusion I had drawn, viz: the coexistence of two distinct sorts of
heat in the radiation from luminous sources, one of which is the same
as that from dark sources. He explains the result by supposing the
transmitted rays to acquire, in and by the act of transmission through
the glass screen, new properties in their relation to the surfaces on
which they fall, 7. e., to the degree of absorption they undergo re-
spectively on a black and a white surface.
He extends the investigation by a table of results of the same kind
with a series of screens, both transparent, and of various degrees of
opacity. The ratio of the effects on the black and white surfaces is
nearer to equality as the screen 1s more opaque.
On this subject there appears a short paper by M. ae in the
London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, vol. vu, p. 475, to which
I replied in the same journal, January, 1836.
While referring to my own experiments, i may be allowed to add
that in Dr. Thomson’ s Treatise or Heat, &e., first edition, the bearing
of my investigation was incorrectly represented, and accordingly I
pointed this out in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, Nov., ¢
1850.
In the second edition of Dr. Thomson’s work, which has lately
appeared, the author omits all mention of the subject whatever.
Transmission and Refraction of Heat: Forbes.
The subjects of transmission and refraction of heat were taken up
by Professor Forbes, and Melloni’s experiments repeated and extended
by him, the details being given in the first and part of the second sec-
tions of his first Memoir ‘on the Refraction and Polarization of Heat,”’
read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, January 5 and 19, 1835, and
published in their Transactions, vol. xiii; also in the London and
Edinburgh Journal of Science, vol. vi.
‘Tbe first section contains an account of various experiments with
the thermo-multiplier. The principal object was to verify the several
RADIANT HEAT. 339
points already stated, and especially to determine the degree of accu-
racy of the instrument. From a comparison of its sensibility with
that of air thermometers, the author concludes that 1° of deviation of
the needle corresponds to an effect indicated by about 3; of a cen-
tigrade degree. Without increasing the dimensions of the instrument,
by which its sensibility would be impaired, he has been cute by
the adaptation of a small telescope, readily to measure 51, of its de-
grees, that is, about ;4, of a centigrade degree.
One of the most intere sting points to which the author directed his
attention, was the possibility of detecting heat in the moon's rays.
These rays, concentrated by a polyzonal lens of 32 inches diameter,
and acting on the thermo-multiplier, gave no indication of any effect,
so that Professor oor ges considers it certain that if there be any, it
must be less than ;>j555 of a centigrade degree.
He repeated Melloni’s experiment of the: refr action of heat by a rock-
salt prism, and was enabled to obtain some approximate quantitative
results, giving the index of refraction for heat in this substance,
which was a little less than that for light.
In the course of his second section he describes further experiments
relative to the question discussed by Melloni, of the separation of the
effects due to heat and light, especially the ‘peculiarity (before men-
tioned) attending green lig ht; he tried flames variously colored with
salts—giving red, yellow, ; ereen, and blue light; but found the pro-
portions of rays transmitted by alum, glass, and rock salt to be nearly
constant for each substance.
To this part of the subject Professor Forbes again directed his
attention, in a later series of experiments, in which he has obtained
numerical results of the highest value. These are detailed in the last
part of his third series of Researches on Heat, read before the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, April 16, 1838, and published in the Transac-
tions of that body, vol. xiv. To the earlier portion of this memoir we
shall refer, under another division of this report.
The third section relates to the index of refraction for heat of
different kinds as compared with that for light in the same medium.
The method of observation adopted is indirect, turning upon the de-
termination the critical angle of total internal reflection. This was
ascertained in rock-salé prism, having two angles of 40°, and one of
100°. The sentient surface of the pile i is so placed with regard to the
prism that it continually receives rays coming from the source of
heat, after undergoing two refractions and one reflection, whatever be
the angle of incidence, which is effected by a very simple but
ingenious mechanical construction. Every kind of precaution to
avoid error was adopted. And in this way the author obtained a
series of indices ‘‘for the mean quality of the heat most abundantly
contained in the rays obtained from various sources.’’ These values
are given in a table, and are professedly but approximate. Professor
Forbes has, however, subsequently favored me with an unpublished
communication, in which he states that while the numbers may be
regarded as relatively correct, in order to become absolutely so, they
340 RADIANT HEAT.
must all be reduced by about .05. This will give the corrected series
of results as follows:
Source of heat. Index of refraction
for rock salt.
Locatelli lamp eee ett og sotto. vo fe fotolia Al voles (c.\a ts, a + is, 0 i0ile,'e) « 1-521
Locatelli lamp, transmitted through alum...-.---++-.-+-- 1-548
Locatelli lamp, transmitted through glass...-...-++.+.++-- 1-537
Locatelli lamp, transmitted through opaque glass-------- 1-543
Locatelli lamp, transmitted through opaque mica-----. +++: 1-533
Incandescent platina AN SIAD' S'S 6. DIOGO. ClO SI Ue G cool ager 1.522
Incandescent platina transmitted by glass--.-.+-+--++++- 1-538
Incandescent platina transmitted by opaque mica-------: 1.534
EA SSl AG NU O oetrateisl cite ancicinteke: suet ore Grete oie or sien einer re eiet a reltateecus eos
Brass at 700° transmitted by clear mica---. +++. +++++.-. 1.527
Menemny at 400 ae acre eee © ofa clsfa c= 4 chee ee 1-522
Mean luminous TAYS eee ee ee ee ee ee tt ee eee eee 1-552
From the experiments described in this section the following gen-
eral conclusions are deduced:
1. The mean quality, or that of the more abundant proportion of
the heat from different sources, varies within narrow limits of refran-
gibility.
2. These limits are very narrow, indeed, where the direct heat of
any source is employed.
3. All interposed media, (including those impermeable to light, ) so
far as tried, raise the index of refraction.
4, All the refrangibilities are inferior to that of the mean luminous
rays.
5. The limits of dispersion are open to further.inquiry; but the
dispersion in the case of sources of low temperature appears to be
smaller than in that from luminous sources.
Reflection of Heat : Melloni.
A short paper, by M. Melloni, entitled ‘‘ Note on the Reflection of
Heat,’’ was read to the Royal Academy of Sciences, November 2,
1835, and published in the Ann. de Chim., 1x, 402, of which a trans-
lation appears in Taylor’s Sci. Memoirs, Part III, p. 383.
After referring to the experiments of Leslie, to show that the re-
flection of heat depends materially on the texture, polish, &c., of the
reflecting surfaces, he proceeds to consider what takes place in dia-
thermanous substances, as in rock salt, where, there being no absorp-
tion, the difference of the heat transmitted gives the quantity reflected
at the first and second surfaces. With other media, as glass, rock
crystal, &c., very thin plates exercise no sensible absorption; hence
heat, after traversing a thick plate, being intercepted by a very thin
plate,the loss which this occasions is due solely to the two reflections.
These considerations afford the means of estimating the intensities of
reflected heat from different substances; and the author, in conclu-
RADIANT HEAT. 341
sion, gives a comparative statement of the reflections from rock crystal
and copper.
Analogies of Light and Heat: Melloni and Forbes.
M. Melloni’s ‘‘ Observations and Experiments on the Theory of the
Identity of the Agents which Produce Light and Heat’’ were read to
the Academy of Sciences, December 21, 1835, published in the Ann.
de Chimie, No. 50, p. 418, and translated in Taylor’s Scientific Me-
moirs, Part III, p. 388.
In this paper the author combats the views of M. Ampére, who had
proposed some ingenious speculations for explaining, on the theory of
undulations, the identity of light and heat, the difference of effect being
dependent solely on the different wave-lengths, those producing heat
being supposed longer than those giving rise to light. Athermanous
media, such as water, intercept the longer waves, but not the shorter.
Thus the aqueous humor of the eye prevents the retina from being
affected by heat as well as light.
The author admits that many phenomena may be sufficiently ac-
counted for by the mere supposition of the difference of wave-lengths;
but he mentions some experiments in which he thinks decisively that
this will not hold good.
The spectrum formed by a rock-salt prism gives the maximum of
heat considerably beyond the red end. On interposing water of in-
creasing thickness, the maximum successively occurs im the red, and
thence upwards to the green. A similar effect is produced by color-
less glasses; but with colored glasses, whilst the /wminous spectrum is
variously absorbed and altered, the place of the maximum of heat re-
mains unaltered, and the decrease from it quite regular.
Another experiment consists in interposing adiaphanous body, which
absorbs all the calorific, but only a part of the luminous rays. On
using in this way a peculiar species of green glass colored by oxide
of copper, the greenish light transmitted ‘‘ exhibits no calorific action
capable of being rendered perceptible by the most delicate thermoscopes,
even when it is so concentrated by lenses as to rival the direct rays of the
sun in brilliancy.”’
On these points Professor Forbes has made some remarks in the
London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, March, 1836.
Such experiments as these, he justly observes, and indeed many
more simple, clearly show that heat is not light, but nothing more.
It is a question, then, what is the point really aimed at in these spec-
ulations. The author agrees with Melloni in the result, ‘‘that one
and the same undulation does not invariably impress the senses of
sight and feeling at once. The great difficulty is this: to account for
the equai refrangibility of two waves having different properties.”
New Phenomena of Transmission: Melloni and Forbes.
It appears by the Comptes Rendus that on September 2, 1839, M.
Arago communicated to the Academy of Sciences a letter by M. Mel-
loni, containing some new and highly interesting experiments on the
342 RADIANT HEAT.
transmission of radiant heat. He found that rock salt acquires, by
being smoked, the power of transmitting most easily heat of low
temperature, or of that kind which is stopped in the greatest propor-
tion by glass, alum, and (according to his view) all other substances.
Upon this point Professor Forbes was led to some further considera-
tions, and thence to fresh series of researches ‘‘On the Effect of the
Mechanical Textures of Screens on the Immediate Transmission of
Radiant Heat,’’ an account of which he communicated to the Royal
Society of Edinburgh December 16, 1839.
Upon the above-mentioned result of Melloni, Professor Forbes re-
marks that, according to the conclusions indicated in his own Re-
searches, (third series,) Melloni’s view of the interception of heat of
low temperature by all substances alike is equivalent to saying that
substances in general allow only the more refrangible rays to pass,
or that while rock salt presents the analogy of white glass, by trans-
mitting all rays in equal proportions, every other substance hitherto
examined acts on the calorific rays as violet or blue glass does on light,
absorbing the rays of least refrangibility and transmitting only “the
others. And to this rule Melloni now makes out the first exception,
or the first analogue of red glass, to be rock salt, having its surface
smoked.
Now, Professor Forbes, in his third series, had also pointed out
another substance having the same property, viz: mica split by heat.
In March, 1838, he had established, by repeated experiments, that
the previous transmission of heat through glass, far from rendering
it less easily absorbable by mica in this § state, had a contrary effect;
and also that heat of low temperature, wholly unaccompanied by light,
was transmitted almost as freely as that from a lamp previously passed
through glass.
Mica not laminated possesses no such property; hence the effect is
due to the peculiar mechanical condition of the substance, and hence
it occurred to the author that the effect of smoking the rock salt was
owing merely to a. mechanical change in the surface; he therefore
proceeded to try the effects of surfaces altered by mechanical means.
The surface of rock salt being roughened by sand-paper, it trans-
mitted non-luminous heat more copiously than luminous. Mica
similarly scratched showed the same result.
This effect is not attributable to differences in the proportions of
heat reflected, for in this respect, at a polished surface, all kinds of
heat are alike, as he had before shown; whilst by direct experiment
he found that, at least for the higher angles of incidence, reflection
is most copious from rough surfaces for heat of low temperature, or
the same kind which is most freely transmitted—proving incontestably
that the stifling action of rough surfaces is the true cause of the ine-
quality.
That there is a real modification of the heat in passing through a
roughened surface, as well as through laminated mica and the smoky
film, appears from some direct experiments on heat si/ted by these
different media, which, when transmitted by any one of these, is found
in a fitter state to pass through each of the others; and this modification
is the more perceptible as the character of the heat is more removed
RADIANT HEAT. 343
from that which these media transmit more readily; that is, as the
temperature of the source is higher. The following results were
stated:
Heat from lamp through Rays out of 100
smoked rock salt. transmitted.
Direct - NOG OOO OF Ol Caniolo Sod oUn A Ooi mp oo be SEA
praeoust sifted by another plas a smoked rock salt. 44
Do BODO OD oud CIOS Het @iaintel ene laminated mica .--. 44
DD) @icletet overs vorstewct sae GO wtene erie : roughened Salita. 403
The author then proceeded to try the effect of fine wire gauze and
fine gratings of cotton thread, but no difference could be detected cor-
esponding to the different kinds of heat; in every case the intercep-
ion was proportioned to the fineness of the eauze.
When fine powders were strewed between plates of rock salt, or fine
lines were ruled upon the surface, or the surface tarnished by mere
exposure to the air, the easier transmission of heat of low temperature
was rendered apparent.
These effects the author considers as evidently pointing to phenom-
ena in heat resembling diffraction and periodic colors in light.
Such was the general sketch of his researches which Professor
Forbes gave at the period above mentioned. Subsequently (up to
March, 1840) he continued engaged on the same subjects, and on
May 15, 1840, laid before the council of the Royal Society, Edinburgh,
a more extended account of the entire investigations, which appears
in vol. xv, Part I, of their Transactions, under the title of ‘‘ A Fourth
Series of Researches on Heat.’’ Some remarks by M. Melloni appear
in the Comptes Rendus, March 30, 1840, on the same subject.
For obtaining a general view of these results the main point to be
kept in sight is the relation which the transmissibility of each sort of
heat appears to bear to its refrangibility; and hence the analogy of
diathermanous media, which transmit the less refrangible heat, to
transparent’ media, which transmit the red rays of light, the trans-
mission of the more refrangible heat being analogous to that of violet
light.
Upon this important point Professor Forbes enlarges in the intro-
ductory part of his memoir; he justly observes that such a generaliza-
tion carries us forward a step, by teaching us to refer to the quality
of refrangibility certain properties of heat which before were con-
nected only with certain vague characters in the nature of the source
whence it was derived. Among other things we find, what was long
suspected, but what Melloni first conclusively proved, that it does not
essentially depend on the presence or absence of light. This refers
to his singular discovery of the change produced by the intervention
of certain screens.
Heat from any source, if it admit of transmission at all through
glass, alum, or water, will ultimately have the character of glass-heat,
alum-heat, or water-heat, just as light from the sun or from a candle
becomes red, blue, or green, by transmission through glasses of those
colors.
344 RADIANT HEAT.
The author gives, as an illustration, the following scale of different
kinds of heat, in the order of refrangibility, beginning with the
lowest:
Heat from ice.
Heat from the hand.
Heat from boiling water.
Heat from a vessel of mercury under its eee temperature.
. Heat from metal, smoked; wholly non-fuminous in the dark,
heated by an alcohol lamp behind it.
Heat from incandescent platina, (over a spirit lamp.)
Heat from an oil lamp, (direct.)
Oil-lamp heat transmitted by common mica.
Oil-lamp heat transmitted by glass, (argand lamp.)
10. Oil-lamp heat transmitted by citric acid.
11. Oil-lamp heat transmitted by alum.
12. Oil-lamp heat transmitted by ice.
Melloni having shown that a portion of the heat from a luminous
source is transmitted through certain screens, which are wholly opaque
to light, it became natural to inquire whether the rays so passed pos-
sessed the properties of heat from dark sources. This he found to be
partly the case and partly not.
The direct test of examining the refrangibility of the heat-rays
issuing from the screen occurred to Professor Forbes, who found that
opaque glass and mica act as clear glass and mica do in elevating the
mean refrangibility of the transmitted heat, an action analogous to that
of yellow glass upon light.—(See 3d Series, art. 73, 81, &c.)
But in all this there was nothing exactly equivalent to the action
of red glass; this, however, was discovered by Melloni, by the happy
suggestion of covering the surface of rock salt with smoke.
These remarks introduce more clearly the main object of Professor
Forbes in following up the inquiry. In the present paper the details
of many series of experiments are given, and the more precise results
now established may be stated as follows:
I. The peculiar character of the film of smoke on the surface of a
diathermanous medium, analogous to redness in glass for light, was
found to be possessed by—1. The simple powder of charcoal. 2.
Some other dull earthy powders. 3. Surfaces simply dull, or devoid
of polish. 4. Surfaces irregularly furrowed, as with emery or sand-
paper. 5. Polished surfaces, on which fine distinct lines have been
drawn. 6. Transparent mica, when mechanically laminated, which,
as a continuous medium, possesses opposite properties.
Il. All kinds of heat (i. e., of all refrangibilities) seem affected
indifferently by the following media:
1. The thinnest leaf-gold, which is impervious to any kind of heat.
2. Fine metallic gratings, which transmit all kinds of heat in a pro-
portion probably exaétly that of the areas of their interstices.
3. Thread gratings.
4, Most crystalline bodies in a state of powder, in which case they
approximate to a condition of opacity for heat.
III. The following substances, in addition to those before known,
RADIANT HEAT. 345
transmit most heat of high temperature or high refrangibility, analo-
gous to violet light:
1. Several pure metallic powders. 2. Rock salt, in powder, and
many other powders. 3. Animal membrane.
IV. Heat of low temperature is most regularly reflected at imper-
fectly polished surfaces. It is also, as has been shown above, most
regularly transmitted. , These facts are in themselves very remarkable,
and especially so with reference to the theory of heat,and its analogies
to that of light, particularly with respect to absorption. Some of
these considerations, which bear on the undulatory doctrine, are
noticed by the author in section 24.
The curious question relative to the analogies of the action of
gratings, &c., to the parallel cases in the interference of light, has
been recently illustrated by some mathematical investigations by
Professor Kelland; and the author concludes his memoir with some
highly ingenious and interesting suggestions for further inquiry bear-
ing on these topics.
Radiation of Heat: Hudson.
At the meeting of the British Association, 1835, Dr. Hudson, of
Dublin, communicated some researches on radiant heat, of which
notices appear in the report of that meeting.—(p. 163, and Proceed-
ings of Sections, p. 9.) A paper by the same author on the subject
is printed also in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, vol.
Wills p09:
In the paper last mentioned, besides making some critical remarks
on the results of Melloni and others, the author describes a very simple
and effective mode of arranging the apparatus for experiments on dia-
thermancy with the thermo-multiplier, so as completely to exclude the
influence of secondary radiation. The source of heat is a canister of
hot water, which can be so placed in two different positions that it is
exactly at the same distance, and presents the same surface; but in
one case the pile receives the heat both direct and secondary; in the
other only the secondary, derived from the heating of the screen.
In his communication to the British Association the same author
examines principally certain questions bearing on the supposed radia-
tion of cold, and the theory of Leslie. These were performed by a
differential thermometer, and a concave reflector, with a hollow back,
so that the mirror itself could be heated to any required point by
filling the hollow with hot water. The source of heat was a canister
of water, with one surface varnished, another metallic.
The main results were as follows:
1. The mirror being at the temperature of the air, and the canister
cooled below it, the varnished side produced a greater cooling effect on
the focal bulb than the plain, in the same ratio as that in which it
produced a greater heating effect when the canister was heated above
the air.
2. The mirror being heated to 200° Fahrenheit, and the canister
at the temperature of the air, both bulbs were so placed as to be
346 RADIANT HEAT.
equally affected by the heat of the mirror; when the canister dis-
played a cooling effect, the varnished side being the most efficacious.
3. Again, with the same conditions, except that the canister was
heated 10° or 12° above the air, it was placed at different distances;
at near distances it showed a cooling effect; at a certain point this
ceased, and beyond it it began to produce a slight heating effect.
4. Some attempts were made to try the effects while the bulb was
kept cool by evaporation; the canister being also cooled below the
air, the cooling of the bulb was increased beyond what took place
when the canister was at the temperature of the air. These experi-
ments were confessedly imperfect, from the difficulty of regulating
the evaporation.
The author considers them as favorable to the theory of the radia-
tion of cold; he also refers to them as in some degree confirmatory of
Leslie’s view of pulsation.
The most remarkable result is that of case 2; it seems to prove that
a mirror, when heated, will still reflect rays of heat, thrown upon it
from a source of much lower temperature.
The results are viewed by the author as supporting the theory of
the radiation of cold. I believe the doctrines of that theory may in
all cases be equally well expressed in other language, in conformity
with the view to which I referred in my former report, [p. 300. |
Dr. Hudson has speculated with much ingenuity on another point
of great interest, the different radiating powers of different surfaces.
Understanding by the surface a certain physical thickness, he con-
ceives the radiating power to depend on the capacity for heal of the sub-
stance of the lamina, which seems perfectly conformable to the gen-
eral law of the equilibrium of temperature.
Influence of Surface and Color on Radiation: Stark and Bache.
.
The influence of the color of a surface on its powers for absorbing
and radiating heat is a question which has long attracted notice, and
has often been involved in no small confusion from false analogies.
The sun’s rays, and, in general, what is called luminous heat, are
absorbed by surfaces (ceteris paribus) in proportion to the dar kness of
their colors; but it has been too hastily assumed that the same would
hold good with non-luminous heat, and still more groundlessly, that
the color would influence the radiating power of the surface ; the
texture of the surface, however, is known to exert a powerful influ-
ence. These distinctions are fully insisted on in my former report.
Since that period, however, the subject has been taken up by Dr.
Stark, who, in an elaborate paper in the Phil. Trans. for 1833, details
a number of i ingenious experiments, which he conceives support the
doctrine of the influence of color, not only on the absorption of dark
heat, but even on odors, miasma, &c.
The object of the present report is not controversial ; I will there-
fore merely state that I discussed in detail Dr. Stark’s reasonings, in
a paper published in the Edinburgh New Bi aetopticall Journal, Oc-
tober, 1834, where, though allowing the value and accuracy of the
RADIANT HEAT. 347
experiments, I have expressed my objections to the inferences made
from them.
It appears in general that the texture and nature of the surface most
unquestionably exert a great influence. Now, wherever, there isa
difference in the color, there must be either a difference in the mechani-
cal structure of the surface, or some new matter added or abstracted.
When, therefore, we consider the changes which thus occur, we can-
not infer that the effect is not owing to these instead of to color as
such. The question, however, is a highly curious one, and worthy
the most accurate investigation.
Having in some measure called attention to it in my former report,
it was with no small gratification that I found the subject had excited
interest, not only in this country, but also in America; and to Pro-
fessor Bache (since appointed principal of Girard College) we owe
by far the most extensive and valuable series of experiments on this
important but difficult point of inquiry; they are given at length in
the Journal of the Franklin Institute, November, 1835.
The notices of these experiments which had been published in this
country not appearing to convey adequate notions of their nature or
value, I endeavored to bring them more prominently forward by
some remarks in the Physical Section of the British Association at
Liverpool in 1837.* In my former report I had thrown out some
suggestions both as to the want of such a series of experiments, and
as to the fundamental difficulty arising from the variety of causes
which must influence the results ; but more especially the differences
of thickness in the coatings, which in the ordinary mode of operating
could not be estimated, yet must greatly modify the effects.
With reference to the necessity of equalizing the coatings, Mr.
Bache refers to an important observation of Leslie, viz: that radia-
tion takes place not merely from the actual surface, but from a certain
depth, or lamina of the surface, the thickness of which is quite appre-
ciable in good radiators, and differs for different substances.
Proceeding upon this fact, the author justly observes, that ‘‘ the
radiating powers of substances would not be rightly compared by
equalizing their thicknesses upon a given surface, nor by equalizing
their weight ; but by ascertaining, for each substance that thacloness beyond
which radiation does not take place.”’
It is, then, on the original application of this elsreraialseta idea that
his whole series of experiments is conducted.
Upon this principle the first object was to obtain some data as to
thicknesses of different pigments necessary to be employed.
The method adopted throughout was to employ tin cylinders of the
same size, filled with hot water, and having thermometers inserted
through a hole in the top, while their surfaces were coated with the
different substances under trial. The radiation was estimated by the
observed rates of cooling.
To find the critical thickness of the coating just spoken of, the time
of cooling a certain number of degrees was accurately observed, first
% See Report, 1837. Sectional Proceedings, p. 20.
348 RADIANT HEAT.
with a thin coating, then with an additional layer of the pigment, and
so on, until it was found that additional thickness did not increase
the rate of radiation, but began to diminish it; thus each coating
was adjusted precisely to that thickness at which it produced its
maximum effect.
Every precaution to insure accuracy appears to have been most
diligently taken, and several series of preliminary experiments are
recorded for the purpose of ascertaining the limits within which the
precision of the results may be relied on. A standard cylinder, coated
with aurum musivum (as being found not liable to tarnish or alteration,)
was used in all the experiments, and the effect of each coating com-
pared with this under similar circumstances.
The results of different sets of experiments are given in the tabular
form, and apply to coatings of a great variety of substances differing
in their chemical nature, as well as in roughness, texture, and color.
The following table is extracted as fully exhibiting the general result
of all the experimerts; the substances being arranged in the order of
their radiating powers, beginning with the highest :
Nature of coating. Color. Surface.
situs bln eye le oe ee Se aes Blue see sids hse se Se eee ce. CS eae 2
Prussian, blue asec a2 ea ea Sonat BlNSisess teases ees Roughace coe cece £
Ammon. sulphate of copper ....-. Greenishubluens j-no- Rowe hisses eieee reales tee 7
Peroxide of manganese 22... -.- Brownish black....-.| Not shining, but uniform. -....
Endiatinkes 22) S536 eos cetticcsee Black! oes Scie see Not ismoothe sea ceeerces cece
Bichromate of potash ............ BrIOWiee eee meee Streaked; smooth streaks. ....
Indiayink. 225 soceoseeccleee neous Blacks cis tctesicisioces Smooth. oi .sice es asceeeeeee
ATK ANE tS oie seen ste acicteoccee ae C@rimsongee ce snec cee. Not shining, but uniform.....
Carb. of lead in oil of lavender...| White ...... ..-..-.. Smooth, not shining..... 2...
Sulphuretiof leaders sscseeee ees Black tsa is es ics le edie oe ase seer eee eens
Alkanetsblue) josonctearsecetees oars LSI eee CorecOO DOGISROR LECCE o Ones oorood nacces
Carbwamarnesia s-ca.cs calccse ecco: Wihiitem ce ae een cene Rough 222 oAsecnseeaeeer tes :
Carbelead: sini gums ssee osc. White 2cs20 cf te SMLOOth ste leer eee ees eee 5
Carbtrofilime -s2sohcceu saa Dingy white .......- Medinmm sete ease see fotos
Wermilion: 352.35 scemee ae poe ste RRa10 Yee eR Ces ae Smoothe oossen scanners
Sulph.banytascce scmyencere es cetaciee Wihbiter bluish soo 222 ROUGH ees oats) sis sisi aie soba o
Golden sulJphurate of antimony...} Brown ...........--- Smooth, in streaks ...-..... Z
MNGi gO SSS SE ae: IBluees Soe a eee Smoothies 22 cS
Cochineall- 33.) Soest eee Boe Crimsonieseses) soeeee Smooth. . 225 sshen yee
Redpleadi:seapan ssa eee een ecee Orange. c.o-h sees Smooth. ...2 occ) ce cms
Sulpht-bary tas ccesteecsr acer cee ce Wihite=2cts.ccceecss Medsum) 32 scree senna teem
Plumbar or ae. a Se eee Blakes. sce eee Not shining, but uniform. ....
Chromplead se sei2nen ooo aan eee Ne llOow shee ceeeeeees Smoothi gs. n eee
Gambore tes eoe cece ccc seereeee Olive green ......... Smooth, in streaks.......... é
Bisulphuretomtinie sacs seseeciee es Yellow. sees ess— = SMOOtheesereses sete se eens 5
It thus distinctly appears that through so extensive and varied a
range of differences in the state of the radiating surface no determinate
relation subsists between the radiating power and either darkness of
color or any other distinctive character of the coating employed; not
even its roughness or smoothness.
RADIANT HEAT. 349
Repulsive power of Heat: Powell.
Closely connected with the radiation of heat is its property of exert-
ing or exciting a repulsive force between particles or masses of mat-
ter at small though sensible distances.
Such a property was first announced by Libri in 1824; and was
further examined by Fresnel (Ann. de Chim., xxix, 57, 107) and Saigey,
(Bull. Meth., xi, 167;) but their results seem to have been open to
some doubt.
A new interest attached to the subject from the reference made to
this property by Professor Forbes, (in a paper read to the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, March, 1833, and since published in their
Transactions, vol. xii,) in explanation of certain vibrations of heated
metals, first observed by Mr. Trevelyan.
A paper from me was read to the Royal Society June 19, 1834, and
printed in the Philosophical Transactions, 1834, Part II, containing
an account of experiments on a different principle from any of the
preceding, which appeared to furnish a decisive proof of the fact of
repulsion.
The essential principle is the employment of the colors of thin
plates, as a measure of the separation produced between two surfaces,
by the repulsive action of heat applied to one of them. I also made
observations on several particulars attending the mode of action, both
in that paper and in a communication to the British Association at the
Edinburgh meeting.*
Formation of Ice: Farquharson.
An interesting case, in which the principles of the theory of radiant
heat are related to the explanation of natural phenomena, occurs in
the instance of the formation of ice exclusively at the surface of still
water, but occasionally at the bottom of running water. This point
excited attention some years ago, and was partially discussed by Mr.
Knight in the Philosophical Transactions, 1816. Mr. MacKeevor and
and Mr. Hisdale subsequently investig ated the theory, and M. Arago
gave a discussion of the whole question in the Annuaire, 1833, and
in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, vol. xv, p. 128; lastly,
a highly curious paper appeared in the Philosophical Transactions for
1835, Part II, ‘‘On the ice formed under peculiar circumstances at
the bottom of running water,’’ by the Rev. J. Farquharson, F. R.S.,
of Alford, Aberdeenshire. In this paper the author details various
new and highly interesting particulars as to the mode of the formation
of the spongy masses of spicule of ice at the bottom of certain rivers
in his neighborhood, and the peculiar circumstances under which
alone it is formed. He examines acutely the several explanations
which have been suggested, which he shows are all insufficient to
explain the whole of the circumstances, and then proceeds to suggest
*See Report, 1834, p. 549, and Dr. Thomson’s Records of Science.
350 RADIANT HEAT.
his own theory, which is grounded essentially on the assumption that
the radiation of heat from substances at the bottom goes on through the
water ; and partly, also, on the supposed greater radiation from dark-
colored surfaces. Neither of these assumptions, it appears to me, are
admissible; the former, especially, is-directly at variance with the
experiments of Melloni. Some suggestions, at least, towards a theory
not open to these objections are given by an anonymous writer in the
Magazine of Popular Science, vol. 1, p. 157.
DIVISION II.—POLARIZED HEAT.
Polarization of Heat: Forbes.
The original statement by Berard, of the polarization of heat by
reflection, and the attempts to verify it, are mentioned in my former
report.* In 1833 Melloni tried to repeat the experiment with tour-
malines, but unsuccessfully. t
In 1834 Nobili attempted it by reflection, employing the thermo-
multiplier, but without success.{ The disbelief in such a result, at
least with dark heat, seems now to have prevailed generally. Mrs.
Somerville, in the second edition of her “ Connexion of the Sciences,’’
(in 1833,) speaks of it as altogether without experimental proof.
Professor Forbes took up the inquiry in November, 1834; and in
his first memoir, already referred to in section 2, announced his com-
plete success, after having in the first instance failed from the influ-
ence of secondary radiation, which disguised the real effect.
(1.) He proved distinctly the stoppage of a considerable proportion
of heat when the tourmalines were crossed, not only with a lamp,
but with brass heated below luminosity.
(2.) In the third section of the same memoir he details his researches
on the polarization of heat by refraction and reflection. In the former
he employed piles of mica, and through these found even dark heat
very freely transmitted at the polarizing angle. Without (in this
stage of the inquiry) aiming at quantitative results, he found in
general that the proportion of heat polarized varied with the source
in the following order, beginning with the highest:
Argand lamp.
Locatelli lamp. ‘
Spirit lamp.
Incandescent platina.
Hot brass, about 700° Fahrenheit.
Mercury, 500° in crucible.
Water under 200°.
(3.) The polarization of heat by reflection at the surface of a pile
of plates of mica was also established; and with regard to the reflection
from glass, Professor Forbes has also remarked that, from the known
= Pages 301, 312.
+ Second Memoir, Ann. de Chim., 55. Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, Part I, p. 69.
{ Biblioth. Unw., September, 1834.
RADIANT HEAT, 351
proportions of heat reflected, the quantity, even at the maximum
which would reach the thermoscope after two reflections, would be so
extremely small that no difference of effect in the two rectangular
positions could really have been perceptible in the form of the experi-
ment adopted by Berard.
(4.) In the fourth section the author enters on the modifications:
which polarized heat undergoes by the intervention of crystallized
plates between the polarizing and analysing parts of the apparatus—
an inquiry suggested by the obvious analogy in the case of light. In
the crossed position, when polarized heat is stopped, (if the analogy
hold good,) the intervention of a plate of double refracting crystal
would restore the effect. This apparently paradoxical result was full
verified with plates of mica, and subsequently with selenite and other
substances, not only in the case of luminous sources, but even with
water below the boilmg temperature. Of 157 experiments, with
three different mica plates, only one gave a neutral and one a nega-
tive result. Of these 157, 92 were made with heat below luminosity.
The apparent paradox was increased by the circumstance that a
thin plate of mica which ‘‘depolarized’’ but feebly seemed to stop
more heat than a thick plate which depolarized more completely.
The main fact was ascertained for the first time on December 16,
1834. The professor justly censures the use of the term ‘‘ depolarize,’’
and suggests ‘‘dipolarize’’ as preferable.
(5.) From the result thus unequivocally established, a train of highly
curious consequences follow. We have hence, as direct corollaries,
the double refraction of the rays of heat by the mica, and their inter-
Jerence according to the same laws as those of light. Hence also follow
the constancy of the sum of the intensities of the rays in the rectan-
gular positions, or their complementary character, agreeably to the
formulas of Fresnel for light. This again involves their retardation,
according to the well-known principles of the undulatory theory; and
hence, from Fresnel’s formulas, we are assured theoretically of the
existence of circular and elliptic polarization in the rays of heat under
the appropriate conditions. We have thus also the means of deducing
the length of a wave of heat.
The whole of this most important series of investigations was
completed between November, 1834, and January, 1835, and their
originality and priority are thus placed beyond dispute. The main
practical improvement (which led to all the rest of the discoveries)
was the employment of the piles of mica for polarizing the heat. In
the summer of 1835, Professor Forbes was at Paris; and finding both
M. Biot and M. Melloni sceptical as to his results, he exhibited them
with mica piles, which he himself prepared on the occasion, and
which he left in M. Melloni’s hands.
In these experiments the utmost care was taken to guard against
all the sources of fallacy from secondary radiation, &c.; but, as Pro-
fessor Forbes observed, these always tended to disguise and not to
exaggerate the results. One consideration of this kind arising from
the mere mathematical question of the different amount of heat which
might be radiated from one pile to the other in the two rectangular
Jo RADIANT HEAT.
positions, (regarded merely as a mathematical problem,) was proposed
by myself at the Dublin meeting of the British Association, 1835,
but was completely shown to be inapplicable as a practical objection
by Professor Forbes, in a short paper in the London and Edinburgh
Journal of Science, November, 1835; and further by direct experi-
ment described in the same journal for March, 1836.
Circular and Elliptical Polarization of Heat: Forbes.
On the 1st of February, 1836, Professor Forbes announced to the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, that he had that day succeeded in establish-
ing the circular polarization of heat, even when unaccompanied by light,
by direct experiment. It has been already noticed, that theor etically
this would follow from the laws of depolarization. But in the present.
instance, Professor Forbes, following up the analogies of Fresnel with
regard to the internal reflection of ‘light, found the very same thing
verified with heat by similar internal reflection in a rhomb of rock sall,
where the plane of reflection is inclined 45° to the plane of primitive
polarization.
A short notice of this discovery appears in a paper by the author,
in the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, March, 1836, in
which he also states the inference from the same considerations, that
the waves are of the same kind as those of light, viz: formed by
transverse vibrations.
In a paper reported in the proceedings of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, March 21, 1836, and printed along with the second series
of Professor Forbes’s Researches in the London and Edinburgh
Journal of Science, vol. xii, that philosopher describes some addi-
tional results which he has obtained respecting the polarization of
heat. These are briefly as follows:
Ist. Heat polarized in any plane, and then reflected from the sur-
face of a refracting medium, changes its plane of polarization in a
manner similar to what obtains in light; that is, the plane is on one
side of the plane of reflection up to ‘the maximum polarizing angle,
and on the other side after passing that limit. This mode of deter-
mining the polarizing angle offers some advantages over the more
direct methods.
2d. Metals polarize heat very feebly by reflection. Yet the effect
is perceptible, and increases, through a considerable range of inci-
dences, but it does not seem to attain a maximum; in this respect it
seems to agree with what Sir D. Brewster has remarked in light, viz:
that the maximum is greatest for the least refrangible rays, heat
being less refrangible than light.
3d. Heat polarized i in a plane inclined 45° to the plane of reflec-
tion at silver, has its nature changed, as in light, and presents the
conditions of elliptic polarization, though the ‘ellipse is much more
elongated. '
4th. Two reflections from silver increase the polarizing effect of
metals, and an increased tendency to circular polarization under the
RADIANT HEAT. 358
conditions of the last case. The effect increases with the obliquity
of incidence.
All these results have been verified in the case of obscure as well
as luminous sources of heat.
On the 15th Feb., 1836, the Keith prize was awarded to Professor
Forbes by the Royal Society of Edinburgh; the Vice President, Dr.
Hope, stating, in the course of a most able address delivered on the
occasion, that several members of the council, as well as himself, had
personally witnessed the satisfactory verification of the main facts an-
nounced before the medal was adjudged.
Polarization of Heat from different sources: Melloni.
M. Melloni’s first memoir ‘‘on the Polarization of Heat,’’ was read
to the Academy of Sciences in January, 1836; it appears in the Ann.
de Chim., \xi, April, 1836, and is translated in Taylor’s Scientific
Memoirs, Part II, p. 325.
The author commences with a fair review of the previous investi-
gations on the subject, admitting Professor Forbes’s discovery,, but
remarking the very small amount of the effect in the case of obscure
heat.
He adopts the supposition that ‘‘the different temperatures of the
calorific rays are to radiant heat what the different colors of the lumin-
ous rays are to light.” The latter, he observes, are all equally
polarizable, and thus he is led to regard the difference of polarizability
in the rays of heat as rather apparent than real. His object then, in
this memoir, is to examine the question of the reality of the polariza-
tion of heat, and of the equality of the effect in different sorts of heat.
After some considerations on the general nature of the apparatus to
be employed, and overcoming the difficulty arising from the small
total intensity of the rays, by concentrating them by means of a rock-
salt lens, he proceeds to detail his several series of experiments, the
results of which he gives in the form of tables :
Table I gives the’ different indices of polarization obtained with
nine sorts of tourmalines of different color, the source of heat being
a locatelli lamp.
He then tried the experiment, taking that pair of tourmalines which
gave the greatest effect in the last set, with plates of various sub-
stances interposed between the lamp and the apparatus. Of these,
opaque black glass rendered the effect nearly insensible, other solids
and liquids of various degrees of transparency produced effects of
different magnitude.
In Table IL these results are registered, and the properties of the
media, in this respect, were found to follow the same proportion as
their diathermancy. :
The author considers the difference of the tourmalines in this
respect as referrible to the same cause.
Table II gives similar results with another pair of tourmalines, in
which case the proportions are found to differ.
In Table IV are given the indices of polarization with four different
23
354 RADIANT HEAT.
pairs of tourmalines, each employed with different sources of heats
viz: the locatelli lamp, argand lamp, incandescent platina, and copper
at 400°. The effect in the latter case was very small.
In recapitulating his views, the author refers to the wnequal absorp-
tion of the two pencils in different tourmalines, as causing the
differences observed.
A further paper by the same author, on Tourmaline, &c., in the
Ann. de Chim., April, 1836, displays much ingenuity, but nothing of
peculiar novelty or fundamental importance.
From the Comptes Rendus, 1836, 1, 194, it appears that on the 15th
February, 1836, M. Arago communicated to the Academy of Sciences
a letter from Professor Forbes, announcing his discovery of the circular
polarization of heat of the rock-salt rhomb.
At the next meeting of the same body, (February 22,) MM. Biot
and Melloni stated that in following up Professor Forbes’s experi-
ment, they had found that quartz possessed the same ‘‘ rotative’’ quality
for heat as for light.
Dr. Thomson, in the second edition of his Treatise on Heat, &c.,
(1840,) while giving an outline of the discoveries of Forbes and
Melloni, has by no means clearly distinguished the share borne by
each of those philosophers in the investigation. In particular, with
respect to the fact of polarization, he has not given Professor Forbes the
credit so unquestionably due to him for the priority of the discovery.
He observes, (p. 139,) ‘‘In the earlier experiments of Melloni, he did
not find that the rays of heat were polarized when passed through the
tourmaline. But he afterwards found that this conclusion was hasty,
and that the tourmaline polarizes heat as well as light. The truth of
this statement is shown very clearly by Professor Forbes. They also
polarized heat by plates of mica, and also by reflection,’”’ &c.
These expressions certainly assign the priority to Melloni, as well
as an equal share in the subsequent results, both of which we have
seen are greatly at variance with the truth.
Further Researches: Forbes.
Professor Forbes’s second series of Researches on Heat was read to
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, May 2, 1836, and printed both in the
Edinburgh Transactions, vol. xiii, and in the London and Edinburgh
Journal of Science, vol. xii, 1838.
The author remarks at the outset, that in his former memoir he had
confined himself to the establishment of the general facts of the
polarization and dipolarization of heat, without pretending to accurate
quantitative results; he now proceeds, therefore, to a more detailed
investigation of the subject, with a view to more precise numerical
determinations.
The first section relates to the methods of observation employed,
and the examination of the values of the degrees of the galvanometer,
which, for the most part, do not indicate equal increments of force.
Two tables are given. By the first, the statical deviations of the
needle are reduced so as to be measures of the force producing them;
RADIANT HEAT. 355
by the second, the dynamical effect, or arc, moved over by the initial
disturbing action, 1s reduced to the final or statical effect, and thence
to the true measure of heat. Several peculiarities attendant on the
use of the galvanometer are likewise discussed.
In section 2 the observations formerly published on the polarizing
action of tourmaline are confirmed, including the case where heat,
entirely unaccompanied by light, was employ ed. In this case, the
author allows, the greatest difficulty was to be encountered.
The third section treats of the laws of the polarization of heat by
refraction or transmission. Professor Forbes expressly observes that
his former results were not held out as numerically precise; and with
reference to Melloni’s conclusion, ‘* that all kinds of heat are equally
polarizable at the same incidence,’”? he confirms his former view of
the incorrectness of this inference by a great number of experiments,
which show that the heat from non-luminous sources is less polariza-
ble by a given plate of mica, at a given angle of incidence, than that
accompanied by light.
These experiments were performed with plates of mica, prepared in
away discovered by himself, to which reference is made (though with-
out describing the process) in a paper before quoted in the London
and Edinburgh Journal of Science, March, 1836. The method con-
sists in applying sudden heat to a thick plate of mica, which splits
into an infinity of extremely thin films, so thin as to be incapable of
retaining heat; these form polarizing piles of great energy. With
one pair of such plates the author obtained the following per centages
of heat stopped, when the planes of refraction of the two plates were
in the rectangular position:
Source of heat. Rays out of 100 polarized.
Argand lamp RG ul aia eh ete.e SisteS Shei suntNtearore axe ee 72 to 74
Incandescent platina-.--+--+++++ esses 72
BIRNEY ovonnn Ra NPiom ae obld-sioudid oobi cbriedc 63
Brass with glass screen+++++- ++eeee eee: 12
Mercury in crucible at 410°..-..--. ++. 48
Boiling WWRHKSIE HO odo AOUGO OO aD vie ee es 44
These observations were repeatedly made, and verified by others
with other pairs of plates. The results agree with the analogy of
light; those lowest in the scale being the cases of the least refran-
sible rays.
In the fourth section the law of polarization by reflection is dis-
cussed. A number of reflecting surfaces were tried, and split mica
was preferred. The amount of polarization by reflection ata given
angle is shown to vary with the source of heat; and it is probable
that the kinds of heat do not rank in the same order when the angle
is changed. This is the case with light. The change of the plane
of polarization by subsequent reflection is similar to that which occurs
when light is used.
The circular polarization of heat by total internal reflection is dis-
cussed in the fifth section. This, as before remarked, is a pheno-
356 RADIANT HEAT
menon really produced in the experiments on dipolarization, if the
mica be of asuitable thickness. The direct experiment with rhombs
of rock-salt has been already mentioned also. The author here gives
a detailed account of them, and the laws of the phenomena deducible,
in which the precise analogy with those of hght is preserved.
Equal Polarizability of Heat from different sources: Melloni.
Melloni’s second memoir on the Polarization of Heat appears to be
founded on the second part of his communication to the Royal Academy
of Sciencesin January, 1836. It is printed in the Ann. de Chim., Ixv,
May, 1837, and the translation in Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, Part VI.
The principal points of these extensive researches may be reduced
to ae following heads :
1.) Referring to Professor Forbes’s researches, first series, Melloni
contends that the differences of polarizability in the heat from
different sources there exhibited are in fact due to differences of ©
secondary radiation from the heating of the mica piles, and subse-
quently appeals to Forbes’s second series, in which he conceives the
approach to equality is much nearer, as this source of error was more
avoided.
At lower temperatures of the source, he observes that mica transmits
less heatin proportion, and therefore absorbs more; thus the secondary
radiation is greater, and the apparent difference in the two positions,
or index of polarization, is less.
(2.) He remarks that Professor Forbes had found the heat from a
dark source, after transmission through glass, to become as polarizable
as that from incandescent platina, whereas he considers that the glass
plate absorbed the greater part of those rays which otherwise would
have heated the piles, and that thus the apparent polarization was
increased.
(3.) Melloni describes his apparatus, and the precautions for avoiding
secondary radiation, &c., employing piles of split mica, and throwing
parallel rays on them by means of a rock-salt lens, having its principal
focus at the source of heat.
He then enters upon the details of his. results, in several series,
with piles of different numbers of lamine, and at different inclinations
to the axis, (the source of heat being a lamp,) giving in each case the
calorific transmissions in the rectangular positions, or proportions of
heat polarized. These are comprised in a series of eight tables, from
which the author derives the following conclusions:
I. The proportion of heat polarized increases as the inclination of
the piles is diminished.
Il. It attains a maximum at a certain inclination.
III. This inclination is greater as the number of laminee is increased.
He points out the close agreement of these results with the phe-
nomena of light according to Brewster and Biot.
(4.) The author pursues a further series of experiments on polar-
ization by reflection, and arrives at the conclusion that the angle of
RADIANT HEAT. 307
complete polarization by reflection is very nearly the same for light
and for heat.
(5.) If any diathermanous substance be interposed between the
luminous source and the piles, the index of polarization does not vary
with the substance employed.
This, he contends, proves that the nature of the heat does not alter
its polarizability.
But also from direct experiment with the radiations from different
sources he makes the same inference, employing, instead of a lamp,
incandescent platina, metal heated to 400°, or boiling water, with the
same results of uniform polarizability.
He maintains that the difference of polarizability by refraction,
arising from the different refrangibility of the rays of heat, is too mi-
nute to be sensible.
And for all experiments on obscure heat he proposes to substitute
as the source a black glass heated by flame.
(6.) On the depolarization he refers to Forbes’s experiments, in
which he contends the difference in the rectangular position is very
small, but nearly equal with different sources.
He repeats the experiment, with black glass interposed, and finds
the effects much greater, and nearly equal in the different cases.
He endeavors to explain Forbes’s result of the difference with dif-
ferent sources, by secondary radiation.
Further, by the same method, (of interposing a black glass, ) he
finds the equal depolarizability of every kind of heat.
In an attempt to pursue the analogy of thé tints of depolarized light,
he acknowledges a failure, and thenee considers the interference of
calorific rays as not yet proved.
Upon these investigations the following remarks may be offered:
idee the first head,it should be recollected that Professor Forbes’s
first memoir was avowedly only directed to ascertain general facts,
not numerical values; while, with regard to the more precise results
of the second memoir, it would appear from the details there given
that the secondary radiation could not affect the results. The screen
between the source and the piles was removed only during the few
seconds required for observing the first or impulsive are of vibration,
the time of which was wholly. insufficient for the conduction of heat;
besides, such an effect was disproved by direct experiment, as men-
tioned above. —(p. 352.)
Of the second point we shall presently have to notice a complete
investigation by Professor Forbes.
As to the third, with this construction, the heat absorbed by the
mica was’ very trifling; but by the more improved process since used
by Professor Forbes, (p. 355,) we have seen this source of error is
sells got rid of. The employ ment of a pencil of par allel rays does
not seem, upon consideration, materially to increase the intensity.
The fourth point is no more than what has been already established
by Professor Forbes.
With respect to the fifth head, (including the most important part
of these researches, ) it must be observed, that the differences in the
358 RADIANT HEAT.
nature of the heat obtained by the intervention of diathermanous sub-
stances are not the same as those between heat from luminous and
dark sources. And further, in the experiments mentioned with ra-
diations from different sources, no numerical results are stated. On
this point we shall presently notice some more detailed researches of
Professor Forbes.
The sixth point, on the subject of depolarization, is confessedly one
of the most delicate in the Bane inquiry; but for the same reasons as
before, the effect of secondary radiation cannot be referred to as ca-
pable of having produced the differences observed.
Unequal Polarizability of Heat from different sources: Forbes.
Professor Forbes’s third series of Researches of Heat appears in
vol. xiv of the Edinburgh Transactions, having been read before the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, April 16, 1838. It is also printed in
the London and Edinburgh Journal of Science, vol. xiii.
In the first section the author discusses the variable polarizability
of the ditferent kinds of heat. The establishment of this. fact was his
object in one portion of his second memoir. But these investigations
having been objected to by some, and opposite results (as we have
seen) obtained by Melloni, the author now repeated the inquiry with
every precaution. He rendered the rays parallel by a rock-salt lens,
as Melloni had done, and operated at a sufficient distance from the
pile; still the differences in the rectangular positions, when different
sorts of heat were employed, were as unequal as formerly.
Having varied the experiments in every possible way, he still
comes to the same conclusion as before, and gives the following results:
Source of heat. Rays out of 100 polarized.
Argand lamp -.--- Shep jeudsis ee CROE OOOO CRORE: aidoia 7S
Locatelli lamp Shanege hssteask oe oes eee Sure ps ee ean a bes, GORE
Incandescent platina -...---. +++. +++. +++. -+s- 74 to 76
Incandescent platina with glass screen----- +++: 80 to 82
IN EOWMO MATING Meese cea One eee eco leee cds deh cohen emer: 78
Brass, ene MINN Sod alc OP ee Meret tesaeaah: BROAD SIR ati) cea ters 66.6
IDEREY Uhiani ee cen@e Meera” los a aici: Hole Seas: Males 80
Mercury in crucible, at 450°.-......--.-..----- 48
Boiling \VBiieeo odie ul Gos ooo odo seb 76 0 S00 oO Blom o 44.
Melloni's opposite result of apparent uniform polarizability, the
author then shows, must necessarily arise from the use of mica piles,
consisting of a number of distinct plates superposed. Such a thick-
ness of mica modifies heat from dark sources in such a way as to give
the portion which it transmits the same character as to polarizability
as luminous heat; whereas Mr. Forbes’s results were obtained by the
use of mica split by heaf, (as before described,) which includes so
many surfaces within a very small thickness that the polarized heat
is comparatively unaltered in its character. He shows directly that
these piles transmit heat from a lamp sifted by glass, and from brass
@ RADIANT HEAT. 309
~\
at 700° in nearly equal proportions, while mica .016 inch thick trans-
mits five times less of the latter than of the former.
The second section relates to the dipolarization of heat. Pursuing
the methods given in the first series, the author ascertained the pro-
portion of heat dipolarized by five different thicknesses of mica.
From the numerical results thus obtained he deduces the value of the
expression in Fresnel’s formula for the retardation divided by the
wave-length, either of which quantities being assumed, the other
becomes known.
In pursuing this calculation, the author finds that if the numerator
(or difference of paths) be assumed to be the same as in light the
length of a wave of heat would result three times as great as that for
red light.
Upon this he is led into some important considerations bearing on
the theory of undulations as applicable to heat.
Almost exactly similar numerical results were obtained for the heat
from an argand lamp, from incandescent platina, and from brass heated
to 700°.
At the anniversary meeting of the Royal Society of London, Novem-
ber 30, 1838, the Rumford Medal was adjudged to Professor Forbes,
‘*for his discoveries and investigations of the polarization and double
refraction of heat.’’ And in the report of the council announcing the
award a brief but appropriate testimony is given to the value of these
researches.
Intensity of Reflected Heat: Forbes.
On March 18, 1839, Professor Forbes communicated some remarks
to the Royal Society of Edinburgh on the Intensity of Reflected Light
and Heat.
The theoretical law for the intensity of reflected light, originally
proposed by Fresnel, has been confirmed on quite different grounds
by the mathematical investigations of Mr. Green and Professor Kel-
land. Yet scarcely any attempt has been made toward its verification
by direct experiment, except in the critical cases for polarized light
originally assumed as the basis of the formula, and a few intermediate
photometrical determinations by M. Arago. The uncertainty attend-
ing all photometry led Professor Forbes: to conceive (about the end
of 1837) that perhaps some confirmation might be obtained by ascer-
taining the law which prevails with respect to the intensities of heat
in the corresponding cases; an analogy which seemed extremely pro-
bable from the facts already ascertained relative to the change of
polarization, &c., before noticed.
In December, 1837, he made some first attempts, which were not
altogether satisfactory. In the following winter he resumed the sub-
ject, and by a suitable apparatus for measuring the angles of incidence
he endeavored to measure the intensity of heat reflected from surfaces
of glass, steel, and silver; and though the results can hardly be yet
considered completely accurate, yet in the case of glass the approxi-
mation to Fresnel’s law is closer than any as yet exhibited by photo-
360 RADIANT HEAT®
metrical observations; while the observations accord much better with
the law of Fresnel than with that deduced by Mr. Potter. In the
instance of mefals Professor Forbes considers Mr. Potter’s discovery
verified, that the refiection is less intense at higher angles of inci-
dence; he has not yet been able to verify Professor Maccullagh’s
inference, that it has a minimum before reaching 90°; and, lastly, he
observes that the quantity of heat reflected from metals is so much
greater than Mr. Potter’s estimate for light as to lead him to suspect
that all that gentleman’s photometric ratios are too small; this would
nearly account for their deviations from Fresnel’s law. He has also
made some attempts for verifying that law by observations on heat
polarized in opposite planes.
Mr. Potter, it is well known, mainly founds his objections to the
undulatory theory on the discrepancy between Fresnel’s law for the
intensities of reflected light and his own photometrical determinations.
He has therefore naturally been led into some controversial remarks
on Professor Forbes’s results in a paper in the London and Edinburgh
Journal of Science, to which Professor Forbes has replied.
Considering that the whole inquiry is as yet confessedly in an
incomplete state, any further observations upon it in this place would
be premature.
Conclusion.
In thus reviewing the different points of inquiry which have been
of late pursued relative to radiant heat, and the several important
discoveries with which that research has been rewarded, I have for
the most part preserved, under each head, the chronological order.
The progress of discovery is here, I trust, too clearly marked to
allow any real ground for these questions as to priority and originality,
which have given rise to somuch unhappy controversy between rival
philosophers, or to the less open but equally lamentable manifesta-
tions of jealousy, in ambiguous expressions of claims, into which men
of science have been sometimes betrayed. The dispassionate reviewer
of the history of discovery at once best avoids all such controversial
topics, and fulfils the demands of critical justice, by a simple but
careful statement of facts.
In the present instance it appears to me that the share of credit
due to the distinguished parties, respectively, who have co-oper ated
to introduce the discoveries above reported is sufficiently well-marked,
and certainly ample enough in each instance to confer the highest
celebrity on ‘those who have borne the chief portion of the labor.
To the continental philosophers belongs the first invention of the
instrument, without whose aid none of these investigations could have
been accomplished; while all the earliest and most important discove-
ries of the varying diathermancy of substances; the knowledge of the
singular constitution of rock-salt, (which has placed a new instrument
in the hands of the experimenter :) and the capital fact, disclosed by
means of it—the refraction of heat from dark sources; tog ether with
the very singular phenomena of the changes in the nature of heat by
transmission through certain substances; the remarkable effect of
smoked rock-salt; the circularly polarizing power of quartz for heat—
* RADIANT HEAT. 361
all these important discoveries (besides others of minor value) are
imperishably associated with the name of Melloni. Our own country
as fairly and incontestably boasts, besides improvements in the appa-
ratus and methods, many important results connected with the trans-
mission of heat, accurate measures of its refraction, together with
some indication of phenomena analogous to those of diffraction. In
addition to these, the sole and undisputed credit of first unequivocally
establishing the grand facts of the polarization of heat, even from non-
luminous sources, by transmission through mica, through tourmaline,
and by reflection; tozether with the peculiar and invaluable proper ty
of mica split by sudden heating, (a fact holding a parallel rank with
that of the diathermancy of rock-salt ;) the dipolarization of heat; its
consequent double refraction and interference; its circular and elliptic
polarization; its length of »wave, and the pr oduction of that wave by
transverse vibrations; the confirmation of the circular polarization by
the rock-salt rhomb, and the peculiar effects of metallic reflection;
these constitute the unquestionable claims of Professor Forbes.
On the main point in controversy between these two philosophers,
the equal or unequal polarizability of heat from different sources, I
have endeavored to place the facts and arguments clearly before the
reader; but must confess my own conviction to be in favor of the
unequal ratio of polar izability i in the radiations from laminous and from
obscure sources, while in some instances the apparently opposite
results seem distinctly traced to known causes, and in others the
equalization of the effects appears to depend on some of those modifi-
cations which the intervention of screens produces in the nature of
the rays of heat.
The very remarkable class of phenomena just referred to is, per-
haps, of all the recent discoveries, that which seems most singular
and anomalous. That the same ray should acquire an entire change
of property and nature by and in the act of simply passing thr ough
certain media seems little in accordance with any conception we can
form of such radiation. Is this, we may ask, a real change of consti-
tution, or is it a separation or analysis of the ray into its components ?
[have elsewhere remarked that the terms “luminous” and ‘ dark”
heat are of somewhat barbarous appearance; and the objection is more
than etymological, especially as we now find the luminosity of the
source is not the essential characteristic of the qualities of the rays.
And again, in the compound radiation from luminous sources there is
included a considerable portion of ‘‘dark’’ heat as disclosed by its
relation to surfaces in absorption.
The relations of heat to swrfaces in absorption, and in the corres-
ponding inverse effects of radiation, are among the most important
portions of the subject, and I have in consequence been desirous to
draw particular attention to the very valuable investigations of Presi-
dent Bache.
The properties which characterize the different species of heat (as
we have seen) have been most remarkably developed and principally
studied in the phenomena of transmission. A wide field is open to
the experimenter in connecting these properties with those belonging
362 RADIANT HEAT.,
to the conditions of surface which produce the absorptive powers of
bodies for different species of heat; and these, again, with those which
mark the differences in conductive power, and perhaps also capacity
for heat.
With regard to the establishment of a theory of the nature of radiant
heat, we have seen that the hypothesis of undulations certainly sup-
plies a clue to a vast range of phenomena, especially those connected
with polarization.
The question of the identity of the heating and illuminating radia-
tions seems clearly negatived by many experiments, if we mean it to
apply in the sense of one physical agent. But if we refer to the pos-
sibility of accounting for the different effects by sets of undulations of
the same etherial medium differing in their wave-lengths, this proba-
bly presents fewer difficulties than any hypothesis of peculiar heat.
We may, perhaps, suppose some other element besides the wave-
length to enter into the explanation; or while we find that the heating
effect is due to waves of greater length, it may also be true that the
intensity or accumulation of waves which is necessary for producing
the sensation of light follows a very different and much higher ratio
than that requisite for producing heat, and that this latter effect may
be produced in the highest intensity by longer waves of the same
etherial medium but not sufticiently accumulated to impress our visual
organs.
The difference in the polarizability of heat from different sources is
not explained by the slight difference of refrangibility, and Professor
Forbes is of opinion that we must, in consequence, look for its solution
to a mechanical theory of heat in some respects, at least, different
from that of light. It is even a question of some difficulty why any
portion of the heat should not be subject to the law of polarization
which the rest obeys, unless we suppose the heating effect to be of
so complex a nature that some part of it only is properly due to rays
analogous to those of light, while the other part of the effect is pro-
duced by a mode of action altog ether different.
To any such questions, however, we are hardly yet ina condition
to give a satisfactory answer; but among the numerous points open
to inquiry I have dwelt more particularly on those which appear to
me pre-eminently to require more extended investigation before we
can hope to obtain materials for constructing any substantial and
unexceptionable theory.
REPORT HOR 1854,
Parr
Having been honored, for the third time, with a request from the
general committee to continue my former Reports on the state of our
knowledge of Radiant Heat, from the date of my last report (1840) up
to the present time, I feel bound to explain that the resolution con-
veying that request was passed so long since as the meeting at York
in 1851, and that it was complied w ith on the understanding that the
RADIANT HEAT. 363
report was not required immediately. But at the present date, being
unwilling longer to delay, and finding that, from the pressure of other
avocations, there is little probability of my being able to complete it,
rather than withdraw altogether, I am induced to ask the indulgence
of the Association for submitting only @ portion of such a report.
Preliminary remarks.
Before commencing any analysis of recent investigations, it will be
necessary (for reasons w hich will become apparent) to take, in the
first instance, a very brief retrospective glance at certain fundamental
distinctions affecting the whole subject, long ago pointed out, but too
much overlooked by some writers since. It results from researches
pointed out in detail in the two former reports, that, under the some-
what wide term ‘‘ radiant heat,’’ several totally distinct species of
effect have been included.
(I.) The simplest form of radiant heat, and most properly so called,
is that which arises simply from the cooling of a hot body, and which
emanates from terrestrial hot bodies of all temperatures, from those
which are the least elevated above that of the surrounding medium
up to the highest incandescence or combustion, and is distinguished
by two properties:
(a.) A tendency to be absorbed by bodies in proportion to a certain
peculiarity of texture in their surface, but wholly independent of their
color.
(b.) A total incapacity to pass by direct radiation through many
media, such as glass, &c., though transmissible freely through rock-
selt, and partially through certain others, called diathermanous media,
as found by the experiments of Melloni.
(II.) At a certain stage of incandescence, other rays,also capable of
exciting heat, begin to be given off along with the former; these are
distinguished by the properties different from the former:
(a.) A tendency to be absorbed by bodies in proportion to the dark-
ness of their color, or their absorption of light.
(8.) A power of transmissibility through all transparent substances,
without diminution through colorless media, and in various proportions
through colored media, according to their action on light.
(y.) The power of exciting also the sense of vision, or being lumi-
niferous.
This second species coexists in various proportions with the first,
and is most copious from the most intensely ignited bodies.
(III.) Closely analogous to this last species, or identical with it, are
the heat ing rays of the sun, characterized by the same properties,
(Gan) (a5 ) and (7.,) and distinguished by being totally free from all
admixture of the first kind, (or Species I.)*
** This result was formerly obtained by exposing together a blackened and a white-
washed thermometer to the solar rays, first with, and then without, a thick glass screen;
in this instance there was only the smallest difference in the absolute values, and none
whatever in the ratio of the rise of the two thermometers. In the brightest terrestrial rays
there is a marked and often very great difference in ratio as well as amount ‘This consti-
tuted the ground of my conclusions as to the heterogeneity of the species of rays in the
latter case.
364 RADIANT HEAT. :
When by artificial means the luminiferous rays are analysed, some
rays are found in which great heating power coexists with feeble
illuminating power; but under the same conditions and for the same
ray the heating is probably directly proportional to the illuminating
intensity.
In this way it was that from the distinctions obtained in my original
experiments, (1825,) I was led to describe generally the communica-
tion of heat as effected in three distinct ways:
(1.) By conduction (including what some term convection.)
(2.) By radiation (in the ordinary sense of the term) or mere.cool-
ing of a hot body, (Species I above.)
(3.) By the agency of light, whether from the sun or flames, (Spe-
cies IT and III.)
In the first instance, it was natural to regard these as so many
distinct kinds of phy sical action producing heat, but more recent
researches, especially those of Professor Forbes, have enabled us to
connect them by the simple and uniform analogy supplied by the un-
dulatory hypothesis. If we adopt the hypothesis of undulations of
decreasing lengths, those of the greatest length correspond to the
Species I, these continue to be given out as the temperature is raised,
or as combustion proceeds more intensely, along with others of sue-
cessively less wave-length, until we arrive at Species H, or those
which are of the proper length to affect also the retina with the sense
of vision, and at last the wave-lengths are too small to produce either
luminiferous or calorific effects; but here they seem to obtain their
maximum of chemical action. But rays of all wave-lengths thus con-
tinue to be given out simultaneously. They all produce or excite heat,
more or less, when stopped or absorbed; and this probably dependent,
in some direct ratio, on the greater wave-length simply; while the illu-
minating effect depends on some peculiar relation to certain wave-
lengths only determined by some physiological conditions of the retina
at present unknown. Substances which are transparent transmit
freely rays of the visual wave-lengths, which of course carry with
them their heating powers.
Opaque substances which are diathermanous transmit in the same
way rays of the longer wave-lengths, but not those of shorter.
The action of the texture of surfaces seems purely mechanical, and
probably influences the absorption of all rays, but its full effect is
produced on the rays of longer wave-length; while that of color is
purely optical and applies to rays of luminiferous wave- -lengths only.
Refraction, polarization, interference, and the like properties of
light, it would be easily seen, must be ‘accompanied with just such
indications of heating effect as might consist with the modification
which the light in the respective cases might undergo. If the hight
were extinguished in certain conditions of polarization, or of inter-
ference, the heat would of course disappear with it, and the changes
of intensity would be similar; that is, as regards either the solar rays
(IIT) or those of species (II); and consequently, in the case of lumi-
nous hot bodies, in which Species I and II coexist, the effects in ques-
RADIANT HEAT. 365
tion might be expected to occur, but only as applying to that portion
of the rays which consists of Species IL.
Thus, in a multitude of such cases, these effects might be very
small, or altogether disguised and hidden. And, moreover, if they
were real and sensible for Species (II), it would not follow that they
existed for Species (I), yet the wave analogy would render it
highly probable; and experiment has now proved it to be the fact.
This constitutes the peculiar value of Professor Forbes’s researches.
In the instance of luminous bodies, then, all the combined heteroge-
neous species of rays undergo these modifications, though possibly in
different degrees, and liable to modifications from the different nature
of the media employed.
Yet many recent researches seem altogether to ignore these dis-
tinctions; and the ‘‘ radiant heat’’ from different sources is commonly
spoken of as if all of one kind, and of which a certain per centage is
stopped or transmitted, in particular cases, by the interposition of
certain substances; whereas the body of rays is heterogeneous, and
certain integrant rays only are totally stopped or totally transmitted
in the respective cases, showing not only quantitative but qualitative
differences.
In many researches of she kind the ‘‘diathermancy’’ of bodies is
spoken of, and experiments made to measure it, as if it applied indif-
ferently to all species of heating rays, and without any reference to
the consideration that for certain species of rays bodies are diather-
manous simply in proportion as they are diaphanous to the particular
luminous ray in question; while for other species of rays their diather-
maneity follows some totally different, and as yet unknown law. The
sonal of ideas introduced by the adoption of that term, unqual-
ified by any reference to this distinction, and applied to general.con-
clusions respecting ‘‘radiant heat,’’ ought to be sufficiently manifest,
yet has been but little considered: And in cases where the rays
transmitted by a partially diathermanous body are in fact different in
kind (agreeably to the above distinction) from those stopped, there is
an ambiguity in the mode of expression; in fact it 1s not merely a
per centage of rays, but an analysis of the whole heterogeneous body
into more homogeneous or simple elements, z. e., rays of different
wave-lengths, or combinations of several such rays.
In my former report (1832, p. 332) it is mentioned that I had then
repeated my original experiment (Phil. Trans., 1825) with a pair of
thermometers of a peculiar construction made on purpose, in which
very small differences were appreciable; but I did not there state any
of the results. As attention has now been recalled to my original
experiment, both by the repetition of it by Melloni with the thermo-
multiplier, and the more recent confirmatory remarks of Knoblauch,
and as results obtained in this way (notwithstanding the superior claims
of the thermal pile) may still possess some interest, it may not be
irrelevant here briefly to state the results of a set of observations
which have been lying by me since that period. The instrument was
unfortunately broken soon afterwards. These observations were made
on the rays of an Argand lamp; the thermometers, fixed on one frame
}
366 RADIANT HEAT.
at the distance of about three inches apart, were exposed first with,
and then without, a screen of plate glass one-eighth of an inch thick.
The mode of observation was to note the rise of the thermometer
blackened with China ink, in the time which it occupied the white-
washed thermometer to rise 1° Fahrenheit.
Screen. No screen.
White. Black. °
°
1.6
|
A strong and curious confirmation of the heating power derived
from luminiferous rays simply, has been furnished in a fact mentioned
to me by Dr. Bennett, Professor of Physiology in the University of
Edinburgh, viz: that in the exhibition of anatomical subjects by
means of the oxy-hydrogen microscope, the light concentrated by a
lens, at afew inches distance from the source, had so energetic an
action as to burn up and destroy the specimens placed in the focus.
On the Theoretical Explanation of some former Experiments.
The experiments of Melloni (of which some general abstracts are
given in my former report (1840, p. 335,)) certainly seem at first sight
to present some anomalous results.
The main question which seems to arise is, whether the effects of
heat, as compared with those of illumination, do not follow such
widely discrepant laws as to make it difficult to ascribe them to the
same set of waves; and this both with regard to terrestrial and to the
solar heat.
To take a single instance: rock-salt is said to be analogous, for heat,
to colorless media for light; alum is described as totally impermeable
to ‘‘dark heat,’’ and partially so to the rays from a lamp, that is, it
may be wholly impermeable to those rays of the lamp which are iden-
tical with ‘‘dark heat’’ (Species I) in their relation to absorption, ac-
cording to the texture of surfaces, and wholly permeable to those
(Species II) which are associated with light, and produce this effect
in proportion to the absorption of light by dark colored surfaces; or in
the language of the wave-theory, wholly impermeable to rays of
longer wave-length, and wholly permeable to certain rays of smaller
wave-length.
RADIANT HEAT. 367
In some of Melloni’s experiments, rays from the lamp transmitted
in different proportions by various screens, and then equalized, were
afterwards found to be transmitted by alum in similar proportions.
This he describes by the expression that ‘‘ they possess the diather-
mancy peculiar to the substances through which they had passed.”’
Yet the fact surely implies no new property communicated to the
rays. It merely shows, that as different specific rays out of the com-
pound beam were transmitted in each case by the first screen, alum,
though impervious to the lower heating rays, (2. e., of lower refran-
sibility or longer wave-length,) is permeable to those higher rays;
and in different degrees according to their nature; an effect simply
dependent on the heterogeneity of the compound beam from the
flame. Again, with differently colored glasses peculiar differences of
diathermancy were exhibited with the rays from a lamp, incandes-
cent metal, and the sun; but not more various or anomalous than the
absorption of specific rays of light by such media. And besides
these considerations, it must be borne in mind that a smooth blackened
surface is itself unequally absorptive for the different rays, acting (from
its color) more energetically on those of a refrangibility within the
limits of the visible spectrum, and which affect the eye as rays of
light; and more feebly on the rays of lower refrangibility, and which
act more energetically on bodies with reference to the absorptive
texture of their surfaces.
As (according to my experiments) the solar heat is wholly of that
kind which is freely transmitted through all colorless media along
with the light, it does not appear that there would be any particular
advantage in operating on the solar spectrum with a rock-salt prism.
Melloni, however, with such a prism found, on interposing a thick
screen of water, the most heating rays (i. e., those toward the red
end) intercepted, (as they are known to be by water,) and this caused
the position of the maximum to be apparently shifted higher up the
spectrum, even to the position of the green rays.
On the other hand, many colored glasses he found absorbed the
rays in various proportions, yet they left the point of maximum heat
unaltered, 7. e., though variously absorptive for the higher rays, they
were not of a nature » to stop the lower or most heating rays.
It appears also to be questioned whether the solar beam does not
actually contain some rays of Species I, that is, of wave-lengths
greater than any of the prismatic rays, including the ordinarily invisi-
ble extreme red. My original experiment on this point, above referred
to, may probably be unworthy of comparison in accuracy with those
which may now be made with the thermo-multiplier.
It would therefore be highly desirable if an experiment on the same
principle as mine, viz: a black and white thermoscope exposed to-
gether, first with and then without a screen, were repeated on the
solar rays, with a variety of screens, including especially rock-salt,
with all the increased accuracy and sensibility now attainable by the
use of two thermo-multipliers, by which the differences or identities of
ratio in the two cases would be rendered evident in the most
368 RADIANT HEAT.
satisfactory manner. It would be also highly important to make
similar observations on the oxy-hydrogen and the electric light.
__ The theory of unequal wave-lengths, as the sole explanation of the
different species of ‘‘ radiant heat,’’ whether solar or terrestrial, or in
other words, the identity of the rays which produce alike the sensa-
tions of light, of heat, or other effects, each in some peculiar relation
to the wave-length, certainly applies in a very satisfactory manner to
a large portion of the phenomena. There may, indeed, be some
minor objections or difficulties, but the only formidable outstanding
objection seems to arise from a single result, announced long ago by
Melloni, and referred to in my former report, viz: the fact thata cer-
tain kind of green glass transmits the solar light in high intensity
while it deprives it of all heating power. This anomaly is indeed in
itself so singular as to require very positive authority to substantiate
it; and in M. Melloni’s statement there is, as appears to me, a certain
degree of vagueness, and it is notsupported by any numerical results,
or even any detailed account of the mode of operating”.
An alleged isolated fact of so extraordinary a character has long
appeared to me to demand a strict re-examination. I had hoped that
on presenting this report, in many other respects so imperfect, I
might have been able to announce the result of such a repetition.
But, unhappily, a variety of causes have hitherto prevented me from
carrying it into effect.
Theoretical Refraction of Heat.
An important point bearing on the theory was indicated very
shortly after the communication of my last report, (1840, ) in my trea-
tise ‘‘On the Undulatory Theory applied to Dispersion,’’ (1841.) I
have there shown (see pp. 71 and 122) that the formula for the re-
fractive index in terms of the wave-length deduced from Cauchy’s
theory, furnishes a striking coincidence with Professor Forbes’s de-
termination of the index of refraction for a ray of dark heat in rock-
salt. The formula in question way be expressed thus:
1 4
—=p—9(“2)' +R(52) —ee.,
2 A A
where p is the index, 2 the wave-length, Aw the small interval of the
molecules, and P, Q, R constants. From the nature of this formula,
itis evident that as is increased the changes corresponding in the value
; UNiy
of # are very small; and when / is very great, or = extremely small,
the value of is susceptible of a limit, which will be
1
Lixyipe
This will represent the physical condition, that as we take rays of
successively greater wave-length, they will be crowded together into
* On the Identity of Light and Heat, Taylor’s Foreign Memoirs, Part III, p. 383.
RADIANT HEAT. 369
one position of refraction, which will have a bounding or limiting
position, beyond which no ray of however great wave-length can be
refracted. This will be different for each medium, but will in
general correspond to a refractive index not greatly below the index
for the extreme red ray, and which is calculated, in my treatise just
referred to, for various media. For rock salt it is a little lower than
Professor Forbes’s index for dark heat.
The data will be best seen as collected in the following table.*
Rock salt.
Value of pz.
Ray.
| Obs. Forbes.| Theory,
| Powell.
Meanieht 22 ce sce de se soso oe Seen coon cee e eestor sere LY 5584 ses e Re See
HOGER Se © 2 a Seether toe Se eee 1540s sass eee
Me CO00%9) 2 eas ca cewcs accede eae Se eee Skee eee es cals reatnl 1. 529
Darkshotmetalen Sos. a. acc acini nas ae caiciose eceiaee meal PEOZS ale crater re
SUMS Sao isis wocise maclam aclnee ee coms a see Caeeee oem cen wana eettoae 1.527
M. Knoblauch’ s Researches.
Among the most important of recent researches on the subject of
radiant heat, are those of M. Knoblauch, Professor of Natural Philoso-
phy in the University of Marburg, which are not to be surpassed for
elaborate extent and accuracy of detail. They are given in Poggen-
dorff’s ‘‘Annalen,’’ January and March, 1847, .and translated in
Taylor’s ‘‘ Foreign Scientific Memoirs,’’ Parts XVIII and XIX, 1848.
The memoir is of great extent, and is divided into six sections.
Section I is entitled ‘‘On the Passage of Radiant Heat through
Diathermanous Bodies, with especial regard to the Temperature of
the Source of Heat.”’
The author commences with a summary of the results previously
obtained, in which he cites the results of Delaroche and others, with-
out reference to the different interpretation which must be put upon
them if the experiments and conclusions just referred to be admitted.
He observes that, from the experiments of Melloni, rock salt appears
equally permeable by heating rays of all kinds; from those of Forbes,
prepared rock salt would seem penetrated by heating rays in a greater
degree when the source was at a lower temperature. Here I would
observe that the temperature of the source, as such, manifestly bears
no direct proportion to the degree of luminosity, it being perfectly
well known that the temperature of luminosity is very different for
different bodies; and these are also of very different illuminating
powers. Now, as in all cases there are several different species of
* On this point some notices were submitted to Section A, in 1840 and 1841. See Report,
1840, Sect. Proc., p. 14, and 1841, p. 25.
24
370 RADIANT HEAT.
heating rays emanating at the same time from the source, some lumi-
niferous, and some not so, it is in no way a matter of st Sey or an ex-
ceptional case, that the transmissive power of rock salt, or of any
other substance, should bear no proportion to the mere temperature of
the source. .
M. Knoblauch, however, instituted an elaborate set of experiments
to ascertain whether any such relation could be maintained.
he experiments were all conducted by means of the thermo-mul-
tiplier, which in this instance was constructed with especial precau-
tions to insure extreme accuracy and sensibility.
M. Knoblauch’s first series of experiments included, as sources, al-
cohol flame, incandescent platinum, hydrogen flame, Argand lamp, of
which the temperatures were in the order of enumeration, the jirst
being the highest. The effect of each on the thermo-multiplier was
observed with the intervention of a series of screens, colored glass,
alum, mica, colorless glass, calespar, gypsum, &c. The transmitted
effects varied, of course, with the different screens; but in every in-
stance they were smallest with the jirst source, and increased in the
order of enumeration, or in the inverse order of the temperatures. —
(Table I.)
Jn this series the real nature of the results is, in fact, evident from
the distinctions above drawn. The effect is simply dependent on the
light, or heating power of Species II, mixed, no doubt, to a certain
extent in some cases with that of Species I; which last probably does
bear a close proportion to the temperature of the source, but is in
these instances overruled by the effect of Species II being very feebly,
or not at all, transmitted by the screens.
In this series also M. Knoblauch found that the transmission thr ough
rock salt was not exactly equal for all the sources, contrary to the as-
sertion of Melloni; the difference, however, is very small.
In the second series the sources were a vessel of hot water of dif-
ferent temperatures, from 93° to 212°, the radiating side being in
each instance covered successively with lamp-black, glass, wool, and
in each instance the thermo-multipler being placed at a greater dis-
tance, in the ratio of the increased temperature, so that the effects of
direct radiation were equalized. In each instance, then, a series of
screens (the same as before) were interposed, each screen tr ansmitting
a different amount of heat, but the results with each temperature be-
ing found equal.—(Table TI. )
‘In the third series the sources were hollow cylinders of iron and of
copper closely surrounding the flame of a lamp, and heated by it to
several temperatures, from 234° Fahrenheit up to a little below red-
ness; in each instance the same equalization was effected as in the
last series, and the same series Of screens gave varied effects for each
sereen, but equal effects for each temperature, as in the last series.—
(Table IIT.)
The fourth series included platinum in successive stages of heat
t, dark; 2d, just red; 3d, yellow; 4th, partly white. In each in-
stance the series of screens was applied. In the Ist, 2d and 4th stages
of heat these gave uniform results, increasing with the heat; but in
RADIANT HEAT. B71
the 3d case certain screens gave results less than in case 2, while an-
other and smaller number only gave them greater.—(Table IV.)
The peculiar, and at first sight apparently anomalous circumstance,
that platinum, at a stage intermediate between red and white heat,
transmits through certain of the screens employed rather less heat
than when at the lower stage of red heat, may however be explained,
if we suppose that the rays given off at this intermediate stage are of
such a wave-length as to be subject to a peculiar absorption by these
particular screens. He then shows, from the conditions observed,
that the effect of secondary radiation was fully guarded against.
Hence the author draws the conclusion, ‘‘that the passage of ra-
diant heat through diathermanous bodies is not in immediate con-
connexion with the temperature of the source, as was probable from
previous experiments; but is alone dependent upon the structure of
the diathermanous substance, which is penetrated by certain rays of
heat in a greater degree than by others, whether this occurs at a
lower or a higher temperature.”’
In all this there appears nothing to remark, except, perhaps, the
observation that previous experiments might make a contrary result
probable, which does not appear to be the case, since (as already ob-
served) the temperature of luminosity has been long known to be very
different for different substances. It were to be wished, that when
the author speaks of ‘‘ certain rays’’ being transmitted, he had more
distinctly indicated the species to which they belong, but which seem
to conform to the classification before noticed.
Some further experiments were made on sources of different form
and size; cubes and cylinders of hot water of several magnitudes, and
small and large flames, having successively different screens inter-
posed between them and the thermoscope. The results were very
uniform for all the sources, proving that the differences in question
produced none in the transmission, as indeed might have been ex-
pected.—(Table V.)
Section IT is ‘‘On the Heating of Bodies by Radiant Heat.’’
Here, after observing in general as a well-known fact, that the effect
is greatly influenced by the structure of the surface, he observes:
‘*More recent experiments by B. Powell and Melloni have shown
that one and the same body is not uniformly heated by rays of heat
emanating from different sources, which exert the same direct action
upon a thermoscope coated with lamp-black.’’—(p. 205.
And he details some experiments, (Table VI,) showing that with a
lamp a greater effect is produced on a surface coated with black paper
than one with carmine, but with dark heat a less—a result which
might indeed have been expected from what was well understood
before the date of the researches aliuded to, and which it was by no
means their object to establish.
A set of experiments (Table VII) proved that for small thicknesses
of coating (within the limit of those employed by Leslie and Melloni)
the absorption of heat is proportional to the thickness.
Also, that ‘‘the temperature of a body, when the thickness in-
372 ; RADIANT HEAT.
creases, is more raised the less it is diathermanous to the rays trans-
mitted to it.’’
In Section III, ‘‘On the Property of Radiating Heat in Bodies,’’
the author examines various cases in which the state of the surface,
as in cast and rolled lead, smooth and scratched more or less closely,
was observed as to its influence on the radiation, when the plates
were kept heated by boiling water.—(Table VIII.)
Similar experiments with copper (Table IX) confirmed Melloni’s
conclusion, that the action is purely mechanical.
In another set of experiments (Table X) the increase of radiation
with increased thickness of coating confirms the conclusion of Rum-
ford and Melloni, that radiation commences from a certain depth be-
low the surface.
The next set of experiments was directed to answer the inquiry,
‘* Does the radiating power of one and the same body vary according
as it is heated to a given degree by rays from different sources of
heat?’ The answer was distinctly in the negative, the sources of
heat being a lamp and a hot cylinder, and the body heated and then
radiating, being successively paper coated with carmine, and with
lamp-black on the absorbing side, and lastly on both sides; also a
plate of charcoal, and carmine spread upon wire gauze (Table XI;)
and again, using carmine blackened next the thermoscope, and plain;
and black paper coated with lamp-black next the thermoscope, and
plain.—(Table XII.)
The author thus arrives at the conclusion, ‘‘ under those circum-
stances in which the same bodies exhibit an unequal absorptive
power their radiating power is one and the same; and those differ-
ences which have hitherto been observed when they are not heated
to the same extent are, therefore, pure functions of the former and
independent of the latter.’’
The conclusion, if we understand it rightly, would appear capable
of being more easily stated, and, indeed, rendered at once obvious,
from the distinctions at first pointed out; whence it is evident that
the rays of Species I (as before described) from the cylinder, and
those of Species II from the lamp, will necessarily act very unequally,
according to the texture and color of the surface.
But when a body has received the radiation, from whatever source,
and converted it into heat of temperature, as in these cases, to an
equalized degree, it will necessarily radiate it again in an equal de-
gree with the same surface, from whatever species of rays it was
originally obtained.
Section IV is headed ‘‘Comparison of the Heat radiated from differ-
ent bodies within a certain range of Temperature.”’
The author commences by remarking that ‘‘all former observations
upon radiation have only related to the quantities of heat emitted by
different substances at certain temperatures.’? The object of the
present investigation is to ascertain whether there are any quatitative
differences; or, as the author expresses it, ‘‘whether the heat which
radiates from certain bodies at one and the same temperature, or
within certain limits of temperature, is of a different kind, according
°
RADIANT HBAT. ' 373
as it is emitted by different bodies, or is excited in them in a different
way.’
This inquiry was pursued by a series of experiments, in which (1)
a vessel of water at 212° and (2) the flame of a lamp had in contact
with them various adiathermanous substances, su¢h as metal, porce-
Jain, leather, wood, &c., in the heat given out, by which the series
of screens gave exactly similar series of effects. As also with the
heat from a hollow cylinder of copper or iron surrounding a flame.
But when the direct radiation of the flame was employed, the series
of results were in proportions considerably different.—(Tables XIII
DOG I.)
The author, indeed, remarks, at the conclusion, that these last
differences are due to the heat transmitted by the screens, 7. e., the
heat conveyed by the luminous rays; as, indeed, would be manifest,
according to the views at first noticed.
In another series (1) an adiathermanous body at several tempera-
tures, from 88° to 212°, (2) the flame of a lamp and (8) a metal cylin-
der round a flame below 234°, were severally tried with the same
series of screens; the results in cases (1) and (3) being found exactly
similar, in (2) in a very different proportion.
The same sources were next tried with two screens interposed; the
first being, successively, metal with holes, silk, ivory, &c., and each
of these combined with the several screens of the former series. In
all cases the results gave proportional series.—(Tables XVII to XIX.)
Another series was conducted with, 1st, a flame, and, 2d, water at
212°; each in succession with a screen used first plain and then
blackened, the screens being black glass, lac, ivory, paper, &c.; the
results being always less with the blackened surface, very similar in
each case, and all less with the hot w ater.—(Table TO)
Another set, with a heated mass, and with the hand at its natural
temperature for sources, gave similar results with various screens. —
(Table X XI.)
This, the author says, ‘‘disproves the opinion of Forbes, that the
heat emitted by boiling water and the hand must be considered as
different.’’ I am unable to find in what respect Professor Forbes
supposes them different.
At the conclusion of this section the author adverts to two practical
inferences from what has preceded.
(i.) The fact that the amount.of heat absorbed by a given body is
the same, from whatever source it was derived, is important in regard
to the determination of specific heats by the colorimeter ; for if the heat
absorbed by the ice were different as it might be derived from differ-
ent sources, no correct measure of specific heat would be obtained.
That it is not so msures the accuracy of the results, so far as lis
source of error is concerned.
(ii.) The second application is, that ‘‘these results lead to a new
method of ascertaining whether any substance transmits rays of heat
or not,’’ (235;) that is, of determining whether any given instance of
transmission of heat is really due to diathermancy, or is merely sec-
ondary radiation.
———S-—
874 RADIANT HBAT.
Thus, to determine whether ivory, e. g., 1s really diathermanous;
the source of heat is a known adiathermanous substance kept heated
by a lamp; the effect is observed; a known diathermanous screen is
then interposed and the effect again observed; the ivory is then sub-
stituted for the diathermanous body, and the direct effect equalized to:
the former; the same screen is then interposed, but now a greater
effect is transmitted. It follows that part of the original heat is
transmitted directly by the ivory, along with that radiated from it; or
the wory is diathermanous.
Section V, on ‘‘the Comparison of the amount of Heat diffusely
reflected by different bodies,’’ refers to that kind of irregular reflec-
tion, or dispersion (as it has been sometimes called) of the rays from
the roughened, or at least unpolished surfaces of bodies, and which
is distinguished from regular reflection, which is governed by the law
of equal angles of reflection and incidence by occurring equally at all
angles. And the object is stated by the author to be the determina-
tion ‘‘ whether heat, or diffuse reflection, experiences changes in its
properties which distinguish it from that which is not reflected.’’—
(384. )
The heat being incident on a rough surface is, of course, partly
absorbed and radiated again; to guard against error from confounding
this with the proper reflected heat, various and careful precautions
were adopted.
The author then proceeds to detail the observations, which are of
voluminous extent, and the results recorded in a long series of tables.—
(Tables XXII to XXXII, inclusive.)
In all this first series the source employed was an Argand lamp
without its chimney, and in all cases the mode of operating was
similar.
The unpolished surface under examination was exposed to the rays
of the lamp at different distances and at different inclinations, and the
direct effect noted; the experiment was then repeated with the inser-
tion of a series of variously diathermanous screens.
The substances used as reflectors were extremely varied; such as
bodies agreeing in one property and differing in another, or totally
homogeneous, or totally heterogeneous.
Thus an immense range of ‘substances of animal, vegetable, and
mineral origin, opaque or “transparent, of all colors and texture 8, were
examined, ond the agreements or discordances, according to their
various properties, were found extremely varied and curious.
By these results, the author observes, ‘‘it is placed beyond all
doubt that heat, on diffuse refiection, is very differently modified by
some bodies to a great extent, while by others it is unchanged.’’—
(400.)
And these results completely confirm the position already advanced,
‘(that the transmission of heat through diathermanous media depends
solely upon the nature of these bodies, by virtue of which they t trans-
mit some rays more easily than others.’’—(402.)
In asecond series the same subject is continued with reference to
different sources of heat, which were, besides the lamp, platinum at a
~
RADIANT HEAT 3175
red heat, the flame of alcohol, and a metallic cylinder heated by being
placed over the flame of a lamp, as before:
Gi.) The reflections were first made from that series of substances
which had displayed the greatest differences in the former instance.
The results are given in a similar tabular for m.—(Tables XX XIII to
XXXVIII.)
The author’s general conclusion is, ‘‘that the modifications which:
heat experiences on reflection are very considerable in the case of the
heat emanating from an Argand lamp; that with the heat of red-hot
platinum they diminish: with the heat of the flame of alcohol they are
still less; and in the case of the heat emitted by a heated iron cylin-
der, of whatever temperature it a be, between 79° and about 234°
Fahr enheit, they absolutely vanish.’ (407. )
Or more generally, ‘‘the changes undergone by heat on diffuse re-
flection are occasioned both by the paeane of the sources of heat and
the properties of the reflecting body.’’—(408.)
(i1.) It remained, as the enthion expresses it, to determine ‘‘ whether
those surfaces which exert a similar influence on the rays of the Argand
lamp, 2. e., which they reflect i in such a manner that the heat reflected
by the one is transmitted by the diathermanous media used for test-
ing in the same proportion as that reflected by the others, would also
reflect the heat from the other sources, so thatthe rays reflected by
them would pass through these substances in the same manner.’’ —
(409. )
The results of these experiments are given in detail. —(Tables
XXXIX to XLIV.)
The question then arose with regard to the explanation of these phe-
nomena: Are they owing to any change undergone by the rays in per-
meating the diathermanous substances, or were they “the consequences
of a selective absorption of the reflecting surfaces for certain rays of heat
transmitted to them, as appeared the most probable view from the
experiments of Baden Powell and Melloni?’—(415.)
This question the author proceeds to examine by a detailed com-
parison of the foregoing results, exhibited in new tabular arrange-
ments of every case.—(Tables XLV to LI.)
Upon a minute discussion of all these results, the author decides in
favor of the second alternative; or ‘‘that the changes experienced by
heat on diffuse reflection are merely the result of a selective absorp-
tion of the reflecting surfaces for certain rays of heat transmitted to
them.’’-—(423
The author also adverts to some other inferences from these experi-
ments; as that, ‘‘excepting charcoal and the metals, it cannot be said
that any body reflects heat better or worse than any other, because
this relation varies with each kind of radiation.”
Again: certain bodies of the same color TeHlee different kinds of
heat and others of different color the same kind; and this is con-
nected with the fact that ‘‘every luminiferous source of heat emits a
large number of invisible rays, which are susceptible of reflection < 2nd
affect the thermal pile.’’—(424.)
These, and some other remarks on the dissimilarity in the diffuse
"OG RADIANT HEAT.
reflections of luminiferous and calorific rays, are not perhaps expressed
with that clearness which might be wished.
The subject of Section VI is ‘‘On the Sources of Heat;’’ which is
further explained to relate to the differences in the nature of the rays,
or in general the heterogeneity of the rays, emitted from one and the
same source at the same time; and the differences in this respect of
different sources.
From the previous experiments the author concludes, in general,
that ‘‘the variety of the rays of heat emitted is greatest with the
Argand lamp, less with red-hot platinum, still less when the flame of
alcohol is used, and has entirely disappeared with the cylinder heated
to 212° Fahrenheit.’’ —(426.)
But he now proceeds to test and extend such conclusions in another
way, viz: by the differences exhibited by the rays in the different
action of diathermanous bodies upon them, according as they have in
the first instance passed through certain diathermanous bodies, or pro-
ceeded direct from the source. The differences thus exhibited give
increasing proofs of heterogeneity.
And one more important point belonging to this inquiry he investi-
gated, by platinum heated to successive stag ges, (1) below 234°, (2) at
a red, (3) at a yellow, and (4) at a white heat; while in each case the
heat was reflected diffusely by various surfaces, and in every instance
intercepted by the same series of screens.—(Tables LIL to LV.)
From these he draws the conclusion that the differences which the
rays evolved at the successive stages exhibit after diffuse reflection,
on transmission through diathermanous media, are in every instance
greater at the stage (4) than at (3;) these greater than at (2,) and
these than at (1.) Or, in general, that the heat emitted by platinum
at these successive stages is successively more heterogeneous as we
advance from the lower to the higher.
Again, with the same body it is “not in the mere proportion of the in-
crease of temperature, as such; nor in different bodies does it follow
any proportion to the temperature (as before observed. )
The author hints generally at the relation between these degrees of
heterogeneity and the differences in the nature of the luminous rays
emitted; but without laying down any very precise or clearly drawn
distinctions as to their characteristic properties.
Transmission of Heat through Crystals.
Melloni had raised the question whether in one and the same body,
in a crystal, for instance, the quantity of radiant heat transmitted was
different along the different axes. In experimenting on this subject,
in connexion with M. Knoblauch, he found that with transparent
rock crystal and with calespar no difference of this kind was detected.
In a memoir (in Poggendorff’s Annalen, 1852, No. 2, translated in
Taylor's Foreign Memoir s, November, 1852, and February, 1853,) en-
titled ‘‘On the Dependence of Radiant Heat in its Passage through
Crystals on the Direction of Transmission,’’?’ M. Knoblauch has pur-
sued the subject commenced by Melloni.
RADIANT HEAT. 377
.
He took in the first instance a cube of brown quartz, having two of
its sides perpendicular to the axis of the crystal. The rays of the sun
were reflected into a room by a heliostat, and the mirror being me-
tallic they remained unpolarized, and after passing through the crystal,
(which could be turned with its axis in different directions with respect
to the rays,) were received on a thermo-multipher. The effect was
considerably less in the direction perpendicular to the axis. 'The same
result was found with beryl; but with tourmaline the effect was greatest
perpendicular to the axis.
The rays were next polarized by a Nicol’s prism, before incidence
on the crystal. When the plane of polarization coincided with the
axis the heat transmitted was the same in all directions. But when
perpendicular to the axis the differences before observed in the unpolar-
ized rays were increased.
No difference could be detected between the cases when the rays
passed along the axis of the crystals, and the plane of polarization was
respectively horizontal or vertical.
M. Knoblauch now proceeded to try whether the rays which ex-
hibit quantitative differences as above, wouldshow qualitative differences
in the same cases, that is, differences in the power of transmission
through diathermanous bodies.
The diathermanous bodies employed for screens were blue, yellow,
_red and green glasses.
After transmission through a brown rock crystal, the proportion of
rays penetrating the different screens differed in the two positions,
parallel and perpendicular to the axis, only within errors of observa-
tion.
With the rays previously polarized (as before) sensible differences
were observed, the plane of polarization being vertical.
The heat was in all cases greatest through the yellow and red
glasses, rather less through the blue, and least through the green.
Another set of experiments, in which the plane of polarization was
horizontal, gave no sensible differences.
Rays traversing the crystal along its axis, also exhibit no differences,
as was likewise the case with rays perpendicular to the axis.
With deryl similar observations were repeated; with blue glass the
difference is very small, for yellow rather greater; the author infers a
real difference.
With polarized light and with the plane of polarization vertical, the
differences are much greater with both glasses.
With the plane horizontal no difference was found.
Common light, passed through two cubes of bery] according as their
axes were parallel or perpendicular to each other, gave great differ-
ences with the yellow and blue glasses, and in an opposite ratio in the
respective cases.
With towrmaline exactly similar results were obtained in the cor-
responding cases.
With dichorite also the author says, ‘‘so far as the examination
extended, qualitative differences dependent on the direction of trans
mission have also been observed.’’
378 RADIANT HEAT.
At the conclusion the author makes some observations in explana-
tion of the phenomena; these may be more briefly and clearly expressed
thus:
The unpolarized rays incident along the axis of the crystals examined
or parallel to it undergo a certain absorption dependent on the nature
f the crystal; and this is no further modified, since in this direction ,
there 1s no double refraction.
But if the ray be incident perpendicular to the axis, it is divided
into two, oppositely polarized, and these are difierently absorbed.
hat which has its plane of polarization parallel to the axis has the
same absorption as along the axis. That which hasits plane of polari-
zation perpendicular. to the axis is absorbed more or less than the
former, in different degrees in different crystals, and for the different
component rays.
When the unpolarized rays are incident, then the result is com-
pounded of these separate effects.
When rays previously polarized are employed, the effects are
displayed singly.
The author considers that these distinctions fully account for the
observed phenomena.
Upon this we may observe—
The investigation cannot with correctness be called one on the
transmission of ‘‘radiated heat’’ in general; it is restricted to that.
peculiar form or case of radiation which is manifested in the solar rays,
and proves nothing as to the radiation from hot bodies, or even that
conveyed in the rays from artificial lights, unless, as inferred, by
analogy. All the differences observed depend simply on the unequal
absorption of the rays of light by the crystals and the colored glasses.
Melloni’s recent Haxperiments.
In the '‘ Comptes Rendus,’’ No. 10, p. 429, March 6, 1854, Melloni
gives some brief remarks in reply to certain objections raised by MM.
Provostaye and Desains against the accuracy of experiments with the
thermo-multiplier on the passage of heat through screens.
He points out as the sources of discrepancy the oblique passage of
the rays through a thick diathermanous screen, which is greater or
less according to the distance e, and gives different effects of internal
reflection and absorption in different cases.
To show that the errors objected arise solely from this source, he
describes a careful repetition of his experiments in which it was
guarded against.
The series of experiments included the usual set of sources, viz:
(1.) The flame of an oil-lamp.
2 ) Incandescent platina kept up by vapor of alcohol.
(3.) Plate of copper heated by lamp.
(1) Vessel of hot water.
Equalizing the effects on the thermo-multiplier by changing the dis-
tance and interposing a rock-salt screen, the diminution of effect
appeared the same for the first three sources, but greater for the fourth,
RADIANT HEAT. 379
But this last result he contends was simply due to the greater prox-
imity of the source, and consequent greater differences of inclination
of the rays; and when equalized in this respect, the difference in
question disappeared, or might even be reversed.
In the same notice Melloni refers briefly to other results which have
been obtained by means of rock-salt.
(1.) That with a prism of rock-salt the maximum of calorie effect in
‘the solar spectrum is thrown further from the limit than with other
‘prisms thermochroiques.”’
(2.) That the radiation from the sun diminishes from the centre to
the circumference; that the radiation from the spots is less than from
the rest of the surface, and that of the equatorial region of the sun
greater; these results were obtained by M. Secchi.
It may be right to add that I have been informed that in a work
entitled ‘*Thermo-chrose,’’ not long since published at Naples, M.
Melloni has somewhat modified his former opinions, and seems disposed
to assent to the doctrine of the identity of the rays which produce
light and heat, or heat alone, according to their greater wave-length;
and has explained and reconciled some of his former difficulties. I
regret to be unable at present to give a more precise account.
Mr. Draper also, Iam informed, has been led to admit that the
chemical effects belong properly to the same set of rays, differing only
in the characteristic of peculiar wave-lengths.
On the whole, the question of the evidence for and against this
theory is one eminently deserving of being fully discussed. I can only
pretend in this imperfect report to have suggested some of the ma-
terials which may assist in forming some judgment on this point.
Analogies of Transmission of Light and Heat by Waves.
» The very important researches of Mr. Joule on heat and the dy-
namical theory to which they lead, though referring directly to heat
in its action on bodies as temperature or as latent heat, yet are not
without a bearing on the subject of radiant heat, as has been in some
degree pointed out in the excellent address of our President of last
year.— (Report, 1853, p. xlvii.)
| Mr. Joule’s theory, though not as such dependent on the wave-
theory of heat, is yet eminently in accordance with it, and so far lends
Mt much support. If we suppose the temperature of a body to arise
from vibrations of its molecules, such vibrations may be excited in it
by the vibrations of an ethereal medium surrounding and penetrating
that mass of matter. In this respect the close analogy with sound is
Preserved. These vibrations of heat, however, produce mechanical
changes in the constitution of the medium. They cause it to expand;
@. e., they drive its molecules to greater distances apart; and when
Carried to a certain extent, cause a fresh and sudden separation to a
Har greater extent, accompanied with a new arrangement of these
molecules, or a change of state in the body from solid to fluid or from
fluid to aériform. Here the analogy with sound ceases to hold good,
except so far as that a temporary new arrangement of the molecules
380 - RADIANT HEAT.
is occasioned by the sonorous vibrations. The transmission of lumi-
niferous waves has a velocity which, though enormous, is capable of
measurement. Whether that of the longer non-luminiferous but
caloriferous waves is the same has not been, I believe, experimentally
verified, but must theoretically be supposed the same, unless, indeed,
it be only approximately the same for waves within the narrow limits
of the luminiferous scale, and diverge from that value beyond those,
limits.
Again, the passage or process of the vibrations in a body receiving
heat is slow ; to this conduction of heat there does not seem to be any-
thing strictly analogous in sound. In general the passage of light
through transparent bodies excites in them no vibrations capable of
affecting our eyes with the sense of light; 7. e., the medium does not
become luminous, unless we. except the case of the phosphorescence
of fluor-spar and some other bodies after exposure to light. So far,
indeed, as the transparency is imperfect, and in all opaque bodies the
vibrations which constitute light are stopped, or changed in such a
manner that they give rise to vibrations in the body constituting heat,
just as those longer vibrations do which constitute that species of
radiation which is derived from the mere cooling of a hot body; but
this does not occur in transparent bodies. It would seem to be the
law that if a ray, or a series of waves of the proper length to be
luminiferous, impinge on an opaque body, they communicate vibra-
tions to its molecules, which again transmit to the surrounding ether
other waves of greater length, which in like manner traverse space and
can again excite vibrations in bodies on which they impinge; or if
from any source a body have internal vibrations of a certain intensity,
(whether forming eaves, or of what lengths, we have no means of
deciding,) it can transmit to the surrounding ether vibrations which
constitute wayes of lengths greater than a certain given length, viz:
that which belongs to the deepest red luminiferous rays. If its
internal vibrations are increased in intensity beyond a certain point,
it then acquires the power of communicating (in addition to the last)
other vibrations to the ether forming waves of other and smaller
lengths, so as to give rise to light.
Origin of the Solar Heat. Professor W. Thomson’s Theory.
Some very important speculations have been brought forward on
the source, and thus bear on the nature, of the solar heat, by Professor
Thomson*, in immediate connexion with the theory of Mr. Joule, and
on the principle that the energy of the heat thus emitted must be
accompanied by an equivalent expenditure of mechanical force. On
this principle he institutes numerical calculations, the main results of
which, together with a brief exposition of the principles, may be
given as follows:
The kind of force acting, or the source of solar heat, the author
conceives may be expressed by several hypotheses, each of which he
examines:
*Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xxi, part 1. On the Mechanica
Energies of the Solar System.
RADIANT HEAT, 381
I. The supposition of the sun being simply a body intensely heated
and losing its heat by radiation or simple cooling.
This he considers quite untenable, as well on theoretical grounds
advanced in some other papers, as on the simple consideration that
if this were true the sun would be extinguished in a very short time.
II. The hypothesis of chemical action or combustion of any kind.
Supposing one of the combining bodies to be supplied from any
atmosphere, the products of combustion would be so enormous as to
choke the fire, if gaseous, by preventing the access of the air in
question, or, if solid or liquid, by preventing the supply of fuel; and
according to the mechanical theory before mentioned, a numerical
calculation shows that the whole mass of the sun could scarcely last
8,000 years without being all consumed, if generating, by its own
burning, the heat which is actually emitted. Hence if the sun is a
fire, the fuel must be supplied from external space. But a mass of
coal or iron or potassium could not reach the sun from external space
without generating thousands of times as much heat from its motion
as it could possibly do by its combustion. Combustion is probably,
therefore, insignificant, if it exists at all, as a source of solar heat.
Ill. The hypothesis of meteors falling into the sun and expending
force mechanically has been started by Mr. Waterston*, who supposes
such bodies to be attracted and fall directly into the sun from remote
extra-planetary regions.
The supply of meteoric matter necessary according to this theory
is estimated to amount to such a mass as would cover the sun’s surface
to a depth of thirty feet in one year.
The author, however, considers it probable that meteors actually
fall into the sun, not directly from distant spaces, but by the action
of a resisting medium surrounding the sun, which contracts the orbits
in which they are revolving round him. He conceives that these
meteors must be moving within the limits of the earth’s orbit, or we
should be continually struck by them, and that they are probably the
matter of the zodiacal light.
It is, however, quite conceivable that that cloud of small planetary
masses may once have extended beyond the limits of the earth’s orbit,
and thus in remote periods the earth may have been exposed to such
falls of them as to have materially raised its temperature; and hence
a possible source of those high temperatures which once existed.
But to return to the effects of the resisting medium. Owing to its
retardation, the approach of these bodies to the sun is gradual, and
on this hypothesis a calculation similar to the former would give the
result that the sun must be covered to a depth of sixty feet in a year,
or a mile in about eighty-eight years, which would occasion an in-
crease of 1” apparent diameter in 40,000 years—a change, of course,
utterly inappreciable to observation.
The amount of matter thus abstracted by the sun would be equal
to the mass of the earth in about forty-seven years; but it is quite
conceivable that a quantity of one hundred times this amount would
*British Association, Hull Meeting, 1853.
882 RADIANT HEAT.
not be missed from the zodiacal light. Thus the sun’s heat might be
kept up for five thousand years to come at least. This transfer of
matter to the sun coming from a source within the earth’s orbits
would not affect the conditions of the system as to the effects of gravi-
tation.
Some meteors may possibly come direct on the sun from the extra-
planetary spaces, but the quantity of such is probably very small in
comparison with those that have been revolving in approximately
circular or elliptic orbits before falling in.
If we imagine a dark body moving through space and coming into
a locality abounding with meteors, their impact may raise it to incan-
descence, which will cease when it moves out of that space. Thus
the author suggests a possible explanation of variable stars.
(Addition I.) The author gives a calculation of the quantity of
matter necessary to be added to the sun on the extra-planetary hy-
pothesis, and finds it gives too great an increase of central force to
consist with the historical conditions of the earth’s motion. He con-
cludes the supply must have been from within the earth’s orbit for
thousands of years at least.
(Addition IT.) He shows that the resistance must be very small
even close to the sun, since such light bodies as comets pass through
it at perihelion.
The solar atmosphere may be conceived to be carried round in a
vortex by these revolving masses, but not more rapidly than a planet
would be at the same distance. Hence the meteors must long con-
tinue to revolve before reaching the sun, and must get so near as to be
completely evaporated before they fall in.
Hence the solar heat 1s produced, not by solids impinging on the sun,
but by the violent friction of the rotating vortex of evaporated meteoric
matter.
(Addition III.) The temperature of the different parts of the sun’s
surface may undergo great changes from the eddies and streams oc-
curring in this revolving mass. Hence many of the appearances of
the solar spots and streaks, &e.
(AdditionIV.) ‘‘Onthe age of the sun.’’ Atthe rate of meteoric
incorporation above calculated, the present rotation of the sun would
be produced from rest in thirty-two thousand years. We may infer
(since it appears very improbable that the sun has had a contrary
rotation destroyed by meteoric incorporation) that the kind of agency
now going on cannot have been going on and alone generating heat
at the present rate for more than that period. For the future we
know that the mass of the zodiacal light is small, in comparison with
that of the sun, from its producing no sensible perturbation on the
planets, and we may be sure it cannot keep up the supply for three
hundred thousand years. The sun’s rotation has been by no means
accurately determined; it may possibly vary to an amount which fu-
ture observations may detect, and thus test the theory.
RADIANT HEAT, 383
Density of iher.
Another speculation,* closely connected with. the former and the
generai subject of radiation, has been pursued by the same author,
on the probable density which can be assigned to the luminiferous and
caloriferous ether.
This speculation is founded, like the former, on the data furnished
by Pouillet’s Researches on the Solar Radiation, and Joule’s theory
of the mechanical energy equivalent to the effect of heat produced.
The calculation turns on the assumption that the velocity of vibration
can only be a small fraction (probably not one-fiftieth) of the velocity
of the propagation of waves, and from the velocity of vibration we may
calcuate the density, or conversely.
Hence the author conceives that we may assign a limit, and that a
cubic foot of luminiferous cether, at the distance of the earth from the sun,
1
cannot contain less than Gate i) of one pound of matter.
With regard to the results of Professor Thomson, especially when the
novel character of some. of the reasonings is taken into account, some
difference of opinion may reasonably be expected. There are certainly
many considerations involved which might suggest important topics of
iscussion. On these it is not my purpose to enter. [will mer ely re-
mark, that in all these investigations the essential point is the expendi-
ture of mechanical energy in producing vibrations, of whatever kind.
The whole question then assumes a more sirictly mechanical aspect.
The sure indication that this entire branch of science is in a state of
approximation at least towards that stage which characterizes the
perfection of any branch of physical knowledge, when all its varied
phenomena shall be shown to be susceptible of analysis up to simple
combinations of the elementary laws of force and motion.
I would merely add that, in speaking of the effect of the evolution
of heat, there is nothing in Professor Thomson’s conclusion which
restricts them to any one species of heat. The essential point is the
production of vibrations; and his results are thus in entire accordance
with the theory which refers all kinds of heating effect to the stop-
page or absorption of rays; in other words, the extinction or destruc-
tion of the vibratory motions, constituting rays of different wave-
lengths, some of which are also within those limits, and belong to that
part of the scale; which renders them capable of affecting our eyes
with the sensation of vision; which (as already remarked) considera-
tions on all hands seem now tending to show is the most probable
hypothesis on the subject.
Radiation of Heat from the Zodiacal Light and from the Comet of 1843.
Some interesting observations on these points are given by M.
Matthiessen in the ‘‘ Comptes Rendus,”’ April, 1843, (vol. xvi, p. 687.)
* Professor W. Thomson ‘‘On the Possible Density of the Luminiferous Medium,’’ &e.’
Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xxi, Part I.
384 RADIANT HEAT.
On the 27th of March M. Matthiessen placed at the focus of a con-
cave mirror of one metre diameter an air-thermometer, which showed
a similar rise above its indication in other positions, when the axis of
the mirror was directed to the zodiacal light.
He next substituted for the thermometer a thermo-electric pile
with great precautions; which, having its condensing cone
Directed to the nucleus of the comet, gave a deviation of------ ae
Directed to the zodiacal ight near its summit...-...-...++s-- 10°
Directed to the zodiacal light at base....... +... eeeeee eee eee 12°
Directed to the part of sky over the sun...-... ssesse sees eee 3°
MMO EDEL GIRS CUIOMG> enatee chalet ters futeretaitolsletetve faci chute (ctietelsts ueienenenenaime Qo
On removing the condensing cone to try whether the effect was due
to atmospheric causes, he still found towards the base of the zodiacal
hight2° or 32.
Instead of the mirror he next used a jlint-glass lens, 56 centim.
diameter, 16 centim. focal length.
With the thermo-electric pile, as before, this gave,
Directed to zodiacal light, summit....-....s.-eeeeee cee eee 9°
Directed to zodiacal light, base. .----+-+. +. 2. esse cess se eveeee 49
Directed to sky OMIGIIS UM nce or enevioe save leneccuos sus te eine taentheuesckowerstactonere dato (NE
With a tallow candle at 10 metres distance (whether with the lens
is not stated, but probably with it, as the experiments would not
otherwise be comparable)—
With the condensing cone, deviation.....- eee e eee eee ee eee Se
This, he observes, shows ‘‘combien est minime la quantité de
chaleur envoyée par la lumiére zodiacale, et que l’influence de la
cométe doit étre réellement imperceptible par notre température.”’
It was perhaps this somewhat ambiguous sentence which led Hum-
boldt to represent these experiments as showing no sensible effect due
to the zodiacal light.—(‘‘ Cosmos,’’ Note 98, p. 394, vol. 1, Sabine’s
translation. )
In the face of the experiments, however, we must adopt another
interpretation; and perhaps what the author means is the distinction
between the radiant heat affecting the thermoscope, and the temperature
communicated to the atmosphere; which are manifestly different things.
The experiment with the candle, if made (as seems to be implied)
with the lens, is an important verification of the fact of the heating
power belonging to light from terrestrial sources.
The result with the zodiacal light also shows that at least a portion
of its effect is of this species, and not dependent on its mere loss of
heat as a hot body cooling.
It is, however, but right to add, that indications of such extreme
delicacy as those here referred to have been looked upon by some
physicists as almost too liable to uncertainty to be entirely trust-
worthy.
MAGNETIC ORSERVATORY. 385
DESCRIPTION OF THE MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY
AT THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
[This observatory is supported at the joint expense of the Smithsonian Institution and
the Coast Survey. The description here given is by J. E. Hilgard, esq , who had charge
of the observations. |
The instruments of this observatory are designed to give, by means
of photographic self registration, a continuous record of the varia-
tions in the direction and intensity of the earth’s magnetic force.
They are similar to those employ ed for the same purpose at the
Greenwich, Paris, and other Kuropean observatories, and also at
Toronto, on this continent, and consist of a freely suspended decli-
nation magnet, a bifilar magnetometer, after Gauss’ design, and a bal-
anced magnetometer, after Lloyd; each provided with the apparatus
for photographic self-registration, invented by Mr. Charles Brooke,
under whose direction the instruments were constructed, as has been
heretofore stated in the reports of the Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution.
The general plan of the photographic registry is as follows: each
magnet carries a concave mirror, (speculum,) in one of the conjugate
foci of which is placed a source of light; a pencil of rays 1s re-
flected by the mirror, and concentr ated in the other focus upon a
sensitive sheet of paper wrapped about a cylinder, which Eevelogs in
a certain time about an axis parallel to the direction of the changes
of the magnets. The point of hight traces a curve commeeaond re to
the ants of the magnet; the angular value of the ordinates
of the curve is, of course, measured by a radius equal to twice the
distance of the mirror from the cylinder; or, in other words, we have
an index for the movements of the magnet equal to twice that
distance; which index or tracer, being without inertia, and acting
without flexure or friction, is vastly superior to any mechanical
arrangement by which such registry could be effected.
The magnetic observatory is contained in a small building expr essly
constructed for the purpose, situated about 150 yards southeast from
the south entrance of the Smithsonian Institution. No iron whatever
has been used in its construction—copper or brass being empioyed
where metal was necessary. The instrument-room, occupying u space
of twelve by sixteen feet, is wholly beneath the surface of the ground;
it is closed in by an nine-inch brick wall, between which ard the
outer wall! of two feet in thickness a space of two feet intervenes on
three sides. This space is covered in at the surface of the © ound
by a coping oe, with a erating at two corners, and communicates ¢ the
bottom with the instrument-room by small air passages. A consid-
erable uniformity of temperature is thus secured, as the aiy has to
descend about. nine feet before it enters the room. A flue «1 the
north side of the room, communicating with a chimney, secures the
requisite ventilation. On the fourth (the south) side of the room is
the door and an ante-chamber, into which the stairs descend, and
where there is a trough with supply of water from a cistern ‘>: per-
forming the rinsing and washing necessary in the photographic
25
386 MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY AT
operations. The upper part of the building is occupied by a similar
ante-room and a laboratory, where the preparation of the sensitive
paper and other photographic operations are performed. A soapstone
stove, with copper pipe, supplies in winter the necessary warmth to
the room. The windows have close shutters, with an opening cor-
responding to a yellow pane of glass, which admits sufficient light for
operating in the room, while it in no degree affects the sensitized paper.
No sunlight whatever penetrates to the instrument-room, which is
only dimly lighted by the reflection at the ceiling of the burners used
for the registration.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENT ROOM.
The annexed diagram, Fig. 1, illustrates the disposition of the
instruments. Dis the declination magnet; H the horizontal force,
and V the vertical force magnetometer; the letter n designates the
north end of each magnet; the declination magnet being suspended
Fig. 1.
N
Plan of instrument room,
freely in the magnetic meridian, the horizontal force magnet in a
bifilar torsion-balance, with its north end to the west, and the bal-
anced vertical force magnet attached to a beam resting on knife-
edges, with its north end to the east. The line joining the centres
of D and H makes an angle of 35° 16’ with the magnetic meridian,
according to Lloyd’s theorem, for the position in which small changes
of direction in one magnet will have no effect upon the other. In
b, 6, b, on the gas-burners, from which the recording pencils of light
emanate, which are reflected by concave mirrors attached to the
magnets, and concentrated upon the record cylinders 7, 7, 7. Hach
magnet carries, besides, a small plane mirror, by means of which
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 387
scale-readings are obtained on fixed scales attached to the reading
telescopes f¢, ¢, ¢, the permanence of the direction of which is checked
by reference marks on the opposite wall of the room.
The three instruments are supported on brick piers 16 X 16 inches,
having no connexion with the floor, while the reading telescopes and
the record cylinders for D and H rest on wooden brackets bolted to
the wall; the record cylinder V is supported on a wooden stand which
rests on the floor, as do also the tripods which support the gas-
burners. The centres of the mirrors and of the cylinders are all in
one horizontal plane three feet above the floor. The distance from
each mirror to its record cylinder is 9 feet 6 inches, affording a scale
value of one-fifteenth of an inch to one minute of angular motion of
the magnet. The distance from burner to mirror is about 28 inches.
DECLINATION INSTRUMENT.
Fig. 2 is a side view, on a scale of
one-tenth the actual size, of the in-
strument for recording the changes
in the declination. A marble slab
sustains a frame made of brass tubes,
supporting a top piece, from which
the magnet is suspended by a bundle
or skein of parallel silk fibres. The
suspension skein is enclosed in a glass
tube, and the magnet, with its attach-
ments, is also enclosed in a case with
sides of plane plate glass. The top
pane is likewise covered over by a
round glass cap. The magnet is 9
inches long, 14 inch wide, 4 inch
thick, and is held by a clamping
frame, the upper part of which
carries the hook by which it is sus-
pended, while to the lower part is
attached the frame which holds the
speculum and the plane mirror for
scale readings. In Fig. 2 the specu-
lum is seen edgewise; compare, also,
Fig. 4 below, which gives a front
view. The mirror frame is pivoted
to the carrier, and is held in position
by a tangent screw, by means of
which its direction can be nicely
adjusted to any part of the record
cylinder.
The magnet is closely surrounded
by acopper ‘‘damper,’’ which, acting
by induction when the magnet is in pre ieiey satan Sats ae
motion, checks the vibrations occa- alae py, ees
Pian of-Dam epPET«
sioned by the changes of direction,
and keeps the oscillations within nar-
Declination instrument.
388 MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY AT
row limits. A screw at the top of the frame serves to adjust the
magnet to the proper height. The circular top plate is graduated
on its edge, and can be revolved about a central collar, by which
means the suspension skein can be turned through any desired angle.
In order to take out all twist, when the instrument is first. mounted
a bar of lead of the same weight as the magnet 1s suspended in its
place, and after it has found its position of rest, the upper plate or
‘torsion circle’’ is turned until the bar comes to rest in the magnetic
meridian. After suspending the magnet the effect of torsion of the
suspension skein on the scale value is determined by turning the
torsion circle through 90° on either side of its proper position, and
observing the change of direction produced on the magnet. The
ratio of this deflection to 90° is the proportion in which all observed
variations require to be increased, in order to correct for the resist-
ance of the suspension skein to torsion.
SOURCE OF LIGHT AND METHOD OF REGISTRATION.
Gas is brought to the magnetic observatory in a leaden pipe from
the main which supplies the ‘Smithsonian Institution. Before reaching
the burners it is made to pass over naptha exposed in a suitable
vessel, by which means it gives a more white and brilliant light.
The shape of the burners is that known as fishtail, and they are so
placed that the plane of the burner makes a small angle with the
direction to the mirror, in order to allow light from the whole width
of the flame to reach the mirror through the narrow aperture of the
chimney which surmounts it. This chimney is an oblong blackened
copper tube, having a small opening about one-tenth of an inch wide
and half an meh high on the side towards the mirror, and close to
this opening, on the outside of the chimney, is a screen, with a
narrow rectangular slit, adjustable in width by a sliding plate. A
good working width of this slit is found to be a little over one hund-
redth part of an inch by four-tenths of an inch in height, which forms
the beam of hght, a magnified image of which is theo upon the
record cylinder. Just before reaching the cylinder this beam is
Fig 3 received upon a pair of
cylindrical len: See soauae
section in fig.3, by which
it is refracted toa focus
/j of about one-twentieth
of an inch diameter,
which makes the pho-
tographic trace. By
this ingenious arrange-
ment a suificient quan-
tity of light is concen-
trated to produce a very
cvood trace. The lenses
[ 5; (ga extend the whole length
of the cvlinder, and are
mounted ina frame, which can be removed and replaced in position
every time the paper on the cylinder is changed.
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 389
The cylinder is 12 inches long, and as the space described on its
surface, by a movement of the magnet of minute in arc, is equal to
one-fifteenth of an inch—the distance to the mirror being 94 feet—
we have room for recording variations to the extent of 180’ or three
degrees, which will be approached only in extraordinary disturbances.
The diameter of the cylinder is 83 inches, and it revolves by the
action of a time-piece once in twenty-four hours, giving a time-scale
of a little over one inch for each hour. The cylinder is made of light
staves of white pine, truly turned on its axis, and coated with shellac
varnish, which protects the sensitized paper from the reaction of
organic acids in the wood. In order to secure still further this pro-
tection, the cylinder is covered by a sheet of stout drawing paper,
which is replaced by a new one from time to time. Mr. Brooke uses
glass cylinders, selected from French glass shades for covering vases,
&c.; and this material certainly has the advantage of not in any way
reacting on the sensitive preparations, and of being most readily kept
clean. “But it is so difficult to obtain them of true and uniform figure
that the means before mentioned have been resorted to, and with
good success. Of a dozen glass cylinders sent with the instrument,
but two arrived unbroken, and these are used for the vertical force
register, while the wooden cylinders are used for the declination and
horizontal force. Each cylinder is driven by a clock-train, regulated
by a seconds pendulum with wooden rod, and revolves once in twenty-
four hours. It is covered with a blackened copper case, having a
narrow slit through which the pencil of light strikes the paper, as
seen in figure 3.
PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESS.
The record paper is prepared by immersing it first in a solution
of iodide of potassivm—half an ounce of tod. potass. to ten ounces of
water. After drying it thoroughly in the air, one side of the sheet is
carefully floated on a solution of nitrate of silver—320 grains of /used
gray lunar caustic, (or nitrate of silver,) perfectly free from acid, in
10 ounces of water—for 1; minute, and after being allowed to drain
a little while by being held up by one corner, it is washed in several
changes of water, for which cistern water will do well enough, and
hung up to dry in the dark. A number of sheets may be prepared
at one time in this manner, and preserved for use in a dark place for
ten or twelve days.
When required for use one of these sheets is wrapped about the
cylinder, which for that purpose is taken out of its bearings and
placed upon similar supports attached to a table in the laboratory.
It has been customary to fasten the ends by a paste made of gum-
arabic dissolved in acetic acid; but two elastic bands clasped around
the sheet, one at each end, “ne found quite sufficient, and much more
convenient. The cylinder being replaced in its bearings, and con-
nected with the clock movement, a mark is drawn across the edge or
joint of the sheet with a hard pencil, which, when the sheet is un-
rolled, furnishes points for drawing a line of abscisse, on which the
390 MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY AT
time is measured, and from which the ordinates of the curve are sub-
sequently read off. The cover is next put on, and the lens-frame put
in position by stops on the base, to which the supports of cylinder
and the clock are attached. Observing the place where the point of
light now strikes the paper, a pencil mark is made, then the time
noted, and a corresponding reading taken in the telescope on the
fixed scale, which for that purpose is illuminated by a candle held in
the hand.
After the lapse of 24 hours, less about 5 minutes, a similar reading
is taken, the time noted, and a corresponding pencil mark made on
the trace. The cylinder is then lifted out, the sheet taken off, and
a new one immediately put on and started as before.
The former sheet is then floated on a saturated solution of gallic
acid, to which a small quantity of the nitrate of silver solution has
been added, and allowed to remain from 10 to 20 minutes, until the
trace is distinctly brought out. After being next rinsed several times
with pure water, it is soaked for 15 minutes in a solution of hyposul-
phite of soda—one ounce to ten ounces of water—to fix the trace;
and, lastly, the excess of hyposulphite is thoroughly washed off, and
the sheet allowed to remain in pure water until next day’s operations
have brought the following sheet to the same stage. The former
sheet is then allowed to drain, and is thoroughly dried, exposed to
the air on a flat piece of glass, to which it adheres, and is thus kept
from wrinkling or warping.
TABULATING THE RECORD.
The trace is usually a well defined black line of about the twentieth
part of an inch in breadth, with somewhat pale margins or edges.
The middle of the line can readily be estimated to the nearest hun-
dredth of an inch by a practised reader. Having the time and scale
readings corresponding to the beginning and end of the trace, and
the direction of the time-scale, it is easy to lay off points at each end
of the sheet corresponding to a certain average scale-reading—600—
through which points a line of abscisse is drawn with pencil. In
order to read off the ordinates or scale-reading for every half hour, or
oftener, when the character of the trace makes it desirable, a scale
of half hours is applied to line of abscisse, and the corresponding
ordinates read off on the edge of a square divided into spaces corres-
ponding to minutes of are for the declinometer, and to one ten-thou-
sandth part of the force for the other two instruments.
The process of preparing the paper and subsequent operations are,
of course, precisely the same for the three instruments. All three
sheets are taken off and replaced in rapid succession before the bring-
ing out of the traces is proceeded with.
BIFILAR MAGNETOMETER OR HORIZONTAL FORCE INSTRUMENT.
This instrument is designed to exhibit and record the variations in
the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic force. To that end
the magnet is constrained by a twisted suspension by two threads to
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 391
assume a position nearly at right angles to the magnetic meridian,
when the horizontal force acting upon it at right angles small changes
of force will produce proportional changes of direction, and the former
may be measured by the latter. Figure 4 shows the instrument in
outline. The framework is the same
as in the declinometer above de- i es
scribed. The magnet and attachments
are suspended by a silk suspension
skein attached to two hooks, and
passing at the top over a glass roller,
which turns on pivots in bearings sup-
ported by the torsion-circle. The
compound bar above the magnet, to
which the hooks are attached, effects
the compensation for changes of tem-
perature, as will be specially described
below. The force of the torsion-bal-
ance depends upon the upper and
lower distance between the threads,
their length 1, the weight w, of the sus-
pended mass, and the angle 0, by
which the plane of the threads is
twisted. If we designate, as is cus-
tomary, the earth’s horizontal force
by X, the magnetic moment of magnet
by m, and half the upper and lower
distance between the centres of the
threads by a and b, respectively, we
have the following equilibrium of
forces:
mX= 5" MW, sino.
From this equation is readily de-
rived the simple and accurate method
of ascertaining the scale value of the
instrument proposed by Mr. Brooke.
Observing that any variations in the
quantity X may be balanced by pro-
portional variations in W, he observes Horizontal force instrument or bifilar magneto-
the change of scale-reading produced ae
by adding to the suspended mass a small weight equal to its one
hundredth part, and the same change on the scale, of course, corres
ponds to a variation of one-hundredth part of the force. This space
on the scale is divided into one hundred parts, in order to have as a
convenient unit the ten-thousandth part of the whole horizontal force.
Since the magnetic force m of the magnet is diminished by increase
of temperature, and vice versa, the indications of the instrument
would be affected by this cause if some arrangement were not intro-
duced to counteract and precisely balance its effect.
Mr. Brooke’s compensating apparatus consists of a glass rod clamped
392 MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY AT
Es 3- Fig: 6. at its middle point to the centre of
2 F magnet, the axes of the rod and bar
being parallel; the free ends of the
rod are enclosed in two zinc tubes,
at the inner ends of which, where
they nearly meet in the centre, and
to their upper surface, two hooks
» are attached; two loops at the ends
of the suspension skein are attached
to these hooks, the skein passing
over a pulley at the point of sus-
pension. ‘Towards either end the
rod and tubes are commected by a
movable clamp, by which the two
may be clamped together at any
required distance from the centre.
It is evident that by elevation of
temperature the free ends of the zine
tubes will be approximated to each
other by a quantity equal to the
difference of the expansion of the
lengths of zinc and glass that inter-
vene between the sliding clamps and
the free ends of the tubes, and, con-
sequently, that a diminution to the
same extent of the distance between
the lower ends of the suspension
skein will take place. The varia-
tion of the interval between the
lower ends of the skein corres-
ponding with any given variation of
temperature may be made to bear
any required ratio to the whole inter-
val, first, by a due adjustment of the
upper and lower intervals of the
skein, and secondly, by varying the
position of the sliding clamps ; that
is, of the acting lengths of the ex-
panding tubes; the former may be
considered as a coarse, the latter as
ga fine adjustment. The glass rod
rests on rollers attached to the under
surface of the tubes opposite to the
hooks, in order that no jerking may
be occasioned by the expansion or
contraction of the zinc tubes. By
a these means the quantity 6 in the
preceding formula may be made to
vary by change of temperature proportionably to the quantity m with
any required degree of exactness; so far, at least, as the variation of
m is directly proportional to the variation of temperature.
—
See
| =
TI
TTT TT
I
MII
eg TEED
a ee ee ee ee
a
@
‘10
a
F|
‘
Ht
=
<
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 393
Figs. 5 and 6 show plan and elevation of the bifilar compensator
two-thirds the actual size. a a, the magnet; b, the clamp, which
attaches the glass rod to the magnet; cc, the zinc tubes enclosing the
glass rod; d d, the adjusting clamps, consisting of two parts; the outer
encircles the zinc tube, the inner passes and nearly fills the interval
between the tube and glass rod. They are capable of sliding for
adjustment when the screws are loosened ; when tightened, the rod
and tubes are held together; e e, screws for adjusting the distance
between the hooks h 4; these should be withdrawn when the clamps d
are fixed; 0 0, fig. 5, are the ends of the clamping pieces interposed
between the tubes and the rod.
The proper dimensions of *the compensator and its approximate
adjustment are found by first ascertaining the temperature co-efficient
of the magnet, experimentally, from its time of vibration at high and
low temperatures, and calculating the corresponding proportions.
The more perfect adjustment is made after the instrument is com-
pletely mounted, by enclosing it in a box with a water-jacket, in which
the temperature of the water can be raised to any required tempera-
ture by heating a pipe connecting the inlet and outlet of the jackets,
and comparing the variations of the instrument at different tempera-
tures with the indications of another bifilar instrument, the temperature
of which has been maintained comparatively constant.
VERTICAL FORCE INSTRUMENT OR BALANCED MAGNETOMETER.
394 MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY AT
This instrument is designed to measure and record the variations
in the vertical component of the earth’s magnetic force, to which
end a magnet is balanced horizontally in a plane at right angles to
the magnetic meridian, in which position its balance is affected by the
vertical part of the force only, and variations in the latter will pro-
duce corresponding proportional changes of direction in the position
of the magnet. In the annexed diagram, fig. 7, 1s a top view, fig. 8,
a side elevation, and fig. 9, an end view of the instrument, such parts
being omitted in each as would confuse the representation. In fig. 7
we see the balance beam, with speculum attached on the right, and
magnet on the left hand, the latter surrounded by the copper damper,
which is further shown in fig. 9, but omitted in fig. 8. The beam
rests with agate knife edges on agate planes, and can be lifted off or
let down upon the latter by means of a vertical sliding frame, (in
fig. 8,and shown endways on the right hand,) which can be moved
by an eccentric, operated by means of a key from the outside of the
surrounding case. Whenever the instrument is handled for the
purpose of adjustment or otherwise, it is lifted off the agates, and
afterwards slowly lowered. There are attached to the beam two
balls on screw stems, one for adjusting the balance, the other for
adjusting the height of the centre of gravity, and thereby the value
of the scale divisions. The small thermometer attached to the
balance frames parallel with the magnet is for the purpose of com-
pensating the effect of temperature. The whole instrument rests on
a black marble slab, and is covered by a mahogany case, blackened
on the inside, with glazed apertures for the speculum and plane
mirror.
In order to determine the scale value, according to Lloyd’s method,
we observe T,, the time of horizontal vibration of the magnet in its
frame with attachments; also T, the time of vertical vibration of
the same on its knife edges. Then if F designates the vertical
force, I the dip, D the distance from the mirror to the scale or
paper, and @# the space on the paper corresponding to a certain
change of force d F, as, for instance, the one-thousandth part, we
have—
2
EE aa ientor ue
The compensation for temperature is effected by means of a ther-
mometer, whose bulb and stem are so adjusted to the temperature
and scale coefficients that the translation of a portion of the mercury
towards the north end of the magnet by an increase of temperature
will exactly counterbalance the loss of force in the magnet. This
mode of compensation, also due to Mr. Brooke, enables us to compen-
sate for the effect of the second as well as the jist power of the change
of temperature; for the statical moment of the mercury displaced from
the bulb by any given elevation of temperature, as ¢, above 32°
Fahr., may be represented by the same formula which expresses the
temperature coefficients, namely, c ¢ +e @.
For let w be the weight of mercury contained in one degree of the.
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 395
tube, and let the tube be taken such that the distance from the centre
of the bulb to the point 32° may be kc, and length of one degree
2k c, then at any temperature 32° + ¢°, the statical moment of the
mercury displaced by a small change of temperature, d ¢, will be
wi(kce+2ket) dt, and consequently the statical moment of the
mercury displaced between the temperatures of 32° and 32° + ¢°
will be (kct + ke#?) w. Let, now, v be the weight which, placed
at an unit of distance from the axis of rotation, will represent the
temperature for 1° above 32°, it will only remain to obtain the bulb
of such a size that k w= v.
The value of v is to be determined, experimentally, by observing
the displacement of the register line, or change of scale reading,
occasioned by a small weight placed on the magnet at a known
distance from the axis of rotation, and comparing it with the scale
value of the temperature correction obtained in the usual manner,
by horizontal vibrations at different temperatures.
The slit in the screw before the burner for this instrument is, of
course, horizontal, the axis of the record cylinder being vertical.
The cylinder rests on a horizontal plate, which is supported on
friction wheels, and driven by an arm below the stand connected
with the train of a time-piece.
In several papers in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society, from 1847 to 1852, Mr. CHarites Brooks, F. R. S., has
described the apparatus which is the subject of the foregoing paper,
in the preparation of which the former have, of course, been largely
drawn from. Those wishing to pursue the subject into its practical
application should, by all means, read Mr. Brooke’s memoirs, and
are also referred to an interesting description of the self-registering
instruments of the observatory at Toronto, by Captain J. H. Lerroy,
R. A., in Silliman’ s Journal, May, 1850.
Notr.—Since the above article was prepared the instruments have
been removed from Washington City to Key West, Florida, where they
were put into operation in January, 1860, and where observations
will be kept up for some years in connexion with the magnetic obser-
vations of the United States Coast Survey, and in direct correspond-
ence with a system of similar observations set on foot by the British
government at various points in their possessions. Toronto, Canada
West, being one of those stations, it was thought advisable to remove
the Smithsonian station to a point as far south as practicable, as the
long series of corresponding observations obtained at Toronto and
Girard College, Philadelphia, in the years 1841 to 1845, left nothing
further to be desired in the comparison of stations not any distance
from each other. The observatory at Key West, and the objects of
the system of magnetic observations at present in progress, will be
noted in future reports.
396 USE OF THE GALVANOMETER
ON THE USE OF THE GALVANOMETER AS A MEASURING
INSTRUMENT.
BY J. C. POGGENDORFF.
[Translated from Pog. Annal. LVI, p. 324, by John D. Easter, Ph. D.]
The galvanometers in use correspond very imperfectly with their
name, affording, as they do, a very uncertain and limited measure of
the force of the current. Even within the first ten or twenty degrees,
within which the deflection of the needle is usually assumed as pro-
portional to the force of the current, the accurate determination of
the relation between these elements is not so easy and simple, and
beyond these limits the problem becomes so complicated that even
its theoretical solution is extremely difficult.
The determination is not absolutely impossible; it could be made
by Ampere’s formula if all the requisite data, (length and form of the
coils, their position and distance from the needle, the size, shape,
and magnetic condition of the latter,) were given, but the calculation
would be extremely complicated and tedious. It would, even then,
hardly repay the trouble, for the result would still be unreliable, on
account of the probable errors in the determination of the data; and,
even if it were quite correct, it would only have a specific value, for
the calculation must be repeated for each instrument, and even for
each position of the needle in the same instrument. For this reason
no attempt has hitherto been made to form a theoretical scale of in-
tensity for the galvanometer, but various empirical methods have
been adopted, which, though they yield only special results, are
preferable, because less tedious, and therefore more easily repeated,
and capable of greater accuracy.
Several such methods have been contrived by Becquerel, Nobili,
and Melloni. They all require the use of a series of currents com-
bined in various ways. With reference to this they may be divided
into two classes—methods by combination and by difference.
The simplest of the former is given by Becquerel. He attached
to the galvanometer a thermo-pile, of which he set in action, succes-
sively, one, two, three, four, &e., pairs of plates, by heating each
alternate joint as uniformly as possible. According to the theory,
the force of the current must also increase in a ratio, one, two, three,
four, &c., and, consequently, the deflection of the needle correspond-
ing to these intensities may be read off directly. This need only be
marked on the instrument in order to establish the relation for all
future cases.*
This method proceeds on the principle of passing, successively,
one, two, three, four, &c., currents of the same strength from the
* Traité d’Electricité, T, I, p. 24.
AS A MEASURING INSTRUMENT. 397
same source through the same wire ; but currents produced by one
or more sources may also be made to act upon the galvanometer by
several wires. This process requires a galvanometer with two or
more wires. In other respects, the manipulation is the same as with
the former process, but sincée the number of the wires, and, conse-
quently. that of the currents which can be employed at once is limited,
it requires several series of the latter to embrace the whole quadrant.
Jt should be so arranged that the currents of one series shall produce
the same effect as a certain number of currents of the next previous
series, so that the several partial series may be combined into a gene-
ral one. Both Becquerel and Nobili* employed this process.
Melloni based his admirable experiments on the method by differ-
ences. After satisfying himself that the deflection of his galvano-
meter was proportional to the force of the current within the first
twenty degrees, he determined the relation between these elements
beyond this limit in the following way :+ He attached to the galvano-
meter a thermo-pile, and warmed one of its sides by bringing a spirit
lamp near it until a deflection of 20° was produced. He then placed
a screen before the lamp, and waited ufitil the needle returned to 0°.
He next allowed the radiant heat from a second lamp to fall upon the
other side of the thermo-pile, and regulated the distance of the latter
so that a deflection of 24° in the contrary direction was produced. He
finally allowed both lamps to act simultaneously on the pile. He
now obtained by the difference of the currents a deflection, not of 4°,
but of 5.1°; he therefore concluded that the current which, from
producing a deflection of 20°, he made equal to 20, must have in-
creased 5.1 units to produce a deflection of 24°, and must therefore
be 25.1. Increasing the activity of the pile by advancing first one
lamp and then the other toward the pile, he determined in the same
way the increase of the force of current for the intervals 28°—24°,
32°— 28°, &c. After thus fixing a sufficient number ofg points in his
scale of intensity, he filled up the intervals by hand. .
Nobili had already used the same process with a galvanometer with
two wires, through which he passed currents from two batteries in
opposite directions—first separately, and then together.
All of these methods are liable to considerable objections. Although
not so tedious as « theoretical determination of the scale of intensity
would be, they are still troublesome. They are, moreover, based on
conditions which are difficult to falfil, and for whose fulfilment we
have no control. It is theoretically true that the strength of the
current in a therma-pile is proportional to the number of the pairs of
yates set in action by equal differences ; but we have no certainty
that the difference of temperature is the same in all the pairs, or that
the same difference would produce the same effect in all.
Melloni’s method is probably the best of those named. But if the
observation of Becquerel,{t that equal variations of temperature pro-
duce thermo-currents of different intensity, according to their position
* Pogg Annal. Bd. ix, 8. 346 and xx 8. 226.
+ Idem, Bd. xxxv,S 132.
t Idem, Bd. ix, 8. 350.
398 USE OF THE GALVANOMETER
in the thermometer-scale, this method can evidently be applicable
only to such slight differences of temperature and such feeble cur-
rents as the Italian physicist used in his experiments.
Besides this, the assumption that the current which produces a
deflection of 24° must be 5.1 stronger than one which produces a
deflection of 20°, because, when acting in opposition to the latter, it
caused a deflection of 5.1°, is only an approximation to the truth,
based on the tacit assumption of the proportionality between the
force of the current and the angle of deflection. If a, b, and b—a,
be the forces which produce, respectively, the deflections a, f, 7,
strictly taken, the ratioa: b= a:a-+ 7 can only exist when a: b=
a:f. This method, therefore, requires that the difference between
f and a@ and the value of 7 should fall within the limits within which
this ratio is approximately true.
From what has been said, it will be clearly seen that no perfect
method of determining the scale of intensity for the galvanometer has
hitherto been given. It may be said, indeed, that none is needed,
since the best galvanometer makes only a tolerable measuring instru-
ment, and for accurate invesfigations we have the mirror-apparatus
and the compass of sines. But these instruments are so costly as not
to be within the reach of every physicist. There are, moreover,
many experiments in which an accuracy of from one-half to a whole
degree in the deflection of the needle is quite sufficient.
I therefore believe that the description of a mode of arranging the
galvanometer scale, which seems to me to satisfy all demands, will
be welcome to many experimenters. My method is convenient, cer-
tain, and susceptible of general application. It has also a decided
advantage over all hitherto described, in requiring but a single cur-
rent of uniform strength.* The principle of this method may be
expressed in a few words. The deflections, produced by currents of
different strength, passing through the coils of a multiplier lying in
the magnetic meridian, can be deduced from those produced by one
and the same current, passing through the same coils, at various
inclinations to the magnetic meridian.
The possibility of this will be seen from the following geometric
considerations. The force with which the magnetism of the earth
tends to draw back a needle which has been deflected from the
*Prof. Petrina, in Linz, has recently described a method (v. Holger’s Zeitschrift fir Physik,
Bd. I, s. 171) which has also this advantage, and is easily managed, but cannot be generally
recommended, because it gives only approximate results. Prof. P. lays the ends of the wires
of his galvanometer on the conducting wire of a constant battery, and then assumes that the
force of the branch current passing through this instrument will be exactly proportional to
the distance between the two points at which the conducting wire and the wires from the
galvanometer touch each other. But this is not true. If we designate by r the resistance of
the portion of the cenducting wire lying between the two points of contact, by r’ the remain-
ing resistauce of the battery, and by r’’ the resistance of the galvanometer wire, we shall
have for the force of the current passing through the latter, k being the electromotive force
of the battery, the expression—
kr kr
——_ —_—_—_—. or a —
rr + rr! + yl gt yl yt + (7! + ah) ,
from which it is evident that the force of the current is approximately proportional to the
resistance r only so long as it is very small in comparison with 7’ and r’’.
AS A MEASURING INSTRUMENT. 399
meridian, it is well known, is the product of three factors—the inten-
sity of the terrestrial magnetism, the magnetic force of the needle, and
the sine of the angle of deflection. This force may, therefore, be
represented by a curve (1J.N page 407) whose abscissas are the arcs,
and whose ordinates are the sines of the arcs, or the products pro-
portional to these sines.
An analogous but inverted curve, 7. e., increasing as the cosines of
of the arcs, would represent the force with which the electrical cur-
rent tends to deflect the needle, in traversing a straight or circular
wire lying in the magnetic meridian, at an infinite distance from the
needle or the diameter of its circle, when compared with the dimen-
sions of the needle. At the same time, the intersection of these two
curves, or rather the abscissa corresponding to it, would represent
the deflection of the needle under the influence of both these forces.
With the galvanometer the latter curve is much more complex,
owing to the complicated form of the wire and its proximity to the
needle. Its course is not known, but it is evident that it must have
nearly the shape of a # in the figure. The problem is first to deter-
mine the shape of this curve, and as this is theoretically impracti-
cable, it must be done experimentally.
This is done in the following way: Suppose a & to be the unknown
curve. Its form could evidently be determined by moving it to the
right and left along the axis of abscissas LA#, and marking in each
position the co-ordinates of its point of intersection with the curve
MI N, which may be considered as given. Thus for the positions a R
and @ 7’, we should have the points of intersection ¢ and c’, the ordi-
nates ¢ p and c’ p’, and the abscissas M p and M p’, and in order to
obtain the form of the curve, the distance w J would have to be added
to, or subtracted from, the abscissas of the points of intersection in
every position but the original one.
This simple geometrical supposition may be readily and exactly
carried out, if the coils of the galvanometer wire are movable in a
horizontal plane. These instruments generally have such an arrange-
ment, and it is then only necessary to fix an index near the coils, by
which the amount of rotation may be read off.*
Set the galvanometer so that the index and the zero line of the
graduation shall be in the magnetic meridian, and the axis of rotation
of the needle exactly in the centre of the graduated circle. Then
pass a constant current through the coil so as to obtain a steady de-
flection of 35° to 40°. A thermo-electric current is best suited to
the purpose.
This first angle of deflection represents the abscissa m p, and its
* On my galvanometer the plate which carries the coil turns by means of a cogged wheel
and an endless screw, on a metallic axis, working on metallic bearings. Such an arrange-
ment is necessary in order to move it steadily. Strictly speaking, the support on which
the needle hangs should be fixed to the plate, so as to turn with the coil, and thus eliminate
the torsion of the thread; and secondly, the ends of the wire, which cannot turn, must be
twisted together so as to be without influence on the needle, and pass out through a hole
under the centre of the coil, as in the compass of sines.
AQO USE OF THE GALVANOMETER.
sine the corresponding ordinate pe. Now turn the coil to the left at
an angle w MZ. A deflection A p’ is produced; therefore we have for
the point c’ of the curve, the abscissa w WJ -+ MW p' = w py’, and the
ordinate p’ c' = sin M p'. Proceed in this way “al a0) M == 90k.
the deflection will then be 0°; and hence the abscissa = 90°, and the
ordinate = 0°. Turn the coil in the same manner to the right of the
meridian, and mark the corresponding angles of deflection until the
angle between the magnetic needle and the coil of wire is reduced to
0°. This completes the observations. The sine of the angle of de-
flection which corresponds to the last position of the coil, represents
the first ordinate J/a of the curve.
In general terms the process is as follows: Place the coil at an angle,
m, with the magnetic meridian; the magnetic needle will then make
with the coil an angle, 2, and with the magnetic meridian an angle,
a==n-+ m, or n — m, according as m lies upon the same side of the
magnetic meridian as , or the contrary. If the several values of
mand n be now distinguished by accents above or below, according
as they belong to the former or latter position of m, we shall have
the following results:
Angle between the | Abscissas. Ordinates.
coil and the merid’n.
mite RR: 0 sina!!! —= sin, m!”
a a ni" sin a’ = sin (n” + m”)
+ m' n! sina’ = sin (a + m’)
0 n SUC ESO Ae
if) n, sin a, == sin (n, — m,)
aor) Ny, SUD Chi yA SU(N, anh 110)
a 90 90 0)
This determines the form of the curve which represents the effect
of the coil of wire on the magnetic needle for a current of a certain
strength, by means of the co- “ordinates of the m agnetic curve 17 N
whose greatest ordinate, NV #, is arbitrarily assumed.
The form of the curve must next be determined for currents of any
other strength. If it were necessary to repeat the process just de-
scribed for every possible strength of current, the process would of
course be entirely useless. Ban such a repetition is not necessary;
the form of the curve determined for one intensity, enables us to de-
termine its form for every possible intensity.
It is evident that when the force of the current varies without any
change in the relative distance and inclination of the coil and the
needle, the influence of the coil upon the needle must vary in direct
AS A MEASURING INSTRUMENT. 40]
ratio to the force of the current. Knowing, therefore, the form of
the curve for a current of one intensity, we can obtain its form for
any other intensity by lengthening or shortening all the ordinates in
proportion to the force of the second current. Thus, if a R (page 407)
be the curve for the intensity one, 4 # will be the curve for the in-
tensity one and a half, all the ordinates of the latter being one-half
longer than those of the former.
If we suppose the curves for all intensities of the current which
can be measured by the galvanometer to be delineated in this way,
the main problem is still to be solved: to deduce the-values of these
intensities, or their ratio to the force assumed as unity, from the points
of intersection of the curves with magnetic curve JZ N, the co-ordi-
nates of these points being given only by observation.
The mode of doing this may be exemplified by the two curves a R
and A / in the figure. According to what has been said, the forces
of the currents which they represent will be to each other as Ph: P C,
or, what is the same, as pc: pk. It is now required to deduce this
ratio from Wp, pe, and JJ P, P C, the co-ordinates of the points of
intersection ¢ and C.
Two cases must be distinguished: either the greater or the less
intensity of current may be given, 7. e., the upper or the lower curve
may be known. Let us consider the first case.
In this case we have to determine P hin the ratio Ph: PC. If
we imagine the curve a &, which is known, to be moved toward the
left parallel to the axis of abscissas, its intersection with the
magnetic curve will evidently fall lower down, and there will be a
position a’ 7’ in which its ordinate p’c’ will be equal to Ph. But c' p!
is the sine of J/ p’, 2. e., the sine of a value of a for which the cor-
responding values of mand have been determined by the process
already described. Moreover, PC'is the sine of MP; but MP is
equal to wp’, which is the value of n, corresponding to the given
value of a.
Therefore,the currents whose effects are represented by the curves
a Rand A &, and which produce the deflections Mp and MP, when the
coils lie in the meridian, are to each other as one of the values of sin
a to one of the values of sin n of the table before given; 7. e., if
n, and m, be the special value of n and m, corresponding to the position
a’ r' of the lower curve, the ratio will be sin n’ — m’ : sin n’.
In the same manner the value of pk may be determined, if the
upper curve 4 F# be that for which the table before given was made.
We have only to imagine 4 # to be moved to the right, to a position
Al fii which C’'==pk. Then pk= CP!’ = sin YU P'S sin (w+ m)
and pe=sin Mp =sinW P'=sin n. Nowifm’and n’ be the special
values of m and n, corresponding to the position A’ #’ of the upper
curve, we shall have for the ratio of the currents pc: pk= sin
n': sin (n’ + mi’).
From this it is evident that, according as the force of the current
to be measured is greater or less than that assumed as unity, the
curve representing the latter must be moved to the right or left,
26
402 USE OF THE GALVANOMETER
until the abscissa of its intersection with the magnetic curve is equal
to the abscissa of the intersection of the curve of the current to be
measured, in its normal position, with the same curve. The sine of
the latter abscissa, divided by the sine of the former, expresses the
ratio of the current to be measured to that assumed as unity.
Apart from geometric construction, this rule may be thus expressed.
To measure the force of a current which is greater or less than the
assumed unit, observe first the deflection produced by it when the
coils lie in the magnetic meridian. Then turn the coils, in the former
case backward, in tke latter forward, until the angle between the
needle and the coils is equal to this angle of deflection. The sine of
this angle of deflection, divided by the sine of the angle of deflection
produced after the rotation of the coil, is the ratio of the current to
the assumed unit.
It will be seen from this that if we have a table like the one already
given, containing, for a certain current assumed as unity, all the
values of 7, or the angle made by the needle and the coil of wire,
from 0° to 80°, and the corresponding values of m, or the angle of
the magnetic meridian with the coils, a second table may be con-
structed from this which will give the ratio of the deflection of the
needle to the current producing it, in terms of the same unit, for the
case where the coils lie in the magnetic meridian.
As examples, I give two such tables constructed for my galva-
nometer. The current for the first was furnished by a small thermo-
pile, made of two pairs of German silver and copper wires twisted
together and heated at their alternate connexions in a sand bath
over a spirit lamp. During the eighteen measurements made, which
required not more than half an hour, the current was as good as
constant. These measurements were only undertaken to illustrate
the process, and I therefore sought neither after great accuracy nor
completeness. The values of n could easily have been determined
for every degree.
Observed. Observed.
i
s
m n n+ m m n n+ m
lalla we
12) ce) 12) (o} Oo (o)
449% 0 49h 25 40 32
+464 5 514 —19 45 26
443% 10 53h 285 50 212
+383 15 53h —37 55 18
+314 20 51h —45% 60 14}
+234 25 48h —54 65 11
“518 30 43 bi 70 9
oe 35 38 —69 75 6
0 36 36 —76 80 4
\
The ratio between the deflections and the forces of the currents,
AS A MEASURING INSTRUMENT. 403
when the coils lie in the magnetic meridian, as calculated from this
table, is as follows:
Deflection. Intensity. Deflection. Intensity.
n sin. n Nn sin. n
sin. (n + m) sin. (n ++ m)
fe) fe)
0 0. 0000 40 1. 2130
5 @. 1114 45 1. 6130
10 0. 2160 50 2.0901
15 0. 3220 55 2. 6508
20 0. 4370 60 3. 5182
25 0. 5643 65 4.7499
30 0.733 70 6. 0071
35 0.9316 75 9. 2408
36 1. 0000 80 14. 1180
These tables, in addition to what has been said, will sufficiently
explain the method. I will only remark here that the unit of force,
which in this table corresponds to a deflection of 36°, is, within cer-
tain limits, entirely arbitrary. Any current may be assumed which
admits of 2 in the first table being made zero, 7. e., the coils being
brought into parallelism with the needle. By beginning with too
strong a current this would of course be rendered impossible. In
the example given above a rotation of 49} was necessary to make
them parallel; the limit of this rotation would of course be 90°.
In constructing the first table, on which the second is based, it is
therefore necessary to make sure by a previous experiment that the
current used is not too strong to admit of the needle and the spiral
being placed parallel; otherwise, the scale of intensity of the second
table could not be extended down to 0° of deflection. It is also best
to begin the values of m and n with this parallellism, that is, with
the zero value of n, and to continue the rotation from this point until
the value of n reaches 80°, or the point at which it is designed to
stop.
A feeble current gives the most accurate results in the lower part
of the scale of intensity, and a stronger one in the upper; two cur-
rents may therefore be used, if desired, in constructing the first
table. The stronger of the two need not give n= 0, but its strength
must be such that the smallest value of » which it gives shall coin-
cide with the greatest value of » from the other current, so as to
obtain a complete series of values of n from 0° to beyond 80°.
Moreover, the force of the current, in the scale of intensity obtained
in either way, can of course be reduced to the unit of either, and the
values not observed supplied by interpolation.
The form of the curve which expresses the effect of the spiral on
the needle for the unit of force is determined by the values of ” as
404 USE OF THE GALVANOMETER
abscissas, and those of stn (n ++ m) as ordinates. In the present case,
by taking sin 90° = 100, we should have—
Abscissas. Ordinates. Abscissas. Ordinates.
n sin (n + m) n sin(n + m)
0 76. 04 40° 52. 99
5 78. 26 45 43.84
10 80. 39 50 36. 65
15 80. 39 55 30. 90
20 78, 26 60 24. 62
25 74.90 65 19.08
30 68. 20 70 15. 64
35 61.57 15 10. 45
36 58.78 80 6.98
The curve af in the figure is drawn from these values. They show,
what is evident from a glance at the figure, that the culmination of
the curve is not over the zero point, but over a point between the
abscissas of 10° and 15°, and that it declines from this toward zero.
If drawn out completely, 7. e.. continued on the other side of the
meridian to the abscissa of 90°, the curve would therefore have two
maxima.
This circumstance, which, so far as I know, has not hitherto been
observed, is not caused by an error of observation; I have satisfied
myself of its correctness by repeated measurements. Nor can it be
merely a peculiarity of my galvanometer, for it evidently arises from
the space which is left between the coils for the purpose of intro-
ducing the needle into the interior of the spiral. All galvanometers
which have such a space must exert an influence on the needle which
will be represented by a curve with two maxima, and few are with-
out this space.* It is, however, no disadvantage, provided the de:
pression be not too great;t only, in consequence, the deflections will
not be proportional to the force of the current, within the first ten
degrees, as is usually assumed, but will bear a rather complicated
relation to it. This is, however, a matter of indifference, for by the
** It has already been observed by several physicists that every copper wire, even that
which contains the least possible quantity of iron, is slightly magnetic, and therefore
renders it impossible to place a really astatic needle parallel to the coils of the wire, when
there is a space between the coils which offers two points of attraction. This observation
induced Péclet, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. ser. III, t. II, p. 103,) to fill up this space and
to hang the needle on a stirrup embracing the spiral. This arrangement would not show
the above-mentioned depression, but it has other disadvantages, e. g., it lessens the ampli-
tude of the needle very much, so that there is little probability of its general adoption.
} If the depression were too great, it might happen that at one point the tangent of the
curve would form a greater angle with the line of abscissas than the tangent of the mag-
netic curve at the intersection of the two curves. The consequence of this would be, that
this point would correspond to an instable equilibrium between the galvanic and magnetic
forces, and there would be another point of intersection on each side of it, corresponding
to a stable equilibrium. The existence of these three points of intersection of the curves
a Rand MN would make the empirical determination of the corresponding values of mand
nm very complicated. The space which is usually left between the coils of the galvanometer
s, however, not great enough to cause so deep a depression of a R.
AS A MEASURING INSTRUMENT. A405
process described, no matter how involved the relation may be, the
values of both the elements can be determined as accurately as the
readings of the scale will allow, and at as short intervals as may be
desired, so that all necessity for uncertain interpolations is removed.
I have thus far, in common with all physicists who have investi-
gated this subject, considered only one-half a # of the resultant curve.
But it is easy to imagine that the half which lies on the other side of
the magnetic meridian cannot, on account of a possible want of sym-
metry in the form of the coils, or in the position of the needle, be
unconditionally assumed as identical with the first half. If, therefore,
it be desired to use the deflections of the needle on the other side of
the meridian for comparative measurements of the force of the cur-
rent, caution requires that the form of the second half of the curve,
and the scale of intensity based on it, should be determined in the
same way as the first.
It must also not be forgotten that the effect of the spiral on the
needle varies with the height of the latter within the former, though
in the middle, where the maximum lies, a slight change in the height
has no very perceptible influence on the result. For the sake of
security it is therefore advisable not to change the height of the
needle after having constructed the scale of intensity, and if it should
have been accidentally moved, to construct the scale anew. The
fixed index may serve to detect any change of height.
The same must be done if there is any reason to fear that the mag-
netism of the needle has changed perceptibly. The magnetism of a
sunple needle may, it is true, grow stronger or weaker without any
effect on the measurements, for the action of the current on the needle
then increases or diminishes in the same ratio. But the distribution
of magnetism in the needle must not be changed thereby, 7. e., the
magnetic intensity of every point of the needle must change in the
same ratio, which cannot be assumed with certainty. If the galvan-
ometer be furnished, as is usual, with two needles acting in opposite
directions, its indications may be changed without any hia unge in the
magnetic distribution by a variation in ‘the relative magnetic intensity
of the two needles.
For this reason it is absolutely necessary to test the scale of inten-
sity of the instrument occasionally, especially after the passage of
powerful currents through it; and therefore the mode of testing and
correcting it must be a simple one. In this respect the method
described leaves nothing to wish for. Prolix as the description of it
may seem, in practice it is as simple as it is convenient. Half an
hour is quite sufficient to make the measurements necessary for the
construction of a table like that given on page 402, which, if the
instrument has a steady position,and the force of the current does not
vary, are as accurate as could be desired.
Besides its convenience, this method has the great advantage of
assuming nothing whose correctness is not perfectly evident. The
method is certainly an empirical one, depending upon experimental
data of a complicated nature; but in the use of these data it is strict
*
406 USE OF THE GALVANOMETER
and rational. Its results, therefore, cannot be more erroneous taan
the measurements on which they are based.*
The principle of this method is closely allied to that on which the
use of the compass of sines is based. There is, however, a difference
between the two methods. In measuring with the compass of sines,
the magnetic needle maintains constantly the same angle with the
spiral; and as the point of suspension of the needle turns with the
spiral the torsion of the thread is eliminated, and at the same time
the great advantage is gained of allowing the needle any eccentric
position in respect to the centre of the graduated circle without
injury to the results.
In the galvanometrical method described in this paper, the needle
makes the same angle with the coils only while it is deflected by the
currents to be measured. Before and after the action of these cur-
rents it makes a different angle with the spiral, or none at all. On
this account it is necessary that its axis, the prolongation of the
thread, should pass through the centre of the graduation, so that the
angles read off by the needle may be really those which it makes
with the spiral, or with the magnetic meridian. The small size of
the graduated circle on ordinary galvanometers renders it very difli-
cult to hit this coincidence exactly, and this method of measurement
is, therefore, inferior in accuracy to that with the compass of sines.
It may be objected that, as recourse must be had to rotation, it
would be better to use the galvanometer at once as a compass of
sines. If the former instrument were made on the same principle, and
as accurately as the latter, this would certainly be preferable; but
even the best galvanometers are only tolerable measuring instruments,
and the small increase in accuracy which might per haps be gained by
this process is no equivalent for ‘the trouble of turning the spiral at
each measurement. Besides this, there are many ‘investigations
which, without requiring great accuracy, make it very desirable to
be able to follow the variations in the force of the current from in-
stant to instant. This cannot be done more conveniently or certainly
than by a previously-constructed scale of intensity.
4
Appendix.—In the foregoing paper the principle of the new method
was illustrated, for the sake of clearness, by a geometric construction.
It may be more concisely demonstrated in the analytical way, as fol-
lows: Let the successive angles between the magnetic meridian and
the spiral, with am same intensity J of the current, be represented
by +m", +m’, 0, —m, —m,,,++--and the corresponding angles
between the magnetic needle and the spiral by n”, nv’, n, n,, 2), +++ >
The needle will assume, with the different values of the first angle,
such a position that J, multiplied by an unknown function / of the last
angle, will be equal to a magnitude, JZ, proportional to the terrestrial
* This assumes that the torsion of the thread and the influence of the ends of the wire have
been eliminated in the way indicated in the note on page 399.
AS A MEASURING INSTRUMENT. AQT
magnetism, multiplied by the sine of the sum of two corresponding
angles of each series. We shall therefore have:
Lf (a) = M sin (n" + mm")
If (v') = M sin (n' + m’)
[f(n)=Msin(n +m )
If (n,) = Msin (n, + 1,)
LF(0,,) = Wsin' (a, + ™,))
If, on the other hand, the coils lie in the magnetic meridian, and
we pass through them successively currents of the intensity J’, J’, J,
I’, I, which produce the deflections n”, n’, n, n,, n,;, we shall have
Pn) = Noon, me
LEG tet, ) Mest,
Lijan)=— U sin 0
Ln, == Wisin n,
1 i(n,) = sin n,,
By eliminating the unknown functions, we obtain from these two
series of equations the values of the intensities J”, I’.---, correspond-
ing to the deflections 7’, n’.---, referred to the normal intensity J.
OO aOL LO DTD BOO AON as W60, 20. *80.) 8p
.
ee’
—-——|_
ea
7
“|
Ry
lA P P Pp’ F me
Figure to illustrate Poggendorft ’s method of measuring with the galvanometer,
408 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
ON OBSERVATION OF EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
BY R. MALLET, ESQ.
[Extracted from the Admiralty Manual of Scientific Inquiry, 3d edition, 1859.]
The observation of the facts of earthquakes and the establishment
of their theory constitute Seismology, (from cess, an earthquake, a
movement like the shaking of a sieve,) which has only become an
exact science within the last twelve years. Its immediate and most
important applications are to the discovery of the nature of the deep
interior of our planet, and of the reactions of the interior upon the
exterior, visible in volcanic action at the surface.
Whenever a blow or pressure of any sort is suddenly applied, or
the passive force of a previously steady or slowly variable pressure
is suddenly either increased or diminished upon material substances,
all of which, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, are more or less elastic,
then a pulse or wave of for ce, originated by such an impulse, is trans-
ferred, through the materials acted on, in all directions, from the
origin or centre of impulse, or in such directions as the limits of the
materials permit. The transfer of such an elastic wave is merely the
continuous forward movement of a change in the relative positions, a
relative displacement and replacement of the integrant molecules or
particles of a determinate volume, affecting in succession the whole
mass of material.
Ordinary sounds are waves of this sort in air. The shaking of the
eround felt at the passage of a neighboring railway train is an instance
of such waves in solid ground or rock. A sound heard by a person
under water, or the shock felt in a boat lying near a blast exploded
under water, are examples of an elastic wave in a liquid.
The velocity with which such a wave traverses varies in different
materials, and depends principally in any given one upon the degree
of elasticity and upon the density. This transit period is constant for
the same homogeneous material, and is irrespective of the amount or
kind of original impulse. For example: in air its velocity is about
1,140, in water about 4,700, and in iron probably, about 11,100 feet
per second, all in round numbers. In crystallized or pseudo- crystal-
line bodies, such as laminated slate or other rocks, the transit period
may vary in three different directions. A very creat retardation of
this period is produced in solids whose mass is shattered or broken,
even when the fissures appear perfectly close. Thus, if one stand.
upon a line of railway near the rail, and a heavy blow be delivered at
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 409
a few hundred feet distant upon the iron rail, he will almost instantly
hear the wave through the iron rail; directly after he will feel another
wave through the ground on which he stands; and, lastly, he will
again hear another wave through the air; and if there were a deep
side-drain to the railway, a person immersed in the water would hear
a wave of sound through it, the rate of transit of which would be
different from any of the others, all these starting from the same point
at the same moment.
The size of such a wave—that is, the volume of the displaced parti-
cles of the material in motion at once—depends upon the elastic limits
of the given substance, and upon the amount or power of the origi-
nating impulse. By the elastic linut in solids is meant the extent to
which the particles may be relatively displaced without fracture or
other permanent alteration; thus glass, although much more perfectly
elastic than India-rubber, has a much smaller elastic limit.
Nearly all such elastic waves as we can usually observe originate
in impulses so comparatively small that we are only conscious of them
by sounds or vibrations of various sorts, the advancing forms of whose
waves are imperceptible to the eye; but when the originating im-
pulse is very violent, and the mass of material suddenly acted on very
great, as in an earthquake, the size of the wave may become so great
as to produce a perceptible undulation of the surface of the ground,
often visible to the eye, and by whose transit bodies upon the earth
are disturbed, (chiefly through their own inertia,) thrown down, &c.
There is every reason to consider it established that an earthquake
is simply ‘‘the transit of a wave or waves of elastic compression in any
direction, from vertically upwards to horizontally in any azimuth, through
the crust and surface of the earth, from any centre of impulse, or from
more than one, and which may be attended with sound and tidal waves,
dependent upon the impulse and upon circumstances of position as to sea
and land.”’
Until this was clearly grasped the observation of earthquake phe-
nomena, in the absence of a ‘‘guiding hypothesis,’? was vague and
useless.
At present the objects and aim of Seismology are of the highest
interest and importance to geology and terrestrial physics. It offers
to us the only path to discover the real constitution and condition of
the interior of our planet, and will become the key to open to us the
true nature, depth of origin, and source of volcanic heat. In these
respects one of the most primary objects of Seismometry is to arrive
at a knowledge of the depth beneath the earth’s surface from which
earthquake shocks are delivered, 7. e., the depth of the origin.
The observer must form clear conceptions of the fundamental con-
ditions of propagation of seismic waves. Fig. 1 represents a vertical
section of part of the earth in the plane of a great circle, cutting the
surface at A’h, and passing through the origin of impulse at A—Ap,
being the prime vertical to that point whose depth beneath the surface
is BA. The wave starts from the origin (assuming the earth’s mass
410 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
homogeneous) with one normal and two transversal vibrations. Ne-
electing the latter for the present, the wave may be imagined trans-
Eig. 1.
yz
lll yf WS
<i
ferred outwards, in all directions in coneentric spherical shells, whose
volume at the same phase of the wave is constant. The interval be-
tween any two such shells, therefore, diminishes as 72, 7 being the
mean radius, and the overthrowing energy of the shock in the direc-
tion of 7 varies inversely as the square of the distance from the origin.
The shock reaches the surface at B directly above the origin verti-
cally, but for all points around that it emerges with angles getting
more and more nearly horizontal as the distance measured on the sur-
face increases. The intersecting circle of any one shell with the sur-
face, which is that of simultaneous shock, is the cosetsmal line, or crest
of the earth wave, circular (like the circles on a pond into which a
stone has been dropped) if in a homogeneous medium, more or less
distorted if in a heterogeneous one, such as constitute the various
formations of the earth, but always a closed curve. The transversal
vibration is transmitted outwards in the normal direction (Ac) more
slowly than the normal one, which is one cause of the small jarring
impulses often felt after the great shock. (For more complete infor-
mation as to the physical and mathematical conditions, see ‘‘ Jamin,
Cour de Physique, 1858,’’ 9th and 10th chapters; Rankine’s ‘‘ Ap-
plied Mechanics,’’ chap. 3, sec. 1, and chap. 5, sec. 4, and passim ;
Dr. Young’s Lectures, “ Nat. Phil.,’’ passim, but especially lectures
8, 13, 31, 49, and 50; Herschel, Art. Sound, ‘‘Encyc. Metrop.;’’
Hopkins, Report, ‘‘ Brit. Ass. Trans.,’’? 1847-48; Mallet’s Fourth
Report, Facts’ and Theory of Earthquakes, ‘‘Brit. Ass. Trans.’
1857—’58.)
Observers in earthquake countries should make themselves fa-
miliar with the usual features, succession of events, and concomitants
which, with a certain sort of regularity, apply to all earthquakes.
Mr. R. Mallet’s ‘‘ First Report upon the Facts of Earthquakes,”’
Trans. Brit. Ass. for 1850, gives these in a condensed and sys-
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. Att
tematic form. The greatest shocks are not the most instructive,
except as to secondary effects; but every great shock is usually fol-
lowed by several smaller; the first should therefore be viewed as a
‘*notice to observe’ the latter carefully. Earthquakes must not be
confounded, either with the forces producing permanent elevations of
the land, or with these elevations themselves. ‘‘An earthquake,
however great, is incapable of producing any permanent elevation or
depression of the land whatever, (unless as secondary effects;) its
functions of elevation and depression are limited solely to the sudden
rise, and as immediate fall, of that limited portion of the surface
through which the great wave is actually passing momentarily.’’
The one class of phenomena must be held as distinct from the other
as the rise and fall of the tide is distinct from the momentary and
local change of sea-level produced by the waves of its surface.
The phenomena of every earthquake may be divided into—Ist.
Primary, or those which properly belong to the transit of the wave
or waves through the solid or watery crust of the earth, the air, &c. ;
2d. Secondary, or the effects produced by this transit; and both
must be kept distinct from co-existent forces, such as those of
volcanic eruption, permanent elevation or depression of land, &c.,
which, however closely they may be connected with the originating -
impulse of the earthquake, form no true part of it, though they
usually complicate its phenomena.
The centre of impulse, or origin of earthquakes, is generally con-
ceived to be at and due to a sudden volcanic outburst, or sudden
upheaval or depression of a limited area, or sudden fr acture of bent
and strained strata, or probably to the sudden formation of steam
from water previously in a state of repulsion from highly heated
surfaces, (spheroidal state,) and which may or may not be again sud-
denly condensed under pressure of sea-water, or possibly to the
evolution of steam through fissures and its irregular and per saléwm
condensation under pressure of sea-water. This origin should be
carefully sought for as to its nature and position.
An earthquake may have its origin either inland or at sea; and as
this may be, a different set of phenomena will present themselves.
In the former case we may expect, in the following order: 1st. The
Great Earth-wave, or true shock, a real roll or undulation of the sur-
face travelling with immense velocity outwards in every direction
from the point vertically above the centre of impulse. If this be at
a small depth below the surface, the shock will be felt principally
horizontally; but if the origin be profound, the shock will be felt
more or less vertically; oe in this case also we may be able to
notice two distinct waves, a greater and a less, following each other
very rapidly: the first due to the originating normal wave; the
second to the transversal waves vibrating at right angles to it. If
we can find the point of the surface vertically over the origin, and
the direction of emergence of the shock at a distant point, or the
angles of emergence at two distant points, neither of which is
vertically over the origin—i. e., in one coseismal line—we can find
the depth of the origin from the surface by methods pointed out in
412 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
Mr. Mallet’s Fourth Report on Facts and Theory, &c., ‘‘ Brit. Ass.
Trans.,’’? 1857-’58, but which space will not permit of transcript
here.
An erroneous notion of the dimensions of the great earth-wave
must not be formed from its being called an undulation; its velocity
of translation upon the earth’s sur con is great occasionally i in hard,
elastic, and unshattered formations, probably as much as thirty miles
per minute, and the wave or shock moving at this rate has been re-
corded to have taken some seconds to pass a given point; if so, its
length or amplitude is often several miles. Its altitude, however, is
not great, and, as may be seen from Fig. 1, continually diminishes
as the wave passes outwards from the origin.
Before, during, or immediately after the passage of the great
earth-wave or main undulation, a continuous violent tremor or short
quick undulation (like a short chopping sea) is often felt. This may
arise from secondary elastic waves accompanying the great earth-
wave, (Jike the small curling or capillary waves on the surface of the
ocean swell,) produced probably by comparatively minute or
secondary impulses, due to the discontinuous and heterogeneous
nature of the formations through which the normal wave has been
propagated. Sometimes, however, a number of shocks occur so
rapidly as to convey the impression of a continuous jar or tremor,
and may be succeeded by one or more great shocks; this is probably
the source of ‘‘tremor observed before the shook.” as the subse-
quent arrival of the transversal waves is of the tremors after it.
(For other complications of the phenomena, see Mallet’s Ist, 2d, and
4th Reports, Brit. Ass.) It is very desirable that the interval in
time between these minor oscillations.should be observed by a
seconds watch, and also their total duration at each epoch of motion.
Former narrators often confound the whole of each epoch of such
rapidly recurrent shocks with one shock supposed to last a con-
siderable time
2d. When the superficial undulation of the earth-wave, coming
from inland, reaches the shores of the sea, (unless these be pre-
cipitous, with deep water,) 1t may lift the water of the sea up and
carry it along on its back, as it were, as it goes out into deep water;
for the rate of transit is so great that the elongated heap of water
lifted up has not time to subside laterally. This may be called the
forced sea-wave; its elevation will be comparatively small, and a little
less than the altitude of the earth-wave e, when close to the shore on
a sloping beach; and where the water is still, any observations that
can be made as to the height of this fluid ridge will afford rude indi-
cations of the altitude of the earth-wave or shock.
Karthquakes, whether at sea or on land, seem to be only accom-
panied with subterranean noises when strata are fractured or masses
of matter rent or blown away at volcanic origins. Where such is not
the case, the two preceding are the only waves to be expected from
an earthquake of inland origin; but when fracture occurs, then at
the moment of the shock, or very slightly before or after it, we shall
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 413
hear, 3d, the Souwnd-wave through the earth; and at an interval longer
or shorter after this, 4th, the Sound-wave through the air.
Again, when the origin of the earthquake is under the sea, (and
such seems to be the case with many great earthquakes,) we may
expect in the following order: 1. The great earth-wave or shock;
The forced sea-wave, which is formed as soon as the true shock
or coseismal undulation of the bottom of the sea gets into shallow
water, and forces up a ridge of water directly above itself, which
accompanies it to shore, and which seems to be the cause of that
slight disturbance of the margin of the sea often noticed as occurring
at the moment of the shock being felt; 3. The sound-wave through
the earth, (as in the former case;) 4. The sound-wave through the
sea, which arrives after that through the earth, but prior to, 5. The
sound-wave through the air. Where the originating force is not a
single impulse, but a quick succession of these, or a single impulse
extending along a considerable line of disturbance, passing away
from the observer, the sound-waves will be rumbling noises, and
may be confounded in each medium more or less; and where no
fractures or explosions occur, the sound-waves may be wholly
wanting.
Lastly, and usually a considerable time after the shock, the great.
sea-wave rolls in to land. This is a wave of translation; a heap of
sea-water is thrown up at or over the origin of the earthquake by the
actual disturbance of the sea-bottom, or in the direction, and by the
emergence, of the earth-wave beneath the sea at a large angle to the
horizon, and begins to move off in waves like the circles on a pond
into which a pebble is dropped; and its phenomena depend upon laws
different from any of the other (elastic) waves of earthquakes.
The original altitude (above the plane of repose of the fluid) and
volume of this liquid wave depend upon the suddenness and extent
of the originating disturbance, and upon the depth of water above
its origin. Its velocity of translation on the surface of the sea varies
with the depth of the water at any given point, and its form and
dimensions depend upon this also, as well as upon the sort of sea-
room it has to move in. In deep- ocean water one of these waves
may be so long and low as to pass under a ship without being observed;
but as it approaches a sloping shore its advancing slope becomes
steeper, and when the depth of water becomes less than the altitude
of the wave, it topples over, and comes ashore asa great breaker.
Sometimes, however, its volume, height, and velocity, are so great
that it comes ashore bodily and breaks far inland. The direction
from which it arrives at any given point of land does not necessarily
infer that in which the origin may be; as this wave may change its
direction of motion ereatly, or become broken up into several minor
waves in passing over water varying much and suddenly in depth,
or in following ene lines of a highly- ‘indented or island- girt shore.—
(See Airy on Tides ;, Encyc. Metrop.; Russel, Report on ‘Waves, Brit.
Ass., 1844; Bache, Great Sea Waves in Pacific, Amer. Jour. Science,
vol. xxl, 1856; Mallet, 4th Report, 1857~58; Darwin, Voyage of
the Beagle.)
A\4 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
Observations of each of these classes of waves which we have
thus briefly described may be made either directly by the aid of
instruments, specially provided or extemporaneously formed, or indi-
rectly by proper notice of certain effects which they produce on
objects upon the earth’s surface.
Direct observations by complete self-registering seismometers do
not come within our present scope. They will be found treated of
at large in Mallet’s 4th Report, Brit. Ass., 185758, where the princi-
ples, ‘construction, methods of observation, and applications of the
best known instruments are described.
Whatever instruments be employed, however, it is found that per-
turbations in the main directions of emergence at the surface, of the
normal earth-wave, due principally to heterogeneity of structure in
depth, and to inequality of surface, are such as to render a special
choice of district necessary, in attempting any selsmometrical re-
searches (even with perfect instruments) having in view the determi-
nation of the position of the origin or focus ‘of disturbance. This
choice, according to our present know ledge, must be determined by
the following conditions:
1. The whole surface-area of observation must be, as far as possi-
ble, uniform in geological structure, and so to as great a depth as
possible. If of stratified rock, not greatly shattered and ove erthrown,
but (viewed largely) level or rolling only. The harder and more
dense and elastic the formation the better, but neither intersected
by long and great dikes or igneous protrusions of magnitude, nor
suddenly bounded by such formations.
2. The surface must not be broken up into deep gorges, and rocky
ranges, and valleys. Seismometry, in a high and _ shattered moun-
tainous country, can scarcely lead to any result but perplexity. If
the surface be deeply alluvial all over, it is less objectionable than
valley-basins and pans of deep alluvium, with rocky ribs between
them.
3. The size of the area chosen for observation must bear a relation
to the force of the shocks experienced in it. Moderate shocks are
always best for observation, and in large areas of the most uniform
characier of formation and surface will give the most trustworthy
indications.
4, If several seismometers are set up in the area they should be
all placed on corresponding formations, either all on rock, or all on
deep alluvium. The rock, when attainable, is always to be preferred.
Three seismometers, at as many distant stations, will be generally
found sufficient, if the object be chiefly to seek the focal situation
and depth. ;
We, therefore, proceed to observations with extemporaneous in-
struments on the earth-wave or shock. The elements necessary to be
recorded are such as will enable us to calculate: 1. The direction in
azimuth of the wave’s motion upon the earth’s surface; and also its
direction of emergence at the points of observation. 2. Its velocity
of transit upon the surface. 3. Its dimensions and form—i. é., its
amplitude and altitude.
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. A415
If a common barometer be moved a few inches up and down by
the hand the column of mercury will be found to oscillate up and
down in the tube in directions opposite to the motions of the instru-
ment, the range of the mercury depending upon the velocity and
range of motion of the whole instrument. A barometer fixed to the
earth, therefore, if we could unceasingly watch it, would give the
means of measuring the vertical element of the shock-wave; and if
we could lay it down horizontally, it would do the same for the
amplitude or horizontal element. This we cannot do; but the same
principle may be put into use by having a few pounds of mercury,
and some glass tubes bent into the form of {_, sealed close at one
end, and open at the other; the bore being under two-tenths of an
inch in diameter, and each limb about fifteen inches long. We shall
also require some common barometer tubes of the same calibre: the
open end being turned up like an inverted syphon, and equal in bore
to the rest of the tube.—(See Fig. 5.) The [, tubes are used for
the horizontal, the others for the vertical elements.
To fit the [2 tubes for use fill each partly with mercury, and so
Sealed end.
adjust it that a column of five inches in length shall be
in each limb of each tube, when held as in Fg. 2; the
limb a b horizontal, and the vertical column being sup- fig. 9.
ported as in a barometer. Tie four of these tubes so
prepared together, back to back, so that if one hori-
zontal limb face the north, the others shall face east, 2
south, and west, respectively, as in Mig. 3. In this position secure
them all down upon a broad, stout board, Reece
that can be itself fixed to a surface of
rock, or other fixed surface of the earth.
An index or marker must now be pre-
Fig. 3.
pared for each tube; for one of these, cut a
a common piece of card two inches long we=[_——==sy E
by rather less than two-tenths of an inch A
wide, nick it partly through along a cen- i
tre longitudinal line, and double it down the long way, so that the
two segments shall stand at rather less than right angles to each other;
cut a cylindrical slice of cork one-eighth of an inch thick, of a di-
ameter such that it will go easily into the tubes; attach the bit of
cork with glue or sealing-wax to the end of one wing or segment of
the folded card, leaving the other free, and thrust the whole into the
horizontal limb of the tube until the cork just touches the mercury,
and so for the others. This marker is shown at rather more than full
size 1n
Cork, Free side.
Fis. 4 ¢ 26 Ce
Attached side.
The edges of the card, having a certain amount of elastic extension,
must slightly grip the inside of the tube.
It will now be found, if horizontal motion be given to the system
416 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
of four tubes—say, from south to north—that the marker in the
southern tube will be pushed southward a certain space by the
movement of the mercury, and will remain to point out the space
when the mercury has returned to rest. If the motion be in some
direction between two adjacent tubes—say, from southeast to north-
west—the markers in the south and east tubes will both show a cer-
tain motion, equal in this case, but in others with a certain ratio to
each other, by which the direction between the cardinal points may
be calculated.
For the vertical element: let the barometer tube, Fig. 5, be filled
with mercury so that about six inches shall stand in the
open end a, into which thrust a marker, as in /%g. 4, and
about twelve inches in the sealed limb; place this vertically,
| Fig.5,and secure it to a fixed mass of rock, a heavy low building,
or large tree; from the amount to which the marker is found
moved up in the tube the altitude of the wave may be found;
and it is obvious that, by the conjoint indications of the four
. horizontal tube-markers, and this vertical one, the direction
' of emergence of the wave is determinable.
|. These instruments are of the nature of fluid pendulums,
= their use assumes the velocity of the earth-wave constant,
/and, in common with all pendulums, they have certain dis-
_ advantages as seismometers.—(See Mallet, 4th Report Brit.
i Nean)) lee
Pas UY Gane nena nnn
be the time of oscillation of any solid pendulum whose length is J,
then
l
i Je (sin. a + sin. a’)
will be the time of oscillation of any such fluid pendulum, a and a’
being the angles of inclination of the limbs of the tube to the hori-
zon. Where these are parallel and vertical, sin. a = sin. a’ = 1 and
Ob aS<az
De a) oeree
They are much superior to common solid pendulums, where the
dimensions of the shocks are small; but where these are great and
very violent, heavy solid suspended pendulums will be found more
applicable; the length of the seconds pendulum for latitude Green-
wich will always be desirable. Where fluid pendulums are not at-
tainable, a solid pendulum to answer some of the purposes may be
thus prepared: Fix a heavy ball, such as a four-pound shot, at one
end of an elastic stick, whose direction passes through the centre of
gravity of the ball; a stout rattan will do. Fix the stick vertically
in a socket in a heavy block of wood or stone, and adjust the length
above the block as near as may be to that of the seconds pendulum
for Greenwich. Prepare a hoop of wood, or other convenient mate-
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. AIT
rial, of about eight inches diameter; bore four smooth holes through
the hoop in the plane of its circle, and at points ninety degrees dis-
tant from each other; adjust through each of these a smooth round
rod of wood, (an uncut pencil will do well,) and make* them, by
greasing, &c., slide freely, but with slight friction, through the holes.
Secure the hoop horizontally at the level of the centre of the ball by
struts from the block, and the ball being in the middle of the hoop,
slide in the four rods through the hoop until just in contact with the ball.
It is now obvious that a shock, causing the ball to oscillate in any
direction, will move one or more of the rods through the holes in the
hoop, and that they will remain to mark the amount of oscillation.
A similar apparatus, with the pendulum rod secured horizontally,
(wedged into the face of a stout low wall, for example,) will give the
vertical element of the wave. Two of these should be arranged—
one north and south, the other east and west. One objection to this
and all apparatus upon the same principle is, that as the centre of
elastic effort of the pendulum rod never can be insured perfectly in
the plane passing through the centre of gravity of the ball for every
possible plane of vibration, so an impulse in a single plane produces
a conical vibration of the pendulum, and hence the ball deranges the
position more or less of the index rods which are out of the true
direction of shock. Moving the apparatus by hand, and a little prac-
tice in observation of its action, will, however, soon enable a pretty
accurate conclusion as to the true line of shock to be deduced from it.
It will be manifest that the observer must record minutely the
dimensions and other conditions of such apparatus, where not per-
manently kept, to enable calculations as to the wave of scientific
value to be made from his observations of the range of either fluid
or solid pendulums. .
A common bowl partly filled with a viscid fluid, such as molasses,
which, on being thrown by oscillation up the side of the bowl, shall
leave a trace of the outline of its surface, has been often proposed
as aseismometer. This method has many objections; it can only
ceive a rude approximation to the direction of the horizontal element;
but as it is easily used, should never be neglected as a check on
other instruments. A common cylindrical wooden tub, with the sides
rubbed with dry chalk, and then carefully half filled with water or
dye-stuff, would probably be the best modification.
Another extemporaneous instrument for measurement of vertical
motion in the wave may be sometimes useful. Make a spiral spring
of eighteen inches or so in length by twisting an iron wire of one-
eighth of an inch diameter round a rod of about 1} inch diameter,
(the staff of a boarding-pike;) suspend it by one end vertically from
a fixed point, and fix a weight (a twelve-pound shot will do) to the
lower end, and below and in a line passing vertically through the
centre of gravity of the weight fix the stem of a common tobacco
pipe; let the lower end of this stem just dip into a deep cup filled
with pretty thick common ink ar other colored fluid; the action of
this needs no description. ;
The preceding instruments suffice at once to give the direction of
transit of the earth-wave and its dimensions; its rate of progress or
; O7
418 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
transit over the shaken country remains to be observed, and wherever
it may be possible to connect three or more such instruments as have
been described at moderately distant stations, say 15 to 30 miles
apart, by galvanic wires, so as to register at one point the moment of
time at which each instrument was affected, the best and most complete
ascertainment of transit rate may be expected. Galvano-telegraphic
arrangements of the simple character required are become familiar,
and are easily sef to work. The best seismometer to which they can
be applied (for voyagers) is that described in Mallet’s 4th Report,
&e., page 87, and plate xv; and no surveying ship proceeding to
earthquake regions should be unprovided with three such seismom-
eters and the requisite time-recording apparatus.
A still simpler form of rough seismometer suited to the resources of
distant and isolated observers remains to be described. It depends
upon principles altogether different from those already mentioned, and
is most applicable to seismic districts where the angle of wave emer-
gence is not steep—7. e., where shocks are usually. nearly horizontal.
Every body overthrown by an earthquake shock is upset by its own
inertia causing it to move in the opposite direction to that in which the
ground has moved under it. Thus a wall falls towards the south if
the shock passes across its length from south to north, and if any
such homogeneous parallelopiped or right rectangular prism, standing
on end upon a level surface, be so upset by its own inertia, the sup-
porting surface being suddenly moved beneath it, in the direction of
its own plane, (as by t the horizontal component. of an earthquake
shock, ) it may be eas that the velocity of the surface must be
egal - 9 Ce x = = Ch: ’)
cos.* 6
where a is the altitude " the solid, ) its diameter of base or thick-
ness, and @ the angle formed by the side, and a line drawn ape
the centre of @ eravity to the extremity of the base and V = 2g h.
This velocity is independent of the density or material of the solid,
because the oversetting force, being its own inertia, is always pro-
portional to the density.
This is the foundation of all accurate and useful observation of dis-
located and overthrown buildings in countries that have suffered by
earthquake, and by which not only may the direction of (the horizon-
tal component of) the earthquake shock be obtained, but a close
approximation made to its velocity.
With a given velocity, V, therefore, it is SORES to assign the
dimensions a and 6, such that the solid shall just overset, and with
this velocity a similar solid, but having @ greater, shall remain un-
moved; assuming always, that friction against the supporting surface
gives sufficient adhesion to prevent sliding.
If, in place of a square prism, such as a wall, the solid be a right
cylinder like a column, the diameter of its base being 6, then
5 pe ae eh
ose let saa BSN ve + & (1—cos 6).
This gives the means of constructing a seismometer of great simpli-
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 419
city, that (in the absence of better means) shall give the horizontal
velocity of shock within a norrow limit of error.
Let there be constructed two similar sets of right cylinders—say,
each set six to twelve in number—all of equal height (a) and of the
same sort of material, but varying in diameter in each set, with a
uniform decremeut from the greatest to the least.
Convenient dimensions for earthquake observations of mean inten-
sity will be such that the cylinder of largest diameteg shall have its
: a :
altitude equal to three diameters, or b = 5; and that the cylinder of
o
least diameter shall have its diameter one-third of that of the greatest
one, or b= 9° Any number of cylinders of intermediate diameters
Sand Bed.
may be interpolated between, and the greater the number the-more-
accurate the instrument becomes. A series of six to ten in each set
will, however, be sufficient for any purpose. For observation of
shocks of extreme violence, larger diameters in proportion to altitude:
should be chosen for all the cylinders.
The material of the cylinders is not important—cast-iron, stone,.
pottery, or other substances at hand—whose arrisses will not crumble:
away by being overthrown—may be used; but no material. will be-
found more convenient than some hard heavy seasoned wood, of uni-
form substance, straight grain, and equable specific gravity, from
which the cylinders can be formed in the lathe, and their bases:
brought perfectly square to the axes with facility.
Upon any horizontal and solid floor let two planks be placed, as in,
fig. 6, with their directions in length respectively lying N. and S. and.
E. and W., each plank to be about three inches in thickness, and in:
width equal to the diameter of the largest cylinder, and its length.
420 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
such that the set of cylinders when placed upright and equidistant
thereon shall have a space greater than the altitude between each.
Thus, if the cylinder of largest diameter have 6 = 0.5 of a foot, the
length of plank will. for a set of six, as in the figure, be about 12 feet.
These base planks being fied level and solid, the floor is to be levelled
up with dry sand to their upper surfaces, and the two sets of cylinders
adjusted to their places, one set running in an KH. and W., the other
ina N. and 8. ae so that in whatever direction the horizontal
component of shock may move, the overthrown cylinders of one or
the other set shall fall transversely to the lengths of the plank bases,
and lodging on the sand-bed, remain exactly in the position as to azimuth
in which they were overthrown. If now a shock of any horizontal velo-
city, capable of overthrowing some of the cylinders, but not all of
them, arrive, it will throw down at once all the narrower ones, and
up to a certain diameter of base. For example, suppose a N. and 8.
shock of such velocity as to overthrow W 6, W 5, and W 4, leaving
W 3, W 2, and W 1 standing, then V will have been gyeater than the
velocity due to the overthrow of W 4, and less than that due to the
overthrow of W 3, and, within those limits, may be found from the
preceding equation. The cylinders here overthrown, W 6, W 5, and
W 4, will be found with their axes lying N. and §., at rest upon the
sand-bed. The cylinders N 6, N 5, and N 4 will be also overthrown;
but in this case they will fall in the line of their own plank basis, and
may roll, and so give no indication as to direction of shock in azimuth.
Hence the necessity for two sets of cylinders. One set, however, will
be sufficient, if space enough be provided between the cylinders, and
each be placed upom a cylindrical and separate basis of a diameter
equal to its own, and in height equal to the depth of the sand-bed..
This form of instrument, then, is capable of giving approximate
determinations of—
1. The velocity of the horizontal component of shock, neglecting
the vertical component, which may be done where the angle of emer-
gence is not great.
2. The surface direction in azimuth of the shock, or direction of
horizontal component of the seismic wave.
3. Its absolute direction of primary movement, viz: the direction of
translation of the wave, which always coincides with the direction of mole-
cular displacement of the wave itself in the first half of its complete phase—
e.g., if a shock in N.S. azimuth throw the cylinders to the southward,
then the wave has traversed from 8. to N.
4. The exact time of the transit of the shock at the instrument may
be also indicated, if either the narrowest cylinders, N. 6 and W. 6,
(which by hypothesis must be always overthrown, ) be connected with
a house-clock in the way about to be described, so as to stop it at the
moment of overthrow, or, still better, if a separate cylinder of even
less stability be appropriated to this purpose.
Three such sets of instruments at distant stations may of course be
easily connected by galvanic wires, so as to give the transit time at
each accurately, and hence the transit rate.
Three or more distant observers, with chronometers, may of course g™*
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 42]
observe this, but such observations can seldom be very numerous or
extend over a large tract of country, and without automatic instru-
ments shocks are almost certain to be missed at one or more stations;
yet it is most desirable that a network of such observing points should
be stretched over the shaken country. For this purpose common
house-clocks, situated at several distant points, may be easily ar-
ranged, so that the pendulum shall be brought to rest and the clock
stopped at the moment that the shock passes. ’
Fig. 7 shows part of the case and pendulum of a common clock. To
fit it for this purpose, bore two holes 6f a quarter of an inch diameter,
one through either side of the clock case, at ab, at the level of the
lowest point of the pendulum-bob, and in the plane of its vibration;
round off the edges of these holes, and grease them.
In the centre of a piece of fishing-line or stretched whip-cord
make a loop and pass it round the screw or other lower projection of
the pendulum-bob; pass the two free ends of the cord out, one through
each of the holes in the sides of the clock-case; provide a squared log
of heavy wood of about five or six inches thick each way, and from
four to five feet in height; cut both ends off square, and stand the log
upright on one end directly opposite the dial of the clock.
Measure off equal lengths of the cord at each side of the pendulum,
and make fast their extremities to the two opposite sides of the up-
right log, ed, close to the top; bring the log backwards from the
clock now, until the pendulum being at rest, both cords are drawn
tight; and then advance it two or three inches towards the clock, so
that the cords may be slacked down into a festoon or bend at each
side of the pendulum, and within the clock-case, so that the pendulum
may have room to swing freely; and very slightly wedge the cord to
keep it so, through the holes in the clock-case, and from the outside;
see that the log rests firmly and upright upon a firm floor; and now
set the clock going. The length of the cords, or the distance of the
log from the clock in relation to its height, must be such that if it
fall towards the clock it shall bring the cords up tight before the
upper part of the log touches the ground. It is now obvious that,
“in whatever direction the log may fall, it will arrest the motion of
492 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
the pendulum and stop the clock within less than a second of the true
time of transit of the wave at the spot.
If the adjustments are similar for all the clocks this error will be
constant for them all; and if the true time be noted at the principal
station it can be got for the rest.
Clocks with seconds pendulums only, should be chosen ior this use.
They should be all set by one chronometer, and their errors after-
wards taken. #
Where convenient, the pendulums should be all placed to swing
north and south, or east and west; and in this case the sides of the
logs will face the cardinal points, and the directions of their fall
(where not entangled) be a rude index of that of the wave. It will
be also desirable to place a tub of fluid to mark direction with each
clock.
The positions chosen for the clocks must vary with circumstances,
but they should, as far as possible, surround the principal station;
their distances apart must be considerable, as the sp®ed of the wave
or shock is immense—probably five miles is the ordinary minimum,
and thirty to fifty miles a convenient maximum distance. Such
arrangements should be made as rapidly as possible after the first
shock has given the expectation of others to succeed.
When practicable, the following method of fitting common clocks
may be advantageously adopted. Let a, fig. 8, be the pendulum-
bob; fix a pin of stout wire into a hole in the centre of it, 6, at right
angles to the plane of vibration; cut two small mortices through the
sides of the clock-case, so that a lath of deal or other light w ood, of
about an inch and a half wide by a quarter of an inch thick, may be
passed through from ¢ to d, just in front of the bob and clear of it.
Mark the length of the are of vibration on the lower edge of the
lath, and cut this length into nicks or teeth like a rack, of about
three-eighths of an inch in depth and breadth each. Place the lower
edge of the lath horizontally, and just above and clear of the pin 8,
secure the end of the lath d by a wire vin or stud, as a fixed point,
so that the end cis free to move in an arc of a few inches up and
down round d as acentre. Prepare a vertical log of wood /, of the
size and form already described, but cut its upper end to a square
pyramid, the flat surface at the top being reduced to about a quarter
; EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 423
of an inch square; adjust the length and position of the log, so that
it shall form a support for the end of the lath c, as In the cane
It is obvious that the moment the log f is overthrown by a shock
the lath will drop at the end «¢, (which should be slightly weighted, )
and the teeth or rack nicks catching the pin 6 of the pendulum- bob
will stop the clock; on examining which, the dial will show the time
to a second when the shock took - place, and the tooth in the rack will
show at what part of the arc of vibration the pendulum was arrested,
which will obviously give the time of the shock to a fraction of a
second. >
This method may be applied to any form of clock, and with any
length of pendulum. Observation should be accurately made by a
seconds watch, or still better, with a Breguet chronoscope, which
readily reads to =; of a second, of the total duration of the shock in
passing the observer’s station; and the observer should endeavor to
record the number of small, rapidly recurrent shocks, and their total
duration at each epoch.
Returning now to observations to be made upon the earth-wave,
indirectly or by its effects, consisting principally of—1. Observations
on buildings and other objects, fissured, dislocated, or thrown down.
2. On bodies bent, projected, displaced, or inverted. 38. Bodies
twisted on a vertical axis, with more or less diplacement. Some of
the most precious data are to be obtained, by the observation, after
the earthquake, of the fissures and dislocations of buildings. Choice
should be made of buildings rectangular in plan, of tolerably good
masonry, and but one- -story in heig ht, such as churches, &c.; and as
often as possible such should be chosen as have their principal walls
running north and south and east and west. These may be advan-
tageously described as Cardinal buildings. With a given force of
shock, and in buildings of generally similar form, the extent of fis-
sure depends chiefly upon the character and “bond? of the masonry.
The direction of fissures is nearly vertical when due to nearly hori-
zontal shocks; but those of steep emergence produce highly-inclined
fissures, often crossing each other. Cardinal buildings exposed to
shocks, the horizontal component of which is either N.S. or E. Was
are fissured chiefly near the quoins, and through the walls whose
planes are in the line of shock. But irregularities in the mass of the
walls, due to apertures, the brittleness of masonry, and slight devia-
tions from cardinal direction in the shock tiself, frequently produce
subordinate fissures in the walls transverse to its line of movement,
when these are not overthrown.
When the direction of shock is diagonal to the plan of the walls, a
triangular mass is dislodged from the ute part of each of the adja-
cent walls, at the quoin from which the wave comes. With steep
emergence such masses may be dislodged aie both quoins at the
same end of a rectangular building, which is that towards which the
wave moves. Heavy roofs and tiled or arched floors suffer most from
shocks of steep emergence. Buildings situated near about vertically
over the centre of disturbance present evidence of dislocation in
every direction, 1. e., by the vertical, or nearly vertical, emergence
ADA EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
of the normal vibraticn, and by the nearly horizontal movements of
the two transversal vibrations in orthogonal planes.
The observer must bear in mind that all these motions are due to
the inertia of the bodies at the moment of the wave transit. The
first tendency, therefore, of every body is to fall in a direction con-
trary to that of the wave’s motion; but this is often perplexed by
mutually supporting bodies, as cross walls—by the direction of the
wave being one in which a fall is impossible, as when passing very
diagonally “through a long line of wall—by disintegration from the
first wave, SO altering the conditions of the bodies (walls, towers,
&c.,) thoug h short of producing a fall, as that the dislocation and fall
produced by a succeeding one is not contrary, but in the same direc-
tion as the wave motion. When the shock emerges at a large angle
to the horizon bodies are often projected, as stones out of of from the
coping of walls: the size, weight, form, cement, sort of stone, distance
thrown, and all other conditions of projection should then be care-
fully noticed. Isolated bodies, such as bells from belfries, balls or
vases of stone, statues, &c., are often thrown from elevated points
on buildings, and reach the ground after describing a trajectory path.
The vertical height fallen through, and the horizontal distance thrown
from the original position, with the form, dimensions, substance,
weight, and mode of attachment of the body, being noted, afford
elements for calculating the velocity of the wave transit if its direc-
tion of emergence be otherwise known, or vice versa.
Fissured or overthrown walls of buildings usually give approxima-
tions to the horizontal azimuth of shock, but may or may not give
any decided response as to the direction of transit, e. g., with a N. S.
azimuth it may remain uncertain whether the transit was N. to 8. or
Statou NN: Objects overthrown, such as images, altar candlesticks,
pilaster slabs, pictures, that can fall only in one direction, may
generally be found, such as will decide the question. Space will not
permit of this part of the subject being treated systematically or
fully. The observer should train his mind, by solving for himself
various cases of the effects of shock on different sorts of buildings,
&c., and he will see from the hints here given how much the value
of his observations, in a recently shaken country, will depend upon
the ‘‘nous’’ and adroitness with which he seizes upon the fit objects
to afford him the best data. The note and sketch-books should be in
perpetual use—no conditions essential for after calculation must be
omitted—and the azimuths, directions, and emergence of the shock
at every observed point marked upon the best maps as soon as
possible. Azimuths must usually be taken with the prismatic com-
pass, or pocket sextant, but should be plotted to the true meridian;
and the magnetic variation should be determined at frequent intervals,
especially in volcanic countries.
Bodies twisted on a vertical axis (such as the Calabrian obelisks,
see Lyell, ‘‘Geology’’) were formerly supposed to be due to a vorti-
cose motion of the earth. This movement arises from the centre of
gravity of the body lying to one side of a vertical plane in the line of
shock, which passes through that point in the base on which the body
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 495
rests, in which the whole adherence of the body to its support, by
friction or cement, may be supposed to unite, and which may be
called the centre of adhesion. —(See Mallet, ‘‘Dynamics of Harthquakes,”
Trans. Royal Irish Acad., 1846.) The observer who fully masters
these mechanical conditions of motion will see what elements he must
collect, so that the motion impressed on bodies thus twisted may be
used to calculate the velocity, &c., of the wave. All observations of
this class, to be of scientific value, must comprise the materials, size,
form, weight, sort of cement, base or foundation of the bodies dis-
turbed, and measurements of the amount, &c., of disturbance, with
any other special conditions which occur; and these will always be
numerous, and demand the utmost nee and scrutiny of the ob-
server. The arc and azimuth of oscillation, with weight and length of
chain or cord of suspended lamp set swinging by shock, often afford
valuable information. The length to centre of oscillation is got by
setting the lamp swinging, and | noting the vibrations made in a min-
ute, knowing the latitude; also iron crosses, or lamp irons bent by
shock. The height, form, weight, exact section at the bend, and
direction of deflection, to be noted.
Whatever difference in destructive effect may be due to formation
or accident, it must be borne in mind that in every shock transmitted
from a deep centre of impulse, and passing outwards in all directions
in spherical shells, there will be a coseismal circle upon the earth’s
surface at some determinate horizontal distance from the central
point vertically over the centre of impulse, in which the horizontal
upsetting or overturning power will be a maximum, greater, cwteris
paribus, than at any point within or without this circle: within, be-
cause oe the direction of shock is more vertical, and therefore less
calculated to overturn buildings; and without, because, though more
horizontal, the power of the shock has become weakened by distance of
transinission. This may be called the Meizoseismal Circle or Zone,
having the radius B ¢, fig. 1. It may be proved that the angle of
emergence for this zone of maximum overthrow is constant, and
makes with the horizon an angle equal to 54° 44’ 9” nearly, assuming
the energy of shock in the normal to ve ary as the inverse square of
the distance from the origin. If, therefore, the centre of the circle,
or point-plumb over the origin be given, or three points can be fixed
by observation in the meizoseismal circle, the depth of the origin below
the earth’s surface can be calculated by the following rule:
‘‘Find the mean diameter of the meizoseismal circle. Then the
depth of the origin or centre of impulse beneath the surface is equal
to the diagonal of the square whose side is equal to the radius of that
cinele.”’
If the energy in the normal be assumed to vary simply as the dis-
tance from the origin inversely, then the constant angle of emergence
for maximum overthrow is 45°, and the depth of centre of impulse is
equal to the radius of the meizoseismal circle.
This gives us one method of approximating seismometrically to the
depth below the surface of the volcanic ‘‘couche’”’ beneath. The gen-
eral horizontal direction of shock (radial from a point on the surface-
426 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
plumb above the centre of impulse) is subject to great and often very
perplexing and abrupt changes in azimuth and direction in very moun-
tainous or shattered country, or even in perfect planes of deep allu-
vium (like the basin of the Ganges) resting upon a highly uneven
skeleton of rock, or where the formations vary suddenly and much,
or are very discontinuous. The change often amounts in direction
to total inversion, and in azimuth to 90°,
Great perturbation of direction is also produced by the abutting of
one mountain chain upon another, which usually alters the apparent
angle of emergence also. The me thods of disentangling these larger
and complex phenomena exceed the limits here imposed. —(See 4th
Report Brit. Ass. Trans., 1857’ 58.)
Amongst doubtful phenomena on record are inversions of bodies,
such as parts of pavements turned upside down, &c.; such cases, or
any strange and unaccounted for phenomena, deserve special atten-
tion.—(See Ist Report, ‘‘ Facts of Earthquakes,’ section 6, Secondary
Effects; ‘‘ Cosmos,’’ vol. iv., Sabine’s Translation.)
In traversing an extensive city, or thickly-built-over country, to
observe the shattered buildings—having first ascertained generally
the line of motion of the wave—the observer should remark where
its directon of motion has appeared to change as it passed along, and
note all the conditions that seem to have there affected it. He should
also obtain decisive evidence of its actual transit, for sometimes the
wave seems to emerge all but simultaneously over a vast tract of
country, where the origin is deep-seated, and nearly vertically below.
Changes in the rate of transit horizontally, or in the energy of the
wave, should be noted by its effects on similar objects at distant
spots. These changes may be expected at the lines of junction of
different rocks or other formations. Evidence should also, if possi-
ble, be got of any breaking up of the primary wave into secondary
waves, as of several shocks being felt where only one has occured
further back.
All evidence should, as far as possible, be circumstantial. Nature
rightly questioned never lies; men are prone to exaggerate, at least
where novel and startling events are in question.
Various local conditions must be recorded: the great features of the
geological formations of the region, not only the successive under-
lying rocks, with the general directions of bedding, lamination,
joints, &e., but the topographical character of surface, the directions
and altitudes of the chief mountain ranges and of the main river
courses, the depth and description of its loose materials, their varia-
tions and extent, and the same for the surrounding districts, from
whence and towards which the earth-wave travels especially. The
deeper a knowledge can be got by exposed sections, &c., of the rocks
of the shaken district the better; the proximity or otherwise to vol-
canic vents, active or passive, the lithological character of material
of the country shaken, whether broken, solid, or fissured; if the latter,
their general directions, dip, &c., whether dry or flooded, and the
effects on the transit of the wave, of changes in any or all of these
conditions; places least and most affected by the shock, and whether
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 497
there be some free from any, and their local conditions, to be par-
ticularly noted.
Referring now to secondary phenomena, or effects resulting from the
transit of the earth-wave, (other than merely measures ‘of it 1) we
should observe falls of rock, or land-slips, to which most of the con-
ditions of shattered buildings apply. lLand-slips change their initial
directions frequently, in consequence of moving over curved or
twisted surface of rocks; thus the previously straight furrows of a
field may be found twisted after an earthquake. Scratches or furrows
engraven on rocky surfaces by such land-slips should be looked for.
Sometimes great sea-waves are produced by the fall into the sea of
rock or land-slips, which need to be carefully distinguished from the
true great sea-wave produced by an original impulse of the sea-
bottom. Land-slips often dam rivers, fill up lakes; and various
changes of surface again produce basins for new lakes, to be filled
by the changed river-courses. The circumstances, as far as possible,
should be accurately observed, and the causation of the events
unwound, and all such phenomena cautiously separated from actual
ejections of water, (temperature to be ascertained,) which are said
sometimes to have happened on an immense scale.—(Humboldt, Per-
sonal Narrative; ‘‘ Cosmos,’’ vol. iv.)
Fissures containing water often spout it up at the moment of shock.
Wells alter their water-level, and sometimes the nature of their con-
tents; springs become altered in the volume of water they deliver.
The directions of the fissures, and the relations of such directions to
that of the shock, should be ascertained, and any changes in the
temperature of wells noted. Hjections from holes or fissures of
strange liquid or solid matters, sometimes of dry ashes or dust, are
recorded, and occasionally fiery eructations or smoke are said to have
occurred, especially near volcanic centres, and blasts of steam vapors
or gases, whose chemical characters should be in all the above cases
observed as far as possible. The dust of overthrown buildings, or
that produced by the,rending of rocky or other masses, must not be
confounded with these. Fissures, sometimes of profound depth, open
and remain so, or close again; their directions, dimensions, time and
order of production, and ‘closing up, and the formations in which they
occur, to be noted; bodies engulfed to be detailed as future organic
remains. Fissures in solid rock arise either from the effects of inertia
or from the range of molecular displacement of the passing wave
exceeding the elastic limit of the materials disturbed; but fissures in
earth or other discontinuous and very imperfectly elastic masses seem
due only to the secondary effects of the shock, producing land- slips,
subsidations, &c.—(See ‘First Report on Facts of Earthquakes,”
sec. 6, Secondary Effects.) Permanent elevations and depressions of
the land usually accompany earthquakes, and are of much importance
to science, but, as already remarked, must be viewed as clearly
distinct, from the earthquake itself. Such elevations or depressions
have a common cause with the earthquake; both are due to the
volcanic efforts beneath, but are not the less absolutely distinct
phenomena, to confound ‘which is to lose sight of all true science in
428 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
both. The observation of these should never be neglected, though
rather belonging to geology proper. The half-tide level must in all
cases be taken as the datum-plane for all questions of level, and
opportunities diligently sought for along beaches, quays, wharfs, or
inland along mill-streams or irrigating "ohannels! &c., where altera-
tions of level may be trustworthily evinced by changes of depth or
run of water. Occasionally local, but widely- extended, permanent
elevations or depressions accompany earthquakes, which seem to
result from lateral compression, and not from direct elevatory forces.
These should be distinguished from the preceding.
Rivers are stated to have sometimes run dry during earthquakes,
and again begun to flow after the shock. This is presumed to arise
either from the transit of an earth-wave along their courses up stream,
thus damming off their sources, or from sudden elevation of the land,
and as sudden depression. Where well observed, however, it has
nearly always been found due to sudden damming up by falls of rock
or earth at narrow points of their courses, the . débris being soon
afterwards swept away.
Observations of the forced sea-wave, whether produced by the
earth-wave going out to sea or coming in from it, will be nearly the
same. It is desirable to find its height above the surface of repose
referred to half-tide level, and its length or amplitude; but from the
extreme rapidity of its production and cessation, or conversion into
small oscillatory waves lapping on the beach, and its generally small
altitude, observations are extremely difficult; they are only possible
when the surface of the sea is perfectly calm, and then must be left
to the skill of the observer in taking advantage of local circumstances,
and of evidence as to the visible circumstances of this wave, which
occurs at the instant the shock is felt.
Observations of the waves of sound through the earth, the sea of
fresh water, and the air, are indicated pretty fully by the description
of these waves already given. The sound-wave through the earth
travels probably at the same rate as the shock or earth-wave; it is,
in fact, the shock (or its fractures) heard. Notice if any and what
sound is heard before, along with, or after the shock is felt. An
observer, putting one ear in “close contact with the earth, and closing
the other, will hear the sound-wave through the earth separate from
that through the air, and thus hear sounds otherwise inaudible. So,
also, an observer immersed in the sea will hear the sound-wave
through it, sometimes without any complication of that through the
earth.
An exact description of the character and loudness of the sounds
heard, and the places in an extensive district where each was heard
loudest and faintest, with the nature of the rock formations at these
spots, should be noted. The duration of the sound from first to last,
through either medium, accompanying each shock, is important.
Gircumeramees of a cna ee analogous to those upon which the
rumbling and reverberation of thunder depend, may affect these
sounds transmitted through the earth and thence to the air.
Observations on the great sea-wave should embrace, for each wave,
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. 429
its height, its amplitude or length, its velocity, and direction of
translation. The height to be taken above the plane of repose of
the fluid, and referred to half-tide level. These waves, when on
their grandest scale, defy any methods of direct admeasurement;
but observations of their results, such as the height to which they
have reached on mural faces of rock, or on such | buildings, &c., as
may have withstood them, or eye- -sight observations made at the
moment of transit of the crest of the wave cutting distant objects,
should not be omitted. When of a manageable size the height of
the crest may be pretty closely obtained by the traces on wharfs,
buildings, &c., or on posts or piles driven into the littoral bottom.
It may be taken from any convenient fixed points of level, and all
ultimately referred to half-tide as the datum for all earthquake obser-
vations as to level.
The sextant may be occasionally used to get the elevation of the
crest of the passing wave, several observers making a simultaneous
observation of an expected wave. The velocity of the wave may be
got by noticing from a suitable position, by a seconds watch, the time
of its transit inwards between two distant points having water
between them whose depth is or may be known. Islands off the land
are advantageous posts for this purpose. Where tide-gauges can be
established they afford the best means of recording all the conditions
of these waves when of a manageable height. The state of the tide
at the time of their occurrence, and the general nature of the local
establishment, with the in and off shore currents, should be ascertained.
The length of the wave (while entire) should be sought for by
a similar method; a knowledge of its length and of the depth of
water infers its height. There are two indirect methods by which
the dimensions of the great sea-wave may be pretty accurately deter-
mined: First. The distance to which solid bodies before at rest are
translated by the passage of the wave over them is about equal to
its length or amplitude; so that when we can obtain evidence of the
distance to which.a large loose rock, for example, whose precise posi-
tion was before known, has been ‘carried, we approximate to one
dimension of the wave. Secondly. The depth of water at the point
where the wave is first observed to break, when capable of being
accurately found, gives the height of the wave, which is here equal
to the depth of the soundings. This breaking point and depth should
always be anxiously tried for. Besides the dimensions of the wave,
observations should be made, on the interval of time, after the great
earth-wave, or shock, and before the great sea-wave comes in, reck-
oning from the commencement of the shock. When more than one
great sea-wave comes in, the precise number of successive waves and
the intervals in time of their recurrence should be noted; also, what
are their relative dimensions; what changes are observable in the direc-
tions whence they arrive at the same point of coast, and what are the
several in-coming directions at various points along a great stretch of
coast, (the latter must be had usually from collected testimony: ;) what
reflux from the beach before or after the coming in of the wave; after
the wave has come in and broken, what oscillatory waves are pro-
430 EARTHQUAKE PHEMOMENA.
duced, their character and dimensions; whether the level of the sur-
face of the sea is, in repose, the same before and after the subsidence
of the great sea-wave and its secondary or oscillatory waves; whether
any subsequent irregularity of tide occurs after the shock or great
sea-waves, or any permanent change of establishment should be ascer-
tained.
As accurate a section as possible of the form of the littoral bottom,
beach, offing, and out to deep water, should be got by soundings in
the line of the coming in of the wave, and laid down on paper. It
should be noticed whether the great wave comes in of muddy or dis-
colored water, or clear and like the sea it traversed; and, where
possible, a cruise should be made out to sea in the direction whence
the waves came, to look for pumice, dead fish, volcanic ashes, or other
indications of the distant origin or centre of disturbance. The cotidal
lines of the great waves should be laid down in direction upon a map
of the coast.
The secondary effects of the great sea-wave, most worthy of re-
mark, are the materials, if any, carried in from deep sea, such as
loose mineral matter, new animal or vegetable forms, or the substances
swept from off the land and sunk in the depths of the sea. As the
range of transferring power of a great sea-wave (wave of translation) is
only equal to the wave itself, but little matter will be carried inland
from the sea bottom, unless where the depth is great close to shore.
If fish or testacea are thrown inland into fresh water, the effects on
them should be noticed. Lastly, the effects of the passage of the
wave over the land and all that stands upon it are to be observed.
In recording the transporting power of the wave, (i. e., its absolute
transferring power, without reference to distance,) the size, form,
specific gravity, and lithological character of rocks or boulders moved,
the distance moved and height lifted are to be given; the base on
which moved, and if rock, the scratches or furrows produced; the
mode of motion, and if swept or rolled along, the obstacles overcome
in their progress. Where gravel or loose materials are moved there
should be given an estimate of the mass moved, and to what distance;
the character, external and internal, of its deposition; the mutual
relations or sorting of its fine and coarse parts. The effects on build-
ings variously exposed; on vertical and sloping sea- walls; on steep
faces of cliffs, and on the caverns excavated in them. The denuding
effects of the wave in sweeping off sand, gravel, trees, animals, &c.
The disruption and lifting of masses and aise of stratified rocks,
especially of nearly level and nearly vertical beds. Effects of vertical
sea-walls or cliffs in the reflection or extinction of the wave.
Specimens should be taken of the rock of which very remarkable
boulders or architectural fragments moved by the wave consist; of
any new or strange matters cast up, or gases or vapors evolved from
the sea, or ejected from fissures, cavities, wells, &c., on land; of min-
eralized or suddenly fouled water found in fissures or wells. Of these,
where possible, immediate chemical qualitative examination should be
made.
Such specimens in particular should be brought home of the rocks
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. A431
or other mineral masses through which the speed of transit of the
earth-wave has has been carefully observed, as will enable the mean
modulus of elasticity of themass to be determined. Where this is rock,
three specimens should be taken of maximum, minimum, and average
hardness, density, and compactness, as representatives of the whole,
noticing especially in stratified rock the depth from surface of eround
and from top of the formation at which taken; each specimen to be of
a size enabling a block to be sawn out of it of at least three feet in
length by four inches square. Where convenient, this operation may
be done on the spot. An iron wire stretched like a bowspring, with
some sharp sand and water, makes an excellent stone saw; still better
where continuous motion can be given by a band to the wire wheel
and winch handle. Where the district is a de eep detrital or alluvial
one, the depth and characters of the loose materials should be care-
fully observed, and illustrative specimens, as far as possible, brought
home. It is in the highest degree important that the degree of shat-
teryness or compactness of the rock formations, the nature, directions,
closeness, or openness, and contiguity of the fissures be remarked, as
these conditions of comparative discontinuity most materially affect
the transit period of the shock in every formation.
Collateral conditions to be observed are: Barometer before, during,
and after the earthquake; thermometer and rain gage; hygrometer
and electrical state of the air during the phenomena; magnetometrical
observations to be made where these are practicable; all unusual
meteorological appearances to be noted, and all changes or perturba-
tions of climate or season observable for a year before and after the
shock are desirable to be ascertained. Also, whether epidemic or other
diseases follow, and have a distinct connexion of cause and effect with
the earthquake, as by change of season, failure of crop or food, injury
to arterial drainage, the presence of fogs or exhalations, or like
events.
The effects of the shock itself on man and the lower animals to be
noticed. Nausea is undoubtedly a frequent.effect upon human beings
at the instant of shock; but the nature of its production is uninvesti-
gated. Is it due to nervous perturbation, or to the movement, as in
the case of sea-sickness? Some animals appear to predict the shock
before men are conscious of its approach. Birds are often killed by
being thrown off their roosts while asleep at night. Flat fish on the
sea bottom are often killed by the direct blow of the steeply emer-
gent wave. All such modes of death should be noted. Active vol-
canic phenomena occurring before, during, or after the earthquake,
in adjacent or distant regions, will, of course, be recorded.
Records or trustwor ih tir aditions are to be sought for innew or little
explored volcanic countries, or those neighboring to them, as to the
state of activity or repose of these vents for a long period prior to
and during the earthquake; also as to their state before and during
any previous earthquakes—all remarkable facts as to which should be
collected. Where meteorological or tidal tables exist they should be
transcribed for the times correlative tothe above records. The opinions
of old observers as to changes of climate or ‘season; the occurrence
432 EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA.
of pestilences, failure of crops, &c., in relation to earthquakes, while
they must be received with caution, should not be disregarded.
Any changes of permanent level of sea and land that accompanied
former earthquakes that are on record should be obtained, with their
particulars; whether the same points have been affected in successive
earthquakes and by successive upheavals; whether the same or differ-
ent volcanoes were in action during successive earthquakes; and
whether the area of disturbance in habitual earthquake regions seems
to enlarge in successive shocks.—(Humboldt, ‘‘ Cosmos.’’)
Upon maps of the country in which the shock was felt, coseismal
and meizoseismal curves may be finally laid down, upon which also
the cotidal lines of the great sea-waves on a long coast-line may be
marked. Maps of fissures formed in relation to the coseismal lines,
and generally sketches of all visible remarkable effects of the earth-
quake on natural or artificial objects, should be made. Photography
affords precious facilities for preserving the appearances of shattered
buildings and the relations or alterations of natural features, &c. The
effects of earthquakes on the lives of men and animals; statistics of
mortality; modes of entombment by the convulsion, as bearing on
future organic remains; burying of objects of human art—are all
worthy of notice.
It sometimes happens that a shock of earthquake is felt at sea at
great distances from land, and over profound depths; a sudden blow
is felt as if the ship had struck a rock.—(See ‘‘ Comptes Rendus,’’
vol. vi, pp. 302 and 512, 1853.)
The earth-wave coming from an origin probably in most cases nearly
vertically beneath is here transferred to the ocean, through which it
passes upwards as an elastic wave, with the same speed as the sound-
wave through the sea. When such an event occurs in a smooth sea,
and circumstances are favorable, we should look out for and note the
direction of the passage almost immediately in form of a single, low
swell, of the great sea-wave, which may be formed directly over the
origin, at no very great distance off. Immediate attention should be
given to the particulars of any objects that may have been displaced
on board. Compasses are thrown out of the gimbals, shot dislodged
from their seats round the hatchway coamings, or other places; a mast
has even been unstepped. The relation observed between the extent
of lateral and of vertical displacement will give some notion of the
deviation of the line of shock from the vertical, and of its slope in
azimuth. This found, a cruise about may be made in search of pumice,
discoloration, or other indications upon the surface of the sea, &ce.,
of the orgin under the sea bottom. Where the depth of water is
great it is improbable that any indications of the convulsion below
will reach the surface. Efforts, however, should be made to reach the
bottom with the armed lead line and to obtain two lines of soundings
at equal intervals for some miles, running both in latitude and longi-
tude, and to bring up specimens of the bottom at each throw of the
line. The origin may be found to be a newly-emerging volcano, an
object always of ereat interest; the observation when in deep water
EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA. - 433
is capable of adding much to our knowledge of chemical and physical
geology.
Perhaps no branch of terrestrial physics will so richly repay to the
observer, who is so fortunate as to be able to reach the greater seats
of volcanic and seismic action of our globe, the labor that will be
necessary beforehand to enable him effectually to grasp his subject,
as seismology; but observations undertaken without such preliminary
knowledge will, for the most part, be valueless.
Besides the study of the several works already mentioned in the
text, Lyell’s ‘‘Geology,’’ passim, should be studied, and a few of the
best narratives of earthquakes perused. Such are Hamilton’s and
Dolomieu’s ‘‘ Accounts of the Great Calabrian Karthquake,’’ (neglect-
ing their theoretic views;) Humboldt’s, Admiral FitzRoy’s, and C.
Darwin’s Accounts of the South American, and Sir Stamford Raffles’s
Account of those of Java; with several others.
434 ‘ METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS.
METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS.
[Mr. Cassella, of London, has furnished us with a series of wood cuts to illustrate some
late forms of instruments constructed by himself; and, as they may be interesting to
meteorological observers, we have concluded to insert them in this Appendix to the
Annual Report.—J. H.] I
Fig. 1 represents a solar radiation thermometer, with blackened
bulb, in a stout glass tube exhausted of air within one-tenth of an
inch of the mercurial gauge, constructed agreeably to the suggestion
of Sir John Herschel.
The instrument being thus protected from all external influences,
gives uniformity of readings for comparison of solar radiation, which sur-
passes those obtained by the naked bulb exposed to contact with the air.
Fig. 2.
oY
PRGF® PHILLIPS'S MAXIMUM THERMOMETER ~
o | 19 | 20] 30
Fig. 2 represents a maximum thermometer constructed on the
principle of Professor Phillips. The maximum point of temperature
attained during the interval between two observations is indicated
by a separation in the mercurial column. The end of a portion of
the extremity of the column is left at the point of maximum, while
the contraction takes place in the remainder of the column, as shown
in the figure. To insure this separation, the bore of the tube is
exceedingly fine, and a minute portion of air is left by the maker at
the point where the separation takes place. This instrument is sus-
pended horizontally on a hook at one end and on a pin at the other.
In order to bring back the index to its proper place after the obser-
vation has been made, the pin is removed, the instrument is brought
to a perpendicular position with the bulb downwards, when the
detached mercury descends into near contact with the remaining
METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. 435
portion of the column. The instrument is again brought back to its
horizontal position and the pin restored to its place.
Thermometers constructed after this plan were first exhibited by
Professor Phillips, accompanied by a description, at the Oxford
meeting of the British Association for the advancement of science,
in 1832. The principle of the instrument is, as we have stated, the
employment of a certain portion of the column of mercury detached
asa marker. The length of this is capable of a great range of adap-
tation to suit the objects of experiment; the instrument is inde-
pendent of change by time or chemical action, and as delicate in
operation as the best ordinary thermometer. Mr. Phillips « constructed
a number twenty-five years ago, some of which remain in an excellent
state to the present time. The length of the marker may be varied
at pleasure by means of a second hollow ball blown at the extremity
opposite the ball containing the mercury. The longer this marker
is left the more moveable it becomes. With a cer fain small length
depending on the diameter of the tube it will remain, without moving,
in any position, and requires strong shaking to change its place.
Among the samples presented to the ‘Association was one planned by
Professor Phillips for special researches on limited sources, or areas
of heat, with small bulb, fine bore, and short detached marking column.
Thus constructed, the thermometer may be used in any position—ver-
tical, inclined, or horizontal—and the short detached marking column
will retain its place with such firmness that the instrument may be
carried to a distance, or even agitated, without disturbing the regis-
tration.
Fig. 3.
go140 i 50160) 70) #0) 90 / loo) 10
Fig. 3 represents an instrument of the same kind with black
bulb for solar radiation.
7 a
Fig. 4 represents the ordinary minimum thermometer in which
the index is a small piece of enamel.
436 METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS.
Fig. 5 represents a convenient form for mounting a thermometer
for determining the temperature of grass due to radiation.
Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
=n Fig. 6 represents one of a series of "
|. va standard thermometers, extra sensitive,
Bs about 20 inches in length, each degree
bd three-fourths of an inch, divided into
etenths or twentieths.
2 Sensitive thermometers for extremely
# low temperatures are also constructed of
# the same pattern, thirty-five inches long,
: with a range from Bo Del oMy to 80° above
: cific aoe 720.
Vig. T represents Regnault’s condens-
ing dew-point hygrometer.
This instrument consists essentially of
two sensitive thermometers, as shown in
=the figure, the lower exposed to the
: action of the atmosphere, the upper to
A Me the influence of a current of air passing
d hee ether contained in a well-pol-
eished silver bottle, from the mouth of
which the stem of the thermometer
projects. This thermometer marks the
exact temperature at which the aqueous
avapor at the time in the atmosphere is
condensed in the form of dew upon the
e bottle, and thus gives by direct observa-
gtion the existing ‘‘dew-point.”’ The
E polished silver Bottle is about one ick
Ein diameter, the neck being contracted
i] @ to about five-eighths. The thermometer inserted into this
“UE bottle is a sensitive one, divided on its stem to half degrees,
Nz the stem passing through an ivory stopper fitted with a
cork which renders the bottle air-tight at the neck. On one side; and
within the silver bottle, a small, slender silver tube descends to nearly
the bottom; this tube passes outwards, and is connected with an India-
rubber tube. Upon nearly filling the large part of the silver bottle
with ether, and-blowing through this tube, the air rises. through the
ether in bubbles and carries with it a portion of the ether in vapor.
This evaporation of the ether causes such a degree of cold that the
surface of the silver bottle is so reduced in temperature as to cause a
precipitation of dew. The supporting stem of the instrument being
hollow aready means is provided for the egress of the air. The bottle
at the foot of the stand is for containing a supply of ether.
Fig. 8 represents the hygrometrical apparatus or instrument for
measuring altitudes by the boiling point of water. It consists first,
of a strong sensitive enamelled thermometer, the scale of which ranges
from 180° to 214° Fahrenheit, divided on the stem so as to show the
tenth of adegree. Second, a copper boiler supported on a smail tripod
and surmounted by a telescopic draw-tube, which is again sur-
fee RIO
ee
cA SH IBAEE
METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. A37
‘rounded by asecond tube or steam jacket. The
inner tube has perforations near the top which
allow the steam readily to fill the intermediate
space and freely to escape by aside tube, as
shown in the figure. The thermometer is sup-
ported, at about one inch above the surface of
the water in the boiler, by means of a cork or
India-rubber washer on the upper part of the
stem, and can be immersed in the steam to any
required amount by sliding the telescope tube
to any required height. Distilled water is
used in this instrument, which is made to boil
by means of a spirit lamp. The whole is
packed in a leathern sling case, shownin Fig. 9.
Big. 10.
anil
a
NT iis = 2 .
At i :
— ESS SSS SSS Sas
Fig. 10 represents a portable anemometer for
registering the velocity of the wind in miles and
furlongs.
This instrument is a modification of the anemo-
meter devised by Dr. Robinson, of Armagh, which
/ consists essentially of four hemispherical cups, hav-
ing their diametrical planes exposed to a passing
current of air; they are carried by four folding
horizontal arms attached toa vertical shaft or axis,
which is caused to rotate by the motion of the
wind. Dr. Robinson found that the cups, and consequently the axis
to which they are attached, revolve with one-third of the wind’s
438 METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. ‘
velocity. A simple arrangement of wheels and screws is appended
to the instrument, which, by means of two indices, shows, on inspec-
tion, the space traversed ‘by the wind. The outer or front wheel, one
revolution of which is equal to the transit of five miles of wind, is
furnished with two graduated circles, the interior being divided to the
eighth part of a mile, so that each division is equal to a furlong,
while the exterior is divided into one hundred parts, each being equal
to five miles. The stationary index at the top of the dial marks the
number of miles (under five) and furlongs that the wind may have
traversed, in addition to the miles shown by the traversing index,
which revolves with the dial and indicates the transit of every five
miles. The graduation is to five hundred. The traversing index is
furnished with a milled-headed screw at the back of the instrument,
which is employed for bringing its extremity to the zero point when the
instrument is set, which consists in merely turning it by means of the
milled-headed screw and bringing the end of the index to point to zero.
. By means of the folding arms which carry the cups this anemometer
is rendered portable. When in use it may be screwed on a shaft or
the ordinary piece of gas-pipe which gecompanies it and elevated to
any desirable altitude. It is particularly adapted for occasional obser-
vations on shore, and is suitable for measuring the force of the wind
at sea. It may readily be set up on the highest part of a building or
elevated on board a vessel. When inspected it will show alike the
wind’s present velocity as well as the rate at which it was passed
since it was set or last read. This instrament may also be used for
showing the ventilation of public buildings or dwellings, by an inspec-
tion of its dial in combination with a watch or clock, by which the
rate of the progress of ventilation may be seen.
Fig. 11.
aS cit Fig. 11 represents a convenient form
} ie aenl oe \ eec(ope Lind’s anemometer for showing the
direction and force of the wind. “This
consists essentially of a glass tube of
half an inch bore, bent into the form
of a U, as shown in the figure, the
lower half of which is filled with mer-
cury; the upper end of one of the legs
is bent horizontally, and when this is
directed toward the wind the mercury
is driven down by the pressure in one
leg and caused to rise in the other,
the difference in level gives the pres-
sure of the wind in inches of mer-
cury from which the velocity may be
calculated. For observing very high
winds the straight leg may be closed
at the top, im w hich case the pressure
on the open end will be indicated by
the condensation of the air in the
other leg, combined with the difference
of level of the mercury in the two
legs.
FILLING BAROMETER TUBES. A439
ON FILLING BAROMETER TUBES.
[Having been frequently called upon by our correspondents to give information relative to
filling barometer tubes, we requested Mr. James Green, of New York, and Mr. W. Wurde-
mann, of Washington, to furnish us with an account of the methods employed by them.
The following are their answers to our request, with additional information from the Trans-
actions of the Royal Society.—J. H.]
I.—By JamMreS GREEN, OF New YorK.
One of the greatest difficulties with the inexperienced is to get the
tube itself clean and free of moisture. If the tube is foul, the com-
mon way is to clean it with a covered copper wire, wrapped with
additional cotton at the end to fit the tube, and moistened with alcohol
and whiting at first, afterward with dry cotton. If the tube can be
heated and air blown in dry, so much the better.
The mercury and tube should be heated as much as will be allow-
able to handle them, to keep all the water ina state of vapor. The mer-
cury is filtered into the tube in a long paper funnel, in a fine stream,
until within a ately ter of an inch of the top. The tube will now be
found covered with small air bubbles. Stop the end of the tube with
the finger, and run a large air bubble up and down the tube. This
will collect the small ones together. Provided the tube be clean and
dry, and mercury pure, a pretty g rood result is obtained.
To boil the mercury in the tube, fill within three inches of the top.
Then, with a clear charcoal fire or long spirit lamp, warm the whole
tube as much as you can without inconvenience. The tube being held
by a cloth, (with woollen gloves on hands is well,) then commence at
the top or open end and hold the tube over the fire until the mercury
boils, moving the tube a little in all directions all the time to equalize
the distribution of the heat from the fire. Continue the boiling
downwards until you reach the end, and then return boiling up to the
top again. Some begin at the closed end, (for economy of risk and
labor,) and boil up only. This may answer the purpose, but not so
well as the other, particularly if the tube is not perfectly dry and
clean. The part of the tube unoccupied will be well-prepared by
the boiling mercury bubbling up; so that to complete the filling, filter
hot mercury to the top.
The more perfect methods of boiling are impracticable out of the
workshop and hands of the glass-blower.
One of the best tests for the purity of the mercury is, that after
once filtering in a long paper funnel to get it clean, in filtering again
slowly no lines or marks are left on the paper by the receding sur-
face, and in motion no strings or tails are made, but the mercury will
be rounded at its edges.
The best method ordinarily practicable for purifying mercury is to
put it in a large bottle with some very dilute nitric acid, and shake it
AAO FILLING BAROMETER TUBES.
frequently. It should then be left for some days, and shaken occa-
sionally; then well washed with pure water and dried. I distil first,
and then wash with acid, and this will take out the metals likely to be
found in it.
Ii.—By W. WuRDEMANN, OF WASHINGTON.
In compliance with your request, as contained in your note received
this day, I will give some notes in regard to my usual method of filling
barometers. .
First, let me premise that I have so far filled only such as have a
straight tube, without bend or contraction, and to such alone the
method below explained is applicable; nor ought the tubes to be of a
less bore than 58; of an inch.
Besides the requisites stated, those of a clean tube and perfectly
pure mercury are equally indispensably necessary with this method
as well as any other, where a perfect instrument is desired. The
purification of mercury is best accomplished by means of perchloride
of iron, with which it is shaken in a diluted state; then carefully
washed with pure water, and again freed from moisture by heating.
The glass tube must have its open end ground straight and smooth,
so that it can be closed air-tight with the finger, or better, with hard
caoutchouc, as the former is liable to introduce moisture or grease.
Warm well both mercury and glass tube, and fill in through a clean
paper funnel with a very small hole (about 5!) of an inch) below, to
within about one-fourth of an inch of the top. Shut up the end and
turn the tube horizontal, when the mercury left will form a bubble
that can be made to run from one end to the other by change of in-
clination, which will gather all the small air bubbles visible that
adhered to the inside of the glass tube during filling. Now let that
bubble, which has grown somewhat larger, pass to the open end.
Fill up this time with mercury entirely, and shut up tightly. Then
reverse tube over a basin, when, by slightly relieving the pressure
against the end, the weight of the column of mercury will force some
out, forming a vacuum above, which ought not to exceed one-half an
inch. Closing up again tightly, let this vacuum bubble traverse the
length of the tube on the several sides, when it will absorb those
minute portions of air, now greatly expanded from removed atmo-
spheric pressure, that were not drawn at the first gathering.
The perfect freedom from air is easily recognized by the sharp con-
cussion with which the column beats against the sealed end, when,
with a large vacuum bubble, the horizontally held tube is slightly
moved.
CONSTRUCTION OF A STANDARD BAROMETER. AAI
ACCOUNT OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF A STANDARD BAROMETER,
AND DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS AND PROCESSES EM-
" PLOYED IN THE VERIFICATION OF BAROMETERS AT THE KEW
OBSERVATORY.
BY JOHN WELSH.
Communicated to the Royal Society by J. P. Gassiot, esq.
I.—STANDARD BAROMETER.
In the course of the years 1853-54 several attempts were made,
under the superintendence of the Kew committee, to prepare, by the
usual method of boiling, a barometer tube of large dimensions. Mr.
Negretti, to whom was entrusted the preparation of the tube, succeeded
repeatedly in boiling, apparently satisfactorily, tubes of fully one inch
internal diameter. Many of these, however, ‘broke spontaneously
before they could be mounted, some of them within a few hours and
others after an interval of several days. Two or three tubes were
ultimately erected, but their condition was not’satisfactory. The
adhesion of the mercury to the glass was so great, that in a falling
barometer. the convexity of the top of the column was destroyed, and
the surface of the mercury assumed even a concave form. After a
few days rings of dirt or other impurity were formed on the glass
near the top of the column, which soon increased to such a degree as
entirely to interfere with the observation. The mercury employed in
filling the tubes had been previously treated for some weeks with
dilute nitric acid, and afterwards kept in bottles under strong sulphuric
acid, being well washed with water and dried by repeated filtering
before use. Dr. W. A. Miller examined specimens of the mercury,
and could detect no impurity in it.
Suspecting that some injurious effect might have been produced
upon the mercury or upon the glass by the great heat to which the
tube was necessarily exposed in boiling so large a mass of mercury, it
occurred to me that the difficulty might be removed by another method
of filling the tube, which I shall now describe:
The tube was, in the first place, prepared as follows: To its upper
end was attached a capillary tube bent thrice at right angles, having
its bore much contracted at the middle point of its length, with a
small bulb blown at another part of its length, being finally drawn
out to a fine point and there hermetically sealed. To the lower end
of the large tube was attached ten inches of a smaller tube, having a
bore of three- tenths of an inch, and to that again was added about
six inches of capillary tube. _ A bulb of three-fourths of an inch was
blown at the end of the smaller tube, which, at its junction with the
449 CONSTRUCTION OF A STANDARD BAROMETER.
larger tube, was finally bent into a syphon. The end of the lower
capillary tube was now connected with a good air pump, and the air
very slowly extracted at the same time that the whole tube was
strongly heated by passing a large spirit lamp along it. When the
air had been as well as possible extracted, and whilst the air pump
was still in action and the heat still applied, the lower capillary tube
was sealed by a blow-pipe flame. When the tube had cooled, it was’
placed at a small inclination with the end of the upper capillary tube
in a vessel containing mercury which had been previously boiled.
The point of this tube was broken off under the mercury, which then
rose in the tube by atmospheric pressure. The mercury continued
to rise until the bulb at the other end was more than half filled, the
remaining space being occupied by the air which the pump had failed
to extract. It was estimated from the amount of space thus left unoc-
cupied by the mercury that the pressure of the residual air in the tube
when cold must have been less than five hundredths of an inch. The
basin of mercury was then withdrawn from beneath, leaving the point
of the capillary tube exposed, the bore of which remaining quite filled
with mercury. The blow-pipe was then applied to the point, and the
opening sealed. When the glass had cooled, the large tube was placed
erect, the mercury separating at the contracted part of the capillary
tube, leaving the remainder filled, or very nearly so, and the part
between the point of contraction and the large tube a vacuum. The
upper capillary tube was now sealed at about the middle of the vacuum,
and the remaining portion removed. Finally the syphon tube at the
lower end of the large tube was broken under mercury, leaving about
an inch of the syphon remaining.
The earlier tubes filled by this process were not satisfactory, there
being, as in those previously prepared by boiling, a considerable adhe-
sion of the mercury to the glass, with the formation, after a few days,
of rings of dirt; so similar, indeed, was the appearance of these tubes
to that of the boiled tubes, that I was led to believe that the evil in
both cases was due to the same cause. Being satisfied that there was
no impurity in the mercury, which, besides having been cleaned with
nitric acid, had before these last experiments been redistilled, and
suspecting that the evil might have been owing to imperfect cleaning
of the tubes, which had only been wiped out by the elassblower in the
usnal way, I had fresh tubes made under my own inspection, and sealed
at the glass-works immediately after being drawn. Great care was
also taken by the glass-blower to prevent the entrance of moisture
during the subsequent operations with the blow-pipe. These tubes,
nawenee still showed the same imperfection, though in a less degree.
About this time I had the advantage of consulting Mr. John Adie, of
Edinburg, who informed me that he had also experienced the same
inconvenience, and that he had removed it by thoroughly cleaning
the tubes by sponging with whiting and spirits of wine. Following
his directions, 1 had the satisfaction of finding the tubes when filled
almost w holly free from the imperfections mentioned. A tube of
1.1 inch internal diameter, prepared in July, 1855, by the process
above described, is at this time in as good condition as when first
CONSTRUCTION OF A STANDARD BAROMETER. 443
g
erected. The top of the column presents a good convexity in all
states of the barometer, with only a very slight trace of dirt. No
appearance of air-specks can be detected, except a few very minute
ones near the lower end of the tube, which have existed since the
commencement, and were produced by the temporary entanglement
of a small air-bubble at the shoulder-bent part of the syphon tube in
the operation of filling. These specks have not increased in number
nor shown any tendency to rise. A portion of the syphon being
retained at the lower end of the tube, it is highly improbable that
any air can now enter, the mouth of the syphon being cut off from
communication with the external air by the mercury in the cistern.
The tube extends to abott nine inches above the mean height of the
mercury.
The tube is supported over a glass cistern in a strong brass frame
secured by brackets to the wall of the old mural quadrant of the
observatory, the height of the mercury being measured by a catheto-
meter® fixed to the same wall at a distance of five feet. A conical
point, at the lower end of a short rod of steel, is adjusted by a screw
to the surface of the mercury in the cistern. At the upper end of
the steel rod, and above the level of the glass cistern, is a fine mark,
whose distance from the conical point has been found by comparison
with the Kew standard scale to be 3.515 inches. When an observa-
tion is made, the lower point is adjusted to exact contact with the
mercury in the cistern; the telescope of the cathetometer is then
levelled, and its honeent al wire made to bisect the mark on the
upper end of the steel rod, the scale reading of the cathetometer
being noted. The telescope is then raised, again levelled, and the
wire made a tangent to the surface of the mercury in the tube, the
cathetometer scale reading being again observed. The difference be-
tween the two readings of the cathetometer scale added to the length
of the steel rod is the height of the column of mercury. Besides the
rod terminating in the conical point, a second adjusting rod is provided,
whose lower extremity isa straight edge. No difference could be de-
tected between the results from the two methods of adjustment. In
order to avoid the inconvenience of light being reflected into the tele-
scope from the surface of the mercury in the tube, a movable screen
is provided, the upper part of which is black and the lower part oiled
paper, which is so adjusted as to shut off all light which comes from
a higher level than the top-of the mercurial column. The surface of
the mercury thus presents in the telescope a well-defined dark out-
line. A window behind the barometer gives a good illumination to
the paper screen; ajamp being required at night. A thermometer
whose bulb is within the mercury of the cistern gives its temperature,
and the scale of the cathetometer being of brass, the usual tables can
be employed for the temperature correction, the difference in the
expansion of steel and brass being insignificant for the length of the
short adjusting rod. The variations of the temperature of the room
* A small telescope, with a horizontal wire in the focus of the eye-piece, sliding ona
vertical graduated measuring rod.
Att CONSTRUCTION OF A STANDARD BARQMETER.
are not rapid, so that no sensible error arises from assuming the tem-
perature of the cathetometer to be the same as that of the mercury.
The cistern of the standard barometer is 33.9 feet above the mean
level of the sea, beg 9.1 feet above the ordnance bench-mark on
the northeast corner of the observatory, whose elevation is stated by
Lieutenant Colonel James to be 24.83 feet.
Observations of this barometer being too troublesome when an
extensive series is required, a standard by Newman, (No. 34,) having
a tube of 0.55 inch, which has been recently compared with the great
Kew standard, is employ red for ordinary use, its index cor rection
(which, inclusive of capillary action, is = + 0.003 inch) being first
applied to the observed readings.
Comparisons, by means of two portable barometers by Adie, Lon-
don, were made during last summer between the Kew standard and
that of the observatory at Paris. The result of these comparisons
was, that the Kew standard reads higher than the Paris standard by
0.001 inch, no correction being apphed to either instrument on
account of capillary action.
IJ.— VERIFICATION OF BAROMETERS.
In the best barometers of the present day a provision is made for
adjusting the surface of the mercury in the cistern to the zero of the
scale at each observation. Supposing the tube to be in good order,
which is easily ascertained by mere inspection, the only source of
error in such instruments is to be looked for inthe scale. The gradu-
ation of the scales of all carefully made barometers is performed by
means of a dividing engine, and it is not likely to be inaccurate to
any sensible extent within the ordinary range of the mercury. If,
however, the barometer is intended to be used at considerable eleva-
tions, or if it should otherwise be considered desirable to examine
the graduation, the error of the divisions can be readily obtained by
measurement with the cathetometer. It frequently happens, how-
ever, that the point to which the level of the mercury is adjusted is
not the true zero of the scale. The error arising from this source is,
of course, constant for all heights of the barometer. As the capil-
lary action of the tube is also supposed to be constant for the same
barometer, and as it is seldom possible to determine its true amount,
it is better to consider it in connexion with the zero error. This is
the more advisable, since a reference to the zero point ina completed
barometer to any point of the scale is rendered difficult and uncertain
by the circumstance that it can only be viewed through the glass of
the cistern, which, from its irregularity, may considerably Pitoee its
apparent position. It is therefore the practice to suspend the baro-.,
meter to be examined beside the standard, to make a sufficient num-
ber of simultaneous observations of the two instruments, and to adopt
the mean difference of their indications as a single constant correc-
tion for the combined effects of zero error and capillary action.
In many portable barometers, and in nearly all marine barometers,
there is no means of adjusting the mercury to a constant level. It
CONSTRUCTION OF A STANDARD BAROMETER. 445
becomes therefore necessary to determine the correction for ‘‘capa-
city,’’ or the variation in the zero point corresponding to different
heights of the column of mercury. The amount of this correction
may be determined during the construction of the instrument; or, by
reducing in the required proportion the lengths of the divisions, it
may be allowed for in graduating the scale, as has been done in the
marine barometers made under the supervision of the Kew committee
by Mr. P. Adie, of London. In order to test the accuracy of this
correction, it is necessary to compare the barometer at two consider-
able different pressures with a standard instrument, that is, with one
in which the mercury is adjustable at each observation to a constant
zero point. This is done by placing the barometer and a standard
within a receiver provided with the means of altering at pleasure the
pressure of the inclosed air.
The receiver is of cast iron, its horizontal section being rectan-
gular. It is 39 inches high, 12 inches by 63 at the lower end, and
tapering to 10 inches by 45 at its upper end; there being room for
three marine barometers besides the standard. Windows of strong
plate glass, each 113 inches high and 93 inches wide, let into both
sides of the receiver, admit of the barometers being observed by a
cathetometer. Smaller windows below, each three inches square,
show the cistern of the standard barometer, the mercury in which
is adjusted to a constant level by a screw passing through a stufting-
box in the base of the receiver. The barometers to be verified are
suspended by a gimbal arrangement from the uyper end of the
receiver, a massive lid closing the opening at the top, by which they
are introduced. An opening in the base, furnished with a stop-cock,
is connected by a flexible tube with a pump which regulates the
pressure of the inclosed air. The pump consists of a single barrel
and piston. There being openings at both ends of the barrel, the
valves are so arranged that when the flexible tube is attached to the
lower opening, air is extracted from the receiver, and when with the
upper airis forcedin. The receiver is supported by an iron bracket, se-
curely fixed to the quadrant wall, about 10 feet from the standard baro-
meter. The cathetometer being between the receiver and standard
barometer, can be used at pleasure for either. The adjustable barome-
ter used in the receiver for comparison with the marine barometers
has a tube 0.35 in diameter; there being a contraction in the tube of
the same kind and to about the same degree as in the ordinary ma-
rine barometers made by Mr. Adie. This apparatus for the verifica-
tion of marine barometers has (with the exception of the adjustable
barometer, which is by Mr. Adie) been entirely constructed in the
observatory by Mr. Robert Beckley, the mechanical assistant, who
has executed the work in a most satisfactory manner, and who has
shown much ingenuity in arranging the mechanical details so as to
afford the utmost exactness in observation and convenience in mani-
pulation.
The mode of observation is the following: supposing air to have
been extracted from the receiver until the barometers stand at about
27 inches, sufficient time having elapsed to allow the mercury to come
AAG CONSTRUCTION OF A STANDARD BAROMETER.
toastate of rest, and the zero of the standard having been adjusted, the
height of the mercury in each of the barometers is observed by the
cathetometer. Air is then admitted till the mercury stands at about
31 inches, when the same operation is repeated. The length of the
graduated scale of the barometer under comparison is then measured
by the cathetometer. If A a be the cathetometer readings at the
higher pressure of the standard and marine barometers, respectively,
B b those for the higher pressure, and if L be the measured length
of one inch of the scale of the marine barometer, then the correction
a—b
A— B
which might otherwise arise from the different capillary actions of the
standard tube and that of the marine barometer, it is the practice to
make these comparisons only in the forenoon, when the temperature
of the room, and consequently the pressure of the air within the
receiver, is slowly increasing.
Besides the determination of the capacity correction, a series of
simultaneous observations are made of the marine barometer and the
standard, ‘‘ Newman 34,’’ for the purpose of obtaining the zero error.
From twenty to thirty comparisons are usually made, care being taken
that there shall be, as nearly as possible, an equal number of obser-
vations with the barometer rising and falling; this being necessary in
order to eliminate the retardation produced in the movements of the
mercury by the contraction of the tube combined with the capillary
action. The final corrections at different heights of the mercury are
thus deduced from the data now obtained. Let H be the height
(corrected for zero error) of Newman 34; h the corresponding height
of the marine barometer; T the temperature of Newman 34; and ¢
that of the marine barometer; K being the ‘‘ capacity’? correction;
the correction corresponding to any height h, of the marine barome-
ter is —
for capacity for one inch = L — In order to avoid the error
H—h+K(h,—h)+(¢t—T) X 0.0027.
Hach barometer, when it leaves the observatory, is accompanied by
a statement of its corrections, of which the following is a specimen:
Corrections to the scale readings of marine barometer, B. T., No. 231, by Adie,
London.
Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches.
At 27.5 At 28.0 At 28.5 At 29.0 At 29.5 At 30.0 At 30.5 At 31.0
+ 0.001 0,000 — 0.001 — 0.001 — 0.002 | — 0.003 — 0.004 — 0.005
When the sign of correction is +, the quantity is to be added to
the observed reading; and when —, to be subtracted from it. The
corrections given above include those for index error, capacity, and
capillarity.
I1I.—CatTHETOMETER.
The cathetometer hitherto employed was made by Mr. Oertling,
of London, on the plan of that used in the experiments of M. Regnault.
CONSTRUCTION OF A STANDARD BAROMETER. AAT
It was originally mounted on an independent support; but this was
found to be too unsteady for exact observation. It was accordingly
removed from its support and mounted between brackets attached to
the quadrant wall. The scale of this instrument has been compared
with the Kew standard scale, both in the horizontal and vertical
positions; in the former by observation of both scales by fixed micro-
meter microscopes, and in the latter position in measuring by the
cathetometer the divisions of the standard scale, placed vertically at
a distance of five feet. In the horizontal position there appeared to
be no appreciable error in the graduation of the cathetometer; but
when vertical, its scale was found to be somewhat too long, the mea-
surement of a length of 80 inches requiring a correction of + 0.003
inch. Besides this discrepancy, which is probably due to irregular
flexure of the bar and to imperfect fitting of the sliding frame which
carries the telescope and level, the manipulation of the instrument is
exceedingly inconvenient and troublesome, and requires much care
and patience. It is believed, however, that when the requisite care
and time are bestowed, the measurements, after allowing for the cor-
rection mentioned, are accurate.
A new cathetometer is at present being constructed by Mr. Beck-
ley, at the observatory, which promises greater accuracy and conve-
nience. This instrument is very nearly completed, and will be
described in a subsequent communication.
CONTENTS.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
Metter/from the Secretary 10! COMPTOSS aiteie'sveiclopvs'elsialeiels i |e/bicie/ele ctaleleisiale elctele'aie cletave sixiewisivicisie eistatsie arate
Letterfrom) the) Ghancellor and! Secretary sz. aciceisieie ome sasicic able ccnislacecieidten setceseleceiceen se cere
Ofticersand Regents ofitne Lastitution isco. .lci/sinplsiclcwaicisieiaistweabiasce incclonceeitesice se seine sictlelseaiioeaes
Members ez officio and Honorary members of the Imstitution 2... ......sseeeecececreecscaseencececees
Proprammes Of OTe AMZ Atl OM rate che! olntntereiadalcherofercialeta-ats oye ais siaistalaieiole) clelwareialetsis slelciejels’eleteisielinealctetaciseiserenies
Report of Protessonibenny, tar B59. wroitaaiois(« etelsla(alais s/s's o/s slaietelaile’aleie\ sei clafa'siera,as visve'siclaicis’els« oisietertaiaielarentite
ReportiomProfessor/ Batt dverisaclersateies sels -lcin\eins niciels claiee/deieaieie aalviatere sisicateemiiel. at vskiereietetetteta ceateetets
Hiistiof Meteorolopicall Stations. and Observers eci\cce acicic olslesleisiee ee clelcis seleicie'ercie sinyeisinisve cine efelsiainieeeieretete
MEportiof the PLeentive COnmMittee detvalgieceriesire aasicicseiwnieslasiside edie eae astelcilseicbfolsind si bicelee ete cesinetee
Journal of the Board of Regents froin January 18, 1860....ecseceeevcesccvcusscesccoscncacvecsccccece
APPENDIX.
Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry. By Professor S. W. JOHNSON. cece seus cece tees ccenvcnssces cece
Lectures on the Shells of the Gulf of California. By Puivip P. CARPENTER.....,...-+. Kia talsieie ls se winjeinle
Latest researches of M. Mp uer relating to the general movement of the stars around a central point.
Report on the Transactions of the Society of Physics and Natural History of Geneva, from July, 1858,
to dunes 18598 “By Professor ME HA RIVE) a-jes wniscinciee cleleiecie/cisicisisiodveusclecly oaieneciale semmstslaetsismmt
Present state of Ethnology in relation to the form of the human skull, By Professor art RETZIUBS. one's
Memoir of Pyramus DE CANDOLLE. By M. FLOURENS ....cccccsecveccesveccoees sens ete sw cy WiWelviete eters
On the means which will be «vailable for correcting the measure of the sun’s distance in the next
twenty-fiveyears: By the’ AsTRONOMER ROVAL « on,ccn/c'c ojsiolsd s clv vislelals'uisielceis einialstelelnstetietere om nieieraTe
Reports on the state of knowledge of Radiant Heat, made to the British Assoc iation in 1832, 1840, and
1854. By Rev. BapEN Powe Lt. b bw 'wlatniei p's ae fo\e alpcelare ete Gnd’ wein(@/uvetaskiuis! Ohtlaleeninlen Misie.u ecolielalee ketene
Description of the Magnetic Observatory at the Smithsontan’ UNStitusion s scsisiwsiaw velcine 0 «5006 peeves
On the use of the Galyanometer as a measuring instrument. By J. C. PoGGENDOREP ....-eeseceeneee
On Observation of Earthquake Phenomena. By R. MALLET....cccecee:cvceeces SNEIOSIDAOOC OOO
Description of Meteorological InstruMentsincs snscieieeeae ve ea ut ics sacle sieeniissaeincedesiccseecisean leit
On filling Barometer ubes.)* BY TaMES GREEN. cc ccacineescsccuc ce sudo cclymcakclese eeivisiidslesiicles se
SY W.. VWiORDEMANN: ows arn ccc vctiomakine sce telcleeninieses Cece cess ccce cece
Account of the construction of a Standard Barometer, and description of the apparatus and processes
employed in the verification of barometers at the Kew Observatory. By JouN WELSH.......++0s-
101
44)
INDEX.
Agricultural Chemistry, Lectures on, by Professor S. W. JOHNSON... .ececccccces coccee cucees cececcce
Airy, G@ F., On measuring the sun’s distance. .
ee ee eee ee eee ee ee ey
PIOCAUCET Vers ALONBIACONS DY s:ccccs scedaceteemun eu ceeccee nee vee cece cece cece enns co eees 20s 234, 201, 271
BIE CNNSI ONG OU tec te eisina a iis ea\aistelnc ncn ea oes cic clean tie cote tec een
Astronomer Royal, On the measure of the sun’s distance...... cece.
Astronomical researches and inventions ..... cecccccccccecscceces
Aurora, remarkable exhibition of, in 1859..............05 wines cisivicln ees 0.0,00)eivieei selec antleiaciac/oieis)eeiecicia
Bache, Professor A. D., Remarks relative to G. Wurdemann........eceuceeccececens er. eens
Remarks relative to Professor J. P. ESpy .... 200 eescesceeese eelainisje ssin'eeje
Discussion of Magnetic and Meteorological Observations at Girard College...
BAN Ses, ENOILION 1000. ccs cs cis ncccee ee coos ance toe en Sele /o's/esisieinis|s elceisis/oicaecaisisinie
Barometers, construction and verification, by Jno. Welsh. ...... ccc cece covccececce
Botany, Bibliography of, by Mr. Thurber and Dr. Torrey...cccccccoe cacees sce cccceeccccccsccece cece
Brewer’s Oology........+- sv ols aipiale’s ciavalaie/oiein ORE. Si<in|vivin}, \o\e\ololwia wasaiominelnielain /silalaioih iw tre’a claleisiviawieleteieteie/s
Carpenter, Philip P., Lecture on Shells of the Gulf of California_........... sieaclowisivievisulsicsisisivesisncs
Shells arranged Dy uacweuaivas acedevecsices): oa ccen er cee eacen cron ase eeeee
Cassella’s meteorological instruments, Description of. ........0+-s0-
Caswell, Professor A., meteorological observations for twenty-eight years......ecseeevecasccccscecees
Catalogue of Transactions in Smithsonian Library ......... a0/a)\a:s\eisjaluinjolejereleyelelaisie\ciain'alaile\ninie)eie|vlaibieveieteterere
Cleaveland, Professor Parker, Notice of............... COeic cece ouncts coeenn seve cecevecsececccce acces
HesoluuonouRegents relative ta. vaanasesunecccencccos), cosmecccenecne
gmin, erolessor Ss. H., DISCUSSION OL WiNdSa.scj<seuae deo siecoeetes eee aceon Cee eee
Coleoptera, catalogue of, by Dr. LeConte..... Saleisisisica ia civic ©)a1 007016 |0's\alohielplorn'a/useieie'e clerelecajeiaivieinrel elec eialcia
Collections; list of;:in the Smithsonian MUSCUM csc. coc ccce «vac vcs cone Conencccduaceneuesestenceenn
PIOODUrS DE ROLESINAD lac cusiannteaeaccceececsuce oes saeee nae conte an ee ee
Copyright books, New regulavions TESpeCting < cans cccaceecceciceedeccen cc tmokDecee ate ete
BPDUCAUONS TOK ew cesstinatinswnceivciseeuheounce pees sce cesaicowenmcns ceicecisarticcmeteees
Corcoran, W. W., Gallery of Art............ SORE CUIDDOM OOOO IMCIOUL OC OC PrICC TCHAD DOLODOOR aa Guddd
rape Dr 8, ha, RESeaKChes In PAUOFAtOly:s sausisc cscs ccnec wer eco coos cee eee eae
ANard, ew. Letter irom, pranting free TLeleht cacaccwecad/oucdesnacecdowscheacccsene tne neen
Bans; Prot. J.D, Corals arranged DY... s..ccccacecucces ceeenceccons a\WieWiin\|se(aiain’eluip eleje ahnisiain\s s\nivisicieieis'o
Deathaiof meteorological QHserverss sss cue cislss'sck sac ue scree eed ca dae nei cadetoes cenee ence cceees
We Candolle, Memoir of, by M. Flourens.......... ...08 eeeseees ase susa\ceceeeesicca wicunicejmselunsieeicie
De la Rive, Report on transactions of Geneva Society of Physics, &C .......sceees cevecsccsceecocecs
BIONAUONG COMUSEUNE, wfaaccch cawat ves canles sa esa ne arce: tcine come Smce nee ce eee ee
Earthquakes, Mallet on Observations of .............. +++. o cleo icicles coed eacieneieneses anlusisieseeivees
Easter, J. D., Translation of Poggendorff on use of Galvanometer.......c2 ccseeececececccceccceccecs
Eclipse of September 7, 1858, Account of, by Lieutenant Gillis .... ..c0. cesses ccecce cece cece
Eggs and Nests, Circular relative to ...... ea)0.c'e eiainivis wiujw-ejalminimnive\n'e (e wiale aie, einie'aieca|anretetatersielure(eetemis’eimietetciatel
Espy, Professor James, Remarks relative to, by Professor Bache ......ceecseccee ceccee cececccees eve
Resolution relative to, by Board of Regents ...00+ cece cccccccsccccccccecccecs
Mann tes Ul -ANDKOPTis tions fOr, 1GG0 sa5.sicac.iccee cv ceieocen vanes ctalncseone sae ceee ee Oe
Ethnology, Present state of, in relation to the form of the Human Skull........sseccceccscecscececoes
Min olopicatoh CSeAYCHIDY. lin Hc MOrgaN)ccc sacs eoltere en diet cee ae ee ee
exchanges A ccoune ofonerations during, 1059 ren tecece cise cocwe one ceicncecnscenenmonnectneciecmens
PAPCN CULES MUNINS HOO locen isn se cute bice/soante msaraat sina sina toon nw ek see barceldtiace cnc oemnicninot meee
ROX PlOKALONG CUIING LO0Gs ccc sccce cececuce ces = bsinu3.o/6le/oiv ein c[ein'p:as eis\sinin siuimsiaia\eininieieinia ie sicivieisialel nisicce a
Felton, Professor C. C., Remarks relative to Washington Irving. ......ccescessceccccccectcecessceees
Remarks relative to Professor W. W. Turner ..csceecscecceecceecccccesecccs
AONKENS, is MEMUIn Of De GandOllesDV.s1. 120 <2 cccisiansfasensialuda sesyorok moceneaceeimeucionce areas
Force, W. Q., Meteorological business conducted by 2... s.cccscosecs cvcccvocevenccscsesccaccecces
arent Man, DY Ur wae COODErarsencdssncsiccecetecleisetaccience nce contin cctcnen dentecler nce ene nenn
Galvanometer as a Measuring Instrument, by Poggendorff ...... cece cccees cuss ceucceeccctesccscecees
BMRHIOL J 0b, VVEISN, ON BALOMELEIBarutlececlemosieconecrccs ssidaersecuicicemncec cmt ene dete EEE Eten
SDDS Dr..vy.-,, Chemical Researched). co \cscc casein sctine davaeses <ceureniealncremen enter tan
Gillis, Lieutenant, Account of Eclipse of September 7, 1858, in Peru.......s0.ceecesccccesccevee cos
Froposed) BXpeqithons Olsiccnior eels eaisiemesavjania sielscicieinielochalste sieiieenisniceteceneninnne
Girard College, Magnetic and Meteorological Observations discussed, by Professor Bache ........eee
SJarsher-mresuit of. O pseryations i LONdON ssc cvaesicincedice does series ce dace menace rcnececeneneeeee
PASSO nperas CUCUIALICIALLVE 10. c< cvelcne carci ceiatie sic tecicelunen wenden neo eRe Eee
rays) Dr aeasWOUKON BOLest LLCCS. coeds ccisisis secede Je seeeeissinawcic cecauiccuatedaen dns teceetnee nae
SSReeNs JAMEs TOM INeVBATOMELELS ccccicis ca anlocieciaciceiesicnte els cecivenieian iateareesiecuactiteatcicnetenien
Bavce Dra xpedition tovArctic REPiONS..<o cs cnecocuiciesnes Hecoctwewenece een penton eee TEE
Hilgard, J. E., Description of Smithsonian Magnetic Observatory......ssceescacces covccs sesccecccece
Hypsometrical Map of United States, Materials collected for....s..c.scecees coveccevsesecscece secces
Observations mexico, Dy) As SOUNtAD: .wrsreia'ee aiiens aieisisic/ainisieMislelas aistateicieieiisianisteeinee
Midexof Pnysical bapersam transactions. . ../.cs< ce deeisocesieceaniemsne x cntenn concen ten tech cee
MnseereDrentises Of OpstalopieslOls ao c.eceee a .sicsccejscmaiioncoeeelsocens eesiiacaiene aeiiaaen aeisineierenie
Instruments, List of, in possession of Meteorological Observers. ..... secesececce. eevevcescecece eves
Description of Meteorological..... alo[a i«’uju[e{e.0(a/6)0\s/0ie(0[0,,0\e1e\e/e\0\0\0/0]e/s\0\.ele cele eisieiais(s e) soli elale/teislb
Inventions resulting from Abstract Investigations .....-cccs sececers cons cocececencas seen cccscecece
Irving, Washington, Remarks relative to, by Professor Felton ..........ceeseeceesceceesccescaceccs
Resolution relative to, bv Boardlof Regents: .<,-/0.0/<.<siccsiee) ac cieieciemieieieclenieereiiers
Jewett. erotessor/ Cy Ces Report on aiDranieSjcoss ccs, cictncuimeciee(> csicielel Socleimemieelaenmeteiseineincmmenne
Johnson, Professor'S. W:, Lecturesion Agricultural Chemistry: : <c00.ceciecice se cle ins ciseineiiceeceecne
JonrnalloféProceedings (of thesBoard Of REZENts, so. ..ccieicisoce scene sso aie clsisisleisiens oleineisiesioniecieetcnencte
Kane isi Meteorolocicall Observationsusstscesioec iccesinecos ccenciooscloecicioeainscmlsceneeetteer eae
Kennicott, Robert, Exploration.......
RAD OFALONV cocina re ete aac lasoie' a atciaeP eo oua eee otapeorcinlekorcie eioio ahs ielaLuatareinieralesielete 010,0..0./0,0.01) t\e/e0 s0ee cee
Maney ais Rh esearenessan| liabordtonvascmemcccceilanee)seceens scseecinneeneleaccissbeiinenicnen nenices
Latitude and Longitude of Meteorological’ Stations. ......0. 0005 .c2-eecccees cecrcccacinc veces coccccee
MeConte, Dr. John; Catalogue of Coleoptera bv ..-sesecacieciecemecineineldcieisiien ciecsneiemennincecleces
Dre John W, Instructions for Collecting INSCCES tis sic:cisisinis siels\sloleis}oleielersiareleteciacretsieieieinicolsieteie se
29
SRR ee eee ee eee we eee Ce ee)
450 INDEX.
Lectures, less number desired by Regents... oeccecccee ccce cece cecccccccecvcece ccecccccssscccccee cece
Lectures, Inst of, during 1859-60. 2. ccinc cocccccrcec. eviccer 000 olveenicee cece cess cecevescens>coccve
On Agricultural Chemistry, by Professor S. W. JOHNSON. ... ese. cece sscccccccccucescceeees
On the Shells of the Gulf of California, by P. EC ARPCMLEalelele(eielcielsfatetalsia/cfuintslefuls\alele(elsie/cicicte
Wabraries. eise-of, imp UMited States Dyn Wie) wai TeLL© OSs ciaisielvia(oisinialcts o's cleleisTereiele\ wiclsleysiciaie/elsicieisielitaisicieisietaiccia’e
RE POKE ON DVAVV itd RMELLLG CS sielerniaiel eels /cl'sicisraiave «'sialsiera(ate'eia)(slele al eleie/e’etelala/elelsieleleielelisinrsistale!eleietelerieleiaie
Abranven© PChatloOnSelmareitisicletelcsistelstnlelerslels|iiercic eles «/¢/olsialeis\eie clots eielcre(cisieisietels aleieisieleleley sicie/aleiotslnzele elelataiein sinters
Bogan Sir VV. Hi.» Use tterOrOM ain cjsin) -cinie'e'eiemlce c/.cie1e tive vicccet see eeeceeee se cence covecevesecviccicece
Loomis, Professor E., On Storm of WMS Cet bers TEIOs ce css sa See ce eee eae
Magnetical Observations in Mexico) by Av SONNLAGs.:0\0.0) nic ea sieivieinioiele\sisielere) eis\ein) «iclclela'niaisinie’ sia(e/elais|cieisieiere
Magnetic Observations by British Association:.. SASSO OBO LO ONISS afafeveleteretaiele adalere efelotalcherels\eisio
Magnetic and Meteorological Observations at Girard College, discussed by Professor. Bache. slelatalicrerejeieie
Magnetie Observatory at the Smithsonian Institution, description Of. 0... ..00 sce vceecccccece ces cece
Magnetic Observatory, Feiioval 1OUT ortligdas! See ar Sees: os Neal As Sous sp acee se nee oa oi statalicleteleyeleleve
Magnetism of the Earth, Remarks on Disturbances Of. .........eeeeeeen eee
Mallet, R., Observation of Earthquakes.....- addcisdoonde
Map of Heights of different places in the United Statens Gi cath knee Mat sue. etna I. cic SAREE
Wee chin Vueesitesearches On iaioh hand Heat DVcisc\cieeiain cise slsiclsjsicieleeisielsiniel isielslelaieicisicla/ein elem cieistelstnrenie
Memoir of Pyramus De Candolle, by M. WlOUrens ee se Ser ae Ae Sesh Se Mang Phan cae
Meteorological Instruments, Description of....... finieisis(eleleyclsielelsials'olsl sjeisisleversl stelels(aitiatete/alcre ejelelsiersicieine
Observations at Girard College, dis ussed by//Protessor Bacheezicie casio seimeliecie eciiclsls
Observations, List of Special Additions, sistostonins syele cielcie marcieied elec icine voislelalerseloreietereleleiens
OHSEnVAMONS yA repIMONGereraselesiciielelctcroicisieeseielureie(e cielo) slaleielotatetcleleleteictciereteisicinteicietsteiatele eine
Stations and Obxerveraslist OF Se 264.2 as cso Mee Cee ae ee See a EI
Me eon aloRy, Opera bonis during LESQo-rtaes ssshenntis boicsise Petts als /orelajavalle(cle\aalore'els/e lelerelal ejeraieieotenysleiete
Meteors, Remarkable, in 1859... 22.22 secve-cesere elele.e [olsielejeeleslcioiels, clelels nia/aeiaievajsinis
Mexico, Magnetic and Hypsometrical Observations in, by Muller & Sonntag. ......sccsceaveses oeceee
Midler, M., on Movement of Stars around a Central Point. to occ cece eens eens occas centes seeceecs
Morgan, L. H., Ethnological Reaearchesiof suk ceshesaicteeea kode cece coo on eh ace ee
Muller Baron] Vionseb x peditlonitoMmlextC Ol eicicsieleicisicieis cial leisiclelo'sjevue'olvie's/els’elaieie\ela's) sie'e sieve /eisieinie siclarelaielsiats
Museum, Additions during 1859 . 20. e ces vec cewaneclne cececs cecces tase cecves cess veces vececscess cues
Conditionior theC ollECtiONs!\scrs;cicisiele.aie.0/e/ele leis v/ eis)ele ciel ele\eiele/a\e\vie)a\'viujale’alainielvis\claleie/ejeisre/elelsicielele efela
WISE OF DONALONSAMUESID eicie'as eis cieiel veiciciele! steisielel ate a\evelerecivcisisie\claisialeiel/ela'e’ais/srelalelieieierelelele)sliaieleieilieicte
Operations GUTING, WBS se cieie scieeiecieieieieccisesis cevie ese osise eves) vieleieeccc cece oasis cece sveecls
INatiraluScrences Der launiverOnivesucvelele sisiettelclercisisievelcicralcievisistseininielsietle(etelslelatelcicielstalsVarstelalemieicicteretclsinrelsiere
Nests/and Begs, Circular relative’ £0) <icjaicic ose vies) a s\vicisic\accjeie elsleis e’eis\e(e/u sic e/ei vie eels'el ooiu cle sie(eloje eo civielelejie\ecieeie
Northumberland, Duke of, presents from ...... ten eee cece wees cone reece eee eres acces secs ccsces cose
Observation of Earthquake Phenomena, by Mallet...... cscs ceccveccccceces coe sacevcces oe cece cere
WOlLOgZY. DY MT BYE WEN incicics cle sie «lsicl clove cisteleleseleielslieicielelsieijale ofeie\elelsiejelsieieisie! liale’elele\si== ais) ele(siniciaciell elo) vsieie sheets
Oxygen, Discovery of, by Dr. Priestly ...... alctaleyeratalelatohetelaiayalerevel slalaleyalelstedejatstelo(eraieisisieva) sialaistelelstel cicieteratetetciete
Pearce, Jas. A... Remarks relative to Richard Rush ececis cies ois clsiecice ecieclcieleeitielsis| oieie/eie'ajaisiae) e\sieiscisle/eicie
Physical Sciences, De la Rive on....... te eee ece ce seetces cc ceeeneccceescneeree coccencece
Poggendorff, on use of Galvanometer for Measuring aiaa(oiststole)evele.cfolelsioloielele tele] elcialeinieyale(elel siele(ela’aicleleietelaleleinie
Powell, Rev. Baden, Report on Radiant Heat.).. coe. oc cece cece vce cele cece coccceliceccces secs vecceces
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