Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution

See
ae ee ee
% xe te ae

A Ale

Highs "
; pe Ane
nha

ii
As

ns

42p CONGRESS, 1 HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. ee Doc.
3d Session. i No. 107.

ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

Boda) OW REG HN is

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION
FOR THE YEAR 1872.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
18738.

IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES,
February 3, 1873.

The following resolution, originating in the Senate December 20, 1872, was agreed to
by the House of Representatives January 31, 1873.

Resolved, (the House of Representatives concurring,) That twelve thousand five hun-
dred additional copies of the report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1872, be
printed ; twenty-five hundred of which shall be for the use of the Senate, five thousand
for the use of the House, and five thousand for the use of the Institution: Provided,
That the aggregate number of pages of said report shall not exceed four hundred and
fifty, and that there shall be no illustrations except those furnished by the Smithsonian
Institution.

Attest :

GEORGE C. GORHAM, Secretary.

LETTER

FROM THE

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

TRANSMITTING

The annual report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1872.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, February 20, 1873.
Sir: In behalf of the Board of Regents, I have the honor to submit
to the Congress of the United States the annual report of the opera-
tions, expenditures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for
the year 1872.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
Hon. 8. COLFAX,
President of the Senate.
Hon. J. G. BLAINE,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR 1872.

This document contains: 1. The programme of organization of the
Smithsonian Institution. 2. The annual report of the Secretary, giving
an account of the operations and condition of the establishment for the
year 1872, with the statistics of collections, exchanges, meteorology, &c.
3. The report of the executive committee, exhibiting the financial affairs
of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, the re-
ceipts and expenditures for the year 1872, and the estimates for 1873.
4, The proceedings of the Board of Regents. 5. A general appendix,
consisting principally of reports of lectures, translations from foreign
journals of articles not generally accessible, but of interest to meteor-
ologists, correspondents of the Institution, teachers, and others inter-
ested in the promotion of knowledge.

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

ULYSSES S. GRANT...--- President of the United States, ex-officio Presiding Officer
of the Institution.

SALMON P. CHASE...--- Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor of the Insti-
tution, President of the Board of Regents.

TOSHEEGENE NE Yes = aay see Secretary (or Director) of the Institution.

REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION.

SP wOEASH at peeser ssc Chief Justice of the United States, President of the Board.

S. COLFAX ..........-.--. Vice-President of the United States.

HENRY D. COOKE -....--Governor of the District of Columbia.

1b, MU RONMU RWI 5 Sos6 cooode Member of the Senate of the United States.

JEWS LEMVNSON Ese Member of the Senate of the United States.

181, JEUNINOUIUN| Sen eeaecesoes Member of the Senate of the United States.

Je AtnG ATED) ee a. .2 Member of the House of Representatives.
lee POlWAND sacs se, a= 3= Member of the House of Representatives.

SR ok CONN ec teemicusien cial orators Member of the House of Representatives.

Wiese cA ou Olhuuesieise en cmecmee Citizen of New York.

TT DINVOOMSHY mae o acta eee Citizen of Connecticut.

L. AGASSIZ. ...........--.Citizen of Massachusetts.

JOHN MACLEAN. ....-.--- Citizen of New Jersey.

PR-EDER PARKER, ~ oo. 3... Citizen of Washington.

WILLIAM T. SHERMAN..Citizen of Washington.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.
PETER PARKER. JOHN MACLEAN. WILLIAM T. SHERMAN,

MEMBERS EX-OFFICIO OF THE INSTITUTION.

Wo Sb Grewal! 2 oes— pemeeieer President of the United States.

Sip C OTH ANG ees eeeia acc Vice-President of the United States.
Sab CEASHEaetsccsecce re - Chief Justice of the United States.
eS IS Se Sectrcnciclecisiscec= Secretary of State.

Goes OWT Wi in pe enres Secretary of the Treasury.

WED Wie ENIIKONUAES eee eeee Secretary of War.

GayCSROBE SONG aseeceee= Secretary of the Navy.

dls JN dis COlrd OS\y A Bib) Desens Postmaster-General.

C2 DELANO 22225 fesse 52 Secretary of the Interior.

GEO. H. WILLIAMS..---- Attorney-General.

WE ID), IDC CI BMl eS seoccoc Commissioner of Patents.

EEO DE COOKE aasccesccees Governor of the District of Columbia.

OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTION,

JOSEPH HENRY, SECRETARY,

Director of the Institution.

SPENCER F. BAIRD,

Assistant Secretary.

WILLIAM J. RHEES,
Chief Clerk.

DANIEL LEECH,
Corresponding Clerk.

”

CLARENCE B. YOUNG,

Book-keeper.

HERMANN DIEBITSCH,

Meteorological Clerk.

HENRY M. BANNISTER,
Museum Clerk.

JANE A. TURNER,
Exchange Clerk.

SOLOMON G. BROWN,
Transportation Clerk.

JOSEPH HERRON,

Janitor.

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

[PRESENTED IN THE FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, AND
ADOPTED BY THE BOARD OF REGENTS, DECEMBER 13, 1847.]

INTRODUCTION.

General considerations which should serve as a guide in adopting a Plan of
Organization.

1. WILL oF SmitHson. The property is bequeathed to the United
States of America, ‘to found at Washington, under the name of the
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, an establishment for the increase and dif-
fusion of knowledge among men.”

2. The bequest is for the benefit of mankind. The Government of
the United States is merely a trustee to carry out the design of the
testator.

3. The Institution is not a national establishment, as is frequently
supposed, but the establishment of an individual, and is to bear and,
perpetuate his name.

4, The objects of the Institution are, 1st, to increase, and 2d, to dif-
fuse knowledge among men.

5. These two objects should not be confounded with one another.
The first is to enlarge the existing stock of knowledge by the addition
of new truths; and the second, to disseminate knowledge, thus increased,
among men.

6. The will makes no restriction in favor of any particular kind of
knowledge; hence all branches are entitled to a share of attention.

7. Knowledge ean be increased by different methods of facilitating
and promoting the discovery of new truths; and can be most exten-
sively diffused among men by means of the press.

8. To effect the greatest amount of good, the organization should be
such as to enable the Institution to produce results, in the way of in-
creasing and diffusing knowledge, which cannot be produced either at
all or so efficiently by the existing institutions in our country.

8 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

9. The organization should also be such as can be adopted provis-
ionally ; can be easily reduced to practice; receive modifications, or be
abandoned, in whole or in part, without a sacrifice of the funds.

10. In order to compensate in some measure for the loss of time occa-
sioned by the delay of eight years in establishing the Institution, a
considerable portion of the interest which has accrued should be added
to the principal.

11. In proportion to the wide field of knowledge to be cultivated, the
funds are small. Economy should, therefore, be consulted in the con-
struction of the building; and not only the first cost of the edifice
should be considered, bnt also the continual expense of keeping it in
repair, and of the support of the establishment necessarily connected
with it. There should also be but few individuals permanently sup-
ported by the Institution.

12. The plan and dimensions of the building should be determined
by the plan of organization, and not the converse.

13. It should be recollected that mankind in general are to be bene-
fited by the bequest, and that, therefore, all unnecessary expenditure
on local objects would be a perversion of the trust.

14. Besides the foregoing considerations, deduced immediately from
the will of Smithson, regard must be had to certain requirements of the
act of Congress establishing the Institution. These are, a library, a
museum, and a gallery of art, with a building on a liberal scale to con-
tain them.

SECTION I.

Plan of organization of the Institution in accordance with the foregoing
deductions from the will of Smithson.

To INCREASE KNOWLEDGE. It is proposed—

J. To stimulate men of talent to make original researches, by offering
suitable rewards for memoirs containing new truths; and,

2. To appropriate annually a portion of the income for particular re-
searches, under the direction of suitable persons.

To DIFFUSE KNOWLEDGE. It is proposed—

1. To publish a series of periodical reports on the progress of the dif-
ferent branches of knowledge; and,

2. Lo publish occasionally separate treatises on subjects of general
interest.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE.
I. By stimulating researches.

1. Facilities afforded for the production of original memoirs on all
branches of knowledge.

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 9

2. The memoirs thus obtained to be published in a series of volumes, in
a quarto form, and entitled Smithsonian Contributions to iifpanries

3. No memoir on subjects of physical science to be accepted for pub-
lication which does not furnish a positive addition to human knowledge,
resting on original research; and all unverified speculations to be re-
jected.

4. Each memoir presented to the Institution to be submitted for ex-
amination to a commission of persons of reputation for learning in the
branch to which the memoir pertains; and to be accepted for publica-
tion only in case the report of this commission is favorable.

5. The commission to be chosen by the officers of the Institution,
and the name of the author, as far as practicable, concealed, unless a
favorable decision is made.

_6. The volumes of the memoirs to be exchanged for the transactions
of literary and scientific societies, and copies to be given to all the col-
leges and principal libraries in this country. One part of the remaining
copies may be offered for sale, and the other carefully preserved, to
form complete sets of the work, to supply the demand from new institu-
tions.

7. An abstract, or popular account, of the contents of these memoirs
to be given to aie public through the annual report of the Regents to
Congress.

OST K 6 : ;
II. By appropriating a part of the income, annually, to special objects of
research, under the direction of suitable persons.

1. The objects, and the amount appropriated, to be recommended by
counselors of the Institution.

2. Appropriations in different years to different objects; so that in
course of time each branch of knowledge may receive a share.

3. The results obtained from these appropriations to be published,
with the memoirs before mentioned, in the volumes of the Smithsonian
Contribetens to Knowledge.

4, Examples of objects for which appropriations may be made:

'(1.) System of extended meteorological observations for solving the
problem of American storms.

(2.) Explorations in Teele I natural history, and geological, mag-
netical, and topographical surveys, to collect materials for the formation
of a physical atlas of the United ahi

(3.) Solution of experimental problems, such as a new determina-
tion of the weight of the earth, of the velocity of electricity, and of
light ; chemical analysis of soils and plants ; collection and publication
of scientific facts accumulated in the offices of Government.

(4.) Institution of statistical inquiries with reference to physical, moral,
and political subjects.

(5.) Historical researches, and accurate surveys of places celebrated
in American history.

10 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

(6.) Ethnological researches, particularly with reference to the differ-
ent races of men in North America; also, explorations and accurate
surveys of the mounds and other remains of the ancient people of our
country.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN FOR DIFFUSING KNOWLEDGE.

I. By the publication of a series of reports, giving an account of the new
discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year in alt
branches of knowledge not strictly professional.

1. These reports will diffuse a kind of knowledge generally interest-
ing, but which, at present, is inaccessible to the public. Some of the
reports may be published annually, others at longer intervals, as the
income of the Institution or the changes in the branches of knowledge
may indicate.

2. The reports are to be prepared by collaborators eminent in the dif-
ferent branches of knowledge.

3. Each collaborator to be furnished with the journals and publica-
tions, domestic and foreign, necessary to the compilation of his report;
to be paid a certain sum for his labors, and to be named on the title-
page of the report.

4. The reports to be published in separate parts, so that persons in-
terested in a particular branch can procure the parts relating to it with-
out purchasing the whole.

5. These reports may be presented to Congress, for partial distribu-
tion, the remaining copies to be given to literary and scientific institu-
tions, and sold to individnals for a moderate price.

Il. By the publication of separate treatises on subjects of general interest.

1. These treatises may occasionally consist of valuable memoirs,
translated from foreign languages, or of articles prepared under the
direction of the Institution, or procured by offering premiums for the
best exposition of a given subject. ‘

2. The treatises should, in all cases, be submitted to a commission of
competent judges, previous to their publication.

3. AS examples of these treatises, expositions may be obtained of the
present state of the several branches of knowledge mentioned in the
table of reports.

SECTION IL.

Plan of organization in accordance with the terms of the resolution of the
Board of Regents providing for the two modes of increasing and diffusing
knowledge.

1. The act of Congress establishing the Institution contemplated the
formation of a library and a museum; and the Board of Regents, in-

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. da |

cluding these objects in the plan of organization, resolved to divide
the income into two equal parts.

2. One part to be appropriated to increase and diffuse knowledge by
means of publications and researches, agreeably to the scheme before
given. The other part to be appropriated to the formation of a library
and a collection of objects of nature and art.

3. These two plans are not incompatible with one another.

4, To carry out the plan before described, a library will be required,
consisting, 1st, of a complete collection of the transactions and pro-
ceedings of all the learned societies in the world; 2d, of the more im-
portant current periodical publications, and other works necessary in
preparing the periodical reports.

5. The Institution should make special collections, particularly of ob-
jects to illustrate and verify its own publications.

6. Also, a collection of instruments of research in all branches of ex-
perimental science.

7. With reference to the collection of books other than those men-
tioned above, catalogues of all the different libraries in the United
States should be procured, in order that the valuable books first pur-
chased may be such as are not to be found in the United States.

8. Also, catalogues of memoirs, and of books and other materials,
should be collected for rendering the Institution a center of bibliograph-
ical knowledge, whence the student may be directed to any work which
he may require.

9. Itis believed that the collections in natural history will increase
by donation as rapidly as the income of the Institution can make pro-
vision for their reception, and, therefore, it will seldom be necessary to
purchase articles of this kind.

10. Attempts should be made to secure for the gallery of art casts of
the most celebrated articles of ancient and modern sculpture.

11. The arts may be encouraged by providing a room, free of expense,
for the exhibition of the objects of the Art-Union and other similar
societies.

12. A small appropriation should annually be made for models of an-
tiquities, such as those of the remains of ancient temples, &e.

13. For the present, or until the building is fully completed, besides
the Secretary, no permanent assistant will be required, except one, to act
as librarian.

14. The Seeretary, by the law of Congress, is alone responsible to the
Regents. He shall take charge of the building and property, keep a
record of proceedings, discharge the duties of librarian and keeper of
the museum, and may, with the consent of the Regents, employ assist-
ants.

15. The Secretary and his assistants, during the session of Congress,
will be required to illustrate new discoveries in science, and to exhibit

12 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

new objects of art. Distinguished individuals should also be invited to
give lectures on subjects of general interest.

The foregoing programme was that of the general policy of the In-
stitution until 1866, when Congress took charge of the library; and since
an appropriation has been made by Government for the maintenance of
the museum the provisions of Section II are no longer fully observed.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY FOR THE YEAR 1872.

To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution :

GENTLEMEN: The report which I have the honor to present at this
time completes the history of the operations of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion for the first quarter of a century of its active existence; and as it
is important to recapitulate, from time to time, the policy which has been
adopted for the management of the funds intrusted to the United States
for the good of men by James Smithson, it may be well on this occasion
to recall the essential features of the trust, and to briefly state such
salient points connected with its administration as may be of especial
importance in the future.

At the time the funds were received by the General Government, the
distinction between education and original scientific research was not
so fully recognized as it is at the present day, and therefore it is not
surprising that the brief though comprehensive language in which the
will of Smithson was expressed should not have been generally under-
stood, or that the words “I bequeath the whole of my property to the
United States of America, to found at Washington, under the name of
the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffu-
sion of knowledge among men,” should have been so interpreted as to
induce Congress to direct the expenditure of the income of the fund
principally to objects which, though important in themselves, did not
comport with the strict interpretation of the will, being of a local char-
acter instead of affecting the interests of humanity in general.

Smithson devoted his life to abstract science and original research,
and there cannot be a reasonable doubt that he used the terms ‘“ increase
and diffusion of knowledge among men”* to imply that the income of
his bequest should be devoted to original research in all branches of
knowledge susceptible of increase, and the diffusion of the result of this
through the press for the benefit of mankind generally.

*The terms increase and diffusion of knowledge were used, in the specific sense here
indicated, by men of science of the time of Smithson. As an illustration of this we may
cite the following remark of William Swainson, a celebrated naturalist. Speaking of
the Zoological Society of London, he says: “It is more calculated to diffuse than to
inerease the actual stock of scientific knowledge.” The author further remarks that,
“while we may truly exult in this awakening of the national intellect, we must remem-
ber that diffusion and advancement are two very different processes ; and cach may exist
independent of the other. It is very essential, therefore, to our present purpose, when
we speak of the diffusion or extension of science, that we do not confound these stages of
development with discovery or advancement ; since the latter may be as different from
the former as depth is from shallowness.” (See Cabinet Cyclopedia, Natural History,
p. 314, London, 1834.)

14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The terms of the will, when critically analyzed in their scientific signi-
fication, will admit of no other interpretation, and the fitness of the
policy which has been adopted after much discussion, and, as far as the
original restrictions of Congress would allow, has met with general
approval by men of science of all countries.

After having devoted assiduously twenty-five of the best years of my
life to the administration of the affairs of the Institution, I may be par- °
doned for making some personal allusions to the past, and expressing
my earnest desire that the same policy which was inaugurated and has
been continually observed under my direction may be continued in the
future, when I shall have ended my connection with the establishment,
with only such modifications as the ever-changing conditions of the
world may render necessary.

Immediately after the organization of the Institution, in 1846, I was
requested by personal friends in the Board of Regents to give my views
as to what the Institution ought to be, in order to realize the intention
of the founder as expressed in his will. Having been long impressed
with the importance of special provision for original research, and
believing it was the intention of the founder of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion to offer facilities for this purpose, I suggested the essential features
of the programme published in my first report to the Board of Regents
in 1847; and, on account of this suggestion I presume, I was informed
that if I would accept the position of Secretary, or rather director, of
the establishment, I would receive the appointment.

Being at the time engaged in a series of original researches, I did
not at first entertain the proposition ; but afterward, on the expression
of the opinion of the more prominent members of the American Philo-
sophical Society that it was my duty, as the only scientific candidate
that had been proposed, to accept the appointment, I accordingly con-
sented, was elected, and entered upon my duty; not, however, without
much anxiety and great solicitude as to my ability in the line of admin-
istration, but with the hope that the policy which I wished to inaugu-
rate would be readily understood and properly appreciated ; that my
plans would be immediately adopted; and that, after seeing the Insti-
tution fully under way in the direction proposed, I might retire from its
charge, return to my former position in the College of New Jersey, and
resume my scientific investigations. In this, however, I was sadly dis-
appointed.

The plan proposed was too much in advance of the popular intelli-
gence of the day, both in this country and in England, to be immedi-
ately adopted. The value of scientific research had not then received
that high appreciation which it enjoys at the present time; and, indeed,
no distinction was then made between the popular expounder of scien-
tific principles and the original investigator, to whose labors the world
was indebted for important additions to human knowledge.

Opposed to the views of establishing an institution the great feature of

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15

which should be the facilitating of original research, was the organization
which had been directed by Congress, namely, that provision should
be made on a liberal scale for a museum, a library, a gallery of art, lec-
tures, and an arboretum, involving the construction of a large building,
whereas the plan for original research required a building of compara-
tively small dimensions, the cost of which need not to have exceeded
$50,000; while the estimated cost of the one proposed was $250,000, and
it has actually cost more than double that sum. It was in vain to urge
that the law of Congress might be altered, although the willof Smithson
could never be changed. Public opinion apparently was generally in
favor of the erection of a large building, and the establishment of a
library, museum, gallery of art, and lectures. Still a majority of the
Board of Regents were in favor of the plan of original research and
publication, and, after much discussion, it was finally agreed, as an
experiment, to divide the income into two equal parts, giving one
part to what has been called the “active operations,” and the other to
the library, museum, and other local objects. In the attempt to carry
out thisdivision, difficulties occurred which led to its final abandonment,
and to the adoption of another arrangement, that of making such pro-
vision from time to time for the museum and library and gallery of art
as might be thought necessary under existing conditions. As might
have been anticipated, the cost of the building far exceeded the origi-
nal estimate, and the multiplicity of objects was far too great to be sus-
tained by the comparatively small income of the establishment. The
increase of the library, by exchanges for the publications of the Institu-
tion, itself was so rapid that the care and binding of the books alone
absorbed a considerable part of the income.

The collections of natural history and ethnology belonging to the Gov-
ernment were transferred to the care of the Institution, and an allow-
ance of only $4,000 annually made for their support, while, as the num-
ber of specimens was continually increasing, the sum allowed by Con-
gress finally scarcely paid more than one-fourth the actual expenses,
without estimating the rent and cost of repair of the building. Besides
this, Congress had presented to the Institution a portion of the public
reservation on which the building is situated. In the planting of this
with trees, nearly $10,000 of the Smithson income were expended.

It is readily seen from this statement that with the inerease of the
library and museum, the formation of a gallery of art, and the sustain-
ing of a public park, all theincome would be absorbed, and the cherished
plan of an institution to facilitate original research, and the publication
of its results, must be abandoned.

To prevent so undesirable a result, advantage was teken of the expo-
sure of the books after the fire, to urge the plan of uniting the library of
the Institution with that of Congress, and of the two to form a collec-
tion worthy thename of National Library. The proposition was adopted,
and the results have proved eminently successful. The Library of Con-

16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

gress is now the largest in the United States, the scientific part of
which is rapidly becoming, through the Smithsonian exchanges, one
of the best of the kind in the world. Furthermore, Congress is now
about to erect a separate building for its accommodation.

Previous to this union of the libraries, however, an appropriation had
been made by Congress for improving the public ground between the
Potomac and the Capitol. Advantage was taken of this to include the
Smithsonian portion of these grounds in the general plan, and thus to
relieve the Institution from the cost of its maintenance.

The remaining drains upon the income, which continued to diminish
the active operations, were the care of the building and the maintenance
of the museum; and the next step, therefore, was to induce Congess
to relieve the Institution from these. ‘The results, in the mean time, of
the active operations having signally demonstrated the importance of
original research and publications, together with the general system
of exchanges which had been adopted, Congress finally lent a favorable
ear to the petition for appropriations sufficient to support the museum,
and now annually appropriates $15,000 to this purpose.

In justice to the trust, however, the Government ought to do much
more than this. It should repay at least a portion of the $600,000
which have been expended on the building, erected in accordance with
the instruction of Congress, and far exceeding in cost an edifice wanted
for the legitimate objects of the Institution. The proper course to adopt
would be tor Congress to take entire possession of the building for
the National Museum, repay the Smithson fund, say $300,000, adding
$200,000 of this to the principal of the trust-fund, and applying the
remainder to the erection of a separate building, consisting of offices,
laboratories, store-rooms, &ec., required for the present use of the
Institution.

The only other requirement of Congress which has not been fully met
is that of a gallery of art. It is true the Institution owns a very .valu-
able collection of specimens of the early masters to illustrate the prog-
ress of the art of engraving, and some articles of painting and seculp-
ture, which may be considered as forming the commencement of a gal-
lery of art; but the expense of supporting a collection of this kind has
been obviated by the establishment in this city of a gallery of art by
the liberality of Mr. W. W. Corcoran, with an income larger than all of
that from the Smithson fund.

Notwithstanding the various burdens which have interfered with the
full development of the plan of active operations, it is through this plan
that the Institution has made itself known throughout every part of
the civilized world. The publications which result from the facilities
it has afforded to original research are to be found in all the principal
libraries, and its specimens in all the great public museums of the
world. And it is hoped that in future, with the appropriations of Con-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17

gress for the support of the museum, still more important results will
be obtained.

The success of the plan for realizing the intentions of Smithson for
increasing and diffusing knowledge among men has been due to its
simplicity and efficiency. Under a Board of Regents, which holds its
sessions once a year, the operations of the establishment are directed by
a single individual, called the Secretary, who, with the consent of the
Regents, employs assistants and disburses the income of the fund. In
determining the appropriations to different objects of research, the
advice of persons of established reputation in different branches of
science is obtained, and in all cases, before an article is accepted for
publication, it is submitted to a commission of experts, who report upon
its fitness for adoption by the Institution. In order to obtain a free and
unbiased judgment, the name of the author, as far as possible, is concealed
from the examiners, and the names of the latter are unknown to the
former. By adopting this course the Institution secures the co-opera-
tion of the best minds of the country, and in some cases has called in
the aid of foreign savans. It is gratifying to be able to state that in no
instance has aid of this kind been declined. In this way the greatest
amount of mental labor is secured witha given expenditure of funds.
It is true the plan might have been adopted of electing men of original
research in the various branches of science, and supporting them entirely
on the funds of the establishment; but the income was not sufiicient for
this purpose, as will be evident when the fact is considered that the will
includes all branches of knowledge, and that every subject susceptible
of increase is entitled to the benefit of the funds. At the beginning,
however, since Congress directed the formation of a library anda museum,
it was necessary that the Secretary should have assistants to take
especial charge of these two branches of the establishment. With the
transfer of the library to the care of the Government, a librarian of the
Institution has been dispensed with; but since the museum is still under
the care of the Institution, an assistant in charge of this is still re-
quired, and Professor Baird, who has acted as assistant secretary, has
had charge of the museum, and has rendered important service, not only
in the line of natural history, but in that of the general operations of
the establishment. .

The greatest opposition to the plan of active operations was made by
the friends of the establishment of a library, but they have finally acqul-
esced in the propriety of the course which has been pursued. The num-
ber of books of the first class which the Institution is bringing into the
country through its system of exchange, and which are distributed
to all the large cities of the United States, more than compensates for
the support of a restricted library in the city of Washington by the
funds of the Institution.

The plan in regard to the museum was also at first misunderstood.

It was supposed that because the Secretary opposed the establishment
28

18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

of a museum at the expense of the Institution that he was not well dis-
posed toward the advance of natural history. But this misapprehension
can readily be removed by the consideration that natural history could
be much more effectually advanced by expending less than a moiety of
the cost of the building for the museum and the support of the collec-
tions, in original explorations, in collecting specimens not to be pre-
served, but to be distributed to all who might have the desire and ability
to investigate special problems in this branch of knowledge. The policy
in regard to natural history is that of making collections of large num-
bers of duplicate specimens to illustrate the natural productions of North
America, to make these up into sets, reserving one for the National
Museum, and distributing all the others for scientific and educational
purposes to the museums of the world. In every case in which appli-
cation has been made to the Institution by an original investigator from
any part of the world for specimens connected with his researches, they
have been sent to him as far as possible, assurance being given fia the
specimens would be properly used and full credit given to the name of
Smithson. As the specimens are collected, as a general rule, they are
submitted to specialists in the various branches of natural history, who,
without charge, classify, arrange, and label them for distribution. In
this way the Institution has done much for natural history; but it is
evident that it could have done much more had it not been obliged to
support a public museum at the expense of several hundred thousand
dollars for an edifice for this purpose.

One prominent maxim of the Institution has been “ co-operation not
monopoly,” and another, “in all cases, as far as possible, not to occupy
ground especially cultivated by other establishments,” or, in other words,
pot to expend the money of the bequest in doing that for which provis-
ion could be obtained through other means. To gratify men of litera-
ture as well as to advanee an important branch of knowledge, from the
first much attention has been given to anthropology, including linguis-
tics, antiquities, and everything which tends to reconstruct the history
of man in the past; this being a common ground on which the man of
letters and of science could meet as harmonious collaborators.

From the foregoing sketch it will be evident that the theory of the In-
stitution is that of an ideal establishment for the collection of facts, the
elaboration of these into general principles, and a diffusion of the re-
sults among men of every race and of every clime. That an institution
of this character, in which the accumulation of ideas and not merely of
material objects is the great end, should not have been properly appre-
ciated at first in a country so eminently practical as ours is not surpris-
ing. But we are happy in knowing it has been from year to year
growing in public estimation, and we are encouraged to cherish the
belief that it will not only realize the ideas of the benevolent founder
of the Institution, but also serve as an example of imitation, while the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19

errors which may have been committed will also be of service in an
opposite way.

There is one feature of the establishment ordained by Congress which
is worthy of imitation in the conduct of all endowments for benevolent
objects, namely, the restriction of all expenditures to the annual interest.
This rule has been rigorously adhered to in the conduct of the Institu-
tion, and after expending, in accordance with the act of Congress, up-
ward of $600,000 on the buildings, the original fund remains intaet with
an addition made to it of upward of $150,000 by savings, judicious
investments, We.

FINANCES.

The following is a general statement of the condition of the funds at
the beginning of the year 18738:

The amount originally received as the bequest of James

Smithson, of Hngland, deposited in the Treasury of the

United States, in accordance with the act of Congress of

A COSHH TGEO Ss. 2-26: ehfyousy bs safeties 4h ye esea aioe: $515,169 00
The residuary legacy of Smithson, received in 1865, depos-

ited in the Treasury of the United pee) in accord-

ance with the act of Congress of February 8, 1867... .- 26, 210 63

Gea MequUest Oks MMUESON 22... e514). 8 tej cin satel a, abe 541,379 63
Amount deposited in the Treasury of the United States, as

authorized by act of Congress of February 8, 1867, as

derived from savings of income and increase in value of

ITER ES TTO STI AS an yes BNW A eles gemh el e bait Ra eel os ten Rae 108, 620 3

4

Total permanent Smithson fund in the Treasury of the
United States, bearing interest at 6 per cent., payable

SOMM emmy ime leet rees Lite 1TS 58s Cie A re 650,000 00
In addition, there remains of the extra fund from savings,

&c., in Virginia bonds, at par, $85,125.20, now valued at.. 37, 000 00
The balance in First National Bank 1st of January, 1873... 17, 811 30
Total Smithson funds 1st January, 1873._.............. 704, 511 30

The income of the Smithson fand during the year, including
to} v ; >

PECINAUENE GR AOMen Wale ns). cont vertea cnet) LS ae 46,916 45
PE Ne PORE NIP Hn ERE CE WET Ow fs.2 es Os. aamre eter cee 45,420 11
Teanga balameeobs- hej opel aad Gi gal Ay 1,496 34

To be added to the balance at the beginning of the year 1872

Included in the income was $3,004.90 derived from back interest on
the Virginia bonds. The value of these bonds has appreciated during
the year.

20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
PUBLICATIONS.

The publications of the Institution are of three classes—the Con-
tributions to Knowledge, the Miscellaneous Collections, and the Annual
Reports. The first consist of memoirs containing positive additions to
science resting on original research, and which are generally the result
of investigations to which the Institution has in some way rendered as
sistance, or of such an expensive character as cannot otherwise be pub-
lished. The Miscellaneous Collections are composed of works intended
to facilitate the study of branches of natural history, meteorology, &c.,
and are designed especially to induce individuals to engage in studies
as specialties. The Annual Reports, beside an account of the opera-
tions, expenditures, and condition of the Institution, contain translations
from works not generally accessible to American students, reports of
lectures, extracts from correspondence, &e.

The following are the rules which have been adopted for the distribu-
tion of these publications :

1st. They are presented to learned societies of the first class which in
return give complete series of their publications to the Institution.

2d. To libraries of the first class which give in exchange their cata-
logues and other publications, or an equivalent, from their duplicate
volumes.

3d. To colleges of the first class which furnish meteorological observa-
tions, catalogues of their libraries and of their students, and all other
publications relative to their organization and history.

4th. To States and Territories, provided they give in return copies of
all documents published under their authority.

5th. To public libraries in this country, not included in any of the
foregoing classes, containing 15,000 volumes, especially if no other copies
are given in the same place, and to smaller libraries where a large dis-
trict would be otherwise unsupplied.

6th. To institutions devoted exclusively to the promotion of particular
branches of knowledge are given such of the publications as relate to
their respective objects.

7th. The Reports are presented to the meteorological observers, to con-
tributors of valuable material to the library or collections, and to per-
sons engaged in special scientific research.

The distribution of the publications of the Institution is a matter
which requires much eare and a judicious selection of recipients, the
great object being to make known to the world the truths which may
result from the expenditure of the Smithson fund. For this purpose, the
principal class of publications, namely, the Contributions, are so dis-
tributed as to be accessible to the greatest number of readers, and this
is evidently to principal libraries.

The volumes of Contributions are presented on the express condition
that while they are to be carefully preserved they are to be accessible to

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. yi

students and others who may desire to consult them. These works, it
must be recollected, are not of a popular character, but require profound
study to fully understand them. They are, however, of immense impor-
tance to the teacher and the popular expounder of science. They con-
tain the materials from which general treatises on special subjects are
elaborated.

Full sets of the publications cannot be given to all who apply for them,
since this will be impossible with the limited income of the Institution ;
and, indeed, if care be not exercised in the distribution, so large a portion
of the income will be annually expended on the distribution of what has
already been printed that nothing further can be done in the way of new
publications. It must be recollected that every addition to the list of
distribution not only involves the giving of publications which have
already been made but also of those which are to be made hereafter.

At the commencement of the operations of the Institution the publi-
cations were not stereotyped, and consequently the earlier volumes have
now become scarce, especially the first, of which there are no copies for
distribution, although it can occasionally be obtained at a second-hand
book-store in some of the larger cities, the authors having been allowed
to strike off an edition to sell on their own account.

No copyright has ever been taken for any of the publications of the
Institution. They are left free to be used by the compiler of books
without any restrictions except the one that full credit shall be given
to the name of Smithson for any extracts which may be made from them.

The printing of the publications of the Institution almost since the
organization has been principally done at Philadelphia, by the house of
T. K. Collins, under the superintendence of Mr. J. W. Huff, whose accu-
racy and typographical skill leave us nothing to desire in this line.
The stereotype plates are all deposited in the fire-proof vault of the
basement of the Academy of Natural Science, Philadelphia; and to
this society the Institution has been indebted many years for the cour-
tesy of storing, free of cost, this valuable property.

Publications in 1872.—During the past year the volume of Tables and
Results of the Precipitation in Rain and Snow in the United States and
at some stations 1n adjacent parts of North America, Central and South
America, has been printed and partly distributed. It consists of 178
quarto pages, with five plates and three charts. It contains the abstracts
of all the records of observations of the rain-fall which have been made
from the early settlement of this country down to the close of the year
1866, so far as they could be obtained. These records are from about
twelve hundred stations, and consist of the observations made under
the direction of the Institution, assisted since 1854 by the Patent-Office
and Department of Agriculture, of those of the Medical Department of
the United States Army, of those by the United States Survey of the
North and Northwest Lakes, of those made by the New York University
system, by the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, and also of those by

Ay REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

other scientific institutions and individuals. During the past year the
compilers have completed the tables of rain for 600 Smithsonian stations
for the years 1868, 1869, and 1870, and of 220 military posts from Decem-
ber, 1864, to November, 1871. The result of all the observations has
been incorporated in the charts published in 1872, but the tables will be
combined with those already published at some future time.

It is proper here to express our obligations for the valuable co-opera-
tion of the Medical Department of the Army, under Surgeon-General
Barnes, who has given us free access to all the unpublished records; and
also for that of the Department of Agriculture, under its former commis-
sioner, General Capron. These tables furnish the means for important
deductions intimately connected with the agriculture, commerce, and
mechanical industry of the country, while they constitute a valuable con-
tribution to the physical geography of the globe.

This memoir is one of a series embodying the results of all the labors
of the Smithsonian Institution in regard to the meteorology ef the United
States. These will include not only all the observations which have been
made under its own direction, but also the discussion of all that has been
made by other parties. The whole series will embrace the tabulation
and discussion of observations on the temperature, atmospheric pressure,
direction and force of the wind, moisture of the air, and miscellaneous
phenomena.

Another work, that of Dr. Horatio C. Wood, jr., of Philadelphia, on
the fresh-water alga, was briefly noticed in the report for 1870. It forms
a complement to the great work on the marine alge by Dr. Harvey,
published in 1858 by the Smithsonian Jnstitution. It is illustrated by
numerous drawings, made principally under the microscope, and will
serve to illustrate an obscure department of botany, and also to furnish
the means by which investigators of minute microscopical organisms may
compare recent and fossil forms. The work was presented to the Amer-
ican Philesophical Society and also to the Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia, but the expense of the engravings prevented either of
these societies from undertaking its publication, although it was consid-
ered entirely worthy of their adoption. It was referred by the Institu-
tion to Dr. Torrey and Professor Barnard for critical examination, and
published on their recommendation.

A large part of the material for this work was gathered by Dr.
Wood himself, although he was indebted to several persons for aid,
especially to Dr. J. S. Billings, of the United States Army, for col-
leections made near Washington; to Professor Ravenel, of South Car-
olina, for collections in Texas, South Carolina, and Georgia; to Mr.
©. J. Austin for specimens gathered in Northern New Jersey; to Mr.
William Canby for collections obtained in Florida; to Professor Sereno
Watson for others from the Rocky Mountains; and to Dr. Lewis for
specimens from the White Mountains. The work embraces all families

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. AG

of the fresh-water algze except the diatomacez, which are so numerous
as to constitute in themselves a special object of study.

The synonomy of Professor Rabenhorst has been generally followed,
this nataralist having gone over the subject most thoroughly, with full
access to all its literature. ‘‘To attempt to differ from him,” says Dr.
Wood, “would cause endless confusion. Ihave therefore nearly always
contented myself with his dictum, and have referred to him as authority
for the names adopted.” The memoir in question consists of 272 pages,
and is illustrated by 21 quarto-plates of a very expensive character, since
they required in most cases a number of printings to produce the differ-
ent colors.

Another investigation to the prosecution of which the Institution has
contributed is that by Mr. William Ferrel relative to the tides. To this
subject the author has given much attention, and has completed a me-
moir in regard to it, which is now in the press. This memoir does not
purport to be a regular treatise on the tidal theory, but is for the most
part supplementary to what has already been done. It does not, there-
fore, include elementary principles, but pertains principally to those parts
of the generai theory in which new results are attainable or old ones
susceptible of being presented in a more concise and simple manner.
For the author’s purpose, however, it was necessary to go over much of
the ground which had been investigated; but all those parts of the sub-
ject which had already been well treated are passed over with a mere
reference as to where they might be found. At the time when this subject
was treated by La Place, Young, and Airy, but few observations had
been made and little attention had been given to the accurate compari-
son of the results of observation with those of theory, or to the forma-
tion of tables for the purpose of predicting the time of the phases of the
tides. For accomplishing the result it is necessary to obtain not only
an accurate development of the solar and lunar disturbing forces, but
also to determine the expressions which shall represent most accurately
the tidal relations to any one part of the whole of these disturbing forces.
‘“Hvery investigator of the tides,” says the author, ‘must frequently have
felt the great need of formule of this kind prepared to his hand, which
he could use and thus save the labor of diificult developments and ae-
curate determinations of co-eflicients in special cases.” This great need
the author has attempted to supply.

Believing that most of the hitherto unexplained apparent anomalies
in the tides are due to the friction of the water on the surface of the
earth, the author has given special attention to the effects of this in
all the various cases, not only on the hypothesis of its being in direct
proportion to the velocity but also as the square of the velocity. The
results obtained in this part of the investigation are regarded as being
interesting and important in relation to some of the phenomena of the
tides which have not hitherto been explained, especially to the occurrence

24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

of the greatest tides in the Atlantic one or two days after the time of
the greatest force. A correct tidal theory should furnish the data for
a determination of the moon’s mass; and this determination should be
the same for every port. Considering this as one of the best tests
of any tidal theory, the author has given much attention to framing
various equations from theory for this purpose, and to their application
to the results of tidal observations at various ports. The comparisons
are made with the extended series of observations of the United States
Coast Survey and with the results obtained by the Tidal Committee of
the British Association from the analysis of tidal observations of various
ports by means of the harmonic method of analysis. The memoir also
contains the discussion of the published series of observations of the
French government at Brest, with a comparison of the results with
theory, and a chapter on the retardation of the earth’s rotation on
account of the tides, and its effect upon the apparent secular variation of
the moon’s motion in its orbit.

Beside the labor expended on this memoir in the line of higher mathe-
matics, it involves arithmetical computations of a very laborious charac-
ter, the expense of which will be defrayed by the Institution.

The investigation of the orbit of Uranus, by Prof. 8S. Newcomb, of
the National Observatory, was substantially completed in October last,
and has since been entirely prepared for the press, with the exception
of some final revision. Considerable additions and alterations are,
however, still required in the appended tables, to be used for comput-
ing ephemerides of the planet; but these the author hopes to complete
in a few months, so that the work may be put in the hands of the
printer early in 1873.

This work, on which the author has been engaged for thirteen years,
has absorbed the greater part of his leisure time from his duties in the
National Observatory during the last five years. Its preparation not
only involved abstruse mathematical discussions, but also arithmetical
calculations of very great extent. The’ latter were made at the expense
of the Institution; and through the assistance thus rendered, Protessor
Newcomb has been enabled to complete his important investigations
without devoting his energies to labors which could be well performed
by intelligence of a less valuable character.

The following remarks by the author of this work may here be con-
sidered in place:

‘Tt will perhaps surprise those not especially devoted to astronomy
to learn that, although the planet Neptune has been known for a
quarter of a century, the positions of Uranus in all the astronomical
ephemerides of Europe are still computed, without regard to the action
of that body, from the old tables of Bouvard, dating back as far as 1520,
the errors of which led to the discovery of Neptune in 1846. <A result
of this was that an occultation of Uranus by the moon, which occurred

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25

in 1871, was erroneously predicted by the Nautical Almanac to the
extent of some six minutes, and in consequence a number of observers
who were on the alert to see so rare a phenomenon missed it entirely.
An outery was raised against the almanac in consequence, but it was
met by the remark that that work could use only such tables as were
at its disposal, and that the construction of new ones corresponding
to the present state of astronomy was now almost beyond the power
of any individual, and could only be undertaken under the auspices of
some sufficiently liberal government.

‘The disinclination of astronomers to undertake such a work as this
may be illustrated by the fact that the tables of Jupiter and Saturn, as
well as those of Uranus, are more than fifty years old, and are, of
course, considerably in error. The Astronomical Society of Germany
has been engaged in preparing the data for new tables of Jupiter during
the past five years, but I am not aware of any recent report of progress.

“The first chapter of the work gives an exposition of the method
employed in calculating the action of the disturbing planets Jupiter,
Saturn, and Neptune on the motion of Uranus. In the second chapter
this method is illustrated by quite a detailed caleulation of the pertur-
bations of Uranus produced by Saturn, including, however, only those
which are of the first order with respect to the disturbing foree. In the
third, the perturbations produced by Jupiter and Neptune are given, but
the computations are not presented with the same detail. The fourth
chapter opens with a preliminary investigation of the orbit of Saturn,
using Hansen’s perturbations and the Greenwich observations, the
object being the accurate determination of the terms of the second
order. This is followed by the computation of the terms of the second
order produced by Saturn, which include those containing as a factor
either the square of the mass of that planet, or the product of its mass
by that of Jupiter or by that of Uranus. The most remarkable of
these terms is one of very long period, in which the results differ materi-
ally from those of other authorities, including Le Verrier, Delaunay,
Adams, and Hansen, who all agree among themselves. I cannot find
any error in my work, and so must, of course, retain my own result,
leaving it to future investigators to find the cause of the discrepancy.
The difference is of such a nature that it cannot affect the computed
position of the planet until after the lapse of more than a century.

‘The sixth chapter gives a discussion of all the observations of Uranus
which have been published and reduced in such a manner as to be
made use of. The entire number is 3,763. The correction to a provis-
ional theory given by each series of observations is deduced.

“The object of the seventh chapter is to apply such corrections to the
elements of Uranus and the mass of Neptune that the observations
shall be represented with the smallest possible outstanding errors. The
mass of Neptune comes out >51,,,almost exactly the same as that found
by Professor Peirce more than twenty years ago.

26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

“The representation of the observations by the concluded theory will
probably be regarded as good. The mean outstanding difference dur-
ing each five years since the discovery of the planet only exceeds a
second of are in a single instance, namely, during the years 1822~26,
when it amounts to 1.4. This agreement is very much better than any
obtained before. Still the vast number of observations used, and the
eare taken to reduce them to a uniform standard, led me to believe a
better representation possible; and the outstanding differences, minute
though they be, follow a regular law, thus showing that they do not
arise from the purely accidental errors of observation. How far they
arise from errors in 1:y own theoretical computations, how far from the
reductions of the observations themselves, and how far from the una-
voidable errors of the instruments, Iam unable to say without further
investigation. It would be desirable to learn whether they may be due
to the action of a trans-Neptunian planet, but to do this would require
an entire re-reduction of all the older observations. Such a work is on
mmany accounts an astronomical desideratum, but it could not be under-
taken except under the auspices of the Government.

‘‘Tn the eighth chapter the general formulz and elements are collected
and expressed in the form most convenient for permanent use.

“The ninth and coneluding chapter gives tables by which the position
of the planet may be computed for any time between the Christian era
and the year 2300.”

It has been mentioned in several of the reports that. the Institution
has collected large numbers of vocabularies of the several Indian lan-
guages of North America, including those of the Indian tribes of Wash-
ington Territory, California, northwest coast, New Mexico, Arizona, and
the prairies; that these had been placed in the hands of Mr. George
Gibbs for critical study and revision; and that, after consultation with
some of the principal philologists of the country, it had been concluded
to publish them, as it were provisionally, as material for ethnological and
linguistic investigations. During the past year Mr. Gibbs has devoted
considerable time to the arrangement of these vocabularies, and has
completed the preparation for the press of one of the sets, namely, that
of the Selish language, which is now in the hands of the printer.*

In order to facilitate the re-arrangement of the collections of the
National Museum, the Institution has requested experts in the various
branches of zoology to prepare catalogues exhibiting the best arrange-
ments of the several classes of the animal kingdom; the families, in
each case, to be numbered in successive order, and the subfamilies to
be indicated by letters, thus: 15, Canidee; (15) a, Canine; (15) b, Mega-
lotine,” &c. It is intended that these numbers and letters shall be

"s Since the presentation of this report, the work in question has been stopped by the
death of Mr. Gibbs, one of the most esteemed collaborators of the Institution.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ai

attached to the specimens or receptacles containing them, and thus the
agency of an ordinary laborer, or one unconversant with the animals,
can be utilized in sending for specimens, replacing them, and revising
the collections.

In accordance with the requests made, Professor Gill has prepared three
catalogues, one on the arrangement of the families of mollusks, referred
to in previous reports; another on the arrangement of the families of
mammals; and a third on the arrangement of the families of fishes. The
last two were published in November, 1872.

The “arrangement of the families of mammals” embraces a list of the
recent as well as extinct families and subfamilies of the class. Of
these, 136 are recognized. These are combined under fourteen orders
and three subclasses, the subclasses being those almost universally recog-
nized at the present time—monodelphia, didelphia, and ornithodelphia.
The orders of monodelphia have been segregated into two higher divi-
sions, or ‘“‘super-orders,” equivalent to the educabilia and ineducabilia
of Prince Bonaparte, but with other characters derived from the interior
structure of the brain; the educabilia correspond with the archencephala
and gyrencephala of Owen combined, and the ineducabilia to the lissen-
cephala.

‘““Synoptical tables of characters of the subdivisions of mammals,
with a catalogue of the genera,” have been in part published in connec. °
tion with and under cover of the arrangement of .the families of mam-
mals, embracing pages 43 to 98 of that work; only that portion em-
bracing the orders of educabilia has been completed, the remaining
portion having been necessarily deferred. In contrasted dichotomous
tables are given characters successively of the (1) subclasses, (2) the or-
ders of monodelphia, and (3) the suborders, (4) families, and (5) sub-
families of each group of the educabilian monodelphia. The “ arrange-
ment of the families of fishes” is limited to an enumeration of the sur-
viving families of the class, and was especially prepared for imme-
diate use. The group of “ fishes” is considered as an artificial combi-
nation, and is divided into three classes—fishes proper, marsipobranchi-
ates, and leptocardians. The three classes contain 244 families, of
which the true fishes embrace 240; the marsipobranchiates, 3; and the
leptocardians, only 1. The families of the fishes proper are combined
under eighteen orders and three subclasses ; the teleostein ganoidei and
elasmobranchii differing in this last respect from Miiller’s—the most gener-
ally accepted—classification simply in the union of the ganoids and dip-
noans. The greatest deviation from the current classifications is the
constitution of the order teleocephali. In an extended introduction the
reasons are given for the modifications suggested.

A large demand has been made for these catalogues for the arrange-
ment of other museums and collections.

It wa3 mentioned in the last report that a new edition of the List of

28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Foreign Correspondents of the Institution was in press. This work, con-
taining all the later additions to the list, has been published, and is now
in use by the Institution and its correspondents.

It was also stated that a List of the Scientific, Educational, and Liter-
ary Establishments in the United States was in press. This work, which
was prepared by Mr. W. J. Rhees, the chief clerk of the Institution, has
been published, and is of much service in the distribution of the publi-
cations of the Institution, as well as those of the different Departments
of Government, and of educational establishments, and will be of assist-
anee to members of Congress in the distribution of documents. It
ineludes 8,575 titles of societies, libraries, k&c., as follows:

Colleges, male and female, (so-called). -...-.-...------- 758
Academies, normal and high-schools.......-...---.--- 2,850
ayy, schools; and Jibrartes. 2: ic (epee) ee ere sae 53
Medical jschoolstand libearies-.cs.5 tees. ee eee Soa
Theological schools and libraries... .......---.---.---- 127
Observatoriesa lice Jee Vee bt eSgeehie habe Sher se 23
Scientific societies and libraries. .e- ~esec!- g2i4- -\esiete 94
Aorniculturalisoeietiest: - hiciiheeeciye. -B-Saae- tee 1,082
Libraries, general. ..---.---- ap Lodee ede 12 ee ebanie? 2,692
Asylums and hospitals... ..- ‘ateitolen dt. gage tl? - byt ae 491
Asylums for insanenicetsA- Leek? =) aseee-taa- caer ae 65
Asylumsfor deaf andidumbe-e-te sick! ces alee eee 38
Asylumsitor«blinds-2:02 ack 32 ide see eee ee cee 30
Prisons saavaNe gibrarlesanee io. eee reer ee eee dL

For the purpose of forming a general hypsometrical map of the North
American continent and for collecting together, for permanent record
and publication, the data on which such a map should be based, letters
of request have been sent out in every direction likely to be available
for such information, while the printed reports of the various govern-
mental, military, and geological expeditions and of railroad and canal
surveys have been consulted and made to render tribute. The whole
of this work has been placed in charge of the topographer of the Post-
Office Department, Mr. Walter L. Nicholson, who reports in regard to
it as follows:

‘‘ Contributions, in manuscript, have been received from 312 engineers
and other officers of railroad companies, furnishing a large body of valua-
ble facts, which, with the heights shown on upward of 70 graphie pro-
files collected, give upward of 16,000 points more or less accurately
determined, over the several States and Territories.

But great labor and perplexity have arisen from the discrepancies
found to exist among many of the statements given, owing, chiefly, to
the various planes of reference used in the surveys, and to the indefi-
niteness in their references; and great difficulty has been experienced

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29

in co-ordinating the items so as to refer them all to a common base, the
mean level of the sea, while another source of incoherence remains from
the non-return of answers from numerous railroad corporations, which
have been applied to with all possible courtesy and with expression as
to the value of the results sought. Unfortunately, many corporations
and engineers have lost or taken no pains to preserve the record of
their surveys.

These collections of heights have been copied in twenty-five quarto-
volumes, for preservation and convenience in collation. The heights
are arranged under the names of places alphabetically, under the
headings of the individual States, &c., for convenience of reference
when published—giving county, specification of locality, and authority,
with notes where required.

This large mass of material is, in greater part, copied in manuscript
directly from the returns—the individual names to be finally eut off in
slips and arranged alphabetically for printing. While this is being pro-
ceeded with, a map has been projected, to represent the mean results of
these data, ona scale of five-millionth, size of map 52 inches by 39 inches,
which will embrace the large area from 15° to 58° latitude, and, from
east to west will take in Newfoundland, the Bermudas, the larger
West India Islands, (to St. Thomas,) and on the northwest coast, Van-
couver’s Island and Queen Charlotte’s Island, extending thus well up
into Hudson’s Bay and down to Central America.” .

This work will form the basis of a physical map, and will be useful
for many purposes of reference other than that of hypsometry.

The report of the Institution for the year 1871 was presented to Con-
gress, and ordered to be printed. A resolution was offered as usual order-
ing an extra number of copies ; and the House of Representatives directed
an edition of 20,000 copies. This number was reduced in the Senate to
12,500, and unfortunately, before an arrangement satisfactory to both
branches of Congress could be made, the adjournment took place. Up
to this time, however, no further action has been taken, and the Insti-
tution is still without extra copies for distribution.

As an offset to this disappointment, we are gratified to be able to
state that a resolution passed Congress at the last session, directing
that an edition of 2,000 copies of all the reports of which there were
stereotype plates be printed for the use of the Institution for distribution
to public libraries and especially to colleges and higher academies. The
series of eight. volumes thus reproduced includes the reports from the
years 1863 to 1870, inclusive.

We doubt not that Congress before the close of the present session
will order the Public Printer to strike off the usual number of copies
from the stereotype plates of the report of 1871, and that we shall thus
be enabled to gratify in some measure the increasing calls upon the In-
stitution for copies of this document.

30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

In addition to the report of the Secretary, giving an account of the
operations, expenditures, &c., of the Institution, and the proceedings of
the Board of Regents to the 4th of April, 1872, the report for 1871
containsa memoir of Sir John Frederic William Herschel, by N.S. Dodge,
esq.; a eulogy on Joseph Fourier, by Arago; an account of Prof. Thomas
Graham’s scientific work, by William Odling; translations from the
German of a lecture on the relation of the physical sciences to science in
general, by Dr. Helmholtz; a lecture on alternate generation and par-
thenogenesis in the animal kingdom, by Dr. G. A. Kornhuber; a lecture
on the present state of our knowledge of cryptogamous plants, by Henry
William Reichardt; an original paper on the secular variations of the
planetary orbits, by John N. Stockwell, being an abstract of the elabor-
ate memoir published by the Institution in the Contributions to Knowl-
edge; an original article on methods of interpolation applicable to the
graduation of irregular series, such as tables of mortality, &ec., by E.
L. DeForest; a translation of the transactions of the Society of Physics
and Natural History of Geneva from June, 1870, to June, 1871; the scien-
tifie instructions to Captain Hall’s north polar expedition; together
with a large number of articles on ethnology and meteorology.

EXCHANGES.

The labors of the Institution in promoting literary and scientific inter-
eourse between this country and other parts of the world have been
continued during the past year. The system of international exchanges
includes not only all the principal libraries and important societies, but
also a considerable number of the minor institutions of Europe. The
following table exhibits the number of establishments in each country
with which the Smithsonian is at present in correspondence:

NO WGGLO IN. ets ic ee Rn SE A ey ea ee ee en ee 20
ENG SIR HEL ERE AEE EETAG. Slo CURSE Ret no ent ne aete ete teey-Petecere en
eelandle 2: oh PRR 53 Ia Ah ae iene ae Sete et eae ere 2
POST aE AE SRE RE TN arte ee ae Se a chan pe ne 27
HERA SEV le 2h ea EROS Rao. ERR RE EE ed Stage a cat en Nee eT 155
J ARGV NESE EVs MPR ral ee) RA ARI DS Aiea a apes aly apie a 6 Sal Ne ge aa LE Sid ary) 62
CEng: ANE ES IE ere alee ate Olea Reape eS ate fete aves 588
SV TEZSTL AT eh SSN Pea) Sen aes ese ic amore ee deeve ee 63
COU ef eee ic a SA oe eee ae hea eee 105
HR (23 8 0 0) a ln ae eh aa aia Sle Der a eG a inte Rane ps 3 ts 229
De Ld of 2S SS ei Seah inh apiscrt alien Aphenaeeay mae a. nec ares CfA hue eas 156
EEG) G]UESSIE |, hes ri gm onen Seger dances eo 5) 0a 5 orton pen 20
oy iyi 1 dk ba a reaped ee ap ni) ard ARRAS 2 6 eg AR ts LE 5 iol
Great britain-and trelandtea- se: | 42> sees eer eee 336
(aS) oY 6, WN a IR cee ie Rk cheaper C3 lb Ue ask ei leg a iG
RN: 5) ae det ls ee em aa na endgame isa Le Sy bn STP OL aye Heh

AST CANS AIAG. BREE ORES epee Sie ne cee ee ey oe ae 19

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Sit

5 CEE te Ee en er, Oe et ORIG oy SEU SET pms 36
WAC Tillage ret Syay src eng a ags Seay res iks! Foy sl sepals) paeA Mer ce Sra 26
Nie wie Zeailenines a 2 het ha a yf 0 ake SRR eye 2h 13
IRahwieslaieeet eae seie-eriaete Aa dsiswield 28h de A. Yee 1
Sombie Americano aaeces Aad eked See ee Be 36
NO Ste MMelbOC ee eed) ik ee ensh tet )s Sides NRE fooed 8 1p arate i Dee gags if
IMG R OE set metre tas eels Sai eitciees See ee RIEI ee 9
Germinal MMemear ys aaa Sst: ers Serra ie kel sic tts ed 2
rit AN Sneak. ek ey Saget. ny ob byes sete! a Rpepsiepter n+ spe! 18
Greme nal aaasiee see ete yt cepa | Ala Bh Seah tent doe ule yl eons 4.

PRO Gaile en tp seats sr erg =) Seae sy pte ee Selah ep thd 1,985

As in previous years, the Institution has received important aid from
various steamer and railroad lines in the way of free freights, without
which the expense of carrying on the system would be far beyond the
means at command. Acknowledgment is again due for the liberality of
the following ¢ompanies:

Pacific Mail Steamship Company.

Panama Railroad Company.

Pacific Steam Navigation Company.

New York and Mexico Steamship Company.

New York and Brazil Steamship Company.

North German Lloyd’s Steamship Company.

Hamburg American Packet Company.

French Transatlantic Company.

North Baltic Lloyd’s Steamship Company.

Inman Steamship Company.

Cunard Steamship Company.

Anchor Steamship Company.

The Adams Express Company also continues its liberal policy in re-
gard to freight for the Institution.

During the year 2,561 packages, containing many thousand different
articles, were transmitted to foreign countries. These packages filled
159 large boxes, having a cubical content of 954 feet, and weighing
26,850 pounds. The parcels received at the Institution for parties in
this country, in addition to those for the Smithsonian library, num-
bered 4,635.

It was mentioned in the last report that the advantages which result
from the system of international exchanges had become so apparent
that arrangements similar to those adopted by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution are beginning to be introduced into different parts of Europe, and
that a central scientific bureau for the Netherlands had been estab-
lished at Amsterdam to receive and transmit packages for different
parts of the world, and in the United States to co-operate with the
Smithsonian Institution. A similar arrangement has been proposed in

2 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Qo

Brussels, by which-the Belgian Academy will become a center of scientific
exchanges.

During the past year we have received as usual, from persons abroad,
copies of works to be distributed gratuitously to institutions and in-
dividuals in this country.

Tne following are the regulations which are to be observed by parties
availing themselves of the privilege of the Smithsonian system of ex-
change:

“The Smithsonian Institution receives parcels at any time with
assurance of speedy delivery, at least to the more important addresses,
upon the following conditions, which must be strictly observed :

“1, Every package without exception must be enveloped in strong
paper, and secured so as to bear separate transportation by express or
otherwise.

‘62, The address of the institution or individual for whom the parcel
is intended must be written legibly on the package, and the name of
the sender must be written in one corner.

‘<3. No single package must exceed the half of a eubic foot in bulk.

“64, A detailed list of addresses of all the parcels sent, with their
contents, must accompany them. .

“5. No letter or other communication can be allowed in the parcel,
excepting such as relates exclusively to the contents of the package.

‘6, All packages must be, delivered in Washington free of freight
and other expenses.

“Unless all these conditions are complied with, the parcels will not
be forwarded from the Institution, and, on the failure to comply with
the first and second conditions, will be returned to the sender for cor-
rection.

‘The Institution recommends that every parcel shall contain a blank ac-
knowledgment, to be signed by the recipient and returned, either through
the agent of the Institution, or, what is still better, direct by mail, to the
sender. Should exchanges be desired for what is sent, the fact should also
be explicitly stated on the accompanying circular. Much disappointment
has often been expressed at the absence of any return in kind for trans-
missions; but unless these are specifically asked for they will fre-
quently fail to be made. It will facilitate the labors of the Institution
greatly if the number corresponding to the several addresses in the
Smithsonian printed catalogue be marked on the face of each parcel;
and for this purpose a copy of the work will be forwarded to all who
apply for it.

‘‘Specimens of natural history will not be received for transmission,
unless with a previous understanding as to their character and bulk.”

LIBRARY.

It was stated in the last report that the accessions to the library dur-
ing 1871 had not been as large as they were the year before, on account

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3a

of the war in Europe. In1870 the whole number of books, &e., received
was 5,182; in 1871, 4,597; while during 1872 it has been 5,962, as will be
seen from the following detailed statement of the books, maps, and charts
received by exchange in 1872:

Volumes:

@etaNvOsOr LESS ose i o.5 2 feta rer= a2. Sepe oe the Capea eee 975
PATER ROMO) Bd ES Oe ee ee Spt eee ete 287
1,262
Parts of volumes:
(OCH CRISS Se SBE BP Ee Sree es Oe aie ie ere ifsial
Quarto or larger......... Be eis eee aera qeeMa 3 a laiar 1,250
; 2,621
Pamphlets:
WCLAN OxOn CSS ema ies soar, oh tert ei aaa e ee ane 1,557
OY) WAG OR Ol pA OCK etcee cro) ois ayes peice o = Bi noa Stas avalal ayeravakaian ape 24
——1,881
TY AAIPOISY GUTS IAC! CEH ot SI ey eateg Ie ate ae ene Nl a A an med 198
SS OSES Lee CENT eT a Peel SEC IE TE ele 5,962

The following are some of the principal donations received in 1872:

From the Commission européenne du Danube, Galatz— Mémoire sur
les travaux Vamélioration exécutés aux embouchures du Danube,” with
an atlas of 40 plates.

From A. W. Franks, esq., London—‘ Catalogue of the Collection of
Glass,” formed by Felix Slade. London, 1871. Folio. Beautifully illus-
trated.

- From the Observatorio do Infante D. Luiz, Lisbon—“ Annals.” Vols.
Hi-vill, 1866-1870. Folio.

From the Institut de France, Paris—‘ Mémoires de l’Académie des
sciences.” Vols. xxxvi, xxxvii. 4to. ‘‘Comptes-rendus.” Vols. [xviii-Ixx.
“Tables Générale,” 1851-1865. 4to.

From Dr. K. Keck, Berlin, 203 pamphlets—University Theses.

From the University of Tiibingen— Repertorium morale.” Vols. i-iti.
1489. Folio. ‘“ Universititsschriften,” 1870; and 18 pamphlets.

From the Universities of Bonn, Erlangen, Giessen, Gdttingen, Greifs-
wald, Halle, Heidelberg, Jena, Leipzig, Marburg, Pesth, Bern, Ziirich,
and Havana—Inaugural Dissertations for 1871.

From the Royal Veterinary Academy, Utrecht—47 pamphlets.

From the University and Government of Chili, Santiago—i0 vol-
umes and 2 pamphlets.

From the Public Library of Buenos Ayres—151 volumes, 334 parts
of volumes and pamphlets, and 7 charts.

From the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Pesth—9 volumes and
dd parts of volumes.

rom the Royal Public Library, Stuttgart—26 volumes and 11 parts.

38

34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

From the Hydrographic Department of the Ministry of Marine, St.
Petersburg—57 charts, 16 volumes, and 9 parts.

From the Royal Academy of Sciences, &c., Rouen—“ Mémoire sur
le Commission maritime de Rouen,” vols. i and ii; and “ Précis ana-
lytique,” 1804-1870, 14 volumes. \

From the Ohio State Library, Columbus—15 volumes and 5 charts.

Among the donations there are two which deserve especial notice,
namely, the memoir upon the works which have been executed for the
improvement of the mouth of the Danube, and the fac-similes of the
Egyptian papyrus.

The first consists of an account, with a large atlas of plates, of the
investigations which have been made in regard to the obstruction in
the way of navigation of the outlet of the Danube, through several
channels along the delta of the river. This subject appears to have
been of so much importance that a commission was instituted in accord-
axce with the provisions of the treaty of Paris of 30th March, 1856,
including the representatives of seven different powers. The body of
the memoir in question gives an extended account of the following sub-
jects: 1. Preliminary investigations and preparatory works; 2. The
choice of the mouth to be improved, and an elaboration of a definite
project; 3. The provisional work. An appendix presents the report of
the chief engineer, Sir Charles Hartley, containing: 1. A general de-
scription of the delta of the Danube; 2. The formation of the bars; 3.
The means of improving the entrance to the river; 4. A comparison
ef the different branches; 5. The result of meteorological and technical
observations from 1859 to 1865; 6. Statisties relative to commerce and
navigation. The memoir is accompanied by a large atlas of 40 double-
folio colored plates.

The work is one of great value to the engineers of this country, in
reference to the improvements which will doubtless be undertaken in
regard to the rivers and water-courses of the United States. To this
subject publie attention has not been directed with an intensity com-
mensurate with its importance.

If we cast an eye on the map of the United States and view the rela-
tion which exists between the vast body of water in the northern lakes
and the branches of the Mississippi and the Ohio, we must be struck
with the means which nature has placed within the power of man for
improving the navigation of the great water-courses which form the
channels of communication between the interior of the country and the
sea-board.

We have, in a previous report, mentioned the interesting fact that
among our correspondents was the Institute of Egypt, founded at
Alexandria in 1859. Since then our correspondence with that coun-
try has been kept up,and more especially increased during the last year
by the visit to that country of one of the members of the Board of
Regents, General Sherman. We have received from General Stone, of

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3D

the Egyptian army, an interesting chart of the fluctuations of the Nile,
and from the author, Auguste Mariette Bey, the fac-similes of the Egyp-
tian papyrus in the museum of Boulaq, prepared under the auspices of
S. A. Ismail Pacha, Khédive of Egypt. These fac-similes occupy forty -
four folio-plates, on tinted paper, representing in color and form the pres-
ent appearance of the papyrus.

Among the donations to the library should also be mentioned a col-
lection of two thousand drawings of fishes, including copies of all known
engravings of fishes published up to 1834, made by Dr. A. Reuss, for-
merly of Germany, but now of Belleville, [linois.

WORK DONE IN THE INSTITUTION AND IN CONNECTION WITH OTHER
ESTABLISHMENTS.

The Secretary, from the first organization of the Light-House Board,
has been one of its members, and has acted as chairman of the com-
mittee on experiments. In this capacity he has made in past years an
extended series of investigations relative to different materials of illu-
mination, also investigations relative to different instruments proposed
for fog-sigrals, besides reporting on a large number of propositions made
to the board with the idea of improving the aids to navigation. During
the last year he continued the investigations in regard to fog-signals,
and for this purpose spent his last summer’s vacation on the coast of
Maine. For these services he receives no other compensation than ten
cents amile as traveling expenses. The work is one, however, in which
he takes great interest, and it has been to him a source of diversity of
employment and a means of improved health.

He has, during the past year, upon the retirement of Admiral Shu-
brick, been elected chairman of the board.

The Secretary is also one of the visitors to the Government Hospital
for the Insane, and as President of the National Academy of Sciences
directed the preparation of the instructions for scientific observations
for Captain Halls arctic exploration. In addition to the foregoing, the
Government placed the direction of the exploration of Major Powell in
charge of the Smithsonian Institution.

Appropriations have been made at the last two sessions of Congress
for investigations, under the direction of Professor Baird, of this Institu-
tion, relative to thealleged decrease of food-tishes on our coasts. Tothis
at the last session was added an appropriation for stocking the rivers
and lakes in the United States with useful fishes. These investigations
have occupied all the time and attention he could spare from his duties
in connection with the Smithsonian Institution.

Besides the prominent subjects of immediate inquiry, there were quite
a number of collateral matters bearing on the general questions, which
were prosecuted at the same time, and which have in themselves much
scientific interest. His headquarters for the season were fixed at Hast-
port, on the Bay of Fundy; and,with Professor Verrill to take charge of the

36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

invertebrate fauna, he was enabled to gather, both at Eastport and Grand
Manan, immense numbers of specimens, which, when fully elaborated,
will be distributed to various scientific establishments throughout the
world. With the facilities furnished by the Government in authorizing the
use of the revenue-cutter Mosswood whenever necessary, the party was
enabled to carry on these researches in every branch of the inquiry,
including dredging and temperature-observations at great depths in the
Bay of Fundy. Every facility was heartily rendered in this work by
Captain Hodgdon and his officers. For a portion of the time a detail of
the party, consisting of Professor Webster and Mr. C. H. Pond, was oc-
cupied at Cape Porpoise, south of Portland, as also at the island of
Grand Manan.

By permission of Professor Peirce, the Superintendent of the Coast-Sur-
vey, Professor Baird also placed a party on board the Coast-Survey steamer
Bache while surveying the Georges Banks and other shoals off the
coast of New England; this detail consisting for a time of Mr. 8. J.
Smith, and Mr. Oscar Harger, of Yale College, and afterward of Dr. A.
S. Packard, jr., and Mr. Cook, of Salem.

The additions to our knowledge of the natural history of the Ameri-
can seas made by all these parties has been very great, and the results
will be published in detail in the report of the commissioner to be made
to Congress.

While engaged at Eastport himself, Professor Baird had a party also at
Wood’s Hole, the scene of his labors during the year 1871; and several
iiteresting additions to the known fauna of the Vineyard Sound region
were made, among them, two genera and species of the sword-fish
family, previously unknown on the coast of the United States; and other
specimens of marine animals, especially of fishes, were contributed by
Mr. Samuel Powell, of Newport.

The following is an account of the work done by Mr. F. B. Meek, who
still retains his apartments in the building, and examines and reports
to the Institution all specimens of paleontology and geology submitted
to it for examination.

Most of his attention during the year 1872 has been devoted to the
invertebrate paleontological department of the Ohio State geological
survey. The collections have been sent to him at the Smithsonian
Institution. He has, from time to time, published preliminary papers on
these fossils in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia and the American Journal of Science and Arts, and sub-
sequently prepared more elaborate descriptions for the first volume of
the Final Report of the Ohio Geological Survey, in charge of Dr. J. S.
Newberry. He has also had the drawings, illustrating his part of this
volume of the Report, and a part of those for the second volume, made
in the Institution, under his immediate direction; and has likewise ar-
ranged the plates and superintended the engraving of the same, so far
as completed.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37

In the early part of the year he prepared for publication some notes
on the geology of the country immediately about the White Sulphur
Springs, of Greenbrier County, West Virginia, with figures and
descriptions of a few new fossils. He has likewise superintended the
engraving of the quarto-pletes of fossils from the Upper Missouri coun-
try, illustrating a report on the region, to be published by the Government
in connection with the results of the United States Geological Survey
of the Territories, in charge of Dr. Hayden.

On account of failing health he was induced to avail himself of an
opportunity to spend the summer in the Rocky Mountains and along
the Union Pacific Railroad through to the Pacific, during which jour-
ney he collected specimens and made observations at the expense of
the Government survey. Since his return he has prepared descriptions
of some forty or fifty new species of fossils collected during liis journey,
to be published in Dr. Hayden’s report.

METEOROLOGY.

Among the first acts of the Institution was the establishment of a
system of meteorology, intended especially to gather trustworthy infor-
mation as to the character of American storms and the general clima-
tology of the United States. To assist in this enterprise, Mr. James P.
Espy was for several years previous to his death associated with the
Institution. Lieutenant Maury, then in charge of the Observatory, had
previously established a system of meteorology for the sea, and for sev-
eral years another system had been carried on by the War Department
at the various military posts of the United States, besides subordinate
systems in the States of New York, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania.

It was the intention of the Institution to harmonize these different sys-
tems, and, as far as possible, to reduce and discuss the results on one
general plan. For this purpose it had prepared at its expense, by Pro-
fessor Guyot, a volume of meteorological tables, also a series of instruc-
tions, and introduced a set of trustworthy instruments, constructed by
Mr. James Green, of New York.

The Institution was the first to employ the telegraph in the prediction
of the weather; but as its income was not sufficient to carry on this oper-
ation to its full extent, and owing to the interference of the war, the
project was for a while abandoned. The proposition was, however,
aiterward brought before Congress by other parties, and a system of
weather-forecasts established under the direction of the War Depart-
ment, in the especial charge of Chief Signal-Ofticer General A. J. Myer.

The placing of this system of forecasts underthe War Department gave
it special advantages not otherwise to be secured by it. The observers
are all enlisted in the Army and paid out of the Army appropriations.
The whole being under military discipline gives the system a regularity
and efficiency which leaves nothing in this respect to be desired. The

38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

appropriation for the support of the system has thus tar been very lib-
eral, and I do not doubt it will continue to be so from year to year.

Since the establishment of the Government system of weather-fore-
casts [have proposed, on the part of the Smithsonian Institution, toaban-
don the field of meteorology to General Myer, preserving to the Institu-
tion only the labor of discussing and reducing all the observations which
it has collected from its own observers and from all others in the coun-
try up to, say, the year 1872. To this proposition I have not as yet
received a reply.

The Smithsonian system includes at present about five hundred obser-
vers, who give their services voluntarily. They are of two classes: those
who report upon the barometer, thermometer, psvchrometer, rain and
wind gauges, and those who report upon only the temperature, the
wind, the face of the sky, and the rain. Of the first class there are
about one hundred and fifty, and these serve as standards to which the
observations of the second class are referred. Most of the instruments
of the first class have been constructed by Mr. Green. The rain-gauges
are of a very simple form, consisting of merely a cylinder of tinned
iron, two and a half inches in diameter and twelve inches deep, in which
the rain is measured to within half a tenth of an inch by the insertion
of a graduated slip of wood.

If the system just described were incorporated with that of the Gov-
ernment, and an agent sent from time to time throughout the country
to instruct the observers, the whole would form a more extended and
perfect system than any now in existence. The voluntary observers
would render good service in supplementing the more precise observa-
tions of the Army in marking the extent and boundary of special con-
ditions of the atmosphere and in noting casual phenomena, such as
thunder-storms, auroras, tornadoes, &ce.

The Smithsonian system has now been in operation more than twenty
years, and the Institution is at present occupied in reducing and dis-
cussing the observations up to 1870 for publication. The only part of
the results as yet published is that relating to the rain-fall. The part
relative to the winds will be put to press in the course of a few months.
All the observations on the winds which the Institution has been able
to collect from unpublished and published records were placed in the
hands of Professor J. H. Cofiin, of Easton, Pa., who has nearly com-
pleted their discussion. Of this discussion of the “ winds of the globe,”
which has been made at the expense of the Institution, excepting as far as
the labors of Professor Coffin were concerned, the tables have nearly all
been completed, and the preparation of the maps and descriptions
alone remains to be done previous to putting the work to press.

All the temperature-observations have been for several years placed
in charge of Mr. Charles A. Schott, of the Coast Survey, and are being
reduced as rapidly as the appropriation for the purpose from the Smith-
sonian income will allow. The first division of this work has been com-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39

pleted, and will be sent to press during the coming year. This section
consists of tables and discussions necessary to reduce observations
taken at different times of the day to the true mean of the day, and
other general corrections of irregular observations, and hence it was
necessary that this should be prepared first. It includes—

1. General remarks on the explanation and extreme cases of the daily
fluctuations of the temperature; investigation of the corrections to
the mean temperature from certain, hours of the day to refer it to the
true mean of the day.

2. Tables of times of sunrise and sunset for every tenth day of the
year, and between latitudes 23° and 60°.

3. Applications of Bessel’s circular function to represent the daily
fluctuation, (yearly average ;) the results for twenty stations are given.

4, Classification of the daily fluctuation into six typical forms; epochs
of maximum and minimmn, and of mean values and daily range, (with
two diagrams.)

5. Annual variation in the range of the daily fluctuation, (with two
diagrams ;) and extremes of daily fluctuation in December and June,
(with three diagrams;) also table of recorded daily range of tempera-
ture for every month and for certain stations.

6. Variability of the temperature at any hour from the normal value
of that hour, specially investigated for Toronto, Mohawk, Philadel-
phia, and Sitka.

7. Table of the mean values of the hourly, bi-hourly, or semi-hourly
observations of temperature, for every month, at nineteen stations.

8. Table of the daily fluctuations of temperature derived from the
preceding table, and showing, for every hour and for each month and
the year, the difference from the respective daily mean temperature.

Self-registering instruments are absolutely necessary for this kind of
investigation, and when their readings are applied will place the results
on a more satisfactory footing, and one commensurate with the import-
ance of the subject.

The following is the condition of the work, which has been continued
during the past year with the labor of two computers:

1. Consolidated tables, giving the mean temperature for each month,
season, and the year, have been prepared for the following States, &e.:
Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Dakota, Idaho, Nebraska, West
Virginia, Greenland, Iceland, British North America, and part of New
York.

2. A large number of observations made at Havana, Cuba, have been
computed and added to the general tables. Various other additions
have been made and many deficiencies supplied.

3. About three-fourths of the annual means at the different stations
have been calculated, embracing about 7,000.

4, The maxima and minima tables have been nearly completed.

40 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
MISCELLANEOUS.

At a meeting of the British Association in 1868 a committee was
appointed for the purpose of obtaining observations in various localities
on the rate of increase of underground temperature downward. This
committee (through its secretary, Prof. J. D. Everett) has requested
the Institution to furnish observations on this subject from the United
States. i

These observations are generally made by noting the temperature in
artesian wells; and although a large number of these borings for water
have been made in this country, the precautions to be taken, and the
skill required, in obtaining the true increase of temperature in relation
to the depth are of a character not to be intrusted to ordinary obser-
vers; and, therefore, to meet the requirements of the committee, a special
agent will be necessary to visit the different localities. The income of
the Institution, up to this time, has not permitted the incurring of the
cost of such an agency, although we hope in the future to be able to
make an appropriation for the purpose. In the mean while we have
intrusted a set of four standard thermometers, furnished by Professor
Everett, and compared at the Kew Observatory, to Mr. B. D. Frost,
engineer of the Hoosac Tunnel, Massachusetts.

The investigation is one of great interest to the geologist, being inti-
mately connected with the hypotheses concerning the geological changes
to which the globe, has been subjected. The fact has been fully estab-
lished that, in every part of the world where observations have been
made, after descending a few feet below the surface or beyond the
depth at which the temperature of the ground is affected by variations
in the solar heat, there is a gradual increase of temperature varying in
the rate of increase at different places, but on an average not far from
one degree in every sixty feet, or a rate which, if continued, would indi-
cate the fusing-point of iron at a depth of about twenty-eight miles.

At the last meeting of the Board the subject of the desirability of
the franking privilege to the Institution was discussed, as it had fre-
quently been at previous meetings. Hon. Mr. Hamlin, who is a member
of the Post-Office Committee of the Senate, offered to endeavor to pro-
eure action of Congress in regard to this object, and accordingly at
the last session the following law was enacted.

‘¢ All publications sent or received by the Smithsonian Institution,
marked on each package ‘Smithsonian Exchange,’ shall be allowed to
pass free in the mail.” (New Postal Code, 6th subdiv., 183d sec.)

It will be seen from the above that the franking privilege is confined
to printed matter, and does not relieve the Institution from the burden
ef its large letter-correspondence, and, above all, from a new and unex-
pected source of expense in the mineral specimens which, since the
transfer of the collection of the Land-Office to the museum of the Insti-
tution, are sent by mail from the different Government surveyors. We

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 41

have before us a lot of specimens from one Government officer on which
postage of upward of, thirty dollars is charged. Unless provision is
made for the transmission of these to the Institution through the mails
free of cost, as it was in the case of the Land-Office, we shall be obliged
to decline receiving them.

By the will of Henrietta Jane Bedford, of Wilmington, Del., dangh-
ter of Hon. Gunning Bedford, jr., one of the framers of the Constitu-
tion of the United States, aid-de-camp to General Washington, and
first district judge of the United States for the district of Delaware
under the Constitution, a bequest was made to the Smithsonian Institu-
tion of a pair of pocket-pistols, presented to her father by General
Washington; also a silver punch-strainer, said to have been made out
of a silver dollar earned by Benjamin Franklin on the first day news-
papers were carried round the city of Boston for sale. In case these
bequests should not be accepted by the Institution, they were to be given
to the Historica] Society of Delaware.

While the motive which induced this bequest is fully appreciated, the
objects, not being of a kind now in its collections, which relate more
especially to natural history and anthropology, the Institution preferred
that they should be presented to the Historical Society of Delaware.

At the request of the ladies in charge at Mount Vernon it has been
thought proper to deposit with them the model of the Bastile of Paris,
presented to General Washington; an iron stirrup of a saddle used
by Mrs. Washington; and a small picture of Mount Vernon. These
articles came into the possession of the Institution from the effects of
the National Institute, and can be reclaimed for the National Museum
at any time it may be thought important to obtain possession of them.

It was mentioned in the last report that a portion of the large room
in the second story of the building was used for the exhibition of the
cartoons or original sketches of Indian life, made by the celebrated
Indian student, George Catlin. Mr. Catlin continued his exhibition of
these pictures during the summer, and devoted all his time not occupied
in explaining his pictures to visitors, to finishing the sketches. Unfor-
tunately, in passing between the Institution and his boarding-place,
which were separated by the distance of more than a mile, he exposed
himself to the heat of the unusually warm summer, and was seized with
a malady which terminated his eventful life on the 23d of December,
1872, in the seventy-seventh year of his age.

Since the subject will again come before Congress, I may here repeat
what was said in my report last year relative to the purchase by Con-
gress of the Catlin collection: “The entire collection, which comprises
about twelve hundred paintings and sketches, was offered by Mr. Catlin
to the Government in 1846, and its purchase was advocated by Mr. Web-
ster, Mr. Poinsett, General Cass, and other statesmen, as well as by the
principal artists and scholars of the country. A report recommending

42 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

its purchase was made by the Joint Committee on the Library of Con-
gress, but, owing to the absorption of public attention by the Mexican
war, no appropriation was made for the purpose. Mr. Catlin made no
further efforts at the time, but exhibited his pictures in Kurope, where,
on account of an unfortunate speculation into which he was led in Lon-
don, claims were brought against them which he had not the means to
satisfy. At this erisis, fortunately, Mr. Joseph Harrison, of Philadel-
phia, a gentleman of wealth and patriotism, desiring to save the collec-
tion for our country, advanced the means for paying off the claims
against the pictures, and shipped them to Philadelphia, where they have
since remained unredeemed. Mr. Catlin, however, retained possession
of the cartoons, and has since enriched them with a large number of
illustrations of the ethnology of South America. Whatever may be
thought of these paintings from an artistic point of view, they are cer-
tainly of great value as faithful representations of the person, features,
manners, customs, implements, superstitions, festivals, and everything
which relates to the ethnological characteristics of the primitive inhabit-
ants of our country. We think that there isa general public sentiment
in favor of granting the moderate appropriation asked for by Mr. Catlin,
and we trust that Congress will not fail to act In accordance with this
feeling.” It is the only general collection of the kind in existence, and
any one who has given thought to the subject could scarcely fail to sym-
pathize with the last anxious feelings of Mr. Catlin that, after a life of
devotion to Indian ethnology, these results of his labors might be pur-
chased by the Government. To insure the permanent preservation of the
collection, Mr. Catlin would have gladly presented the pictures to the
Government as a gift had he not expended all his worldly possessions in
the formation of the collection, and therefore had nothing wherewith to
redeem the portion of the general collection pledged tor debt or to be-
stow upon his three orphan daughters.

NATIONAL MUSEUM.

Until the year 1870 the support of the National Museum princi-
pally devolved on the Smithson fund, only $4,000 having been annually
appropriated by Congress for this purpose. Since that date, however,
Congress has indicated an intention of providing for the full support of
the museum. In 1870 and 1871 it appropriated $10,000, and in 1872,
$15,000. This last sum, however, is scarcely yet sufiicient to defray the
expenses.

The cost of the reconstruction of the building, exclusive of furniture,
after the fire of 1865, was $136,000, the whole of which was paid from
the Smithson income. This expenditure was for restoring the main
building and not for fitting up rooms wanted for the further extension
of the museum. For the latter purpose, Congress has made appro-
priations, since 1870, amounting in all to $35,000. Of these appropria-
tions $20,000 have been expended in ceiling, flooring, plastering, and

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43

finishing the great hall, occupying the entire second story of the main
building, intended for the extension of the museum; and, with the
remainder of the appropriation, arrangements have been made for fur-
nishing with cases this room, and also the room formerly occupied by the
library, and now devoted to mineralogy and geology.

With a view to the entire separation of the affairs of the museum
from those of the Smithsonian proper, all the operations of the latter,
with the exception of those in the Regents’ room, are carried on in the
east wing and range of the building, leaving all the other parts, includ-
ing the main edifice, towers, west wing, and west range, to the museum

The following is Professor Baird’s account of the additions to the
Museum, and the various operations connected with it during 1872:

Additions to the National Museum in 1872, in geographical sequence.—
The additions to the National Museum, in charge of the Smithsonian
‘Institution, during the year have shown a gratifying increase over those
of 1871, and have been decidedly equal in value to those of any previ-
ous year. The great bulk, as might be expected, has been derived from
the collections of the various Government expeditions, especially those
under the charge of Professor Hayden, Professor Powell, and Lieuten-
ant Wheeler, supplemented, however, by others, contributed by private
effort, especially on the part of Mr. Henry W. Elliot and Mr. William
H. Dall.

A great addition to the magnitude of a portion of the cabinet, namely,
that of mineralogy and geology, has been the result of the transfer to
the Institution, under the order of the Secretary of the Interior, of the
extensive museum of the Land-Oftice.

In the appendix to this report will be found a detailed list of the
donors of the various specimens, together with the general indication of
their nature; but with a view of calling attention more particularly to
the different regions represented therein, I beg leave to present some
remarks, both in regard to the auspices under which they were secured
and their general character.

As in previous years, the principal regions of America are more or
less represented among the additions in 1872, and these, as usual, will
be mentioned in systematic order.

Beginning, therefore, with the Northwest Coast, we have, in the first
place, from the Island of Saint Paul, one of the fur-seal group in Behr-
ing Sea, a very extensive collection, presented by Mr. Henry W. Elliot,
for a long time connected with the Institution. This gentleman visited
the two seal-islands, Saint Paul and Saint George, as an assistant agent
of the Treasury Department, to attend to the interests of the Govern-
ment with the Alaska Commercial Company, and to look after the wel-
fare of the native tribes. The collection embraces a large number of
Skeletons of many species of water-fowl, as well as their skins and eggs,
quite a number of which are new to the national collection ; also various

44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

fish, mollusea, and other marine objects, together with minerals, rocks,
and plants.

Mr. William H. Dall also contributed largely from the region a
little to the south of that occupied by Mr. Elliot, namely, Unalaska
and some adjacent islands. The most marked feature of Mr. Dall’s
contribution consists in the rich collections of pre-historic objects, some
of them found in localities of which the native Aleuts have no tradi-
tion as being the site of ancient settlements. The series is of interest, as
showing the state of civilization among the progenitors of these people.
Other objects collected by Mr. Dall consist of marine invertebrates,
fishes, and numerous birds, eggs, &ec. Among the eggs are several new
kinds, which, with the contributions by Mr. Elliot, nearly complete the
desiderata of the National Museum in regard to the water-birds of the
North Pacific.

Some contributions have also been obtained from Professor Harring-
ton, the companion of Mr. Dall. It should be stated that Mr. Dall
has been engaged since July, 1871, in the service of the Coast Survey,
in surveying the Aleutian Islands, and that the collections made by
him, like those of Mr. Elliot, were gathered entirely at his own ex-
pense, at such periods as could not be occupied by any regular official
work. In addition to the specimens just named, skulls of rare species of
cetaceans were supplied by Captain Scammon, who has also added to
them others from Southern California.

From Oregon have been received several series of Indian relics, and
a number of human and other crania, presented by Mr. Bissell.

California has furnished some curious remains of fossil vertebrates
from Point Conception, presented by Mr. Sceva, and collectigns of
Sacramento salmonide from Mr. Stone. Dr. L. G. Yates has continued
his contributions of ancient relies, as also of minerals and fossil remains.
Some rare birds’ eggs and nests have been furnished by Mr. William
A. Cooper, of Santa Cruz.

From the States and Territories in the interior of North America,
especially those of the Great Basin and of the Rocky Mountain region,
the collections have been principally made on the part of the Govern-
ment expeditions, nearly all of which have had the center of their opera-
tions within these boundaries. Among these we may mention, first, the
parties of Professor Hayden, who renewed in 1872 his explorations of
1871 in the Geyser basins of the Upper Yellowstone, as also farther to ~
the west, in the regions between Fort Hall and the Three Tétons.

In addition to the researches prosecuted by his own immediate party,
and its division under charge of Mr. Stevenson, with Professor F. H.
Bradley as geologist, there were several subsidiary explorations prose-
euted in connection with Dr. Hayden’s labors, by Professor Joseph
Leidy in Wyoming, and by Professors Meek and Bannister, Professor
Lesquereux, and Professor E. D. Cope, all of whom added largely
to the general collections, the total number of boxes of specimens re-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. A5

ceived from Professor Hayden’s expedition amounting to very nearly
one hundred.

The labors of Lieutenant Wheeler in the more southern portions
of the region referred to were continued throughout the season, with
Messrs. Gilbert and Howell as geologists, Dr. Yarrow as surgeon and
chief naturalist, Mr. Henshaw as assistant naturalist, and Mr. Sever-
ance as ethnologist. The investigations of these gentlemen were prose-
cuted in Southern Utah and in Hastern Nevada, and resulted in the
acquisition of rich collections of geological specimens, as also of a large
series of animals, especiaily of the vertebrates. The ethnological con-
tributions of the party were also of much interest.

Professor Powell also, in continuation of preceding explorations along
the Colorado River, devoted himself more particularly to the collection
of Indian remains, and succeeded in procuring a very extensive series
of everything illustrating the habits and manners of the interesting
tribes that now occupy that region.

From. Governor Arny, of New Mexico, the museum has received some
valuable minerals, and numerous articles ef dress and ornament of the
Apaches and other modern tribes. He has also contributed the re-
mains of what Dr. Leidy considers to be a new species of American
fossil elephant, and other bones of the same species were supplied by
General J. H. Carleton.

Some interesting reptiles of New Mexico were contributed by Dr.
Bailey. Other collections of less extent will be found mentioned in the
table of list of contributions.

From the valley of the Mississippi have been received human remain:
from the mounds of Dakota, contributed by General Thomas; from
Louisiana and Mississippi, casts of some very remarkable stone imple-
ments, furnished by Professor Joseph Jones, of New Orleans; and also
original flint objects, together with insects, from Mr. Keenan.

Mr. J. G. Henderson has lent us the rarities of his fine ethnological
collection, gathered principally in [linois, with permission to duplicate
them by means of casts; while from Mr. Peters, of Kentucky, Mr.
Anderson, of Ohio, and other gentlemen, additions have also been
made to the ethnological department.

From the chain of lakes extensive contributions in the way of food-
fishes have been furnished by various parties. Among them may be
mentioned, as the most important contributor, Mr. J. W. Milner, deputy
commissioner of fish and fisheries for the lakes. His transmissions em-
brace the different species of trout and white-fish in great variety.

In obedience to the instructions of the minister of marine and fish-
eries of Canada, the fish-wardens on the lakes have also supplied speci-
mens of trout and white-fish from Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, Lake Cham-
plain, the Saint John’s River, &e. These have been' received from
Messrs. Kerr, Kiel, Macfie, and others.

The Svate of Maine is very amply represented in the collections of

A6 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

the year by means of the specimens of marine animals collected by
Professor Baird as United States commissioner of fish and fisheries, and
his assistants and associates. In addition to the collections made on
the coast of Maine, the Institution has received, through the commis-
sioner of fish and fisheries, a valuable series of the salmon of the Penob-
scot River from Mr. Atkins; of the blue-backed trout of the Rangely
Lakes from Mr. Stanley; and lake-trout and land-locked salmon of the
Saint Croix from Senator Edmunds. Marine animals in great variety
and of much interest were also collected for the fishery commission at
Fort Macon, North Carolina, by Dr. H. C. Yarrow, assistant surgeon of
the United States Army, supplemented by others from Dr. Mackie.

The donations from the interior of the Atlantic coast States consisted
of Indian relics from Mr. Kellogg, of Connecticut; minerals and rocks
of South Carolina from Mr. Waldo; and various specimens of birds from
Florida from Mr. George A. Boardman. The trustees of the Charleston
College have been kind enough to lend to the Smithsonian Institution,
to be copied in plaster, several unique objects of ethnology.

Proceeding to the regions south of the United States, we may men-
tion, first, contributions from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, furnished by
Professor Sumichrast, these consisting of numerous birds and reptiles,
in continuation of similar collections previously transmitted. Mr. Flor
entin Sartorius, of Vera Cruz, also furnished specimens of the rare and
curious wax-producing insects first described as Lystra cerifera.

From Guatemala have been received collections of insects, presented
by Mr. I’. Sarg, and from Nicaragua a collection of rare pottery, by Dr.
Earl Flint. Certain collections made several years ago by Dr. Berendt
near Belize were received during the year, consisting principally of rep-
tiles and shells. As these were gathered at the expense of the several
contributors to a common fand, they were assigned for distribution to
Mr. Thomas Bland and Professor Cope.

Of South American regions, New Granada is represented by a col-
lection of birds presented by the American minister at Bogota, Mr.
Hurlbut; Southern Brazil by the skeleton of a tapir from Mr, Albu-
querque; and Chili by a very valuable collection of native minerals
from the University of Santiago, through Professor Domeyko, and a
collection of Chilian eggs of great interest from the national museum,
through Dr. Philippi.

Perhaps the most interesting South American object is a human head
prepared by the Jivaro Indians of the province of Chimborazo, Peru,
and presented to the Smithsonian Institution by Don Edward de Feiger,
through the honorable Rumsey Wing, United States minister to Heua-
dor. This head belongs to a very rare series of ethnological objects, of
which a very few only have been brought to Kurope and America. They
are held by their owners in much veneration, and jealously guarded as
household divinities. They are believed to be trophies of victories; the
head of an enemy being thus prepared for permanent preservation. The

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. AQ

precise method of manipulation is unknown, but is supposed to consist
in the careful extraction of the bones, flesh, and brains of the head, and
the subsequent contracting of the skin by some astringent. The result
is a well formed and quite symmetrical head, about four inches in diame-
ter; all parts contracted in equal proportion, and with long flowing
black hair; a braid of strings is passed through the lips, and there are
several other artificial appendages.

Prof. William M. Gabb has kindly presented to the National Museum
some extremely rare and remarkable stone implements and pottery from
San Domingo, while Professor Poey, the eminent and veteran naturalist of
Havana, has supplied a series of fishes from Cuba as types of his species.

Fishes of Bermuda were also received from Mr. J. Brown Goode.

The collections from other parts of the world, as might naturally have
been expected, have not been so great, either in number or value, as
those already referred to, although some of them are very important,
as tending to complete the series already in the museum. The most
interesting of these objects are certain pre-historic stone implements,
especially of the drift-period, presented by Mr. William Blackmore,
ot England, and a similar collection furnished by Mr. Baker.

Professor Holst, of Christiania, has supplied a series of minerals from
Konigsberg, a mining-region near that city, while Dr. Sars and Dr.
Boeck have furnished specimens of the crustacea, Mr. Robert Collett
of the fishes, and Dr. William Boeck a skeleton of Hyperoodon. Dr.
Mobius, of Kiel, has also sent us a series of the food-fishes and erusta-
ceans from the vicinity of Kiel.

No collections are recorded from Africa, with the exception of a
superb skull of the Koodoo antelope, from Captain Holmes. From
Japan, however, have been received some remarkable stone and bronze
implements of pre-historic times, presented by the Japanese minister,
Mr. Mori.

The Sandwich Islands are represented by collections of skulls and
ethnology, from Mr. Valdemar Knudsen.

Systematic summary. The preceding enumeration expresses the geo-
graphical relations of the collections received during the year; and it
may be well, in addition, to make a brief systematic reference to the
principal objects received, so far as this has not already been done,
especially as some general collections, covering a wide range of country,
have not yet been referred to. :

The department of ethnology has been especially enriched, not only
by the collections of Professor Powell, Mr. Dall, Professor Hayden, and
others, but very largely by a contribution from Mr. Vincent Colyer. This
gentleman, while connected with the Board of Indian Commissioners,
took cecasion during his official visits in various parts of the Indian
country to collect, at his own expense, large numbers of objects, all of
which are now in possession of the Institution.

48 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The head of the mummy, presented by Don Edward de Feiger,
already referred to, is perhaps the most important of the ethnological
Series; but there are other objects of very great interest worthy of
note. Among them, one of special interest, is an Indian pipe of black
slate, carved in a very striking likeness of a loon, found in West
Virginia and presented by Rev. J. N. Davis.

In the department of mineralogy and geology, the additions brought
in by the parties of Lieutenant Wheeler and Professor Hayden have
been especially rich; the donation of Chilian minerals by Professor
Domeyko, and of Norwegian by Dr. Holst, will do much to increase
the value of this portion of the collection.

The most important addition, however, is that of the Land-Ofiice
collection of minerals, embracing many thousands of specimens, and
especially rich in series of ores trom Nevada, Arizona, Utah, Colorado,
and California. These collections will shortly be arranged with others
of the same character in the new mineralogical hall.

In the department of zoology, a contribution from the Imperial Zoolog-
ical Museum of Vienna, of skeletons of large mammals, such as those of
the lion, tiger, giraffe, brown bear, &c., may be Aaa ore as chief in
value. The skeleton of the Brazilian tapir, from Mr. Albuquerque, is
also of much moment, as rendering the collection of American ae
nearly complete. We previously possessed skeletons of the tapir of
the Andes from Mr. Hurlbut, the Panama tapir from Captain Dow,
and the Guatemala tapir from Mc. Henry Hague; the last additions
making skeletons of four perfectly distinct species or varieties of this
animal.

The skeletons and skulls of the cetaceans of the west coast from
Captain Seammon, a skeleton of hyperoodon whale from Dr. Boeck, and
skeletons of many hundreds of birds from Henry W. Etliot may also
be enumerated.

Among mammals, the chief accessions have been that of a Rocky
Mountain goat, from W. J. Wheeler, since mounted and placed in the
collection; that of a gnu from an unknown source, and the restoration
in full size of the Irish elk, deposited by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins.

The Royal College of Surgeons of London has contributed a col-
lection of casts of the brains of mammals.

Of birds, a valued addition is that of the rare Labrador duck from
the Museum of Natural History of New York; and the extensive col-
lections of Professor Hayden, of Lieutenant Wheeler, of Mr. Dall, and of
Mr. Henry Elliot embrace many important specimens. The eggs from
Messrs. Dall and Elliot, taken in Alaska, and those from Chili, are of
principal value.

The collection of fishes has been very large, made principally by or
in behalf of the commission of fish and fisheries. It embraces spect-
mens of the Salmonide of the Sacramento River, received from Mr

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49

Livingston Stone, and of various localities on the great lakes, and in
the States of Maine and New Hampshire.

The marine collections from the coast of Maine, Vineyard Sound,
Rhode Island, Fort Macon, Cuba, and the Bermudas have already been
referred to. The European collection presented by Messrs. Sars, Boeck,
and Collett, as also those of Dr. Mobius, of Kiel, will also be of much
value for purposes of comparison.

The invertebrates gathered under similar auspices have also been
very numerous, and will furnish ample means for distribution to other
museums.

In accordance with the policy of the Institution, all the specimens of
human anatomy, including crania and skeletons from the ancient
mounds, have been turned over as soon as received to the Army
Medical Museum, while the insects and the plants have, in like manner,
been deposited with the Agricultural Department.

The total number of distinct donations received during the year 1872
amounted to 315 entries, comprising 544 separate packages and coming
from 203 different donors.

The corresponding figures for the year 1871, consist of 271 donations,
comprising 400 packages.

Work done in the museum.—The addition of so large a stock of ma-
terial to the collections already in charge of the Institution, of course,
involved a great deal of labor, such as the unpacking and classifying
of the objects; the labeling of all, at least as to localities; the entering
in their respective record-books; the putting such of them in order
as required it; placing such as were ready for immediate exhibition
on their respective shelves; and storing the rest away where they could
most readily be referred to on ceccasion.

All dry objects of an animal nature generally need prompt attention
to prevent their being affected by mold or by the attacks of insects ;
ethnological objects usually requiring to be thoroughly cleaned and
poisoned, while skins of animals, furs, Indian robes, dresses, &c., must
be immersed in some poisonous solution before they can be considered
as permanently secure. All this has been etfected with as much thor-
oughness as the time and force at the command of the Institution would
permit.

In addition to this, it was found that the immense collection of objects
of dresses and ornaments belonging to the ethnological galleries, were
more or less infected by moths, and it became necessary to subject the
entire series to a process of renovation, embracing many thousands of
specimens.

The transfer of the mounted birds and mammals from the old stands
to those of a neater form has also been prosecuted to +) considerable ex-
tent during the year, several thousands having been so treated, to the
a improvement of the general appearance.

Ss

50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Perhaps the most important labors in the museum have been that
connected with the renovation of the extensive alcoholic collections.
These were in a very unsatisfactory condition, in consequence of the
fire of 1865, and the unavoidable confusion during the process of recon-
struction of the various apartments of the Institution.

The bottles were necessarily stored in a damp cellar, where the labels
became obliterated to a greater or less degree; and although the pre-
caution had been taken to introduce within the jars numbers corre-
sponding to those of the external label, yet both in many cases were
found to have become illegible. It was necessary, therefore, to use
every effort to remedy the difficulty by re-labeling such specimens as
had not lost their history beyond recovery; and this work has occupied
a considerable portion of the force the entire year. All the bottles,
however, have been cleaned and placed in a dry cellar, and during the
coming year this part of the collection will be put in as good order as
can be desired. i

A considerable portion of the time of the employés of the museum
was occupied in the transfer of the extensive collection of rocks and
minerals from the Land-Office, which has necessarily required great care
to prevent the misplacement of the labels. This was, however, satis-
factorily accomplished, and the specimens are now safely in the posses-
sion of the Institution, and, it is hoped, will be placed on their shelves
in the course of the year 1873.

Quite a number of the skeletons of the larger animals, such as the
Irish elk, severai species of tapir, the American moose, the buffalo,
American and European bisons, the elk, camel, &c., have been mounted
during the year and placed in the general collection. There is yet much
to be done in this direction, the museum fortunately possessing very
complete series of the bones of most of the American mammalia and
many foreign species. Several large mammals have also been mounted,
such as the bison, the moose, walrus, and a considerable number of the
larger fish found on the Atlantic coast.

Distribution of specitmens.—In accordance with the policy adopted by
the Smithsonian Institution in the administration of the collections of
the National Museum, much has been done in the way of transmission
of specimens to other museums at home and abroad.

Many of the rare and more choice stone implements in different mu-
seums throughout the country have been borrowed and duplicated by
means of casts, and enough of these prepared to permit quite an exten-
sive distribution.

The collections brought in by Professor Hayden during his different
expeditions of several years past were all unpacked and arranged; and
after reserving a series for the Museum of the Institution, the remainder
were nade up into some fifteen or twenty sets, which were distributed
to different colleges and academies throughout the country. This branch

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51

of the work of the Institution, it is hoped, can be greatly extended
during the coming year, in view of the immense number of duplicates
which will be found in the Land-Office collection and in the collections
just received from the various Government expeditions.

A large number of specimens in mineralogy and geology were also
boxed upand transmitted to Professor Egleston and Professor Newberry,
of the School of Mines in New York, under the existing arrangement
with those gentlemen to select and label a perfect single series for the
National Museum and to exchange the duplicate specimens in its interest.
Numerous returns have already been received of valuable material,
adding greatly to the richness of the lithological department.

Dr. Coues, assistant surgeon in the Army, having volunteered to pre-
pare a monograph of the smaller rodents of North America for publi-
cation by the Institution, received at Baltimore the entire collection of
specimens, both in alcohol and in skins. Having subjected these to a
careful criticism, he made the duplicates into thirty sets, which will be
distributed in the course of the coming year to the different museums
in this country and Europe, in return for which we shall doubtless
receive some valuable additions to the cabinet.

A few of the small number remaining on hand of sets of minerals, geo-
logical specimens, shells, &c., have been sent out to various addresses,
and as also several series of birds, &c., mammals, skeletons, eggs, &c.
The entire number of specimens thus sent forth will be found in an
accompanying table.

The museum may now be considered as in much better condition than
it has ever been before. The process of renovation is progressing as
rapidly as possible, and will, before long, be completed. The establish-
ment of better store-rooms in which to keep the unmounted skins of
animals, and the alcoholic collections, has enabled us to work to much
better advantage. As fast as each department can be re-organized and
placed in a satisfactory condition, pains will be taken to eliminate the
duplicates, and distribute them as authorized. The result will be to
greatly reduce the bulk of crude material to be cared for by the Insti-
tution, and to render a great service to the cause of scientific instruc-
tion by disseminating authentically-labeled types of the various species.
Returns of great value may be expected also for these specimens.

There is, however, a great deal to be done before the collections at
present in the National Museum may be considered as finally arranged,
to say nothing of those yet to be received. The greater portion of the
ethnological museum will need to be properly mounted on tablets, or
otherwise prepared for permanent exhibition, and labeled. As soon as
the cases in the large hall of the Institution can be completed, these
specimens will be placed in position. It is intended to prepare a large
number of effigies representing accurately the lineaments, dress, and
form of the tribes of Indians, and to place upon these their correspond-

52 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ing ornaments, weapons, &c.; and to introduce them, either singly or in
groups, into suitable cases, where they can most readily be seen.

The approach to completion of the new cases for the mineralogical
hall, formerly occupied by the library, makes it necessary to re-arrange
all the mineralogical and geological specimens, these including not only
such as have been for a long time in the Institution, but the newly-ac-
quired treasures from the Land-Ofiice, and the Government expeditions
of 1872. These transfers will vacate a portion of the present exhibition-
room, amounting, perhaps, to nearly one-third its present capacity; and
it is proposed to occupy the gaps thus made by specimens of mammals,
birds, and skeletons. Of these there are ample series in the building,
enough, indeed, to fill several large rooms. Such a selection will be
made from these as will make up the most important deficiencies in the
mounted series at present on exhibition.

Mineralogical collection.—Under the authorization of the Secretary of
the Interior, the Commissioner of the Land-Oflice transferred to the.care
of the Institution, as a part of the National Museum, the collection of
minerals which had been formed by Mr. Joseph Wilson, the previous
Commissioner. This collection, intended to illustrate the mineral resources
of the country, consisted of samples of ores and geological specimens from
every State and Territory in the Union. Though a very valuable addi-
tion to the Museum, it is formed in some degree of duplicates of specimens
already in the Institution. Thisfact, however, will enable us to make up
sets of duplicates for distribution to collegesand academies. It is proposed
to continue the plan inaugurated by Mr. Wilson, of illustrating the
mineral products of all parts of the United States in addition to a gen-
eral systematic mineralogical cabinet. For the exhibition of the latter
the large room formerly occupied by the library will be devoted, while
the connecting range, by a few changes, will serve as the receptacle for
the specimens to illustrate the former.

In coneluding the history of the Institution up to the year 1872, it will
be evident that the establishment has had, on the whole, a successful
career, although it has not been free from mishaps, and the appropriation
of the fund was not at first as conformable to the strict interpretation
of the will of the founder as could have been wished, yet continued
improvement has been made in this respect from year to year. Not
only the state of the funds, but the character which the Institution has
established over the world, will enable it to compare favorably with the
management of any endowment with which we are at present acquainted.

respectfully submitted.
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
WASHINGTON, February, 187?

NOTES RELATIVE TO GEORGE CATLIN.

George Catlin was born in Wilkesbarre, in the valley of Wyoming,
Pennsylvania, in the year 1796. His father was a lawyer of considera-
ble reputation, and designed his son to practice the same profession,
which he did for a short time; but bis natural inclination for art was so
strong that after two or three years he abandoned the idea of becoming
a lawyer and removed to Philadelphia, where he pursued his occupation
principally as a portrait-painter. It was here that an incident occurred
which determined that future career which has made his life and labors
famous. A party of roving Indians visiting Philadelphia, decorated
with the barbaric splendor of their native dresses, by their bold and
martial bearing, and by their unconstrained attitudes and gestures, so
impressed him that he determined to become the historian of this
remarkable race, which was rapidly becoming extinct, and to devote
himself to the illustration of their arts, types, manners, and customs.

With this purpose in view, in 1830 and 1851, he accompanied Governor
Clarke, of Saint Louis, then superintendent of Indian Affairs, who was
engaged in making treaties with the Winnebagoes, Monomonees, Shaw-
nees, and Sacs and Foxes. In 1832 he ascended the Missouri, on the
steamer Yellowstone, to Fort Union, and afterward returned, in a
canoe, with two companions, a distance of 2,000 miles, visiting and
painting all the tribes, so numerous at that time, on the whole length
of the river. The next year he went up the Platte as far as Fort
Laramie, and extended his journey to Great Salt Lake. In 1834 he
explored the Mississippi as far as the Falls of Saint Anthony, and visited
the Ojibbeways and other tribes, and returned to Saint Louis, a distance
of 900 miles, in a bark canoe. In 1835 he made a second visit to the
Falls of Saint Anthony, and thence proceeded to the Red Pipestone
region on the Couteau des Prairies, and then, returning to the Falls of
Saint Anthony, descended the river a second time in a canoe to Saint
Louis. In 1836 he accompanied Colonel Dodge on an expedition to the
Comanches and other southwestern tribes ; and in 1837 visited Florida
for the purpose of painting the Seminoles and Euchees. During these
eight years he visited fifty different tribes of North American Indians,
taking sketches all the time. Having thus accumulated a large number
of paintings representing the portraits of the principal men and the tribes
and the pictures of savage life, he exhibited them in various parts of
the United States, especially in Washington, Philadelphia, New York, and
Boston, with such suecess that, in 1859, he went to London and Paris,
where the artist and his collections attracted general attention. From
this time until 1852 he remained in Europe, being everywhere treated

5A REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
with marked distinction. In 1852, when fifty-six years old, his enthusi-
asm undiminished by his advancing age, and with a vigor and endurance
rarely found even in the young men of our day, he explored, with the
same object, the forests of South America. He went to Venezuela, and
visited the Oronoco, Amazon, and Essequibo, taking a great number of
pictures on his route. He afterward crossed the continent to Lima,
and going northward visited the mouth of the Columbia River, Nootka
Sound, Alaska, and to The Dalles, and up the Columbia River to Walla-
Walla, thence up to the Salmon River Valley, and across the mountains
into Snake River Valley at Fort Hall, thence to .the Great Falls of the
Snake River, and returning to Portland proceeded to San Francisco
and San Diego. From San Diego he crossed the Colorado of the West
and the Rocky Mountains, and descended the Rio Grande del Norte in
a canoe to Matamoras. From Matamoras he set out for Sisal, in Yucatan,
and thence proceeded to Havre. Starting again from that place in the
fall of the same year, 1855, he went to Rio Janeiro and Buenos Ayres.
Ascending the Paraguay and Parana, he crossed the Entre Rios
Mountains to the head-waters of the Uruguay, which he descended to
the mouth of the Rio Negro and returned to Buenos Ayres. From this
place, in 1856, he took passage in a sailing-vessel coasting the whole
length of Patagonia, and then north to Panama; thence to Chagres, to
Caracas in Venezuela, to Santa Martha and Maraéaibo. In these six
years, completing his Indian studies, he retired to Brussels, and, with
pen and brush, again set himself to recording the results of his travels,
adding to his history of the North American Indians that of the Indians
of South America. He remained at Brussels until “his return to thie
country in 1871.

During his life, and in periods of rest from his travels, he wrote and
published the following works:

1. Catlin’s Notes of Eight Years’ Travels among the North American
Indians, 2 vols., 1851.

2. Catlin’s Notes of Eight Years’ Residence in Europe, 2 vols, 1848.

3. Catlin’s North American Portfolio, 1844.

4, Okee-pa, a Religious ** Mandan” Ceremony.

5. Life among the Indians, (book for youth,) 1867.

6. Last Rambles among the Indians of the Rocky Mountains and
Andes, 1867.

7. Shut Your Mouth, 1869.

8. Uplifted and Subsided Rocks of America, 1870.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY,

Table showing the number of entries in the record-books of the Smithsonian

Museum at the close of the years 1871 and 1872,

_ Class:

Reptiles
Fishes

HOO SLODILOS seeped 5 PN ida toi tee ee caf

Crustaceans
Mollusks

Increase for 1872, 8,527.

72, respectively.

1871. 1872
12, 059 | 12, 450
9, 849 | 11, 195
61, 250 62, 718
7,53 8,729
7,983 | 9,758
15, 986 16, 322
1, 287 2, 187
24,792 24, 792
2,730 3, 107
100 100
7, 697 7,715
7, 160 7, 167
10, 931 11, 607
169,360 | 177,747

Approximate table of distribution of duplicate specimens to the end of 1872.

Class.

Skeletons and skulls .-.---

Mens soese scouneontus
ind StS dats eet SPS:

IP eastor PILdsa-—- ee eeee
Shelilsiyeey sph elo
Crustaceans srere eee ee
Radiates ....-. eis See eere
Other marine invertebrates
Plants & packages of seeds
IOSSULS ponents Aomeeeeiee a ece
Ethnological specimens - --
Insects

i rs

Distribution to the

Distribution

Total to end of

end of 1871. during 1872. 1872.
) Speci- Speci- Speci-
Species. mens. | SPecies. isha! Species. Hr
{
325 827 19 37 344 864
941 1, 22 22 68 963 1, 890
22, 940 30, 428 | 1,129 | 1,667 24,069 | 37, 095
1, 841 Qy OO! lseeppscentcpeseeree 1, 841 2, 970
2,477 5, 311 40 87 2, 517 5, 398
6, 606 16, 698 21 22 6, 627 | 16,720
83,712 | 186, 157 905 ; 1,035 84, 617 | 187, 192
1, 078 NOOO Neeerereelleee eo aracis 1, 078 2, 650
583 MO eeesegs ee lee ao ees. 583 778
1, 838 5, 152 6 8 1,844 5, 160
18, 503 25,063 | 1,867 | 4,642 20,370 | 29,705
4,109 10, 135 3 6 4,112} 10,141
4, 630 9, 974 683 728 5,313 | 10,702
1, 295 1, 342 381 397 1, 676 1, 739
1, 836 3, 150 412 | 1,144 2, 248 4, 294
29 623 29 29 58 662
152, 743 5,517 | 9,880 | 158, 260 | 317, 960

308, 080

56 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION IN 1872.

Abell, J. Ralls. Indian relics, insects, &c., from Virginia.

Akhurst, J. Specimens from Nerthwest Coast. |

Albuquerque, F. Skeleton of Tapir and head of Deer from Brazil.

Allen, J. A., for Mus. of Comp. Zool., Cambridge, Mass. Specimen of

Lagomys in alcohol, and nest and egg of Plectrophanes ornatus.
Two specimens Leucosticte tephrocotis from Colorado.

Aman, S. Specimen of Spider-crab from Chesapeake Bay.

American Museum of Nat. Ifistory, New York. Mounted specimen of
Labrador Duck, (Camptolaemus labradorius.)

Anderson, Wm. Ethnological specimens and fossils from Ohio.

Arny, Hon. W. F. M. Bundle of arrows of White Mountain Apaches,
Arizona, and many other specimens of Ethnology, Mineralogy, and
Natural History.

Atkins, C. G. Two specimens of Salmon, from Bucksport, Me.

Aubin, N. Copper-ores from Lake Superior.

Babcock, Gen. O. EF. Specimens of silicified wood from excavations of
public works, Washington, D. C.

Bailey, Dr G. W. One bottle alcoholic reptiles, insects, &c., from New
Mexico.:

Baird, Prof. 8. F., U. 8. Commiss’r of Fisheries. Forty-four boxes general

collections from Eastport, Me.
HEmbryonie chicken in alcohol, Washington, D. C.

Baker, W. A. Collection of prehistoric flint implements from Great
Britain.

Barnes, Thos., through Col. EH. Jewett. Copper chisel from Niagara Co.,
NS Ys

Bendire, Lt. U. 8. A. Birds dried in the flesh, nests, and eggs, from
Arizona.

Berendi, Dr. H. Three boxes and one package general collections from
Honduras. ;

Binckley, J. M. Indian stone implement from Virginia.

Bissell, Geo. P. Stone implements, and antler imbedded in wood, from
Creswell, Oregon.

Biackmore, W. Prehistoric stone relics from Europe.

Blakeslee, D. Yndian stone relics from Ohio.

Bloom, F. J. Fossils and Indian relics from Mississippi.

Boeck, Axel. Crustaceans from Norway.

Boles, Hon. T. S. Specimens of iron-ore from Arkansas.

Brevoort, J. Carson. Specimen of Ring-tailed Monkey from the Amazon,
(fresh).

Brown, Dr. Ryland T. Specimens of rock-salt from Arizona.

Brown, Hon. 8S. G. Quartz arrow-head from Anacostia, D. C.

Brush, A. P. Indian stone implements from Quincy, Pa.

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. BT

Bryan, O. N. Skull of a mound-builder, from mound near Dubuque,
lowa.

Carletor, Rev. Hiram. Specimens of wheat prepared against rust.

Carleton, Gen. J. H. One box fossil bones from Sonora, Mex.

Choate, J. B. One box fossils from Towa and Illinois.

Clarke, Geo. Fishes from Lake Erie and Detroit River.

Clarke, S. C. Ethnological specimens from Spruce Creek, Fla.

Cleburne, Wm. Three boxes fossils from along the line of Union Pacific
Railroad.

Clements, C. C., Surveyor-General of Utah. Specimens of silver-ores.

Cochrane, J. Ancient pottery, &e., from Illinois.

Cogswell, Mrs. W. F. Specimens of iron-ores from Lake Superior.

Collett, Robert. Collection of Norwegian fishes.

Colyer, Vincent. Indian clothing, implements, &c., from Alaska and the
western Territories.

Comstock, Gen., U. S. A. Specimens of dredgings made under the lake
survey in Lake Superior.

Cooper, W. A. Birds’ eggs from Santa Cruz, Cal.

Coues, Dr. Hlliott, U. S. A. Skeleton and odd bones of Didelphys vir-
ginianus, (types of his monograph of the species.)

Curtis, R. C. Fossils from Genesee Co., N. Y.

Curtis, W. W. Specimens of quartz from Wisconsin.

Cusick, C. C. Ethnologicai specimens from Dakota Territory.

Dall, W. H. General collections from Alaska and the Aleutian Islands,
part of the collections by M. W. Harrington.

Davis, Rev. J. H. Indian stone pipe, (loon shape,) from West Virginia.

Dennis, Joel M. Ancient pottery from Newark, Ohio.

Dobson, J. Rk. Specimens of iron and iron-ores from Pennsylvania.

Domeyko, Dr. Ignacio, University of Chili. Hight boxes of Chilian min
erals.

Duvall, Geo. W. Specimen of Cormorant, (Graculus dilophus.) Sucking-
fish, and woodchuck, from Annapolis, Md.

Dyer, C. B. Box of fossiis from Cincinnati, Ohio.

Edwards, Amory. Fossils from Kansas.

Edwards, Vinal H. Fishes, &e., from Vineyard Sound, Mass.

Elias, Mr. Medal issued in commemoration of the introduction of water
into the city of Buenos Ayres, South America.

Elliott, Henry W. Ten boxes general collections from Saint Paul’s
Island, Alaska.

Faulkner, J. Collection of birds’ eggs from Northern [llinois.

Feiger, Don Ramon. Prepared head of Indian from Ecuador, South
Awmerica, (through Hon. Rumsey Wing, United States minister.)

Fithie, Jas. 8S. Insects, &c., from Mississippi.

Flint, Dr. Earl. One box of ancient pottery from Nicaragua.

Gabb, Prof. W. M. One box stone implements and pottery from Santo
Domingo.

58 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

Gibbon, Lardner. Arrow-heads and Indian relics from South Carolina.

Giles, Norwood. Birds’ eggs and nests from North Carolina.

Gilpin, Dr. J. B. Specimens of Sea-Trout from Labrador and fishes from
Nova Scotia.

Goldsmith, Dr. through P. S. Phelps. One box fish from Ticonderoga,
Lake Champlain.

Goode, G. Brown. One box fishes from Bermuda.

Greene, A. &. One package minerals and one can fish from Maine.

Grifith, T. D. Cotton raised by Indians of Chickasaw Nation, Indian
Territory.

Hamilton, Hon. C. L. Specimen of white Coral from Key West, Fla.

Hansen, F. Walter. One ancient implement of polished iron-ore from
Texas.

Harenbergh, J. k., U. S. Surveyr-Gevl. Specimens of ores from Calave-
ras Co., Cal.

Harford, G. One box of birds from San Miguel Island, California.

Harris, Wyatt. Fossil univalve from Mt. Vernon, Mo.

Hawkins, B. Waterhouse. Model of Irish Elk (restored) on deposit.

Hayden, Dr. F. V. General collections of minerals, fossils, and speci-
mens of Natural History from Wyoming, Utah, and Montana. -

Hatch, Dr. Four specimens of Silver Trout, from Centre Pond, Dublin,
iigelels

Henderson, Jno. G. Indian stone implements from mound near Naples,
Ill., (loaned.)

Hicks, W. Rk. One package Indian relies from North Carolina.

Hilgert, H. Specimens of silicified wood from New Mexico.

Hobbs, Maj. T. J. Specimen of Potomac Black Bass.

Hoffman, Dr. A. H. Indian relics from Angel Island, Cala., (through
Surgeon-General’s office. )

Hoffman, Dr. W. J. Tortoise from Colorado Desert.

Holmes, G. G. Skull and horns of African Antelope ‘ Koodoo.”

Holst, Dr. Chr., University of Christiania, Norway. Collection of min-
erals from Norway.

Hoover, Jno. T. Nest of small Fly-Catcher from Dansville, N. Y.

Hough, Rk. B. Nests and eggs of birds from Northern New York.

Hovey, Geo. Specimen of Gordius in alcohol.

Howell, R. Indian relics and fossils from Tioga Co., N. Y.

Hurlburt, Geo. H. One box of birds from New Granada.

Imp. Mus. Vienna. See Pelzeln, A. von.

Jewett, Col. H. Stone disk from mound at Cedar Key, Fla.

Jones, Dr. Jos. Casts of ancient stone implements from Louisiana.

Jordan, H. C. Alcoholic collections from Brazil and Paraguay.

Junghuuns, Dr. Two human skulls from Japan.

Kalteyer, Geo. H. Fossil tooth (Ptychodus) from Texas.

Keenan, T. J. k. Ethnological and other specimens from Mississippi
and. Louisiana.

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. 59

Kellogg, B. B. Indian stone implements from New Fairfield, Ct.

Kercheval, A. Minerals and fossils from West Virginia.

Kerr, Jno. W. Hight specimens of Lake White-fish from Lakes Erie
and Ontario.

Kiel, Peter. One box White-fish from Wolf Island, Ontario.

Knudsen, Valdemar. Ethnological and zoological collections from the
Sandwich Islands.

Kron, F. J. Sndian antiquities from North Carolina.

Lee, Col. J. G. C. Specimens of Indian pottery and other relics from
Arizona.

Lehane, Jas., Hospital Steward U. 8S. A. Specimen of Mountain Rat,
(Neotoma,) and skin of Horned Owl from Camp Douglas, Utah.

Leidy, Dr. Jos. One box ethnological specimens from Wyoming Terr.

Ince, Capt. S. B. Specimens of ancient Roman mosaic pavement from
Italy.

Indjngton, C. Fresh fish, shells, &c., from lower Potomac.

Macfie, R. One box White-fish from Alburgh Springs, Vt.

Mackenzie, Jas. Specimens of corals and shells imbedded in asphalt,
from Cuba.

Mackin, Dr. C. One jar alcoholic collections from Beaufort, N. C.

Marquardt, H. Specimens of Guaco, and Nopal, from Mexico.

Maynard, C. J. One box birds, (lent for examination.)

McCallum, D. Specimen of Glow-worm.

Me Williams, Dr. Specimen of rose-breasted Grosbeak from Washing-
ton, D. C.

Meigs, Gen. M. C. One jar alcoholic collections from Arizona, shells,
&e., from Lower California.

Merritt, Jno. F. Arrow-heads from Northern New York.

Metcalf, W. Birds, &c., from Michigan.

Miller, J. De Witt. Indian stone implements from New York.

Miller, S. A. Collections of fossils from Ohio.

Milner, James W. Collections of fishes, reptiles, &c., dry and in alcohol.
from the great lakes.

Mobius, Dr. Karl, University of Kiel, Prussia. Fishes from the Baltic
Sea.

Moore, A. B. Birds’ nests and eggs from Florida.

Moore, Carleton k. Indian stone relics from the Eastern Shore of Mary-
land.

Mori, Hon. Arinori. Set of Japanese gold and silver coins, and ethno-
logical specimens from Japan.

Morris, Jordan, through Z. b. Sturgis. Fragment of fossil Coral (avo-
sites) from Salem, Ind.

Mullet, A. GB. Two boxes of minerals.

Munson, Chas. Specimens of gray copper-ore.

Mus. Comp. Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. Casts of fossils; two boxes general
collections. :

60 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

Nelson, W. J. Specimen of rock from Virginia.

Nichols, Dr. C. H. Specimens of Jaguar and Monkey from S. America,
(died in captivity at Government Hospital for the Insane.)

Nugent, Ff. Ff. Birds’ nests and eggs from Utah.

Oler, H. D. Indian flint implements from Illinois.

Palmer, Jos. Casts of skulls and alcoholic specimens.

Papineau, EL. A. Insects from Kansas.

Peabody Mus. See Wyman, Dr. Jeffries.

Pelzeln, Dr. A. von, Imperial Mus. Vienna. One large box skeletons.

Poey, Prof. F. Two casks and one box Cuban fishes, labeled.

Powell, Maj. J. W. General collections from Utah and Arizona.

Powell, Capt. S. One box fishes from Rhode Island.

Prentiss, Dr. D. W. Birds collected in the vicinity of Washiloton’

Propper, Geo. H. Fossils and ethnological specimens from Dakota Ter.

Putnam, Geo. D. One box insects from Iowa.

Read, Rev. D. One box fresh-water shells from Minnesota. .

Reinsch, Dr. Paul. Herbarium of mosses (2 vols.) from Central Europe.

Ricksecker, E. One box of eggs from Nazareth, Pa.

Ting, Lt. F. M. General collections from Alaska.

Robinson, Miss Agnes C. Nest of Vireo from vicinity of Washington.

Roessler, A. Rk. Specimen of copper-glance from Archie Co., Tex.

Rouckendorff, W. Cluster of barnacles.

Royal College of Surgeons, London, Prof. W. H. Flower. Casts of brains
and osteological specimens.

Rutter, H. Fresh fish (Coregoni) from Fredericton, N. B

Salt Lake Museum. One box minerals, fossils, &e.

Sarg, Francis. Collections of insects and shells from Guatemala.

Sars, G. O. Embryonic Cod fish from Norway.

Sartorius, Florentin. Four specimens of the wax- producing insect
(Lystra cerifera) from Mirador, Mex.

Sayre, W. Marine invertebrata a South Carolina.

Scammon, Capt.C. M. Specimens of bones of Cetaceans, &c., from N. W.
Coast.

Sceva, Geo. Five boxes of fossils from Pt. Conception, Cal.

Schacht, Bros., Sandusky, O. One box fish-produets.

Schoolcraft, Mrs. H. &. Indian flint knife.

Schrock, J. Ethnological specimens from Ohio.

Sherman, Isaac C. Stuffed specimen of Bill-fish, (Histiophorus gladius.)

Sinclair, Thos. Specimen of young Sucking-fish from George’s Bank.

Spencer, J. W. Fossils from Sullivan Co., Ind.

Stanley, H. O., through H. T. Richgrdson. Six jars Blue Trout from
Rangely Lake, Me.

Stearns, k. H. 0. One box birds’ nests and general collections from
California.

Stimpson, Dr. W. ‘Two cases general collections from Florida.

Stone, Livingston. Salmon-eggs from Sacramento River, Cal.

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. 61

Street, W. Eggs of Hawks from Easthampton, Mass.

Sumichrast, Dr. #. General collections from Tehuantepec, Mex.

Surgeon-General U. S. Army. See Hoffman, Dr. A. H.

Swan, J. G., through Geo. Gibbs. Indian implements from Washington
Territory. ‘

Thomas, Ger. 7. . One box bones of mound-builders from Dak ta.

Thompson, D. \ncian stone relics from Ohio.

Thompson, J. H. One jar fishes from New Bedford, Mass.

University of Chili, Santiago, Chili. See Domeyko.

University of Christiania. See Holst, Dr. Chr.

University of Kiel. See Mobius, Dr. K.

Unknown. Fossils from Onondaga Co., N. Y. Box of living plants
from Washington Ter. Fresh skin of African Gull. One Moth from
Erie, Pa. One box specimens from Pa. One box alcoholic specimens
and insects. One box fossil bones from North Carolina. One living
serpent (Abastor erythrogrammus) from Georgia. Ores from Amador
Co., Cal. Bones of Mastodon from Mississippi. Silver-ores from
Montana. One earthen pipe.

Voorhees, P. W. Specimen of bog-iron ore from New Jersey.

Waldo, Rev. Milton. One box minerals and fossils from South Carolina.

Walker, Dr. Rk. Z. Indian stone hammers and arrow-heads from Penn-
sylvania.

Wallace, Jno. Skeletons of Flamingo and Swan.

Ward, Prof. H. A. Skeleton of Buffalo.

Wasson, Jno., Surveyor-General Arizona. Specimens of silver-ores from
various mines in Arizona.

Watson, S. Sets of plants made up for distribution.

Watters, Dr. W. Fragment of skin of a Plagiostome from Searsport, Me.

Webber, Mrs. Specimens of shells in alcohol from Florida.

Westcott, O. S. ‘Specimen of Bald Eagle from Illinois.

Wheeler, Lt. G. M. General collections from Utah and Arizona.

Wheeler, W. F., U.S. Marshal. Skin of Rocky Mountain Goat from
Montana Territory.

Whitman, G. P. Beak of a Cuttle-fish from Rockport, Me.

Williams, H.C. Stone arrows and ax from [Fairfax Co., Va.

Wilson, Dr. J. N. Copper quiver from near Newark, O.

Wood, Dr. W. M. One box general collections.

Woodworth, O. H. Specimens of Horned Toad and insects from New
Mexico.

Wright, Chas. D. Brick from the wall of Pekin, China, (on deposit.)

Wyman, Dr. Jeffries, Peabody Mus., Cambridge, Mass. Three boxes of
European prehistoric relics.

Yarrow, Dr. H. C. General collections from Ft. Macon, N. C.

Yates, Dr. L. G. Minerals and stone relics from California.

Yonge, Wm. Penn. Specimen of Shad from Alabama River.

Zaremba, Dr. C. W. Fruit and leaves of Chilian Boldo-tree, (Prunus
Sragrans.) :

2

ad

6

EXCHANGES.

TABLE SHOWING THE STATISTICS OF THE SMITHSONIAN
EXCHANGES IN 1872.

A Ep . B43 a +
© S ee wo ad
Agent and country. = = ish ieee © 5
a oa oH or a
o >) io) bd 5 EDS
S) S Sai 2
A Zz Za | 8 =
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stock-
holm :
Swed ena saat 2/2 noice cet re mettre tere 27 73 Al | habe eae os are
Royal University of Norway, Christiania:
INGEN Bist. 3 sao a See nee tle. seis © 22 58 Boel ies ge sale colts
Royal Danish Society of Sciences, Copenha- ty rs
gen:
Wenmarhkis. = 282 ioe eee cee ee emersian = 25 OY dhesie sail esata as ae
Vcelandy.2/-)s cis. eceaie = SSIs Lis cedyses = 2 2 Delsccme al Sees
Mota pao eae ee eee ee eos 27 59 35s nema eects
Watkins & Co., St. Petersburg : im a ey
INDE) eb sonncbodds Basooso Shs sbOboD cede 89 189 Oe React alle cmek el
Frederic Miller, Amsterdam : Fe
olan Gk..5. coc mais ecto ee eee ee a eeseusieee 56 125 48 eset Pie
Bel iim waists as seats ees cae etae= 95 140 Zales Shee | meshaete c
NOW cakeadocses Badseobscees sondc 151 265 Bt ks 8 sacneee
Dr. Felix Fliigel, Leipsic: - oT
Genmianiyen sass eens Semone ee See 435 626 A()aliiies 2.3) openers
Swabzerland jo. cle eece eee eels eee. 56 148 AW eejec| ee
GLEECO Ba etic ears Va eae ee rere aie 3 3 ts. 2 86 ale ee
OLAIS Joenneccrecece cae antts.lae bes 494 777 AD Gl serra Meee
Gustave Bossange, Paris: | re
ESTANICO ese cise ee cecteis Dclsieteee-necelehe eee 187 349 Beas alleen sete
R. Istituto Lomb. di Scienze e Lettere, Milan: i
Gay a= erad selec cere seers Wee seo re 131 232 el es ieee bs Semonioese
Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon: ays
Portugal. soso -esee cee need sect aee 19 19 Dee ect lh ee
Royal Academy of Sciences of Madrid : aan i
SAMMI, fo) Suess see area ee Ae eh) es 8 8 ToS e. eaeoeaee

William Wesley, London :
Great Britain and Ireland
Asia

i

University of Melbourne :
Australia

Parliamentary Library, Wellington :
New Zealand

i ee es
wet eee ee wee te meee ee ee

299 432 27
20 22 43
4 4 3
323 458 73
19 20 1
5 5 1

42 AQIS ga eel ee
1,544 | 2,561] 179| 954 | 26,850

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS OF SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

Instruments used: B, barometer ;

T, thermometer; P, psychrometer; R, rain-gauge.

Name.

ALABAMA.

‘Alison; Heel. .MiwDY 2... sscecs
Anthony, DislicEaci=esoseceste
Hudson, De lek PlapocemooscaEees

Hurley
Rees eee M
Tutwiler, Henry
Wilson, W.W

ARKANSAS.

Bishop, Harmon
Borden, J. E

McClung, Charles L.........-..
Russell, 0. F
Wellborn, William T

CALIFORNIA,

AND DOLU POT mia Koreas seeies geen
Ames, M. FE. Pulsifer...........
Asher, J. M
iBAMeEswOTr GeaowWes- dese cece

Cheney, Dr. W. Fitch
Compton, Dr HAs, Dass feacs csock
@hornton yD ress ease See
United States Naval Hospital. .

COLORADO.

Byers yi wWalliamp Nines -eeesete ae
Croft) Clayton) Wess sense eee ae
Lakes, Arthur
Nettleton, E.S. and Copley E. --

CONNECTICUT.

Alcott, Rev. William P.........
‘Andrews, Luman

DAKOTA,

ATM DTOSE WEEN yaere eae oe ae
Baylis, A. fad Black, D.S..-

Greene iis Css sso

DELAWARE.

Botrh(syii LN else ial s Urbs sol ere el ih
GilmansR: A= ee

FLORIDA.

Baldwin, Dr. A. S
Barker widward ssoc.sececcsenn

aie
Seese
Town. County. 2 mite

Be & A

nD

Seale
Carlowvaille'-2=--2222-4---% Wallasey sy sses see TR 1256
Huntsville i TR 1871
Selmaeae. ase-sheeaeeece BTPR | 1872
POV ges eeisese scriceeeessi-ne TR 1872
Monitor BIR | 1866
Havana TR 1853
Bluff Springs R 1872
Mineral Springs .--....--- Elempsteadseeesecs acres TR 1870
WWashinotom) ssmscetssso se | meee COM EaE Sess: ease TR 1872
Clarksyilleses. ates sso en JOMNsone eee e esse eee ee TPR |} 1871
(Helenaice sas sc aes ene. ase IBNIMipS!bessen noses soecee TR 1872
Pocahontas ---2:.-.--- Socal PUG NNR co adoesosoconce TR 1871
Mineral Springs ...-...--.- INEM ocriscbsenan dooeoe TR 1872
Hayettiewille:- 2. hs. s= 2 Washington. oss... scces== TR 1870
TaN Nenonsoeaaeaassoos IPH pS ees ease eee TR 1865
Honest Ciliypecaneeaecmeeee Sant TAN C1S) soe =nisle see TR 1872
Moun, Ud alee sects aisle. Montgomery. -2-----2---- TR | 1872
Salinas|City-s-cise- 5-0 eer Monterey en eiach- si acts He 1872
indianyVialleyesssceenscect PlUM ag ees eee ee HIQEG 1870
National City...-..--..... Sane Dievo: sa.ces5-s sete Au 1872
SaneDieco, S24 sass. alee see COE = sence sees BIPR | 1871
IMOnTOn Gye seeinceeeiise sae IMOMTCL OY seems ater = BTPR | 1864
Chicols. ss ensmacnonosee: Butte sate fet on iteceieeeeee TR 1869
Watsonville 5.2255 2-222..2 Santa Orazeeosce sce tsseee: TR 1869
IMendOCInOssso- eso. eee IMGndOCINOs sess cete eee TR 1869
Marenlislan dy ivt econ sci|scriastecaacs sete ce eee ateees BTR | 1868
IORI CIN c boonceouanotnosAK- Arapahoe). ()2i-)5 Soe sheen TR 1869
Moumtainee sen hesesessene MVP AS0)s <ss[cte.< sca star TR 1871
Goldent@ity=—s-eeseneeee ee DIGMOTSOW acc as soeeeeeceee TR 1872
Colorado Springs. --..-.... Paso eyes ac 22 sie se siete TR 1871
Round skal es seep seas ceets ‘Hairheldkss<.c-ssco5eeuecee BIR |} 1870
Southington #223... s-c ccc. Fetter (iaeeA SBR GnesaGcasos TR 1870
AI ee dO"e... secs Shae he oe SOR ereesaaral| . dodbise 1872
Mid ale tows =o). 2--o- Middlesex ee See ene BTPR | 1854
Colebrook: 222. 2esacenene Titchfield: . -2s25ses4- 4s TR 1860
Colambigin5. 22 tse eee Tolland. | secs oer TR 1856
WaPo Oe= cc jee eteincsiec ses Pembina: 2552 Soe Br 1872
Second Crossing ...-...... @heyennes=2 eto4ccececete Br 1872
IBoniHommes-sees-eas ee Bon Hommekpsessseesss=- None. | 1872
DOVE 52 cniclaterese ose Kentiececeuas Araneae eos TR 1870
Milford ss ceec cece sees [sees Cee ae reer TR 1871
Jacksonvillé ---2...-....-. Duval’... 635 .--e5sany sect BTPR | 1853
Springieldeacesseeesen se Vackson ss2.5 2c -esens sc TR 1865

64 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.
Z :
a | es
\ | FS S 3
Name. Town. County. = ae
s S I
a | om
ae
FrLoripa—Continued.
Beecher, Rev. Charles..--...---. INe@wPOrtaeseceeeneesace= == Wrakulla.os¢2 ess lees ccee- TR 1870
IBettseehrumaniseeese see eeee ae allahassee ye aoate ssc ces ee eons e228 22222 nee anes z 1872
@hambenlin iss oNieeeeeceeeseees Maytona= secs sce e= ee Wolosia}s soos teenasosecs TUR: 187)
dowd. Hdmond Kesses-s---5-5 = ING WasMyiiae- s-ceae- se GUS. Beene amc eet: TR 1871
Powell) Charles#hicee-e---see-— Bicalatass sc. cose sect ‘Sain ohne et een 14qv 1871
Robinson, General George D...| Pilatka .........-..-..--.. LENG e ameoaoscra Beene TR | 1869
Rollins) John whys -a-ess eee si HortiGeorger- 225-2). Duvall. . 6 se sesieeoeeere 4h) 1872
Sturtevant, :enele.-eeeerei ese = - BiscayMern.== 5525 -enoceee Dade@y:te sess. a0escosees AR 1872
Phralis, George Rives-----=-- Wielbornih sees esceee ese AV SOWiAanNe@= ese ee semen TR 1-71
White: GWirWky wees ca-saticinacese: Mam pal P22 wea eee eee Hall shorouchies--e- eee RR 1871
GEORGIA.
Barker, Ebenezer .....-.------- Saenger See eee eee Cam@ ene seo see sheer eeee TR | 1870
Coliviard PAR ese sees See ics @abanisst mee ete eeise INTONT OO! eee ee eons TR 1872
@uttery Ones pee asses eee @uitimaneee eee ee BrOOkSe yo vce ho eee ee TR 1870
Mecknerwe (eo SOME] as. 25s5 -- UNH OUN eae deeb aoe pemeroS Malton 25 -j= = 2i= = =arieleci=t- Abie 1865
Grant, Dr. "Wd Sa Als LAbhOnS# 4.5 hese seme cseee Clanke a. 2.2 ck case see TR 1872
Hillyer, FGM. eee sas oun hes SalnuiMary:S <1. seen eee Camden....-. Lie PS Lh a 1s? 1869
Hollifield, Hor. N...--... ----. Sandersville see s=-eeee eee iWiashinetom 2272... a TR 1872
McClutchen, VED EAB Se Sea oe LasWavette << vs-e-ce aces ee Wialkerte. os: 6 eh CR) 1871
Sarford, Professor Shelton P...| Penfield .............----. Greeneet Gas oe f= s 2 TR 1869
Smith Dr BM oss. os aceon Mraders Able eks seen ee Charltones. 22 -25e5e5-65 TR 1872
Stephenson, Dr. M. F... --.----- Gainesyilleese-ee eee alk, ge stecn sie cesececcae au 1972
ILLINOIS.
JNIGHAG TR GED foosense condos MiskalwWasons<cs- aes ens IBULRCAM css = = .02 ee eee 4 1859
Blanchard, OAs --5- cosas oc MITA ese ale sem alata ie ie = Stark: 23.2 4-c2 2-62 -e ssl Geary 1862
Bowman Wr. MB... - === ‘Andalusia sess <1 e cece ce Rockusland! 222-2 s--see=- BER | 1866
Brendelenredse sence ence seer a PEOTl aye 5-5 Fa SOTO Ee PeOnaeescks ste hous cose BTIPR | 1855
IBLOOKES OAMUel a= ae ee see @hicaigor eee oe eee (COOKE asete eee cee gy 1859
Chases Drs Herter ee eee al IE OWI AN eae Geosoos a GIEIN OR Saecetaae er a Oeee re TR 1809
Cochrane; Joseph......---...-: ETA AND 2 5 ae nee een Masonmene cette ete cae TR 1870
Mudleya Wimothiyy -- 2-1 Wiarrensbarsbe.=--------: Maconee i: 22-24 sen Pete ARR 1867
Dunean, Rev. Alex. .......----- Mount Sterling .---.-.--.---. BrOwMieececcuscceccenecen TR 1866
Grant, John and Maggie....-.-. Manchester. .-..-...--..---- SCOtbicea=2) sanctesein seine LYPR | 1806
aroitons Vins Wie eee nee OTS yi VNC eee nee JOLSCYe- 2b sees = ee TR 1872
iniearne; Hramke lean. = Opincyee tee eee AGamsii S225 okies Ser TR 1870
HOTING SN. Wie EL secs c nee see ae WisberloOrs seen seme ee Monrdeeb 2-6-5 ers eee TR 1872
James tn Wiekee ser neesaaee nace WINERY 85 SaecRsee Sones MiGHienn yh ene eee IR 1869
Manesuth? diohn Geo eo. Chicago » g5oS cu scoSbocsedas Cooke es ae eee ae BIPR | 1867
Livingston, Prefesser W-..----- Galesbumeh sea: ee eee KRnoxs s4. ferns eae BIPR | 3861
Mar Cy, Profe essor Oliver. ....--- Vanstone. 6 ee eee. wee. Cookees: bse pe eee ee BER | 1869
RUIGEYI RISK leas see Reema maeaeeee SATIS tape saa ape eee ee ancoclse wes. se eee eee TR 1849
Moss, G. 1B Aa cen meats iIBelvidereee oye enn ce BOON Ge Sa: ees siberian AUR 1868
Murray, IAS Ane Godopesassoc Manchester. --.---.-.-----.- Scottie eee ace seca NAMES 1871
Osborn ihaniise- == ase Hennepin tee ccc eee RutnamMvete st eee eee shige 1570
PatherSOn Els Nici asec Oquawike eo. sates sci Henderson sees eae UI 1870
Phelps, E.S. and Miss L. H.....| Wyanet -----. ..-..-.-.-.. Bureaus .)2) 5335 aceee se TR 1864
BP UTE T CAC Wie alae) eel eratoetoe se = MERON Baek Seek eodea ect SIR@OLOS ecto terete eee TR 1871
Spaulding, Dr. A. and Mrs... .<- SATETOL AE Eee si nana eee EGAN Oy aas)- tient entered te BPR | 1865
Spencer, wee ORLA Seca eae Dubois. 22 jesse eee Wisisibanestonwae eee eee ee ORY 1865
Wihitaker) "B(:). js) oclancntce ern IWAESA Writer scien eee seuss er Eiancock® ) gi eeneenene TR 1855
INDIANA.
‘Alden: Dhomasi#Hic: a5. —- se. = (RISING yS ane oe ate Ohio So ew heresies TR 1871
Applegate, J. A., and daughter. Mount Carmel ...-.2-.2.!: Hiram ielin ees eo QR 1869
Boerner, Charles G -<..2------- NAGAR RE OB SAR pe BEAR ont Siwwiuzerlandi ea seen = BTPR | 1864
Chappe'lsmith John.......--...- New Harmony.---...----- IPG aosesoe cosscoesecsabe BYPR | 1852
Clarks WiiS): = 122s eee eae Beech) |Grovec:-o-- cee eee RUSILS S. Seeee eee ace el TR IS71
@rosieryAdam\.5 22 ssee noes A COMIA ASS <2 ez aciaees neice Plarnisome mercies 1-11 BTR | 1869
Dawson, William ...-...-....-- Spiceland eo ce- see eee IBA ceacsossosaabeoncor: BTR | 1863:
Ger DE Sac eremeee Koni sh tsto wal a = osha Rushes tases see soswesee BTPR | 1868
PENANG eA POM) o\= =, «5-1 ener Cannelton 35>. =. eee IR eDIyee eiee aaa) eee BrR 1872
BEUelic, 18h Uioaseoeeeesbe seoeoS North Liberty -..---.----- Saint UOS2) lose, Geasoscoce TR 1872
iHelmes,: Dis Rev. Lhomas: =< 5 | Meromlrc ce -)-i<-1-.-,-- ee Sulllivarieessseeisss sae TR 1866
LEO nds leds Nie Se Se Bee aeee ses ae MIVOMIgy esece em --cceee iWashinotontsesss-]-peeeee TR 1371
ip win PAUbent) Ceesece msc cccse Sweeisensenssessse-c seer Granbeeteees geo tee eee Vike 1868
Isa yerdis(ek Jeb ss aon osnponoseese Hort WiayMe ss. os.ceee ee NS SA ae ee Re orice TR 1870
State University.-...--..--..--- Bloomingtonias- =----- 2-5 MonTOG cere saence a eeeee eee BTPR | 1868
Sutton, Georpe=-—---.---..-.2..- AATINOV A PE) = ils wl=yselasessianstontere Meambomniss asses eee BIPR | 1859
Walliams sry a Cameo cian ainiac Steam Comets. =... s5 Mount Buia a= == ois e TR 1869
IOWA. [
TASbT ey SMI Vite meen es ee eei VAThOnieetnt <i nt Sed WMION eee ee Ceneeee TR 1871
Babcock wEierescakices ca eeseision. Boonsborough ...... ...--- BOONE teense ence ose eee TR 1267

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

Name. Town.
Iowa—Contianed.
‘BryanteAL Ws sssctcseseeseess Montanelle..--.=.-2<-<~.=-.
Cornell College ...-....---..--. MountaVernon:=--.-.2--—
Dickinson, James P...-....---.| Guttenbere’......-.2-:-::-
HAARTIS, BRAS essen tc scenes Red Oak Junction.........
GEO re AR tees ssc. see ees ces Dubuquel..<-.<.<--=es\ase-
Oanes, JeeH! 2-2-2222 ssccc5 est Monticello)... -:-2--:<2::--:
Kridelbaugh & Peterson....-.-. Clarinda to tee22 sess secs ace
Marshall, Gregory..-...--..... Cresco ee eee ose
MGB ride cH ee sass eae EOD Ic bone een nee eee eee
McClintock, Brankes 22 a2-2 =. ee NVestyWnion: 22... 2=022-45-
McCready, Dan’land Miss Lucy| Fort Madison .......-...--
Miller, & Ydwin and Mrs. eevee (capri Olin igconosdcasedeus
Nelson, Daniel 1 Serco eHeEe Sac City gic. o.ccs ss stesese
TRONS WB WAR ts a aeuiis Senos Sais Wurand eee sosaed se ss oeA Le
Russell, PAS Missa Mi Mise S25 ATANSSR fs sSosgnssseasee
Sheldon, DS iskesss sacce sees Daven porti<s 53 cha20ssc522-
State) University ..-...=2.55=2: Towa Oubyj. a2. <s4seccsssse's
SUGEN: ACO) Epeacicem = => a'satoea5 Moraes saasse ea aoes soe
Talbot, Benjaminkys 222 2-s552-- Couneil Blufisyss...- 22-222
Downsends Nathan, s=-....=-%: Towarallsiaasoa5 sso
Wiad ey, eles sed saeesanesS See Roekford 52.2. sassoseske8
Walton sauces sae oe ence Muscatine \o.=.556) ness

Warne; Dr) George: sss seas see | Independence ......+-.-2-.
Warren James H ...........--- Algona Ja2scsc-ccseesces
Wwihes tonyWirs) DB 28s 5-.-6 Independence..-.-...-....-.
Witter) Diet sss se cesses cor CouncilsBlutis: =-- 5525222

KANSAS.
BOG WA GHW) oe eetrecr ne nocet= Olathewe secant easton
Cotton, Win. H. and John M...| Ruralis. ....--sc0esec002---
Eagle, SRE ed eae et Gye Buffalo Creek... ....-=----:
Fozle, 10) 1G Se kere ee eee Williamsburgh ........--
Henry, AG UO ae ae Imdspendence.,s..--->- 225:
Horn, Dr. H. B. and Miss ...... JAtCHISON © e-8ccrce erro
Hoskinson, HRA Give Meee reece ner Burlineamese--enease eee
IS tigiate NAN 04 Se ee See meee Mintehinsone esac ee eee
Hy land, William. ...........-.. Baxter Springs) ..----=-2--
Wamb, Mist We Mi oo0..csene WDOUCIASS=: =p sscereteeee
Neiswender, William N.....--.. ROP kan jes: sae eeeteseoe
Raynolds, J.W.andCarr, Austin) Belleville .................
michardsont AiG s.cssecicc-me Plum Groveresee ee scens a
Shoemaker! Si. Ge. -222-cct cosa: |PLCSR OVA rete eercer er
State Agricultural College ..--. | Manhattan: <222..2:...-22:
Sette Universtiy 222.25 secccs0. WANVECNC OM << onesie /eejsaees
Sita aiee yi] Ded igeecasacesocs tee Meavenworth) 2222. c.csssce
ANU DG ad CR ID ee ee ee ee eee PRY bb Leis Se ea eee
Walters: Dri James. -22-- 2.5. HOMO ME hae eeeaeccaseeee
Woodworth, Dr. Abner .....-.. GounciliGrove.:...:.22---=-

KENTUCKY.
Beattve Odds tense s- > eae | Opn Ae Coeeee seen ccceee
[LOL E MHC WW seaoae sanesieeaes BlaMUVAlle joss ke asses
Letton, GVA ORME csc nasccaence Harrodspure hl eee cesses
Mar tin, IDEs SEA IO Se ose Chilesburmhissreeeereeece
Orden) James Mie +2- 2255-52505 Wranch ester -ciejectececmer
SlinphyGie ele waa se eee ee PACA OTRO ME yoann opie
Young, Mrs, Lawrence -.-...... Springdale)... ..552422.096
LOUISIANA.

OkSleind RE Wee Leelee seins Tp REE so sere. roreaeto
Comins HACE Seas aaetaccore IpBonchatoul ayaa .ccaserecteoe
Hester; Mobert: Wins--..--s2--- 1 News@rleans. oonemeecees te
POM | GeOree Ni sae aces ooecocwe ING WHEDOII Si = 5-1 tarsoreeeres
Mconey Orr dis) Micearee esses SHR eMeNOrts. <aactre cate ete
StabhemWisnac ees jsaceeeesee- INew/Onleans: <2. --o---= 555
aRtinnerPpHLUeSst beciemasasaeceess! Point Pleasant... ...--.----

MAINE.
Clifford, J. R.and A. J ......-.. IMPOWGVANNG Ss wala careteleeeees =<
Colson ierau. <2 een jaseeeee eee IBUCKSPOTE)scinicasie erro
HernaldeMnG 2: sence aceneer en Orono ecb cen adecaeece
GardinemeRi He) ies eee eee Gandiners=S=seeeeeee aati
GuptilliGawrecu-sscn es eeeeee @ormishs--cacs sess esse
EEASKeI Wet sien ceeneeceeerese IBUCKSDOLt st eeieeeeeer oe

os

B
(=|
2
County. :
nD
A
NG DIPS deco ecs cae ee TR
GT {rar ee ee os Ne (ares
Clayton s.522.2..tecte ese aie
Montgomery. .-...-----.--- TR
Mabuguel: == s2= 5225/8 BTPR
DOUES ES ves sh Se OS TR
PAD OUL NOL. Esse sabasscnsee TR
PAG Wade Seo e ss.2cc.osls acon \ Bary
MelawaNel: i asck ccs ee sc voce aR
MAYSttG!: 52525 02226225000. | BIR
TCO masa cee paket ore ATOR
SAGs ne enc cra sense nae UR
Reece Oss ei dete ehaene ANI
WO Cae Sass asia aa elboc tne ER;
IMMISCRTING = = = 2s nae aeine sere TR
Scottpengy ss saeseeenessese | BIPR
JONSON: Js2saq2soacessuene BIPR
Harrison) .2s525ss5aseese% AMR?
Pottawattamic.---=- --.--- TR
MardinGes soscxcseeteretns RS
MOV Crk 4. ssbccremesssth: TR
IeMrscatimer..-2 2 abies eae BIk
buchanan esses ese BIR
AosSuthl bse josgecierts see TR
Buchananeaeeeeeescessseee TR
Pottawattamic..----.22-ee TR
WOWNSOM). oer -astererererterais TR
Jie TETSON tetera mts TR
WOOGSOnR 22a. Ane eeeeee TR
iMehdbhlsasno anne scoos: ADI
Montgomery... <<. -2 TR
PAC CHISON i srtten ee etree AUIS,
OSASOH Me ccanece cen eee TR
PROTO NEE Ue rere Se eee ok TR
Cherokee!) ccesee eee sett aT;
IBUtl6Rey st nee ee eee A
ShawHees! 2... -ceneecence TR
IRGPUVIIGHY = <= =-eeee ae eee TR
Bublert eae eee eee TR
Coffey Pe eee TR
RSV) neha ee eae TR
Wouolass a! see ceestecsee BPR
MeavGnwoniheeeseeaaaaeeee TR
INVA A ee tee eects TR
WACKSONA I oon crcucree ae seer TR
VE OT TIS ere rorarara'aareie lores aise TR
IBOvIO sets o 5. Selncwe sels BIR
Ballade eee neeeeaee TR
IMIGT COT els nn eek See tioene TR
Clarkes Bice 2aeancce oon BTR
[eee See OSREMs. 5.0 oe See dy
Tsincoln Ae! S50 ssnshe5 sna BIrPR
OMOLSOM !. Pat eeent. eae BIPR
Riehlowd) 3..ss22-ceasessss¢ R
Tansipahos -..---.s0<----8 BTR
Peas Si osssecaaqaess coe BIER
(IPS rate.) bho Sane eae TR
Caddor2s. Jase easiest BIPR
Orleans 26 2 ce AO a BTPR
RONSAS SEE ats Soccer tearoer BTPR
ANG Nie ee een Baee TR
RG OG ketaget reyarctarras terehtel=t-te = BIPR
Penobscot Lee: cecemecc cece BIPR
Kennebec ktsseniacasasicicis nee BIPR
MOT tee ts sans oncs near TR
Hancochkte bee ccaan+ encase BIPR

SD
Or

When com-
menced.

1866
1860
1866
1872
1851
1866
1872
1871
1872
1869
1852
1869
1870
1871
1871
1867
1861
1866
1871
1263
1868
1863
1867
1267
1866
1867

1864
1870
1872
1871
1872
1865
1871
1872
1867
1870
1872
1872
1871
1869
1865
1868
1866
1869
1867,
1865

1853
1871
1872
1865
1872
1869
1849

1871
1870
1867
1872
1871
1872
1872

1871
1872
1870
1866
1855
1s7

66

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

2 Le
eeeiss
Name. Town. County. 2 mi
is oo
D og
Se
Matne—Continued.
Moores ANP) ssacecseseekheeee TISDON Re stole erate teeter Androscogein. .--.----2--- TR 1859
Moulton ys ONG eee Standish ssasasesescte see ae Cumberland ..........-... TR 1865
(VSM Ved Sissroguacesacosesasse Portail: accretion ee eee eee ee CO gh Se eee aaa TR 1872
Parker. Wis Sac eee MountiDesert (pe -eseeeee Wiaslims tones eeeeeee TR 1849
ieahal dey INES) Boposonosascence Millbrad ees <2: /secisetyostecaleeeeee ONS Ae Ss eeesonee cas TR 1872
Ista, Lbs ae coscaanoecodeod] SCD Clee he ak semsercseremeeeys IBIBCaGACUIS |= sesaee nee TR 1863
Reynolds er Misses eee ae il Blastywiilboni aoe see eee MramMkd iW. eisai see ee eee TR 1871
Smith VADs. era ee IN Ehysabadsacsteaas: HeSa5 Oxford eso. sseccene cere TR 1868
ADAYs el hie JURSaaeansosaqeeaoe Surnyyotceisss sae eee 1 8 Eh eXo1Y6) ee anes Peer ba TR 1870
Wrest: Silas}\---eetst ashi asses Gomiishies si eciacecloaeeee PVOTIG RE ee Shee sea coeae nee BR | 1857
Wal Dar eB Shee ecieieec ee aeis West Waterville.........- KWennebecseis aasscen ceeeee TR 1863
MARYLAND.
@urtiss{GaG Gas asasscasaesaes WMallstoniy-oasees-taets verstctere (MarhOndso<cccen cso eon TR 1870
Devise hn Gases =: Jose Sames! Creek soc. cees ose @arrolleS.,. Soscestcscdases TR 1871
HUN Cott Team CS ive ae = fos tase Saint AMI POOS v- f= ats e[-1=1c'aleetse Spain hay Sepeoceecceoras TR 1871
Goodman, William R..-......- Annapolis EOE OC ReE ee cee Anne Arundel .........-.- BIPR | 1856
Hanshew, PO MNAKE eee rececies MPed ChCKese aa aseee ease red enicksaccncesceer sa eee BIR | 1869
Jourdan, Professor C. Haiti ca HMmmittsburghi cs. clece| eee DOW nemesis cicnisee cee BTPR | 1867
Kinsell, ENC ies sae Green Spring Hurmace)---.|\ Washington s.so-4--eee TR 1872
McCormick, James O..-...---- Niicodlawmeseeeeee een eeee (OPN ea ny eee ones. BIR | 1865
INavaleHospitall aca ese nese ANTONE ea seaces ccccce AmnerATundelis sesse-eese BOER | asi
ShepperdspbliniMe ees sence elt NC OttC Tt, ee eee eee HO Wem cease eeceneee BIR | 1871
SHriver Woe ves ase eae Gimberlan dees seen Aullechanye se s- eee reser TR 1871
Wialente, WAY OX! 2c ascccce nace se Woodstock College Bees IBALtIMOROS se =e cee ee eee TR 1870
ViamNOrt, er Ey. AN = Saas caine == MOU t AUB Yee eiseiteleeiae ee Oli tisee sera c cio ne ciweeiace TR 1872
MASSACHUSETTS.
‘Bacon IWillliampeeeeeetes eee ae Richmond assessor iBerkshiterc-s2 -co=- =. TR 1849
Caldwell’ John Hi.----- --.----- INGWDUY, S12 i= sss tte see MISSOXeig ae selsae estore cies TR 1865
Cunningham, George A.....--. onenpureh seen ecole MGR sono onoceasanc BIR | 1866
MewhurstsRev.0b) 422.526 2 sees in sdailess sss os ace ceceee Rerkshitetccs-:o-eeesse ee. BTR | 1868
IM NOM AGN, + s5ocecenosenpooce WAWEONCE 0-5 aecenece nae HISSOX ess oe eee Cee eee BIPR | 1857
Frost, Benjamin Divsncclnosten oosse Lunn ell -..cckaos |e ese eac acta c ence BIR | 1871
aris Gecarrey Sree eee oeee iNew Bedford! © <a. -cce see ‘Bristol eee eee ee TR 1871
Hopkins, Professor Albert. Williamstown .....-..-.-- Berkshine: cascet oon ccc ae BIR | 1868
Iunratic Wospitall sees sss Worcester a-c--c-es occa jWiorcestemensa pon scenee BIPR | 1866
Metcalf, Dr. John George...-.. Mendon: < enh aeencenerelleseece GOs sh tee eee BIR | 1849
Nason Rev. hast. ---ca---—-- Noche Billerica e--eess-eer Wid dlesexiei jae nee ee BTR | 1866
Nelson, S. A. and H. M........ Georgetown -...-....-.---- MBS ORL oe ssc ececen ee TR 1865
iNew Comp) (Ga lessee = s-e ese KaNEStON sees ren meee eee IPlymouuliessseesoeeesee ee TR 1866
Perry, Rev. John B. and Mrs.

SLO OWES 18S See pecan eeanaoae Cambridge tpesse-een- eee WEG WNGE) feneaacescecenoec 4u 1868
ROCMANs SAaMNele sees sNeee es see News bedtordls--eseee sere Bristol. p 1853
Slade; HMlisha) - 22 2.22. aca le -reyels Somersetiqss ss. eee eeelaseres do 1872
Snell) Professor Hasso. eeen =. YAW OTS: see weeceseces =e Hampshire 1849
Teele, Rev. Albert K..-.....-... Miltontsoehatedemaciecceststne INOorfollke 2. cane oeeee eee TR 1867
MuckerPHawalkd ular eeseriscecce New Bedford ----..----.-- Bristolle ote5 2 nescence DR; 1871

MICHIGAN.
Bullard Ransome -ca---—--e-a- Litchfield illsdaleteeeaceeeerewee ee BTR | 1865
nS SD rea wite-eee eee eeee eee Ontonagon Ontonkconta-e--eeee eee ANE 1865
TE Oo Sh EY Wits sel sisueren ieee Detroit ANERROOS cecSes cceaconsaas: TR 1870
Eolmes CHS. o aD aeeee) eee Grand Rapids IKG ERED AE obbsee OGbeReae Th 1865
Kedzie, Professor R. C......--- Lansing Invhame soscessee se ences: BIPR | 1863
Lathrop, ONC! ee osaeaseeeeee South Haven WantBurences ances TR 1872
Olivet College.........--...--<- Olivet sas. ce- sce eeeceeee JOP Nehaooonccnssbeesrea- BTPR | 1870
Paxton, Sohn Wis eee een eee PA MONA. bozsessceeec cece JA pennies -Basoseae oes BTR | 1865
Smith, Rev. Geor TOWN =a oer North porters eee eee erere Ae eelengwie sees ee caer TR 1865
Streng, Ug lel seaoesaacacoseqessa Grandshiapids=o-aseceseese Ji NE pee eee de onae ease TR 1897
Whelpley, Flerence and Thos..| Monroe .........--.-.----- IMontoekacaeease ce ee eee TR 1862
Walson Walliams 2c sence ster Happy Walley <--------- = IBENZICME Ao scene oa sieieoe IRS 1870
Winchell, Professor and Mrs..| Ann’-Arbor ..........--..- Washtenaw. sseccce.s- ==" BIPR | 1870
MINNESOTA.
@heneynwilliam reece ese Minneapolisias--a-eeeeeeee enne pins. 22-2624 52eee BIPR | 1864
ratenson, Rev. A. Bo--220- =<. Saintebanl see eee IRQMSCYossasoses2 2 eae EDR 1862
Pendergrast, Solomon........-. Bonniwell’s Mills......-... Wel Gye Poe seasesopess eat TR 1872
LENT Gh 10 e50 Dee toc seaoeracnerene Anidubonigesne- cee eee IBeckerks (4. 225-22 ene ee TR 1869
Roe, "A. Wee ese cone eens ATONE aetisre= sek ion eee nee Niashimotones]-s.-- eee eee BIR |} 1871
MoossCharles so -2.<tss-ce ee eee iNew? Wine Pea eee eee IBIGOWI 2S ie =.c5G2 seit eee BIR | 1864
Wadsworth, 13 1 DRA Beane ete Hirt chiieliis ses ece cence IMéeker caik< soasscsneeoe TR 1870
Witelandh@ toe fee eee: eee Beawer Buy) sass--en-ceee Daikerrnstesis tesse cee TR 1859
Wan terse Rees ys eee Réaverkee oasceoeeeere WON Diese ee aeeeeeee Th 1871

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. 67
a 5
5 a
FI =) ®
Name. Town. County. 5 ad
@ |f8
4 =
MinnEsora—Continued.
Woodbury, C. W. and C. E..... SHG? -sosonaseaosoasaness Sibloyeresccesees sesseeee TR 1865
Young, Th. M. and Mary H....| Koniska ...--------------- IMcweod! Jo 55... cessoteeee TR 1869
MISSISSIPPI.
Coleman, Thomas B..-..-.-....- Holly Springs ies es Marshall.......---------.- TR 1870
Ruthie; Jiamesis .-------2------- WISSONe ceases = ae ee ee Copiahtjsetsss sien cease BIR | 1872
Florer, Dr. Thomas W...-.---.- IMGT Os sete atss ceieet waite Manderdaleys-c- 24225522 eR) 1268
Jennings OTs Cees see Baldwittenessssone sesso se MOGs Soh setae aaesints TR 1871
Keenan, Mrs. W. EH. A....-.--. Brookhaven ........-...-. Ma wRONCOr stn seese salts elo es TR 1867
Payne, TORTS ote eee Grenada ascassseec seston Vino buspwecmaceene cease TR 1870
Warrantwe Olmert al -lerietata= Columbusteseeeeeeeeeeeee iowa esteem el emsieeteicistels BIPR | 1869
MISSOURI.
ESO) atelier esa sec laela areola INGWAd a eMicerc- comnsien see AV Glatt tls sa SOc Ae pas CBEAee TR 1871
Bullard, Rev. Henry..----.---- Saint Joseph.....-.-. Scoee|| TUCO TENE MRS cocee ecoacocs TR 1869
(OP WAI bais Jae NYC oe a ae WieulGlazGee tae eeet: (Orme. oSocce scoeobpecee TR | 1872
MewiyleNicolas = ==... --<----- Jefferson City .-.--- ..---- OOS cceacosncscsconnesuses Br 1868
Goodwin, Spencer L....--- .--. Richland ee see ceases = JEM. coscosepescoesean TR | 1872
Harriss Wayatb ocr 2 = ee cem sexe Mount Vernon.....-.-.--- WT ONCOL. an cea eietaatteer BIR | 1871
Kaucher, William..--.--------- QTesOn Stes. ase eee TEIN ote ceposoncoceeece cee BIPR | 1867
Kribben, Bertram D-........... SaimtWeouisy- cesses aca Saimtpeouisy esse esse BTPR | 1872
Mantin Horace cs. oe. =2--s040 Corning@e ee eeccesess HOG: Mee 8 ascetic ceiseeace TR 1870
McCord AR. -<-2-2--2- 2.255 Willard jascoccces sacsse5-0 (Greene rrr aneaiceseeacree ee TR | 1870
Rue cleswHOmer a a=. -o--2sce es ROM ay22 8 Sons sseeeaes oe = IHG cossseesooeenncces! TR 1867
Salisburyase Wi -<c2-s-e-22--2-- Kansas) City: s2occcesusse UUIGO Gp caanscsssesctesc BTR | 1870
Snait hed Ol Mia Sector aya Ifemavite: cacacmacsaeee a! UG Sil. soesecce cee Gece TR 1868
Saint Louis University. -.-..---- SMa nh WO hs cocoseaseos Saint Louis .....--..-----. BTPR | 1865
Weston, Atrthum Hos. 5--s-0-- Gallatin: fo... 2s2225-ce15- IDSWACES Ste eee scree kh 1872
MONTANA.
KOCH we Steir. n-ne oe cone mene BOZEMAN See ee eee eee e ee ee Gallating separ ceoseeecere TR 1872
AVETESID COT) MVE = ea tem niniee INGSSOUloe eee eeet ee eee ences MiSSOUla ochre cee sore ec TR 187
Stuart, Granville ssecss--=— Deer Lodge City.--..----. IDSRILMNoa55o Gooosese BTR | 1869
NEBRASKA.
Caldwell, Mrs. Eveline E ..---. Ielicnn Os sones ce~ SaaneeTRe SEG OV ee SceeenoSoanereneae TR 1868
Winn awWalliampeee ee eeaee MMELeOnee ete ee eee LOOM eRe Soe eases TR 1871
Hamilton, Rev. William -....-. Omaha Agency ..----.---- BUrtE snes cemssaceene sees TR 1867
Kelloceebdiwarda--- 22 --- =. RedsClond Geese eee eee IWiebsterisssaccsceaceeseee TR 1872
Seltz(Oharlestee.se ee ones eee WeSOtomee eee ee eee Washinetontes--eeeeeeaee TR 1867
Smichlewispeass esse eee Ne wa Gastlow een eere eee Dionysia Hae TR 1870
Traman) George! oe aee-2- --- 4. Santee Agency.-.-.------- L’EKau qui Court ........-. TR 1871
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Brewster, Aired: 2----- ------ MamivOLibereseeeencenaeee @arrollysei enti. s eee eee TR 1867
BLOW branche .- oases cele oe Stratiard() =. 2-5 escmemee: COCs Sas ee se See TR 1859
Colby,;Alined: 22.82.2222 os ses: INTIS OE) Se oepaeeces aooee HNSbOLOu GH ees se eeeene TR 1868
COUCH MED ete saeee cee Salisbary! <2. <5 s-cc19-02 - IMerriMnaCkaac= ee ener TR 1870
HMurlin, Rev. William -.-....... SouthpAmtrimi-sseseeees-- Ha SOKO 0 Ohya alee eee R 1866
LEGKi Ge Ce] DS ee CceSeeR SEE See es Wohithields aches. ceese ee (OG ncoes cteemoreoe sno me bo TR 1869
IMASOM MENS cet nce cies ye see Gorhamnshecospere ene ee eee OS et oeeeecee Br 1872
OdellPhletoher: sae = eee ses iss |e Gli) $e Sparse aoocoesocen| FSSoce (Cy eRe IS ESE recA cys TR 1856
NEW JERSEY.
Beans, NhomMasdieecssss eaes-c- Morristowil:-22-2s2-=-52-6 Barlin eons eee. eee TER 1865
Brooks mWaalliamyses tes pone. Paterson... cso. ssseecesce PASSAIC sna ees TR 1866
Chandler, Dr. William J ..--..-. South"Orange-2--- 522. ---- JOREG@S-scadoopesescesocsco- TR 187
@ook. E. Rezeatizes-s.-5 555-542 Erentone se see eee eee INIGYCO ie ignearpoadecaseccose BTR | 1865
lemiIncrchONN wes seaere tee eee MoumtyAIny c-scnssesee = lation Gooesecoscocece oR: 1871
Green Haas = sees Sao seeas TACO ee cen rat ene Camden b 25-22. TR 1871
Howard, Thomas T., jr..-..-.--. Jemsey City. =---2-22=-=-- IBV KO Nepgestoopesaceqs atc BIPR | 1871
Inpram) Dr: Johns ss2 se. eee. Wanelandas a esses seemae Cumberland@isesseseeseeee BIPR | 1867
INO Art hurwBsecseeerese ser a. New Germantown .....-.. iMtunterdonsseseeeesees se: BIR | 1868
Palmer wvirss de kw ecee eee seaia R1ONGTande, =.) ssaceaeee- Cape Mays-22-8-- 252222. TR 1268
Tepe 6 Or nao seenuncsesacoomes Allowaystown -.-.-------- Salemiysast eee eee ce hace aR 1871
Sheppard, R.C., and sister... .-. Greenwich. .--s2esoeee ee @umberland*Ses2- 54-2 8oe- BIPR | 1868
MLOCIEWeL Drei Wiai kee aes since (OVW CYA E ARS anASoon sone REG) & bom So eeadeE Baap aac TR 1872
Wihiteheads WA: 22s ses5sf50-6- INGWanlk sociscseceeeee ct |eee ore (110) 2 Som oSt Bema RSeeee BIR | 1849
NEW YORK.
Adriance, Charles E............ Mp ChOUs- <2 cseseseeee tise: Sciayler cess sesen reset None. | 1871
Aad onwetnomas bisa seer Garrison sicecesceeen es o-- Patnamberes corm saa cece TR 1860
YATTON (Cpl Pa ncdoos <asadancesue Amp elicns-sseaeeceeeetaas = ANWEGTIT pesos onsooscccue TR 1871

68

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

nD U 3
Bes
5) Se!
a g “3
Name Town. County. 5 aie
Sere
D =a

a |e

New Yorx—Continued.
ipaker| Gilbert Oe eee IV GI coneaatconsnenoaannp ac Wiaihes tit sea eee eee TR 1869
Barrows, Captain Storrs. --.-.--. South Trenton.--..-....- One) dae ee eee TR 1863
iBortlett.(Prastassbeeesaeceeos ee lePalermoseeeies ceeee eros OSWePOt his -ceeces ceeose: TR 1860
Bussing, John W.and D.S..... Msmawwall @ meee ee eyoleecis= = eis Montgomery.-....--------- TR 1867
Clark, B. Wheaton .........-.-.- IMSORNOAG esesaaasdoncepose DN a Caras ses enema eee TR 1870
Bdwards) Daniel --------..----- bitte Genesee 22 ---- ee Allegany Wea. ase scieeeceee TUR 1866
Godtrey: dvi Pie: es ae ce ee in@arnl tone eee ee seea ee eee Orleans sere eee TR 1871
Haas Henig ree eee ce eee | Depauvilles-- =.=... <--=-6 WellersOnes-2 2esceceee ees TR 1265
Hachenbero,OrGoke sess IROCheStehes-soseses eee IMOnTOCso2ocS toe eeeeeeee BIPR | 1869
Hendricks Ba essere Hee aee Nearing stones a= sesasce" LOW Pe FA ascisoaaaeeesadhae TR 1869
Heimstreet, John W ..---.----- SUU\ ens aeenoncesesaducess iRennselaek ee eees sce seeee BIPR | 1849
Howell SROVetieEees eee ene: PND eHOISIS® Pome aaeeeeer ceca LS Cayo ee a en et : Tp 1857
Hungerford’s Collegiate Insti- | Adams ......-.--.-..----- JeCHOLSOM-fe se cise esse eee BIR | 1872
tute.
AS Ribt td yal" Cee ead See ee | North Argyle..-..-.....-- NWS hint etoniees.e cease =a BIR | 1870
Inmealsbe,Grenvalle Me. 22.-)-..)|) South Hartford) =-2.-)...-sles- 226 OMe Se neetelen een sees ties 1863
Trish, Rev. William...-..-..---- Wowivalles aeesienierletenieteee Ibe WAStee Eee Aeeeeoeeeee ee BIPR | 1871
STV-eS VV AINA ere ercietete emotes iPutialo so 45 .e eet deeb: IEF LO oe ee tele cies See Se BER | 1858
Johnson, Rey. Samuel .......--- | (GOOG, «5 ssccecassecsstiss Romplainsieeeeeees =e ser TR 1868
iKeeses Ga POomeroy..ccse-- ===} Cooperstown. ---.--~-22--- Otsecom =*22 = cocceeeen cee TR 1869
WeesbesherAr 1s: occ t entree Cantonsse -cceoee -eeese sie Saint Lawrence..--.-- --. TR 1871
Thove samuel Gorn- ss eaeren = Jamestown ..-2---.--.---- Chantangquaeeess--ee se oee BYLPR | 1871
TE Yolte dl OTH Cee ee Aa iblatbushees= eee er oot eee IG PSY aie ache asemeie- set BIR 1862
NGM 1S Sao esc aonsanaesoor eBrookslymiererepe me oceen| secon Cote Sse eee a boeeeerr BIPR | 1870
Malcolm, William Schuyler ..--| Oswego .---.-..=-.-..----- OSWeROS: Seascetacemoweeee BYR | 1854
HarmMin cd eee seee ose eee Queens’. 22 4---2esses shen None. | 1868
is, Miss eRhroceseNeC ke ea-eeeeee es Westchester’ -- nec g-c6 = ae 1865
AVEOUrIS enol. OMWires sess cece eee INI WE MOL Kie ac hese oclosieteaee ENIGNVAROL eyartetce nein nent BIPR: | 1849
IRATURIC Kip emenesieeemneie eee WNorthiVioln eyes. ass =-- OSweoOrSizcccccenehe oe eaer TR 1868
iRoewsantord Wise ece-cececaece Mod dle bur obverse nea e Schohariose-ssrorees rece TR 1866
RUSSCUM Owns eee eee eee eee: Gouverneur: s222-e.c6c-4- = Saint Lawrence......--.-- BIR | 1860
Saiwayiery Gels! see n-e cere cece | eRarrfield seer maser e meee eee 18 lesata) er ibsneonpoEeoanesoE BIPR | 1871
DIME eAL an di damroh terse -.7llWOLi CHES eriscit cteleleisieteia =r Suto listen cae saciccen ee TR 1864
Soule, Prof. William.:.......... @azenovia) cneseeca-eoeseec IMadikoMstensossececcsesee Br 1565
Spooner, Dr. Stillman ........-. Qneidaness paces sa eeeeeetes trees COW ee neae secant TR 1864
Mrowbnridger Dawid sence er | WWiaberburg he meme amie Pomp RiDS oe esos eee TR 1868
United States Naval Hospital-.| New York.-.-..----..----- New YOLEke == 5558045 Sas one BTR | 1868
IWiatien WiOrkSia metres aceers | IBaolbai a) pe ce sccspobene LIGHTS emp Ueasas ee anecouE BIPR | 1872
Wallis, O. R., and daughters ....|, White Plains'.-.-.....---- Westehester .-..-2..-..-- on 1862
Wooster @harles Al 32... 35 .--- | North Hammond ....--.-- Saint Lawrence........... BIR | 1866
Males Walters) poe serise=s ser lWEcusewillé ta teee eres aaa. MiG WIS toes ote cee cee eater “TURD 1849
MMOUDL Ae) Auer ceicinn seteeisiners = ae WAVWCSteD ayiee ce sec cecnceee SaralOg des ses eee eee TR 1871
NORTH CAROLINA. |
Adams verot.sEiaWi ease -eee eee Goldsborough®-.-5-2-—-e— Wid ae ee ese eae ee te TR 1860
Auilisonwhomasihusse ee eeeee ae leStabesval ome naeeereneeesee iredellae ee hee eee ee TR 1866
ASTON CWdlose- = tae eee | -Aishevall6taoreesetoose once iBUNCONTPe =o —see caer eee TR 1867
Austin hebent hl seeee setae Dar bOrouc hearer =scae == -| Edgecombe ..------.------ TR 1871
Beal eWallvampase see eecee eae al Boba olin pesaoracsavennesaac @herokeeee cence eee ee ERY 1872
Beall Drees soseeene eee | Wogan jock soccsesacesscacs @aldwielleetense- ee eeeen ore TR 1871
Olare Ti wAvee 28 5 ees ro clare ne are IW NOG Se oceseocacecsce lskUihth epee reeeesseosS. TBR; 1872
Davies Virsa): 0) a. seee sees Wiebstenss.ccccesacneseees Jacksons = ssceeeeee secant TR 1872
Gilmer nobetunsm-a-reea-c= see } MonunteAiry, sosess se seeeee SULLY eet eo eee TR 1872
lstnaiheel Oke A eits 1 Deets aaseeSie JeAtsHe will Giese eer a scere BRYA Ne anos saoadosadoe BIR | 1868
iicks Dr Walliamdbeccer sere: Oxfor dresses aeons Granville Sse esece eons oe TR 1867
imameseRichard aN) cece asesee- ae (mad envOn sess see caer eee eee (Ghighyéiierese woroceneasos TR 1872
TSO IBINIL SING oe cask sodocosadsuc | Greensborough ....=.----- Guilford) -3222ee-424-2e==- TR 17
sitchen: PAdB = oo aeces <a nacecerar l News Garden a...) 5-55 eee OMe ee ee ae Br 1872
Kron enh iscere oo ee wep ee ee ene Adbemarle o223:.- fea cee Stanly 2422 scecct sacs TR 1849
WawiencoiGa Woe ose eeereeee PRE yettevillemeseese eer Gumberland!: 225-2. o-2-ee TR 1871
Morelle, Rev: Daniele... --.---.- Walming ton 2-2 =----2--=-)- INC Wweblanovierva-= 22 = =e Br 1872
AVM Och ea Welles eee costar PATI ATIO AO se eee cece eee AYE SS Ses ee ent TR 1871
Ietetin) edo hisna) seeocmoesoskose- Alibemanleiera--ceeera=seee SUidlhys se 84 -oodeoceeceous au 1872
HUME VA AMCs. on. ao ete | Beaufort: 22. 2 s- eee 5 155 Carteret seecose ss sae TR 1872
Siler vAUbertie! see eect sceeiscies PBR AMIN Seite eels eee Micon ees ase eee TR 1872
OHIO.

Baldwin University......-..--.- Bele acer chi ase oa (Cuiymliyay Beempeassese aso BIR | 1871
iBarecis,AUCUShl=—-<\o- ccc eee s Groveportie=-- =. .-easee oe ranicliny wee cn eee TR 1872
Ish yA OE seeoaseoneesonogas Bellefontaine .......--..-. TO PAM Me =. o. eos oe eee TR 1870
iBimenvan lie dies seer wees cree Pennsville ee eeeeee Morgani. 2 ce <1. oss sesee TOR: 1270
BOwadan ee eters seer cies Savannah eeeseace- eee INSU OGIE as peeeeeeers one n TR 1872
lswiHeneh O) = secsscapeanncusasssss North Fairfield .....-..--. latihll ets npsapodoenenseaa TR 1867
Glarkexdonne pee cone encserieee Bowling Green........---- DWiOO0 fe terse tess eae eee RR 1866
@ranerGeoree Ween eicee aos MeO boca cepa sesascce Glenmont =. 55- ss. seen cee TR 1899
Ih Oh ose daeont seaaen ane LiPainesvallonesxsseceoeeeeee Lake. --.- sin/emsaisiejeele alata ears BTPR ! 1867

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

ys

Name. Town. County. 2

=

Outo—Continued. |
—Hamimitt dc Obn Wiz<- =. -<-3--- - College Hill...--...-.----- FLAMIN TON se aec se eee TR 1859
Harper, George W)------------- @imeinn atlases eee (GO) edqscceboso0nSeEScae BLPR | 1855
LORI CLoplapy este ae eee eletaiel sterner QOhberlini-ss-ceee- ees ee NROTSING wees eee TR 1370
iyde, Mr-and) Mrs. .------.--=: @levelandeesess-e= =e @iiyahorarssss5-cs sss ese BER |} 1862
Marsh; Mrs. M. M .....--------- (Obs t1o3555~cendousasenses 1ehsNNe” SeecgapeeaEHeoreac BIPR | 1871
Matthews, Joseph MecD..-..---- Hillsborough - Machlan dees eeccnsoeccctesa BrPR | 1851
McFarland, Prof. R. W------ --- Oxtond eee eemeerasns- TBUGIEL ge aes alee os ales lem sie BIR | 1870
Morton, Dr. George R ----..----- North Bass Island .....--- Ota ase ace seceme === TR 1869
Mount Auburn Young Ladies’ | Mount Auburn .-.--------. Is jeMMlKe 528 ese See pesooor BIPR | 1868
Institute.
INHUNGR JOYE UitécesGoconcensnense Carthagena=<-----.------- IMEGTCOR —- sass ee eas asia BIrPR 870
INCH MUR OM asec eee e ee SEGA - 2565 cososmosee IDS) ase sh Suedaunecaeciacce BYPR | 1859
Otterbeim University ----...---- IWieStervillope sss tere ee Ipigatid Mas Sneeescposeneese BTIPR | 1858
Ousley eb repress eeee aan Jacksonborough ..-..----- TiO oes choonSebeoeeeoees TR 1863
Jerboa), 18s (CO eS eaesooeocomess Cimemm ati eer eee leleyrpllieye Sono Seoneeococee | BER | 1859
Pollock OREVa Wie ie eee eae He Salome 252 sees eee Columbians-s---- oe -ee ee) CLR 1870
Rodgers, Alexander P--..--.-- Galllipoligitas=sawesceereae= Galligee eae ereseeeereee elu: 1857
Site \WalSeseesosesspepeccaed SPREE Soces5 Seaaceoons AQNENG! SSoncossaccsedaase BIR | 1871
Sineldsvdevelssesse.ceceeean sce Cinemnatieee soa see Sami TONG ses eee eet TR 1871
Shreve, Martha B.-.....-..----- MoartinstRerry--2- === =—-' INO MMT ~SasospsasdeeasoSc a 1869
Smith, Dr. Charles: H...--...-- KMentone--p eee eee acne He GN eee seein steteee ae TR 1862
mouth, Charlesidij-----2-e--2--= Isa. Gyeoe aadcadsdsaoo: Sobiaiiessecs oabcancoosce BIR | 1871
DUDS CSSO.. 2 =e eee gece ss West Bl kton =. e----- ee IPrebleeessecee see eeie eee BER. | 1872
Thompson, Rey. David.......-. Birmineham epee see Giuemseyneeee ee eee ae Ry 1862
IMCs IDNR elo ee eene ceenoenods IMERIONN eee eeeeene = ee sene MMA. Be sqaesedcacnce noon UR 1269
Urbana University .------.---- Whe iene sonosasdoousece Champion) sesceeeeeee a= BIR | 1855
Western Reserve College --.--- eiUdsonlsasss es aee aero ae SUMING sees see eae BrR | 1872
Wilkinson, Johu R ...--..----- Wiliiamsport ..-..-------- PIGKAWAY == = ce sscreeea= DR fotki
OREGON.
@Ge;\ Charles) C5222 53< 22 5s—2- IHioodeRiviet=-e=ea=-=ee eee AVESCO) aeoocsnoaabercnased TR 1872
Oxers Henry As s:- <= sce-s---5: iRortilandiesss-eeeeaene ae Mioltinomalerces = enon ee BIPR | 1871
IRearcesbhomasesesacs se cases es (MMOlaoe- ascent eetecet sce. (POL eee tee Ee EE The 1870
NVALISOM PMOOISIsssemeee asco ccs: INS ian eepereeeoanonsocse Clatsop patna ssa ee oer BIPR | 1870
PENNSYLVANIA.
Albree, Georse-=-- ---cs=0- =a Ripbsburghessse-s eerste Allegheny; sencse sss se es | Bue 1870
Bell Wosepheseas sees cox stacey Hpraniklings = osscccecececees WicnaNGOrn yess se sees )) eo BBY 1872
entleyshe de tee sassscecceces es iD yePnasccu soseees as asebSe ALIKE Leeseooedcondacosad | SR 1863
Blackei Samide At yee seer a= =e iHamrisburg hie eee eee ID PN ON coacceesosccccses BIPR | 1869
Bunihaliereolne esses Meadville mesereeeceene =e @ranwdorde eee eens see ae 1872
Cooke, Dr. William H......-... @arlisl6y see sees === Guniberlandieee eee | BEPR | 1868
Corson, Samuel M .....--...--- Plymouth Meeting. ....-... Montgomery ....--.---=--- | BIER | 18638
(Chimimmbnee) Me bee seesceenocos ee Rarentumee eee eeee eee IMIG Rp dcasreceaascceas se 1871
@urtis;, AGW goss seesnencccee te Catawissane=22-2seseseee en Golambiae=-25: 2-2 eeeeee TR | 1870
Darlington, Fenelon .,-....-.--- Parlcerville 2-2222-22---- @hesters sas: et eneee cee TR | 1859
WD aiv he od ONC mses sce 2 Wiyberrytestooseesease eee ATO Meee eeemaea sans: TR | 1865
INGy(G hn Wie 38} = eee spe case coaeS Allegheny Cijty .-.-"--.--- Allecheny =: 25-5-25=-eeeee TR 1871
Henton) Hlisha}-=-.2:522-2+5.5-5 Grampian Hills ...-.-..--. @learfield2- 2 set see etene BIR | 1864
Grathwohl, John.......-...---- INIy.CeS'E les S52eee sseeese ss Pikkeeme ds 6 Leste kee ee TR 1865
JEBMSh Nos) aceaaaan scusos spose Rin e TOW sees e ee eeee eee Stolnmyyaliitill Se ondeacoessees TR 1872
Jae irimihien NWA Ie ea pooeboosuasecs I <perylarmeraeeeceseeees Mana ceee one eee TR 1872
Hance, Ebenezer.-.-......-...- Malisinstonesnsssesee eee IBRORG Bape idasacabenaeka: BIR | 1865
Haworth, John .............-.. Mazletons-==sstsseeeeees. IVA Hae eesocracadsancne oe TR 1870
MOST sep saee es oasele a= === Mount JOVens=-aceeeeseeee IDPS Ono oasaguoacoanse BIER | 1857
Hubs Orde Aeneas ss-c-5= Browmsvillo:+t2- 22 +2eeeee- Mayebtoccen.. jose ea beets 1 Abe 1269
James, Professor C.S ...-.-..-. Wewisburghhss 2. Wit, G3S 2 geaees coscscse BIPR | 1855
Jefteris, W. A .-..-- -CaE DA eae West Chester ----:.....--.. @iesterse-. eae eee TR 1872
Kirkpatrick, James A.........- Philadelphia /..-..-....- pale hilacelp hia meae terete BIEPR | 1862
iohlér Hawardessse.52473226- Beynur 2222 seeeeaeeeenees Mehioh 355 -N eee TR 1859
NCLOVOL) ACO D scan sas es soeteciae ct MountiRock 2=2222s-2.2= == Cumberland 2552 oee=— aOR 187L
Wadle mi Wreilts sacs sscos=scsrer Wphratah\y sss essen ee ILFer S100 Saeteereocacanacse TR 1g7L
Marsden DriJi Hiss a2-26 222. MoweaSniphur' Springs -f5-| AdamG:o2-22-f-s-eee-ss--= TR 1sil
Martin Ori Georseses5- 2654-6 West Chester --2-:-2-:2::- (Chester. ssten eee eee BIPR | 1868
MicConnelly i, Mis Sessscsoos5e ING wiCastlos:ssseceme sere Wawrenees sssceiesee cere TR 1866
Meehan, Thomas. ...........--- Germantown) sees esses eee. Philadelphigtessseee eee TR 1859
PackangsD! Pi Saja ssseen sons Greenville: ose accee eee: Mercere sees ono naane TR 1871
Raser, John Heyl. 2.2.--.s2--- Reading, 22.55) s5eeeeee ee ReLkSua eee eee ee eeonenne TR 1857
Sisson; Rodman: sssscsseene--: | Pactoryville .------.--.-.- Wiy OI ORR eee a aneerce TR 1864
Smith, Rev. William, D. D....-- | Cannonsburgh ---.2--.---- Wiashineton seeeeecesss. == BIR | 1868
Spencer, Miss Anna.......----- Horsham} 29 osee seer ena. Montgomery ..-.-------- BIR | 1864
SPOVA Werke. Jo: jy eecaewesccss Nahin ra bales. tescpes estes > WAN CRSLOLeee seen = eee ese BIR | 1865
Stocker, Jas. D. and Jerome T.-; Salem. ...--.--2----:-1--:- Wiaryney aaseese5s 8 ce. eee TR 1869
Stumpy Gees I a jesse os Greensbureh -<--..-) .-55-- Westmoreland .......----- TR 187

Maylar\ Sohn sy. 2s cs s2nee ones Connellsville....-.......-. HMayeuteosss se seseeae seca: TR 1849
TavyloreRevaRVlxsensesaseccce IBGaVODs. 2+: seater ea enaee Beavers: ess 2284 5st Sere a 1867

70

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

Name.

Town.

PENNSYLVANIA—Continued.

Tolman, Rev. M. A

United States Naval Hospital...
Wilken SiC seen eee cere eer

Weaver, W.D
RHODE ISLAND.
Barber, W. A

SOUTH CAROLINA.

‘BusbyeDebenjamine=-— esse

Cornish, Rev. John H
Gibbon, Lardner
Pearsall, E. D

Petty, Charles

TENNESSEE.

Amsden, E. W

iBamcrotiwKevs Cel. PB ae--2 cre

Bluhm, P. C

CalhountRYBesaec eee ee eene ae

Doak, W.S. and 8.8
Franklin. Dr.
Grigsby,

Lewis, Miss Blanche
Lewis, Charles H
Payne, Professor J. K

Stewart, Professor William. ...
Wiaterbuny, Rev. .C.5--5---22.
Wil Oh bw Pee ea cecice cs csiicce

TEXAS.

oe Maiies SAME os

Glasco, J. M
Martin, Allen
Melchert, William
Pettersen, Fred
tunge, C

SOoiin, ABW eee Spee goaqsomaoas

Simpson, Fr

WanlyNostrand!| Je see-oseeeee =

Wade, F.S
White, Dr. A. C
Woodruti, L
UTAH.

Bullock, Thomas
Harrison, E. L. T
Lewis, James
VERMONT.

Barto, D. C. and M. E

@assinowhdsoMmisseeeteee essere

Cutting, Dr.
Kennedy, Jame sC
Normal School
Paine, Charles S

Phelps, Samuel B....---.-----
Wild, Rev. E. ie SUES sa aeeabe ac

VIRGINIA.

Bowman, George A

Brown, Rev. James A........-
Chamberlin, Mrs. 8. E........-
Clarke, Dr. and Miss Belle -.-.-.

Niel heetenpeorete
WallltamDSsecec ose es
TERMINED TS ghee) ecicisice
Kennedy, Dr. Thomas J.--.-..--

| New Ulm
: Highland .

rank Vinee esses cece
Philadelpkea
Fountain Dale
Greensburgh.--..--....-..

Newport

Pomaria
Aiken
Hacienda Saluda...--.....
Grahamsville
Gowdysville

J ackson
Lookout Mountain Je) Sere
Smithville

Goes ee a

Rotherwood
Clearmont

Clanksvilloie nero eer
Houston

Gulmensas tere seeeer snare
Clarkville

Oakland

Clintons es eee

Panton

South Troy .
Castleton
Mastybethelssssasceneeseee
Norwich
North Craftsbury. .-.....--
West Charlotte...........
Woodstock

Wytheville
Waterford
Mount Solon

County.

Venango
Philadelphia = Srejaisisiasioeiaraee
Adams is:t ter a ee ee

| Newport

Newberry
Barnwell
Greenville
Beaufort
Union

Madison
Hamilton
DeKalb
‘Wilson

Greene

Fayette
Gibson
McINaaty 2) sccm cee e eee
Sumner
WiattOn 5-2 anincooceseaces
Carter
Knox
1-Montoomery,.-.-.-.-------
IFlgiwisins secenaceociaseecwa
Warren

Upshur
Red River
Kendalyisss 42s e=5 eee

Davis. ssssssssoscisceesee
IBurlesone see eee eee
De Witt
Caldwell

Gricunsy eee es
Rutland
Windsor

Orleans
Chittenden
Windsor

Instruments.

TR
Brn
PTR

BIPh

TR

When com-

menced.

|

13867
1857
1868
1872

1870

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS. ak
sl a
g | 53
Name. Town. County. 3) a
| =} oe
| D aa

See

mas fee = =
}
Virer1i—Continued.
Covell WRC ne. s eect sec tees Staunton eecoeecieece sees Aosta cemseceecneee ners BTPR | 1868
Gillingham, Chalkley .....-..-. Wroodlanymny sccm aes co oy Maintax..- eee eee neces BIR | 1870
isle ChynRIN IDS) eS) Sasenogsases Cedar ee eenccecee sce Ailbemarlelsss: sossouoeceee TR 1871
Martin, William A. ...-...-.. -- Mechanicsville............ TENG PUG) See eoodeeesodans UR 1269
Merriwether, Charles I ...--... eynehburg haces seen Bedtondesseeeeeer es eee TR 1868
WIG WTOS Od ie es eeesoes Seeareee Johnson Town .......----- Northamptonia..--=ose2eer BTR | 1868
IPG) IW anastonopsecescaocoses Markham Station..-....-. AUC UL GIs see se cinisiceee TR 1271
Shriver loward .2222-..2 5-222! Waybheville ssa. = eeiee AWavitGh@ sige steciesis occ cine BTPR | 1872
Shuman, JaAMestME weak sass ee Hampton ceneeesnnee see: Mlizabetheaeccacsaceecccacs TR 1869
Tayloe, Wawandyls otek tn se Chase COMOLNNe eer eeeer ee ae Keinoy Georg ereaeee ee eee ee TR 1849
Townsend, Emma C ......-..-- Capaville cn. 25 se stecinct- 2 Northampton’.-.22222..2.. TR 1871
United States EOS pitalijeeceese INonEioles cet emcicecnecccians INORLOMKE ae sae eee cece BTR | 1868
sWimncenitin GalCer eon nesses soa e LCHMON Opes sn se ece pie sec L@nnicO:t2nsieceesceececes TR 1872
Williams, Bien: ito) See eeemerer Néan Picdmont).---2552--- OHO TNP es SS opoceasucsone TR 1869
Williams, 15 fel Oe eee cerca aeons INGALSV LOND Asan cece eer HAP arene eee eters mate eee TR 1869
WASHINGTON.
Mc@alliCharlestassssnesccee ce. Gathlametviesecese ane ce eee Wiatikiaicuminee ee eeeeece TR 1870
Sampson, Alexander M ........ IRonbepAmPOlOs) se seeee ee ee Clallameess- sass nose AUR 1869
Whitcomb, Thomas M......--. WimionPRid oe see eceeesceeee Clark 22 cctcectestsecceere TR 1871
WEST VIRGINIA.
Rofte, Charles emcee acess - =e PAtshlan dip eemmen css circ oot Cabellpeeseceer one eee ee AUR 1865
Stevens, Professor 8. G.-.-...--. IMorgantoyymes ess -2 Monongalia): =. -5---.--- = BTR | 1872
WISCONSIN.
HeloitiCalle ge. aan. eei-meteysce ce IBN oosencqaeodsesq0eEe Raclk:722 see wescatensenis- ces BTR | 1871
Benton, wlliott El... --.------- WO yROYien2 sce sees oee sees MOM Pea. jeeeaee onan TR 1872
Breed, ARE Terott, <..0-s2s-ceee MDATTASS eee esos ee eeee Wiallpacatt ij s-ceceseeenone TR 1864
Curis WewWes asc. cece cases Rocky Runes eee Colombiajsss-ees-eeeeee TR 1859
IDI Byyslees diel shal Sanne Pesees sao in oN asso serie eee Sheboygan. s- 22-1 --5- TR 1868
Dunegan, ‘John | ph A Rea | ING Wwe bis bOneoeeeeeoeeeeer RUIN CBU Cree eee ‘a 1867
MaphamaierACey Mls ete! a sae Milyyauke@e)-o--- -se2s45 sr - Milwankeesccnccen-s2-20 BTPR | 1849
Lups, Jacob and Miss Clarina..| Manitowoc ........-.-.--. WV TOWOS. «2256 soa scnonce BIR | 1857
Maruire Helix’ 25. ca-cecincccl= Mosinee Oy-eaeei as-is 5 se IMarathon=.s-scc- cscs seee= TR 1870
Mead WHO sc2 0 eh ashe: WANG EYCH « Sceonscessecases Wik PAC a) eeivjesiocins seeeiete ay 1863
Binney.w Mrs On Cpssesesivaes = 5: Sturgeon Bay TR 1870
SHINTS Een Inv. Jeet eeeneeeeese ING orton sesosceeasceeeace TR 1867
State WiniVersit yee secs ee eer Madison: ee eras seers BIPR | 1869
ptaite AMONG Wreeemie seen see Baviel Us secs acess see TR 1867
IWidlite nM Ore. wan nesece cece ace IBarapoolns cree aecese cee a. TR 1864
AN Asthn hoya ied Pees a peeeeee ae (CYNE) cons seassaqeborscs TR 1863
WYOMING.

Tewis George Hi. -- 2-2-5. 5.=- At anti Giisee acer Sweet Water ..-. .-..-... Tt 1872

(> METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

: z me y : : : iH 5 :

ey hen ale Se ake eae

Bae Aa oa |e | pre oe roe ee et | ae ey
OFISR(HSI|HS lH 2 S2i\Skl|wS (H+ O]n2
eae 3 Sor !|OCO|}S8 5 Pl os los | oe
State. me | & RE| HE] se SY State. Bel HO;AoS laa] & ze
8 ee Sire Si hrenet eto See Nee ee ec

i= =I SEs |/eaia I Bare lag |eaq a

5 = 5 22 | 8 2 5 e BO) 5

Pa re Nee Ne WP Zain ase
PAN apa ase aceecesee 7 2 6 1 al |e onitan alesse sesee 3 1 3 0 3
INEM ERT ys tse pooaocse 10 0 | 10 1 10))|| eNiebraskarecs-ece esse: 7 0 7 0 7
@aliformint==.—seeeeeeee 9 3 9 2 7 || New Hampshire .....- 8 1 7 0 U
Coloradoeesee coon eee 4 0 45a 0 4-\| New; diersey:--- == --1-\--- 14 6| 14 3 14
Gonnecticut.-225-.--.- 6 3 (Heh ret 67) NGwaxviorkeus sae sose a: 44 17 41 8 38
Wakotalj cence eee eee 3 2 2 0 0 | North Carolina.-.---.. 21 Bi] Gal 0 18
Melawanrela--eesesacee. 2 2) 2 0 QT |MOOIORS bateseeers ser acietae SOn| ela eeco 8 35
Wloridap sss Le eee 12 iy) 3a ly SLO One gone semeer serene 4 2 3 0 3
Georgiay.-)--ee- 2 es lL Oy) Al) 0s) 0s eRennsylvania seen = =-— 44) 13} 44 6 41
Tinoisae eee eee Qa al ot on leeconelvnodenlslanduss==e = =e 1 0 il 0 1
Indianageesses reese. 17 8} 17 5 | 17 | South Carolina.-....--. 5 1 5 0 5
TOW assem eset 28 6 | 28 Sly shill AUeiobeeCey aaodeaecdane 15 hii) tls} 2 15
Man Sasizeeeeeeeeee eee 20 20) Do} 200 }eMexas oo. cece see ac ms 15 ty 14 2 14
iKKentielavemern-jocscieo = 7 4 7 2 GW Witwer sosceretseee ale tS 0 2 0 3
HOWISIaN de ease eee ae 7 5 Gu 3} (|| MAS eNO Ke So sececoas LON 31 On 2 10
EVicn Owens cece crsciacr 7 a ERS ea Lee Mh, Wb Rete ssoecseSaar 19 6 | 19 2 19
Wipianeivil asses seconde 13 (|) 118} 2 | 13 || Washington Ter....-- 3 0 3s) 3
Massachusetts ....--...- 19) 10:| 19) 4) 18 || West Virginia ------.. 2 1 2 0 g
Michigany ses c-enesscse. 13 OMe LS I) eo MAVWELS CONS U0 eerste ere ee 16 24] AGS 14
IMINMNESOUM ye-i--o <5) 1 i Sh) als ak if alk | Way O00 Oem eietae eter 1 0 1 0 0

MISSissippl 222-225 2522- 7 2 ta a 7 || — = a
MaASSOULIS= = eee Eee Lo: 6 14 3 14 || Total esscs%2s==% 536 | 148 | 524 | 79 504
, ! |

Besides the observers making monthly reports upon Smithsonian
blank forms, the institution receives regular returns from—

The Chief Signal Officer, United States Army, daily records, including
weather maps.

From the Central Park observatory, New York, weekly.

From Chas. G. Ewing, San Francisco, newspaper slips from the Alta
California, containing meteorological observations, monthly.

Some of the observers furnish, in addition to their reports, more
detailed descriptions of various meteorological phenomena.

Miller, Dr. R., Theological Seminary, Carthagena, Ohio, monthly.

Williams, Rev. hk. G., Castleton, Vermont, hourly meteorological ob-
servations, observations on magnetic variations, &e.

Wing, Miss M. E., West Charlotte, Vermont, manuscript notes on the
winds and the weather in general, record of periodical phenomena, &e.

Printed summaries or abstracts from newspapers or agricultural pub-
lications are mentioned in the list of additional meteorological mate-
rial.

BRITISH AMERICA.

Nova SCOTIA:
Acadia College, Wolfville, King’s Province, BTR; D. I’. Higgins, the
present observer. The college has sent observations since 1854.
NEW BRUNSWICK: :
Murdock, Gilbert, St. John, BTPH ; since 1890.
CANADA :
Stewart, James, Province Manitoba, Selkirk County, BTPR; since
1869.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

~~!
c

NEWFOUNDLAND :
Delaney, John, Saint John’s, BTR, 1871.

Clift, Henry A., Harbor Grace, remarks on aurora, &e., in MS., 1872.
Munn, Archibald, Harbor Grace, TR; 1872.

QUEBEC:
Gilmour, Arthur H. I., Stanbridge, Missisquoi County, TR; since 1868.
ONTARIO :

Wylie, Wm., Mount Forest, Wellington, and Grey Counties, BTPR.
Reports of Mount Forest Grammar School, weekly, 1872.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

The Executive Committee of the Board of Regents respectfully sub-
mit the following report in relation to the funds of the Institution, the
receipts and expenditures for the year 1872, and the estimates for the
year 1873:

STATEMENT OF THE FUND AT THE BEGINNING OF THE YEAR 1873.

Amount originally received as the bequest of James Smith-

son, of England, deposited in the Treasury of the United

States, in accordance with the act of Congress of August

TOP TSAG set ei es SSeS se GEER oie src keene eee $515, 169 00
Residuary legacy of Smithson, received in 1865, depos-

ited in the Treasury of the United States, in accordance

with the act of Congress of February 8, 1867.......... 26, 210 63

Motalsbequest of Smithsonk= sass ease ee ee 541, 379 63
Amount deposited in the Treasury of the United States as

authorized by act of Congress of Kebruary 8, 1867,

derived from savings of income and increase in value of

MINVESTIMOMES so. 15) 5 raksifec ve loka oe apis fovey oud cic, akc ieucheve tenet et ee ae 108, 620 37
Total permanent Smithson fund in the Treasury of the

United States, bearing interest at 6 per cent., payable

Semi-annually amy sold 2 Foyer eerste ereerraen eee 650, 000 00
In addition to the above there remains of the extra fund

from savings, &c¢., in Virginia bonds, at par iba

$88,125.20) mowayalueds abot a: te mee eens cee re 37, 000 00
Cash balance in First National Bank, Ist January, 1873. Ba lacodti ta \6)

Total Smithson funds Ist January, 1873...-......- 704, 811 356

The Virginia stock has risen in value during the past year, and as
the prospect is that the legislature of the State will make provision for
the regular payment of the interest, the probability is that this stock
will continue to rise.

During the past year, the Institution has received from its agents,
Messrs. Riggs & Co., on account of back interest on Virginia bonds,
after deducting expenses, $3,004.90, in regard to which a detailed account
is given in a communication of the Secretary to the Board at its meet-
ing of January 16th.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 75

©

The balance at the beginning of the year, $17,811.36, as given in the
foregoing statement as a part of the Smithson fund, has not been invested
because it is required to pay bills as they become due, previous to receiv-
jing the semi-annual income at the end of June, 1873, or, in other words,
to support the Institution during the accumulation of the first half

year’s semi-annual interest.

STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS FROM THE SMITHSON FUND FOR 1872.
Interest on $650,000, at 6 per cent. in gold.............. $39, 000 00
Premium on gold June and December, (133 and 113)..... 4,911 55
Interest on Virginia stock, less commissions.....-...-..-- 3,004 90

Motal Mecenpise 7-6 = thas Sees enh 46,916 45

Total expenditures from the Smithson income during 1872,
as Shown by the detailed statement given below.....-.. 45, 420 11
Balance unexpendetians. 9254-2 sa). Se Sosa a5. 1,496 54

The above balance is added to the uninvested savings from previous
years, viz, $16,315.02, making the $17,811.36 found in the preceding
general statement of the condition of the funds.

EXPENDITURES FROM THE SMI''HSON FUND FOR 1872.

Building.
Reconstruction and repairs..........--..-- $6, 672 35
Burniture and A xtures sa 405). AS eee 15625, 87
22 9OR 99
aa $8, 298 22
General expenses.
Meetings of tthesboard) 5A. .2212.3-26 29-4 i: $155 50
Lighting the building, exclusive of Museum. 217 67
Heating the building, exclusive of Museum. 754 00
Postage, exclusive of Museum:.........--- 320 73
Stationery, exclusive of Museum.......... 541 62
Incidentals, exclusive of Museum........-.. 525 62
Salaries, clerk-hire, and labor............. 11,153 83
— 13, 668 97
Publications and researches.
Smithsonian Contributions, quarto. ......-. $6, 394 17
Miscellaneous Collections, octavo........-- 1, 661 99
ANAL LEPOLUS, ,OCtAVOns <6. 21: See AG e 527 50
nVeGeOrolO given ae ese ats oe Garey es fc: 2,550 00
Aparabus ci eee Aes SE 12 0" 645 OO
aboratoryeteee ae neers cE 169 87

| DSP erie ae CP oie d a a Oe 8 Ue RR 600 00
eee 12, 548 53

16 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Exchanges.

Literary and scientific exchanges through agencies in
London, Paris, Leipsic, Amsterdam, Stockholm, &c. -. $5,870 32

Museum.

Salaries, preservation of collections, &c., paid from the
Smithsonian income in addition to the sums drawn from
the appropriations by Congress...-.- 22255852. secee. 5, 054 07

Total expenditure from the Smithson fund in 1872,
als; IRMEWM NOONE) Saaae acco sss) « hh iene BS alee 45,420 11

During the past year the Institution has advanced money for the
payment of freight on specimens, the purchase of apparatus for Govern-
ment expeditions, &e., the repayments of which, together with the amount
received for sales of publications and old material, have been deducted
from the several items of the foregoing expenditures, as follows:

From museum, for repayments for freight.......-.. ..-... _ 8610 03
From exchanges, for repayments for freight...... -...--... 462 81
From apparatus, for instruments for expeditions... .....-. 1,506 23
From lectures, for advance for scientific course............ - 382 20

From Smithsonian Contributions and Miscellaneous Collec-
tions; for copies sold: 2 2.))) 555. oases ee here eee 307 36
From building and incidentals, for sale of old material... ... 44 68
Total repayments and miscellaneous credits in 1872... 3,118 32

The estimates for the year 1873 are as follows:

ESTIMATES.
Receipts.
From interest on the permanent fund, in gold, to be re-

CRIVEM UME OMS TBs a ehh sae, See eee pe ee een $19,500 00
Roibewecerved=Mecembeniols WS 132s eneee see see eee 19, 500 00
Probable premium on goldiatl0 per cents22..5..2.:255-- 3, 900 00
rom interest on, Virgintay.stocle Noe eens) sects 1, 700 00

Motal receipts ees eee ae sas Sa ees ba cs oars ones 44, 600 00
Appropriations.

Borsbuil dima 2...)0\ 95. ees a5 0 a eee ee ee $3, 000 00

Horieneraltexpenses): 3s 2e eae s 125 eee eee ss Nee 15, 000 60

For publications and researcheSi.22 25.2 e2-2-- 2555.65: 20, 000 00

Morexchangese 222.56. S Hees Jace See Ee eee ee 7, 000 00

For contingencies’... ......:2.-: SERRE OLAS Am Sei eae A 1, 600 00

44, 600 00

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTE®S. (i

NATIONAL MUSEUM.

Until the year 1870, the support of the National Museum had princi-
pally devolved on the Smithsonian Institution, only $4,000 having been
annually appropriated by Congress for this purpose. Since that date,
however, Congress has indicated the intention of providing for the full
support of the Museum, as is evident from the following extracts from
the annual appropriation acts:

Smithsonian Institution: For preservation of the collec-
tions of the surveying and exploring expeditions of the
Government, ten thousand dollars......-...-....-..-. $10, 000 00
41st Cong., Sess. II, Chap. 292, Stat. at Large 1869-
"71, p. 295. Act (July 15, 1870) making appropria-
tions for sundry civil expenses, &ce., for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1871.

Smithsonian Institution: For preservation of the collec-
tions of the surveying and exploring expeditions of the
Government, ten thousand dollars......-........-.-+- 10, 000 00
41st Cong., Sess. IIT, Ch. 114, Stat. at Large 1869-71,
p. 500. Act (March 3, 1871) making appropriations
for sundry civil expenses of the Government, We., for
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1872.

Smithsonian Institution: For preservation of the collec-
tions of the surveying and exploring expeditions of the
Government, fifteen thousand dollars..........-..--.. 15, 000 00
49d Cong., Sess. I, Ch. 415 Stat. at Large 1871-72,
p.361. Act (June 10, 1872) making appropriations for
sundry civil expenses, &e., for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1873.

It should be noted in regard to the above appropriations that the fiscal
year of Government is not the same as that of the Institution, the
former ending on the 50th of June, and the latter on the 31st of Decem-
ber. From this fact it follows that although the last appropriation of
Congress is $15,000 for the care of the Museum, yet the amount available
from this appropriation, in 1872, was only $7,500, or the first half of
the appropriation for the fiscal year ending 50th June, 18738.

Besides this, however, there was drawn the whole appropriation for
the fiscal year ending 30th of June, 1872, viz, $10,600, the first half of
which should have been drawn the previous year, and thus have dimin-
ished the expenditure from the Smithson income for the Museum in
1871.

78 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

The following is theretore a statement of the receipts and expenditures

for the care of the National Museum in 1872:

Appropriation by Congress for the first half of the fiscal
year ending 30th June, 1872, viz, July to December, 1871. $5, 000 00
Appropriation by Congress for the first half of the fiscal year

ending 30th June, 1872, viz, January to June, 1872......- 5,000 00
Total for fiscal year ending 30th June, 1872.......... 10, 000 00

Appropriation by Congress for tbe first half of the fiscal year
ending 30th June, 1873, viz, July to December, 1872... .- 7,500 00
Total from congressional appropriation. ...... ...... 17,500 00

Also from Smithson income for 1872, as shown in the preced-
INS StATEMEMbs «, .5)cje(ha 12s = Fe ace hs eye Epes ee late a ele 5, 0384 O07
Making a total for the care of the Museum.......... 22, 534 O07

This large expenditure was necessary for the preservation of a num-
ber of perishable specimens, the mounting of the large casts of fossils
presented by Professor Henry A. Ward, of Rochester, N. Y., the prepa-
ration of numerous skeletons, the transfer of the Mineralogical and Geo-
logical Museum of the Government from the General Land-Office to the
Smithsonian building, and the preliminary examination of the speci-
mens of which it consisted.

The cost of the reconstruction of the building after the fire of 1865,
exclusive of furniture, was $136,000, the whole of which was paid from
the funds of the Institution for restoring the main building, and not for
fitting up the rooms wanted for the further extension of the Museum.
For the latter purpose Congress has made provisions in the following
acts:

Smithsonian Institution: Toward the completion of the
hall required for the Government collections, ten thou-
hs. Senet $10, 000 00
41st Cong., Sess. IT, Ch. 292, Stat. at Large 1869~71,
p. 295. Act (July 15, 1870) making appropriations
for sundry civil expenses, &c., for the fiscal year end-
ing June 30, i871.
Smithsonian Institution: For the completion of the hall
required for the Government collections, ten thousand
CONAN S ter 2-.9 rs.2'4 ieee ees 228) oo SRR het nae cet. 10,000 00
41st Cong., Sess. III, Chap. 114, Stat. at Large
1869-71, p. 501. Act (May 3, 1871) making appro-
priations tor sundry civil expenses of the Government
for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1872.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. (03,

Smithsonian Institution: To commence the proper fitting
up, in a fire proof manner, of the vacant apartments in
the Smithsonian Institution building, for the proper dis-
tribution and exhibition of the Government collections
of natural history, geology, and mineralogy, five thou-
SEAM! C0 O'S ASV PS a Seer Cea ge en a $5, 000 00
2d Cong., Sess. II, Ch. 172, Stat. at Large 1871~2,
p. 131. Act (May 18, 1872) making appropriations to
supply deficiencies in the appropriations for the service
of the Government for the fiscal year ending June 30,
1872, and for former years.
Smithsonian Institution: For the completion of the hall
required for the Government collections, ten thousand
CONAN HEE ey teriiate ca aes sie) orale. yatta sicva areas ai dicishate, lad ofe' 10, 000 00
42d Cong., Sess. II, Chap. 415, Stat. at Large, p. 361.
Act (June 10, 1872) making appropriations for sundry
civil expenses of the Government for the fiscal year

lor AD)

ending June 30, 1873.

Of these appropriations, $20,000 were expended in 1871 on account
of ceiling, flooring, plastering, and finishing halls for the extension of
the Museum; and in 1872, $2,962.50 for cases for the geological hall,
leaving available for the first half of 1873, for finishing these cases, and
for commencing those for the large hall in the second story of the main
building, $12,037.50.

The foregoing expenditures for fitting up rooms for the Museum,
$2,962.50, as well as those for the care and preservation of the collec-
tions, $17,500, have been accounted for to the Secretary of the Interior,
as in previous years.

The Executive Committee have examined thirteen hundred and ninety-
five receipted vouchers for payments made during the four quarters of
the year 1872, both trom the Smithson fund and the appropriations
from Congress. In every voucher the approval of the Secretary of the
Institution is given, and the certificate of an authorized agent of the
Institution is appended, setting forth that the materials and property
and services rendered were for the Institution, and to be applied to the
purposes stated.

The quarterly accounts-current, bank-book, check-book, and ledger
have also been examined and found correct, showing a balance in the
First National Bank, 1st of January, 1873, of $17,811.36.

Respectfully submitted.

PETER PARKER,
JOHN MACLEAN,
W. T. SHERMAN,
Bxecutive Committee.
JANUARY 20, 1873.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

THURSDAY, January 16, 1873.

A meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution was
held this day, at 6 o’clock p.m. Present: The Chancellor Chief Justice
Chase, Hon. 8. Colfax, Hon. H. Hamlin, Hon. L. Trumbull, Hon. J. W.
Stevenson, Hon. J. A. Garfield, Hon. L. P. Poland, General Sherman,
Professor Agassiz, Hon. Peter Parker, Rev. Dr. John Maclean, and Pro-
fessor Henry, the Secretary.

The Chancellor being unable to be present at the beginning of the
meeting, Hon. Mr. Hamlin was called to the chair.

The Chancellor arriving at 7 o'clock, assumed his official position as
presiding officer of the Board.

The Secretary informed the Board that since its last meeting the death
of Hon. Garrett Davis of the United States Senate had occurred, and that
the vacancy thus created in the Board of Regents had been filled by the
appointment of Hon. J. W. Stevenson, a Senator from the State of
Kentucky; whereupon, on motion of General Garfield, the following
resolutions were adopted:

Resolved, That the Board of Regents have heard the announcement
of the death of their highly esteemed colleague, Hon. Garrett Davis, of
Kentucky, with deep and sincere regret.

Resolved, That in the death of Mr. Davis the Smithsonian Institution
has lost a warm friend, an efficient supporter, and judicious adviser ;
and the country a patriotic, virtuous, and influential citizen.

Resolved, That these resolutions be entered upon the journal, and a
copy of them be transmitted to the family of the deceased.

The Secretary presented to the Board an exhibit on a large diagram
of the condition of the funds on the Ist of January, 1873, and of the |
receipts and expenditures during 1872. P

On motion of Mr. Hamlin, these exhibits were referred to the Execu-
tive Committee.

Hon. Peter Parker, in behali of the Executive Committee, made sub-
stantially the following preliminary report:

“The Secretary, who by law is the custodian of the Smithsonian funds,
has presented to the Regents an ocular exhibit of the present condition of
these funds, and the Executive Committee have, at the present time, to
state that they have been laboriously engaged for several days in exam-
ining 1,395 vouchers for the expenditures of the Institution for the past
year; and comparing these with the bank account, as well as the appro-

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 81

priations from Congress, find the whole in accordance with the statement
in the diagram submitted by the Secretary, there being a balance now
on hand in the First National Bank of $17,811.36. At the next meeting
the committee will present a detailed statement of all the accounts, with
estimates of the receipts and appropriations for the year 1873.”

The Secretary presented the following statement relative to the inter-
est on the Virginia stock held by the Institution, as furnished by Riggs
& Co.:

1870. Jan. 16. 2 per cent. interest on $53,500, less $5.35 ..-.-...--. $1,064 65
1872. June 21. gof $1,761 coupons, $1,174, less 4, $4.40......-.-- 1,169 60

Aug.2. % of $1,761 coupons, $1.174, less } and tax, $77.77... 1,096 23
—— $3330 48

1871. Dec. 23. To $ per cent. commission on funding, $88,125 20.... $220 31
1872. Jan. 12. To 4 per cent. commission on $58,700, conversion of
NECISuELEd uO) COUPON DOMAS Hassel see ae ee neal 73 37
June 21. To express charge on $58,700, bonds sent to Richmond
for affixing State seal, inadvertently omitted ..-. 29 20
Aug. 2. To express on $1,761 coupons to Richmond -..-..----- 1 20
Aug. 2. Toexpress on $1,761 coupons to Richmond......---. 1 50
SS = 329 58
1872. Nov. 9. Baiance paid by Riggs & Co. to the Institution -.-..-.....---.3,004 99

This communication was referred to the Executive Committee.

The subject of the deposit of the articles of fine art belonging to the
Institution in the Corcoran Art Gallery was presented by the Secretary ;
and, on motion of General Garfield, it was

Resolved, That the Executive Committee and the Secretary report as
to the character and organization of the Corcoran Art Gallery, and the
plan to be adopted by the Smithsonian Institution in co-operating with
that establishment and in depositing articles with it.

Dr. Maclean presented a statement relative to the claim for the por-
trait of Washington, and stated that a report would be presented on the
subject by the Executive Committee at the next meeting.

The Secretary presented the part of his annual report of the BpeenONe
of the Institution during 1872 relative to original researches, viz : the
planet Uranus; the tides; altitudes of over 16,000 different places in
the United States; isothermal map; rain tables; winds and under-
ground temperatures.

On motion, the Board adjourned to meet on Monday, January 20, at
7 o'clock p. m.

MonpbaAy, January 20, 1873

A meeting of the Board was held this day at 7 o’clock p. m.
Present: The Chancellor Chief Justice Chase, Hon. H. Hamlin, Hon.
J. W. Stevenson, Hon. L. Trumbull, Hon. J. A. Garfield, Hon. L. P.

6S

82 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

Poland, General Sherman, Hon. Peter Parker, Professor L. Agassiz,
Rey. Dr. John Maclean, and the Secretary, Prefessor Henry.

The Chancellor took the chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

Excuses for non-attendance were received from Messrs. Colfax, Cox,
and Cooke.

Hon. Peter Parker submitted the report of the Executive Committee,
which was read, and, on motion of Mr. Poland, was accepted.

Dr. Maclean, from the Executive Committee, presented a report ad-
verse to the claim for a portrait of Washington painted by C. W.
Peale. ;

On motion of Mr. Hamlin, the report was accepted, ordered to be filed,
and a copy to be furnished to the claimant.

The Secretary stated that during the last session of Congress, mainly
through the efforts of Mr. Hamlin, the following provision had been
adopted in regard to postage facilities :

“All publications sent or received by the Smithsonian Institution, marked on each

package “Smithsonian Exchange,” shall be allowed to pass FREE IN THE MAIL.”
[New Postal Code, 6th Sub-div., 184ih Sec., June, 1872.

This does not provide for letters, nor specimens of natural history;
and since the transfer of the museum of the Land-Ofiice to the Institu-
tion, the postage on minerals sent by the United States surveyors had
become a considerable item of expense. The Secretary of the Interior,
however, had offered to receive for the Institution all such specimens, if
sent by mail to that Department.

Mr. Hamlin stated that a bill had passed the House of Representa-
tives abolishing the franking privilege, and if it passed the Senate the
Institution would again have to pay postage.*

The Secretary stated that the New York, Newfoundland, and London
Cable Telegraph Company, and the Western Union Telegraph Company
had liberally granted the privilege the Institution had requested, to
transmit without charge between Europe and America announcements
of astronomical discoveries, such as planets, comets, &c.

On motion of Mr. Hamlin, the following resolution was adopted:

Resolved, That the thanks of the Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution be tendered to the New York, Newfoundland, and
London Telegraph Company, and to the Western Union Telegraph
Company, for their grant of the free transmission of telegrams relative
to astronomical discoveries.

The Secretary stated that Mr. George Catlin, the Indian traveler and
student of ethnology, who had exhibited his sketches of Indian life in
the Institution, died in December last, and as it was very desirable that
his valuable ethnological collection should be preserved, and, if possi-
ble, secured by Congress, it was proper that the Board of Regents
should take some action in regard to the matter.

* This bill has since become a law.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 83

Professor Agassiz commended the collection as of great ethnological
value, and expressed the opinion unhesitatingly that it ought to be
purchased by the Government.

On motion of General Garfield, it was resolved that the Executive
Committee ascertain from the heirs of Mr. Catlin the terms on which
his Indian paintings, sketches, specimens, &ec., can be procured, and
furnish the information, with such recommendation as they think pro-
per, to the Library Committee of Congress.

General Garfield presented the subject of the proposed endowment of
agricultural colleges in a bill which had passed the Senate and was
now before the House, and expressed the hope that some action could
be taken to secure the benefit of the act to the Smithsonian Institution.

Professor Agassiz remarked that there were other institutions in the
country that were well worthy to share with this Institution any ben-
efits which might be derived from the distribution of the proceeds of
the sales of the public lands; especially the Museum of Comparative
Zoology in Cambridge. This museum now contains the largest collec-
tion of specimens for the illustration of some departments of zoology of
any in the world, and has been supported at an annual expense of from
fifty to sixty thousand dollars, principally raised from donations of the
friends of the establishment. Professor Agassiz also observed that he
thought Professor Henry, inthe distribution of specimens abroad, ought
in all cases to ask for a return of an equivalent in kind. By not doing
so he interfered with the growth of other establishments of a similar
character in this country, and especially with the museum at Cam-
bridge.

In reply Professor Henry stated that the policy of the Institution
from the beginning had been of a most liberal character; that its motto
was ‘‘ co-operation, not monopoly ;” that it had endeavored to co-operate
with all institutions in this country and abroad; that the bequest was
for the benefit of men, not for men of this country alone, butof every coun-
try. Whenever specimens have been wanted for scientific research, these
specimens have been sent as far as the means of the Institution would
allow, and in cases where specimens were required for special investiga-
tion in this country, the Institution has endeavored to procure them for
the object required. It is true a return in kind has not been asked for
because the appropriation from Congress for the support of the museum
has not been more than one-fourth of the actual cost, and the Institu-
tion has not had the means to pay for transportation of the specimens
and the care of those not immediately wanted for research. It has,
however, in all cases distinctly announced, in presenting specimens to
foreign institutions, that suitable returns would be expected from the
duplicates in their collections whenever the Institution might desire to
obtain them.* The Institution has in this way a large accumulation of
credit abroad, and now that the Government has commenced to make

*See Appendix “G” to the Journal of the Board.

84 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

more liberal provision for the support of the National Museum, it may
begin to ask for specimens in return, and in doing so may harmoniously
co-operate with the Museum of Comparative Zoology by procuring speci-
mens for it, and in receiving from the latter others in return.

At the request of the Board, Professor Agassiz then gave an
account* of his late expedition from Boston through the Straits of
Magellan to San Francisco, in the steamer Hassler, of the United States
Coast Survey, after which the Board adjourned to meet at the call of
the Secretary.

WEDNESDAY, February 13, 1873.

A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day, at 7 o’clock p.
m. Present: Chief Justice Chase, Chancellor, Hon. H. Hamlin, Hon.
L. Trumbull, Hon. J. A. Garfield, Hon. L. P. Poland, Hon. Peter Parker,
Hon. H. D. Cooke, and the Secretary, Professor Henry.

The Chancellor took the chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

Dr. Parker presented the following report of the committee relative to
the Coreoran Art Gallery :

The committee to whom was referred the subject of inquiry into the
character and organization of the Corcoran Art Gallery,t and the pian
(if any) to be adopted by the Smithsonian Institution in co-operating
with that establishment and in depositing articles with it, and report
thereon, have to state: They learn that the Corcoran Art Gallery was
incorporated by act of Congress on the 24th of May, 1870, [as appears
from Statutes at Large, Forty-tirst Congress, second Session, chapter 3,
page 139,] and is in no way connected with the District or territorial
government of Washington.

Your committee have conferred with Mr. W. W. Corcoran, and learn
from him his desire 1n relation to the art gallery bearing his name is to
make it one of very high order of art, and, with some exceptions which
he specified, he is of the opinion the specimens of the Smithsonian will
not come within the scope of his design. The proffer of the aid of the
Smithsonian Institution, through its extensive foreign correspondents
and agencies, in collecting valuable works of art from abroad, will be
highly appreciated by Mr. Corcoran and the Directors of the Corcoran
Art Gallery.

PETER PARKER,
W.T. SHERMAN,
Committee.
FEBRUARY 13, 1873.

On motion of Mr. Hamlin, the following resolution was adopted :

Resolved, That the report of the committee be accepted, and, in view
of the facts stated, no further action in the premises is required, except

*See Appendix “A” to Journal of the Board.
+See Appendix “C” to Journal of the Board.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 85

so far as relates to co-operation of the Smithsonian Institution in obtain-
ing for the Corcoran Art Gallery contributions from abroad when re-
quested by the directors and at the expense of the corporation.

The Secretary announced the death of Professor James H. Coffin, who
had for many years been associated with the Institution in its meteor-
ological work, and had nearly finished a very elaborate paper on the
winds of the globe, prepared from material furnished by the Institution,
and to be published as a Smithsonian Contribution to Knowledge. He
spoke in the highest terms of the character of Professor Coffin as a scien-
tific investigator, an able ‘eacher, and exemplary Christian.

On motion of Hon. Mr. Trumbull, the following resolutions were
adopted :

Resolved, That the Board of Regents have heard with profound sor-
row of the death of Professor James H. Coffin, of Lafayette Coilege,
Easton, Pennsylvania.

Resolved, That in the death of Professor Coffin the Smithsonian Insti-
tution has lost a valuable collaborator who has assiduously labored in
connection with it in the cause of science for more than twenty years;
the country has lost an efficient teacher, an honest, truthful, and indus-
trious man, and the world an original contributor to the science of the
day.

Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be transmitted to the fam-
ily of the deceased.

The Secretary stated that since the last meeting he had received a
telegram from Dr. C. H. Peters, of Clinton, New York, announcing the
discovery of a new planet, and that he had availed himself of the facili-
ties offered by the Cable and Western Union Companies, and had sent a
dispatch in regard to the discovery to the European observatories.

The Secretary informed the Board that JAMES HAMILTON, of Carlisle,
Pennsylvania, recently deceased, had left a legacy of one thousand
dollars to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, the
interest to be ‘‘appropriated biennially, either in money or a medal, for
such contribution, paper, or lecture on any scientific or useful subject as
the secretaries may approve.” Action on this subject was postponed
until more definite information had been received.*

The Secretary stated that an amendment had been offered in the
House of Representatives, but not at the instance of the Institution,
to Senate bill 693, ‘‘to provide for the further endowment and support
of colleges for the benefit of agriculture, &c., &c.,” as follows:

“And it is further provided, that the share allotted to the said District
of Columbia shall be apprepriated to the Smithsonian Institution, to
be expended under the direction of the Board of Regents of said Insti-
tution, for the support of the National Museum, and in distributing
specimens and publications to the colleges named in this act and to
other institutions.”

* See Will in Appendix “IF” to Journal of Board.

86 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

By this bill the Secretary of the Treasury is to invest annually one-
fourth of the net amount of sales of the public lands for each year, in
United States bonds, bearing five per cent. interest, and is to give to each
State and to the District of Columbia au equal share of this interest, pro-
vided that the appropriation for any one share shall not exceed in a
single year the sum of $50,000.

The opinion was expressed by the Regents that the bill might pass,
although it was believed that the income to be derived from the sales of
the public lands would be inconsiderable for many years.*

The Secretary stated that the plan of the Smithsonian Institution for
increasing knowledge had met with such favor, that other persons, in
imitation of James Smithson, had established foundations to advance
science, and gave an account of the bequest of the late Professor ALEX-
ANDER DALLAS BACHE; the foundation for lectures by Dr. J. M. TONER,
of Washington, and the gift of Professor TYNDALL of the proceeds of his
recent lectures in this country.

In each of these cases, Professor Henry had been made the chairman
of the boards of trustees appointed to carry out the wishes of the donors.

On motion of General Garfield, it was

Resolved, That a full account of the Bache, Toner, and Tyndall sci-
entific foundations, or trusts, be published in the annual report of this
Institution, together with a letter from Professor Tyndall to Professor
Henry.t

The Secretary stated that he had transmitted to Congress the annual
report of Professor J. W. Powell, relative to his geological and trigono-
metrical survey of the Colorado of the West and its tributaries.

The Secretary presented his annual report for the year 1872, which
was read in part, when, on motion of Dr. Parker, it was

Resolved, That the further reading of the report of Professor Henry be
dispensed with, and that it be submitted by the Secretary to Congress.

On motion, the Board then adjourned sine die.

* This bill did not pass the House of Representatives.
tSee Appendix ‘“B,” “D,” “E” to the Proceedings of the Board.

APPENDIX TO THE JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD
OF REGENTS.

zAG
PROFESSOR AGASSIZ’S NARRATIVE.

‘“T was invited by Professor Peirce to take passage in the Hassler,
while she was going to the field of her duty on the coast of California, as
surveying vessel, provided that my expenses were borne by other par-
ties so that the Coast Survey should not be put to any additional outlay.
In consideration of this proposition, my friends in Boston liberally sub-
scribed $20,000 to enable me to make as thorough a series of investiga-
tions of-animal life and other physical objects as possible, and a little
more tlran this sum was expended.

“We left Boston on the 4th of December, 1871. Our first observations
of much interest were upon the Gulf weed, with its well-marked varieties
distinguished by differences of stem and leaves. We made large col-
lections of the hydroid communities inhabiting the sargossum, and
also of the small fishes, crustacea and other animals finding shelter
within its branches. I saw no reason to suppose that the sargossum
originates as a floating-plant. On the contrary, all the masses we found,
however large, bore marks of having been torn from some attachment.
I have already given an account of the nest of the chironectes built of
gulf weed, and picked up by us.

“Our first port was Saint Thomas, where we aichored on the 15th
of December. Here we made very large collections both of marine and
land animals, fish, corals, sea-urchins, star-fishes, and ophiurans, crus-
tacea, shells, lizards, snakes, toads, and frogs, insects and birds. We
shipped from Saint Thomas alone eleven barrels and boxes of speci-
mens. Barbadoes was our next collecting-ground. There we made our
first cast of the dredge and with remarkable success. The collections
forwarded from this port were not so large, but were perhaps more in-
teresting than those of Saint Thomas. The fauna upon the shoals off
the Island of Barbadoes strangely resembles that of a past geological
time. The comatule, pedunculated crinoids, pleurotomarie, sipho-
nie, and cnemidia found upon these shoals recall forms which belonged
especially to the Mezozoic ages. This dredging was also rich in corals,
sea-urchins, starfish, and ophiurans, and in a great variety of beautiful
andrare shells. Insome notes handed to me by Count Pourtalés, he saysof
thissame dredging, December 29th and 30th off Barbadoes, about six miles
north of Bridgetown, numerous casts of the dredge were taken in depths
varying from 17 to 120 fathoms with very richreturns in mollusea, crusta-

88 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL

cea, echinoderms, polyps, and sponges ; many of them were new to science,
Aon either very rare or of inuch rbenest on account of their geograph-
ical distribution. Pleurotomaria is an example of the former; asthen-
osoma, ceraiophozus, rhizocrinus, and other echinoderms, of the latter.
Deep sea-corals were obtained in considerable quantity, but none appear
to be identical with those of the North Atlantic; they also seem to differ
more from those of Florida than would have been expected.

‘* Between Barbadoes and Brazil we had little opportunity for observ:
tion, except upon the motions of the flying-fish, the habits and appear-
ance of the physalia, &c. But we had an interesting dredging about a
day’s sail south of Pernambuco in 500 fathoms, from which we obtained,
besides other specimens, a living shell, closely allied to the Pecten para-
doxus, as described by Goldfuss. Another cast, about 40 miles east of
Cape Frio, in 45 fathoms, gave us a new crustacean, singularly like the
ancient trilobites. With reference to temperature off the coast of
Brazil, Count Pourtalés’ notes give the following details: ‘ Off Maceio,
Beal January 17, in latitude 9° 45’58., longitude 352 0’ west, the surface-
temperature was 80°.5. At 100 fathoms it was 67°; at 485 fathoms,
449.5; at 556 fathoms, (a few miles farther west,) 429.5; in datitude
11° 49’ south, longitude 37° 10’ west, surface, 809.5; at 613 fathoms, 399°.
A number of dredgings were taken on the same parallel, but nearer
shore, with moderate success.” He adds that subsequent casts of the
dredge were taken at various points along the east coast of South
America, and in the Strait of Magellan, but almost always in depths
less than 50 fathoms where temperature presented no particular interest.

‘A delay of three weeks at Rio de Janeiro interrupted our work at
sea, but I made use of it to collect largely in the market of Rio de
Janeiro and in the neighboring rivers and brooks. The most valuable
contribution to science made there, however, consisted in preparations
of large numbers of fish-brains, both marine and fresh-water.

“Our next port was Montevideo. Here, however, the quarantine pre-
vented us from entering the city, but 1 had an opportunity of studying
glacial phenomena on a hill in the harbor, where I was allowed to land
and where I found erratic material of an unquestionably glacial char-
acter, and other evidences of glacial action. Indeed, the most striking
fact of all is that the hill itself is a true ‘roche moutonnée.” On leaving
Rio de la Plate, February 22, we dropped the dredge in some seven
fathoms, and it came up laden with valuable specimens. Among other
things this cast gave us a large voluta and the egg of a voluta, (of which
we found many afterward belonging to different kinds of volutas,) many
olivas, serulas, renillas, crustaceans and echinoderms. It is not worth
while to record all our dredgings; they were frequent, sometimes very
remunerative, and sometimes not at all so. One dredging, of especial
value for its rare mollusks and echinoderms, was taken off the mouth
of the Rio Negro.

“The next point of great interest was the gulf of San Mathias, at the

APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 89

head of which is the so-called Port San Antonio. In this region our
collections were very large and various. Among our treasures was a
very interesting collection of tertiary fossils in this bay. The cliffs
were largely composed of them. My original programme had included
a reconnoissance of the rivers Negro and Santa Cruz, and a visit to
the Falkland Islands, where I was especially anxious to have a look at
the so-called “rivers of stone,” believing, as I do, that they are of
glacial origin. But the circumstances of the vessel and the lateness of
the season made it important to hurry on, and I reluctantly relin-
quished this part of my scheme. We touched, therefore, at no other
point between the gulf of San Mathias and the strait of Magellan,
though we paused for a cast of the dredge off the gulf of St. Georges,
and were rewarded by some superb star-fishes of immense size, (astro-
phyton or basket-fish,) besides other valuable specimens.

“We rounded Cape Virgins on the 135th of March, and made our first
anchorage at Possession Bay. My published reports have already given
some account of our work in this region. The most important results
obtained in this locality were Count Pourtalés’ discovery that Mount
Aymon is an extinct voleano, with a very perfect crater, and forming
the nucleus, as it were, of a cluster of smaller volcanoes; beside some less
striking geological observations of my own. In the strait of Magellan,
and in Sinythe’s Channel, we passed three weeks, anchoring every night.
The zoological results throughout this region were very satisfactory.
We made large collections; chiefly marine, of course. But the glacial
phenomena here interested me more deeply than the fauna. Irom the
character of the drift, and the constant presence of erratic materials,
evidently quite foreign to the soil, and. recurring along the Patagonian
coast throughout the strait of Magellan, and, as I afterward found,
high up on the Chilian coast; from the glacier-worn surfaces on the
two sides of the strait, as compared with each other, and on the walls
of Smythe’s Channel, I satisfied myself that there has been a move-
ment of ice from south northward, preceding all local glacial phenom-
ena, the latter being indeed only the remnant of the former.

“Leaving Smythe’s Channel we kept along the coast to the southern
end of Chiloe Island, making a run up the gulf of Corcovado in the
hope of passing through the archipelago of Chiloe. As we had no
charts, however, the captain feared to attempt the inside passage, and
after making some collections in Port San Pedro we returned to the
open sea, and reached San Carlos de Ancud, at the northern end of the
island, on the 8th of March. Here I found again the erratic of the
straits and of the Patagonian coast resting upon the breccia of Ancud,
showing the chronological relation of the volcanic formations of this
region to the glacial phenomena. From San Carlos we proceeded with
no pause (except at Lota for coal) to the bay of Concepcion. Here we
remained a fortnight, and at no point did I make more full and valuable
collections. From Concepcion Bay the Hassler went to Juan Fernandez,

90) APPENDIX TO JOURNAL.

but as I wished to see something of the geology between the coast and
the Andes, I proceeded by land to Santiago. My observations here con-
firmed my previous impressions as to the glacial phenomena. There is
very littie evidence of local action proceeding from the Andes, but the
whole Chilian valley lying between the coast-range and the Andes
proper has been modeled in a south-northerly direction by ice. The
valley is, in short, a glacier bottom.

“At Valparaiso we joined the vessel again, andI add some notes from
Count Pourtalés concerning temperatures based upon soundings, &c.,
taken on their voyage to and from Juan Fernandez: ‘In the Pacific
Ocean soundings were taken between Talcahuana, Chili, and Juan Fer-
nandez. The hundred-fathoms line was found to be about 35 miles off
shore. At a distance of 52 miles the depth was 1,006 fathoms. In lati-
tude 35° 30’ south and longitude 75° 11’ west the depth was 2,410 fath-
oms, temperature 35°. Mud and fragments of a delicate sponge were
obtained by the lead; but the dredge-line having been damaged by
dampness, parted when hauling up. About two miles north of Juan
Fernandez, surface temperature 61°; at 377 fathoms, 419.5; at 656
fathoms, bottom temperature 61°. The dredge brought up only a tew
small stones. About three miles off the northwest corner of the same
island the depth was 1,144 fathoms, bottom temperature 36°. The
dredge brought up nodules of clay, pebbles, worm-tubes, and a small
isis. About 25 miles north of the island a depth of 2,214 fathoms was
found, with a bottom temperature of 36°; bottom of reddish mud. The
dredge was lost again, with a large quantity of line. On the way from
Juan Fernandez to Valparaiso a cast of the lead was taken in latitude
33° 33/ south, longitude 77° 2’ west; depth, 1,585 fathoms, bottom tem-
perature 36°; fine white globigerina mud. The hauling up of the line
took more than six hours, on account of the constant precautions needed
to prevent it from parting. Further attempts were thereafter given
up.’

“From Valparaiso we proceeded up the coast, touching at all the prin-
cipal points, and collecting everywhere. One of our richest collecting-
grounds was Parraca Bay, where the fauna was of astonishing richness
and variety. The geology was also exceedingly interesting, and I was
indebted to Lieutenant Murray Day for a very detailed map of the drift-
formation in that region.

“Trom Payta we struck off to the Galapagos, where we arrived on the
10th of June, and remained till the 19th, touching at Charles Island, Albe-
marle, Saint James, Jarvis, and Indefatigable Islands. The zoology of
these islands is intensely interesting, not only from the peculiar character
of the fauna, but also from the physical conditions in which it occurs, all
these islands being of such recent volcanic formation as to preclude the
idea of a migration of animals from the mainland, and their subsequent
adaptation to new cireumstances. Our collections in the Galapagos
were exceptionally large. Iguanas, both marine and terrestrial, (the

APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 91

two species of amblyrhynchus, first made known by Darwin,) lizards,
birds, seals, turtles, besides a great variety of fishes, crustacea, mol-
lusks, and radiates.

“From the Galapagos we proceeded to Panama, where we arrived on
the 25th of June. We were detained here for three weeks, but they
were very profitable weeks for the collections. The loss of the greater
part of our dredging-apparatus between Juan Fernandez and Valparaiso
had indeed made dredging in deep waters impossible, but we were the
more industrious in collecting iu shoal waters along shore and on land.
Our next port was Acapulco, where we arrived on the 4th of August,
and remained for some days. There, also, we were successful in col-
lecting, and not less so in Magdalena Bay, where we passed two days
in drawing the seine. We made no pause between Magdalena Bay and
San Diego, where we arrived on the 18th of August. In the Bay of San
Diego we added very considerably to our collections, Here, and in-
deed all along the coast from Valparaiso northward, we found many
specimens of cetaceans and selachians. We gathered a large number
of cestracions alone.

“ Leaving San Diego on the 28th of August, we reached San Francisco
on the 31st. Here our voyage ended, but I remained in San Francisco
for some weeks for the sake of completing collections formerly made for
me in this region. Both there and in Sacramento, with the aid of
friends, I sueceeded completely in my object.

‘Tt would be impossible for me now to give you more than a very vague
and imperfect idea of the extent and value of the collections derived from
this voyage. Indeed, I do not fully know it as yet myself, the unpack-
ing being but just begun. The number of barrels and cases, however,
forwarded to Cambridge during the ten months of our absence was
265—almost a barrel a day. It would have been simply impossible for
me to colleet on this scale, but for the cordial assistance I received from
the captain and ofiicers of our ship, and, under their direction, from the
men, who were always cheerfully ready for the work of the seine and
dredge. I was also greatly indebted to Dr. Hill and Dr. White, the
physicists of the expedition, who, whenever not engaged in their own
duties, were ready to aid me in every way. I should not forget to men-
tion that Dr. Hill made, also, a most valuable and admirably preserved
collection of marine plants, gathered at every anchorage where time was
allowed for landing. As to the special work of the chemical and phys-
ical departments, under the charge of Dr. Hill, ex-president of Harvard,
and Dr. White, of Philadelphia, I can give you little information. You
could, no doubt, learn all details respecting this part of the work by
application to these gentlemen, or to the Superintendent of the Coast
Survey.

“My own special party for zoological work consisted of Count Pourtalés,
Dr. Steindachner, and Mr. Blake. Count Pourtalés, while sharing in all
the general work of the expedition, had special charge of the dredging

9% APPENDIX TO JOURNAL.

operations. Dr. Steindachner, although an admirable collector in all
departments, was especially engaged in the care of the ichthyological
collections. His great knowledge and untiring industry made his
assistance invaluable. Indeed, without him I could not have carried out
the comprehensive scheme for collecting which I had laid out. Mr.
Blake had special charge of the mollusks, and his time was chiefly em-
ployed in the drawing of perishable specimens. As I cannot give you
an accurate summary of the zoological collections, I will give youa
slight sketch of my general scheme, alluded to above, that you may
understand their significance as a whole.

‘‘T have endeavored, in the first place, to collect as many specimens of
the same species as possible, in every stage of growth and every con-
dition of development, in order to ascertain the range of variation in
each species. My second object was to learn the boundaries of the dif-
ferent faune, especially along the Pacific coast from the strait of
Magellan to California. In this I have included, wherever it was pos-
sible. the fishes from the rivers on the western slope of the continent,
for comparison with those on the eastern; but this part of my plan was
difficult of execution, because I had not the means of collecting in land.

‘During our whole journey I was careful to make, or to have made,
large numbers of anatomical preparations of such parts of marine ani-
mals as can rarely be well studied from alcoholic specimens. The most

valuable of these preparations are those of fish brains.

“J need hardly add that we owed the great opportunity for scientific
investigation afforded by the voyage of the Hassler to the liberal policy
of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, who is ever ready to com-
bine the larger interests of science with the special work of the survey,
when it can be done without detriment to the latter. I should add,
however, that the means for making the zoological collections were con-
tributed by gentlemen of Boston, who raised nearly $20,000 for the pur-
chase of alcohol, jars, and other apparatus for collecting on a large scale,
and tor charges of freight in forwarding the specimens from foreign
ports. The latter charges were, however, comparatively small, owing
to the liberality of both railroad and steamship companies, of the com-
manders of our naval forces in various ports, to whom I had special
recommendations from the Secretary of the Navy, and of the captains of
vessels employed upon whaling voyages or in private mercantile enter-
prises.”

APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 93
B.
BACHE FUND.
Extracts from the will of Alexander Dallas Bache. Dated March 18, 1862.

Item. As to all the rest and residue of my estate, including the sum
of five thousand dollars placed at the disposal of my wife, in case she
should not desire to make any disposition of the same, I direct my ex-
ecutors, hereinafter named, to apply the income thereof, after the death
of my wife, according to and under the directions of Joseph Henry, of
Washington, Louis Agassiz and Benjamin Peirce, of Harvard College,
Massachusetts, to the prosecution of researches in physical and natural
science, by assisting experimentalists and observers in such manner and
in such sums as shall be agreed upon by the three above-named gen-
tlemen, or any two of them, whom I constitute a beard of direction for
the application of the income of my residuary estate, for the above ob-
jects, after the death of my said wife. The class of subjects to be se-
lected by this board, and the results of such observations and experi-
ments, to be published at the expense of my trust estate, under their
directions, out of the income thereof, but without encroaching on the
principal.

In case of the death or inability to act of all or any of the three gen-
tlemen I have named, in my wife’s lifetime, my will is that she shall
supply their places in the board of direction by an instrument of writ-
ing, either testamentary or otherwise, desiring that in the selection of
the persons to administer the income of the trust funds hereby created,
she will have regard to the selection of persons whose attention has been
directed to the same branches of science as those I have named, and so
that each of the departments of physics, mathematics, and natural his-
tory shall be represented in the board. In case of any vacancy oceur-
ring in the board of direction after its organization, and after the death
of my wife, by reason of the death, inability, or refusal to act, or resig-
nation of any of the members, my will is that the surviving er remain-
ing member or members for the time being shall have power to fill va-
cancies so occurring in the board by the selection of other person or
persons to fill such vacancies, and so on, from time to time, as vacancies
shall occur,

My intention being that the board of direction shall have power to
continue its existence, and to filling all vacancies occurring in their
body from time to time.

I direct that a minute of their proceedings be kept, and that the ap-
pointment of any member by the board shall be notified in writing to
the trustees for the time being of my residuary estate.

In the event of any failure of the board for the time being to direct
the application of the income of my said residuary estate, or to continue
its existence by filling vacancies occurring in their body, my will is that

94 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL.

the application of the income thereof, for the purposes and objects de-
elared in this clause of my will shall be made by the trustees, under the
direction of the American Philosophical Society, of Philadelphia.

Extract from the codicil to the will of Alerander Dallas Bache, dated July
15, 1863.

Item. My will is that upon the death of my wife all the rest and resi-
due of my estate shall be paid over to and rest in the corporation of
‘The National Academy of Sciences,” incorporated by act of Congress
passed the third day of March, A. D. 1863, whom I hereby appoint
trustees in the place of my said executors, under the fourth clause of
my said will, to apply the income according. to the directions in the
said clause contained, to the prosecution of researches in physical and
natural science by assisting experimentalists and observers in such
manner and in such sums as shall be agreed upon by the board of di-
rection in the said clause named.

My will further is that in case of any failure of the board for the time
being to direct the application of the income of my residuary estate, or
to continue its existence by filling vacancies occurring in their body,
the application of the income thereof for the purposes and objects de-
clared in the said clause shall be made under the directions of the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences, instead of the American Philosophical So-
ciety, of Philadelphia. In all other respects the said application of the
income to the purposes aforesaid to be made by the same persons, and.
under the same rules as I have prescribed in the said clause of my will.

C.
CORCORAN ART GALLERY.
Letier from Mr. Corcoran to the Trustees.

WASHINGTON, May 10, 1869.

GENTLEMEN: It is known to you that the building at the northeast
corner of Pennsylvania Avenue and Seventeenth street was designed by
me for the encouragement of the fine arts, as is indicated by the dedi-
cation upon its front.

The work was begun in the year 1859, and was prosecuted with the
heartiness naturally incident to such an undertaking, until it was inter-
rupted by the breaking out of the late civil war, when the public exi-
gencies led to the immediate occupation of the building for military
purposes ; and to these uses it has been devoted ever since, until, being
no longer required by the War Department, it is about to be restored to
my possession.

It was my cherished hope to have placed the proposed establishment,

.

APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 95

complete in allits appointments, in successful operation before divesting
myself of the title by any formal instrument, but the years which have
thus passed away, and the accumulation of other cares and duties, warn
me no longer to indulge the pleasing anticipation.

I have, therefore, not doubting your general interest in the subject,
taken the liberty of executing to you, as trustees, a deed, which I here-
with deliver, sufficiently defining the trusts which I ask you to accept.

In addition to the title to the property itself, you will observe that
the instrument vests in you, for the purposes of the trust, the right to
receive the rents, wholly unpaid, for the period during which it has
been occupied by the Government, now nearly eight years, whieh will
doubtless be adjusted with you, in the absence of any special agreement,
upon fair and, perhaps, liberal terms.

As soon as the interior of the building shall have been completed ac-
cording to the original plans, (which will be placed at your disposal,)
for which the rents in arrears will more than suffice, I shall ask you to
receive as anucleus my own gallery of art, which has been collected at
no inconsiderable pains, and I have assurances from friends in other
cities, whose tastes and liberality have taken this direction, that they
will contribute fine works of art from their respective collections.

I may add, that it is my intention to provide further endowment of
the institution in such manner and to such extent as may consist with
other objects which claim my attention ; and I venture to hope that,
with your kind co-operation and judicious management, we shall have
provided, at no distant day, not only a pure and refined pleasure for res-
idepts and visitors at the national metropolis, but have accomplished
something useful in the development of American genius.

Iam, gentlemen, with great respect and regard, your obedient ser-
vant,

WwW. W. CORCORAN.
To JAMES M. CARLISLE, JAMES C. HALL, GEORGE W. Rigas, AN-
THONY HYDE, JAMES G. BERRET, JAMES C. KENNEDY, HENRY D.
Cookk, JAMES C. MCGUIRE, WILLIAM T. WALTERS.

Reply of the Trustees.

WASHINGTON, May 10, 1869.

DEAR Sir: We have accepted the trusts confided to us by your deed
of this date, in the formal manner indicated by the deed itself.

But we desire, individually and collectively, to add the expression of
our personal appreciation of the privilege of endeavoring efficiently to
administer such an institution, projected spontaneously by your liberal
mind and securely founded by your sole munificence.

While we cannot doubt that, at least in the time of our successors, all
your anticipations will be realized, we sincerely hope that you may

96 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL.

yourself live to enjoy the high and pure gratification of witnessing the
complete success of your generous intentions.
With great respect and warm regard, we remain, very truly, yours,
J. M. CARLISLE.
J.C. HALL.
GEO. W. RIGGs.
A. HYDE.
JAMES G. BERRET.*
JAMES C,. KENNEDY.t
HENRY D. COOKE.
J. C. McGUIRE.
W. T. WALTERS.
WILLIAM W. CoRcoRAN, LHsq.

Deed of gift and trust of the Corcoran Art Gallery.

This indenture, made this tenth day of May, in the year of our Lora
eighteen hundred and sixty-nine, by and between William W. Corcoran,
of the city of Washington, District of Columbia, of the first part, and
James M. Carlisle, James C. Hall, George W. Riggs, Anthony Hyde,
James G. Berret, James C. Kennedy, Henry D. Cooke, and James C. Me-
Guire, of the city of Washington, and William T. Walters, of the city
of Baltimore, State of Maryland, of the second part, witnesseth:

Whereas the said William W. Corcoran, in the execution of a long-
cherished desire to establish an institution in Washington City to be
‘dedicated to art,” and used solely for the purpose of encouraging
American genius, in the production and preservation of works pertain-
ing to the “ fine arts,” and kindred objects, has determined to convey to
a hoard of trustees the property hereinafter described, to which he may
hereafter make other gifts and donations, to be held by said board, and
used for the purposes aforesaid: Now, therefore, the said William W.
Corcoran, in consideration of the premises, and of the sum of $1,
current money of the United States, to him in hand paid by the said
parties of the second part, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged,
hath granted, bargained, and sold, aliened, enfoefied, and conveyed,
and by these presents doth grant, bargain, and sell, alien, enfeoff, and
convey unto the said parties of the second part, and the survivors of
them, and the heirs and assignees of such survivor—

Lots numbered 5, (five,) 6, (six,) 7, (Seven,) and 8, (eight,) in square
- numbered 167, (one hundred and sixty-seven.) in the city of Washington,
and District of Columbia, as the same is laid down and distinguished
upon the public plat of said city, fronting 196 feet 9 inches, more or less,
on President’s Square, and 160.17 feet, more or less, on Seventeenth
Street west, together with, all and singular, the buildings, improvements,

*H. C. Matthews has been elected a trustee vice J. G. Berret.
t Prot. Joseph Henry has been elected a trustee vice J.C. Kennedy.

APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. RE

hereditaments, and appurtenances thereto appertaining, or in any wise
belonging, and all the estate, right, title, and interest of the said party
of the first part in and to the same:

To have and to hold, all and singular, the lots and parcels of ground,
and premises aforesaid, with the appurtenances, unto and to the use of
them, the said parties of the second part, and the survivors and sur-
vivor of them, and the heirs and assigns of such survivor, in trust,
nevertheless, and to and for the intents and purposes hereinafter ex-
pressed and described, that is to say:

First. That the said parties of the second part shall, without unnec-
essary delay, after their acceptance of this trust, to be signified by their
signing and sealing the memorandum to that effect hereunder written,
organize themselves into a permanent board of trustees, with such
officers to be selected from their own number as to them may seem nec-
essary or convenient for the orderly management of this trust, and the
more efficient attainment of the ends and objects designed by the said
party of the first part, as indicated by his general intent, to be gathered
from this instrument in all its parts and provisions, and with the same in-
tent and for the same ends and objects, shall make, and as often as may be
necessary from time to time, make, alter, amend, repeal, and re-enact,
in whole or in part, all necessary by-laws, rules, and regulations in the
premises, in execution of, and not inconsistent with the provisions and
true intent of this instrument ; in all which they shall act by the con-
currence of a majority of the whole number of trustees.

Secondly. That when the number of the said original board of trus-
tees, being the said parties of the second part, shall, by death, resigna-
tion, or inability, to be ascertained by a resolution of the said board
acting by a majority of the whole number, shall have been reduced
below the number of nine members, the remaining members shall elect
suitable persons, in their discretion, from time to time, as often as may
be necessary, so that the board shall always be composed of nine mem-
bers.

Thirdly. That all the property, real, personal, and mixed, rights,
credits, choses in action, or other valuable thing whatsoever hereby
conveyed or intended to be conveyed, or which may hereafter be con-
veyed, given, or transferred and assigned and delivered to the said
board of trustees, whether composed of the said parties of the second
part or of their successors, chosen and elected as hereinbefore provided,
whether in whole or in part, shall be held, managed, limited, used, and
devoted to executing the trusts, and giving effect, according to the best
judgment of the said board of trustees, from time to time; and all legal
rights and titles in the premises shall be taken and held in such manner,
and with such legal forms, as shall serve the trusts, intents, uses, and
purposes declared or plainly indicated or implied in and by the terms of
this instrument.

Fourthly. The property as received and held, or which may be received

and held by the said board of trustees, shall be held, used, managed,
7s

98 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL.

and. disposed of by them and®their successors and assigns, whether
under this instrument alone or under any act of incorporation hereafter
to be procured, for the perpetual establishment and maintenance of a
publie gallery and museum for the promotion and encouragement of the
arts of painting and sculpture, and the fine arts generally, upon such
system and with such regulations and limitations as the board of trustees
may, from time to time, whether corporate or incorporate, prescribe,
limit, and ordain: Provided always, That the gallery and museum shall
be open to visitors, without any pecuniary charge whatever, at least two
days in each week, for such convenient and customary hours as shall be,
from time to time, prescribed and made public, and at such other times,
not being such public days as aforesaid, such moderate and reasonable
fees for admission may be prescribed and received, to be applied to the
current expenses of preserving and keeping in proper order the building
and its contents.

Fifthly. While the officers necessary or appropriate to the organization
of the board of trustees shall be elected from their own number, it is
understood that the board shall and may, at its discretion, at all times,
employ other persons to be the ofiicers, agents, and servants of the
board, for the orderly and efficient management and conduct of the
institution.

Sixthly. The system and the appropriate measures for increasing the
collection of paintings, statues, and kindred works of art, of which the
private gallery of the party of the first part will form the nucleus, and
such other voluntary donations as the trustees may from time to time
receive, are confided to the direction and judgment of the trustees, as
is also the management generally of the institution.

Seventhly. The general intent of the said party of the first part be-
ing expressed in general terms in the premises and recitals of this in-
strument, and further indicated, with certain specifications, in the afore-
going articles, numbered from one to six, inclusive, it is hereby declared
that, all and singular, the gifts, grants, conveyances, and assignments
herein expressed and set forth are, to and for the trusts, intents, and
purposes so as aforesaid expressed, implied, set forth, or indicated,
and to none other whatsoever; and that, while it is the intention
of the grantor and donor herein that no unruly, technical, or
formal breach of, or departure from, the terms and conditions of this
trust shall operate as any forfeiture or defeasance in favor of his heirs,
or of any claiming in his right, it is hereby declared, and these presents
are upon the express and strict condition, that these presents, and
every matter and thing hereinbefore contained, and every estate,
right, title, interest, and power thereby given, granted, conveyed,
and limited, shall cease and determine, and become utterly void and of
no effect, whensoever it shall be decreed, adjudged, or declared, by the
highest judicial authority having jurisdiction, upon a proper proceed-
ing, in-law or in equity, to be instituted by the heirs, devisees, or assigns,

APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 99

of the said party of the first part, that the real estate hereinbefore con-
veyed shall have been diverted from the purposes of this trust, to be
gathered from this instrument in all its parts and provisions, so as
substantially to defeat or plainly to be inconsistent with and repugnant
to this trust, construed and interpreted in a liberal and sensible spirit ;
and thereupon, as in case of a breach of a strict condition-subsequent,
the heirs, devisees, assigns, or other proper legal representatives in the
premises of the said William W. Corcoran, shall be entitled to re-enter
upon the said real estate as of his, the said Willim W. Corcoran’s,.1ight
and title prior to the execution of these presents, and as if the same
had never been executed ; and in like manner all and every other estate,
property, chattel, or valuable thing, the title to which shall have pro-
ceeded in the premises from the said William W. Corcoran to the said
trustees or their successors and assigns, shail, as far as may be consist-
ent with the rules and principles of law and equity, revert and be re-
vested in right of the said Corcoran or his proper legal representatives
therein.

Eighthly. That the said board of trustees may at any time hereafter,
in its discretion, apply for and accept an act of Congress incorporating
them and their successors, so as to facilitate the execution of this trust,
by vesting the same in a perpetual body-corporate, with the like pow-
ers and for the same trusts, intents, and purposes herein declared, ex-
pressed, or indicated, but-for no other trusts, intents, or purposes what-
soever; such act of incorporation to refer to this deed, and to be expressed
to be in execution of the trusts thereof; and thereupon the said parties
of the second part, and the survivors and survivor of them, or the heirs
and assigns of such survivor, shall execute such conveyances as may be
necessary to transfer the whole property of this trust to such corpora-
tion, upon the trusts of this deed.

And whereas the lots of ground and improvements hereinbefore de-
scribed and referred to have, by reason of the exigencies of the public
service of the United States, been rented and occupied for the public
use, without any special contract, but subject to the constitutional pro-
vision that “ private property shall not be taken for public use without
just compensation,” which just compensation for the whole period of
such occupation by the United States now remains to be paid; and
considering the same properly to belong to this trust, as being of the
rents, issues, and profits of the ground and buildings which he had here-
tofore, and as early as the year 1859, devoted and dedicated to the trusts
and purposes hereinbefore formally declared : Now, therefore, in consid-
eration of the premises, and of the sum of $1 by the said parties of
the second part to him in hand paid, he, the said party of the first part,
hath assigned, transferred, and set over, and by these presents doth assign,
transfer, and set over unto the said parties of the second part and the sur-
vivors and survivor of them, and the executors, administrators, and
assigns of such survivor, all and singular the rents, issues, and profits
of the lots of ground and improvements hereinbefore described, for and

100 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL.

during the whole period of the occupation and possession of the same
by the Government of the United States, and all the just compensation
which may be due from the United States for the public use of the same,
hereby authorizing and empowering the said parties of the second part,
or a majority of them, either by themselves or by any substituted
attorney or attorneys, to be named and appointed by them, or a majerity
of them, to acquit and release and receipt for the same in any sufiicient
legal form of acquittance which may be according to law, as fully as he,
the said party of the first part, could personally release and acquit the
same.

Which rents, issues, and profits, and just compensation for the public
use of the said property shall be received and held by the said parties
of the second part for the same uses, intents, and purposes hereinbefore
declared; but shall, as far as may be necessary, be applied, before all
other objects, to the completion of the interior of said building, and to
putting it in a condition to be immediately applied to the primary in-
tents and purposes of this trust, as expressed in the recital in the
premises of this deed.

In testimony whereof the said party of the first part hath hereunto set
his hand and afiixed his sealy the day and year first hereinbefore
written.

W. W. CORCORAN.

Signed, sealed, and delivered in the presence of—

JOHN HUNTER.
A. T. BRICE.

We jointly and severally accept the trusts of the aforegoing deed.

Witness our hands and seals the said tenth day of May, eighteen
hundred and sixty-nine.

JAMES M. CARLISLE. 7 Gro. W. RIGGS.
JAMES G. BERRET. HENRY D. COOKE.
W. T. WALTERS. J. CALE:
ANTHONY HYDE. JAS. C. KENNEDY.

JAS. C. McGuIRE.

ee

District of Columbia, County of Washington :

I, Whitman C. Bestor, a notary publicin and for Washington County
aforesaid, do hereby certify that William W. Corcoran, the party of the
first part to a certain deed, bearing date the tenth day of May, A. D.
eighteen hundred and sixty-nine, and hereto annexed, personally
appeared before me, in the county aforesaid, on the day of the date
hereof, the said William W. Corcoran being personally well known to
me to be the person who executed the said deed, and acknowledged the
same to be his act.

Given under my hand and notarial seal this tenth day of May, eighteen

hundred and sixty-nine.
WHITMAN C. BESTOR,
Notary Public.

v

APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 101

iD;
TONER LECTURES.

Deed of conveyance from Dr. J. M. Toner to five trustees, instituting the
Toner lectures at the city of Washington, and establishing a permanent
and increasing fund for their support and continuance annually.

This indenture, made this thirteenth day of April, in the year of our
Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventy-two, between Dr. Joseph
M. Toner, of the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia, of the
first part, and the Secretary or chief scientific officer of the Smithsonian
Institution, (for the time being Professor Joseph Henry;) the Surgeon-
General of the United States Army, (for the time being J. K. Barnes,
M. D.;) the Surgeon-General of the United States Navy, (for the time
being J. M. Foltz, M. D.;) the president of the Medical Society of the
District of Columbia, (for the time being Grafton Tyler, M. D.;) of the
second part, ali at present residing in said District of Columbia:

Whereas the said party of the first part, believing that the advancement
of science—that is, a knowledge of the laws of nature in any part of
her domain, and particularly such discoveries as contribute to the ad-
vancement of medicine—tends to ameliorate the condition of mankind,
hath determined to convey and transfer to the said parties of the see-
ond part, and their successors forever, in their several oificial positions
as aforesaid, the hereinafter described real and personal property,
amounting in value to about $3,000, ninety per cent. of the interest of which
is to be applied for at least two annual memoirs or essays by different
individuals, and, as the fund increases, as many more as the interest of
the trust and revenue will in the judgment of the trustees justify, rela-
tive to some branch of medical science, to be read at the city of Wash-
ington at such time and place as the said parties of the second part and
their successors as trustees may designate, under the name of “The
Toner Lectures ;” each of these memoirs or lectures to contain some new
truth fully established by experiment or observation, and no such
memoir or lecture to be given to the world under the name of “The
Toner Lectures” without having first been critically examined and ap-
proved by competent persons selected by said trustees for that purpose.

It is further provided, that such of the said memoirs or lectures as
may be approved shall be published in such manner and through such
channels as said trustees may determine.

And, in order to carry out the intentions hereinbefore expressed, the
said party of the first part hath associated with himself the said other
parties of the second part, each in his official character as hereinbefore
named, with this provision: that upon removal from official position of
any one of said parties of the second part, by death or otherwise, his
successor in said position shall sueceed him as one of the trustees of
“The Toner Lectures;” and that upon the death, resignation, or removal
of said party of the first part, or his successors, the other trustees

102 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL.

surviving shall, within a reasonable time thereafter, elect to sueceed
him an active and energetic member of the regular medical profession
in good standing and practice in the city of Washington, who shall
upon his acceptance thereof be and become one of the trustees of “The
Toner Lectures.” And if the Medical Society of the District of Colum-
bia shall at any time hereafter be dissolved, so that there would no
longer be a president thereof, then and within a reasonable time there-
after the other trustees shall elect to sueceed the said president, as trus-
tee in this behalt, an active and energetic member of the regular medi-
cal profession in this District, in good practice and standing, who shall
upon acceptance thereof be and become one of the trustees of ‘“ The
Toner Lectures ;” and so on from time to time, soas to continue to have
five trustees, who shall serve without compensation. And to carry out
the hereinbefore-expressed intentions these presents are made.

Now, therefore, this indenture witnesseth that the said party of the
first part, for and in consideration of the premises aforesaid, and, fur-
ther, the sum of one dollar, lawful money of the United States, to him
in hand paid by the said parties of the second part, at and before the
sealing and delivery of these presents, the receipt whereof is hereby
acknowledged, hath granted, bargained, sold, aliened, enfeoffed, and
conveyed, and doth by these presents grant, bargain, sell, alien, enfeoff,
and convey unto the said parties of the second part, the survivor or
survivors of them, (and their associates duly elected,) and to their heirs,
executors, administrators, and assigns, according to the quality of the
estate granted, the following described real estate in the said city of
Washington, known and described as being lots numbered six (6) and
seven (7) in Clark’s recorded subdivision of square north of square num-
bered three hundred and thirty-four, (354,) and also money and private
securities amounting to the sum of $1,100; together with all the im-
provements, ways, easements, rights, privileges. and appurtenances to
the said real estate belonging, or in any wise appertaining, and all the
remainders, reversions, rents, issues, and profits thereof:

To have and to hold the said real and personal estate or private seeuri-
ties unto and to the use of the said parties of the second part, together
with the said party of the first part, their heirs, executors, administra-
tors, and assigns, in and upon the trusts, nevertheless, hereinafter men-
tioned and declared—that is, whenever it seems to them that the pro-
ductiveness of the fund will be increased thereby, to Sell the said real
estate, and the same to convey in fee simple to the purchaser thereof;
and to convert the said personal estate or private securities into money,
and the proceeds of said sale and conversion to invest, re-invest, from
time to time, and to keep invested in some safe public or private securi-
tiesin the name and for tle use of the trustees of “ The Toner Lectures,”
who shall apply ninety per cent. of the interest thereof annually to de-
fraying the expenses of said “ Toner Lectures,” and the publication thereof
whenever the publication thereof is deemed advisable. The remaining

APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 103

ten per cent. of the said annual interest from the whole fund, as well as
any additional gift or unexpended balance at the end of each year, they
shall from time to time invest, and the same shall be and become a part
of the principal, for the steady increase of the permanent and producing
fund of said ‘‘Toner Lectures.” It is hereby provided that the said
trustees shall hold at least one regular meeting annually ; keep a cor-
rect record, in a book for the purpose, of all proceedings and actions as
trustees, with a statement of the expenditures of the revenue, and the
condition of the fund, where and how invested ; all of which they may,
from time to time, at het pleasure make ainlnlhe and be governed in all
matters relating to the general execution of the trusts and intentions
herein expressed and declared, and in the investing and disbursing of
all trust-moneys, by such rulesand regulations as may from time to time
be adopted by them for their own government, with this express con-
‘lition, however: that for the election of any new trustee to fill a va-
caney, for the sale of any property or stocks or securities, or the invest-
ment of any funds, the approval of a majority of said trustees, in writing
or by their votes at a meeting of the trustees, shall be absolutely neces-
ary.

And it is further provided, that in case of the failure at any time of
the purposes for which this trust is created, or in case of the failure of
the trustees to act for three successive years, or in case of the total fail-
ure of the trustees to give effect to this trust, then, and in any such
contingency, the fund hereby provided for and created shall revert to
the said party of the first part and his heirs or personal representatives.

In testimony whereof, the said party of the first part hath hereunto
set his hand and seal on the day and year first hereinbefore written.

J. M. TONER.

Signed, sealed and delivered before Edward Clark, justice of the
peace, in the presence oft—
S. H. KAUFFMAN,
G. B. Gorr.

We hereby accept the foregoing trust.
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
J. K. BARNES,
Surgeon-General United States Army.
J.M. FOLTZ,
Surgeon-General United States sate
GRAFTON TYLER, M. D.,
Biaiaens Medical Society of the District of Columbia.

JOSEPH MEREDITH TONER, J. D.

104 APPENDIX TO JOWRNAL.

i.

THE TYNDALL TRUST FOR THE PROMOTION OF SCIENCE
IN THE UNITED STATES.

Letter from Professor Tyndall to Professor Henry.

NEw York, February 7, 1873.

My DEAR PROFESSOR HENRY: I have made my “will” in due form,
and signed it in the presence of witnesses.

My desire and intention in accepting the invitation of my friends
were, as you know, to hand over the proceeds to Chicago. But the re-
covery from calamity is quick in this country, so that Chicago not only
does not need my feeble aid, but would be willing of her abundance to
add to my wealth.

My disbursements, as I told you, are heavy. Living I have found to
be exceedingly expensive in the United States; hence the balance which
I am able to hand over to the board of trustees is not so large as I
could wish it to be. It, however, amounts to a little more than thirteen
thousand dollars.

I have bestowed some care on the accounts, and do not think I carry
home with me a single cent of American money. But I carry home
what is to me incomparably more precious, and that is the assured good-
will of the American people.

The instruments that I take home with me I intend to present to the
Royal Institution, where they will be turned to good account. My
hands will be then entirely clean, and no foreign element will mingle
with the bright memory of the time I spent here.

* * * * * * *.
Ever yours, faithfully,
JOHN TYNDALL.

Professor JOSEPH HENRY,

Secretary Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

THE TRUST.

I, John Tyndall, professor of natural philosophy in the Royal Institu
tion of Great Britain, having, at the solicitation of my friends, lectured
in various cities of the United States, find the receipts and disburse-
ments on account of these lectures to be as follows:

I.—Receipts.

FLOM OShON, AOPSIX leC tue Sires tener eine ety ae $1,500 00
From ¢Philadelphia, for* six "lectures? 22222 228 — Pee 2 cae 3, 000 00
Promebaltimore tor three Lectures tees teeiee ee 1, 000 00

APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. — : 105

Brom Washington, dor Six@ectures <7... 2 5-\. 5-95. 5.-5- $2,000 00
rou New, Work sOrisix I6EClUTES!s. 22) =.2)\/ ns ech e ees 8, 500 00
Hromebrookdyneror six lecturess. EU. re lo8 Si BA 6, 100 00
From New Haven, for two lectures ..-.-..--+...-.......-. 1, 600 00

Potalerecem ts eee a elle rit yaectariel= qne-'- 44st) ZO, 100) 00

IL.— Disbursements.

Before leaving England: Wages of assistants during the
preparation of the lectures; work of philosophical instru-
ment maker; new apparatus; sundry items for outfit;
traveling expenses of myself and two assistants from
London to New York, make a total of £671 6s. 8d., which,
at the rate of $5.50 per pound, amounts to.......--..... $3, 692 31

In the United States: Hotel and traveling expenses for myself
and two assistants; other expenses incidental to lectures in
Boston, Philadelphia,* Baltimore, Washington, New York, '
Brooklyn, and New Haven, covering a period of four
months, plus traveling expenses of myself and my assist-

ant from New York to London, make a total of......-..- 4,749 35
Bresentito Vales: Scientific Club tess be Jinn. ofsaie -c 2un 250 00
Salaries to assistants for four months, £250, which, at $5.50

PEE POUNE Fa MOUNESHtOa- cars --naloiel6= ies eee at eo 1,375 00

Making the total disbursements .............-.-...- 10, 066 66

LT,
DivegtonaleLe Coles s AVC a slam 31 sata oe aro, o/s heinsencre is else ea ciale $23, 100 00
Whe total disbursements): o 2.5 0cs cms ose teases SAI OS 10, 066 66
Making the net proceeds of lectures ............... 13, 033 34

As an evidence of my good-will toward the people of the United
States, I desire to devote this sum of thirteen thousand and thirty-three
dollars to the advancement of theoretic science and the promotion of
original research, especially in the department of physics, in the United
States.

To accomplish this object I hereby appoint Professor Joseph Henry,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington City, D. C., Dr.
i. L. Youmans, of New York, and General Hector Tyndale, of Philadel-
phia, to act as a board of trustees to take charge of the above sum—to
carefully invest it in permanent securities; and I further direct that the
said board shall, for the present, appropriate the interest of the fund

“At Philadelphia I had no hotel expenses, but was most comfortably lodged at the
house of my kinsman, General Hector Tyndale. He, I may add, paid his own hotel
expenses wherever he accompanied me.

106 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL.

in supporting, or in assisting to support, at such European universities
as they may consider most desirable, two American pupils, who may
evince decided talents in physics, and who may express a determination
to devote their lives to this work. My desire would be that each pupil
should spend four years at a German university—three of those years to
be devoted to the acquisition of knowledge, and the fourth to original
investigation.

If, however, in the progress of science in the United States, it should
at any time appear to the said board that the end herein proposed
would be better subserved by granting aid to students, or for some
special researches in this country, the board is authorized to make the
appropriations from the income of the fund for such purposes.

I further direct that vacancies which may occur in said board of
trustees, by death or otherwise, shall be filled by the president of the
National Academy of Sciences.

If in the course of any year the whole amount of the interest which
aecrues from the fund be not expended in the manner before mentioned,
the surplus may be added to the principal, or may be expended in addi-
tion to the annual interest of another year.

If at any time any organization shall be established, and money pro-
vided by other persons for the promotion of such original research as I
have in view, I authorize the said board of trustees to exercise their
discretion as to co operating in such work from the income of this fund.

In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and seal this 7th of
February, 1873, in the city of New York.

- JOHN TYNDALL. [SEAL.|
In presence of—
C. BuRRITT WAITE
L. KE. FULLER.

iT.
BEQUEST OF JAMES HAMILTON.
Letter from the executors.

CARLISLE, PENNSYLVANIA, April 17, 1875.

DEAR Str: Inelosed please find printed copy of the last will and tes-
tament, and codicil thereto, of James Hamilton, esq., late of this place,
deceased. by which we notify you of the bequest made to. your board by
said last will and testament.

As certain legal questions will have to be decided by the courts betore
we will feel justified in paying over eleemosynary bequests, it would be
well for your board to be represented by counsel.

One of the religious associations have employed Henderson and Hays,
who, we understand, are making preparations for a case.

APPENDIX TO JOURNAL. 107

We give you early notice that you may act accordingly, and all legal
difficulties be removed at as early a day as practicable.
Our post-office address is Carlisle, Pennsylvania.

Yours, respectfully,
JOSEPH H. STUART,

ABRAM BOSLER,
Executors of James Hamilion, deceased.
Professor JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Butract from the will of James Hamilton, dated November 20, 1871.

‘In the name of God, amen. I, James Hamilton, declare this to be

my last will and testament, with respect to my personal property :
* * * * # * *

8. I give one thousand dollars to the Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution, located at Washington, D. C., to be invested by said
regents in some safe fund, and the interest to be appropriated bienni-
ally by the secretaries, either in money or a medal, for such contribu-
tion, paper, or lecture on any scientific or useful subject as said secre-
taries may approve.”

G.

CIRCULAR SENT WITH SPECIMENS PRESENTED TO INSTI-
TUTIONS.

The following is a copy of the circular sent to foreign museums on
the presentation to them of specimens from the collections of the insti-
tution; which was alluded to by the secretary in his remarks at the
meeting of the Board on the 20th January, 1873:

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, D. C., ———, 187-.

DEAR Sir: In behalf of the Smithsonian Institution, we have this
day forwarded by the specimens mentioned in the accompanying
receipt—a present from the Institution, upon the following conditions:

1. That an acknowledgment be made to the Secretary of the Institu-
tion immediately on receipt of the specimens, by signing and returning
the accompanying blank.

2. That full credit be given the Institution for the donation, on the
labels of the specimens, in published reports, and under all other cir-
cumstances.

3. That free access to and use of these specimens be allowed, under
the proper restrictions, to all persons engaged in original investigations
requiring such material.

108 APPENDIX TO JOURNAL.

4, That suitable returns be made from the duplicates in the collee-
tions under your charge, whenever the Institution may desire and call
for them.

Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary S. I.

~

[To be signed and returned prepaid to the “ Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington.” |

187-
’ ’ 3
TY have received from the Smithsonian Institution, through
, in behalf of , the following collections, subject to
the conditions mentioned in the accompanying circular-letter.

2

GENERAL APPENDIX

TO

THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1872.

The object of this appendix is to illustrate the operations of the
Institution by reports of lectures and extracts from correspondence, as
well as to furnish information of a character suited especially to the
meteorological observers and other persons interested in the promotion
of knowledge.

EULOGY ON AMPERE.

[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution. ]

GENTLEMEN: It is my duty to-day, in accordance with an article of
the academic regulations dating back to 1666, and which during this
long interval of time has always been faithfully executed, to bring be-
fore you the labors of one of our most illustrious associates, and at the
same time to cursorily glance at his life.

These biographical sketches have not always preserved the same
characteristics. Before the judges of the eighteenth century, Fonte-
nelle himself, the ingenious Fontenelle, ventured to refer so briefly to
technical points that his eulogy on Newton oceupies only about thirty
pages inoctavo. If you will open this master-piece of delicacy, elegance,
und atticism, you will find the celebrated “Treatise on Optics” confined
to a few lines, and the title of the ‘‘ Universal Arithmetic” not even
mentioned. In proportion as the sciences progress the ancient bounda-
ries of the academic eulogies should be enlarged, and, in fact, we having
atlastreached a period when the crowds are largely pressing to expositions
of the mathematical and natural sciences with which our vast lecture
rooms daily resound, the secretaries of the academy have begun to feel
that it is time to rid themselves of the restraints which their illustrious
predecessors had imposed upon themselves, that henceforth they might
here, at the public sittings, speak of the labors of their associates in the
terms hereafter to be used by the historians of the sciences. This new
course has already several times received your kind approbation. The
idea of departing from it has never even suggested itself to my mind, as
indeed, a little reflection would have reminded me, when M. Ampere
was removed from our midst, of the impossibility of examining his
works, and of making the analysis of his complete encyclopedia, with-
out departing from theusual limitsof oureulogies. I must acknowledge,
too, that a close intimacy, an intimacy without a cloud for more than
thirty years, has also contributed to extend this biography, and to ena-
ble me to give importance to certain details that one indifferent to him
would have passed by unnoticed. If an excuse be necessary, gentlemen,
I will give it to you in a line in which a great poet has defined friendship

“The only passion of the soul in which excess is tolerated.”

TU EULOGY ON AMPERE.

INFANCY OF AMPERE, HIS EXTRAORDINARY MEMORY, HIS PRECO-
CIOUS TALENTS, HIS FAVORITE BOOKS—HE WRITES ON THE PRIMI-
TIVE LANGUAGE.

Andre Marie Ampére, the son of Jean Jacques Ampere and Jeanne
Antoinette Sarcey de Sutiéres, was born at Lyons, in the parish of Saint
Nizier, on the 22d of January, 1775.

Jean Jacques Ampére was well educated, and highly esteemed. His
wife was also generally beloved for the uniform sweetness of her dispo-
sition and a beneficence, ever on the watch for occasion upon which to
exercise itself. A short time after the birth of their son, M. Ampere
abandoned commerce and retired with his wife to a small estate in Poley-
mieux-lez-Mont-d’Or, near Lyons, and here in an obscure village, without
the assistance of a teacher, began to dawn, or,as I should say, to be de-
veloped that wonderful intellect, the brilliant phases of which I am about
to unfold.

The first talent shown by Ampére was that for arithmetic. Before
even understanding figures, or knowing how to form them, he made
long calculations with the aid of a limited number of pebbles or beans.
It may be he had fallen upon the ingenious method of the Hindoos, or,
perhaps, his pebbles were combined like the corn strung upon parallel
lines by the Brahmin mathematicians of Pondichéry, Calcutta, and
Benares, and handled by them with such rapidity, precision and accur-
acy. As we advance in the life of Ampere we shall find this supposi-
tion gradually losing its apparent improbability. To illustrate to what
an extraordinary degree the love of calculation had seized upon the
young student, being deprived, by the tenderness of his mother, during
a serious illness, of his dear little pebbles, he supplied their places
with pieces of biscuit which had been allowed him after three days
strict diet. I shall not dwell longer on this illustration, as I am far from
wishing to give it as an unanswerable or incontestible indication of the
future vocation of Ampére. There are children, I know, whose apathy
nothing seems able to arouse, and others, again, who take an interest in
every thing, amuse themselves with even mathematical calculations
without an object. You object to this assertion, charge it, perhaps, with
exaggeration, and class numerical calculation with those distasteful
tasks which duty and necessity alone can induce one to undertake. My
answer is ready, and I will cite, not mere school-boys, but a distinguished
savant, who, perceiving my astonishment at seeing him, during a public
meeting of the academy, undertake the multiplication of two long lines
of figures, said to me at once, “‘ You forget the pleasure it will give me
directly to prove this calculation by division.”

Young Ampere soon learned to read, and devoured every book that fell
into his hand. History, travels, poetry, romances and philosophy inter-
ested him almost equally. If he showed any preference, it was for
Homer, Lucian, Tasso, I’énélon, Corneille, Voltaire, and for Thomas,

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 113

whom it is surprising to find, notwithstanding his unquestionable talent
in so brilliant acompany. The principal study of the young student of
Poleymieux was the encyclopedia in alphabetical order, in twenty vol-
umes in folio. Each one of these twenty volumes had separately its
turn, the second after the first, the third after the second, and so on to
the end, without once interrupting the arithmetical order.

Nature had endowed Ampére, to an extraordinary degree, with the

faculty Plato so aptly, and not too extravagantly, describes as ‘a great
and powerful goddess.” Thus this colossal work was completely and
deeply engraved on the mind of our friend. Each one of us has heard
this member of the Academy of Sciences, at a somewhat advanced
age, repeat, with perfect accuracy, long passages from the encyclopedia,
relating to blazonry, falconry, ete., which a half century before he had
read amidst the rocks of Poleymieux. His mysterious and wonderful
memory, however, astonishes me a thousand times less than that force
united to flexibility, which enables the mind to assimilate, without con-
fusion, after reading in alphabetical order, matter so astonishingly va-
ried as that in the large dictionary of d’Alembert and Diderot. I will
ask you to glance with me over the first pages of the encyclopedia. I
mention the first pages as I prefer not to choose, that our admiration
may be spontaneous.
’ To begin: The preposition a fills the reader’s mind with nice gram-
matical distinctions; ab transports him to the Hebrew calendar; adadir
to the midst of the mythological histories of Cybele and Saturn. The
word abaissement (depression) carries him at times into algebra, to the
reduction of the degrees of equations; into one of the most difficult
problems of geodesy and the nautical art, when required to determine the
depression of the horizon at sea; and to heraldry, when abatement desig-
nates the peculiar signs added to the arms of families when necessary
to debase their bravery and dignity. Turning the page the article abbé
will enlighten you as to all that is fickle and capricious in the ecclesias-
tical discipline. The next word, abscess, carries you into surgery. To
the description of the anatomical organization of bees, (alcelles,) of their
mode of living and reproduction, of their habits, of the hierarchical or-
ganization of the hive, succeeds almost immediately the explanation of
the immortal and subtile discovery of Bradley; of those annual move-
ments of the stars, which, under the name of aberration, demonstrate
that the earth is a planet. Some lines further on you fall into the abyss
of cosmogony. Abacadabra plunges you into necromancy.

This, then, is the kind of reading that a child of thirteen or fourteen
undertook, or rather planned, for himself without finding it too severe
a task. I shall have more than one example to give of the strength of
Ampere’s mind. None, however, more remarkable than the one I am
about to relate.

As the modest library of a retired merchant could no longer satisfy

the young student, his father took him from time to time to Lyons, where
8

114 EULOGY ON AMPERE:

he had access to the rarest books, among others the works of Bernoulli
and Euler. When the puny and delicate child first asked the librarian
for these works the good M. Daburon exclaimed, “Do you understand
the works of Bernoulli and Euler? Reflect, my little friend. These
works rank among the most abstruse the human mind has ever pro-
duced.” ‘J hope, nevertheless, to be able to understand them,” replied
the child. ‘ Youare aware, I presume, they are written in Latin,” added
the librarian. This revelation for a moment disheartened our young
and future associate; he had not yet studied the Latin language. It
is unnecessary to tell you now that at the end of a few weeks this obsta-
cle was removed. What Ampere sought above all things were ques-
tions to fathom and problems to solve, even in his earlier studies. The
word tongue or language (langue) in the ninth volume of the encyclo-
pedia transported him to the banks of the EKuphrates and to the Tower
of Babel of biblical celebrity. There he found men speaking all the
same language. A miracle related by Moses suddenly produced the
confusion. Hach tribe spoke from that time a distinct language. These
languages mingled and became corrupt, and lost by degrees that char-
acter for simplicity, regularity, and grandeur which distinguished the
common stock. To discover this original language, or at least to recon-
struct it with its ancient attributes, was a problem certainly very diffi.
cult, but the young student did not consider it beyond his powers.

Great philosophers had already been engaged in this work. In order
to give a complete history of their attempts, it would be necessary to go
back to that King of Egypt, who, if we can believe Herodotus, caused
two children to be brought up in absolute seclusion with only a goat as
nurse, and who then had the simplicity to be astonished that these chil.
dren should bleat. The word bécos proceeding more or less distinctly
from their mouths, he considered the Phrygeans, in whose language is
found the word beck, (bread,) best qualified to be thought the most
ancient race of the world.

Among the modern philosophers who have interested themselves in
the primitive language, and in the means of restoring it, Descartes and
Leibnitz occupy, incontestably, the first places. The problem, as these
men of genius treated it, was not merely to improve the musical qualities
of modern languages, to simplify their grammar and to banish from them
all irregularities and exceptions. They supposed it to consist especially
of a kind of analysis of the human mind, of the classification of ideas,
and of the complete and exact enumeration of those which should be con-
sidered elementary. By means of a language built upon such a founda-
ion, ‘the peasants,” said Descartes, ‘“ would be better judges of the truth
of things than are the philosophers now.” Leibnitz expressed the same
idea in different terms, when he wrote that “the universal language
would add more to the powers of reasoning than the telescope to the
eye, or the magnetic needle to the progress of navigation.”

No one would be so presuming as to affirmthat young Ampére treated

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 115

the question of the universal language with the same comprehensiveness
and the same research as Descartes and Leibnitz, but it can be said, at
least, that he did not banish its solution, as the first of these philoso-
phers did to the land of romance. Nor did he confine himself as the
second did, to dissertations on the marvellous fitness of the future in-
strument. This instrument he created! Several of Ampere’s friends
have had in their, hands a grammar and dictionary, the fruits of
his indefatigable perseverance, containing the almost finished rules
of the new language. Some have heard him recite fragments of a
poem composed in this new tongue, and can testify to its harmony, the
only thing, to tell the truth, of which they could judge, as the meaning
of the words was unintelligible to them. Who, besides, among us does
not remember the joy experienced by our associate, when, in glancing
over the work of a modern traveler, he discovered in the vocabulary of a
certain African tribe several combinations, which he had himself formed.
It will be remembered that a similar discovery was the chief cause of
Ampére’s warm admiration for the Sanscrit.

A work which has reached such a degree of advancement, should not
be condemned to oblivion. The carrying out by Ampére of an idea of
Descartes and Leibnitz will always interest philosophers and philologists
in the highest degree. The manuscripts of our brother are fortunately
in hands eminently qualified to bring out all that could contribute to
the advancement of science and letters.

AMPERE’S AFFLICTION DURING THE TERRIBLE REVOLUTION—SUSPEN-
SION OF HIS INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL FACULTIES—RECOVERY—
BOTANICAL STUDIES—HIS MEETING WITH THE LADY WHO AFTER-
WARDS BECOMES HIS WIFE.

The revolutionary tempest in 1793, during one of its most violent con-
vulsions, penetrated as far as the mountains of Poleymieux, and Jean-
Jacques Ampére becoming alarmed, in order to escape a danger which his
parental and marital solicitude had, perhaps, greatly magnified was
guilty of the fatal steps of Jeaving the country and taking refuge in
the city of Lyons, and of there accepting the office of justice of the
peace.

You will remember, gentlemen, that after the seige of that city, Collot-
de Herbois and Fouché perpetrated there, under the unfortunately spe-
cious name of reprisals, the most execrable butcheries. Jean-Jacques
Ampere was one of the first of their numerous victims, less on account
of holding the position of magistrate during the trial of Chalier, than
on account of the hackneyed charge of aristocrat with which he was
branded, in the writ of arrest, by the very man, who, a few years later,
had engraved on the panels of his carriage, the most brilliant coat of
arms, and who signed with the title of duke, the conspiracies he was
plotting against his country and his benefactor.

116 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

The day he was to ascend the scaffold, Jean-Jacques wrote to his
‘wife a letter full of the most sublime simplicity, resignation and heroic
tenderness, in which you willfind these words: “Say nothing to Josephine
(the name of his daughter) of the unhappy fate of her father; try to
keep her ever in ignorance of it. As to my son, J expect everything of
him.” Alas! the victim deluded himself. The blow was too severe, it was
beyond the strength of a young man of eighteen; Ampére was com-
pletely paralyzed by it. His intellectual faculties, so active, so ardent
and well developed, seemed suddenly to degenerate into a complete
idiocy. He would pass whole days mechanically contemplating the
skies and the earth, or in heaping up little piles of sand. His anxious
friends, fearing his symptoms gave indication of a fatal and rapid de-
cline, tried to entice him into the neighboring woods of Poleymieux, to
arouse him, if possible, from this lethargy, where ‘he was,” (I use the
very words of our associate,) a mute witness, “an observer without eyes
or thought.”

This torpor of all feeling, mental and moral, lasted for more than a
year, when the botanical letters of J. J. Rousseau falling into his hands,
their clear, harmonious language seemed to penetrate into the very soul
of the afflicted youth, and in some degree to restore tone to his mind,
as the rays of the rising-sun pierce the thick fogs of the morning and
bear life into the bosom of the plant that the “numb cold night” had
rendered torpid. About the same time a volume, accidentally opened,
brought to his notice some lines from the ode of Horace to Lucinius.
These lines seemed to convey no meaning to our friend, to him who had
merely learned Latin with sufficient accuracy to enable him to read essays
on mathematics ; but their cadence charmed him, and from this time,
contrary to the principles of the moralist who declares the human mind
incapable of entertaining at the same time more than one ardent pas-
sion, Ampere gave himself up with unrestrained zeal to the simulta-
neous studies of plants and the poets of the Augustan age. A volume
of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum accompanied him in his herboraza-
tions, as well as the works of Linnus, and the meadows and hills of
Poleymieux resounded daily with declamations from Horace, Virgil,
Lucretius, and especially from Lucian, in the intervals of his dissections
of a corolla or the examination of a petal. The quantity of the Latin
words became so familiar to Ampere, that forty years after, he com-
posed one hundred and fifty eight technical lines ina post-chaise dur-
ing a tour of inspection of the universities, without once referring to
the Gradus.

The botanical knowledge he acquired in these solitary studies was as
protound as it was lasting. It is my good fortune to be able to cite on
this point the unexceptionable and striking testimony of our colleague,
M. Auguste de Saint-Hilaire.

he genus Begonia was among the number of those classed by
the illustrious de Jussieu under the head of incertu sedis, because he

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 117

had not succeeded in discovering their natural relations. On reaching
Brazil, where a large number of the species of this genus is found, M. de
Saint-Hilaire examined them with the serupulous care which gives so
much value to all his labors, and discovered their true affinities. Some
time after his return to France, M. de Saint-Hilaire, meeting M. Ampére
in society, after the usual interchange of civilities was addressed by him
in the following terms: “I found yesterday, while walking in a garden,
a begonia, and amused myself examining it. With what family do you
classify it?” “Since you have examined it, permit me to ask you how
you would classify it?” “I would place it in the adjoining group of
onagraires,” replied M. Ampere. And, in fact, this was precisely the
idea a thorough examination, made on the very spot where the plant
grew naturally and in the open air, had suggested to M. de Saint-Hi-
laire. But our two colleagues were guilty of the error of not publish-
ing to the world the solution of a problem whose difficulty is de-
monstrated by the hesitation concerning it shown by de Jussieu. Ten
years later, after his own investigations, Lindley assigned to the genns
Begonia the place it should properly occupy—the -place first indicated
by Ampere and M. Auguste de Saint-Hilaire. Does it not surprise you,
gentlemen, to find the name of a geometer thus associated with those
of distinguished botanists ? f

Before the bloody catastrophe of Lyons, Ampere, then but eighteen
years of age, made a careful examination of his past life, and discov-
ered, he said, but three prominent points, but three circumstances,
whose influence on his future life was important and decided; these
were, his first communion, the reading of the eulogy of Descartes by
Thomas, and finally—I foresee your surprise—the fall of the Bastile.

From his first communion, our associate dates the existence of fixed
religious feeling; from the reading of the eulogy of Descartes, his
taste, or rather his enthusiastic love for the study of mathematics,
physics, and philosophy; and from the fall of the Bastile, the first
exultation of his soul at the names of liberty, human dignity, and phi-
lanthropy. The terrible death that snatched from the worthy family
of Poleymieux its venerated head was calculated to deaden for a time
the faculties of our associate, but there was no change wrought in his
convictions. From the moment his intellect was aroused from its slum-
ber, that devotion of mind and heart to the cause of civilization resumed
itssway. Hescornfully rejected the idea that the fury of a few demons—
that crimes—from which he had so cruelly suffered could arrest the pro-
gressive march of the world.

The fertile mind with which nature had endowed the student of Poley-
mieux had been active from his earliest infancy; but such, however,
had not been the case with his senses. Those powerful instruments of
pleasure and of study were revealed to Ampére at a much later date—
at least in all the fullness of their power—and then by akind of sudden reve-
lation; which, on this account, seems not unworthy of being classed with

118 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

Chesselden’s history of the man blind from his birth and suddenly restored
to sight by the removal of acataract. Ampere was extremely near-sight-
ed; objects only slightly distant seemed to him but confused and undetined
masses. He could form no idea of the pleasure manifested in his pres-
ence by the bundreds of people at various times descending the river
Saodne between Laneuville and Lyons. One day there chanced to be on
the boat a traveler as near-sighted as himself, and with glasses which
proved to be of anumbertosuithiseyes. He triedthem, and as if by magic
all nature assumed a different aspect, the smiling woods, picturesque
country, graceful, gently undulating hills, rich, warm, harmoniously
blended tints, spoke for the first time to his imagination, and a torrent
of tears proclaimed his deep emotion.

Our associate was then but eighteen, and from that time was
keenly alive to all the beauties of nature, I have been told that, in
1812, while traveling along the Mediterranean shore of Italy, a view
from certain points of the celebrated Corniche on the coast of Genoa
threw our friend into such an ecstacy of admiration that instant death
in the presence of that sublime picture was all he desired.

Were it needful to show how profound were these impressions, and
to what extent Ampere could make them available in coloring the
most common-place scenery he ‘desired to embellish, a striking proof may
be found ina letter dated January 24, 1819.

At this time our friend was living in a modest house he had pur-
chased at the corner of the streets Fossés-Saint- Victor and Boulangers.
The garden, more unpretending still, contained not more than ten super-
ficial meters of unproductive land, recently spaded. Several terraces
were succeeded by a steep and tortuous trench, crossed by two or three
narrow planks over the deepest parts, the whole surrounded by a very
high wall. But, you exclaim, you are describing the damp, gloomy yard
of a prison. No, gentlemen; I am describing the plan and appearance
of a garden where Ampere, in the middle of January, in the street des
Boulangers, was already dreaming of—I had almost said was absolutely
seeing—green grass, trees in full leaf, and beautiful flowers, filling the
air with their delicious perfumes; and clumps of shrubbery beneath
whose shade he could revel in the delightful task of reading letters from
his Lyonnese friends, where a bridge thrown over the valley formed
a picturesque object.

Pardon me, gentlemen, for having anticipated the order of time—for
having selected from the life of our friend the only circumstance, per-
haps, where his imagination has not been a source of sorrow to him.

It was not only the emotions of beauty, grandeur, and sublimity with
which the hearts of most men are inspired by the view of rural and
mountainous scenery to which Ampére had been suddenly awakened.
The musical sense was also of sudden birth. In his youth Ampére
had given very serious attention to acoustics. He had taken great
delight in studying the manner in which waves of air are created

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 119

and propagated; the different vibrations of a stretched cord; the
curious periodic changes of intensity, designated as beats, Xe. But
music, properly so-called, was to him a sealed book.

The day finally came, however, when certain combinations of sounds
were to Ampére something more than mathematical problems—some-
thing more than the monotonous tinkling of bells.

In the thirtieth year of his age he accompanied some friends to a con-
cert on one occasion, where, in the beginning, the scientific, animated,
and expressive music of Gliick was alone performed. The discomfort
of Ampére was apparent to all; he yawned, twisted himself, arose,
walked about, halted, walked again, without aim or end. From time to
time (and this with him was the last stage of nervous impatience) he
would place himself in one of the corners of the room, turning his back
on the whole assembly. Finally, ennui, that terrible enemy our acade-
mician bad never learned to control, from not having been, as he said,
at school in his childhood, seemed to ooze from every pore. Now, the
scientific music of the celebrated German composer was succeeded un-
expectedly by some sweet, simple melodies; and our associate suddenly
felt himself transported into a new world, and his emotions betrayed
themselves again by copious tears; the chord uniting the ear and heart
of Ampere was struck, and made for the first time to vibrate in unison.

Time made no change in this peculiar taste. During his whole life
Ampére showed the same fondness for simple, unaffected songs; the
same distaste for scientific, noisy, labored music. Can it be true that
in the beautiful art of such masters as Mozart, Chérubini, Berton,
Auber, Rossini, and Meyerbeer there are no fixed rules by which to
distinguish the very good from the very bad; the beautiful from the
hideous? At all events, may the example of the learned academician
render us indulgent to the champions of the ruthless war between the
Gluckists and Pieccinists witnessed by our fathers; and may it induce us
to pardon the famous mot of Fontenelle, ‘Sonate, que me veux tu?”—
(“Sonata, what have you to do with me?”) As we have just seen, Ampere
was almost blind to one of the fine arts until eighteen, and almost deaf
to ahother until thirty. It was during this interval—that is, when about
twenty-one—that his heart suddenly opened toa new passion, that of love.
Ampére, who wrote so little, has left some papers, entitled Amorwm,
to which he confided, day by day, the touching, artless, and truly beau-
tiful history of his feelings. The first page begins thus; “One day
while strolling, after sunset, along the banks of a solitary stream,”——
The phrase remains unfinished. I will finish it with the aid of the
memory of some of the early friends of the learned academician.

The day was the 10th of August, 1796.

The solitary stream was not far from the little village of Saint Ger-
main, a short distance from Poleymieux.

Ampere was botanizing. His eyes, in perfect condition to see since
the adventure on the barge of the Sadne, were not now so exclusively

120 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

fixed on pistils, stamens, and nerves of leaves that he was unable to
observe at some distance two young and pretty girls, of modest de-
meanor, who were gathering flowers in a vast meadow.

This accidental meeting decided the fate of our associate. Until then
the idea of marriage had never even presented itself to his mind. You
faney, perhaps, the idea will quietly take root there, and germinate by
degrees; but romantic imaginations do not proceed in this way. Am-
peére would have been married that very day. The woman of his choice
—the only one he ever would have married—was one of those two young
girls seen in the distance, with whose family he was not acquainted, of
whose name he was ignorant, and whose voice had never reached his
ear. But the affair was not so speedily disposed of. It was not until
three years afterward that the young girl of the solitary stream and
meadow, Mademoiselle Julie Carron, became Madame Ampere.

But Ampere was without fortune, and before’ giving their daughter
to him the parents of Mademoiselle Carron prudently exacted that he
should consider the expenses entailed by marriage, and, as is commonly
said in the world, establish himself in some business. You will smile,
I am sure, to hear that, entirely engrossed by his passion, Ampére
allowed them seriously to propose his applying for a position in some
shop, where, from morning until night, he would unfold and fold and
unfold again the beautiful Lyonnese silks; where his duty would con-
sist principally in detaining the purchasers by engaging them in agree-
able conversation, in adhering strictly to a fixed price, but without
impatience; in descanting at large on the quality of the fabrics, the
taste of the trimmings, and the fastness of the colors.

Ampere, without having taken any part in the discussion, escaped
this great danger. Science winning the day in a family council, he left
his beloved mountains and proceeded to Lyons to give private lessons
in mathematics.

AMPERE, PRIVATH PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS AT LYONS—CHEM-
ICAL STUDIES—MARRIAGE—A CHOSEN PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS AT
THE CENTRAL SCHOOL OF BOURG.

The period now reached in the life of Ampétre is marked by more
than one memorable event. In this he formed those intimate friend-
ships which stood the test of, without being shaken by, the political
crises and disorders of more than half a century. The new friends,
animated by the same tastes, met every morning, at an early hour, at the
house of one of the number, M. Lenoir, who cannot be described more
clearly than as one of the best, gentlest, and most benevolent men who
has ever honored the human race. There, in the Place des Cordeliers,
before sunrise, in the fifth story of the house, seven or eight young men
compensated themselves, in advance, for the weariness of the day de-
voted to business, by reading aloud the chemistry of Lavoisier; a work

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 21

in which the severity of the method and the clearness of the exposition
seemed to vie with the importance of the results, and, which excited in
the mind of Ampére the most genuine enthusiasm. The public, a few
years later, were surprised to find a very profound chemist in the pro-
fessor of transcendental analysis in the Polytechnic School; but at that
time nothing was known of the private readings in the Place des Corde-
liers in Lyons. On examining the matter closely, you will find it rare, not
to be able to discover in the lives of all men the thread, sometimes
highly attenuated, connecting the excellences and tastes of a riper age
with the impressions of youth.

The marriage of Ampére took place the 15th Thermidor, in the year VII,
(the 2d of August, 1799.) The family of Mademoiselle Carron having
no faith in the sworn priests, the only ones then recognized by the civil
law, considered it necessary to have the religious ceremony performed
secretly. This circumstance, as will be readily understood, made a pro-
found impression on the mind of the learned geometer.

Ampére, now enjoying the fullness of a happiness which alas was
destined soon to end, quietly divided his time between the pleasures of
tamily and friendly intercourse and the direction of the mathematical
studies of his private pupils. The 24th Thermidor, in the year VIII,
(8th of August 1800,) his happiness was increased by the birth of a
son, who, though still young, ranks high among the élite of French
literary writers, and bears with distinction an illustrious name.*

Our friend, now feeling the responsibilities of paternity, could no longer
remain satisfied with the precarious living derived from the position of
a private teacher; and, obtaining the chair of physics in the central
school of the department of Aix, in the month of December, 1801, he
repaired to Bourg, with asad and sorrowful heart at the separation
from his family, being forced to leave his wife, then seriously ill, at
Lyons.

AMPERE’S MEMOIR ON PROBABILITIES.

The studies, plans, and investigations of M. Ampere up to this time
had never been given to the public, but remained confined to the limited
circle of a few friends.

It seems unnecessary to make any especial exception of the two man-
uscript memoirs addressed to the Academy of Lyons. Now, however,
the young savant began to reveal himself to the public, and, as might be
expected, the first occasion was the discussion of a complicated and
controverted question of most difficult solution.

The vast field of mathematics embraces on one side abstract theories,
and on the other their numerous applications. In the last form they
interest the generality of men in the highest degree; whom we see, in
all ages, seeking, suggesting, and proposing new applications, founded
on observations of natural phenomena or the necessities of every-day
life, thus giving the mere amateur the privilege of having his name hon-
orably inscribed on the records of science.

* Since dead,

122 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

Hiero, King of Syracuse, suspecting the honesty of a goldsmith, and
desiring, without injuring his crown, to determine the purity of the
gold, applied to Archimedes, who thus, through his instrumentality,
discovered the fundamental principle of hydrostatics, one of the most
brilliant discoveries of antiquity.

The curioso who asked, after having observed the seven bridges be-
tween the two branches of the river Pregel and the island of Kneiphof,
whether it were possible to cross them successively without passing
twice over the same, and he who wished to know how the knight could
move over the sixty-four squares of the chess-board without returning
twice to the same square, became involved in that geometry of position,
(glanced at by Leibnitz,) which never makes use of the magnitudes of
quantities.

Finally, the speculations of a gambler, belonging to the aristocratic
circles, the Chevalier de Méré, first aS RL in the reign of Louis
_ XIV, the calculation of probabilities, or at least directed toward it
the attention of Pascal and Fermat, two of the most esa
geniuses of whom France is so ARoeeil proud.

This last branch of applied mathematics, although called, by an illus-
trious geometer, ‘ common sense Feduced to calculation,” was not received
without: opposition.

Even now public opinion will scarcely admit that analytical formulas °
are capable of determining the secret of judiciary decisions; or of giv-
ing the comparative values of judgments pronounced by tribunals dif-
ferently constituted ; it unwillingly adopts, also, the numerical limits in
which have been included the mean result of several series of distinct
and more or less concordant observations. When there is a question
of an order of problems less subtile, all understanding play require
but the most ordinary intelligence to see at a glance that the aid of
algebra can here be satisfactorily called in, but even here are met,
in the details and applications, real difficulties, requiring the skill of
professional men.

Every one readily understands the danger, the stakes being equal,
of playing when the conditions of the game give to one greater chances
of winning; every one sees, too, at the first glance, that if the chances of
the two players are unequal, the stakes should be so too; that if the chances
of one, for example, are tenfold those of his adversary, the respective
stakes, the sums risked upon the game, should be in the proportion of
ten toone; that this exact proportionality of the stakes to the chances
is the necessary and characteristic rule, sufficient for all fair play.
There are cases, however, where, in spite of the observance of these
mathematical conditions, a prudent man would decline to play. Who,
for instance, with a million of chances against one in his favor, would
risk a million to gain one franc?

In order to explain this anomaly, this disagreement between the re-
sults of calculation and the inspirations of common sense, Buffon found

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 123

it would be necessary to add a new condition to the principles which
had seemed to satisfy all but himself. He referred to moral considera-
tions. He remarked that we could not, unless by instinct, prevent our-
selves from acknowledging the effects, the loss or profit attached to the
proposed games would have on our social position and habits; he ob-
served that an advantage derived from a benefit could not be measured
by the absolute value of that benefit, separated from the fortune to
which it was about to be added. The geometrical relation of the increase
of fortune to the primitive fortune seemed to him to lead to considera-
tions much more in accordance with our mode of life. By adopting
this rule you understand at once, for example, that with a million of favor-
able chances against one single adverse chance, no man, in the full
possession of his senses, would consent to play a million franes against
one.

The introduction of moral considerations into the mathematical theory
of play has undoubtedly detracted from its importance, its clearness, and
vigor. It should be regretted, then, that Buffon has used them to reach
the conclusion, given in these words: “A long series of chances, is a
fatal chain: whose prolongation leads to misery,” in less poetical terms,
a professional player ends in certain ruin?

This proposition is of the highest social importance, and Ampére was
anxious to demonstrate it without borrowing the conditions used by
the distinguished naturalist, and the not less celebrated Daniel Bernoulli.
Such was the principal object of the work, which appeared in Lyons in
1802, with the modest title of ‘Considérations sur la théorie mathémati-
que du jeu” — Reflections on the mathematical theory of chances,” in
which the author proves himself an ingenious and practiced calculator.
His formulas, full of elegance, lead to purely algebraic demonstrations
of theorems, seeming to require the application of the differential
analysis. The principal question, moreover, is found completely solved.
The course followed by Ampére is clear, methodical, and faultless.
He first established that, between two persons, equally rich, the mathe-
matical principle of Pascal and Fermat, the proportionality of the
stakes to the favorable chances should inevitably be the rule of the
game; that inequality of fortunes should give rise to no change in this
general rule when the players have decided to play but a limited num-
ber of games, so few that neither shall be exposed to the total loss of
all his fortune; that the question is changed if there should be an in-
definite number of games, and a possibility of continuing the play a
longer time, thus giving to the richer player an incontestable advant-
age, which rapidly increases, in proportion to the difference of fortunes.

The disadvantage of one of the players becomes immense if his ad-
versary be very much richer than he, which is always, and very evi-
dently, the case of the professional player, who plays with every one.
The whole number of players against whom he plays is to be considered
as one single individual endowed with an immense fortune. In games

124 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

where the chances are equal, and where skill is not required, the pro-
fessional player may be sure, in due time, of certain ruin—a fact estab-
lished beyond dispute by the formulas of Ampere.

The empty words “ good luck,” “chance,” “lucky star,” “lucky run,”
ean neither hasten nor retard the execution of a sentence pronounced in
the name of algebraic authority.

There is a school, calling itself the utilitarian, which has inscribed
on its banners three formidable words, A quoi bon? “Of what use ?”
and which, in its bitter warfare against what it calls material and intel-
lectual superfluities, would commit to the flames our fine libraries and
splendid museums, and reduce us to the necessity of eating acorns as
our fathers did. These adepts would now ask me, How many gamblers
have Ampére’s calculations reclaimed?

I confess now, in advance, with all humility, and without intending
to reflect upon the memory of our colleague, that the work just analyzed
in detail has not, perhaps, reclaimed one single individual infected
with the inveterate mania for play. The remedy has not taken effect;
but can it be proved it has often been applied? Have there ever been
professional players sufficiently versed in algebra to understand the
formulas of M. Ampére, and to appreciate their perfect accuracy? You
would be sadly mistaken, too, if you fancied that the certainty of losing
would deter every one from gambling. My doubt seems paradoxical,
certainly; I will endeavor to justify it.

Some y nik since in Paris, I made the acquaintance of a distinguished
foreigner, of great wealth, but in wretched health, whose life, save a few
hours given to repose, was regularly divided between the most interest-
ing scientific researches and gambling. It was a source of great regret
to me that this learned experimentalist should devote the half of so
-aluable a life to a course so little in harmony with an intellect whose
wonderful powers called forth the admiration of the world around him.
Unfortunately there occurred fluctuations of loss and gain, momentarily
balancing each other, which led him to conclude that the advantages
enjoyed by the bank were neither so assured nor considerable as to pre-
elude his winning largely through a run of luck. The analytical formu-
las of probabilities offering a radical means, the only one perhaps of
dissipating this illusion, I proposed, the number of the games and the
stakes being given, todetermine in advance, in my study, the amount, not
merely of the loss of a day, nor that of a week, but of each quarter.
The calculation was found so regularly to agree with the corresponding
diminution of the bank-notes in the foreigner’s pocket-book that a doubt
could no longer be entertained.

Did the learned gentleman renounce gambling forever? No, gentlemen;
for a fortnight only. He declared that my calculations had completely
convinced him; that he would no longer be the ignorant tributary
of the gaming-houses of Paris; that he would continue the same
kind of life, but without the mad excitement of hope and fear that led

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 125

him-on before. ‘TI shall no longer,” he added, “ be in ignorance of the
fact that the 50,000 frances of my fortune consecrated to play will pass
into other hands. I am resigned to it perfectly; but I shall no longer
be, in the eyes of the world, the dupe of an absurd delusion. I shall
continue to play, because the superfluous 50,000 frances expended in any
other way would be unable to excite in my feeble frame, undermined by
suffering, the lively sensations alone aroused by the various combina-
tions, fortunate and adverse, displayed every night on the green carpet!”

A little reflection will prove that these words are not a mere para-
phrase of the well-known witticism of a celebrated statesman: “After
the pleasure of winning, I know none so great as that of losing.”

It would be doing injustice to mathematical science if I attempted to
defend its formulas against the reproach of not having foreseen that
the passionate storms, resulting from play, which sweep the bosom would
not always prevail over the soft and touching gratification men of means
might daily enjoy in applying their wealth to the alleviation of human
misery. The passions, although of divine institution, as a woman of
the world once said, are so protean that it would be a vain effort on the
part of mathematics to entwine them in their regular and methodical
meshes. But, again, if science has failed in such a task, the misfortune
is shared by the dialectics of the moralist, the eloquence of the pulpit,
and even by the sweet persuasions of the poet. I have read somewhere
that Colbert on one occasion wished to dissuade the monarch whom he
had never failed to serve with devotion and ability from undertaking a
certain war. Boileau, promising to aid him in his effort, addressed to
Louis XIV that beautiful letter containing a seductive picture of the
delights of peace, and, among other remarkable passages, the lines on
the Emperor Titus, that live in the memory of every one:

Qui rendit de son joug univers amoureux ;
Quw’on n’alla jamais voir sans revenir heureux ;
Qui soupirait, le Soir, si sa main fortunée
N’avait par ses bienfaits signalé sa journée.

Who led the world captive, yet charmed with its chain,
From whom no one could part without joy in his breast,

Whose evenings were saddened and shadowed with pain,
When closing a day that his hand had not blest.

These lines touched the heart of the king. He caused them to be

read aloud to him three times, then ordered his horse to be saddled, and
straightway joined the army.

AMPERE’S POETICAL COMPOSITIONS.

Ampere composed, in his early youth a tragedy on the death of Han-
nibal, in which are to be found some excellent poetry and the noblest
sentiments. I must add here, that during his sojourn in the principal
town of the department of Ain, his mind was not so completely ab-
sorbed in science, that he could give no time to the study of literature

126 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

and the higher kinds of poetry. Take for example a letter handed to
me recently, by our learned colleague M. Isidore Geoffroy, from Bourg,
and read by him, the 26th germinal, year XI, before the Emulation
Seciety of Ain, beginning thus:

Vous voulez, done, belle Emilie,
Que de Gresset ou d’ Hamilton
Dérobant le leger crayon,

J’ailie chercher dans ma folie,

Sur les rosiers de ’Hélicon,

Sil reste encor quelque bouton

De tant de fleurs qu’ils ont cueillies;
Souvent mes tendres réveries, ete.

Then, wouldst thou, fairest Emily,
Have me steal the pencil free
Of Gresset or of Hamilton;
And wend my way to Helicon,
To see if on the rose trees there
Some buds remain, they well could spare
From all the flowers they have culled
To glean some bud they well could spare
To be for thy soft bosom pulled.

I am not sure that the beautiful Emily was not one of those imagi-
nary beings so lavishly invested by poets with perfections of their own
creation; but the friends of Ampere will remember that the eminently
good, beautiful and distinguished woman, who had united her destiny
with his, had often inspired his muse; many will recall some lines,
whose first appearance excited no little sensation ;

Que j’aime 4 m’égarer dans ces routes fleuries,
Ou je t’ai vue errer sous un dais de Lilas;

Que jaime a répéter aux nymphes attendries,
Sur Vherbe ot tu t’assis, les vers que tu chantas.
* * * * * * *

Les voila ces jasmins dont je t’avais parée,
Ce bouquet de troéne a touché tes cheveux, etc.

’Tis sweet my wandering steps to lose
Along the path of flowers,

Where lighter feet were wont to choose,
Their way mid lilac bowers:

And on the turf that thou hast prest,
To breathe forth once again,

The song that made the wood nymphs blest,
Thine own enchanting strain.

They lie around, those jasmins fair
With which I deck’d thy brow;

That privet, it hath touched thy hair,
To me ’tis sacred now.

A certain mathematician once made the sad mistake of publishing
some verses, faultless as to measure and rhyme, but without other
merit. A witty lady, hearing them read, remarked that the author
of the lines, after the example of M. Jourdain, wrote prose without
knowing it. Many writers, called poets, though never having passed
through a course of geometry, have fallen into the same error. A
satirical remark, however, cannot revive the so often silenced question
of the chilling influences of scientific studies. Such names as those of

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 5 bya 7

Plato, Lucretius, Descartes, Pascal, Haller, Voltaire, and of J. J. Rous-
seau, effectually settle it; and should the discussion be ever renewed,
Ampére’s letter, several lines of which I have just quoted, could be
cited with advantage, and his name added to the distinguished list.

You may think, perhaps, gentlemen, and not without reason, that I
have lingered too long over the poetical works of Ampere. I would
like to remind you of the four lines, not more, addressed to the cele-
brated Ninon de V’Enclos by the great geometer Huygens, and so
uncharitably revived by literary writers. The law of retaliation
authorizes me to contrast, with this unlucky quatrain, the scientific
errors of different poets. Boileau might figure in our polemics, if we
thought it advisable, as but a sorry votary of the learned Urania,
proved by these two lines from his Satire on Women:

Que Vastrolabe en main, une autre aille chercher,
Si le soliel est fixe ow tourne sur SON AXE—

*‘ Let another try to discover, with the astrolabe in hand, whether the
sun is fixed or whether it turns on its axis.”

The worthy Abbé Delille did not prove himself more orthodox, when
he attributes, in a passage in his inaugural, the more brilliant coloring,
rapid growth, and greater fragrance of the tropical productions to the
fact that the Sun warms them from a nearer point.

This remarkable instance of scientific knowledge is worthy of being
ranked with that conveyed in the line of a man, who surely had never
doubled Cape Horn, nor even read Cook’s voyages ; a line which should
have suggested to the writer to knock from beneath him the Parnas-
sian ladder —

From the frozen to the burning pole!

But it seems to me, gentlemen, that within these walls instead of
looking for poets who are not savants, it would be better to cite savants
who have been something of poets.

AMPERE, SUMMONED TO PARIS, BECOMES TUTOR, AND AFTERWARDS
PROFESSOR OF ANALYSIS, AT THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL.

Lalande and Delambre were delighted with the analytical work of
the young professor of Bourg on the calculation of probabilities ; they
summoned him to Paris, and gave him the position of tutorin the Poly-
technic School, where he acquitted himself with great credit, but not
without encountering many trials, results of the retired life he had pre-
viously led. Badly advised by friends ignorant of the customs of the
place, Ampere made his appearance before his classes, in a school almost
military, dressed in a fashionable black coat, miserably made by
one of the most unskillful tailors of the capital; and for several weeks
this unlucky garment was a source of such distraction to more than a
hundred young men that they were unable to attend to the treasures of
science falling from the lips of the savant.

128 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

Tne tutor, fearing the characters on the black-board are not sufficient-
ly distinct to be seen by the more distant members of the class, very
naturally endeavors to remedy the evil by increasing their size. In
the discussion which usually follows the lesson, with the young men
gathered around him, several of them, in a spirit of mischief, exagger-
ating their want of sight, induce the benevolent professor to increase
the size of the figures by degrees, until the immense black-board, far
from affording room for intricate calculations, can scarcely give place to
a few figures.

Absorbed finally in the elucidation of a difficult theory, in the heat of
demonstration he mistakes the rubber covered with chalk for his hand-
kerchief. The.account of this certainly very innocent mistake, amplified
and magnified, passes from rank to rank, until, when he appeared again
before them, he was no longer the learned analyst of their admiration,
but the innocent object of their mirth; his moments of abstraction, so
eagerly watched for, being but signals for ridicule too long anticipated
to be willingly relinquished. et

You now know, gentlemen, the rocks upon which the knowledge and
zeal of the worthy professor were so often wrecked.

PSYCHOLOGY, METAPHYSICS, AMPERE’S PASSION FOR THEM.

At the same time as geometrician and metaphysician, Ampere,
from his first arrival in Paris, moved in two distinct societies; the only
feature of resemblance being the celebrity of their members. In one.
were to be found the first-class of the ancient Institute, the professors
and examiners of the Polytechnic school, and the professors of tbe col-
lege of France. In the other, Cabanis, Destutt de Tracy, Maine de
Biran, Degérando, Xe.

Here the effort was to fathom and analyze the mysteries of the mind.
There this mind, in such measure as nature has bestowed it, and as edu-
cation has improved and enlarged it, was each day producing new
marvels. The psychologists sought the paths that lead to discovery ;
the geometers, chemists, and physicists were actually making discover-
ies. Without devoting too much time to the manner in which it was
done, they discovered sometimes the analytical formule now actually
including the laws of the movements of the stars; sometimes the sub-
tilerules of molecular actions, which, while giving‘us the clue to the causes
of a great number of natural phenomena, throw light upon the operations
of art, and developed national wealth. They made themselves mas-
ters finally, ofthe new properties of light, electricity and magnetism, which
have given so much brilliancy to the first years of this century. Vibrat-
ing between these two schools, ifthe term may be allowed, Ampére’s ar-
dent imagination daily endured the severest trials. I am not able to
say, with any certainty, how the exact sciences were regarded by meta-
physicians; but I know that geometers and chemists held in very slight
esteem, investigations purely psychological.

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 129

This error, for [ am very much inclined to believe this was an error,
will be somewhat lessened in the eyes of those who will take into con-
sideration that in metaphysics every thing is connected, linked and
bound together like the meshes of the most delicate tissue, in such a
manner that a principal cannot be detached from the whole number of
definitions, observations, and hypotheses from which it emanates, with-
out losing most of its apparent importance and perspicuity. When
Ampére, still warmly excited by the conferences he had just held with
the psychologists, strove madly, I mean without preparation, to hurl
Pémesthese, for example, into the midst of a reunion of geometers, phy-
sicists, and naturalists, when still under the influence of his enthusiasm,
he maintained that an obscure word, or at least one not understood, con-
tained the most beautiful discovery of the century, was it not natural
he should encounter skeptics? This would have been of no conse-
quence if the extreme amiability of our associate had not allowed the
skeptics whose role is to ridicule, to usurp the place of those whose
doubts were serious,

I find in the manuscript correspondence, to which I have access
through M. Bredin, that Ampére had contemplated while in Paris the
publication of a book which he intended to call “ Introduction io Phil-
osophy.”

The famous anathema of Napoleon against ideology did not disceur-
age him; it seemed to him rather to contribute to the propagation of
this kind of studies than to its suppression. Our associate continued
to elaborate his Theory of Relations, his Theory of Existence, of Subjec-
tive and Objective Knowledge, and of Absolute Morality.

He considered himself incapable of throwing sufficient light on sub-
jects so difficult to treat without submitting them to animated verba
discussions. Unfortunately the so ardently desired opportunities were
not to be found in Paris at that time. Maine de Biron had returned to
Berjerac, and among the remaining inhabitants of that immense capital,
not one seemed to feel any interest, from a metaphysical point of view,
in subjective, objective, and absolute morality. Ampére then turned
his eyes in the direction of the friends of his youth, and resolved to re-
turn for a short time to Lyons. The terms of the visit were strictly
arranged; a certainty of at least four afternoons a week devoted to dis-
cussions on ideology, a formal promise that each day should be read
and examined with a view to correction in composition and perspicuity,
the subjects of each day’s study. Although I have not at hand the text
of the repliesreceived by Ampére I haveevery reason to believe they were
far from giving him satisfaction. ‘‘ How wonderful is the science of psy-
chology !” he wrote to M. Bredin, ‘‘ and most unhappily for me, you no
longer feel an interest in it, is it necessary, besides to deprive me of ail
earthly consolation, he said, to know we no longer sympathize on meta-
physical subjects. * * * About the only thing which interests me,

Is

Le EULOGY ON. AMPERE.

you no longer think as Ido. * * * This creates a frightful void in
my soul.”

Ampére’s friends in Lyons had found his psychology somewhat dry
and minute. They tried to induce bim to return to the exact sciences,
but our associate replied to them in a lyrical strain, “‘ How can I abandon
a country full of flowers and fresh, running waters; how give up streams
and groves for deserts scorched by the rays of a mathematical sun,
which, diffusing over all surrounding objects the most brilliant light,
withers and dries them down to the very roots? * * * How much
more agreeable to wander under flitting shades than walk in straight
paths, where the eye embraces ail at a glance, and where nothing seems
to fly before us to incite us to pursue !”

It was my desire to seek the fresh groves discovered by Ampere and
to try to persuade you to enter them with me; but, alas! accustomed
by your advice and example to prize above all things in matters of sci-
ence, straight and well-lighted paths, my dazzled eyes found but pro-
found darkness where the piercing eyes of our ingenious friend were
privileged to see brilliant semi-tints. Without the guide of Ariadne’s clue
it would be in vain to attempt Ampere’s manuscripts, I should be afraid, I
must acknowledge, of being forced, as Voltaire was formerly, to place atthe
end of each metaphysical proposition the two letters N. L., traced by the
style of the Roman magistrate, when the cases seemed too obscure to
allow a well-grounded judgment. But non liquet, (it is not clear,) too fre-
quently repeated, in spite of perfect sincerity, would have worn an air
of affected modesty to be avoided at any price.

Is my extreme diffidence to be condemned? It would not be difficult
to justify it by pointing alone to the arrogant contempt each psychologi-
cal school casts upon its rival, and that through the organ of its most
eloquent propagandists.

Listen to what I will read to you from the lectures of one of its most
celebrated teachers, Laromiguiere, ‘* What is a science which has
neither fixed nor invariable methods; which changes its nature and its
form at the will of those who profess it? What is a science which is
no longer to-day what it was yesterday; which by turns boasts as its
oracles Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Locke, Leibnitz, and so many others
Whose doctrines and methods seem to have nothing in common? Ina
word, what is a science, not only whose existence, but whose possibility
is questioned ?”

But Ampere bespoke in advance all my reserve when he exclaimed,
These last have only uttered what is eminently just and true, when in
comparing the true metaphysicians of the schools of Kant and Schel-
ling with the followers of Reid and Dugald Stewart, they said, the last
are to the first what good cooks are to chemists.

I will leave to the most competent judges of future times to assign to
Ampére a place amongst psychologists. Nevertheless, I may now affirm
that the wonderful powers of penetration and the rare faculty of reach-

EULOGY ON AMPERE. St

ing wide generalizations from minute detail must have distinguished
his metaphysical researches, since it shone with such brillianey in
works on physical mathematics the most solid, or, if you prefer, the
most generally recognized and the most indisputable foundation of his
scientific fame at the present day. Ampere, in metaphysics, as nearly as
the subject would permit, approximated to the experimental method. It
certainly is not from his mouth that proceeded those incredible words
attributed to a psychologist, *‘ I despise you as I do a fact.”

He, on the contrary, held facts in the highest favor. Heshowed great
fertility in combining them with his theories. When, though rarely his
efforts in this line were fruitless, theories were immediately changed or
abandoned. Amongst my hearers there are probably some to whom
these words will recall both the first ideas of our associate on the instinct
of animals and the manner in which he modified them. The circum-
stances of this sudden change seem to merit being preserved.

Among the most prominent of the many vexed metaphysical ques-
tions is, whether animals possess the powers of reasoning. or are solely
guided by instinet—a question which will, perhaps, be better understood
by presenting it in these terms: Must we, with Aristotle, concede only
feeling and memory to the brute creation? Is it true they are without
the faculty of comparing their actions and drawing conclusions? Am-
pere, avowing himself on this point a decided peripatetic, in the pres-
ence of several of his friends, one of them related, in opposition to his
views, the following anecdote: |

“ Being overtaken one night, not far from Montpelier, by a violent
storm, I took refuge in an inn, in the first village I found on my road.
The death of a lean chicken was the immediate result of this unex-
pected visit. The cook, placing the almost fleshless fowl on the spit
immediately tried to seize a terrier, which, when introduced into a
rotatory drum of quite large dimensions, under the mantel-piece, was to
perform the office of moving the combinations of weights, springs, and
cogged wheels now found in the humblest kitchen, but then, in the
center of France, a great rarity. The terrier absolutely refused to per-
form the duty assigned him; he would yield neither to blows, threats,
nor caresses. So much firmness, resolution, and courage attracting my
attention, I inquired if the poor beast were making his first trial.
Poor beast! some one replied, ill-naturedly and roughly, he does not
_ deserve your pity, on my faith; for such scenes take place every day.
Do you know why this jine gentleman refuses to turn the spit? Because
he has decided, in his head, that he and his comrade must divide the
labors of roasting exactly regularly between them. I now remem-
ber he was the last to turn the spit, and he now concludes this is not his
turn to work.

“The words, tt is not his turn now, seemed to me to include a world of
meaning. At my request the stable-boy was sent into the street to
fetch the second dog. This one showed the most exemplary docility ;

1352 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

the rotatory drum received him, and he would soon have finished the
task if, wishing to complete the experiment, I had not caused him to be
removed in order to give the refractory dog a new trial. The refractory
dog, whose turn had now come, obeyed the first signal of the cook, entered
the rustic turn-spit without resistance, and went to work like a squirrel in
its cage.

‘Does it not follow from this, my dear Ampere, that dogs can have
the consciousness of the just and the unjust, leading them to lay out a
rule for themselves, and to endure corporal punishment rather than
allow any violation of it?”

Ampére’s features so keenly expressed the interest he took in the
recital that you might have fancied he was about to exclaim with Lae-
tance, ‘“‘ Except in matters of religion, the brute creation share all the
advantages of the human race.” However, our associate did not press
the matter as far as the Christian Cicero. While modifying his former
views on instinct, he merely admitted that animated beings, taken in
the aggregate, exhibit every possible degree of intelligence, from the
lowest up to that which, to adopt the expression of Voltaire, might in-
spire with jealousy the familiars of Jove himself.

I shall not leave this subject without giving another example to show,
in spite of his extreme animation in discussion in the inain, how
true and tolerant Ampere was, and how free from the malevolent pas-
sions that unconceived ideas and conceit usually bring in their train.
In some manuscript notes of a professor of Lyons, M. Bredin, with
whom Ampére studied the metaphysical doctrine of the absolute, I find
these exact words: ‘Very animated discussions daily arose between us,
and in them originated that holy and indissoluble friendship which hus so
jirmly united us.”

A writer of romance would fancy he was doing violence to proba-
bility by placing friendship among the possible consequences of heated
discussions. A presumption so unparalleled could only be tolerated in
the land of fable.

MATHEMATICAL LABORS OF AMPERE.

Such a man as Ampére often puts the self-love of his biographer to a
severe trial. I was obliged just now to shrink from psychological
researches whose importance and depth I could not reach; and here
again I am forced to confess that an intelligible analysis, in common
language, of the works of our associate on pure mathematics, is beyond ~
my powers. Nevertheless, as in these works figure the memoirs
which, after the death of Lagrange in 1813, opened the doors of the
Academy to our friend, they ought tg be mentioned, if only by their
titles.

The adventurous mind of Ampére was always fond of questions that
the fruitless efforts of twenty centuries had pronounced insoluble; he
was never happier, if I may be allowed the expression, than when

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 133

upturning the principles of science. I must acknowledge I was not a
little astonished not to find him struggling with the quadrature of the
circle. This inexplicable hiatus, in the youth of our associate, has just
been filled. A manuscript note from the secretary of the Academy of
Lyons apprises me that, on the 8th of July, 1788, Ampére, then thir-
teen years of age, addressed to that learned body a paper relating to
the celebrated problem just mentioned. Later during the same year
he submitted to the examination of his compatriots an analogous memoir,
entitled “ The rectification of any are of a circle less than the semi-circum-
ference.” These memoirs have not reached us. If the manuscript note
sent to me can be relied upon, young Ampere, not only did not think
the problem insoluble, but flattered himself he had almost solved it.
Scruples, respected by me without being shared, demanded the sacri-
fice of this anecdote. It certainly would have been a very small sacri-
fice, but I did not consider it consistent with my duty to make it. The
scientific weaknesses of men of a very high order of intellect are lessons
quite as useful and profitable as their successes, and the biographer has
no right to cover them with a vail. Is it quite certain, too, that there is
anything here to excuse or conceal; that a geometer need biush for
efforts made in his childhood, or even at a riper age, to square the cir-
cle geometrically ?. To sustain, however, such a proposition, we have
only to recall the fact that antiquity presents to us, as deeply engaged
in this problem, Anaxagoras, Meton, Hippocrates, Archimedes, and
Apollonius; and to these we may add the modern names of Snellius,
Huygens, Gregory, Wallis and Newton; and, finally, that amongst those
whose sagacity the quadrature of the circle has set at defiance—I mean
who have been involved by it in palpable errors there are many who
have, in other respects, rendered genuine service to science ; for example
J. B. Porta, the inventor of the camera-obscura; then Grégoire de
Saint Vincent, the Jesuit, to whom we owe the discovery of the won-
derful properties of hyperbolic spaces terminated by asymptotes; Lon-
gomontanus, the astronomer, &ce., &e.

If your mind is engrossed with the idea that, in order to justify their
efforts to square the circle, others will cite hereafter, to their advan-
tage, the attempts of a child of thirteen, I reply unhesitatingly—for my
academic duties bring me frequently in and personal relations with the
squarers of the circle—that authorities have absolutely.no weightin their
eyes; that they have long since entirely separated themselves from every-
thing that bears or has borne the nameof geometer; that Euclid himself,
in his principal theorems—for example, that of the square of the hypothe-
neuse—seems to them scarcely worthy of trust. If a mania—I was on
the point of saying a furor which manifests itself especially in spring,
as proved by experience—could@ ever be amenable to logic, it would be
necessary, in order to battle it successfully, to distinguish more carefully
than has ever yet been done the various aspects under which the prob-
lem of the quadrature of the circle ought to be considered. An example

134 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

of cure under my own eyes might give me some confidence in this mode
of treatment.

The first, according to date, of all the mathematical memoirs of Am-
pere, printed after his arrival in Paris, relates to a question of elemen-
tary geometry. This memoir, presented to the Academy of Lyons in
1801, appeared in the publication of the correspondence of the Polytech-
nic School in the month of July, 1806. A few words will saffice to de-
scribe the end Ampére proposed to himself.

There is in elementary geometry a proposition so evident that it may
properly be regarded as an axiom. It is this:

If two lines situated in the same plane are parallel, or, in other words,
if, prolonged indefinitely, can never meet ; and if a third line, forming an
angle at any point with the first of the two parallels, be indefinitely ex-
tended from the point of intersection, it will cut the second. No one can
feel a doubt about this theorem, although all the efforts of the most cele-
brated geometers, the Euclids, the Lagranges, the Legendres, We., toadd
to its natural evidence by way of demonstration, properly so-called, have
been fruitless.

The geometry of solid bodies, had offered, up to the present time, a
proposition whose truth was quite as evident, and that, nevertheless,
had never been demonstrated. I refer to the equality of volume of sym-
metrical polyhedrons. Two oblique polyhedrons have the same base
situated on a horizontal plane; one is entirely above the plane, the
other entirely below. Their faces are similar and of the same length ;
moveover, their inclinations correspond exactly to a common base. To
give the same idea in different words—one of the two polyhedrons being
considered as an object, the other would be its image reflected on the
plane of the common base, if that plane were a mirror.

The object of Ampére’s treatise is to demonstrate the equality of these
two polyhedrons; and it can be affirmed that, on this point, in the sci-
ence of geometry there is nothing more to desire.

In 1803 M. Ampere addressed to the institute a very finished worls,
which, however, was not given to the public until much later, (1808,)
entitled “ Treatise on the advantages to be derived, in the theory of curves,
From due consideration of osculatcry parabolas.” We also find a treatise by
Ampere dated the 26th florial year 11 which was published in the first
volume of the collection of the foreign savants of the Academy of
Sciences. This is its title ‘ Investigations on the application of the gen-
eral formulas of the valculus of variations to problems in mechanics.”

The formulas of equilibrium, given by the immortal author of ana-
lytical mechanics, have a form analogous to that of the equations that
the calculus of variations furnishes for the determination of the max-
imaand minima of integral formulas. Ampere thought that this simili-
tude of form, previously noticed by Lagrange, would afford him the
means of avoiding, in the solution of questions in statics, the trouble-
some integration by parts. The analogy is not as complete as-might be

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 135

thought at first sight. The ordinary formulas require to, be changed
in order to be used in the solution of problems of méchanics. Ampére -
gives these transformations and applies them to the ancient problem of
the catenary.

This problem, which consisted in determining the curve formed by an
inextensible chain of uniform weight when attached to two fixed points,
is famous under more than one name. Galileo tried, ineffectually, to
solve it. His conjecture that the curve sought might be a parabola,
was found false, in spite of all the paralogisms accumulated by Péres
Pardies, and de Lamis to prove its accuracy to the singular adver-
sary who brought to oppose them proofs from mechanics. In 1691
Jaques Bernoulli challenged the scientific world with the same problem.
Only three geometers had the courage to take up the gauntlet—Leib-
nitz, Huygens, and Jean Bernoulli, who, we may remark in passing, at
this time, evinced the first symptoms of his jealousy of his master, bene-
factor, and brother; thus demonstrating that the love of fame is capa-
ble of becoming the most ungovernable, most unjust, and blindest of
the passions. The four illustrious geometers were not content to give
the true differential equation of the curve; they also pointed out the
consequences deduced from it. Everything now seemed to authorize
the belief that the subject was exhausted; but this was a mistake. The
treatise of Ampére contaius, in fact, new and very remarkable properties
of the catenary and its development. There is no small merit, gentlemen,
in discovering hiatuses in subjects explored by such men as Leibnitz,
Huggens, and the two Bernoullis. I must not forget to add that the
analysis of our associate unites elegance with simplicity. Ampere
gave, moreover, 2 new demonstration of the celebrated mathematical
relation known as Taylovr’s theorem, and calculated the finite expression,
neglected when the series are arrested at any term whatsoever.

Called to the chair of mathematics at the polytechnic school, Ampere
could not fail to seek a demonstration of the principle of virtual veloci-
ties, disengaged from the consideration of infinitesimals. Such is the
object of a treatise published in 1806, in the thirteenth number of the
journal of the school.

Whilst candidate for the position left vacant by the death of La-
grange in 1813, Ampere presented to the academy, first: General con-
siderations on the integrals of equations of partial differences; and
afterwards, an application of these considerations to the integration of dif-
ferential equations of the first and second order. These two treatises give
superabundant proof that analysis, in its most difficult form, was per-
fectly familiar to him.

Ampere was not inactive after becoming a member of the academy ;
he busied himself with the application of analysis to the physical
sciences. Amongst these productions we may cite:

1. Demonstration of the laws of mariotre, read at the academy Jan-
uary 24, 1814.

136 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

2. Demonstrations of a new theory, from which can be deduced all the
laws of refraction, ordinary and extraordinary ; read at the academy
March 27, 1815.

3. A memoir on the determination of the curved surfaces of luminous
avaves in a medium whose elasticity differs in three dimensions ; read at the
Academy of Sciences August 26, 1828.

AMPERE’S RESEARCHES IN THE SCIENCE OF ELECTRO-DYNAMICS.

Amongst the works of our friend there is one which excels all the oth-
ers ; it constitutes, in itself, a beautiful science, and its name, ‘“ Electro-
dynamics,” will ever be inseparably linked with that of Ampére. Instead
of presenting to your thoughts twenty different subjects in succession,
permit me to concentrate them for a time on the vast and teeming con-
ception of our friend, happy if I succeed in disengaging it from any
appearance of obscurity and ambiguity it may have presented up to
this time, and thus show the elevated rank which will entitle it,
with the most beautiful discoveries of the age, to the gratitude of pos-
terity. While so many of the ancient and modern sciences were making
rapid and momentous progress, the science of magnetism had remained
almost stationary. We have known that, for centuries at least, bars ot
iron, and more especially of steel, freely supported, turn toward the
north. This curious property has given us the two Americas, Austra-
lia, the numerous archepelagoes, and the hundreds of isolated islands of
Oceanica, &e.; it is to it this, in cloudy and foggy weather, the mariner,
plowing the mighty oceans, has recourse, to guide and direct his ship;
no truth in physics has had results so colossal. Nevertheless, until the
present time, nothing had been discovered regarding the nature of the
peculiar modification undergone by a bar of neutral steel during the
mysterious—I had almost said, cabalistic—operations which transform
it into a magnet.

The whole phenomena of magnetism, the diminution, the destruction,
the inversion of the polarity of the needle of the compass, occasioned
sometimes on ships by violent discharges of lightning, seemed to estab-
lish some intimate connection between magnetism and electricity. Nev-
ertheless, the labors, ad hoc, undertaken at the request of several acad-
emies inorder to develop and strengthen this analogy, led to so few
decisive results that we read, in a programme by Ampére himself, printed
in 1802:

“The professor will demonstrate that the electrical and magnetic phe-
nomena are owing to two different fluids, which act independently of
each other.”

Sciences had reached this point when, in 1819, the Danish physicist,
(Ersted, announced to the learned world a fact, wonderful in itself, but—
more so especially from the consequences deduced from it; a fact the
memory of which will be transmitted from age to age, as long as science is

EULOGY ON AMPERE. aS o7/

honored amongstmen. I will try to give a clear and exact idea of this
most important discovery.

The voltaic pile is terminated at its extremities, or, if you prefer as
an expression more suitable, at its two poles by two dissimilar metals.
Let us suppose, for example, the elements of this wonderful apparatus
to be copper and zinc; if the copper is at one of the poles the zine
will inevitably be at the other. The battery, with the exception of some
slight traces of tension, is, or at least seems to be, completely inert as long
as the extreme poles are not put into communication by means of a sub-
stance conductive of electricity. A metallic wire is generally used to
connect the two poles of the battery, or, which amounts to the same
thing, to put the app aratus in action. This wire is then called the con-
junctive wire.

A current of electricity passes along the whole length of the con-
ductor, and circulates uninterruptedly through the closed circuit, result-
ing from the union of the wire and the battery. If the battery is very
powerful, the current will be equally so.

Physicists had for a long time known how to impart to an insulated
metallic wire a large quantity of electricity in repose, or electricity of ten-
sion, as it is calledin treatises on physics; they also know how to trans-
mit electricity along wires not insulated in very large quantities ; but in
this case the passage was sudden and instantaneous. The first means
of combining intensity with duration in currents of electricity is fur-
nished by the galvanic battery, with which a discharge, more powerful
than could be produced by the largest ancient machines for the millionth
part of a second, is here given for hours together. Does the con-
junctive wire, the wire along which a quantity of electricity passes un-
interruptedly, acquire, in consequence of this movement, any new prop-
erties? To this question the experiment of Cirsted replies affirmatively
in the most striking manner.

Let us place a wire of a certain length, of copper, silver, platina, or
any other metal without appreciable magnetic action, above a horizontal
compass, and parallel to its needle. The presence of the wire will have
no effect. Make no change in the first arrangement, but join, either
directly or by intermediary long or short wires, the two extremities of
the parallel wire to the two poles of a voltaic pile; or in this way let
us transform the insulated wire into a conjunctive wire, along which a
permanent current of electricity passes, and at that very instant the
needle of the compass will change its direction; if the battery be feeble
the deviation will be inconsiderable; but if the battery be very strong,
notwithstanding the action of the earth, the magnetic needle will form
an angle of nearly 90° with its natural position.

I have supposed the conducting wire above the magnetic needle,
placed below the phenomenon would be the same with regard to quantity,
qut exactly opposite as to the direction of the deviation. The conjunce-
tive wire above would impel the north pole of the needle toward the

138 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

west; the deviation would be toward the east when, the conditions
being the same, the wire is below. It is necessary to remark here that
the wire preserves absolntely none of that deviating power the moment
it ceases to be a conducting wire, or to join the two poles of the battery.
It would indicate a total want of scientific perception not to understand
how extraordinary and important are the results I have just announced;
not to observe with surprise an imponderable fluid imparting for the
moment to the slender wire along which it passes, properties so powerful.

These properties, studied in their specific characters, are not less
wonderful. ‘

Even a child knows it would be useless to try to turn a horizontal
lever around a pivot on which its center rests by pushing or pulling it
lengthways—I mean, following the line leading to the center of rota.
tion. The force must necessarily be transverse. The perpendicular to
the length of the lever is, no matter in what direction, that which
requires the least force to create a given movement. The experiment
of M. Girsted is directly opposed so these elementary rules of mechanies.

Please then to remember, when the forces developed by the passage
of the electrical current in each point of the conducting wire are found
to correspond vertically with the axis of the needle itself, either above
or below, the deviation is at its maximum. The needle remains at rest,
on the contrary, when the wire is presented to it in a direction nearly
perpendicular.

Such is the strangeness of these facts that, in order to explain them,
various physicists have had recourse to a continued flow of electrical
matter circulating round the conducting wire at right angles to it, and
producing the deviations of the needle by way of impulse. This was
nothing less, on a small scale, than the famous. vortices contrived by
Descartes to account for the general movement of tke planets around
the sun. Thus a physical theory which had been abandoned for more
than two centuries was recalled by the discovery of Cirsted.

We have already mentioned the important remark of the celebrated
Danish physicist, that the deviations of the needle of a horizontal
compass approach nearer and nearer 90 degrees in proportion to the
increase of the power of the battery during the connection of the two
poles by the wire. Feeble batteries, on the contrary, produce only
scarcely sensible movements. What is the part played by that myste-
rious power, seeming to reside in the arctic regions of the globe, to at-
tract magnetic bodies in a certain way, and repel others?) What part
does it pefform in lessening the deviations when the battery has little
power?

Ampere perceived the importance of this question at the very first
glance ; he saw it was not a mere nice and subtle refinement without
bearing; he understood that the solution of the problem would stamp
with characteristic features the forces brought into play by the experi-
ment of Girsted; but how getrid of the attraction of the earth; how

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 139

eliminate it; how intercept it? I see some smile at my question, and
hear them exclaim, Do not mariners cover with pieces of canvas or pea-
jackets the iron cannon in the neighborhood of the compass, when-
ever they wish to obtain exactness in their bearings? Screens, then,
ought effectually to furnish the means of protecting the needle from
terrestrial magnetism. As to that, a glass sphere, inclosing the com-
pass, would answer.

A single word will dispel this illusion. No substance, thick or
thin, has yet been discovered through which magnetic action, like that
of gravity, does not exert its full force, without any abatement. The
custom of covering cannon, balls, and anchors, with sails, tarred or un-
tarred, or with anything else, to prevent their action on the compass,
belongs to the thousand and one usages recorded in treatises on naviga-
tion before science had diffused its light around it. Even when ex-
posed, such usages diffuse and perpetuate themselves, and are the blind
powers which govern the world. The researches of Ampere did not abso
utely require (which, in fact, would have been an impossibility) that his
apparatus should be completely free from the attraction of the earth; it
was sufficient that this attraction should not counteract the movement
of the needle; and this simple reflection became the ray of light that
guided the illustrious physicist, and gave rise to a kind of compass
never before thought of.

To understand the invention of Ampere by which a magnetic needle
could be so arranged as to be free to obey the action of a galvanic cur-
rent, and undisturbed by the magnetism of the earth, suppose an ordi-
nary dipping-needle apparatus so placed that its graduated circle shall
be perpendicular to the magnetic meridian of the place, and then so
inclined to the horizon that the graduated circle and the needle within
it shall be at right angles to the direction of the magnetic dip of the
place where the experiment is made. In this condition the magnetism
of the earth will act perpe ndicular to the direction of the needle and be
opposed by the pivot on which the lower point of the axis rests. It will
therefore be free to take any position in the plane of the divided circle
which an extraneous force may give it. Ampere was therefore quite
right in calling his new instrument an astatic compass.

Ampére’s astatic needle, placed before a conducting wire, takes a
direction exactly perpendicular to that wire, neither one second more nor
less; and, a very remarkable circumstance, avery feeble electricity pro-
duces as much effect as a current of sufficient intensity to reduce metals
to a state of incandescence. Here, then, is one of those simple laws that
science loves to record, and the mind receives with confidence, and be-
fore which false theories will inevitably disappear.

The discovery of Girsted reached Paris through Switzerland. At our
weekly meeting on Monday, September 11, 1820, a member of the
academy from Geneva repeated before you the experiment of the Dan-
ish savant. Seven days later, on the 18th of September, Ampére pre-

140 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

sented to you a much more general fact than that of the physicist of
Copenhagen.

In that short interval of time he had conjectured that two connecting
wires, two wires traversed by electrical currents, would act on each
other; he had devised extremely ingenious arrangements to make these
wires movable without the necessity of detaching the extremities of
each from the respective poles of their batteries. He had embodied
these conceptions in instruments capable of acting; he had, in fact,
reduced his wonderful idea to a decisive experiment. I do not know
whether the vast field of physics ever exhibited so beautiful a dis-
covery conceived and consummated with so much rapidity.

This brilliant discovery of Ampere may be summed up in these words:
Two parallel connecting wires attract each other when the electricity
traverses them in the same direction ; on the contrary, they repel each
other when the electric currents move in opposite directions.

The connecting wires of two batteries similarly placed, of two bat-
teries whose copper and zine poles respectively correspond always,
then attract each other. There is in the same way always repulsion be-
tween the connecting wires of two batteries when the zine pole of one
is opposite the copper pole of the other.

It is not a necessary condition of these singular attractions and re-
pulsions that the wires in operation should belong to two different bat-
teries.’ By bending and rebending a single connecting wire such an
arrangement may be made that two of its portions, opposite to each
other, may be traversed by the electrical current either in the same or
in opposite directions. The phenomena, then, are absolutely identical
with those which result from currents proceeding from two distinct
sources.

The phenomena of Cirsted, from their origin, had been called, very
appropriately, electro-magnetic. To those of Ampere, in which the
magnet plays no distinct part, the more general name of electro-dyna-
mics has been applied.

The experiments of the French savant did not escape at first those
criticisms which envy reserves for all things possessing novelty, im-
portance, and a future. Men were unwilling to see in the attractions
and repulsions of these currents anything more than a hardly appre-
ciable modification of the ordinary electrical attractions and repulsions
known since the time of Dufay. On this point the replies of our friend
were prompt and decisive.

Bodies similarly electrified repel each other; similar currents attract
each other. Bodies in an opposite condition of electricity attract each
other; unlike currents repel each other.

Two bodies similarly electrified repel each other from the moment of
contact ; two wires traversed by similar currents remain together like
two magnets, if brought into contact.

No subterfuge in the world could resist this close argumentation.

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 14t

Another class of critics embarrassed our associate more seriously.
These last acted apparently in a charitable spirit. To believe them, they
jnvoked with all their hearts, but without hope, the solution of a great
difficulty ; it pained them deeply, they said, to see the glory with which
these new discoveries would have surrounded the name of Ampére
vanish so rapidly. This is somewhat the manner in which the insur-
mountable difficulty was formulated. Two bodies which separately
have the property of acting on a third cannot fail to act on each other.
The connecting wires, according to the discovery of Cirsted, act upon
the magnetic needle, then two connecting wires ought to influence each
other reciprocally ; hence, the movements of attraction and repulsion,
when brought together, are deductions, necessary consequences, of the
experiment of the Danish physicist; hence, it would be wrong to rank
the observations of Ampere among the primordial facts which open to
science entirely new paths.

Action and reaction are equal. There was in the phraseology just
cited a false air of that incontestible principle of mechanics which misled
many minds. Ampére replied by challenging his adversaries to deduce
with any degree of plausibility the resultant direction (le sens) of the mu-
tual action of two electrical currents ; although he made the demand with
much spirit, no one acknowledged himself defeated.

The infallible means of reducing this violent opposition to silence, of
sapping its objections to their foundation, was to cite an example where
two bodies which would act separately on a third would, nevertheless,
not act on each other. A friend of Ampére remarked, that magnetism
exhibited a phenomenon of this kind. He said to the benevolent an-
tagonist of the great geometer: ‘ Here are two keys of soft iron; each of
them attracts this compass; if you cannot show that, placed near each
ther, these keys attract and repel each other, the point of departure of
all your objections is false.”

From that moment the objections were abandoned and the reciprocal
actions of electrical currents took definitely the place belonging to them
among the most beautiful discoveries of modern physics.

Once disembarrassed of the charges of originality and priority, always
more painful when implied than when openly made, Ampére sought with
zeal a clear, vigorous, and mathematical theory, which would embrace,
under a common head, not only all the phenomenaof ordinary magnetism,
but also those of electro-dynamic phenomena. The investigation bristled
with all kinds of difficulties. Ampere overcame them with methods on
which the genius of invention shone at every step. These methods will
remain as one of the most precious models in the art of investigating
nature; of seizing in the midst of the complex forms of phenomena the
simple laws which govern them.

Dazzled by the éclat, grandeur, and fertility of the law cf universa:
attraction—thatimmortal discovery of Newton—persons little conversant
with mathematics imagine .that, in order to introduce the planetary

142 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

movements into the domain of analysis, it would be necessary to sur-
mount obstacles a thousand times greater than those met by the modern
geometer, when he wishes, with the assistance of mathematics, to follow
in all their ramifications the various phenomena discovered and studied
by physicists. However general this opinion may be, it is not the less
an error. The smallness of the planets, when compared to the sun; the
immensity of the distances; the almost spherical form of the celestial
bodies; the absence of all matter capable of offering any sensible resist-
ance in the vast regions where the elliptical orbits are described, are so
many circumstances extremely simplifying the problem, and bringing
it within the abstractions of rational mechanics. If, instead of the
movements of the planets—I mean of distant bodies capable of being
considered reduced to simple points—the only guide had been the
phenomena of attraction of irregular polyhedrons, acting on each other
at short distances, the laws of universal gravity would remain yet to be
discovered.

These words will suffice to give an idea of the real obstacles which
render the progress of mathematical physics so slow. No one need,
therefore, be surprised to learn that the propagation of sound, or of
luminous vibrations; that the movement of the light waves ruffling
the surface of liquids; that the atmospheric currents caused by irregu-
larities of pressure and temperature, etc., are much more difficult to
calculate than the majestic course of Jupiter, Saturn, or Uranus.

The phenomena of terrestrial physics Ampere proposed to unravel
were certainly among the most complex. The attractions and repul.
sions observed between conducting wires resulted from the attraction
and repulsion of all their parts. Now, to pass from the whole to the
determination of the numerous and different elements which compose
it, or in other words to the investigation into the manner in which the
mutual actions of two infinitely small parts of two currents vary, when
their relative distances and inclinations are changing, offered unwonted
difficulties.

All these difficulties have been overcome. The four conditions of
equilibrium, which have rendered so much assistance to the author in
developing phenomena, will be called the laws of Ampere, as the three
great consequences, deduced by that celebrated genius from the obser-
vations of Tycho, are called the laws of Kepler.

The oscillations, turned to so great profit by Coulomb in the measure-
ment of small magnetic or electrical forces, imperatively exact that the
bodies for experiment should be suspended by a single film without tor-
sion. The conducting wire cannot be placed in such a position, as it
would be in danger of losing its virtue unless in permanent communi-
cation with the two poles of the battery.

Oscillations give very exact measurement, but coupled with the
express condition of being numerous. The conducting wires of Ampere
never fail to be at rest after a very small number of oscillations.

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 143

The problem appeared truly insoluble, when our associate perceived
he could reach his object by observing different conditions of equilib-
rium between conducting wires of certain forms placed one before the
other. The choice of these forms was the essential point; and itis bere
the genius of Ampére displayed itself in the most marked manner.

He first enveloped with silk two equal portions of the same conduct-
ing wire; he bent this wire so that its two covered portions shouid be
in juxtaposition, and traversed from opposite sides by a current from
the same battery; he was satisfied then that this system of two equal
but opposite currents exercised no power over the delicately sus-
pended conducting wire, and thus proved that the attractive force of a
given electrical current is perfectly equal to the force of repulsion it
exercised when the direction of its course is mathematically inverted.

Ampere then suspended a very moveable conducting wire, exactly
between two fixed conducting wires, which being traversed from the
same side by one and the same current ought to repel the intermediate
wire; one of these fixed wires is straight, the other bent and twisted,
presenting a hundred small sinuosities. The communication necessary
to give play to the currents being established, the moveable intermediate
wire will stop exactly between the two fixed wires, and if moved from
its position willreturn itself to the same place. From this it follows that
if a straight connecting wire and a sinuous connecting wire, though
their unfolded lengths may be very different, exercise powers exactly
equal if they have extremities common to both.

In a third experiment Ampere established undeniably that no closed
eurrent whatever could cause a circular portion of connecting wire to
turn round an axis perpendicular to that one are passing through its
center.

The fourth and last fundamental experiment of our associate is an
instance of equilibrium, involving three suspended circular circuits
whose centers are in a straight line, and whose radii are in a continuous
geometrical proportion.

Our associate made use of those four laws to settle what he had al-
lowed to remain arbitrary in his analytical formula, conceived in the
most general terms imaginable to explain the mutual action of two in-
finitely small elements of two electrical currents.

A skillful comparison of the general formula with the observation of
the four cases of equilibrium shows that the reciprocal action of the
elements of two currents is exercised in the direction of the line uniting
their centers; that it depends on the mutual inclination of these ele-
ments, and that it varies in intensity in the inverse proportion of the
squares of the distances.

Thanks to the profound researches of Ampere, the law, which governs
celestial movements, the law, extended by Coulomb to the phenomena
of electricity at rest or in tension, and then though with less certainty,
to magnetic phenomena, becomes one of the characteristic features of

144 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

the powers exercised by electricity in motion. The general formula,
which gives the value of the mutual actions of the infinitely small ele-
ments of currents, once understood, the determination of the combined
actions of limited currents of different forms becomes a simple problem
of integral analysis. Ampere did not fail to follow out these applica-
tions of his discoveries. He first tried to discover how a rectilinear
current acts on a system of circular closed currents, contained in planes
perpendicular to the rectilinear current. The result of the calculation,
confirmed by experiment was, that the planes of the circular currents,
would, supposing them movable, arrange themselves paraliel to the rec-
tilinear current. If like transversal currents pass over the whole length
of a magnetic needle, the cross direction which, in the experiment of
(Ersted, completed by Ampére, seemed an inexplicable anomaly, would
become a natural and necessary fact. Is it not evident, then, to ail how
memorable would that discovery be that would rigorously establish the
fact that to magnetize a needle is to excite, to put in motion around
each molecule of the steel, a small, circular, electrical vortex? Ampére
fully realized the wide reach of the ingenious generalization that had
taken possession of his mind; and he hastened to submit it to experi-
mental proofs and numerical verifications, which, in our day, are the
only processes considered entirely demonstrative.

It seemed very difficult to create an assemblage of closed cireular
eurrents capable of great mobility. Ampere confined himself to an
imitation of this composition and form, by causing a single electrical
current to circulate through a wire enveloped in silk, and coiled like a
helix in very compact spires. The resemblance between the effects of
this apparatus and those of a magnet was very striking, and encouraged
the illustrious academician to devote himself to a difficult and minute
calculation of the actions of closed circuits perfectly circular.

Starting from the hypothesis that like currents exist around the par-
ticles of magnetic bodies, Ampere, recognized, in elementary actions,
the laws of Coulomb. These laws treated with the most consummate
skill by an illustrious geometer have explained all the known facts of
the science of magnetism; the hypothesis of Ampere represents them
with equal accuracy.

The same hypothesis, finally applied to the investigation of the action
which a rectilinear connecting wire exercises over a magnetic needle,
leads analytically to the law that M. Biot has deduced from extremely
nice experiments.

If, with the almost entire body of ancient physicists, it is thought ad-
visable to consider steel as composed of solid molecules, in each of
which exist two fluids of opposite properties, fluids combined, and neu-
tralizing each other when the metal is not magnetic, fluids move or less
separated when the steel is more or less magnetized, the theory will
cover all that is known at present, even in the most subtle numerical
particularities of ordinary yagnetism. ‘This theory is silent, however,

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 145

with reference to the action of a magnet on a connecting wire, and still
more silent, were it possible, as to the action that two of those wires ex-
ercise upon each other.

If, on the contrary, we take, with Ampére, the action of two cur-
rents for the primordial fact, the three classes of phenomena will depend
on one principle, one single clause. The ingenious conception of our
associate possesses thus two of the most salient characteristics of a
true laws of nature, simplicity and fertility.

In all the magnetic experiments attempted before the discovery of
Cirsted the earth had acted like a largeloadstone. It was tobe presumed,
then, like a magnet, it would act on electrical currents. Experiments,
however, had not justified the conjecture. Calling to his aid the electro-
dynamie theory and the talent for inventing apparatus, so brilliantly
displayed by him, Ampere had the honor of filling the inexplicable
hiatus.

For several weeks native and foreign physicists crowded the humble
study in the street Fossée-Saint- Victor to witness with amazement a con-
necting wire of platina take a definite direction through the action of
the terrestrial globe.

What would Newton, Halley, Dufay, Awpinus, Franklin, and Cou-
lomb have said if it had been announced to them that a day would
come when, in default of a magnetic needle, navigators would be able
to guide their vessels by observing electrical currents, electrified wires ?

The action of the earth on a conducting wire is identical in all the cir-
cumstances presented by it, with that which would proceed from an as-
semblage of currents, having its seat in the depths of the earth, south
of Europe, aud whose movements would be like the diurnal revolutions
of the globe from west to east. Let it not be said, then, that, the laws
of magnetic action being the same in the two theories, it is a matter of
indifference which to adopt.

Suppose the theory of Ampere true, and the earth, as a whole, inev-
itably a vast voltaic pile, creating currents moving in the direction of
the diurnal revolution ; and the memoir in which is found this magnifi-
cent result will take rank, without disadvantage, with the immortal
works which have made of our globe a simple planet, an ellipsoid flat
tened at the poles, a body formerly incandeseent in all its parts; incan-
descent still down in its depths, but retaining on its surface no appre-
ciable trace of this original heat.

It has been asserted that the beautiful conceptions of Ampére, os
which I have just given a detailed analysis, were coldly received ; it has
been said that the French geometers and physicists showed themselves
little inclined either to recognize or study them; that the academy, with
the exception of one single member, swayed by its prejudices, refused
for a long time to yield itself to unexceptionable proof.

These charges reached the public through an eloquent and eminently

Rouoraire organ. I cannot, therefore, pass them by without notice.
S ,

.

146 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

The experiments of Ampére, from their first appearance, were the ob-
ject of the severe criticism just cited, and, soon after, of universal ad-
miration. The only competent and capable judges of intricate and
scientific calculations of niee theoretical deductions of whose almost
boundless range I have just tried to give you an idea, were of necessity
geometers. Nowis it just to say the French geometers found fault with
our distinguished associate, when, a short time before the discovery of
electro-dynamics, M. Savary was found completing a very important
point of that theory; when M. Lionville was trying to simplify its bases
and render them more rigorous; when, in the compilation of the most
difficult parts of his grand memoir Ampere found in M. Duhamel an
earnest collaborator ?

Is it true that Ampére’s formula displayed no features likely to
occasion astonishment amongst geometers ? Would not the curiosity of
those most familiar with Newtonian theories be awakened by observing
the introdaction of general expressions of the mutual action of these
elements, trigonometrical quantities relative to the respective inclina-
tions of the infinitisimal elements of the electrical currents? Was not
some hesitation natural when new theories seemed to depart so com-
pletely from beaten paths? There was nothing extraordinary, excep-
tional, nor extravagant on the part of the savants who experienced this
hesitation. A few years before the transversal waves of light of Fresnel
had created the same doubts, the same uncertainty, and in the minds of
the same individuals, although they seemed a still more evident conse-
quence, a more direct and immediate translation and one easier to verity,
of the facts of interference exhibited by polarized rays.

Let us not complain in general terms of the worship rendered usually
by men to the ideas under whose influence their minds have been devel-
oped. In such cases it is just, natural, and proper to make no change
of views without a thorough investigation. From a scientific point of
view, the criticisms and difficulties, so frequently overwhelming innova-
tors, are substantially useful. They arouse the idle to triumph over
indolence; even jealousy, with its cruel and hideous acuteness, becomes
an incentive to progress. It can be relied upon to discover gaps, blem-
ishes, and imperfections that even the most careful author allows un-
avoidably to escape him. The control it exercises over him who dis-
dains not to profit by it, is worth ten-fold that of the best friend. It
commands no gratitude either, for its services are involuntarily rendered ;
and on the other hand it would be a weakness to sympathize too warmly
with the vexations it causes in men of genius; for fame and peace of
mind rarely bear each other company. He who is ambitious of high
place in the world of matter or of ideas, must expect to find as adver-
Saries those already occupying the highest places. Small minds aim at
trivial objects, and alone are privileged to reach, at will, insignificant
points, whose possession no one dreams of dis, uting with them.

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 147

AMPERE TAKES PART IN A CELEBRATED DISCUSSION BETWEEN GEORGE
CUYVIER, AND GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE ON THE UNITY OF STRUC-
TURE IN ORGANIZED BEINGS.

This discussion rested on some very nice considerations. If it were
desired, for instance, to trace the resemblance between the arrange-
ments of the viscera of a cephalopodic mollusk and those of man, it
would be necessary to fancy the latter bent backwards from the line of
the navel, so that the pelvis and lower limbs should be joined to the
nape of the neck; it would be necessary, moreover, to imagine man
walking on his head. Other comparisons required that one of the two
animals should be reversed like a glove; that the bony structure should
pass from within to without, that the enveloped should become the en-
velope, ete., ete. The members of the mathematical department of the
college could take no part in this subtle debate; they were satisfied to
be attentive listeners. Ampere alone threw himself headlong into the
arena. But it was found that the views so warmly opposed by Cuvier,
and so decidedly sustained by our honorable colleague, Geoffroy Saint-
Hilaire, were those entertained by Ampére in 1803.

Cuvier, the learned secretary of the academy, when concluding his
course on the history of the sciences of the nineteenth century, was
naturally led to allude to the German school known under the name of
Philosophers of Nature.

The principles of the philosophers of nature, at least those referring
to the unity of structure in animals, appearing to him erroneous, he
undertook to oppose them. Ampere was one of the auditors of our illus-
trious colleague. If, as at the Normal Convential School, the students
had the right to challenge the professors, each lecture of Cuvier’s course
would assuredly have ended in an animated and instructive debate ;
but the regulations imperiously forbade such an innovation. Ampere
was not the man to be discouraged by difficulties. Custom denying
him permission to speak in the arena where Cuvier was unfolding his
views, openly without leaving the precinets of the college founded by
Francis the First, if not on the same day, at least during the same week,
when delivering his course onMathésiologie, Ampére broadly announced
himself, with reference to the chief point of philosophic zoology, the
declared adversary of the first naturalist of Europe. In each of his lec-
tures he gave a minute and detailed criticism of the preceding lecture
of Cuvier. Butin return, Cuvier regularly used an analysis of Ampére’s
argument, made by his brother Frederic, who attended the course on
Mathésiologie, as the text for each succeeding one of those lectures,
“whose glorious memory will long be preserved by the College of France,
and in which shone in the same high degree, his talent for explaining,
his knowledge of facts in detail, and must it be avowed, his art of ren-
dering sarcasm cutting without overstepping the limits of a well-bred
critic. Hach week Ampére would seem felled by the blows of the new

148 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

Hercules, and each succeeding week, like Anteus in the fable, he would
be found prepared to sustain a new contest, not, however, without
having changed ground, though very slightly and skillfully between the
successive assaults.

In order to assume that Ampére considered this contest an ostenta-
tious tourney without consequences, it would be necessary to admit,
contrary to all reason and probability, that voluntarily closing his eyes,
he did not perceive that even blunted weapons in Cuvier’s hands could
inflict painful wounds. We will hasten to announce that Ampere was
fully conscious of how formidable was his adversary ; and if in spite of
this, he continued his course, it was to fulfill what he considered a con-
scientious duty. In July, 1824, our associate sent to the press, but with-
out giving his name to the publication, atheory of the organization of
articulated animals. In this work, after making himself master of a
single type, he followed it up amidst a thousand 4isguises, through the
multitude of species of which the animal kingdom is composed. He
sought, for example, how the fragile butterfly could be traced to the
clumsy toad, the toad to the colossal whale. The criticisms of Cuvier
were then addressd as well to Ampere as to the philosophers of nature
or Geoffroy Saint Hilaire; and our friend decided to sacrifice all personal
feelings to the interests of science and surrender the privileges of anonym-
ity. He fullfilled this obligation without bitterness, but with firmness; he
utterly disregarded the many annoyances incident to the position forced
upon him by circumstances, and allowed nothing to turn him from his
purpose, not even what Frenchmen dread the most, ridicule.

i still remember a dialogue that took place on one occasion, in my
presence, between M. Ampere and an academician, who was the declared
adversary of the unity of structure, and whose witty sallies were not
only dreaded by his antagonists but often by his friends also. I will
reiate the beginning:

‘Well, M. Ampére, do you hold, from an anatomical point of view,
that Master Crow perched on a tree, did not differ from the crafty, cun-
ning animal who carried off his cheese ; and do you believe that

‘The heron with the long beak set upon the long neck,’
is but a simple modification of the gossip carp he so foolishly disdained
to eat for his dinner? And again, do you think the fabler was guilty of
a heresy in natural history when he said:
‘A rat to prove he was no elephant,
Came out of his cage in less than an instant?”

“Yes, sir; yes,” said Ampére, ‘I admit as facts all you have just
enumerated as impossibilities. Further details on the subject would be
superfluous. After the most conscientious study, I shall remain firm to
a principle, apparently singular, but which time will establish; to the
principle that man is formed after a model found in all the animal cre-
ation, without one single exception.”

“Wonderful, MW. Ampére, your theory has one rare and incontestable

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 149

merit ; it is clear and categorical. Je vous attends a Vescargot,” (I shall
wait to see you a modified snail.)

Ampére entered, for a few moments very good naturedly into the
gaiety provoked in all present by this sally; but he soon began to treat
seriously the laughable question just proposed to him; his manner of
handling it showed the most profound research, and the most compre-
hensive knowledge of anatomy and natural history, and where the
first step seemed to lead to absurdities, he pointed out resemblances
and analogies so ingenious that we were surprised to find ourselves not
regretting that the term of comparison offered to Ampére had been se-
lected so far down in the scale of animal life.

ESSAY ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES.

The literary life of Ampere began by the study of the Encyclopedia of
the Highteenth Century, and was closed by the compilation of a plan for
anew encyclopedia. The most essential feature of this vast scheme
was 2 Classification of all human knowledge.

Moliéere formerly, through the medium of one of the characters of his
immortal comedies, asked whether it were more correct to speak of the
figure or the shape of a hat; which was equivalent to asking whether
hats should be classed as to shapes or figures.

The abuse of classification could not possibly be described at the same
time more profoundly and more ludicrously. ‘To go back to the time of
Moliére, or even to the early part of the eighteenth century, you will see
the great poet was not attacking a vain phantom, and you will be struck
with the strangest association of ideas; you will find the classifiers
yielding to the most truly absurd analyses and comparisons; for ex-
ample, in the Society of Arts, created by a prince of the blood, Comte
de Clermont, a society embracing the sciences, belles-lettres, and the
mechanical arts, the historian is classed, in all seriousness, with the em-
broiderer, the poet with the dyer, ete., ete.

In all things abuse is not use. Let us see, then, whether Ampere
paused at the use, in the work, still only partly published, which he
composed at the close of his life, and entitled, Hssay on the Philosophy
of the Sciences ; or Analytical Exposition of a Natural Classification of
all Human Knowledge.

Ampere proposed to undertake the vast and celebrated problem whose
solution had already been attempted by Aristotle, Plato, Bacon, Leib-
nitz, Locke, D’Alembert, &e.

The unsuccessful efforts of so many men of genius are a convincing
proof of the difficulty of the question; do they also completely prove
its utility ?

Aristotle claimed that all subjects could be included im ten categories.
If I should recall the number of times they have been rearranged, the
reply would very reasonably be, these were the necessary and foreseen
consequences of the progress of the human mind. I should then, un-

E50 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

doubtedly, propose a still more embarrassing question, by asking, of
what use have the categories been ?

It has already been shown what Moliére thought of them. Here is
the opinion of the celebrated author of the Logic of Port Royal: ‘The
study of the categories cannot but be dangerous, as it accustoms men
to be satisfied with words, and to believe they know everything, when
they are only acquainted with arbitrary names.” +

To this extravagant criticism, if it had fallen under his eyes, Am-
pere would have replied: That a natural classification of the sciences
would be the model on which the sections of an institute claiming to
represent the universality of human knowledge, should be serupulously
formed: That a natural classification of the sciences would indicate
the proper omissions in the subjects of a well-arranged methodical
encyclopedia. That a natural classification would control a rational
distribution of the books in large libraries, a matter of so much im-
portance that Liebnitz devoted to it much thought and labor: That a
natural classification of the sciences would create a desirable revolution
-in the art of teaching.

Ail this is just and true. But, unfortunately, the principles which
a priort seemed to lead to natural classifications, have assimilated,
grouped, and united the most incongruous subjects.

If you take the encyclopedical tree of Bacon and D’Alembert, which
is founded on the hypothesis, against which no objections have ever
been raised, that the human mind can be reduced to three faculties—
memory, reason, and imagination,—you will be led in the large division
of knowledge depending on memory to classify the history of minerals
and vegetables with civil history; and in sciences belonging to the do-
main of reason metaphysics will be associated with astronomy, ethics,
and chemistry.

Follow Locke, or rather Plato, and theology and optics will be found
side by side. Divide, as the schools of Rome do now, all knowledge
into three kingdoms, the sciences of authority, of reason, and of obser-
vation, and anomalies almost laughable will arise at every step.

These serious defects are not found in the classifications of Ampere.
All analogous subjects are classed together ; all that differ are separated.
The author does not create at the will of his imagination pretended fun-
damental faculties for the basis of a system without solidity. His two
chief points, his two kingdoms, are the study of the world—cosmology ;
and the study of the mind—ontology.

The cosmological sciences are divided, in their turn, into two sub-king-
doms, namely, the sciences which treat of inanimase objects; and those
which consider only animate objects. The first sub-kingdom of the
cosmological sciences is divided again into two branches—the mathe-

matical and physical sciences. By always following out this division
by twos, Ampere succeeded in forming a table in which the whole range
of sciences and arts is found divided—

EULOGY ON AMPERE. eat

Into two kingdoms;

Into four sub-kingdoms ;

Into eight branches;

Into sixteen sub-branches ;

auto thirty-two sciences of the first order;

Into sixty-four of the second order ;

Into one hundred and twenty-eight of the third order.

This is what it would be necessary to study in order to be perfectly
familiar with the whole range of human knowledge.

Ought not this large number to be at the same time a subject of
discouragement to individuals taken separately, and a just cause of
pride to the human race? Neither one nor the other. Ampere only
succeeded in finding one hundred and twenty-eight distinet sciences in
the accumulated labors of forty centuries by dividing and separating
what had until then been united; by changing into distinct sciences the
simple divisions of the complete sciences, and by applying to them names
which might well be objected to, such as canolbology cybernitics, ter-
pnognosy, technesthetics, etc., ete.

Tt now remains to examine whether the new divisions are not too
numerous; whether they would add to clearness—a quality to be sought
at any price—and whether they would introduce any facilities into the
art of teaching. There is scarcely a professor who does not understand
now that the most elementary course of astronomy should first present
to the student a description of the apparent motions of the heavenly
bodies ; that, on a second division, it is necessary to leave the apparent
for the real; and that a third division, finally, should be devoted to
the investigation and study of the physical causes of these movements.
Here are three parts of one and the same whole. I do not see, I
must confess, what would be gained by making, of the first section of
the first course of the subject or treatise, a distinct science, wranography,
and by dividing the second subject into two other sciences heliostatics
and astronomy.

Our illustrious associate banished from the course of general physics
the comparative study of the modifications experienced by phenomena
in different places and at different times. If this referred to profounder
study the thesis could be sustained. But on a contrary supposition, it
would be difficult to conceive how, after having announced that to-day,
at Paris, the north point of the magnetic needle declined 22° from the
north to the west, the professor could stop suddenly and leave to his
colleague, the professor of physical geography, the office of declaring, the
year after, perhaps, that at Paris, before 1666, the observers found no
declination ; that it is not the same at all places, and that at each place,
considered apart, it exhibits a diurnal oscillation around its mean posi-
tion. |

Ampere found the union of the materia-medica and therapeutics in the
medical course inadmissible. It is very true that a knowledge of the

152 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

properties of .medicine is quite different from knowing how to apply
them; but when you consider that the properties in question would be
but little studied but for the purpose of relieving human suffering; that
their union under both points of view, abstract and practical, sustains
the interest and saves time, you return to what at first seemed defect-
ive. ‘ Life is short, and art is long.” These memorable words of Hip-
pocrates, let me add, whose truth has not been impaired by the mate-
ria-medica or therapeutics, unitedly or separately, deserve to be remem-
bered in the distribution of the studies of youth.

Aimpére thought he had sueceeded in avoiding entirely all repetitions ;
he flattered himself that henceforth each science could be studied with-
out any trace of syllogistic circles; that, while engaged in one study, it
would never be necessary to refer to the science coming after on the
synoptical table.

An illustrious metaphysician did not believe this methodical course
possible unless in the science of abstract mathematics. Readers, he
said, must trust; they must be willing to give credit for a time, if they
wish to be satisfied; for geometers alone always pay cash.

Could Ampére always pay cash, as Malebranche expresses it, even
in applied mathematics? If time permitted I could easily prove, I
believe, that on this point our iilustrious colleague deceived himself.
In his table I see, for example, astronomy before physics; and, conse-
quently, before optics. How, then, in the first lessons of uranography
and the first study of the diurnal movements of the heavens, could the
professor explain the use of the telescopes, of the lines placed in the com-
mon focus between the object and eye glasses? What could he say,
without asking for credit of the atmospheric refractions which so percep-
tibly deform the circular diurnal orbits of the stars? AJl astronomers
would agree with me that it is very unnatural that heliostatics, or the
demonstration of the Copernican system, should precede the exposition
of the laws of Kepler, considered as simple results of observation.

I could multiply these remarks, but they would not prevent Ampére’s
classification from being very superior to all those preceding it; it would
require but afew suppressions and some rearrangement of points of
slight importance to make it as perfect as would be compatible with the
nature of the subject. It can be unhesitatingly affirmed that its various
parts bear the indelible stamp of an erudition as remarkable for its
extent as its profoundness.

Ampere had not only essayed the vast problem of a general classifi-
cation of the sciences, but had also been engaged in introducing classi-
fications into the physical and natural sciences separately.

The chemical classifications proposed by the learned academician
could even now be published with profit. They would prove—and how
strange the fact—that, during one of the last revolutions in the science,
Ampeére, the geometer Ampére, was always in the right, even when his
opinions were opposed to those of nearly all the chemists of the world.

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 153

THE INFLUENCE EXERCISED BY A PRIVATE EDUCATION ON AMPERE’S
MIND AND MANNERS.

Ampeére, enjoying the wide reputation we have indicated, suggests
in himself too striking a comparison between the advantages of a
private education and one acquired in the tumult of public schools not
to excite eager discussion. I only refer to this discussion, however, to
deny its utility. At the time of his departure from the mountains of
Poleymeux, our future associate possessed an immense amount of infor-
mation, an extraordinary memory, a strong intellect, and a rare aptitude
in mastering all subjects ; but who would dare affirm that these qualities
would not have been as well developed at a public school? An isolated
fact could lead to no positive conclusion on so nice a point.

The adversaries of private education remembered that Ampére con-
tracted in his secluded life habits which they tax with singularity.
Amongst others is cited the impossibility he found in giving a clear ex-
planation, when professor, of subjects with which he was perfectly
familiar; without calling, as it were, to his aid peculiar movements of.
the body. This is undeniably true. There was always, intellectually
speaking, a great difference between Ampére in repose and Ampeére in
action. I, especially, have always sincerely regretted that the illustrious
savant, in his riper years, should have felt his eminent powers and all
enthusiasm decline as soon as seated at his desk, without having, how-
ever, the temerity to ascribe it to the solitude in which his youth had
been passed.

What is known, in fact, of the mental struggle accompanying the
birth and development of an idea? Like the first uncertain glimmer-
ings of a star, an idea begins its dawn on the very verge of the intel-
lectual horizon, at first so small and faint that its unsteady, wavering
light seems to reach us through an almost impenetrable mist. It in-
creases in size, until sufficiently developed to display a delicate outline;
and finally, its contour clearly defined, it stands sharply out from all
around—from all that is not itself. At this last stage language seizes it,
clothes and stamps it with the definite, the impressive form which will
engrave it indelibly upon the memory of future generations.

The causes accelerating or retarding the birth of a thonght, and its
various transformations, are numerous and evanescent; and there is,
moreover, neither regularity nor consistency in their mode of action.
Paésiello composed wrapped up in his bed-covers. Cimerosa, on the
contrary, received the inspirations that gave to the world the beautiful
themes with which his operas abound in the midst of the mirth and
bustle of a crowd. The historian Mezérai wrote, even at mid-day in
the month of July, by the light of wax candles. Rousseau, on the
other hand, gave himself up to his most profound meditations in the
full light of the sun, while engaged in herborizing.

If Ampere were only inspired while standing and in motion, Descartes

154 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

required to be lying down immovable, and Cujas studied satisfactorily
only when stretched at full length on his face on the floor. We have
all, in our youth, had occasion to smile at the sight of lazy school-boys
gazing fixedly at the ceiling of the school-room, as if looking for the
lesson they no longer remembered. This was the position in which
Milton, his head thrown far back, always composed.

These facts seem singular; but what will you say of Guido Reni, who
was ineapable of inspiration unless magnificently dressed ; of the mu-
sician Haydn, who declared himselfutterly unable to compose his grand
choruses without having on his finger the costly ring given him by
Frederick IL; of the poet Mathurin, who would stick a wafer on
his forehead between his eye-brows, as much to excite his imagination
as a signal to his servants not to interrupt him by questions.

The eyes, it has been said, are the windows of the soul. I am con-
vinced that it would be a mistake to generalize this remark too much by
extending it to gesticulations, or, if you please, to nervous action. The
arms of Napoleon’s chair were not hacked by a penknife in moments of
anger or deep preoccupation only ; joy and mirth also gave employment
to his instrument of destruction. If the questors of our legislative as-
semblies did not place discretion in the front rank of the good qualities
which distinguish them, they could tellus that some members do not
less actively destroy the mahogany of their desks on the days of stormy
debate than during the monotonous and drowsy operation of the call
and recall. Does any one, while reading Glover’s ballad entitled the
Shade of Admiral Hosier, divine for a moment that the poet com-
posed it while unconsciously destroying with his cane a bed of tulips,
the especial delight of his friend, Lady Temple.

Uncomfortable and painfal attitudes, so necessary to some, are not
the only conditions indispensable to the development of the higher in-
tellectual faculties. Addison mentions a lawyer who could never plead
without passing the thumb of his left hand through a loop of twine,
which he would tighten to spur the thought or expression. One of our
most eloquent prose writers, who spoke as well as he wrote, was only
able to do so, however, when his right leg was twisted around the left,
like the serpent of Troy around the arms of the Laocodén. Let us re-
member all these facts. Their very singularity should induce us to do
so. Butlet us be careful not to draw from them any premature conclu-
sions against any particular mode of education ; for amongst the dis-
tinguished personages whose names I have just cited there are no two
who in their childhood were placed in exactly similar circumstances.

If necessary to enter more into detail, I should be less reserved about
other habits of our associate which have more or less influenced his
career. Had Ampere. been sent to school in his childhood to the hum-
blest village school, his disposition and habits would possibly have been
somewhat modified. He would have learned that scissors were not in-
tended for making pens; that writing in large characters was not the

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 155

ultimate object of calligraphy. He would not have received from a for-
eign scientist, full of wit and waggery, after he became a member of
the academy, an invitation to dinner written in the first letter of his
signature. He would have known that to write a running hand rapidly
and easily, a movement of the fingers, and not the arm, is required—
a knowledge which would have saved him, during his whole life, much
bodily exertion and intolerable annoyance. Ampere’s school-fellows,
much less forbearing than father or mother, would have roughly checked
his incessant restlessness. He would have learned to control those par-
oxysms of rage which, later in life, rendered him so unhappy—called by
his friends lamb-like wrath ; and which to excite was rather a subject of
congratulation, so spontaneous, candid, and unreserved was his repent-
ance. He would have known how to confine himself to regular work.
The necessity of performing his tasks at fixed hours would have taught
him, as an author very clever in such matters said, to make his
thoughts flow rapidly from the nib of his pen, and not to drown them
afterwards inan ink-stand. Borrowing the beautiful image of Cleanthe,
preserved by Seneca, Ampere’s thoughts, once repressed, would re-
semble the voice, which, confined to the narrow channel of a trumpet,
bursts forth at length the more clear and the more powerful. Compo-
sition would then have been of secondary importance to him, and he
could have exclaimed triumphantly with Racine, ‘‘ My work is finished ;
nothing now remains but to write it out.” The success of this mode of
investigation would have induced him to give up handling a thousand
different subjects at once and yielding to the nervous excitement pro-
voked by it. If he had considered the time lost in useless discussions,
he would not now sadly exclaim with the poet cited not long since—
Je ne fais pas le bien que j’aime,
Et je fais le mal que je hais.

(“I do not do the good I love, but the evil that I hate.”)

Here I must stop; for instead of maintaining an even balance between
the two contrary systems, as I had intended, I find myself almost plead-
ing in favor of public education.

AMPERE AN ADEPT IN ANIMAL MAGNETISM.

Ampere often lent the aid of his imposing authority to the adepts of
animal magnetism. His imperfect vision, his want of bodily dexterity,
and his great credulity, rendered him a fitting subject for the tricks and
legerdemains which ought to have induced him to consider magnetism
a branch of the art of jugglery. At certain reunions, where the love of
the marvelous, a desire to fathom the mysteries of animal organization,
and especially the hope of discovering some new means of alleviating
human suffering, brought many estimable people together, Ampere was
often fascinated by legerdemains only suitable for the amusement of
children, such as the sudden increase of little balls, multiplied almost

156 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

infinitely, and passing successively into different boxes, at the will of
one of those individuals now called prestidigitators. It was in this way,
doubtless, that Ampere had been led to admit that, under certain
conditions of nervous excitement, a man might be able to see even at
great distances without the aid of his eyes; that he might, with his knee,
see stars ; follow the movements of actors on a stage with his back turned,
and read a note with his elbow. Is it not possible that we, who even
now have no faith in such marvels ; we, who formerly opposed the convic-
tions of our friend with all kinds of arguments, even resorting to raillery,
might have carried this opposition too far on other points of animal
magnetism? Is an extravagant skepticism more philosophical than an
unlimited credulity? Have we any right, for example, to sweepingly
affirm that no man ever has or ever will be able to read, with his eyes,
in the profound darkness which reigns under a depth of twenty-nine
meters of earth and rocks—I mean at the bottom of the vaults of the
Paris observatory ? Has it been well established that opaque bodies—
that is, those impermeable to light—allow nothing to pass through them
which could supply and produce vision? Do systematical ideas au-
thorize us to disdain any reference to experiment, the only competent
judge in such matters? I present all these doubts as a kind of repara-
tion aud expiation offered to the manes of Ampere.

Pardon this digression, gentlemen, rendered necessary by circumstances.
Your indulgence will be the more precious to me for having possibly—
nay, I will say more, probably—displeased both the advocates and
antagonists of magnetism. The latter will blame the extent of my con-
cessions ; the former, on the contrary, find me too skeptical. But, such
reproaches would not be very alarming; for has magnetism, unless in
some few isolated points, any real foundation? All that its advocates
can desire, all they can rightfully claim at present, are unprejudiced
judges, who will refuse neither to see nor to hear.

Is it necessary, on the other hand, to side with those who, fanatically
devoted to the experimental method, proceed exclusively by means of
direct corollaries, and who regard an idea unworthy of being followed up
which does not flow logically from a previous idea? I will also remark
that to deny, a priori, belongs to theory ; that negative theories are even
more to be condemned, as they provoke no trial, no attempt, and there-
fore reduce the mind to a state of quietude and somnolence from which
science would have much to suffer.

I cannot, besides, admit that there would be less pride in saying, not
only to the sea but to all nature, “ thow shalt go no farther.”

AMPERE’S CHARACTER.

The traits of character which, in the course of this sketch, are
found scattered here and there through the scientific analyses, would
amply suffice in the eulogies of a large number of the academicians.
But this would not answer in Ampére’s case. From an early period a

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 157

singular concourse of circumstances had initiated the public into all the
details of his private life. They interested themselves almost as much
in what they called his credulity, his eccentricities, his absence of mind,
and his very frequent alternations of wonderful activity and profound
apathy, to which he was subject, as in his brilliant discoveries. Ourfriend
gradually became the principal actor in a multitude of fantastic adven-
tures, creations of the imaginations of a few idle people. Calumny,
always on the watch for such opportunities, began early to exercise its
detestable role; and thus it is that I would not attain my end were I to
neglect to give a faithful sketch of the character and habits of Ampére.

I have just spoken of calumny, but am far from wishing to apply so
severe a term to those who do not share the estimate I have formed of
Ampere’s character. Philopamin once “ paid the fine of his deformity.”
said Plutarch. Ampere also paid the penalty of certain manners and
habits which it is not my intention to extol. I freely acknowledge that,
with the kindest feelings in the world, no one could help admitting a
want of dignity in his too profound salutations.

We have passed over times in which a man of letters, a man of
science, such as Ampere, had any reason to fear that he would be
stripped of his office if not orthodox in matters of religion and a parti-
san of the political systems of the day. Perhaps, under such cireum-
stances, our associate recalled too vividly his responsibilities as the
father of a family; perhaps an ardent imagination painted in exagger-
ated colors the brutal condition to which such a deprivation would
reduce him; and he thus stooped to measures, such as visits and pre-
sentations, which can be legitimately and justly condemned. The right
of doing so, however, can only be conceded to those who have never
been guilty of like faults, and which I refuse unhesitatingly to those
functionaries, infinitely more numerous, whose only advantage over
Ampere is that of having discovered the secret of diverting atten-
tion. Besides, do not believe that the judgments and opinions whose
organ I shall be, and which it would give me so much pleasure to have
prevail here, rest on so unsound a foundation as rumor or the chit-chat
of society—but on acts misunderstood and susceptible of different inter-
pretations. I have formed an estimate and judgment of Ampere’s char-
racter from a private correspondence not destined to see the light—which,
indeed, in strict accordance with the express wish of our friend, should
have been destroyed. In such documents I-could hope to find Ampére’s
thoughts free from all delusive alloy. It was while reading this precious
-cerrespondence I learned more and more to love our associate. Are
there many men who would thus gain by being stripped of the mask so
generally worn in public? These reflections have occupied much time,
gentlemen. You will pardon me if Isay itis a mistake to consider them
a mere preamble; they are a direct refutation, and by way of anticipa-
tion, of the objections with which the last portion of this notice is
threatened, even before being given to the public.

158 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

Like Lafontaine, between whom there was more than one point’ of
resemblance, Ampére would remain sometimes unconscious of all
around him in the midst of a crowd; and from this proceeded certain
eccentricities, certain aberrations of language, of carriage, and dress,
difficult to be understood by those who have never known what it is to
be swayed by the tyrannical domination of an idea or of a sentiment.
Abstraction offends, where it does not excite laughter. Ampere’s obliv-
iousness was of the latter kind, and yet it must have offended some,
since it has been fancied, and even seriously maintained, that the many
instances of which we have all been witnesses were the result of affec-
tition. This serious charge has been too widely spread to allow me to
give a kind of assent by silence. I will refer, then, boldly to the con-
temptible circumstances which gave rise to it.

Teli us, for example, what advantage could Ampére expect the day
when, seated at the table of persons whom all his interest required him
to treat with deference, he exclaimed in a fretful tone, fancying himself
at home, “‘ What a vile dinner; will my sister ever understand that,
before engaging cooks, it is necessary to inquire into their skill ?”

Tam almost ashamed to have to stoop to such a justification; for,
after all, Ampére is not the only distinguished man subject to absence
of mind. Would you like to generalize the charge? I can at once cite
the instance of the celebrated astronomer, who, on being asked by his
hovse-keeper the exact number of minutes required to boil an egg,
foand with despair that his watch, of great value, and on which depended
the accuracy of all his labors, had been in the boiling water for a whole
minute, while the egg was in his hand. I can mention, too, the case of
the pious Father Becearia, who, his mind filled with an electrical experi-
ment even while celebrating mass, shouted in his loudest tones, ‘Z7éspe-
rienza @ fatta,” when he should have chanted the Dominus Vobiscum; an
obliviousness, by the way, which, being reported to the ecclesiastical
authorities, resulted in the suspension of the illustrious physicist.

To transform an absent-minded man, bythe system just alluded to, into
a sort of mixture of the impostor and the hypocrite, would be to force
us to destroy some of the clever pages of La Bruyére, and to condemn
to the flames an agreeable comedy of Regnard. There is still another
consequence, which creates yet more disgust: the inimitable fabler
would no longer be the worthy man, as Moliére baptized him. While
admiring his immortal works, we should be forced to deprive him of
that halo of respect and esteem—in fact, almost tender attachment—
with which so many successive generations have surrounded him. The
cause is lost, gentlemen, when it leads to consequences so violently irri-
tating to public feeling.

Ampeére’s credulity had become in a measure proverbial. It induced
him to believe one after another the most extraordinary facts in the
political world and the most chimerical events in the intellectual. Still
this avowal can create no prejudice against the wide reputation of the

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 159

celebrated academician for perspicuity. Credulity usually implies a
want of intelligence. This, of course, was not the case in this instance
It often arises, too, from a general sluggishness of mind, and is well
described by a popular adage: “ I would rather believe than examine for
myself.” |

Indifference, in order to escape the importunities and contentions it
so much dreads, sometimes wears the mask of credulity. But indif-
ference cannot be general. Though felt towards certain subjects, it
admits in others a wide field for active interest. Such was the case
with the grammarian to whom some one was describing the fancied
symptoms of a general conflagration in Europe. He admitted all, ac-
cepted all, without a frown or a word; and was about being set down
as one of the most credulous men of the age, when he broke the silence
by exclaiming, ‘“‘ Happen what will, I have not less than three thousand
verbs well conjugated in my lists.”

Ampére belonged to another class, infinitely more rare, with whom
credulity was the result of imagination and genius. When he heard
an extraordinary statement related, his first feeling was that of sur-
prise, undoubtedly ; but his penetrating and prolific mind, discerning
possibilities where ordinary minds discovered only chaos, would, with-
out interval or rest, persevere until he connected the strange phenom-
ena, by links more or less solid, to the principles of established science.

Should I fear being accused of misunderstanding the human heart
if I add that the merit of overcoming difficulties had its influence
on the tenacity of our learned associate in defending certain theories ?
On leaving Lyons, in 1805, Ampere had not weighed well all he was
relinquishing in the associations and friends of that city. Soon after his
arrival in Paris he was seized with an attack of genuine nostalgia—
home-sickness—from which he never entirely recovered.

In letters of 1813 and 1820, and even of a later date, his acceptance
of the situation connecting him with the Polytechnic School is described
as an act of egregious folly. His favorite dreams were combinations,
always impracticable, to restore him to the haunts of his childhood.
His griefs of all kinds always found expression in, ‘‘O, had I never
left Lyons!” This, then, gentlemen, gives the key to many circum-
stances in the life of our friend until now inexplicable.

Metaphysics, to which I have already referred, were constantly inter-
fering with the works on mathematics, physics, and chemistry, on which
our associate was engaged. They were suspended, but at short inter-
vals, in 1820, 1821, and 1822, during his electro-dynamic researches, the
results of which have already been shown.

In 1813 Ampere consulted his friends in Lyons as to a plan, (I give
his own words,) “to devote himself exclusively to psychology.” He
fancied himself called “to lay the foundation of that science for all
ages.” He did not reply to a letter from Sir Humphry Davy on chem-

LGO EULOGY ON AMPERE.

istry. “No longer having,” he said, ‘the courage to fix his thoughts on
that tedious subject.”

I will say no more, gentlemen, as I would be afraid by dwelling longer
on the harm done to physics by psychology, of exciting against the lat-
ter too violent an opposition.

Among the writers conspicuous in literary history for their invaluable
and indefatigable zeal, we shall find some profoundly pious, some in-
different, and others skeptical. Those, on the contrary, who all their
lives have been harassed by internal religious struggles, have rarely suc-
ceeded in accomplishing works of great magnitude. Ampére belonged
much more than we had suspected to the last class of savants.

Madame Ampére had early begun to instil into the heart of her son
the pious sentiments animating her own. A diligent study of the Bible
and the fathers of the church was the unfailing expedient of the young
geometer when his faith was wavering. Later in life this talisman lost
somewhat of its early efficacy, a fact revealed to me by some scraps of
manuscript, for during his life Ampere never allowed me to perceive the
cruel doubts which from time to time disturbed his mind. In glancing
over to-day his letters to the friend whom he had selected as the confi-
dant of all his mental struggles, the reader is surprised to find that he
has really before him an account of the excessive tortures experienced
by the author of the Provincials. “If this were true, however,” he
wrote on the 2d cf June, 1815, ‘miserable creature that lam. * * *
Former views have not the power to make me believe; but they still
have the power to strike terror into my soul. If I had only preserved
them intact, I would not now be pkunged into this gulf.”

By comparing dates, it is evident to me that these vicissitudes of feeling
were not unconnected with the political revolutions of France, or with
family efilictions. How readily it can be believed that the tears filling
the unhappy eyes do not alone change the appearance of the external
world!

In moments of religious excitement there was no literary sacrifice,
Ampere would not have considered light. While at the central school
of Bourg, the young professor composed a treatise on the future of
chemistry. In it were some bold predictions, which at the time did not
alarm his conscience. The work was seareely published, however, when
various cireumstances threw Ampere into an extraordinary mystical
exultation. From that moment he fancied himself in the highest degree
culpable for having attempted to unveil prematurely a muititude of
secrets that future ages bore and still bear in their bosom; and seeing
in his work only the suggestions of Satan, he committed it to the flames.
The illustrious academican has since deeply deplored this loss in common
with all interested in the progress of science and the glory of the coun-
try. Religious doubts were not the only ones which perplexed Ampere.
Doubt, whatever the object, always disturbed his mind in the same
degree. ‘ Doubt,” he wrote to a Lyonnese friend, “is the greatest

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 161

torment endured by man on earth.” Here is, among a thousand others,
a question assuredly of doubtful solution, some would say quite insolu-
ble, which exercised the ingenuity of our friend, and permit me the
expression, almost transported him with enthusiasm. The study of fossil
animals shows that our globe was once the theater of several successive
creations, which by gradual progression at last reached the condition
of man. The earth, at first, presented no living thing, no organized
matter. Then were found traces of vegetation; then invertebrated ani-
mals, worms, and mollusks; later, fishes and sea-reptiles; later still,
birds; and finally mammifers.

“Do you not see,” wrote Ampere to one of his friends in Lyons, “do you
not see the palwotheriums, and the anoplotheriums replaced by man. I
hope for my part, that after a new cataclysm, men, in their turn, will be
replaced by beings more perfect, more noble and more sincerely devoted
to truth. I would give the half of my life for the certainty that this
transformation will take place. Would you believe it? there are peo-
ple stupid enough, (his own words,) to ask what I would gain by that.
Have I not just cause to be indignant at such a question ?”

It would not surprise me that any one, at the first glance, should
evince astonishment at my enumerating political events and passions
amongst the causes so frequently saddening and discouraging Ampére’s
heart, and interfering with his scientific labors. Was not I, his friend,
for thirty years, obliged to read his most private correspondence in or-
der to discover a trace of those political griefs hidden under an appar-
ent serenity, an outward show of gentle resignation.

The year 1815 was marked by events cruelly stamped on the life of
our associate. The Emperor had returned from the island of Elba;
and the clash of arms resounded throughout Europe; nations were hur-
rying to encounter each other on unknown battle-fields, and this terrible
shock might result in the subjugation of France and the world for
many long years. These thoughts threw the mind of Ampere into the
wildest state of confusion, and he then had the incredible misfortune
to become associated with those, and God grant. I may never discover
any traces of them, with whom all he most dreaded was an object of
hope, in whom the most disastrous news excited transports of joy ; who
thought that the death of half a million of our countrymen would not
weigh in the balance against the preservation of their rotten institu-
tions.

These hideous sentiments inspired our associate with a well-founded
and profound antipathy. Again, he found on the other hand, among
the Parisian populace many so violent that, without waiting for provo-
cation on the part of their antagonists, proposed putting all mercilessly
to the sword.

It was at this time that Ampére wrote, (I have the letter at hand) to
his friends in Lyons: ‘I am like a grain between two mill-stones.

No words can describe the anguish I feel; I have no longer strength to
Gs

162 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

sustain life-here, I must, at any cost, return to you, flee from those who
say to me, ‘you will suffer no personal inconvenience; as if I could
think of myself in the midst of such catastrophes.”

Would you not, gentlemen, have a bad opinion of a man who, under
circumstances so sad, could command sufficient tranquility of mind to
be able to combine formulas, invent apparatus, and make new experi-
ments ?

Ampere, from diffidence, carefully concealed the painful feelings in-
spired by public events. Twice, however, the measure of his grief was
full to overflowing, too full to be restrained. I can cite but one in-
stance of such despair as that experienced by our associate when in-
formed of the fall of Prague, and later of that of Warsaw, to be found,
too, among the former members of the Academy. It was that of Ruello,
who entering the room with his clothes in disorder, his face pale, his
features distorted, began a lecture on chemistry in these words, which
I prize as highly as the most beautiful experiment: “TI fear I shall fail to-
day in clearness and method; I have scarcely strength to collect and
connect two ideas; but you will pardon me when you learn the Prussian
cavalry were passing and repassing over my body all night.”

The news of the battle of Rosback had reached Paris the evening be-
fore.

Once surrender yourself to the influences of mind, temperament and
heart in the contemplation of political events and the calculation of
their importance and weight and you will find it difficult to confine your-
self to those of one period, even were it as fruitful in terrible catastrophe
as the close of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries.
Biographers relate that Lamothe-Levayer died, demanding in a faint
voice, ‘‘ What news of the Grand Mogul?” With Ampere the Grand
Mogul was the whole world, time, past, present and to come. ‘The sut-
ferings of the subjects of Sesostris, Xerxes, and Tamerlane touched in his
heart as tender a chord as did those of the poor peasants of La Bresse,
among whom his youth was passed. To use his own words, he took the
same strong interest in what might take place centuries hence, as in
what was passing under his own eyes. We still recognize in this the
horror of the doubt not long since alluded to, but now supported by
philanthropic sentiments.

‘“‘ Friends,” exclaimed Lord Byron, in a moment of ill-humor, “are rob-
bers of time.” <A great student said before him, but with less asperity,
“Those who come to see me confer an honor, those who do not come
confer a favor.” Such a thought, equally selfish, in either form, never
sullied Ampére’s heart. His study was open to all at all hours. But
no one ever left, we must confess, without being asked by our associate if
he understood the game of chess. 1f the answer were in the affirmative,
he would seize the visitor, and force him to play, willingly or unwillingly
for whole hours. Ampére was too unsuspicious to perceive that un-
skillful players, (several have themselves told me so,) knew an infallible

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 163

way of winning; when fortune seemed against them, they would declare,
in very positive terms, that after very mature reflection it seemed to
them that chlorine was undoubtedly oxygenated muriatic acid; that
the idea of explaining the properties of the magnet by means of electri-
eal currents was truly chimerical; that sooner or later physicists would
return to the system of emission and consign luminous waves to their
place among the rusty old lumber of Cartesianism. Ampére had thus
the double vexation of finding pretended adversaries of his favorite
theories and himself check-mated.

Philosophers, even those whose whole lives have been passed in digest-
ing codes of wisdom for all the nations of the world, frequently, in regu-
lating their own lives, fail to steer clear of the shoals evident to the
eyes of the most casual observers. Ampere, for example, never seemed
to understand how much both his health and science would suffer from
the isolation to which he had condemned himself. He fancied he was
yielding to peremptory medical prescriptions, or to the urgent entreaties
of friendship, and he really believed he was resting his mind, when,
during the day, he passed several hours either in profound darkness, or
without book, pen, or pencil in hand. Such a delusion could not de-
ceive us; and it was not strange, therefore, that we desired to lure our
friend, for real distraction, to the Comedie-Franc¢aise; we were anxious
that he, who, in his youth had composed tragedies, should partici-
pate in the pure and elevated pleasure excited by the master-pieces
of Corneille, Racine, Moliere, and at a time, too, when these im-
mortal poets had for interpreters such artists as Talma, Fleury, and
Mademoiselle Mars. Fearing our: friend might be restrained by the
powerful influence of his religious seruples, we concluded to relate to
him the instance of the lady at the court of Louis XIV who, in con-
sulting her confessor as to whether she committed a sin in going to the
theater, received this reply: “ Madame, it is for you to tell me.” These
admirable words could not fail to make an impression on so quick and
discriminating a mind as Ampere’s. For a moment we thought our
cause gained; in fact, his mind and heart were convinced ; but how could
we insist when we saw he hesitated from the very praiseworthy fear of
wounding the feelings of those whose opinions he regarded?

I shall have displayed a great want of skill, gentlemen, if in the char-
acter of Ampere, presented to you under so many different phases, I
have not seemed to offer, at least within certain bounds, a very natural
explanation of the despondency to which our friend so often abandoned
himself, and given the principal causes of the distaste so frequently inspired
by studies that a slight perseverence would have crowned with a bril-
liant success. <A careful glance over the later years of Ampére’s life
will detect numberless instances of this despondency and distaste.

He who in his youth had devoured books of every description, even
the twenty volumes in folio of the encyclopedia, after reaching a certain
age seemed no longer to have the energy to read. With only a few ex-

164. EULOGY ON AMPERE.

ceptions the books of his library remained uncut. Here and there a few
leaves were found jagged at the edges like a saw, certain proof of their
having been separated by a misapplied finger. An author, even
amongst the most celebrated, would have vainly sought for more numer-
ous and more manifest traces of the interest and curiosity of our friend.
With the single exception of the plan for a natural classification of all
human knowledge, to everything in the scientific and literary world he
had become so indifferent that, as a proof, there now is in the hands of
geometers, and the students of our large schools, a treatise on the differen-
tial and integral calculus, without the name of the author, title, or table
of contents; the publisher, after many ineffectual attempts, was forced
to conclude that Ampere would never furnish the few lines necessary
to give the new book the form of all books since the time of Gutenberg.
Do not exclaim, gentlemen, at the singularity of this fact. I have, ac-
cording to my judgment, something still more extraordinary to relate.
Fresnel, that illustrious physicist, who carried the experimental art to
its utmost limits; who, in the discussions of the most complex phenom-
ena, succeeded, by the force of genius, in dispensing with those power-
ful but almost inaccessible aids found now in transcendental analysis—
Fresnel, by his death, left in the scientific world a great void, which, in
one respect at least, Ampére could have filled. Friends urged it; they
painted in brilliant colors the glorious future of fame and usefulness
which would be added to a reputation already European; but it was all
in vain. Ampécre was deterred by an incredible obstacle; he could not
accept the position offered, because, he said, it would place him under an
obligation to read two essays on the theory of waves, with which science
had just been enriched by M. Poisson. (The two essays were written
with the elegaut precision which distinguishes all the works of that
illustrious geometer.) Ampcre’s excuse will astonish every one; but he
gave it in so feeling a tone that to show displeasure would have been
an act of barbarity. If great and smali things may be compared, they
would remind me of the reply of the young and able-bodied workman
to this question of Marivaux, “‘Why do you not work?” “ Ah, sir, if
you only knew how lazy I am!”
. The large share I have just ascribed to influence of character must
not divert our attention from a cause not less powerful, which has itself
greatly contributed to diminish Ampére’s works. If it is true that the
discoveries whose analysis I have just given, in spite of all they present
of the vast, the profound, and the ingenious, form but an inconsidera-:
ble part of those which might have been the fruits of the powerful in-
tellect of our associate, the institutions responsible (solidaires) for so sad
a result merit the reprobation of every friend of science. I will follow,
gentlemen, by devoting a few words to the development of this idea, the
sensible advice of the author of the Essay on Eulogies: “In describing
great men, whether you emulate the gravity of Plutarch or the pungent
good sense of Fontenelle, do not forget that your aim is to be useful.”

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 165

Among the contemporaneous savants whose wonderful talents have
been misapplied, no name is more prominent than that of Ampere.

A statesman, celebrated for his witticisms, said of one of his political
adversaries: ‘His vocation is not to be minister of foreign affairs.”
And we, in our turn, might say of Ampere: “ His vocation was not te
be a professor.”

And yet he was forced to devote the best portion of his life to a pro-
fessorship, and to supply the deficiencies of his patrimony by paid
lectures.

A severe wound received in his arm in childhood had no little
share in impairing his manual dexterity. The first place, nevertheless,
that is given him is that of professor of physics, chemistry, and astron-
omy, at the central school in the department of Ain. The professor
of physics invariably fails in his experiments; the chemist breaks his
apparatus, and the astronomer can never succeed in bringing two stars
within the field of the telescope of the sextant or circle of reflection.
Are such the real difficulties encountered by the modern type of the func-
tionary called the administrator? He derives from his office the right
to appoint; a vacancy occurs; he fills it, and there is the end of it.

Ampere left Bourg to fill the chair of mathematics in Lyons, and
afterwards the office of master of analysis in the Polytechnic School at
Paris. In this new position he was not obliged to handle retorts, elec-
trical machines, and telescopes; more complete success might now be
expected; but he who undertakes the instruction of frolicsome, rest-
less, and petulant youth, quick to seize the slightest occasion of ridicule
to minister to their amusement, will find knowledge and genius not all
that is necessary for the task. To avoid giving occasion to their mis-
chievous acuteness, it is necessary to study, by living fora long time in
their midst, their tastes, their manners, their tempers; and their pecu-
liarities. The man whose character has been moulded by himself, who
has not been trained in public schools, lacks one of the elements of sue-
cess. If your bow is too profound, instead of receiving acknowledge-
meuts for the deference, you excite peals of laughter. Eccentricities,
ignorance of the world, and what is called in our artificial society a
want of style, did not interfere with Ampere’s right to rank first among
the savants for perspicuity and ingenuity; but we must acknowledge
his lectures suffered in consequence. But the superior powers of a mar
of genius should have easily commanded a more judicious and useful
position ; and science itself, with its exquisite sensibilities, must regret
that one of the noblest and most glorious of its representatives should
have been exposed to the jests of giddy youths and idle minds.

In the seventeenth chapter of his second book of his celebrated es-
says, Montaigne makes this confession: “JI can neither calculate in my
head nor on paper; the greater part of our coins are unknown to me;
nor do I know one grain from an other, either in the field or in the
barn, unless the differenceis very apparent; nor can I distinguish cab-

166 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

bage from lettuce in my garden; and I understand still less of traffic ;
and my knowledge of merchandise is more limited still.”

Aimpére, who was avery skillful botanist, would never have confounded
cabbage with lettuce, but he was as little skilled as the philosopher of
Pingueux in traffic and merchandise, which is shown by the astonish-
ment he expressed when wishing to initiate himself somewhat into the
details of his little household ; he saw fifty franes for parsley in the ex-
pense of a month, and six hundred frances for the whole year.

This, then, nevertheless, is the man who, for more than a quarter of
a century, received each year as inspector-general of the university the
mission of controlling the expenses of our principal colleges ;* and think
not he was better qualified to examine the professors and scholars, for,
once excited, his ardent imagination would straightway overleap the
boundaries of classic theories. A word in jest or seriousness would
often hurry him into unknown paths, which he would explore with the
most surprising clearness, utterly unconscious of his surroundings. It
was in this way that year after year the theory of Aviguon, the de-
monstration of Grenoble, the proposition of Marseilles, and the theorem
of Montpellier, enriched his public lectures delivered at the polytechnic
school and college of France; but this habit of our friend of distin-
guishing each of his conceptions by the name of the place where it
originated, makes us fear that he did not give at Avignon, Grenoble,
Marseilles, and Montpellier that individual attention that duty required
of the examiner.

If Ampere little suited the office of inspector-general of the uni-
versity I can assert the office as little suited him, for his domestic re-
sponsibilities, a beneficence often exceeding the limits of prudence, at
times, too, when his friends were anxiously calculating how much his
wants exceeded his means, the extravagant habit of altering unnec-
essarily the proofs of the printing-office, his endless desire for the con-
struction of new apparatus for electro-magnetism, prevented Ampére
irom resigning the principal source of a modest income. So far from
this, every year when the offices were distributed in the bureaus of the
university, did we see our friend submit with resignation to the busi-
ness of a solicitor to obtain a position which might injure his health and
could not add more than a hundred franes to his domestic economy, and
waste in painful, humiliating, and frequently fruitless efforts his most
precious time.

Finally, he departs, and for three orfour months the author of thesubtle-
theories of electro-dynamics goes from department to departinent, from city
to city, from college to college, contending with a parcel of wretched echil-
dren. Whole daysare passed hearing them decline, conjugate, and explain
passages from de viris and the metamorphoses, or in detaining them before
the so much dreaded black-board, where they stammer over the certainly
very harmless, but very prosaic, rules of multiplication, division, and
the extract of roots. The hour of return has also its tribulations of

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 167

a different nature, but not the less poignant. The portfolios of the
universities have hastily stowed away in their recesses minute lists of
the barbarisms, solecisms, and errors in calculation, which the inspector-
general must examine. Their gaping jaws also demand the accounts,
giving the expenditures for the bedding, furniture, and provisions of
thirty boarding-schools. It is in vain our friend, who has scarcely the
power to reduce his own favorite works to writing, is asked for such
accounts. In a letter, after enumerating the numerous and very
just causes of annoyance by which he was besieged, he gave the finish-
ing touches to this sad picture in these words: “The severest and
most painful of duties is to be seated, pen in hand, immoveable before
a desk.” Ampere would then have to submit to the demands of the
clerk, the hedd of the bureau, the chief of the division, and the minis-
ter, all leagued against him; and during these daily struggles, pro-
longed until the time for new inspections, he expended more time, more
ingenuity and thought, than were required to produce a chapter of his
theories of electro-magnetism.

So miserable a prostitution of the highest intellectual faculties can
have no supporters within these walls nor anywhere else ; but some one
asks, Where is the remedy? The remedy would not be difficult to find.
I would suggest that the. colossal budget should not forget that France
is covetous of all kinds of glory. I would suggest that it should guar-
antee an independent support to the limited number of men whose pro-
ductions, discoveries, and labors command the admiration and are the
characteristic features of all ages. I would suggest that these intellect-
ual powers as soon as discovered should be placed under the tutelary
protection of the whole country; that it should watch over their full
and complete development; that it should not permit them to be wasted
on common-place subjects. Any objections to which this plan could give
rise must be more specious than solid. I had summed them up and re-
futed them, but a want of time obliges me to defer this portion of my
work to another sitting. I intend to make it the subject of a special
proposition on which I shall ask the opinion of the public before sub-
mitting it to the decision of a legislative vote. There is, however, one
point about which, from this time, there could be no difference of opin-
ion, for every one will acknowledge that, under the liberal regime I have
just sketched, Ampere would have been one of the first of savants to
feel the effects of his country’s munificence. Free, then, from all care
and anxiety, released from a multitude of laborious occupations, nig-
gardly details and petty services, our friend would have been able to
carry out with ardor, enthusiasm, and perseverance the thousands of
ingenious ideas with which his mighty brain was daily teeming. I re-
marked not long since that the discoveries and works which he has
left behind him, would occupy a distinguished place in the history of
science, and be honored by posterity, and I added, too, without the fear
of contradiction, that they were but a small portion of what there was

168 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

every reason to expect from one of the most subtle and profound minds
ever created from the so rare union of the spirit of detail with the
powers of generalization. This idea did not originate with me. I dis-
covered it sometimes unveiled, sometimes veiled, in every page of Am-
pere’s correspondence with tbe friends of his youth. Each day our as-
sociate, unfortunately, weighed in the balance what he had done and
what he should have done, and each day the results of this examina-
tion increased his intense sadness.

You now know the secret of what embittered his whole life; of his
desire to have inscribed on his tomb the. brief but most expressive epi-
taph, also selected by a celebrated Swedish minister—

Happy at last! (Tandem felix.)

DEATH OF AMPERE.

Ampere left Paris in a suffering condition, August 17, 1836. His
friends, notwithstanding, were full of hope and confidence, inspired by
the thought that a southern climate had once before restored him to
health. But M. Bredin, who had joined him at Saint-Etienne, did not
share this delusion. The learned superintendent of the veterinary
school of Lyons discovered in Ampere’s appearance unmistakable symp-
toms of decay; his whole face seemed changed, even the bony outline
of the profile. All that remained unchanged about him was, and this
was exerting the most fatal influence on his already shattered condi-
tion, the enthusiastic and absorbing interest he evinced in everything,
north, south, east, or west, that could possibly ameliorate the present
condition of the human race. The racking cough which was weakening
our friend by slow degrees, his painfully changed voice, his increas-
ing feebleness, all demanded silence and absolute rest, even those least
interested in him would hesitate to make him utter ten words ; yet when
M. Bredin declined to enter into a minute and difficult decision on the
proposed changes in the second volume of the Essay on the Philosophy
and Classification of the Sciences, Ampere became most violently excited.
“My health, my health!” he exclaimed. ‘To talk of my health! There
should be no questions between us but those of eternal truth.” These
exclamations were succeeded by a profound development of the delicate
subtle links, imperceptible to the generality of men which unite the dif-
ferent sciences. Then passing beyond the conditions at last conceded
by M. Bredin, Ampere, kindling with enthusiasm, summoned to his
presence, for more than hour, all who, in ancient or modern times, have
influenced, for good or for evil, the lives of their fellow-beings. This vio-
lent effort exhausted him, and increased his illness during the remainder
of the journey. On reaching Marseilles, the city of his affections, which
once before had restored him to life, and which had overwhelmed his
son withso many warm-hearted kindnesses, he seemed in an almost
hopeless condition. The tender and respectiul attentions of all the
functionaries of the college and those of a skillful physician produced a

EULOGY ON AMPERE. 169

Slight improvement. His want of great age, too, seemed a source of
hope, for no one recollected that Ampére might have said, with the Dutch
artist Van Orbeeck, “Count double, gentlemen, count double, for I have
lived day and night!”

Our associate did not share the hopes of his friends. When leaving
Paris he knew himself near death, proof of which I have found in a let-
ter recently sent to me, in his answer to the urgent exhortations of the
chaplain of the college at Marseilles. “Thanks, M. Abbé, thanks; before
starting on my journey I performed all my religious duties.” Ampére’s
resignation in his last moments astonished all who knew his excitable
disposition, his lively imagination and warm heart. No one ever ex-
pected to find him display the calmness of that ancient philosopher,
who, on the bed of death, requested to have all disturbing influences
removed, in order, he said, to be able the better to observe what would
take place at the exact moment of the separation of soul and body. A
few moments before our associate lost entire consciousness, M. Des-
chape, provisor of the college of Marseilles, beginning to read in a low
voice the Imitation, Ampere remarked that he “ knew the book by heart.”
These were, I believe, his last words. In addition to the fatal chronic
affection of the lungs, he was now seized with a high fever; and on the
10th of June, 1836, at five o’clock in the morning, our illustrious associate,
sinking under the accumulated bodily and mental sufferings of sixty
years, as Button so beautifully expresses it, ‘‘died before he had finished
living.”

The same day the wires of Marseilles transmitted the sad news te
Paris, where it excited, as you remember, the most profound and uni-
versal grief. And Jet no one think this swift erial messenger dropped, in
this instance, its official role to intrude itself into the domain of private
life; for Ampere’s death was a public calamity.

[The following sketch, which was originally published in Blackwood’s Mayazine,
furnishes an illustration of some traits of the character of Ampere as prestined by
Arago : |

Ampere, the friend of Davy, and whilome one of the great natural phi-
losophers of France, is selected for this sketch, not from the space he at
present occupies in science, but for la petite comédie que voici,* and the
ainiable old age he exhibits. You see a venerable octégenairet of small
stature, clad in a coat of grotesque cut, on which the marks of climac-
tercial decay are as visible as upon the excellent old man who has borne
it for a quarter of a century. He has parted with his teeth, his mem-
ory, and his elasticity of step, but he retains his bonhommie, his delight-
ful mannerism, and ever and anon exhibits some flickerings of that en-
thusiasm in the cause of science with which he began life and without
which nothing is to be done. I dare not, however, meddle with the
splendid fragments of that genius which so often startles you into the
conviction that a great man is addressing you. J have been present at

“The little farce which follows. tAn eighty year old.

170 EULOGY ON AMPERE.

several amusing little scenes enacted between himself and his pupils;
and one or two are so illustrative of amusing simplicity and a not-to-be-
superannuated good-nature, that I shall venture to try their effect sec-
ond-hand. On the very first day I went to hear him, (it was an introduc-
tory lecture,) he had so filled the slate with first and secondary branches
of the goodly tree of science as to leave no room for more boughs,
unless by topping the head and abridging the undue growth of the origi-
nal shoots. Space was wanted, and the remedy should have been at
hand; but, lo! the sponge had disappeared, and could nowhere be
found, though the class showed much empressement in seeking it. At
last, with a look most comically solemn, the old gentleman drew out his
cotton representative for a foulard* and looking first at the slate and
then at the mouchoir,t plainly could not make up his mind to sully its
gaudy colors by exacting from it the office of the sponge. But while
necessity and reluctance were contending for the mastery on his features,
the sponge was picked up by one of the students and eagerly presented
to M. Ampére, whose delight and manner of expressing it were irre-
sistibly comic. Seizing it between both his hands, as if to be sure that
it was not the shadow of the veritable detergent, but the very substance
that he held, he hastened to the door, and putting his head out, called
to his assistant, @ la Moliére, in the happiest and most unconscious
imitation of the de Powrceangnac accent “Je Vai trowé; cest & dire,
on Va trowwé—il wentend pas. [Aside:] Monsieur! Hcoutez donc!” Then
at the highest pitch of his voice, ‘“‘Monsieur! ne vous donnez pas la peine
de la chercher; je Vai ici; on vient de la ramasser!” “TI have found
it, that is to say, itis found. He doesn’t hear me, (aside.) Monsieur!
Tsay, Monsieur, don’t trouble yourself about it; Ihave got it here;
they’ve just picked it up!” Then, quite regardless, and apparently un-
conscious, of what the French journalists call “‘une vive explosion Whila-
rité”t~ from the class, he resumed as if nothing had oceurred. He had
been lecturing on the polarization of light and heat, and had assumed
a Square ruler and a pasteboard almanac to represent a cylindrical ray
and a transparent medium of transmission, when gradually warming
with his subject, he began (as one is apt to do in lecturing) to describe
parabolas with his ruler, one of which encountered the tumbler, (which
is here @usage,)§ and broke the pieces of glass into his eaw suerée.|| (With-
out eau suerée nobody could get on with a lecture at the College de
France or the Sorbonne, though law and physic lecture with unlubri-
cated fauces.) Out of this half-demolished glass, he was presently
prepariug to drink, when half a dozen voices at once called out, ‘Mon-
sieur Ampere, ch, Monsieur Ampere, qu allez-vous done faire ?” ‘Monsieur
Ampere, oh, Monsieur Ampere, what are you going to do?” But he,
uothing heedful of these exclamations, raised the tumbler to his lips,
and began to sip its now dangerous contents. In an instant one of the

*A real bandana. § Customary.
t Handkerchief. || Sugar and water.
tA loud burst of merriment.

EULOGY ON AMPERE. aba

foremost in the class springs forward and seizes the old man’s hand,
another wrests the tumbler from his grasp. A scene! Profound silence
in the class! The venerable man looks at them ironically. ‘ Thank
you, gentlemen! Very kind of you! But you are giving yourselves un-
necessary trouble! I took it for granted that my class understood the
laws of gravitation. With your permission, gentlemen, I will first drink
my eau sucrée, which I want, and will then give you a hint, which you
appear to want.” He now drank without further molestation, and then
drawing in a long breath—‘HLh! comment, Messieurs, voulez vous qwil
esten du danger! Ne savez-vous done pas que le verre est plus pesant que
Veau?” “What, gentlemen! then you thought there was some danger!
But ain’t vou aware that glass is heavier than water! And did you not
observe how careful I was to drink the contents of the tumbler at a rea-
sonable angle?” Then, taking up the tumbler, he continued to incline
it over the table till it was nearly horizontal, and so on, till the pieces of
glass fell out, and the class laughed. “ Ah! si je Vavais bu a cette angle-
la!—mais jai été plus adroit!” “Ah! if [haddrunk at this inclination !—
but I was too knowing for that.” Here (for it was at the end of his lec-
ture that this little episode occurred) a bright-eyed damsel went up and
asked some question respecting the course of rays of light through cer-
tain media, but whether old Ampere referred her to his heart, as we
should have done, we could not hear. She colored, however; her eyes
seemed pleased with the interpretation given to her question, whateverit
might have been, and they walked out together—a “January and May”—
separated only by the insecure partition of the pasteboard almanae which
the elder of the months still kept in his hand.

THE SCIENTILIC LABORS OF EDWARD LARTET.*

By Dr. P. FISCHER.

The Geological Society of France has always paid due respect to the
memory of the men who have taken an active part in its transactions
and whose seientific reputation ought in justice to be perpetuated.
M. Gervais, president of the society, has already expressed the uni-
versal regret caused among us by the death of M. Lartet, and one of
his pupils may now be allowed to review the labors of the estimable man
whose loss we deplore. ;

Edouard Amand Isidore Hippolyte Lartet was born on the 15th of
April, 1801, in the department of Gers, at Saint Guirand, near Castelnau-
Barbarens. He was descended from a family which had settled in the
country at a very early date. He was the youngest of five brothers,
with whom he was sent, for education, to the Lyceum at Auch, and he
was one of the three pupils who received the medals awarded to that
establishment by the first Napoleon. His predilections were for history
and archeology rather than the judicial sciences, but, in deference to
the wishes of his father, after leaving the peneee of Auch he entered
the law-school of Toulouse, where he graduated in 1820. By a singular
coincidence, Cuvier, then counselor of state, signed, instead of the min-
ister of public instruction, the diploma of a youth afterward to be
distinguished in the path which this eminent -scientist had opened to
paleontology.

In order to perfect him in the practice as well as the theory of his
profession, he was now sent to Paris, in company with an elder brother.
soe while fullilling the duties imposed upon him with that fidelity

which characterized him throughout life, he found time for his favorite
eae After he had mastered the rudiments of these sciences, he
continued to pursue them, and as his store of books was not large he
sold those he had read in order to obtain others. When he returned to
Gers he was not only prepared for the practice of the law but for the
especial researches which afterward rendered his name illustrious.

M. Lartet, after completing his law education at Paris, settled in Gers.
The practice of his profession was, however, coufined to giving advice to
the peasants, which was the more highly appreciated because gratuitous.
Frequent emanations of this kind from the kindness of his heart consti-
tuted a prominent trait of his character. Impelled by gratitude his
clients frequently brought him medals of Gallo-Romanic antiquity which

*A translation for the Smithsonian Institution of ‘‘Note sur Ja vie et les travaux
VEd. Lartet, par M. Je docteur Fischer, lu 4 la séance générale annuelle de la Société
géologique de France,” from “ Vie et travaux d’Edouard Lartet: notices et discours
publiés a occasion des a mort,” pp. 39-55.

SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF EDWARD LARTET. LCS

they had found accidentally, and such fossil bones as had attracted their
attention.* One of these gifts, the tooth of a mastodon, seems to have
determined his true vocation, and led to one of the most important dis-
coveries in geology, that of the contents of the marl-pit of Sansan. He
soon gave himself up entirely to the study of geology and comparative
anatomy. He made several underground explorations, and then, hav-
ing entered into communication with some of the savans of Paris—Blatn-
ville, Arago, Flourens, Geoffroy St. Hilaire, Michelin, Desnoyers, &c.,
commenced the publication of his researches. Irom 1834 to 1870 he la-
bored unceasingly in the development of new and interesting results; but
in order to appreciate his investigations, it is, I think, necessary to group
them under three principal heads, and to examine in succession the pub-
lications relating to the fauna of Sansan, to tertiary paleontology, and
to the quaternary period.

I.—INVESTIGATIONS RELATIVE TO THE MARL-BEDS OF SANSAN.

The existence of fossil bones at Simorre, in the department of Gers,
had been noticed in 1715 by Réaumur, but no one had described this de-
posit or studied its fauna. M. Lartet, who resided at a short distance
from Simorre, and who had discovered marl-beds much richer at Sansan,
was surprised to find that important differences existed between the re-
mains of vertebrata of these two localities. The fauna of Sansan pre-
sented a large number of new species of mammals, and was terminated
by the existence of a stratum containing numerous terrestrial and fluvial
molluscs. M. Lartet described the strata of Sansan in a letter ad-
dressed to Geoffroy Saint Hillaire in 1834. Encouraged by his dis-
coveries, he undertook a series of methodical researches, which were soon
to render famous the locality of Sansan as well as the name of the natu-
ralist who explored it. In 1837 the work was sufficiently advanced to
establish the general characteristics of the two fauna of Simorre and
Sansan. While at Simorre the dominant species were reduced to two
dinotheria, five mastodons, three rhinoceroses, one pachyderm resembling
the wild boar, one. small stag, and one large ruminant; at Sansan the
dinotheria appeared to be wanting; the rhinoceroses were different—had
four fingers upon the fore feet. Among other mammalia was observable
one paleotherium resembling that of Orleans, one anoplotherium, one
animal similar to the anthracotherium, several stags, one antelope, one
small ruminant, one gigantic carnivore, its teeth indicating affinity with
the cat and the dog, one dog, one large cat, several rodents, &c. But
the two most remarkable specimens of the fauna of Sansan were un-
doubtedly a large edentate and a veritable monkey. The edentate
seemed to M. Lartet very similar to the gigantic pangolin of Cuvier,
but as its teeth were molars it could not be classed in the same family
as the pangolin. As to the monkey, the lower jaw and its dentition

*The peasants suppose these specimens were the creations of the devil, who imitated
in the bowels of the earth the works of the Deity.

174 SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF EDWARD LARTET.

were complete—four incisors, two canines, four false molars, six molars ;
in all, sixteen teeth in a continuous series—the dental formula of man
and of some monkeys.

M. Lartet comprehended immediately the importance of the discovery
of the monkey of Sansan, and the influence it would have upon the prog-
ress of paleontology. ‘We have here,” said he, ‘‘a mammal of the fam-
ily of monkeys, contemporaneous with the palceotherium and the ano-
plotherium, extinct genera long considered the most ancient inhabitants
of our continents. Types of certain genera are not, then, so recent as
has been generally supposed. Perhaps sooner or later further observa-
tion may teach us that this ancient system of nature, still so little known,
was neither less complete nor less advanced in the organic scale than
that in which we live. M. Lartet’s communication produced quite a
sensation in the Institute, and excited a discussion the interest of which
may be appreciated when we recollect that at this time Cuvier’s “ Re-
searches on Fossil Bones” formed the alpha and omega of the paleontol-
ogy of vertebrates.

Cuvier, after a critical examination of the bones of men and of mon-
keys supposed to be contemporary with extinct species, proved that they
were not authentic. He then remarks upon the tardy appearance of the
monkey and man. It is astonishing, he says, that among all these
mammalia, the larger number of which have living representatives in
warm climates, not a bone or tooth of a monkey has been found. No
trace whatever of man—all the bones of the human species hitherto dis-
covered among the fossils were placed there accidentally. In thus as-
sociating the time of the appearance of man with that of the monkey
Cuvier gave great eclat to the happy discovery of the monkey of Sansan,
as it was very probable that the discovery of the fossil monkey would
pe followed by that of the fossil man.

The caution of Cuvier in regard to the antiquity of man has been in
these latter days singularly exaggerated. Instead of blame he ought to
receive praise for the precision of his researches, the most important
result of which has been to compel the supporters of the antiquity of
man to bring forward positive and multiplied proofs in support of their
hypothesis instead of premature assertions. It would be well if some
of the advocates of tertiary man had possessed a small portion of the
eritical acumen which was one of the most important characteristics of
the mind of Cuvier.

Blainville, who prepared the report of the communication of M. Lartet,
agreed with him, after the examination of the jaw, in the opinion that
it had belunged to a monkey of the old world—a monkey superior in
degree, av that no living species was identical with it. From the above
conelasien3 he proceeded to the discussion of trivial and unimportant
points of anatomy. He regarded paleontology merely as a description
of fossil animals compared with their living representatives. The idea
of a enecession of living beings in order of time; of the diversity of

SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF EDWARD LARTET. 175

tauna according to their geological periods; of their correlation with the
temperature, the extent, and the flora of ancient continents, did not
occur to his purely analytical mind. It was far otherwise with Geoffroy
Saint Hilaire, who, notwithstanding his errors, his obscurity, and the
affectation of his language, boldly sought to penetrate the mystery of a
science still in its infancy. Geoffroy called his articles Remarks upon
the singular and important fact in natural history of the existence of a
species of monkey found in the fossil state in the south of France. “It has
been asserted,” he says “that the monkey of Sansan is allied to the ape
of the Sunda Islands, and yet the animals thus related, the one so old, the
other now existing, are separated by thousands of centuries.” We would
suppose that, in contemplating fossil bones, the idea of their wonderful
antiquity would alone completely absorb the mind. “The discovery
of the fossil jaw of the monkey by M. Lartet seems to me to be the
commencement of a new era in the knowledge of the human species ;
of new research into the distinguishing characteristics of the various am-
bient media; of closer approximation to the laws which govern those
grand domains of the universe, where from age to age the mutation of
things is accomplished.”

Certainly the successfal labors of modern paleontologists in relation
to the climate, the fauna, and the flora of the tertiary and quarternary
periods, have realized the aspirations of Geoffroy Saint Hilaire. What
progress has been made in this difficult branch in less than thirty years,
and how much may be anticipated from the future of a science whose
development has been so rapid! It is easy to foresee the light it will
throw upon the history of the evolution of life upon our planet. But
Geoffroy Saint Hilaire went still further—the new facts disclosed by
paleontology he regarded as so many new arguments against the theory
of the fixity of species maintained by Cuvier. ‘The incessant muta-
tion of things,” he writes, “is a dominant fact verified by every new
geological discovery.” We see by a review of these discussions how
much the savans of the Institute were at that time engrossed with the
problems of paleontology. Blainville shortly after read before the Insti-
tute a report upon a new set of fossils from Sansan, which were described
by M. Lartet in a letter to Flourens.

M. Lartet observed a singular conformation in the stags of Sansan ;
the horns seemed the same at every age, and to all appearances were
not dropped as those of living deer. M. Lartet proposed the name
dicrocerus for this group of ruminants. Blainville approximated them
to (C. muntjak) the genus cervulus, whose very prominent frontal pro-
longations are crowned by horns which are shed every year.

An accidental discovery, at this time, of a peculiarity in the denti-
tion of the ruminants of Sansan will be more fully described elsewhere.
The evolution of the second molars is quite complete before the loss of
the false molars or milk-teeth, while in living animals of the same group
the milk-teeth are replaced before the appearance of the last molar.

176 SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF EDWARD LARTET.

The composition of the teeth is also not the same. Cortical or cement

vas wanting in those of the ruminants of Sansan, although found in
the teeth of the fossil ruminants of Auvergne, most of which are more
recent.

These ingenious researches of M. Lartet formed the germ of a work
which appeared in 1868, in which he laid still more stress upon the dif-
ferences between the fossils of the same genus of successive geological
periods in regard to the structure of the teeth and the size of the
brain.

In 1839 M. Lartet published his first summary of the discoveries in
geology and paleontology in the department of Gers, with an appendix,
in which were described forty-four species of fossil vertebrates. Another
article, published in 1851, under the title, “‘ Description of the Hill of
Sansan,” was exclusively devoted to the paleontological examination of
this locality, and of the other fossiliferous deposits of Gers. The author, in
order to explain the richness of the fauna, and the profusion of bones
found, supposes that a lake existed at Sansan in which the lacustrine mol-
luses lived, and into which the vertebrates were thrown after their death.
He shows that great difference exists between the fossil and the living
fauna of Sansan, and will not admit that the existing animals descended
directly from the miocene animals reconstructed by himself. Finally,
he gives a complete list of all the vertebrates he collected, with the ad-
dition of a catalogue of the terrestrial and lacustrine molluses described
by Saint Ange of Boissy, Noulet, and the Abbé Dupuy.

This list, after its publication, was modified to suit the changes in
nomenclature, and then confided to M. D’Archiac, to be inserted in his
report on the Paleontology of France, (1868, p. 360.) The fauna of
Sansan comprises seventy-one mammals, representing thirty-nine gen-
era, eighteen birds belonging to twelve genera, twenty-eight or thirty
reptiles, a few fishes, and forty molluses of twelve genera, the largest
collection of vertebrates in our country; and very few localities in the
world could show a similar accumulation of animals in as limited a space.
'.In 1845 M. Lartet sent a synopsis of his recent discoveries at Sansan to
the Institute. ‘About 8,000 or 10,000 remains have been collected,
among them the bones of a large fossil edentate or Macrotheriwm, and
enough parts of a dinotherium to convince naturalists that this ani-
mal is not ecetaceous, but rather a terrestrial quadruped. There is
not a single species identical with existing forms. This special point
on the earth’s surface known as Sansan, has, it seems, given birth to a
variety of mammals much greater than that now existing. Every de-
gree in the animal scale has been here represented, including the
monkey. <A still higher type—that of man—it is true, has not been
found; but because he is wanting in these ancient formations we need
not conclude that he did not exist.”

These ideas in regard to the fossil man were singularly in advance of
the age in 1845. It almost seems as if M. Lartet had a presentiment of

SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF EDWARD LARTET. Vea

the important part he was to take later in the scientific discussion of
the contemporariness of man and the large quaternary mammals.

Through the intervention of the professors of the musewn, the ground
where the excavations had been made at Sansan was purchased by the
government, and M. Lartet gave to the museum his rich collection of
fossil vertebrates, which may now be seen in the galleries of that estab-
lishment. In 1851 new excavations were made under the direction of
MM. Laurillard, Merlieux, and A. Milne-Edwards; and in 1869 M. Lartet
himself presided over some explorations, which led to the discovery of
some very interesting fragments of large mammals and numerous re-
mains of small vertebrates.

II.—INVESTIGATION IN REGARD TO TERTIARY PALEONTOLOGY.

The scientifie activity of our lamented fellow-member was not confined
to the study of the fossil fauna of Gers. We are indebted to him fora
number of articles upon various subjects connected with paleontology.

In 1855, Constant Prévost announced to the Institute the discovery,
in the osseous conglomerate of Mendon, of the tibia of a bird, of a very
large size, called Gastornis Parisiensis. The zoological affinities of the
gastornis were warmly discussed. M. Hébert considered it a palmiped,
nearer a swan than a pelican; M. Lartet, although he allied it to the
lamellirostral palmiped, thought that it came from a bird less essen-
tially aswimmer; Valenciennes compared it to the albatross, and Duméril
to the stork, while Richard Owen thought it resembled the dinornis
and large quarternary birds of New Zealand. At this day it seems
probable that the opinion of MM. Hébert and Lartet was correct.

Two years after M. Lartet described another large bird, of the softened
miocene of Armagnac, the Pelagornis miocenus, distinguished solely by
a humerus a third longer than that of the albatross, and consequently
of all living birds. The pelagornis approaches the longipennate palmi-
peds.

The comparative rarity of fossil birds in the marl-beds surprised M. Lar-
tet. Itis possible that on account of their peculiar organization they may
have escaped more easily than other vertebrates the modifying influences
of physical changes. Hence the great interest in studying them is to prove
whether they are initially endowed with a specific power of longevity suffi-
cient to continue them, by successive generations, down to the present
time.

M. Lartet, after connecting his name with the discovery of the monkey
of Sansan, had the good fortune to describe a new fossil animal of
the same group, the Dryopithecus Fontani, found in the neighborhood of
Saint Gaudens by M. Fontain. It was represented by a fragment of the
lower jaw, and a humerus, and was found in a stratum with the macro-
therium, the dicrocerus, and the rhinoceros, similar to those of Sansan.

The dentition of the Dryopithecus places it between man and the ape;

28

178 SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF EDWARD LARTET,

it ought, therefore, to be classed with the superior orders of the simian
group, which include the orang-outang, the chimpanze, the gorilla, the
ape, and the Protopithecus antiquus of Sansan.

In the same basin of Garonne, M. Lartet discovered a new species of
Sirenian fossil, the Aytiodus, whose enormously developed incisors seem
to be related to the means of defense of the dugong. The classification
of the fragments, collected at Sos (Lot et Garonne,) was attended with
great difficulties, which were, I think, very skillfully overcome.

The collections of our associate included numerous remains of probos-
cidian fossils, (dinotherium, mastodon, elephant.) He saw the necessity
of settling first their specific characteristics, and then of establishing
their stratigraphical age. His undertaking was laudable and of unques-
tionable utility, since the teeth of the proboscidians are almost always
found in the tertiary and quaternary deposits. It was first necessary to
elucidate an obscure system of synonymy; then to show the dental
formula of each species, to settle the question of the successive evolu-
tion of the teeth; to fix the time of the fall of the milk teeth, and finally
to give the characteristics of the persistent grinders. Such was the work
proposed by M. Lartet in his remarkable memoir upon the dentition of
the proboscidian fossils, and the stratigraphical distribution of their re-
mains in Hurope.

He proves the probable existence of four species of dinotheria, notwith-
standing the large number of species described, and in opposition to the
opinion (held by several naturalists) of the union of these species into
one. <A beautiful fragment of a young dinotherium gave him an oppor-
tunity of observing the evolution of the teeth.

Among the six species of mastodons admitted by him he ease a new
form, the Mastodon Pyrenaicus ; the replacement of the teeth in the
mastodons was exhibited to him by the jaw of the Mastodon angus-
tidens. Among the elephants he recognizes four species identifying
the Hlephas priscus with the elephant of Africa.

The appearance of these fourteen proboscidians was anticipated in
Europe by that of the rhinoceros. The dinotherium and the mas-
todon are found in the miocene period; but, while the dinotherium
disappeared or becomes extinct in the miocene, the mastodon died out
in the pliocene. The elephant born in the pliocene disappeared from-
Europe probably after the establishment of man in that country.

In 1856, M. Lartet gave, conjointly with M. Gaudry, an account of the
fossil fauna of Pikermi. The importance of these collections of .M.
Gaudry in Greece are now well known; fifteen species of vertebrates,
represented by thirty-three genera, have since been described in his
article upon the fossil animals and the geology of Greece, but@n 1856
the classification of the fossils had hardly commenced. There were
sumerous remains of monkeys, a careful examination of which proved

hat the two species described by Wagner and Roth, under the names

SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF EDWARD LARTET. 179

of Mesopithecus Pentelicus, and Mesopithecus major, were only the two
sexes of the same monkey.

MM. Lartet and Gaudry mention a large edentate of Greece, like the
macrotherium of Sansan; they also describe the Thalassictis robusta,
the Hystrix primigenia, and give details in regard to several other
species discovered by Wagner; but the most valuable facts brought to
light by their article relate to two fossil giraffes, one of which after-
wards became the type of the curious genus Helladotherium. They also
pointed out the analogy between the fauna of Pikermi and that of
Cucuron, and the excavations of M.. Gaudry and Cucuron have since
confirmed their views in this respect.

M. Lartet observed that with the most ancient ruminants of the ter-
tiary period, that part of the molar-teeth which forms the enameled
crown above the socket was shorter and projected less beyond the edge of
the alveolus than with the quaternary ruminants or existing species of
the same family.

M. Lartet concluded from this that the tertiary lynx, whose molars
are not so long in the crown asin the animal now in existence, must have
been shorter lived, since the duration of life necessarily depends upon the
functional persistence of those indispensable organs of nutrition.

He also observed that in the old mammals the size of the brain was
small compared with that of the head. Cuvier had before been im-
pressed by the small relative volume of the brain of the anoplotherium,
and supposed in consequence that the animal had very little intelligence.

The examples presented by M. Lartet in support of his thesis are eon-
elusive. Thus, the Brachyodon eocenus of the eocene, the lophiodons of
Issel, have brains smaller and less complicated than that of the Caenothe-
rium of the lower miocene of Allier; the brain of the Hipparion has
fewer convolutions than that of the horse; the wild-cat (Viverra antiqua)
of the miocene of Allier has a cranial boneless voluminous than that of
the living species, while its olfactory lobes are more developed,

The size of the cranium, considered in relation to the length of the en-
ameled crown of the teeth, induced M. Lartet to suppose that the longey-
ity of animals increases in direct proportion to the cerebral development,
‘and consequently the animals now existing ought to live longer than their
corresponding types in the ancient world.

I ought to mention among the researches of M. Lartet in regard to ter-
tiary fauna, his latest work upon the Trechomys Bonduelli, a rodent of
the size of a rat, from the upper marl of the gypsum of Pantin. Mo-
lars with a crown similarly formed may be found among existing ro-
dents of the American type: Among fossil rodents which have some
relation to the Trechomys may be mentioned the Theridomys ‘and the
Isoptychvs.

In the caleareous formations of Gironde, M. Lartet mentions the unex-
pected association of a rhinoceros with an anthracotherium and a paleo-
therium. These fossils were discovered by M. Deltortrie, of Bordeaux.

180 SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF EDWARD LARTET.

The rhinoceros may be compared to the R. latidens ; the anthracotherium
to the Hippopotamus leptorhynchus, of Konzon, near Puy-in-Velay ; the pa-
jeotherium to a species of Paloplotherium of the calcareous deposit of
Ronzon. The existence of the rhinoceros is thus carried back to the
jime of the paloplotherium. The same relations between these animals
Imay extend to the beds of Hempstead, in the Isle of Wight, where there
are hippopotamiand paleotherians ; also, to Bournocle Saint Pierre,where
the Rhinoceros Brivatensis has been found associated witha paleotherium.
Certain types of mammals which have been for a long time considered
as characteristic of distinct tertiary periods ought now to be examined
carefully with reference to the age ‘of the deposits in which they are found.

Ill. RESEARCHES RELATIVE TO QUATERNARY FAUNA TO THAT OF
THE CAVES AND TO THAT OF THE PRESENT TIME.

The researches cf M. Lartetin regard to ouaternary fauna, to that of
the caves, and to fossil man, added greatly to his reputation, and placed
him among the most illustrious savans of our country. He did not seek
celebrity ; modest, conscientious, and burdened with the heavy respon-
sibilities of an official position, he loved science for the pleasure it
gives its votaries. His amicable relations with most of the naturalists
of Europe was of great advantage to him, and his careful study of qua-
ternary and tertiary fauna prepared him for the diseussion of the great
question of fossilman. It was, therefore, not surprising that he should
have distinguished himself in this branch of natural science.

The memoir of M. Lartet upon the ancient migrations of the mammals
of the present time may be considered as ,an introduction to the consid-
eration of the fauna of the caves. According to his observations, the
quaternary fauna includes two distinct zoological groups: The first is
represented by the elephant of Africa, the two-horned rhinoceros, the hip-
popotamus, the lion, the panther, the serval, the striped hyena, the genet,
the wild boar, &e., animals now nearly all African, which lived in
Europe before, during, and after the-great migratory phenomenon of the
north.

The second zoological group is composed of mammals of northern
origin, Hlephas primigenius, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, and many species of
Europe. <A few of its representatives, the musk-ox, the lemming, the
glutton, the reindeer, since the quaternary period, have migrated to subare-
tic latitudes ; others, such as the Hlephas primigenius, the Rhinoceros tich-
orhinus, Cervus giganteus, Bos primigenius, Ursus speleus, &e., are gene-
rally becoming extinct, in accordance with the laws which control the
longevity of individuals, and so limit the duration of species.

Truly an examination of the quaternary fauna is not less important
than that of the periods which preceded and followed it, and we can
well comprehend M. Lartet’s opposition to the doctrine, then all-power-
ful, which reduced to a short period of physical convulsions, the time
during which the quaternary species were developed. ‘ This quaternary

SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF EDWARD LARTET. 181

period,” he says, “‘ which is regarded by many as a sudden and violent
transition from geological to present times has probably witnessed the
development of millions of successive generations of the mammals
which now inhabit Europe, and the day may not be far distant when
the word cataclysm will be expelled from the vocabulary otf positive
geology.” 5

This theory in opposition to the great effect of cataclysms upon the
existence of species was elaborated and supported by incontestable facts
in “some remarks upon the geological antiquity of the human species, in
Southern Europe,” addressed by M. Lartet to the Academy in 1860, and
printed in the Bibliotheque de Geneve.

In regard to the discoveries of M. Boucher des Perthes, then greatly
contested, M. Lartet considered that all doubt would be dissipated if
traces of human action could be found upon the bones of the animals
exhumed at the quartz works. He then sought for the quaternary
bones described or mentioned by Cuvier, and found upon them very
evident traces of the action of fiint instruments.

The human race who worked the quartz of Amiens inhabited Eng-
land and France were the same. The two countries were then united ;
their separation did not take place until after the deposit of the diluvial
banks. After that event no great catastrophe occurred in Europe;
the water courses may have been more rapid, but they did not overflow
the limits of their present hydrographic basins. A dozen mammals,
more or less, disappeared by gradual and successive extinction, and the
greater part of the terrestrial population passed through the ordinary
supposed changes of this long quaternary period.

From 1860 M. Lartet was almost exclusively employed in the caves,
and we are indebted to him for interesting descriptions of Aurignac, of
the Madeleine, of Laugerie, of the Eyzies, of Bruniquel, and of several
other celebrated localities. It is difficult to give in a limited space an
idea of the various matters discussed by M. Lartet in regard to these
caves; questions which belong to ethnology, anthropology, primitive in-
dustry and even history ; but I cannot pass over in silence the oppor-
tune intervention of paleontology in the chronological classification of
the caves.

In looking over the list of the great quaternary mammals, it will be
seen that eight or nine extinct or emigrated species have been found
among the remains of the caves. Some of these have never been met
with except in the lowest strata of these caves, where they have been
succeeded by several zoological generations, while their presence in the
oldest diluvium equally attests their age. Several successive periods
may thus be distinguished during the time of the caves.

For instance, the Ursus speleus seems to have appeared the earliest,
and to have become extinct before the animals associated with it. The
Elephas primigenius and its faithful companion, the Rhinoceros tichorhi-
nus, are found in the diluvium, but are wanting in the peat, the kitchen

182 SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF EDWARD LARTET.

refuse, the lacustrian habitations, &c. The reindeer, on the contrary, are
still in existence, as also the urns or bison ef Poland.

M. Lartet divides the period of primitive humanity into four ages: the
age of the bear of the caves, the age of the elephant and of the rhinoce-
ros, of the reindeer and of the Poland bison or auroch, but these sys-
tematic divisions are applicable only to a limited region. In Lithuania,
the aurochs still exist, as in the time of Cesar the reindeer was still an
inhabitant of the hereynian forest.

Such were the facts disclosed by M. Lartet by his examination of
the cave of Aurignac. In his other exeavations all his sagacity was
called into play by the figures of animals sculptured and engraved—the
first artistic efforts of the men of the caves. It would be unjust not to
mention in this connection the name of the English savan Christy, who
displayed so much zeal in the explorations of Périgord, and who pre-
pared, with M. Lartet’s assistance, a beautiful work entitled “ Reliquice
Aquitantee.”

It was in association with M. Christy, that M. Lartet caleulated the
zoological population of most of the grottoes of Périgord. “ A race,
aboriginal or otherwise,” he says, “inhabited this region in the same
period with the reindeer, the bison, the wild goat, the chamois, animals,
some of which have now representatives only in extreme climates, while
a few descendants of others are found on the summits of the Alps and
the Pyrenees. These people were not acquainted with the use of metals,
they lived by hunting, and no animal was domesticated by them. Their
sculpture indicates great artistic feeling.”

We are indebted to this artistic talent for a very satisfactory repre-
sentation upon an ivory tablet of the Hlepkas primigenius. This re-
markable specimen came from the cave of the Madeleine. The figure
of the reindeer is found engraved upon many of the bones from Périgord.

All the facts relative to the caves of the southwest part of France
were to have been collected in a large volume by MM. Christy and
Lartet, but unfortunately this interesting book was not completed, in
consequence of the premature death of its authors. The parts published
are filled with original research in regard to the caves of the valley of
Vezere, the ancient fauna of Périgord, the grotto of Cromagnon, the
exploration of which was made by a son of M. Lartet, and the human
fossils of Cromagnon, We.

M. Lartet also examined the bones of the caves of the Maritime Alps
and of Herault. He found in the cave of Mars, about two miles from
Vence, a new species of bear, strongly resembling in some respects the
polar bear; this bear was associated with the leopard and the Rhinoceros
Merkii. From the rhinoceros M. Lartet endeavored to determine the
characteristies of the quaternary rhinoceros, of which the aflinities are
very obscure.

In conelusion I would call attention to a memoir upon the fossil
musk-ox, a portion of the skull of which was found in the diluvium of

SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF EDWARD LARTET. 183

Précy, (Oise.) There was nothing peculiar in the character of this
fossil; its classification was easily determined; but its presence in the
quaternary period was a fact worthy the consideration of paleontolo-
gists. M. Lartet mentions as analogous cases the reindeer found at the
foot of the Pyrenees; the sperm whale of the bone-pits of Montmo-
rency, and that of the caves of Perigord, which resemble the American
‘species; the bear of Canada, which is identical with the ‘supposed
agouti of the caves of Liége; the antelope found at Perigord; the
desman, of Muscovy, in Norfolk, described by Owen under the name
Palwospalax magnus, &e. Were these consecutive changes of habita-
tion due to elective migration; to a forced retreat on account of the
invasion of man, or to a gradual reduction of the species destined to
become extinct?

This sketch of the works of M. Lartet, however incomplete, may give
some idea of the character of his mind. He was to the last degree
eareful and accurate in the examination and classification of fossil
specimens; but their character once established on a firm foundation,
his ingenuity, his patience, his originality, and power of close obserya-
tion frequently from facts apparently the most sterile, developed very
unexpected and interesting results. The definition of genius, as
applied to a well-known naturalist, ‘ genius is patience,” was fully
exemplified in him, and he was never more patient than during his
excavations in the caves, while in his application of paleontology to
the classification of the fossil specimens found there, he truly acted as
a pioneer in this branch of science.

In the latter years of his life M. Lartet, whose modesty equaled his
wisdom, received many marks of honorable distinction. He was elected
to preside over the Geological Society in 1866; shortly after the Anthro-
pological Society gave him the same testimony of esteem. He was made
President of the International Archzological and Prehistoric Anthropo-
logical Congress, which was inaugurated at Paris in 1867, and which
claimed the honor of having originated theories in regard to fossil man.
He was appointed a member of the commission for the History of the
Transactions of the Exposition of 1867, and took an active part in the
organization of the very interesting anthropological galleries. He ren-
dered important assistance in the formation of the museum of Saint Ger-
main, and was made an officer of the legion of honor at time of its in-
auguration. In 1869 he was elected by the professors of the museum
to the chair of paleontology, made vacant by the death of M. d’Archiac,
whose loss was deeply deplored and whose memory will always be vene-
rated by the Geological Society.

M. Lartet was sixty-eight years of age when he entered upon his pro-
fessorship ; he had never undertaken a course of public instruction, and
felt the importance of the task imposed upon him. He prepared a cer-
tain number of lectures, but unhappily, to his great regret, his health,
already impaired, prevented a full exposition of his views in regard to

184 SCIENTIFIC LABORS OF EDWARD LARTET.

tertiary fauna. His physicians soon interdicted all intellectual work
and recommended his return to his native air as the only hope of recovery.
He left Paris in the early part of August, a prey to the most gloomy
presentiments, and had hardly arrived at Gers, near Sansan, the scene
of his former labors, when he was heart broken by the national misfor-
tunes of the French, at the time of the foreign invasion ; his strength
failed rapidly, and he expired on the 28th of January, 1871, less than
two years after his appointment by the museum, bequeathing to us an
example of a life honorable, disinterested, and entirely devoted to science.

THE SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF MECHANICS AND ARTISANS.

AN ADDRESS DELIVERED AT THE ANNUAL COMMENCEMENT OF THE
WORCESTER (MASSACHUSETTS) FREE INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL SCI
ENCE, JULY 31, 1872.*

By PROFESSOR ANDREW P. PEABODY, of HARVARD COLLEGE.

Many years ago there was a strong feeling throughout New England
in behalf of manual-labor schools (so-called.) I think I am right in
saying that the experiment, wherever tried, failed. The reasons are
obvious. The labor was not skilled labor, and therefore gave no mental
revenue, and very low wages. It was merely a clumsy endeavor to
enable poor young men to pay by the least remunerative kinds of work
for their board and tuition at a half-time school. The hand-labor not
only taught them nothing, but stupified those of them for whom that
work remained to be wrought. Most of them, however, started with
not a very large or active brain-capital; for so slow and limping a gait
had few attractions for youth of genius or ability.

This institution is at the broadest remove from those, in theory and
in practice. Its name soimplies. Itisan institute of industrial science.
Its labor is brain-work; its machine-shop is a recitation-room ; its me
chanical processes correspond to the collegian’s drawings on the black
board; its finished products, to his corrected and approved diagrams.
Its object is to train liberally educated mechanics and artisans—mer
who shall start in life with progressive ideas and the power of rapia
self-advancement; who shall diffuse intelligence while they create
values; who shall adorn as men the society which they enrich as opera-
tives; who shall have, independently of their callings, a selfhood im-
measurably more precious and more honorable.

In addressing the students, graduates, and friends of this institution,
I have chosen for my subject the worth of an extended education to
mechanics and artisans.

Suffer me to begin with the lowest consideration, that of money’s
worth—the lowest as it is commonly called, yet by no means to be
despised ; for though we have the best authority for saying that “the
love of money is the root of all evil,” this love and the sordid qualities
which it implies and engenders are, I think, oftener produced by pinch-

* Furnished by the author for publication by the Smithsonian Institution, at its
special request.

186 SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF MECHANICS AND ARTISANS.

ing penury than by earned and merited prosperity; while the position,
influence, and capacity of usefulness which money confers are worthy
of every man’s strong desire and honest endeavor. Especially do they
suit the ambition of him who may hope to enrich himself by the crea-
tion of values, and not by speculating upon them. |

Let us analyze the price of a finished commodity. Here is a lathe, or
an air-pump, or a steam-engine, held at a certain price, which, where
competition is free, very nearly represents its exact value. That value
is composed of three parts: the wages of labor, the wages of skill, and
the reimbursement and profit of capital.

The wages of labor, that is, of mere physical force, or of processes
which require no knowledge or discretion, constitute the smallest part
of this value. Labor can never earn more than a mere subsistence, nor
ought it to earn more. Left to itself, it cannot produce more than
enough to sustain a meagre, starveling life. The aborigines of North
America had dwelt on this soil for hundreds, perhaps thousands of
years, yet had not only accumulated no wealth, but were unable, ex-
cept at rare intervals, to secure a satisfying supply for the rudest wants
of nature. A New England farmer, even with the ownership of his
land, if he apply no skill or science to his farm, though he, his wife, and
his children toil incessantly, can obtain barely the necessaries, hardly
any of the comforts of life. Now, the wages of labor must be measured
by its products, and by this measure will generally fall short of the cost
of comfortable living. They somewhat exceed this standard in our
country at the present moment. The reason is that in the development
of our resources, the construction of railways, and the opening of fresh
soils, the demand for manual labor keeps a little in advance of the sup-
ply. But what mere bone and muscle can earn in an old and settled
community, what their earnings tend to become and may very soon
become here, may be learned by the wretched pittance of English opera-
tives, not sufficient to save their families from a death-rate which shows
that poverty is no less destructive than pestilence.

Moreover, low as these wages are, the tendency in a fully-settled
country is to a still farther decline. Though production may increase,
the demand for unskilled labor diminishes. The time was when all
work was done by hand. Now, machinery driven by steam or water-
power supersedes the greater part of hand-labor. All the strong men in
the habitable world could not exert the amount of physical power which
is at this moment at work in the little island of Great Britain. The
substitution of machinery for human strength is still going on. Steam
is replacing even the shovel and the pickaxe; and the time will come
when the Briarean steam-engine, with its fireman and feeder, will every-
where do the work which a hundred arms do now. The supply of labor
thus tending constantly to exceed the demand, its wages must sink
very nearly to the starvation point.

The second part of the price of a manufactured commodity is the

SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF MECHANICS AND ARTISANS. 187

wages of skill. This is distributed among the workmen employed, in
proportion to their respective degrees of skill. He who can work only
as a journeymen under the direction of others, or who ean perform but
a single and not very difficult process in a complicated piece of work,
receives a somewhat higher compensation than he would get for carry-
ing a hod or-shovelling earth, and this slight advance is the price of the
imperfect training and the moderate degree of brain-power which he
puts into his work. He, on the other hand, who understands every
part of his business, who can knowingly direct the labors of others,
who can insure for the articles of his manufacture the highest reputa-
tion, and can be relied on for the fulfillment of his contracts, can ob-
tain a price fully proportioned to his superior skill and ability. His in-
come is a compensation for the amount of labor which his skill super-
sedes. <A part of the saving inures, indeed, to the public in the cheap-
ening of the commodities produced, but a large portion becomes the
legitimate recompense of his own skill. Competition will prevent his
receiving more than he fairly merits. The master-machinist or manu-
facturer, who has some hundreds of operatives under his employ, even
though he have twice or three times the salary of the governor or chief
justice of the State, earns all that is paid to him, and is at the same
time a public benefactor to a very large extent; for the commodities
that he furnishes would, under a less skillful superintendence, be pro-
duced at a much greater cost. But for skill like his, clothing and fur-
niture, that are now within every one’s reach, would be too expensive
for the means of any save the richest purchasers.

But this skill, except in the rarest instances of mechanical genius,
is to be acquired by education alone, and not by the mere training of
the hand, but equally of the brain. Theskilled laborer cannot dispense |
with the knowledge of chemistry, physics, and mathematics. By chem-
istry he must learn the properties of materials, their proportions and
laws of combination, the action upon them of oxygen and hydrogen, of
heat, light, and electricity. By physics he must become acquainted with
the mechanical powers, the strength of materials, the effect of friction,
the constants and variables which must always be taken into the ac-
count to prevent either the deficiency or the waste of force. But physics
is a mathematical science, and chemistry has become one; indeed, till
it was one, it hardly merited the name of science. Without a very
thorough mathematical training, neither chemistry nor physics can be
so understood that the artisan can have a fair command of his mate-
rials, instruments, and forces ; can meet_unexpected exigencies ; can avail
himself understandingly of improved processes; can calculate results,
economize resources, and give his products their highest degree of per-
fection. Then, too, the skilled artisan needs general culture. He is to
conduct correspondence, to treat on equal terms with men of intelli-
gence and education, to maintain in society a position worthy of re-
spect and confidence, to do his part toward raising his special calling to

188 SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF MECHANICS AND ARTISANS.

the rank of a liberal profession; for this is what the various depart-
ments of mechanical art ought to be, and they will be thus called and
recognized, so far as their professors show themselves men of liberal
nurture.

The third part of the cost of a commodity, is the reimbursement and
profits of the capital expended in buildings, machinery, and raw mate-
rials. Capital is, in fact, the accumulated savings of the wages of skill.
Labor creates all values. But, as we have seen, mere hand-labor can
no more than support the laborer; it leaves no surplus to be saved.
Skilled labor, on the other hand, creates more value than the laborer
consumes, and the surplus remains in hand—in the ruder states of so-
ciety, in such wealth as can be locked up in coffers, ward-robes and
eranaries; in a more advanced community, in such forms as admit of
its expenditure in industrial operations. By laws, which [ have not
time to expound, but as inevitable as those by which the little streams
of a valley lose themselves in the river that drains it, small capitals
tend to run together, and thus to form the large capitals, which are the
object of so much senseless jealousy and hostility. These large capl-
tals are indispensable to the stability of industrial operations ; for even
in the most lucrative descriptions of business there are not unfrequent
seasons of stagnation and reverse, which would be rainous, were there
not capitals ample enough to keep the wheels of industry in motion
without immediate revenue.

Capital ought toearn much more than the mere support of its holders
and managers. It ought to have such profits as will lead to its own
large annual increase, which is needed, in part, to replace the immense
amount of property annually destroyed by fire, storm, shipwreck, and
_ disaster, and, in part, to meet the essential outlays for the industrial
demands of a population growing rapidly, both in number and in wants.
Here let it be remembered that all capital, in order to yield a profit, must
be used for industrial purposes. The hoarding of it is a mere fiction.
It must all be worked over, and the labor and skill which it employs
must be paid for before the capitalist receives the first dollar of his in-
come. It will be observed, also, that large capitals, so far from super-
seding, utilize, protect, and cherish small capitals, however invested,
whether directly in industrial enterprises, or indirectly through banks ;
and while the absorption of small capitals is constantly going on in a
healthy condition of society, their creation is more rapid than their ab-
sorption, as in a rainy season the brooks and streams receive from the
heavens more water than they can carry into the river.

Now the point which I wish to urge is this: By the education given
nere, the mechanic or artisan is enabled to secure for himself at once
the wages of labor which will feed and clothe him, the wages of supe-
rior skill which will yield him a surplus revenue, and the profits of
capital, by the investment of his savings year by year, and of the con-
stantly increasing income of those savings. This, indeed, is the proper

SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF MECHANICS AND ARTISANS. 189

way of settling the conflict between labor and capital. Every skilled
laborer belongs to both parties, and in fighting against capital he is at
war with himself. If he begins life poor, his interest may, indeed, then
seem to be on the side of labor; but with every year’s savings it is
more and more for his interest that capital should yield a remunerative
income, and the very measures which, if saecessful, would impoverish
the millionaire, would render his modest surplus earnings unproductive
and their investment insecure. The graduates of this institute may re-
gard themselves as capitalists in the near future; for the brain-power
that is furnished here is the very material from which wealth is created.
Were I familiar with the names in Worcester, I know that I could point
out to you not a few of the proprietors of these great manufacturing
establishments, who came hither with no resource except hands and
brain, and have fairly earned, by industry and skill, every dollar of the
tens and hundreds of thousands which it may be literally said they are
worth; for, though a man may not be worth all the money he has, he is
worth all that he has honestly acquired.

But there are higher grounds on which institutions like this should
be cherished. We are training in our schools of industrial science dis-
coverers and inventors in their several departments—men who will
shorten and cheapen the labor of production, introduce new applications
of science to the useful arts, and add permanently to the wealth of
humanity by industrial improvements.

There are some families in the vegetable creation—dicecious, so
ealled—in which the fruetifying pollen and the fruit-producing blos-
some are elaborated on different plants. Similar has been the case, for
the most part, in the industrial world. Inventions have generally been
the joint product of two very different classes of minds, neither of which
could have effected anything without the other; and, not unfrequently,
between the two an important invention has been kept for many years
in abeyance, and, when finally perfected, has been of doubtful or dis-
puted parentage. The germinal idea or principle has been conceived
and suggested by a man of learning, science, and studion§ and reflective
habits, but of no practical skill. He has tried in vain to embody it;
has encountered, it may be, ridicule, opposition, contempt. Perhaps,
after years of fruitless endeavor, he has lapsed into unhonored peuury or
death. His idea has been taken up by some man who had the skill to
actualize what he had not genius or knowledge enough to originate,
and he has reaped the honor and the profit of his predecessor’s uncom-
pensated study and toil. As by the old slave-law the child follows the
fortunes of the mother, so the invention—the brain-child—is, by gen-
eneral consent, accredited, not to the fertilizing mind, but to the pro-
ducing hand.

An obvious instance may be found in the history of the application
of ether as an anesthetic agent. You know that Drs. Jackson and
Morton both claimed the invention, and both, I believe, with equal

190 SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF MECHANICS AND ARTISANS.

truth, though by the law which I have specified the right was Morton’s.
Jackson conceived the idea, for which Morton’s scientific knowledge was
inadequate. Morton contrived means for the successful experiment, for
which Jackson’s practical skill was inadequate. Had Jackson been a
practising dentist as well as a chemist, or had Morton been a scientifi-
cally educated man as well as a dentist, either might have ‘borne the
undisputed honor of discoverer and inventor.

In a certain sense inventions are said to be the work of their age
rather than of individuais; but they have generally been a little behind
their age. A new and fruitful idea has commonly been current in the
scientific world for a generation or more, before it has been actualized,
and this for the simple reason that the scientific men have not had the
skill requisite for successful experiments, and the men of practical skill
have not had science enough to recognize and welcome the dawning of
any new light. Thus, an invention of prime importance has often hov-
ered long within the near reach of both speculative and practical men,
waiting for that conjunction of science and skill without which it could
not assume an available form; and when it has been at length brought
forth, many had approached so near it and had so distinetly antici-
pated it as to claim with entire honesty the merit of its inception.

The history of steam-power affords numerous illustrations of the prin-
ciple which I have enunciated. A full century of experiments by spec-
ulative philosophers on steam as a working force had elapsed—with the
construction of various forms of machinery, which demonstrated its
potential efficacy, yet were too cumbrous, or too frail, or too restricted
in their range of work to be put to any use, except. for pumping water |
from mines—when the steam-engine, with its cylinder and piston sepa-
rate from the boiler, came from the hands of Newcomen, the blacksmith,
and Cawley, the plumber, about the beginning of the last century.
Some sixty years later, Watt conceived the idea of a separate condenser,
to save the loss of power and the waste of fuel by the alternate heating
and cooling of the eylinder—a contrivance ‘which alone and at once
placed steam in advance of all other mechanical agencies, and gave sure
presage of its enduring and world-wide supremacy. But he, though a
mechanical genius of the highest order, was hardly more than a self-
taught workman, having had but a single year’s apprenticeship to a
London mathematical-instrument maker. His conception and foresight
of his great invention were clear and vivid ; but his own working-power
was very limited, and in all Glasgow he could not find artisans capa-
ble of the delicate workmanship required, the collective skill of the city
not sufiicing for the casting and boring of a cylinder, while a hammered
eylinder left fatal interstices between its inner surface and the piston.
After fourteen years of speculation and experiment he had got no
further than to show that he ought to have succeeded, and was yielding
to despair under the pressure of poverty and repeated failures, when he
entered into partnership with Boulton, a trained and skilled manufac-

SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF MECHANICS AND ARTISANS. 191

turer in iron and steel, in Birmingham, the emporium of skilled labor
for the British Empire. Under these new auspices his progress was a
continuous triumph—a triumph which, however, was his, only because
his partner was a just and true-hearted man; for it is under precisely
such circumstances that in numerous instances the actual inventor has
succumbed to the skilled and able artisan, while Boulton left to Watt
the fame that was his rightful due, and took care that his long years of
toil and want should be crowned by an old age of ease and affluence.

Attempts at navigation by steam were made at intervals for a century
and a half, or more, but generally by men who had more science than
art; often by those who had neither, but only a vague conception of the
capacity and destiny of this mighty agent which was to inaugurate a
new era for human industry and enterprise. Some of these experiments
were partially successful, yet failed to combine the essential conditions
of power, speed, manageableness, and durability. Fitch, had he been
a well-trained mechanician, would undoubtedly have antedated by sev-
eral years the establishment of steam-navigation on our western waters.
But the glory was reserved for Fulton, who, though not educated as a
mechanic, had made himself one by taste, study, and matured practice,
and was as familiar with the details of material, method, and workman-
ship as with the scientific conditions to which all these are subservient.
Yet even he was retarded in the successful execution of his plans by
the fact that he was not by profession a machinist or a ship-builder.
The idea, full grown and available, preceded its final embodiment by at
least fourteen years, an interval in which he had experimented in France
tnder disadvantages and discouragements that would have been facal
to the scheme, but for his indomitable elasticity and hopefulness. Had
he been master of a machine-shop or a building-yard of his own, he
would undoubtedly have launched the Clermont not later than the first
year of this century instead of the seventh, and would have been spared
the litigations with rival claimants which imbittered the residue of his
life, and hastened its close, leaving, as his biographer says, for “the only
patrimony of his children, the load of debt which their parent con-
tracted in those pursuits that ought to command the gratitude, as they
do the admiration of mankind.”

Of the disabilities under which an inventor may labor in consequence
of his not being an artisan by profession, we have a striking illustration
in Eli Whitney, the inventor of the cotton-gin. In his case the concep-
tion and the execution were united. He was a man of thorough literary
and scientific education, and at the same time of a native mechanical
genius, which attested itself in his very boyhood by the manufacture of
tools, cutlery, and musical instruments, of peculiarly good quality and
finish. After graduating at Yale College he went to Georgia under an
engagement as a teacher. Cotton was at that time almost worthless as
a staple of agriculture and commerce, as it could be cleaned from the
seed only by hand, at the rate of a pound of the gross cotton per day

>

192 SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF MECHANICS AND ARTISANS,

for each laborer. He saw at ence the possibility of performing this pro-
cess by machinery, and constructed a rude and imperfect model, worked
by hand, which turned out fifty pounds of the cleansed staple per day.
But he found in Georgia neither the workmen nor the materials for per-
fecting his invention or for multiplying his machines. It took him
years to get the manufacture well under way. Meanwhile, in the eager-
ness for the use of this wealth-yielding process, his patent-rights were
ignored ; cotton-gins embodying his principle, with trivial variations,
were multiplied; the interest of intrusive manufacturers and that of the
planters who adopted their contrivances, and thus laid themselves open
to legal prosecution, were arrayed against him, and elicited a strong
public sentiment to his prejudice; sixty suits were instituted before he
obtained a single legal decision in his favor; and his invention, which
at once raised the whole southern section of the country from thriftless
poverty to abounding opulence, was to him never worth the parchment
on which his patent was engrossed.

Now the effect of institutes like yours is to replace the dicecious by
moneecious trees—to have the pollen and the fruit-buds grow on the
same stalk. You have here, students and graduates, all that careful
training can do for you to make you discoverers and inventors—to en-
able you both to initiate and to actualize industrial improvements, and to
reap, without hinderance or rivalry, your merited honor and recom-
pense. Moreover, nothing less than this training can put you on the
arena with the promise of success. No accurate practical results can
be reached without the most exact calculations ; for, whether man
know, or be ignorant of, the laws of number and proportion, all sub-
stances and forces in nature obey them, and man masters nature only
by making them his rule and measure. .

Your literary education here tends in the same direction. Especially
is this true of the command you acquire of the French language. He
who would contribute to the industrial advancement of mankind must
know what others have thought and done, how far each separate art
and science has advanced, what unsuccessful experiments have been
made and therefore need not be repeated, and in what directions men of
learning and skill are looking for the new light of which they may uncon-
sciously be the harbingers; and the French has been for more than a
century the mother-tongue of science and the useful arts, abounding
equally in encyclopedic works and in monographs, and presenting the
most advanced views in every department of physical philosophy and
of practical technology.

With these exercises of the school-room you have the education of
the workshop, far more systematic, comprehensive, and exact than
could fall to your lot under the best private auspices. You thus will
be prepared to execute or direct your own plans, to embody your new
thought in wood, steel, or brass, and to insure for yourselves a fair
trial of whatever process or agency may seem to you an improvement
on the past. :

SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF MECHANICS AND ARTISANS. 193

Think not that the canon of inventive genius is closed. It is but just
opening. Agents may be slumbering unrecognized that shall supplant
those now in the ascendant. Steam—the sovereign of our time—may
yield the sceptre to a mightier energy. The power now obtained by
the holocaust of forests and the disemboweling of the solid earth may
be replaced by some one of those elementary forces which ‘spread
undivided, operate unspent.” The general use of condensed air for pur-
poses of locomotion by land and water is now as probable as that of
steam was a century ago; and Ericsson has advanced as far in the
former as all the predecessors of Fulton had done in the latter. How
know we that the electro-magnetic force which we have harnessed to
our thought may not one day be yoked to our railway trains? Who
can say that the pretended generation of light and heat for common
uses by the decomposition of water (the rumor of which, if I mistake
not, emanated from this very city,) while an audacious imposture, may
not have been an unintended prophecy? Who knows but that the still
deficient directing and impelling force may yet be so applied as to give
certainty and calculable utility to aerial navigation? Then, too, in
many of our established processes, machines, and modes of locomotion
there are still limitations, liabilities to accident, possibilities of added
speed or efiicacy, in fine, a thousand directions in which inventive talent
may be fruitfully busy. Nor is there any invention, however insignifi-
cant it may seem, which multiplied, as it may be, by thousands or mil-
lions, and extending into an indefinite future, may not carry with it an
untold saving of cost and labor, and in many cases, even of life. The
invention which in the least degree facilitates industry, and increases
and cheapens its products, is a benefaction to society which will im-
measurably outweigh and outlast the most munificent gifts that wealth
can bestow. It is by such charities that many of you, I trust, will co
honor to your calling as liberally-educated artisans.

Permit me now briefly to advert to the need which our country has
of institutions like yours. Nothing is more evident than the over-
crowding, at the present time, of every department of commerce. Up
to a certain point commerce is, like the mechanic arts, a creative pro-
fession. A commodity is not a finished product till it is brought within
easy reach of its consumer, and the merchants—wholesale and retail—
who are needed for the successive stages between the producer and the
consumer are to that extent co-agents in the production, as are also the
bankers and brokers who supply the necessary funds and facilitate the
essential pecuniary arrangements. But when members of the mercan-
tile profession are so needlessly multiplied that they create supernu-
merary stages in the passage of goods from the producer to the con-
sumer, interpose to arrest instead of facilitating their transfer, levy
black-mail on every commodity in the market, and get for themselves
the lion’s share in its ultimate price, they then inflict a grievous wrong
on both parties—they make their supertluous profit on the spoils of

138

e

194 SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF MECHANICS AND ARTISANS.

both; on the one hand scanting the wages of productive industry, on
the other hand cramping the consumers’ purchasing power.

That this is the condition of things in our country at the present time,
there can be no doubt. The reason, too, is obvious. Our schools edu-
cate our young men to a point at which they feel that they sacrifice
their self-respect and sink beneath their proper level by becoming mere
laborers, or mere routine-mechanies, especially when they are thus
placed by the side of, or brought into competition with, the hordes of
unedueated and rude immigrants that crowd our labor-market. Those
who were themselves content with hand-labor are ambitious of a
higher destiny for their sons. Hence the rush into commerce. Hence
the scores of applicants for every vacant clerkship. Hence the spec-
tacle—equally ludicrous and sad—of hands that could wield the sledge-
hammer, measuring tape, drawing soda-water, and weighing sugar-
plums. Everything that can by the broadest construction call itself
trade or commerce deems itself respectable ; and therefore our towns
and cities are supporting twice the number of shopkeepers that they
need, and sustaining able-bodied men, too, in paltry commercial in-
dustries, which yet would give a competence to our thousands of starv-
ing women and girls.

To restore the deranged balance of society, its old honor must be
rendered baek to labor. Industrial pursuits must be raised in respecta-
bility and dignity above the lower walks of commerce, and fully toa
level with its higher departments and functions. Both agriculture and
handicraft must be made liberal professions. This can be effected only
by stocking them with men of liberal culture; for it is not the profes-
sion that gives character and standing to the man, but the man to the
profession. Our agricultural colleges and our industrial institutes are
supplying the needed culture, and are going to replenish the field and the
workshop with a new order of large and high-minded operatives, men
of liberal tastes, pursuits, and aims, who will do honor to their respect-
ive callings, and make them seem worthy the noblest ambition of the
aspiring youth of the coming generation. The successful impulse has
been already given. It is already no uncommon thing for the graduates
of our best colleges to pass at onee into the machine-shop or the factory,
and to go through the entire novitiate as a raw apprentice might. It
has, indeed, been demonstrated, and it will soon be made apparent to
the whole world, that there is no departinent of productive industry in
which genius, talent, science, and learning may not find fit investment,
ample room to grow, and adequate social position and honor.

There are other points to which I would gladly ask your attention
had Lnot taxed it solong. But I cannot close without reminding the
students and graduates of this institute that education has, or ought to
have, a higher use than what we call its use. We are too apt to think
of the course of early study and discipline, chiefly as a specifie prepara-
tion for one’s business or calling in after-life, as the means of becoming

SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF MECHANICS AND ARTISANS. 195

a good lawyer or physician, merchant, mechanic, or farmer. This, how-
ever important, is but a secondary purpose. You might better be, my
young friend, a beaver or a sparrow, if skill as an artisan or a fabricator
seems to you the great aim and end of life. Over and above your pro-
fession, exceeding it, mastering it, should be your selfhood, your man-
hood, your being as a thinker, a knower, a member of human society, a
child of God, an immortal soul. Your course of instruction here has its
highest value in giving you real knowledge, materials for thought,
stimulants to mental activity, and, withal, food for your moral, spiritual
nature. In the laws of the material universe, and especially in the
necessary and eternal laws that underlie all meron itical science, you
enter into close contact—I would that you might ever know and feel
it—with the Infinite mind; you become conversant with forces which
are but the multiform, yet undivided, Omnipotence. In the study of
physical science you are within fomplele gates and on holy ground. Let
then these pursuits into which you are here initiated for a life-long self-
training, vindicate their claim to be regarded as liberal studies by the
breadth and depth of thought, sentiment, and character which they
inspire and cherish, by the high type of manhood which they foster, by
the noble lives to sane they give the impulse.

Remember, above all, that your ultimate success depends on charac-
ter. Genius and skill, unsustained by character, will but glitter and
vanish. Industry, probity, chastity, sober habits, a quick and healthy
conscience, are worth fully as much in the mere material interests of a
life of average duration as they are in the judgment of God and in the
esteem of good men. Young persons are very apt to discriminate be-
tween preparation for this world and preparation for the world to come.
To one who has lived as long as [ have, the two seem identical. Could I
start at your age with the fruits of my three score years of observation
and experience, I should take precisely the same route to the surest and
highest earthly success, emolument, and honor, which I would take as
the nearest way to heaven.

ORGANIC BASES.

LECTURE DELIVERED BY PROFESSOR A. BAUER BEFORE THE VIENNA SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF
SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE.

[ Translated for the Smithsonian Institution. ]

Although bodies having the properties of acids, as, for instance, tar-
taric, citric, and malie acids, had long been known to exist in certain
vegetable and animal substances, it was reserved for our century to dis-
cover bodies of alkaline or basic properties in the organic world. A
chemist, Sertiirner by name, first succeeded in isolating morphine from
opium, the long-known juice of the poppy, obtained by making incisions
into the capsules, and afterwards drying the product in the air.

Little attention was at first paid to this discovery, because all the
energies of chemists had been turned to the study of inorganic chem-
istry; it was out of the regular line of research at the time, and,
therefore, remained isolated and unappreciated. When, however, sev-
eral years later, Gay Lussac showed the importance of Sertiirner’s dis-
covery, and proved himself, in a dissertation published in 1816, that
morphine acted like an alkali in regard to vegetable colors and acids,
his work became the incentive to a search for similar bodies in such
plants as were known for their sanative or poisonous effects. In many
cases their active principle was found to consist in an alkaline substance,
combined with an organic acid, and hence called an alkaloid.

Pelletier and Caventon found alkaloids in Peruvian bark and in the
strychneacee, and in 1826 Unverdorben succeeded in artificially preparing
several alkaloids or organic bases by the dry distillation of horn, bones,
and other animal substances. These discoveries gained for organic bases
a place among the most important and interesting bodies in chemistry,
and many chemists devoted themselves exclusively to their study.
Theoretical considerations concerning the nature of organic bases
saused their more extended investigation. These theoretical considera-
tion were founded upon the interesting fact of the similarity of all
these bases to ammonia. In the natural alkaloids the similarity consists
chiefly in the chemical equivalents, but in the artificial bases lately dis-
covered it is also exhibited in their physical properties.

These facts have led to the supposition that there exists an intimate
relation between the organic bases and ammonia. Berzelius, indeed,
suggested the probability of the pre-existence of ammonia in all these
bases ; while Liebig, in the first volume of his Dictionary of Chemistry,
(Handworterbuch der Chemie,) developed a theory concerning their con-

ORGANIC BASES. 197

stitution, which forms the basis of our present views as to this interest-
ing branch of chemistry. He assumed that ammonia was the type of
all organic bases, and that it was itself such a base, of the simplest
composition. Ammonia consists of only two elements, containing one
atom of nitrogen and three of hydrogen in one molecule.* Liebig as-
sumed that, in the organic bases, a part of the hydrogen was replaced
by other radicals, composed of several elements; these bases might
therefore be considered as made up of a compound radical and a combi-
nation of one atom of nitrogen with only two of hydrogen, the other
atom of hydrogen being replaced by the new radical. The compound
thus formed is called amid.t Such a base is called an amid base.t

Liebig developed this idea in the clear and ingenious manner peculiar
to himself, and expressed his views concerning the probable nature of
compounds which could be formed from amid and the alcohol radicals.
Ten years later his ideas were verified by experiment. Ethylamine, and
a whole series of similar bases, were produced by Wurtz in Paris in
1849.

These discoveries of the celebrated French scientist justly excited un-
usual attention, which was still increased when A. W. Hofmann and
Wurtz demonstrated that not only one atom of hydrogen in ammonia
could be replaced by an alcohol radical to form amid bases, but that
compound radicals could be substituted for two, and even for all three,
atoms of hydrogen. These bases might be designated as primary, sec-
ondary, and tertiary amid bases, according as one, two, or three atoms
of hydrogen of the ammonia have been replaced by compound radicals.
(in English treatises on chemistry they are usually designated as amid,
imid, and nitril bases.— The Translator.) ‘Their chemical formule are rep-
resented by the following table, in which A, B, C, stand for the compound
radicals.

Ammonia base. Amid base. Imid base, Nitril base.
HH A A ) A ?
15 Mon H >n 3 >n Bon
HY H HS C

As Hofmann has shown later that there is a series of compound rad-
icals which may replace two atoms of hydrogen in the doubled formula
of ammonia, producing a second extensive series of bases, whose com-
position is expressed in the following table, where A! B! and C! repre-
sent the compound radicals.

H, AY) aviit Ati Al
Hi, rg Hy, Ng B! 7 le B' > Ng
H, H, § H, § o§

If we suppose only 52 such compound radicals capable of replacing
one atom, and 32 of replacing two atoms of hydrogen,-we obtain
39,000 millions of possible compound organic bases.

* The symbol N, (nitrogen,) in chemical formule, means one atom of nitrogen, and
H one atom of hydrogen. The formula for ammonia is therefore: H-+-H-++-H-+N= H3N.

+t The chemical formula of amid is therefore : Hy» N.

¢ The formula for an amidogen base is: A+H,N, in which A stands for a compound
radical.

198 ORGANIC BASES.

This enormous number shows how impossible it is, in spite of the
most persevering labors, to become acquainted with more than a very
small proportion of these compounds. This very number urges us to
study only the prominent representatives of whole series, and to give to
them our whole time and energies.

From what has been said in regard to the composition of organic bases,
it was thought evident that nitrogen would appear to be the component on
which their properties depend, for they all contain nitrogen. But we know
now whole series of analogous bases containing, instead of nitrogen,
some other element of similar properties. These also have the charac-
teristics of ammonia. As early as 1846, Paul Thenard had made phos-
phorus bases, which were more thoroughly investigated in 1855 by
Hofmann and Cahours. Analogous arsenic bases have been known
much longer. In 1760 Cadet prepared one, the composition of which he
could not, of course,explain. The investigations of Bunsen, from 1837 to
1843, shed more light on this remarkable class of organic bodies, and
the constitution of the arsenic bases was finally completely made clear
by the researches of Cahours, Kolbe, Riche, and especially Baeyer, in
Berlin. In 1850 Loéwig discovered antimony and bismuth bases, so
that we now have four other elements capable of forming whole series
of basic combinations like those of nitrogen. Compare these with the
above-mentioned number of possible nitrogen bases, and we will be con-
vinced that the chemist as well as the astronomer is able to astonish us
with magnificent numbers, and to call up before the mind’s eye endless
series of possible combinations, all producing bodies having special
qualities.

However much these researches have extended our knowledge, they
have but slightly improved our acquaintance with the bases and alka-
loids spontaneously formed in nature. The constitution and the rela-
tions of these natural alkaloids to the other bases and to other chem-
ical compounds are much less understood than the foregoing statement
would lead us to suppose. The causes of this are that the natural al-
kaloids are mostly very complex bodies, and that they suffer such com-
plete changes in most reactions, that it is difficult to study them, or
to form any conclusion as to the constitution they had before they were
decomposed. It must be left to the future to shed more light on the
nature of these bodies. Let us hope that it will be possible to make
those alkaloids synthetically which have hitherto been found only in
nature. We must not forget in this connection that most of the natural
bases contain oxygen, which is not found inthe ammonia bases. Although
the discovery of the so-called ammonium bases, and Wurtz’s beautiful
discovery of the behavior of oxide of ethylene to ammonia, have indi-
cated the way of preparing such oxygen bases artificially, there is nev-
ertheless a difficulty, which seems almost insurmountable. It is the
fact that most of the natural bases have optical properties, while we
cannot succeed with the aid of the above processes in preparing com-
pounds possessing similar properties from substances not originally

ORGANIC BASES. 199

possessing them. The discovery of methods for the artificial or syn-
thetic preparation of the alkaloids would not only be of high scientific
interest, but it would also greatly advance our material interests, for
there is scarcely another group of bodies of such manifold uses as the
organic bases.

Many of these alkaloids play an important part in the arts, others are
known as the active principles of stimulating articles of food, while the
great number of them are valuable as medicines. Many of them are ex-
tremely violent poisons, and have acquired an unenviable reputation
from cases in which they have been employed.

Poisoning by means of vegetable bases is rendered doubly dangerous,
because it is often difficult to prove with certainty the presence of the
poison in the corpse or the secretions by chemical analysis, while the
presence of mineral poisons can generally be detected with ready cer-
tainty. The reason of this is not difficult to understand. Weare but
imperfectly acquainted with the properties of the natural alkaloids.
They resemble each other very much. In cases of poisoning, they are
mixed up in the stomach or other parts of the body with many other or-
ganic substanees, all containing carbon and having certain properties in
common with them. These organic substances are of course more akin
to the vegetable bases than to inorganic substances, such as the com-
pounds of arsenic, which are not found in any part of the human body.
Metals are present only in insignificant quantities, and those which are
present are not at all similar to arsenic. Now the organic bodies pres-
ent all contain nitrogen and may have basic properties, both character-
istics of alkaloids. It is obvious that the detection and separation of
very similar bodies are much more difficult than the separation of dis-
similar ones, where the detection of a single property often sufiices to
prove their presence with certainty.

If we consider furthermore that the alkaloids are very easily decom-
posed, and that in legal chemical investigations the bodies in which they
are to be sought forare generally in a state of putrefaction, ¢. ¢., of contin-
ual active change, we will understand how impossible it is frequently
for chemists to separate the poisons in a state of purity from parts of
the body and to prove their presence with certainty. It is indeed some-
times possible to inject the substances which in cases of poisoning
must contain the vegetable base, into the blood of living animals or to
mix it with their food, and then to judge, from the physiological effects
on the animals, which poison was present. The changes produced by
certain alkaloids on the beating of the heart, on the general action of the
muscles, and on the nervous system, are frequently so characteristic that
we can judge of the presence of one or other alkaloid with as much cer-
tainty from these effects as from pure chemical reactions. Such proofs,
however, have not the full force of evidence in court, for in such cases
the separation of the pure poison must always be the chief aim of the
chemist.

Dangerous as our organic bases may become in the hands of the

200 ORGANIC BASES.

murderer, they are highly salutary in the prescriptions of the physician,
who employs them with great success in the treatment of severe and
otherwise unyielding diseases. Peruvian bark owes its efficacy to the
alkaloid quinine which it contains together with cinchonine and chinidine
in varying proportions. Formerly, before these facts were known, there
was no standand by which the value of different specimens of Peru-
vian bark could be correctly judged. Sometimes a certain kind of bark,
whose dose had been fixed by experience, acquired a much greater value
than others whose efficacy far surpassed it. Now the value depends on
the amount of bases contained in the bark and not on the color, shape,
or Other external signs. Not the smallest piece of the bark is now al-
lowed to be lost on gathering it, because processes are known by which
even the smallest quantity of quinine contained in it can be obtained.
The same is true of different kinds of opium. Their medicinal value
depends on the amount of alkaloids they contain. These are morphine,
codeine, and narcotine, three beautiful crystallizable bodies, the latter of
which is distinguished by the peculiar property of furnishing another
base, trimethylamine, when mixed with soda-lime and subjected to dry dis-
tillation. Chemists have proved the presence of trimethylamine in the
pickle of herrings. It is the cause of their peculiar odor. Urine con-
tains it also in small quantities, hence its smell of herrings when much
of it is evaporated down. The belladonna and the datura strammonium
contain the alkaloid atropine, whose terribly poisonous properties are
generally known, but which plays a very important part in treating
diseases of the eye. Applied to the eye in a dilute state, or rubbed into
the skin near the eye, it powerfully dilates the pupil and greatly facili-
tates certain operations on that organ. Irom all parts of the hemlock,
a colorless, transparent oil of penetrating odor can be obtained, which
is known under the name of coniine, and is one of the most poisonous
alkaloids. Hither this or cicutine contained in the water-hemlock was
the cause of the tragical death of Socrates. In the St. Ignatius bean
and the nux vomica, strychnine is found along with brucine; it forms a
beautiful, crystallizable alkaloid, distinguished by its extremely bitter
taste and by its producing tetanic spasms when injected into the blood.
To this class of organic bases belong also those poisons which savages
use for steeping the points of their arrows. There are undoubtedly
several such poisons. It seems that the one used by the savages of In-
dia and Africa is essentially different from that used by the natives in
the northern part of South America. The former, called antia, imme-
diately stops the beating of the heart, while the latter, called curare,
first palsies the general muscular action and then stops the heart. Curare
is the better known of the two; it was first brought to Europe by Sir
Walter Raleigh in 1595. According to Humboldt, the preparation of this
poison resembles our vintage feast. The savages collect poisonous vines
in the forest, while the women prepare an intoxicating fermented liquor,
of which they all partake. When all are intoxicated and lie in deep
sleep, the master of the art prepares the poison by extracting the juice

ORGANIC BASES. 204

of the vines and evaporating it down. Different travelers agree that
they also add poisonous ants and fangs of snakes. It would seem
therefore that curarin, the active principle of the arrow-poison or
curare, was a constituent of the juice of vines; but there is no certainty
on this subject, since travelers do not agree in their accounts of the
preparation of this interesting substance. Curare can be taken into the
alimentary canal without the slightest danger, and even the meat of
_ animals poisoned by it is innocuous, while it is certainly and often sud-
denly fatal when injected into the blood even in small quantity. When
introduced into a wound, this poison occasions no pain whatever. The
symptoms preceding death are very remarkable, as can be seen when a
very small quantity is introduced into the blood of alarge animal. There
is an immediate relaxation of the muscles, all voluntary motion ceases,
the animal sinks down powerless, but with its consciousness unimpaired,
and finally the respiration ceases and death ensues, without the presence
of any symptoms which would indicate excitement or a death-struggle.
It is a progressive palsy, ending in the brain.

A whole series of organic bases is esteemed on account of the pleasant
stimulating effect they exert on the body when in small quantities and
diluted with other substances. They belong to the category of luxuries.
Among them, nicotine, the active principle of tobacco, takes the fore-
most rank.

Pure nicotine is a liquid, which becomes brown in the light, has a to-
baeco-like smell and possesses very poisonous properties. The amount of
nicotine contained in different kinds of tobacco varies. Although it is
not exactly in the inverse, it is by no means in direct proportion to the
excellence of the tobacco. Fine brands, such as Havana and Mary-
land tobaccos, contain but very little; the former not quite two and the
latter from two to four per cent. Kentucky and Virginia brands con-
tain as much as from six to seven per cent., and some of the domestic
brands of Germany contain considerable quantities.

Besides nicotine, there are some other bitter principles contained in
tobacco, which are the chief cause of nausea in young smokers. These
are kept back by smoking pipes with long stems, which only allow the
gaseous bodies to reach the mouth. Besides carbonic acid and carbonic
oxide, tobacco smoke often contains as much as 5 per cent. of carbonate
of. ammonia, (which causes the increased secretion of saliva,) and also
butyric acid, empyreumatic oils and resins, traces of sulphuretted hy-
drogen and even prussic¢ acid, but no creosote.

Pepper owes its pungent taste to piperine, a crystallizable alkaloid.
Tea and coffee both contain the same organic base, theine or caffeine,
which are easily obtained from them in silky needles. A solution of
this alkaloid neither has the taste nor the pleasant stimulating effect of
an infusion of tea or coffee. In these beverages, as in tobacco, the value
of the article used depends on other substances, which accompany the
alkaloid.

202 ORGANIC BASES.

Chocolate owes its value to theobromine, an alkaloid contained in
eacao. It has been lately found that iodide of methyl digested with
theobromine for some time in a sealed tube, at the temperature of boil-
ing water, will convert it into theine.

The excellent effect of pure meat broth on the system is due to krea-
tine and kreatinine, two bases contained in meat. Broth, therefore,
belongs to the same class as tea, coffee, and chocolate, and it certainly
deserves the preference when the system of the sick person requires a
stimulating and strengthening beverage.

Some organic bases have obtained a prominent place in the chemical
arts. It is only necessary to mention kyanole or aniline, which is ob-
tained in large quantities from coal-tar, and is used in the manufacture
of the finest colors. Aniline red is the chloride or acetate of rosaniline,
a colorless base obtained from aniline. Aniline violet must also be con-
sidered as an aniline base.

Two artificial bases, the amid bases of ethyl and methyl, which but
lately had merely been preserved in chemical collections as interesting
and rare substances, are now used instead of ammonia, in Carré’s ice
apparatus, in the artificial production of ice.

The description of the individual members of this extensive series of
organic bases or alkaloids could be considerably extended if our time
permitted, and if I did not fear to fatigue my hearers.

As I mentioned in my introduction, organic bases were a terra incog-
nita to chemists half a century ago. As you probably have gleaned
from my remarks, chemists have since diligently labored to explore this
region; but whenever they had succeeded in sealing a height, from
which they hoped to obtain a general view of what they had investigat-
ed, new and ever greater fields opened to their astonished eyes—fields
whose exploration will require the most diligent efforts of chemists for
many years.

Just asin the discovery of a new country the value of which the people
realize only when the plowshare has turned the new soil and when its treas-
ures have begun to circulate in the great commercial veins and arteries
of the world, it happens with our organic bases, which are generally
appreciated only as far as they are useful to commerce, the arts, or
medicine.

Let us not forget, however, gentlemen, that as the treasures of the
mountains of California and the products of India would never have en-
riched our country if it had not been for indefatigable travelers, who
wandered through unknown countries, impelled by a pure love of knowl-
edge. So we also owe our acquaintance with the organic bases to purely
unselfish and scientific investigations, which have taught us that
nothing is useless in science—a truth written in conspicuous letters on
every page of the book of nature, and which can only fail to be read
by the grossest ignorance.

THE NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY,

A LECTURE BY PROFESSOR KLETZINSKY.
Delivered December 15, 1870.

[Translated from Aus der Natur for the Smithsonian Institution. ]

T have the honor to direct your attention this morning to a group
of compound bodies which are of the highest importance, whether we
consider them from a theoretrical or a practical point of view. They are
all the artificial products of the laboratory, and while the study of them
has led to the most interesting views of the constitution of matter, some
of them have found a widely-extended industrial application, and others
give promise of a brilliant future. They are what is called the nitrogen
compounds of modern chemistry :

Volume substitution is now accepted as the ruling principle of chemi-
cal combinations. All substances may be considered as combining in
certain definite volumes, and the unit adopted by science in this respect
is hydrogen. This atom, which in respect to weight and volume is the
chemical standard, we denote as unity, and all other atoms which enter
into the composition of bodies, and which require the same space as the
atom of hydrogen, can be substituted in the place of this unit.

Chemists have succeeded in substituting for the hydrogen in organic
substances radicals of hyponitric acid; that radical which is denoted by
the formula NO».

This radical called nitryl, whose introduction into organic chemistry
led to the conception of the nitrogen compounds, is formed when we
unite one equivalent, of nitrogen having a combining power of 3 with
the weight 14, and two atoms of oxygen which is bivalent, that is,
having a combining power of 2 with the weight 16. This body is
therefore represented by the formula /”N/’’O:, in which the dashes
( “) represent the combining volumes. Since the nitrogen is trivalent
and the oxygen bivalent, and since there are two atoms of oxygen the
combining power of which is four, there evidently remains one unappro-
priated equivalent volume; and this free equivalent volume determines
the equivalence of the radical. On this ground we designate this radical
as univalent, or having a combining power of one; and as such it ean
be in all cases substituted for the hydrogen monad.

Now, if this substitution of nitryl for hydrogen in organic bodies be
extended as far as the actual relations admit, we arrive at the formation
of the nitrogen compounds. For a complete exposition of our subject

204 NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.

we have still to mention the quadrivalent atom of carbon. The carbon
atom requires four times the space of the hydrogen atom, and fills that
space with the weight 12. It bears the symbol “’C,

The elements, then, with which we, have to deal and effect our ex-
changes are represented as follows:

Fig. 1.
1. Hydrogen, O Bie b

2. Oxvgen ur @)

3 Nitrogen, «(xo = a ween:

4, Carbon, CS-e-® HUG,

The equivalence of the elements, 7. e., the proportion of their volumes
compared with hydrogen as a standard, is not an invariable quantity.
Expansion and contraction may take place in the atoms; within certain
limits these can increase or decrease in volume. But it is important to
observe that this expansion and contraction will always be bi-polar;
that is, if a univalent atom expand it will do this in both directions and
become, not bivalent, but necessarily trivalent. The trivalent nitrogen
atom may become quinquivalent, but not quadrivalent. Hence, we have
the simple rule that the character of the equivalence cannot change ; if.
it is expressed by an even number it must still, though the atom con-
tract or expand, be expressed by aneven number ; and reversely, if the
equivalence is expressed by an odd number it must in all cases be so
expressed. This will readily be understood if we suppose a unit volume
to be added to each side of the symbol oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen, as
given in Fig. 1. In this case the oxygen will become four, the nitrogen
five, &c. The trivalent nitrogen atom in some circumstances may
become quinquivalent. This expansion of atoms takes place when they
are subjected to peculiar chemical actions.

I now call your attention to a salt which is produced from acetic acid
and ammonia, and which is introduced into the pharmacopeeia as the so-
called spirit of Mindererus, the acetate of ammonia, or acetate of oxide
of ammonium.

In the delineation of the formule of chemical compounds, without
which a clear understanding of the processes is impossible, this acetate
of ammonia is represented in Fig. 4:

NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. 205

Tt is necessary to state that in all acetic acid salts a radical called
acetyl is common. This radical is represented as follows, in Fig. 2:

Bhiow2:

mC, AH, /O —>

or

In order to form the salt from this radical we need a link of oxygen,
which shall unite the radical of the base ammonium (/”N ‘H,,) whose
equivalence is one, there being four atoms of hydrogen and one of pente-
valent of expanded nitrogen. This uniting oxygen is represented in
Fig. 3.

Fig. 3.

CO

Fig. 4.
mO, ‘A; “O,+"0,4+"N 'Hy=""C, A, "O, “'N3.
or

The oxygen, which is here (Fig. 4) somewhat more distinctly marked,
holds together the radical of the acid and the radical of the base, and
thus forms acetate of the oxide of ammonium.

Now, when, by chemical agency, we force the water from this salt,
as by a high degree of heat, by the action of chloride of phosphorus, or
an anhydrous acid, (chemists have many expedients for separating water
from organic compounds, forming it anew, and eliminating it again,)
when, therefore, we take from this compound two molecules of water,
2 (‘H, ”O,) the nitrogen contracts from five to threefold equiv: aeR ce

and we have the following formation :
Vil

——s Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
N COOCsce OOOO

M1
which represents the compound acetonitryl.
We obtain the same result if we saturate acetic acid with carbonate
of ammonia; evaporate the liquid and distill the salt with chloride of

206 NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.

phosphorus. The product thus obtained, the acetonitryl, furnishes a
starting-point for further transformations. Suppose, now, that for one
hydrogen atom we substitute the radical of unit equivalence, (”N “O..)

Fig 7.

COLO
OOCCCO

33

Here we have a perfectly-linked atomic-chain, where everything fits, a
nitrogen body,
NM! Ou Hs, NY“ O,/’
the nitro-acetonitryl.
If we substitute for the two remaining atoms of hydrogen one _ biva-
lent atom of mercury, (represented by the shaded circles in Fig. 8,) we
shall obtain common fulminate of mercury.

Fig. 8.

COCAEC®

38

This latter substance cannot, in fact, be obtained from acetate of am-
monia; our means are not yet adequate for that. We have another and
quite different way, which is not less interesting; it is the action of ni-
trate of mercury on alcohol. When strong spirits of wine and strong
nitric acid are mixed and metallic mercury is added to the mixture, in
a short time nitrous acid vapor is developed, the mass begins as it were
to seethe, and on cooling yields a deposit in the form of fine needle-
crystals, and this is the fulminate of mercury.

Alcohol has the radical so often occurring in chemistry, C, H;, and
has the formula C, Hg O, or

Fig. 9.

COLD OOCD
OCOOCCCOO

Ti nitryl mercury ‘represented in Fig. 10) acts upon this—

NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. 207

We shall have the compound represented in Fig. 11—
Fig. 11. Fig. 12.

COCO) CO Gx)

; CSCCCO CG O18:

COQ
OO

Fig. 12 represents the molecules of water extracted.

(in this again) we have fulminate of mercury and water. Finally, if in
the above nitro-acetonitryl (N’” ©,” H,/ N’” O,/’) we substitute nitryl for
the two hydrogen atoms, we obtain tri-nitro-acetonitryl—

Fig. 13.

a substance which forms crystals transparent as water, resembling
naphthaline, and which on exposure to air emits a disagreeable odor, a
body which liquifies at 45° and at 120° explodes with violence, rend-
ing its way through all obstacles. Now, whence arises this explosive
force of the nitrogen bodies ?

Tt comes in this wise: from the substitution of oxygen for hydrogen
there oceurs so intimate a blending of combustibles and supporters of
combustion that on contact with a spark, on the signal given for decom-
position, the whole mass with tempest swiftness, so to speak, burns up
at once.

At the instant of combustion this solid substance is resolved into
elastic fluids tending to expand, and, moreover, by reason of the

ugmented temperature attendant on the process of decomposition
already expanded to a remarkable degree, and therefore filling a space
many hundred times greater than before. If, by raising its temperature
to 120° I should cause the decomposition of this body in the glass tube,
in which, to prevent accidents, it is usually liquefied, there would result
in place of this small quantity a volume hundreds of times larger than
the tube; its cohesion being overcome, the glass would be shattered, and,
with a report like that of fire-arms, the gas would escape into the air.

The effect of the common explosive gas depends on the intimate
blending of the inflammatory oxygen with the combustible hydrogen.

208 NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.

Liquids do not blend thus unless they are soluble in each other; unless
they have a peculiar mutual affinity.

Oil and water placed in the same flask, and thoroughly shaken, will
present a uniform appearance, but if left standing a short time they
separate again, the oil gradually rising to the surface, and the heavier
water sinking below.

The case is different with aeriform bodies. Two gases possessing no
mutual affinity, if introduced into the same space, will each be diffused
throughout the whole space precisely as if the other were not present,
and the result will be their perfect uniform blending.

Suppose we admit into the flask two volumes of hydrogen and one
of oxygen, the atoms will group themselves as follows:

Fig, 14.

OO

es H, Oz, Hy.

GO

This, a million times repeated, affords an idea of detonating gas. The
hydrogen iscombustible, the oxygen is inflammatory, (the kindler,) there
is needed only an electric spark, a glimmering splinter of wood, the
presenee of catalytic platinum sponge, or any other inconsiderable
source of heat, and the hydrogen burns in the oxygen; an immense
volume of watery vapor is suddenly produced, extremely elastic, at a
temperature of 1000° R., and this forces its way through every obstacle.

Mary nitrogen compounds act in accordance with this principle. By
the introduction of nitryl, that radical abounding in oxygen, in the
place of hydrogen, a more intimate combination of combustible and in-
flammatory substances is effected, even in solid bodies, than is possible
in the most successful fabrication of gunpowder.

What is the operation of the manufacturer of gunpowder? He has
two combustible substances, carbon and sulphur, and one inflammatory
substance, saltpeter. Each of these three materials he reduces sepa-
rately to the finest powder. He then mingles them, moistened, to avoid
explosion through friction, and then with the utmost care rubs them to-
gether for hours, yes, days, till the blending is as intimate as it ean pos-
sibly be made. He must still force the compound through sieves
to grain it; he must smooth and glaze these grains, &c., but with the in-
corporation of these three ingredients his chemical labor is finished.
Thus it consisted in producing the most uniform possible commixture
of combustible and inflammatory substances, so that the carbon and sul-
phur, which are combustible, are throughout in contact with the salt-
peter, which is the source of the oxygen. A spark coming in contact

NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. 209

with a single grain the combustion is transferred from grain to grain,
and the whole quantity of carbon and sulphur isconsumed in the oxygen.

Nevertheless, gunpowder, though compounded with all possible care,
though triturated and incorporated with the most scrupulous attention,
can never acquire that perfect blending -which may be attained by the
introduction of combinations of atoms into the structure of organic for-
mule.

As intimate and uniform an incorporation of the atoms as occurs in
the nitrogen bodies can never be effected by the mechanism of powder-
mills; and this alone indicates the importance of the nitrogen com-
pounds.

Not among the earliest of those bodies, it is true, but a very recent
descendant from them, and first brought into notice by the celebrated
chemist Schénbein, is gun-cotton. Gun-cotton is ordinary cotton ni-
trogenized. Cotton is chemically called cellulose, vegetable cellulin,
vegetable fibrin. Vegetable fibrin. has the formula— |

Fig. 15.

C,; H; O:
i, f O

OOO

In the middle we see the union of the carbon atoms to be firm; at
the ends comparatively weak. Now if,, step by step, we replace the
hydrogen with nitrogen compounds, with nitryl, we have trinitrocel-
lulose, wherein these atoms of hydrogen are replaced by nitryl, and
we have before us gun-cotton, whose formation was effected by this
substitution of nitryl radicals N O, for hydrogen.

The manufacture of gun-cotton is extremely simple. We require
only the so-called nitro-sulphurie acid, which isin commonuse. Thereare
two limits in compounding this acid. We may mix equal parts of good
Nordhausen acid, or Saxon or Bohemian oil of vitriol, and of good
fuming nitric acid, or three parts of Nordhausen acid and two parts of
nitric acid; or two parts of Nordhausen acid and three of red fuming
nitric acid. A mixture with either of these proportions produces a,
serviceable nitro-sulphuric acid, which has received the trivial name of
ifulminic acid from its use in the manufacture of fulminating compounds.

In mixing the brown oil of vitriol with red nitric acid there occurs ¢
moment when the mixture of the two acids is nearly colorless. This is
the state in which the compound ismost available. It must be effect-
ually cooled, if possible in a freezing mixture composed of three parts
snow eee part epsom salts or common cooking-salt; or, at all events,

Ss)

21C NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.

in cold water, often changed; for the acid must be ice-cold to insure
success. In this perfectly cold mixture immerse now, flake by flake,
strand by strand, the cellulose, the pure vegetable fibrin. The purer
the fibrin the drier and the freer from all mechanical soiling, the better
of course will be the result. The cotton is immersed in the liquid by
pressing it down with a glass rod; we wait till all the air-bubbles escape,
till the cotton is fully saturated with the acid; moreover, we are careful
to immerse no more cotton than ean be contained without pressure and
will be entirely covered by the acid. Half an hour,as [haverepeatedly
satisfied myself, is sufficient for the process; still there is no harm in
leaving the cotton in the acid for an hour or several hours; thirty or
forty minutes, however, are amply sufficient for the required effect.
This done, with the glass rod take out the wet cotton, press it between
thick plates of glass to remove the superfluous acid, throw it into an
abundance of cold water to reduce the temperature, and immediately
pick it apart, for if youlet the compressed cotton fall into the water and
lie there in a mass, you will find that, with a perceptible increase of
temperature and the escape of reddish brown vapor, it gradually dis-
solves and disappears. After the cotton is thus pulled apart, and, as it
were, drowned and quenched in cold water, it must be carefully washed,
in a running stream if possible, for you will accomplish as much in six
hours with running water, which easily penetrates among the fibers, as
in two or three days with standing water. If all has been done as
directed, you have first-class gun-cotton. It has now only to be dried,
in a temperature not exceeding 100°, to expel all the water, and then it
may be kept for years without the slighest deterioration.

We know what wonderful changesof opinion have taken place in ourown
time in respect to gun-cotton. The Austrian minister of war has really
played with it the poetical gamé of the daisy: ‘Thou lovest me well,
through good and ill,a little,ornot atall” A largeamountof money was
expended on gun-cotton. At first, it was glorified ; later, doubts were
entertained ; and then, when suddenly the tower of Simmering flew into
the air, gun-cotton fell into disrepute. And yet England has recently
made it the subject of a thorough investigation, and opinions in regard
to itnow seem very favorable. I have here some gun-cotton in the form
of skeins and lamp-wick. This specimen is fully eleven years old, and
in that time has not changed in the least, absolutely not in the least.
It is just as effective to-day as when first made. It isa property of gun-
cotton that in a moist condition,and notably when it has been imperfectly
washed, it is deeomposed ina way whichmay result in a partial dissolution
and eventually in explosion. A spontaneous conbustion of clean, well
washed and dried gun-cotton is nexplieable on scientific principles and is
not known to have occurred. On being ignited gun-cotton explodes with-
out smoke or vapor, and with no residue of ashes. We perceive only a
weak odor of nitrous acid. It is a great advantage in the use of gun-
cotton in blasting, that it does not leave that stifling atmosphere, that

NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. 211

sulphurous smoke which renders approach impossible, as for example in
mines. Particularly when common gunpowder is used for fracturing rocks,
when experimental blastings are made with closed shafts, after the ex-
plosion the air is irrespirable, the ventilating shaft must act for a long
time before the place can be entered, This inconvenience is avoided by
the use of gun-cotton. I take this opportunity to indicate how we may
easily and infallibly recognize a nitrogen body. It is merely necessary
to produce its explosion in a partially closed space ; the space becomes
filled with weak nitrous acid vapor. For nitrous acid we have a very
reliable reagent, the sulphate of iron. Ofcourse the experiment should
be made with a very small quantity of the cotton, as otherwise the ex-
plosion would be too violent; it would act in all directions, and prove
its fracturing force on the vessel. I beg here to repeat that the explo-
sion of such bodies consists in the sudden liberation of confined gases.
There is an instantaneous production of gas occupying a hundred-fold
the space of the cotton, a gas of high temperature and great elasticity.
Such gases in a spherical space act in all directions ; therefore they act
not merely lengthwise of the tube but against the sides of it also. Now,
if the action is on a seale not large enough to overcome the cohesion of
the sides of the vessel, the gas has time to escape upwards; but if the
action is so intense that its lateral components are sufficient to overcome
the cohesion of the containing vessel, the fracturing force takes efiect,
the vessel. is shattered. We must therefore use only a very small
quantity in our experiment.

Nitrous acid changes the color of sulphate of iron to brown. We are
not to expect a conspicuous change of color, observe, because most of
the vapor escapes, only a small proportion remaining. Still there is
enough to prove that we have to do with a nitrogen compound.

The slowly burning form of gun-cotton is called collodion-cotton.
This modification of gun-cotton, which is not so rapidly consumed, but
gradually burns out, is not used to propel projectiles, but it has other
and very valuable uses. This allotropic form of gun-cotton is obtained
by mixing English sulphuric acid with nitrate of potash and heating
the mixture to 50°, The nitrate of potash is decomposed, and the result
is bi-sulphate of potash and concentrated monohydrous nitric acid.
When it is all dissolved we immerse in this liquid at 50° eotton well
separated and dried, just as much as will lie in the liquid without pres-
sure and be entirely covered, and we let it remain at this temperature,
carefully watching it, from half an hour to an hour. The heat must rise
no higher, for if it does the mass begins to develop red vapors, the cot-
ton is in a tumuk, and presently nothing is left but oxalic acid. The
red vapor is a signal to lower the temperature. When this is all done
the cotton must be picked apart, rinsed in cold water, and dried; and
thus we have cotton which does not explode well, but which dissolves
in alechol and ether, while good gun-cotton will not so dissolve. Cot-
ton prepared at freezing temperature is insoluble in alcohol and ether,

a5 NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.

or, at most, only slightly soluble in acetic ether. On the other hand,
cotton prepared at a higher temperature, which explodes imperfectly,
has just this property of dissolving in alcoholized ether.

In pure alcohol, entirely free from water and ether, collodion-cotton
dissolves imperfectly or not at all. . If the cotton be wet with pure aleo-
hol the superfluous alcohol may be poured off and ether added; the cot-
ton will now dissolve in common ether. The cotton wet ai alcohol
begins to dissolve in the ether, and the liquid thus obtained is usually
filtered through cotton in its natural state to remove any fibers which
may remain undissolved, and the filtered liquid is the so-called collo-
dion, adhesive ether, @. ¢., the solution of tri-nitrocelluline in alcoholized
ether. This collodion may be saturated with gun-cotton to a somewhat
thick liquid. Allowed to evaporate on glass, it leaves a film of collo-
dion. This solution of collodion is applied to burns when there is no
blood or moisture. In sealds, if not very severe, it does good service. '
In order to avoid painful contractions of the skin, it is best applied with
a solution of castor-oil in alcohol. This imparts to it a degree of pli-
aney which causes it to yield to the motions of the skin without causing
pain.

There is a whole series of bodies besides gun-cotton belonging to the
same class; ¢é. g., uitro-mannite, obtained from mannite, from manna. ‘If
manna, such as is procured from the ash-tree, is dissolved in nitro-sul-
phuric acid, and left standing a while until red vapors appear, and then
poured into cold water, a white, powdery, crystalline mass is precipitated ;
this is nitro-mannite. This substance explodes tolerably well. An
attempt was made to substitute it for fulminate of mercury, but the at-
tempt was abandoned. Nevertheless, it is destined to important uses
in the industrial arts.

_Ordinary cane-sugar treated in the same manner, dissolved in nitro-
sulphuric acid, 7. ¢., a mixture of red fuming nitricacid and Nordhausen oil
of vitriol, one ice-cold, and when the red fumes appear, poured into cold
water solidifies, and when it softens can be drawn into threads of almost
silken luster. It is certain that the solutions of it in alcohol and ether,
even in the water, in which it is preserved, taste. extremely bitter.
This body is called nitro-saccharine. By the mere substitution of
nitryl for one atom of the hydrogen, the sweet taste of the sugar is

changed to one thus intensc!y bitter. How complete a transformation
takes place is shown by this, that nitro-saccharine is incapable of the
vinous fermentation, is no ee a means of nourishment, but has be-
come a poison, a eaes substance, which bids defiance to ecunladen
and digestion as well as ese aoue

When starch is treated in the same manner, the purest starch, from
potatoes, rice, or wheat, when it is stirred into the mixture of ane it
cannot be said to dissolve, but a glutinous swelling takes place, and
when on the appearance of the red vapor the mass is poured into cold
water, a Shining white substance is deposited, which is called xyloidine.

NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. 213

These are bodies less explosive, certainly, than gun-cotton, but which
belong to the same class, ge hydrogens, in which the hy ee is re-
placed by nitryl.

There are still other and very different nitrogen compounds, and, in-
deed, the first known, the oldest, belongs to a different chapter. This
compound eomes from phenyl acid, a radical which in many respects
excites the interest of chemists. The main source of phenyl is benzol,

WO, ‘Hg, or
Fig. 16.

Pure benzol is a colorless liquid, somewhat refractive, as evaporable
as ether, of penetrating odor, but not unpleasant when much diluted.
It is the well-known scouring drops. This most volatile of the coal-oils,

called, eupion, is an exceedingly mobile and refractive medium, possess-
ing the property of dissolving all oily substances without AD ay: any
color or injuring any material; it can therefore be used to extract spots
of grease and oil from all fabrics, even from the most delicate’ rose-
colored silk. Spots from acids, fruits, or lve are not removed by it.
It produces no effect whatever on discolored spots; it can merely
remove the grease and with that the dust; for every spot of grease on
a garment is naturally a place on which the dust floating in the air
is deposited. This benzine or benzol is, in a scientific view, phenyl-
hydrogen.

By replacing the hydrogen with hydroxyl, HO, we obtain from ben-
zine earbolic acid, or phenyl acid, which in a pure state forms colorless
crystals, but, however carefully protected froin the air, it changes grad-
ually to dull red, and finally to brown. Carbolie or phenyl acid is
found in coal-tar, and is obtained from it in the form of carbolate of
lime. The carbolate of natron, prepared by precipitating this salt of
lime by means of a natron lye, is of inestimable value to the physicians
as a means of obviating the fatal effects of hospital gangrene, of cleans-
ing wounds, and exciting healthy action which has been suspended.

By substituting for oneatom of the hydrogenin benzine— not hydroxyl,
but nitryl—we obtain a new substance, nitrobenzol, mirbanol, and this
brings us to ordinary perfumery. Thus, from the benzol of coal-tar is
produced the artificial oil of bitter almonds, employed as a perfume in
common pomades, in many cleaning mixtures, and substances contain-
ing strongly-scented mineral matter, and in common soaps. This mir-
banol is obtained by mixing car erally drop by drop, at a low tempera- ’
ture, benzol and nitric acid. It would be unsafe to mix at once the
whole mass of benzol and nitrie acid, since it would produce intense
heat and lead to explosion. In mingling benzol and red fuming nitric
acid there is need of the greatest foresight, carefulness, and subdivision
of the process. In spite of refrigeration, the benzol dissolving in the

214 NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.

nitric acid develops heat and gases, and when the masses have for a
time acted on each other, they are poured into an abundance of cold
water. Then, while the benzol, being lighter than water, floats on the
surface, the mirbanol, which is heavier, sinks underneath ; thus the ni-
trobenzol is prepared from the mixture of benzol with red fuming nitric
acid. This crude mirbanol, which has still an unpleasant odor, is
washed with weak carbonate of nitrogen, and then distilled off with ex-
treme care. It is unsafe, after washing it, to place this compound ina
retort over a fire, for, in case it approached the boiling temperature,
there would be a flash, a fearful explosion, and the retort would be shat-
tered. It must not be forgotten that, although this compound is not
used for explosive purposes, if isa nitrogen body; you have admitted a
wolf into the sheepfold; you have introduced the element of inflamma-
bility—oxygen—among the atoms of hydrogen, and when once the
kindling takes place the hydrogen burns throughout the whole mass.
And yet the crude mirbanol is distilled, because the consumption of it
depends entirely on its freedom from color. This is accomplished by a
chemical process, whereby the crude mirbanol is placed in a retort and
the vapor of water introduced. At first, the water is condensed in the
retort, but the vapor being constantly renewed, the water at length at-
tains the boiling-point, is again vaporized, and escapes into the receiver
at a temperature, however, below the boiling-point of mirbanol, and the
latter is carried along by the watery vapor into the receiver. Of this
device much use has been made, because this method of distillation ata
low temperature greatly improves the odor and discharges the color of
the substance distilled. I beg you not to suppose that the artificial
mirbanol thus obtained from the crude nitrobenzol can be a substitute
for the genuine oil of bitter almonds—a costly, natural ethereal oil. If
you compare the two, you will find it absurd to give the same name to
the former, so delicate and fresh is the genuine hydro-benzole, rela-
tively to the crude and harsh nitrobenzol. They are indistinguishable,
however, in a diluted state, and in alkaline fluids, particularly in lye
compounds; in soaps the artificial oil is altogether preferable. Of
these common products, for overcoming strong odors, the genuine,
fine bitter-almond oil would be wasted—it would be lost—overpowered
entirely by the rancid odor of the soap, for example, and would be less
effective than its more powerful companion.

But this is not its only use. When mirbanol is exposed to hydrogen
in a nascent state, a nitrogenous compound is formed, aniline, which is
merely phenylamin:

OC, H; N He

This is a substance whose synonyms bewilder the beginner in our
science. Amidophenas, benzidam, krystalline, kyanol, aniline, phenyla-
min, they are all the same, but, singularly enough, their production was
accompanied by wonderful misapprehensions. A chemist separating it
from coal-tar, supposing it an oil, and observing that it gave a blue color

NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. 2S

to chloride of lime, called it kyanol, blue oil. Others have obtained it from
phenyl acid, from the benzoate of ammonia; others again from indigo,
and these called it aniline, from the Indian name of indigo, Anil Indi-
gofera; no one suspected that all these different bodies, produced in dif.
ferent ways, were identical, until their composition was studied, and after
numerous and varied experiments it was found that they were one and
the same phenylamin. This base is obtained when we subject mirbanol
to the action of iron filings. The mirbanol is placed in a covered kettle
containing iron filings and water. The iron rusts; thus by attracting the
oxygen, decomposing the water, and the nascent hydrogen from the
decomposed water, produces aniline from the mirbanol. This process
completed, the contents of the kettle are distilled, and crude aniline
passes over. This requires repeated cleansing, and changes to manifold
colors. Now, therefore, we find ourselves among the coloring substances.

When aniline and arsenic acid are subjected for some hours to intense
heat, they are changed into a pitch-like, dark purple mass, which, on
being purified, yields crystallized fuchsin ; and if this red dye is dissolved
in an excess of aniline and the solution heated again in the same man-
ner, without suffering it to evaporate, it becomes a blue mass with a
coppery luster, (azuline.) If we add nitric acid to rose aniline, we obtain
aniline yellow and orange. If aniline is oxygenized with chromic acid,
chlorie acid, and the salts of copper, we have gray and black ; if the sul-
phate of rose aniline is added to hyponitrite of natron, we obtain aniline
green. There is scarcely a color of the spectrum or of art which cannot
be produced from aniline.

Aniline is the root of innumerable shades of eclor, which are all of
marvelous beauty, but extremely perishable, not subject to chemical
influences, but whose chief enemy is the light; hence the exceeding
tendency to fade, of fabrics dyed with aniline. For this reason they are
suitable for those materials only which are soon worn out or soon out
of fashion; while durable fabrics ought never to be dyed with these
colors, since the light destroys them under all circumstances in a fabu-
lously short time.

Aniline dyes have competitors. From the naphthaline of coal-tar—
this coal-champion—have similar bodies been produced, and nitro-naph-
thaline furnishes a whole series of colors, which, however, are of no
practical interest.

As the consumption of aniline dyes is enormous, efforts are now in
progress to produce such modifications of them as will be soluble in
water or diluted nitric acid; because the original solvent, alcohol, or
wood-spirit, not only is too expensive, but also involves this evil, that
constant inhalation of alcoholic vapor produces injurious, sometimes
fatal, effects on those who are subjected to it.

When carbolic or phenic acid is mixed with fulminic acid, all three of
the hydrogen atoms at the other extreme of the chain are replaced by
nitry], and thus is produced tri-nitrophenyl acid. This is probably the

216 NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.

oldest of the nitrogen compounds, the all prevailing bitter, picric acid.
This substance is of a pale-yellow color; by day a beautiful yellow, at
night white. Picric acid dyes animal fabrics yellow, without the use of a
mordant ; itis almost poisonous, and particularly hostile to insects. Itis
proved by experience that animal fabrics impregnated with pierie acid,
with which we must always accept the yellow tint, are never attacked
by moths or insects of any kind. When it is admissible, viz., when the
coloris not an objection and there is question merely of the preservation
of the material, the use of picric acid may be warmly recommended. It
is not so poisonous as to involve any danger in its use. Picric acid may.
be fixed in vegetable fabrics when these are impregnated with a solu-
tion of caseine in borax. Still the acid can never be made perfeetly fast
in these textures, while for animal fabrics it furnishes one of the most
durable of yellow dyes. This acid was formerly obtained from different
substances—from indigo, for example. Common Bengal indigo, evap-
‘orated with nitric acid, leaves a deposit, which on the application of
heat decrepitates feebly. This is picric acid.

Aloes, which is unfortunately inso common use as a drastic purga-
tive, digested with nitric acid also yields picrie acid.

Recently the most abundant source of picric acid is gum acaroid, from
an Australian tree, (Xanthrehoca hastilis.) This resin, acted on by nitric
acid, affords the highest percentage of picric acid. I must mention one
more substance; and this is obtained by the action of nitrogen from gly-
cerine, the so-called oleo-saccharum, a widely-diffased article, which has
the formula :

©; H; H; O3

We may suppose it a three-fold water, in which three atoms of hydro-

gen are replaced by the bivalent radical glyceryl,
TF
C H;

We can substitute nitryl for three atoms of the hydrogen in the
glycerine and then we have trinitroglycerine, glonoin, or gloncidin, the
Swedish explosive oil, a body first produced and examined by Sobrero,
and which is heavier than water, (1.06.) To prepare this we add a de-
ciliter of the purest glycerine, free from water, to Nordhausen sulphuric
acid and red fuming nitric acid, mixed in the proportions of 6:4;
thus, e. g., one liter to 600 cubic centimeters and 400 cubie centimeters,
which mixture must be kept ice-cold ; it should stand in the cold several
hours. Then this liter is poured into at least ten liters of ice-cold water,
and the heavy, colorless oil, trinitroglycerine, sinks to the bottom; it
should be well washed in water, in which itis nearly insoluble. In watery
alcohol it dissolves with difficulty, but readily in absolute alcohol, ether,
and pyroxylic spirit. It has a sweet but unpleasant taste, and induces
protracted headache, so that the homeopathists have seized upon it as
a specific against headache. This Swedish explosive oil is apparently
the most formidable of the nitrogen bodies; while one gram of gun-

NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. Zit

powder affords 300 eubic centimeters of gas, one gram of nitro-glycer-
jne developes 720 cubic centimeters. Moreover, the gunpowder leaves,
theoretically, 43 per cent. of residuum, while nitro-glycerine leaves none
at all, for the large proportion of oxygen is so perfect a kindler for the
mass that it is changed altogether into gas. This gas contains 58 per
cent. carbonic acid, 20 per cent. watery vapor, 34 per cent. oxygen, 183
per cent. nitrogen.
~ Oxygen is seldom observed among the gases resulting from explosion,
and I do not think the oxygen found in this case is free; it is probably
present as nitroxyd gas, and still a compound which supports combus-
tion. The tremendous force of nitro glycerinerenders it the most energetic
servant in our mines, it divides our rocks, does all the work of blasting,
it is the Polyphemus of modern civilization—goes parallel with fearful
accidents. The slightest imprudence may provoke a terrible reaction 5
and, moreover, itis a very capricious substance, which does not explode
as readily as gunpowder or gun-cotton; occasionally it burns away
quietly ; on this account, ignorant people who have to do with it grow
more and more fearless, more and more careless, they disregard the
warnings of their overseers until at length they become foolhardy
and do something which arouses it from its indifference, when it explodes,
rending and destroying everything in its vicinity. The fact that the
liquid state of nitro-glycerine causes it to leak and spread everywhere
led to attempts to produce it in a solid form, and the result of these
attempts is dynamite. This is merely a combination of nitro-glycerine
with siliceous earth, containing a small quantity of oxide of iron; which
tingesit yellow. This siliceous earth is the product of algee of infusoria,
and of microphytes, and’ has a peculiar tubular structure. The tubules,
by reason of their capillarity, absorb the nitro-glycerine, and hold it so
firmly that it never becomes moist nor does it yield to light pressure or
friction; therefore this form, dynamite, is comparatively harmless, and
has in some degree superseded the formidable explosive oil. Dynamite
explodes at 180°. An explosion in unconfined space is very different from
one that takes place under pressure. If I burn gun-cotton in the open
air the explosion is attended by no remarkable effect, because the air-
waves equalize and convey away the shock; but in a confined space the
explosion exerts its fracturing force on whatever is nearest. This, of
course, holds good of dynamite, and hence the numerous accidents re-
sulting from. careless handling ef the charges—I might say from the
utterly reckless use of dynamite. At first the untaught laborer is cow-
arly, too careful and fearful, when warned of danger by the experienced
overseer; by degrees he grows less vigilant, he begins to imagine that
the matter is not quite so serious, and finally, in some way, arouses this
malicious substance, and then the catastrophe takes place.

It isto be hoped that this explosivecompound willbe in all cases manu-
factured at the place where it is to be used. The production of it is so
easy, success is So certain, that I do not comprehend why the hazard of

218 NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.

its transportation and the innumerable consequent accidents should be
encountered.

It is possible that this dangerous, untamed laborer, who performs the
compulsory service of cleaving our rocks and mountains, will yet be-
come civilized; it may be that, through progress in mechanics, in
chemistry, and in general science, it will become possible to subdivide
and control the explosion, and to use it, thus controlled and modified,
as the most convenient source of power to move our pistons and propel
our machinery.

SCHEME FOR THE QUALITATIVE DETERMINATION OF SUB-
STANCES BY THE BLOW-PIPE.

By T. EGiEston, E. M.

In the course of my instruction in blow-pipe analysis, I formerly
found great difficulty in teaching the students how to distinguish with
certainty, and within a limited time, the substances contained in a mix-
ture of four or five ingredients. The old routine method of examination
in the closed and open tube, and then on charcoal, &c., answered very
well when not more than one or two substances were present, but did
not answer in the hands of beginners when they came to examine alloys.
For a long time [ was convinced that it was useless to expect of a stu-
dent that he should be able, without extended practice, to determine,
qualitatively, the composition of a very complex substance. It finally
suggested itself to me, however, that a plan similar in some respects to
the one used in certain quantitative assays would answer for the gen-
eral outline of qualitative work. I therefore prepared a provisional
scheme, which, in order to test, I gave to the students to work with.
The result of a few weeks’ use of this scheme convinced me that it was
possible so to arrange one as to make it applicable to almost any com-
pound, whether it was natural or artificial. I therefore drew up a
carefully-prepared scheme, which was modified from time to time, as
changes were suggested by its use in the blow-pipe laboratory. The re-
sult was such that I felt no hesitancy in giving to students who had had
only a tew weeks’ practice, complex mixtures, feeling certain that they
would work systematically, and consequently with confidence and pleas.
ure, where they were formerly in doubt. This scheme has been in con-
stant use for four years, and has effected an entire revolution in the
working of the blow-pipe laboratory. Much of the success which has
attended its use is owing to the publication of a translation of Platt-
ner’s Manual of Blow-pipe Analysis, by Professor Cornwall,* to which
constant reference is made in the scheme. I have to acknowledge in
its preparation the valuable suggestions of my two former assistants,
Mr. J. H. Caswell and Professor H. B. Cornwall.

With regard to the use of the scheme, the routine to be followed may
be varied according to circumstances. If sulphides, arsenides, &c., are

—

*Plattner’s Manual of Qualitative and Quantitative Analyses with the Blow-Pipe.
Translated by Professor Cornwall. 2d edition, D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1873.

220 SCHEME FOR THE QUALITATIVE DETERMINATION OF

being treated, the substances must be carefully roasted. If test 1 fails
to show As, Sb, 8, or Se, as sulphides, &c., the substance is either an oxide
or an alloy. If it is an oxide, the roasting, 2, is omitted. If it is an
alloy, itis subjected to the test 1, a, for Pb, &c., and then the test 2 A is
performed by fusing it on coal with borax in the R. F., thus combining
2 A and 2 A ain one operation. Some sulphides during the roasting,
2 A, will become reduced to the metallic state, and then, after thorough
roasting, may be treated as alloys. A metal, or a raw sulphide, &e.,
must never be treated on platinum wire, but the metal is fused on coal,
with a flux. Thisis done in R. F. if it is desired to get only non-redu-
cible metals in the flux, such as Fe, Co, &e. If Cu, Ni, and other re-
ducible metals are to be fluxed, it is performed in the O. F. The flux
so prepared is then transferred to the wire. Sulphides, etc., must always
be roasted before testing with borax, or S. Ph.

The word bead always refers to the flux, and button to the metal. In
regard to 2H, Sn and Zn are rarely found together, except in alloys. The
presence of the one generally implies the absence of the other. If
they are together as oxides, Sn can, however, always be found in the
presence Zn by reducing them with soda and a little borax, and tritu-
rating the mass with water, p.90.* In alloysthe Zn can be detected by
treating for a short time in the R. F.; the Zn, if present, will volatilize
first, and the coating may be tested with the cobalt solution.

SCHEMHE.

The substance may contain As—Sb—S—Se—Fe—Mn—Cu—Co—Ni—Pb—

Bi—Ag—Au—Ng—Zu—Ca—Sm—Cl—Br—I-Co’_Si—N—H, ec.

1. Treat on Ch. in the O. F. to find volatile substances such as AS—Sb—S—Se—
Pb—Bi—Cd., &c., p. 66 et seq. Test in an open tube to see whether As, Sb, S, are
present as arsenides, &c., or in an oxidized state, p. 63 et seq.

a. If there are volatile substances present, form a coating, and test it with S. Ph.
and tin on Ch. for Sb, p. 99, or to distinguish between PB and Ba, p. 280.

a. Yellow coat, yielding with S. Ph. a black bead; disappearing with blue flame, no part of it yielding
greenish Sb flame. Pb and Bi.

b. Yellow coat, generally with white border, yielding black or gray bead with 8. Ph, disappearing
with blue flame; also the border disappearing with green flame; Pb and Sb.

c. Yellow coat, very similar to b, but yielding no blue flame; Ki and Sb.

d. Make a special test for Bi, p. 521. Pb in presence of Bi, if not in too small a quantity, is detected
by the blue flame yielded by the coat, or by the reduced metal itself, p. 521.

b. If there are no volatile substances present, divide a part of the substance into
three portions, and proceed as in A.

2. If As—Sbh—S—Se are present, roast a large quantity thoroughly on Ch., p. 77.
Divide the substance into three portions, and proceed asin A. PP. xv, note.

A. TREATMENT OF THE First PorTION.—Dissolve a very small quantity in borax
on platinum wire in the O. F., and observe the color produced, Various colors will be
formed by the combination of the oxides. Saturate the bead and shake it off into the
porcelain dish ; repeat this once or twice, p. 79.

a. Treat these beads on Ch. with a small piece of lead, silver, or gold, in a strong
Reap ubs:

*These numbers refer to the pages of Plattner’s Manual, translated by H. B. Cornwall, 2d edition.
D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1873.

SUBSTANCES BY THE BLOW-PIPE. Dean

b. Fe—Mn—Co—&c., remain in the bead, p. 115.

If the bead spreads out on the Ch, it must be collected to a globule by continued blowing.

Make « borax bead on platinum wire, and dissolve in it some of the fragments of the bead, reserving
the rest for accidents.

ce. Ni—Cu—Ag—Au—Smn—Pb—Ei are reduced and collected by the lead but-
ton. Sn, Pb, Bi, if present, will be partly volatilized, p. 115.

Remove the lead button from the bead while hot, or by breaking the latter, when cold, on the anvil
between paper, carefully preserving all the fragments.

d. If €@ is present, the bead will be blue.

If a large amount of Fe is present, add a little Morax to prove the presence or abseace of Coe, p.
ie

If Mm is present, the bead, when treated on platinum wire in the O. F., will become dark violet or
black.

e. If only Fe and Mn with no €o@ are present, the bead will be almost colorless.

Look here for Cx, Ti, Mo, U, W, V, We by the wet way.

A considerable amount of Ti may be detected with S. Ph, and tin in the original oxides, in absence of
other non-reducible coloring oxides, p. 323. Mo will be shown by the cloudy brown or black appear-
ance of the borax bead in the R. F. on platinum wire, p. 105. .

f. Treat the button ¢ on Ch, in the O. F. until all the lead, &e. is driven off; Ni,
Cu, Ag, Aw remaining behind ; or separate the lead with boracie acid, p. 442.

g. Treat the residue g on Ch, in O. F. with 8. Ph bead, removing the button while
the bead is hot.

h. If Na and Cw are present, the bead will be green when cold, p. 292. If Ni
only, yellow. If Cua only, blue.

Prove Cui by treating with tin on Ch in the R. F., p. 293.

i. For Ag and Aw make the special test No. 8.

%. TREATMENT OF THE SECOND PORTION.—Drive off the volatile substances in the
O. F. on Ch. Treat with the R. F., or mix with soda, and then treat with the R. F.,
for Za, Ca, Sm. If a white coating is formed, test with cobalt solution, pp. 251,
256, 276. Note, p. XV.

€. TREATMENT OF THE THIRD PORTION.—Dissolve some of the substance in 8. Ph
on platinum wire in O. F., observing whether Si O? is present or not, and test for Waa
with nitrate of potassa, p. 210.

3. Test for As with soda on Ch, in the R. F., or with dry soda in a closed tube, p.
245 et seq.

4. Dissolve in S. Ph on platinum wire in the O. F., (if the substance is not metallic
and does not contain any S.,) and test for Sf on Ch with tin in the R. F., p. 99. To
detect small amounts of Sb with Cu or Sn, see p, 331.

5. Test for Se on Ch, p. 368.

6. In absence of Se fuse with soda in the R. F., and test for & on silver foil, p. 365.
In presence of Se, test for $ in open tube, p. 566. To distinguish between § and
SO, see p. 368.

7. Test for Hig with dry soda in a closed tube, p. 304.

8. Mix some of the substance with assay lead and borax glass, and fuse on Ch in
the R. F., p. 401. Cupel the lead button for Ag., p. 407. Test with nitric acid for
Aw, p. 320.

9. Test for Cl, Br, and B with a bead of S. Ph saturated with oxide of copper, pp.
373, 374, 375.

10. Test for Cl or Br with bisulphate of potassa, p. 374.

11. Test for E1® in a closed tube, p. 353.

12. Test on platinum wire, or in platinum pointed forceps, for coloration of the
flame, p. 72 et seq.

13. Test for CO? with hydrochloric acid, p. 360.

14. Test for NO® with bisulphate of potassa, p. 354.

15. Test for We in an open tube, p. 351.

222 BLOW-PIPE APPARATUS.

BLOW-PIPE APPARATUS,

MANUFACTURED BY HAWKINS AND WALE, STEVENS IN-
STITUTE, HOBOKEN, NEW JERSEY.

FOR QUALITATIVE DETERMINATIONS,

Blom-pipe; withitworplatinum! jCtSoosss6) <5 shia ce sess eee ee cee neae ees $3 00
Extra eLsmeaChivio COMUSee ny acese = pei teens inl ava wioleiae SA Ieee eee ieee asa
Blow-pipemlampsecs22--s=—2 1-2-2) Sine Sete eon oe ee eee eee sees th Pe 4 50
PlahmulmMeapombed! TOLCE PS sea aatee oe sete are ee eerste seer DSR ds SARE AEE ib 75)
BRASS ONCE P Siig + sri) gees Cha a's Sedat <* Pa hie emtiecigaes ate ite ee See See CL eon EE 25
Steclsiorce pss tODMamp assis ina ces once ce setae ae ee ears - porate Se Ee Sin ee eee 22
Girigignne ORC Gabo oe noeadade toss saesou bor sAe echo clueSdstesmouee Hoses ceemabe 1 50
Platinumesware-holder: wath (six wiles: oc -eneeieaeme ga see toe eee tr ereee 1 50
LMM CL) seceferncieicie ole rele ota tolete etaiaie ei ci elev oasis eel, Scape imiere ole crepe Sere tee say ote eee eS 79
Amalie cet ets sae shee SESE SELL OLEL US ea, AS 2 EA Oe tee ee 65
Bars aon © beaters) ose elseicie eehae oie) ola ele rise soe elon ears sete oie ates tee ae eee 35
Maonitiervwithttwo. lenses s-csce -o- nee eye. eee eee pieee eee eee e eer eee 1s
Alcoholslamp, wathabrassicover42)¢iys- tates 2 aes SIs es 9 ae 75
Glrarcoallisawi scr = -n.ooe sec Sieisaisciene Sas Cato piso acca een aaa e eee eee ees 35
ROTO rehab ee crate se eatin ese sia sisaef te asin Se exe aiae ae esta wiser ea eee See oe eee eee 3f
Mv SDLUSHES see si afree Sociss eee iesse eee p Sin ala PS ales Ses ete neat etet a eee aden ener 26
AMP SCISSOTS sec elc na paaei seein eae ae beens ae eveclr ae sole ack eee Ee eee 40
(Co mleimaiy te eats mia tere nose Sone sete ere eerie ae eaten miele ie eae ese er erie 65
Din b=tEAyicepeste ape cates eee tetes oS es See od J ee eee 40
Charcoal-borerclub-shape seat vea-.s-ce ae especie cet ae eee Cee cence 125
Steel mixing-spatula........-.- joan abo docUsaGbOu BEUDoSS Gde Su SSSsSoEeSad Gane Oaee 40
21 06

FOR QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATIONS.

Holder for evaporatine-dish,, triangle, &c¢o-5- 42-22 2o ese eases | eee eee ee $2 00
Holdertortunnelyand chimney: seas sece ese aee eee ee ee ee eer eee oer eA
Flat-nose plyers, (nippers)---.-.-------- SNS hee, deh eee saeere ease mise are/eie a ee 45
Charcoal-borersfoum cormmeredis3s- 4 a-4 oop eee ce ee eee eee eee eee 62
C@harcoal=borer; sways pabull ea ae ayaa cies este pee ele ee ee oe 40
AWOL VOLES POODS see eis ache Ne Ne eet oe oko eeie ere ite ieeteeyayee ee 60
Mattrass-holder.ciooce cae det eda caea seoas be aaa ee reed asses Geet See ee eee ten 35
Mixinoecapsule; brass -Clulded sot). \-)s cose secre cjeyenais oir sce reese eee eee 45
Two brushes); 220s. SOO. oe SL UND eet SS ink eita s ie'a a epeieroce eimiernietorteies 26
Box: for sod ajPapense 34 esac aeons seversecs pecans ae eles a eee eee Bebe eres at 23
Wooden form forjpaper Cylinders) <2 -e cee reise aea seen eee eee eee eee 15
Cupel-holder, with two cupel-cups and one mold. ..---. 12-2... 22222 2--+. eee 1 75
Charcoal-holder, with platinum ring and screen..-... .-..--+ 2+ ---4--2----s 2 25
Pestilead measure secasiscesss osc cos] wise cle cie seltione Sse esses oss 2 SS cee 38
Assay soubton RUShVAs Seen eee cS Eeee oe yee ToL DTS, Se ee See 45
Stand for.charcoaleholdery sos is 25. eoe ee eee once eerie aa O45 Eee eee 12
Wharcoal-borer,;clulbishapesrcace. a2 osc caer eeeeeees Sone eeee erica =e Cee eee 1 25

THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY.

A LECTURE DELIVERED BEFORE THE VIENNA SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE,
By Epwarp SUESS.

[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution. ]

If we were to attempt a general review of the whole past history of
our earth and its inhabitants, we should be immediately led to consider
the first appearance of man as one of its chief epochs. The study of
the countless ages preceding that epoch belongs exclusively to geol-
ogy and paleontology; the study of the later and much shorter period
principally to history.

The boundary between geology and history is therefore the time of
the first appearance of man, and it is the part of a lecturer on this epoch
to describe the phenomena which attended the first appearance of the
human race. However, that cannot be done in the present state of
science, since it is probable that man did not appear everywhere at
the same time. Perhaps thousands of years intervened between his first
appearance in Asia and America, in Europe and in Australia, and hence
it is necessary to divide our subject into geographical periods. We shall
confine ourselves to the first appearance of man in Central Hurope, that
part of the earth being the only one which has been sufficiently inves-
tigated in this respect to arrive at any possible scientific conclusions.

Geology teaches that our mountains were produced by numerous dis-
turbances after many changes in the distribution of land and water, and
that afterward they assumed their present forms, and the continents
their present outlines. Paleontology exhibits to us strange beings in
the first periods of life, whose forms, only in a few instances, present any
analogy to existing species. The nearer we approach the present time,
however, the greater becomes the similarity to the present animals and
plants. Even before the appearance of man in Central Europe, there were
first marine and then land animals and plants, kindred to which still
exist; and since their places and modes of living are known, we are
enabled to draw from them many certain conclusions as to the external
conditions of life in those ancient times. In this way the geologist and
the paleontologist approach the first appearance of man from distant
ages, and the nearer they approach the clearer are their observations
and the more certain their conclusions. The opposite is the case in his-
tory; the historian must go backward to arrive at the same point.

If, now, in Middle and Northern Europe we endeavor to go back
before the times of which we have the short and partial descriptions of

2°24 THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLCGY AND HISTORY.

Roman historians, we find nothing but a few obscure traditions. It is
known, however, especially through the examination of ancient graves,
that these regions were inhabited by people who made their weapons
and tools of bronze, a mixture of copper and tin. The remnants left
by these people indicate peculiar taste for ornaments and great skill in
the working of these metals. This great epoch of civilization is called
the age of bron 26.

Other discoveries show that before the age of bronze there lived a
people who were ignorant of the manner of working the metals. They
made their weapons and utensils only of stone, sharp splinters of bones,
and of wood. This more ancient epoch has been called the age of stone.
To it belongs a great number of the graves found in Denmark and
Sweden. Our knowledge of the mode of life of some of these ancient
peoples has been increased in an unexpected manner by the discoveries
of the Swiss archeologists. The very low water-mark to which the
Swiss lakes fell in 1854 laid bare extensive palafittes or pile-construc-
tions in the lakes of Geneva, Constance, and many others. In some of
these, remnants of the age of bronze, and in others of the age of stone,
were found between the piles in the muddy bottom of the lakes. On
these piles were erected formerly the habitations of the natives in such
a manner as to protect them against the attacks of their enemies and of
wild beasts. It is known that such palafittes are still in use in New
Guinea; and Herodotus gives a detailed description of similar construe-
tions in Lake Prasias, where Megabazus, the general of Darius, found
them.

Apparently the age of stone can be divided into an earlier one, in
which men only knew how to cleave stones in oréer to give them the
required shape, and a more recent one, in which they understood the
art of grinding and polishing stone articles. The traces of the oldest
time are the most interesting, because we can inquire how far they corre-
spond with the facts which natural science reveals to us. Here, then,
geology and paleontology have their brightest pages, while history
shows us the first traces of human existence. For this reason our con-
sideration of the question is geological rather than archeological. Our
method will be as follows: First, we shall consider the phenomena ap-
parent in the inorganic creation of that epoch, and then describe the
plants and animals which existed in these regions immediately before
the appearance of man. We shall also show under what circumstances
traces of the oldest age of stone have been in various places discovered.

There are in these places large masses of loose rocks, which evidently
came into their present position at a time after the surrounding country
had assumed its present condition. The most remarkable of these are
those brought to their present places by the glaciers. Ice is not abso-
lutely solid, but possesses a certain degree of viscosity, which causes
masses of it collected on the high mountains to flow slowly down into
the valleys in the form of great streams of ice. These would soon fill

THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY. 225

up the eailer were it not for the milder temperature of the latter, which
melts them and puts an end to their progress. Frequently rocks fall
down upon them from the precipices above and are carried down into
the valley. These stones collect at the lower end of the glaciers, form-
ing heaps called moraines, and are usually in the shape of a half-moon
with its concave side toward the glacier. If a long-continued cold
temperature sets in, which favors the progress of the glacier, the latter
will push before it the moraine, along with a mound of earth, uprooted
trees, &c.; and if the temperature rises, the lower end of the glacier
melts away and the glacier apparently recedes, leaving the moraine at its
advanced position as a mark of its extent to future observers.

Such advanced moraines are found with nearly all the larger groups
of glaciers in Central Europe, some of them miles away from the pres-
ent end of the glacier, as, for instance, at Berne and Zurich in Switzer-
Jand. Mountain-ridges like the Carpathian, which have no ice near
them to-day, have ancient moraines. Marienzell rests upon bowlders
brought to their present position by glaciers. At the foot of the
Rosalia Mountains are found the traces of glaciers which formerly ex-
isted on the Wechsel and Schnee Mountains.

Since these moraines extend directly across the valleys, they often ob-
struct the water-courses and give rise to Alpine lakes. The upper lake
of Gosau is bounded toward the valley by the moraine of the western
Dachstein glacier. The “ Meerauge,” a lake in the Tatra Mountains, is
hemmed in by a similar moraine, although at the present time there is
neither a glacier nor even an extensive snow-field in the place. All
these moraines are a proof that a much colder temperature must have
prevailed in these regions at a time after they possessed their present
formation, and if these traces of past glaciers are so numerous in the
latitude of Switzerland, we can easily imagine that they are still more
extensive farther north, in Scandinavia.

The northern part of Europe also presents other striking phenomena,
which must be described in detail. The topography of aregion depends
on the relative height of its different parts; the distribution of land
and water on the absolute height of the whole. The level of the sea
may be taken as unchanged. By the “continental” elevation and de-
pression of large regions, considerable changes have been produced in
the outlines of the dry lands, and these changes are divided into three
great epochs.

1. The first epoch is that of depression. Then the seaextended as far
as Hanover, and from Breslau to Cracow. The whole North German
and Central Russian lowlands were under water. Scandinavia and
parts of the British Isles were above the surface of the sea. In Scandi-
navia the ends of the glaciers reached down into the sea, just as they
do in arctic regions in the present day, and from time to time a large
piece, often covered with huge blocks of the moraine, would separate,

float down to the southward, and there deposit its load. Thus it hap-
158°

226 THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY.
‘

pens that a large portion of Central Europe is to-day covered with a
bowlder formation of Scandinavian or Finnie origin.

2. The following epoch is, on the contrary, one of extensive and con-
siderable upheaval or elevation, which has been specially studied by the
English geologist Austin. While the sea had before extended so far
into Central Europe, all the sea-bottom between Ireland, France, En-
gland, and Scandinavia was now raised above the surface of the water,
and our continent extended as far as the Shetland Islands. What is
to-day the North Sea was then an extensive lowland, traversed, no doubt,
by a large stream, the continuation of the present Rhine, which then
had the Eibe and the Thames for tributaries, and its mouth far to the
northward. Even at the present day fishers find in the deeper portions
of the North Sea bones of deer and elephants, which once lived on the
banks of that great river. On many portions of its banks submerged
forests are known to exist, reaching far below the present sea. The
present bottom of the sea presents a line of steep descent at a depth of
about 200 fathoms. This line runs west of Scotland and of Ireland, in-
cluding, therefore, that island also, and approaches the present continent
only in the direction of the Bay of Biscay. There is some reason for
supposing that this line indicates the former outlines of Europe.

3. The next epoch was that of the depression, which gave the conti-
nent of Europe its present form.

The most important changes which can be recognized in Europe at
so late a period are aseverer climate and repeated alterations in the dis-
tribution of water and land. Astonishing as these phenomena may
appear, a glance at the present state of things will demonstrate their
possibility.

Europe possesses at present an exceptionally mild climate; a stream
of warm water coming from the Gulf of Mexico washes and warms the
greater part of its western coast; warm currents of air blow over its
southern parts from the Desert of Sahara, and the absence of a large ex-
tent of country near the north pole prevents the accumulation of great
masses of snow, and the cold winds resulting from it. But all these
favorable conditions could be completely removed by a change in the
distribution of land and water. Such changes are, indeed, still going
on in some places. A portion of Sweden is known to be rising, while
a part of Greenland is sinking with considerable rapidity.

Having thus far considered only the inorganic world, let us now turn our
attention to the organized beings which inhabit Central Europe under
the above circumstances, and we will see that their character entirely
corresponds to a severer climate.

The remains of the land-animals of those times are found either in
alluvium or in caves. An alluvium of yvellowish-brown clay, found in
most river-valleys of Central Europe, is formed by fresh-water rivers
or lakes, and contains no sea-shells. In it we find the shells of various
land-snails and the remains of herbivorous mammals much more fre-

THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY. 227

quently than those of beasts of prey. In caverns, however, the latter pre-
dominate. Since the herbivorous animals, which were carried to the
caverns by beasts of prey, were the same as those found in the alluvium,
and since we occasionally find remains of the same beasts of prey in
the alluvium, we are justified in considering their existence as coeval.
The whole fauna of mammals may be divided into four groups:

_1. Animals now extinct and not mentioned in human traditions. To
these belong the mammoth (Elephas primigenius), the large two-
horned rhinoceros with bony septum in its nose (Rhinoceros tichor-
hinus), the cave-lion, hyena, and bear, and the Ursus priscus.

2. Animals which are known to have become extinct, or to have been
exterminated in historical times. Among these are the “schelch” of
Niebelungen-Lied, (Cervus ewryceros Aldr.,) a very large species of deer,
related to the fallow-deer, but much larger; the Urus, or ur, of the an-
cient Germans; and another species of ox, the Bos longifrons. Among
those which are nearly exterminated or driven out of Central Europe in
historical times are the wisent of the Niebelungen-Lied—an animal
still kept in the Lithuanian forests by order of the Russian government,
and often exhibited as a Urus in menageries—the elk, and the beaver.

3. Animals still living in Central Europe, such as the wolf, fox, pole-
cat, hog, horse.

4, Animals still extant, but not in the lowlands of Central Europe.
To these belong the reindeer, the North American musk-ox, the com-
mon lemming, the glutton, (wolverine,) which now live much farther
north, and the marmot, now found on the Alps.

The fourth group of mammals points with great certainty to a colder
climate during those times. The bones of all the above-named animals
have either been found in the alluvium, or in caverns, or in both. But
besides these direct discoveries, there is an indirect way of obtaining
information concerning the ancient flora and fauna, which the English
naturalist, Edward Forbes, has the credit of discovering. The phe-
nomena which will now be mentioned seem better calculated than all
others to cast some light on the first appearance of man in Central
HKurope.

The researches of the last decade leave no doubt that each species of
animal or plant had an original home, from which it spread in different
directions in the course of time, according as the external conditions of
life permitted, and no geographical obstacles, such as a sea, or a very
high mountain-chain in the case of a land-animal, were in the way.
Hence, each species has a geographically connected region; and where
this is not the case, we may assume that this region was divided by
later influences.

In many cases human influence is perceptible ; the lion, for instance,
has a considerably divided region, having been exterminated in the
ancient civilized countries. The ox, on the contrary, has a twofold
home, by having been transported to America.

228 THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY.

All these changes produced by man affect only single species, and
not the whole fauna. The phenomena which must be ascribed to geo-
logical revolutions are much grander. The flora of the Canary Islands
and of the Azores, in particular, shows so great a resemblance to that
of the Western European coasts, that we must assume the former con-
nection of these points in spite of their present distance apart. The
inhabitants of the island of Madagascar differ, on the other hand, from
those of the eastern coasts of Africa, and those of the Galapagos
Islands from those of the coasts of South America. Hence it follows
either that the separation of these islands from the continent is older
than the inhabitants of the islands, or older than those of the conti-
nent, or older than either.

In Central Europe there are to-day two remarkable examples of di-
vided regions. The first consists in the identity of the fish species in
our various rivers, and this is at least partially explained, on geologi-
cal grounds, by the very plausible supposition of a large stream in the
region of the present North Sea, which had the Thames, the Elbe, and
others for tributaries. The present inhabitants of our rivers may be
considered as the isolated remains of those which formerly peopled the
great united stream.

The second phenomenon is the following: Cn the isolated heights of
various mountains a peculiar flora repeats itself, and many species of
this Alpine flora are found again far away in Scandinavia and Lapland.
Many animal species are distributed in the same way. The white
mountain-hare, (Lepus variabilis,) for instance, is found in the pine-dis-
tricts of the Alps, on the mountains of Scotland and Iveland, and in
Scandinavia, Lapland, Northern Russia, Siberia, and Greenland. If
this animal came on our mountains from the far north, how does it hap-
pen that it is not found in the intervening valleys ?

Now if the hypothesis of the original connection of such regions is
correct, these Alpine species must have had some connection with the
northeri ones; and since it has been observed that the reindeer and
lemming not always lived far north, but also in Central Europe, and that
the marmot could also exist there, it is highly probable that in Central
Europe all those species of plants and animals existed then which are
now found both on our mountains and on those in the north.

In the colder time these beings, therefore, had their common abode in
Central Europe, and were distributed gradually while the change of
temperature was going on, since they could only find the conditions
necessary to their existence on high mountains or in boreal countries.
Some only remained in the valleys, (those of the second and third
groups,) some became extinct, (those of the first group,) and some emi-
grated, (those of the fourth group.) At the same time new species of
animals and plants appeared, which form the greater part of those of
the present day. The merit of having indicated how we may obtain

THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY. 229

information on the order of their appearance also belongs to Edward
Forbes.

The gradual appearance of these species is connected with the estab-
lishment of a milder climate, a consequence of the great depression or
sinking of the European coasts, through which the sea gradually en-
croached on the Rhine, forming the North Sea and also St. George’s
Channel. With the immigration of new species the British Islands
gradually separated from the continent, and this isolation had been
already accomplished before the new-comers had spread. These found
insuperable obstacles in the newly formed channels, and never reached
Great Britain. Hence it comes that of the twenty-two species of rep-
tiles existing in Belgium, only eleven are found in England, and only
five in Ireland.

According to Mr. Thompson, if we compare the Irish fauna with the
English, we will find that the former is deficient in many instances.
Ireland lacks fourteen or fifteen species of the eighteen English varie-
ties of bats, many other common animals, as the squirrel, the dormouse,
all field-mice without exception, the common field-hare, the pole-cat,
the wild cat, the mole, many kinds of shrew-mice, all snakes, the common
lizard, (Lacerta agilis,) &c. All these, we may therefore suppose, reached
England only after Ireland had separated. Hence we see why the
mountain-hare is found on the Irish mountains, while the common field-
hare is wanting in the valleys.. It also appears that some of the most
common inhabitants of our fields and meadows are among the animals
wanting in Ireland. Perhaps the country was composed only of forests
and swamps at the time Ireland became separate.

We furthermore see that the animals now existing together in Cen-
tral Europe did not appear together; they may, therefore, be divided
into groups, not according to their organization as by the systematist,
but simply according to the date of their appearance in Central Europe.

It is from this point of view that we may obtain the means of judging
of the first appearance of man in these regions. We must show under
what circumstances the most ancient traces of man were found. Two
instructive and fully accredited discoveries will suttice to show that the
first appearance of man dates much farther back than is generally sup-
posed.

1. Belgian scholars (especially Schmerling and Spring) found humana
bones and crudely made weapons of flint in the caverns of Gouffen-
taine and Chokier in the “Trou chauvan” between Namur and Dijon.
These remains were accompanied by the bones of the cave-bear, hyena,
lion, ‘schelch” deer, and a species of horse, in a manner which leaves
no doubt as to their co-existence. Three fragments of human skulls
were found there, which differ from all at present existing in Europe by
being long and flattened out at the sides and by the shape of the fore-
head. They apparently belonged to an elderly man, a twelve-year-old
and a seven-year-old child. Human lower jaws have also been found.

230 THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY.

They are broader in front, and the chin forms a sharper angle backward,
than in any of the present European races. These skulls, therefore,
exhibit a prognathous form, which is only found in a low state of civ-
lization.

2, In 1849 M. Boucher de Perthes, of Abbeville, in Northeastern France,
announced that he had found strata of sand and alluvium, in which skel-
etons of extinct species of animals occurred, together with human weap-
ons and tools of flint and stag-horn. Soon atterward Dr. Rigollot, of
Amiens, made similar discoveries, and many excellent geologists, like
Prestwich, Lyell, &c., who visited these regions since, agree that the
human and animal remains found there are of the same date. Human
bones have not been found there. Of the animal remains it is suflicient
tomention the mammoth, the rhinoceros with divided nose, and the cave-
hyena; the appearance of the reindeer is also of special interest.

Sir Charles Lyell described these discoveries in detail last fall in his
opening address as president of the British Association. According to
his statement the alluvium stratum has been explored to a distance of
fifteen English miles, and has already furnished over 1,000 flint utensils.
To explain such a numerous occurrence of these manufactures along
with animal skeletons without the presence of human bones, Lyell
instances a phenomenon observed by him on Saint Simon’s Island, in
Georgia, North America. There the traces of an old Indian settlement
are visible in a stratum 5 feet thick and covering about ten acres, which
contains oyster-shells, arrow-heads, stone hatchets,and fragments of
Indian pottery. If now the Altamaha River were to wash away this
stratum from the island and deposit it again farther along its course or
at its mouth, we would have a deposit of numerous human manutactures,
but without human bones, just as at Abbeville.

The occurrence of the reindeer along with human remains has re-
cently again been confirmed by Mr. Prestwich, who found a flint weapon
immediately under the horns of a reindeer in the cave of Brixham, En-
gland. This animal, as is well known, is very sensitive to milder tem-
peratures ; all attempts to acclimatize it in Northern Scotland have
failed. It therefore follows, not only that man was the contemporary of
the extinct large mammals of the first group, but also, from his simul-
taneous appearance with the reindeer, that he was a hunter in Central
Europe already at the time when the climate was much severer than it
is Now.

If we compare these most ancient human remains yet discovered with
those of the palafittes, which may be counted as belonging to the age
of stone, we will perceive striking differences; first, the position of the
palafittes proves certainly that the water-level of the Swiss lakes has
not changed very considerably since their construction,and we may
therefore conclude that the glacier period was past at the time of their
construction. In some cases this can be fully proved. Among the
remains found in them neither the reindeer uor any of the animals of

THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY. 231

the first or fourth groups occur. Tortoises, whose remains are found
there, are cospecific with the European swamp-tortoise, the shells of which
occur with human remains in Scandinavia, in peat in Hungary, and
which, according to Tschudi, is even found alive in the Reuss Valley,
Switzerland. Among vegetable remains numerous broken bazel-nut
shells are remarkable, not because they were necessarily an article of
food of the lacustrians, but because they belong to a plant, which was
formerly widely distributed and whose fruit is even found in the peat
of the Shetland Islands. Cereals have also been found.

The articles of human manufacture from the palafittes also differ from
those of Abbeville and the Belgian caverns. They are not cleft but
eround. Sherds of pottery-ware are only found in the former, and every-
thing points to a higher civilization and to external circumstances,
which could not have been very different from those of the present day.
A pearl of amber found by M. Keller in the palafittes of Meilen, in Lake
Zurich, is perhaps another proof that the eastern coasts of Prussia were
the same then as now.

If we are warranted, therefore, in assuming the prevalence of a
severe climate during the first division of the age of stone, because of
the simultaneous occurrence of the reindeer and weapons of flint, and
that the palatittes contain indications of conditions similar to the pres-
ent, it follows that the last great changes in the temperature and the
concomitant redistribution of land and water took place within the age
of stone of the archeologists. And since the migration of organic beings,
like that of the lowland flora of those times, to the Alps and to Scandina-
via could only take place very slowly and under a very gradual change
of climate, we must assume that the age of stone included an extremely
long period of time.

The first progress of tribes in civilization is always slow, and the
Hindoos do not show divine honors to Twachtri, who taught the prep-

‘aration of brass, without a cause. No one knows how long before Pan-
sanias the Sarmatian stuck to his arrows of bone-splinters, or how long
the African has hurled his boomerang. At the time of Diodorus, the
arms of the Libyan consisted of three light darts and a leather bag of
stones. ‘To-day the traveler finds the same weapons in the hands of
the African.

Combining what has been said, the following appears to be the result
of the most recent researches concerning the antiquity of man in Cen-
tral Europe.

Even at a time when Central Europe was cold enough for the reindeer
to live in Northern France, when the mammoth and the rhinoceros in-
habited the swampy shores, and lions, hyenas, and bears the caves,
when Great Britain was probably connected with the continent, and
Scandinavia with Denmark, a race of men lived there who had prog-
nathous skulls, and possessed only weapons of flint and bone-splinters
to hunt food with and to protect themselves against these large beasts.

232 THE BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY.

Gradually, in the course of thousands of years, the land sank, the sea
separated parts from it, and a milder temperature prevailed. Then a
portion of the flora and fauna slowly migrated, partly to the mount-
ains, partly to the north, and partly to both. Many large animals like
the mammoth, incapable of living in the mountains, remained behind;
the lowlands at the lower part of the Rhine’s course, which were prob-
ably the principal abodes of these large herbivorous animals, gradu-
ally sank below the present North Sea, so that they, exposed to an un-
congenial climate, surrounded by a new immigrated flora not their orig-
inal food, and subjected to the attacks of man, gradually died out. In
the lowlands new species continually appeared, many after Ireland and
some few after England had already become separated from the conti-
nent. Finaily came new tribes of men with new arts, and we find the
first traces of agriculture. Here the historian takes up the account
from the geologist and paleontologist.

This sketch necessarily remained imperfect, because it was not possi-
ble to make it include all the further proofs furnished by the study of
the present distribution of plants, of lower animals, (land-snails,) and
especially of marine animals. It was also necessary to pass over all
those phenomena which relate to the existence of a separate population
in Western Europe. But perhaps what has been said will be sufficient
to give a general idea.

Defenseless, like no other animal of the same size, man is born with-
out sharp teeth, without claws, without any external means of defense,
such as the fur of many beasts. The child is dependent a longer time
on its mother than the young of any other animal, and no being is as
helpless. And yet man has made himself the master of all. He has
made a thousand instruments, fire, and the modulations of speech his
own. The space of time, which now follows and which is called the Age
ef Man, exhibits one great, enduring, eminent characteristic—the pro-
gressive, irresistible triumph of the intellect.

EXPLANATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
AND CRYSTALLOPHYSICS.’

By ARISTIDES BREZINA.

[TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY PROFESSOR T. EGLESTON. ]

INTRODUCTION.

Among all the methods in crystallography there is not a single one
which has remained so completely confied within special limits as Mil-
ler’s. The reason for this is not the abstract method in which the sub-
ject is treated, nor its difficult mathematical principles, but is principally
owing to the fact that, up to this time, it has never been treated separ-
ately from those operations which serve for the derivation of certain
special mathematical formule in the first principles of geometry.

Miller’s method is really capable of an elementary treatment, which,
almost without the use of mathematics, renders possible not only the
quick and certain explanation of all combinations in the way of zone-
observations, but also the recognition of the physical characters of
crystals on the basis of their relations of symmetry.

These characters of this known method are especially useful for min-
eralogists and lithologists, who make microscopical observations : for the
first, because he, without many measurements and calculations, can
show, from only the simple inspection of a crystal, the connection of the
different faces, together with the explanation of the combination ; and
for the latter, because he is in position, on account of a precise know]-
edge of the relations of symmetry, to recognize, in thin sections, both
the crystalline system and the elements of a crystal; and in both cases,
without presumption of such mathematical knowledge, which is without
the departments of mineralogists and lithologists. This method is, for
this reason, not only simple and fundamental, but is in every way supe-
rior to the others in use, which have originated with Weiss, Naumann,
and Levy.

One of the most important advantages of it is the possibility of a
simultaneous development of the erystallographic and physical rela-
tions of every system from its known symmetry. This method of pro-
cedure gives, from the very commencement, a complete insight into its
habits and characteristics, and secures, during its development, a survey
of the whole theoretical structure. But while this method of derivation
was first carried out for the crystallographic part by von Lang’, the in-

'Mineralogische Mittheilungen. Wien, 1872.
2 Lang, Krystallographie. Wien, Braumiiller, 1866.

234 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

troduction of Whewell’s! method of notation of the faces of crystals
was an important element in Miller’s system.

Miller’s symbols consist, as will be explained later, of three indices,
which are inversely proportional to the intersections of the faces on the
three axes; while in Weiss’s system they are directly proportional.
Naumanu’s and Levy’s systems sometimes give sections of the axes and
sometimes the relations betweeen two sections. The advantages of Mil-
ler’s notations are very numerous : Chiefly it allows of representing every
individual face; while Naumann’s and Levy’s symbols give only the
form, i. e., the re-union of all the faces which belong together. When it
is necessary to represent the whole form in Miller’s system, the symbol
of the face is represented in parentheses; it has, therefore, the advan-
tage, that, according as it is required, either the face or the form can be
exactly and concisely designated.

Miller’s symbol is, besides, exceeding simple and convenient. While
here three low whole numbers, 0, 1, and seldom 2, are sufficient, in
Weiss’s system three or four fractions, and three or four letters, in groups
of three or four, are required, Separated by colons:

jazb: oe or |da! ra’: 2a’: e

In Naumann’s, two fractions and a letter, with perhaps as many as four
accents, as:
2P or £'P: 2
Levy’s symbols are, in many cases, complicated, as in pyramids :
bt d@ ds
where there are three letters and three fractions.

Naumann’s, and Levy’s symbols are not symmetrical with regard to
the crystallographic axes, 7. e., while with Miller the first, second, and
third indexes refer invariably to the first, second, and third axes, it is
never the case with Naumann, and with Levy only in the most compli-
cated cases (the pyramid of the second order) that every axis is repre-
sented by an index, and even in this case the signs of the axes change
their position. This symmetry of axes is important, because it makes
both the transformation of the indicesin changes of axes, as wellas the
calculation of zone-equations, exceedingly simple and demonstrative.

Singularly enough, this side of Miller’s symbols has been attacked be-
cause in Naumann’s and Levy’s symbols the difference between pyra-
mids, prisms, domes, and pinacoids is apparent. This is, however,
extremely unjust. In Miller’s system, in the symbol of the pyramid,
there are three 0’s of different values. In the symbol of a prism or dome,
an index is equal to 0; a pinacoid has the symbol (1 0 0), (0 1 0), or
(0 01), which contains two 0’s, and is certainly a difference which strikes
the eye.

As opposed to the notation of Weiss, Miller’s method, besides the

1 Whewell, Phil. Trans., 1825, p. 87.

PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 235

brevity mentioned above, has the further advantage that, instead of the
symbol o, zero is used, because the figures of both these systems are
reciprocal. How great the importance of this particular is in the ealeu-
lation of zone-equations will be immediately shown. On the facility of
zone-development, however, depends the quick and sure solution of the
combination.

The method of establishing a zone-equation is, according to Miller, as
follows: Given two faces, e/g and pqr, the sign of the zone formed by
both can be obtained by crosswise multiplication and subtraction, as
follows:

efg efg
xX XX
he Daa
995 oP er eg 7p |
[w v w|

[wv] is the symbol of the zone; now, efg pqr are severally whole num-
bers; the products, fr, 99, 9p,....., are, for that reason, likewise so;
the same is therefore true of their differences, which represent the in-
dives wvw of the zone.

If the face xyz lies in the zone represented by [wv w], the similarly-sit-
uated indices of face and zone multiplied, and all three added together,
must be equal to 0:

UL+vy+wue=

A numerical example makes the brevity still more apparent :

DDO eg 66 ag PW) 7) MY) edt)
- Ee,
WOME ao aio Aco dk Wak Legal Ab oll Dal:
tO Onl Oa? pee,
1—0; 0O—2; —2-1
HOMIES oy el Oe tp Mee 2 3

Ly Daeuate toro: Bhs 3229) .02- Gyo 3223 = 0)
The face 301, therefore, lies in the zone [1 2 3], produced by 210 and
aia
Let us observe the method of zone-calculation according to Weiss:*
Given two faces—

Ca) aa ae ne| and

TGR Tet! xd

which are already reduced to a similar co-efficient of ¢. The zone pro-

duced is—
eee (nc; a at” b)
erefore—
qu a ae ; Bl =
a 1 —— (0592)

8 8! (a—a’)
a fp! —a! B

* Weiss, Berliner academische Abhandlungen, 1820-21, pp. 169-173.

236 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

The values aa’, £4’, are therefore negative when the axes a or b, for
which they stand, are primed (a/b).
If the face—

THEE, AVIA YS ne]

lies in this zone, one of the following propositions must be right:

pi Ti pil afl! — gf!
gill « pit = Gil 1B pv pis al! oll : pit
pit pr gy AN al!

The simple inspection of this method shows how minute in detail this
method is. Jn the first place, the symbols of the faces, with respect to
an axis, (in the above case ¢,) must be reduced to similar co-efficients ;
then by multiplication and addition, respective subtraction and division,
the values a” and /” are to be determined. It is to be remarked that
both the numerator and the denominator of these quantities are frac-
tions, which must be reduced to a common denominator. The calcula-
tion, it is true, (loc. cit., p. 169,) can be simplified when the symbols of
the faces are written

This, however, is using Miller’s symbols, which are the reciprocals of
Weiss’s; and even then the calculation is more circumstantial, because
the three symbols are equated with reference to ¢, and are not symmet-
rical according to the three axes.

The steps of the calculation in the hexagonal system are still more
incumbered, since, from a four-membered symbol a three-membered
parameter must be first calculated, and then introduced into the previ-
ously-developed calculation.

Quenstedt* employs these symbols in his so-called zone-point formule
in a somewhat more convenient, although in a much less concise, man-
ner than Miller. Let there be three faces—

ma:nb: c|, |pa:gbie

,and|xa:yb:e

whose tautozonality is to be proved. For every pair of these the zone-
point formule must be written, and the verification as to whether the
zones are identical, made. Thus, for the zone—

ma:nd:¢| to |pa:qbie

mg pn mg pn

————

* Quenstedt, Mineralogie, 1863, p. 44.

PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 23:0

The same must be done for the zone—

maind:e| to Jwaryd : c|

mss Chena
yon AiO Mee

ry dis mI b
my on my £N

from which, as a condition of tautozonality, follows the equality of both

relations. Quenstedt and P. Klein* employ the zone-control in this form.
It is to be remarked that these zone-point formule can be essentially

simplified, because the denominators of both sides are alike; thus—

Gg a) OG a) ace)?

Also, the condition—

-): G-D-G-D: GD

But this equation is much more complicated than Miller’s. In our
former example we had—

210=44:60:Mme;111=4a:0'1¢;301=t4a:Hb26
Exchanging the axes a and ¢ in all the three faces, in order to be able to

make the co-efficient of ¢ equal to unity, which has no influence on the
tautogonality, we have—

PDOs UEC INE 20) NC ne. COO te

or— é
. CYGAW20) SCT Gis Ol Oe aA ke. CaU-2 C
It follows that—
THT) n DD q x Ou 1G

by substitution—

1-D:(-1) = 0-0-1)

or—

The proportion is correct, consequently the zones exist. The numerical
values of the letters must here, also, be substituted according to the
above-mentioned method, and the division carried out; while in Miller’s
method the very simple and symmetrical calculation can be carried out
on the indices, without the help of letters, by means of the crosswise
multiplication and subtraction of whole numbers.

* Klein; Leonh. Jahrb., 1871, p. 480.

238 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

Naumann’s method is still more circuitous: first, Weiss’s parameters
must be calculated, and then they must be introduced into the equation—
il ig ee ae 1 1

abe! Gaal) cab" > abe Weta ' camel
in which abe, a/b’ c’, a’ bc’, represent the parameters of the faces. If
these numbers contain two figures, as is frequently the case in the hex-
agonal system, there must be twelve multiplications, six divisions, and
the addition made. The division must be carried out to four decimal
places, and sometimes farther; while in Miller’s system the convenienee
of a calculation with whole numbers is always secured.

This circuitous course has caused the adherents of the schools of Nau-
mann and Weiss, to this day, to use Quenstedt’s method; and they are
contented with an approximative zone-verification, while, since the foun-
dation of Miller’s method, even the beginner is both capable of and
accustomed to verify every zone by means of the exceedingly simple
calculation of zone-equations. In fact, Kohscharow,! in the year 1866,
again first called attention to the zone-verification calculation, which,
since the publication of Weiss, had been almost entirely forgotten; von
Rath,’ Hessenberg,’ and C. Klein* followed, replacing the construction
in specially-complicated cases by ealculation.

The use of the angle of the normal to the faces, instead of the interior
angle of the solid, is also important: in the first place, with respect to
convenience and conciseness, while, as a rule, the interior angle is
greater than 100°, and therefore contains three figures, the angles of
the normals have, for the most part, two figures; further, the angles
measured at present with the reflecting-goniometer are for the most
part angles of normals. In the simple evaluation of an angle with the
eye even the supplement is easier to estimate than the real angle, be-
cause it is generally smaller.

The most important advantage of normal angles is, that they can be
immediately introduced into the calculation. Thisis especially apparent

jn tautozonal faces, in which, from two angles of every

two out of three tautozonal faces, the third can be had

by simple addition or substraction, (Fig. 1,) as—
oe <jab+ jbe=<ace JGac—<dVab=<Ybe

((xx,. Which is not the case with the angles made by the
° faces themselves.

In the determination of combinations a very quick

x orientation is furnished by this method. Lastly, only

bormal argles are suitable for introduction in spherical projections,
where they themselves directly form the sides of the spherical triangle.

Rig

ac\\be
\

1 Von Kohscharow, Materialien zur Mineralogie Russlands, 1866, p. 216.
2? Von Rath, Pogg. Ann., exxxii, 1867, p. 398.

5 Hessenberg, Min., Not. ix in Seuchenb. Ges., Abh. vii, 1870, p. 259.

4 Klein, loc, cit., p. 481.

PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 239

This also shows one of the advantages of the method of spherical pro-
jections, which is entirely wanting in Quenstedt’s system. Since, further,
Miller’s entire method of calculation is based upon spherical trigonometry,
the illustrating figure is shown on the projection, which, therefore, at
the same time represents the zone-connection of the form and the method
of the calculation of the crystal.

Spherical projection has, finally, the great advantage of being limited,
so that the geometrical situation of all faces can be actually delineated,
and can be united im a comprehensive representation, a characteristic
which is wanting both in the gnomonic method and that of Quenstedt.
In this way alone it is possible to use projection for the introduction of
all the physical relations, which circumstance, on account of its increas-
ing use, is a very important one.

A reproach, which, although perhaps not expressed, still is silently
made against this method of projection, is that in its construction trian-
gles and dividers are necessary, while with Quenstedt’s method trian-
gles alone are used. This reproach is, however, entirely without foun-
dation; for, in the first place, dividers are necessary for every exact
projection, even if only the convenient form provided with steel points ;
but for general use both triangles and dividers are unnecessary, be-
cause on account of the extraordinary simplicity of zone-calculation
the adherents of Miller’s system of spherical projection are accustomed
to use it only for representing and not for investigating existing zones,
and they may therefore save themselves the trouble of making an exact
drawing, unless they intend to publish.

To the many advantages of Miller’s method no one has yet been able
to oppose a disadvantage. If, in spite of this, it has not yet generally
found its way into Germany and France, it is owing solely to the faet
that in these countries Haiiy, Weiss, and Naumann have taught; but
when such completely independent theories are offered, the learner
satisfies himself for the most part with the system which has been ex-
pounded; or if he afterward goes beyond that, the system to which he
was first accustomed is easier, and his knowledge of it more funda-
mental, so that he does not become acquainted with many of the advan-
tages of the new system.

The introduction of the Whewell-Miller principle was tried in Germany
by Frankenheim, and in France by Bravais and de Senarmont, without,
however, any permanent result. Recently the young german school, on
account of the prominence to which the physical examination of crystals
has attained, begins to make itself master of detached parts of Miller’s
method.

The purpose of the following pages is summarily to develop what is
necessary for the solution of a combination, or for the knowledge of the
pliysical nature of a crystal. We shall, therefore, in the first section,
treat, according to Miller’s method, the pure geometrical relations of a
crystal, so far as they are requisite for the determination of combinations.

240 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

The second section treats of the possible systems of crystallization and
their corresponding relations of symmetry; it is taken as an abstract
from the work of von Lang. In the third section I have shown how,
with the foundation of the optical relations of a crystal in general, the
optical characters for each individual system of crystallization are
derived from their symmetry.

SECTION I.

THE GEOMETRICAL RELATIONS OF CRYSTALS.
§ 1.—MILLER’S SYMBOLS.

It is well known that the situation of any plane is perfectly defined
when its sections, o H, o K, oL, (Fig. 2,) of three straight lines, 0 X, 0 Y,
‘ o Z, which are not parallel, and which

have a common origin, 0, are known.
These straight lines are called the
axes; the point o the center of the
axes; the plane of every two axes,
. x Xo Y,Yo0Z, Zo Y, the planes of the
axes; and the sections 0 H, 0 K, o L,

the parameters of the face H K L.
Because every axis considered in
regard to O has two sides, these are
2 distinguished as the positive and
negative half-axes. For this reason the sections of the axes are used

in the calculation as + o H or — o H.

The lines joining every two sections of the axes of a plane,(H K, KL,
LH,)give the intersection of the plane H K L with the three planes of
the axes.

If we multiply the three parameters of a face with the same number,
the direction of the plane re-
mains unchanged ; it will only
be moved parallel to itself,
(Fig. 3.)

From the equality of the re-
lation—

on. 0. Kis wont
OnLy 0) onl
results the similarity of the
triangles KOL, K’OL/, &e.,
and from this the parallel-
ism of HKL and H’K’L/.

£193 z

m

PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 241

If another face, A BC, is given, with the parameters o A, 0 ib, 6 C,
which we may call a, b, ¢, then—
Cea; Ob = 02 OO = ¢
and the face H K L is determined when the relations—
_oA__ @ my Ouk Du anol Omir

h

mdm alive, cok © oie ain) ol
are known ; so a third face, H’ K’ L/, is determined by its relations or
indices h’ k’ I’, in which—

D 7 c

h= ox. es ——
Ore on "oF
We see, also, that if three planes, X o Y, Y 0 Z, Zo X, are given,
whose three lines of section Fig Z

represent the axes 0 X, 0 Y,
o Z; further, a fourth face,
A BO, whose section of these
axes is the measure of the
length of the axes, any face
in their direction is perfectly
determined when its indices,

i. é., the relation between the Oe
parameters of A BC and its ie :

own, are given.. Uae

B

pee oe “K

The values abc and the ,
plane of the axes are constant for one and the same crystal.
Respecting the indices h, k, l, certain important cases are to be dis-
tinguished :
I. All three of the indices may be different from (0 h, k, l,) 2 0. This
is the general case, and represents octahedral or pyramidal faces.
If. One index, J, for instance, equals zero, !=0; the face h, k, 0, is
evidently parallel to the axis 0 Z, and we have—
[eS
Oe on
Because o C = c is constant, this fraction can only be equal to o if o L
is infinitely great; but if the face H K o cuts the axis o Z at an infinite
distance, it is parallel to it. Thus, if k = 0, we have ho l, and if h=o,
we have o kl of the axis of Y, parallel faces with respect to X. These
kinds of faces are called dodecohedral, prismatic, or dome-faces.
tie wo indices ok =h—0..--100; 1 —h—o0 = ONO hho
.-.-001, the face 100 has first the index k = 0, and is for that reason
parallel to the above axis of Y, and also to the axis of Z, because |! =o.
This face contains, therefore, both the axes of Yand Z. It is with them
parallel to the axis-plane Xo Z. We call such faces pinacoids; they
are those by means of whose section-line the position of the axes is deter-

mined.
16s

—0)

242 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

If the planes of the axes are parallel faces, X o Y, Y 0 Z, Z o X,as the
faces ABC and HKU, which may be real or possible faces of a erys-
tal, experience shows that the indices hkl of every possible face of this
erystal are to each other as rational numbers.

This law, which is the first fundamental law of crystallography, is
called the law of rational indices; it is of the greatest importance, and
allows of the derivation of the greater part of the other laws of crystal-
lography.

If the indices hkl of any face of a crystal are rational, it is always
possible to represent them by three positive or negative whole numbers,
because the direction of a plane remains unchanged when its three
indices are multiplied by the same number.

Experience shows further that the indices of the most frequently
occurring faces are almost always the simplest whole numbers 0 and 1,
rarely 2, so that the calculation with them will always be very simple.

§ 2.—LAW OF ZONES.

The consideration of the zones occurring in a crystal is of the greatest
importance for the determination of a combination.

Two planes which are not parallel always cut each other, when duly
extended, in a straight line; all planes, therefore, whose lines of section
are parallel to the same straight line, belong to a zone, and are called
tautozonal faces; the straight line to
which their lines of section are parallel
is called the axis of the zone. (Fig. 5.)

Because the axis of a zone is parallel
to all the faces of that zone, a plane, P,
perpendicular to the axis of the zone, will
also be perpendicular to all the faces of
that zone; and when a perpendicular to
every zone-face is erected, all of these
normals will be parallel to this face P.
This important characteristic of tau-
tozonal faces, that their normals all
lie in a plane perpendicular to the zone-
axis, we shall make use of in the discussion of spherical projection.

After the direction of the zone-axis is determined by the section of two
planes which are not parallel, it must be possible, from the known ele-
ments of these planes, to calculate for the indices such values as will be
characteristic for the axes of the zone produced by these planes. Let
P (hkl) and Q (pqr) be the two planes, and let their indices be written
twice, one over the other, and multiplied crosswise, beginning with the
second upper index k—

Lig.

hktihkt
x X XK
FL EA ZO
kr —lq; lp—hr; hq—kp
U v w

it
PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 243

Subtracting now the products obtained by multiplying the index right
above with that left below, from that obtained by multiplying the index
left above with that right below, we obtain three whole numbers (u v2),
which are either positive or negative, are determined for the zone P Q,
and are called zone-indices. In order to distinguish these from the in-
dices of the faces, they are inclosed in rectangular brackets.

The zone-indices of a zone containing more than two faces can be eal-
culated from any two faces of the zone which are not parallel. The
same value is always obtained, abstraction being made of a constant
factor of all three indices, with which we can always multiply all of
them without changing the direction of the face or line represented.

If, now, a third face, R(#yz),isplaced in the above zone P O, we have
a simple criterion, whose expression is produced from the fact that the
zone-axis [P R] or [Q R] must have the same indices, even to a constant
factor, as [PQ]. ‘This criterion is the existence of the equation—

Uux+vy+ w2z=0
If this equation is realized, all the three faces P Q R are in the same zone.
If the symbols of two zones, [efg] and [wv], are given, the symbol
of a face (xyz) lying in both zones may again be found by crosswise

multiplication—
A ie ae
x xX X

Uuvw uvw
Fw—gv;gu—ew; ev zie
in the same way as the zone-symbol from the indices of two faces.
At the close of this section the most important special zone-laws and
some examples of the development of zones will be given.

§ 3.—SPHERICAL PROJECTION.

The method of spherical projection introduced by Naumann gives the
simplest means of representing the opposite faces of a crystal. It has
the advantage of showing, even g 6.
in extremely rough executions
of it, a representation of the
pot Cannnnone of a crystal,
and allows of the determina-
tion of the indices of its faces,
on the assumption of a primi-
tive form, almost without any
measurements.

For this purpose let us imag-
ine that from a point: 0, in the
interior of a crystal, (Fig. 6,)
perpendicular straight lines,
04,00',0b,0¢,0¢, 0d, 08,
be drawn to all of its faces.
Brom the point 0, as a center, let us construct a Ahlen of any radius, and

244 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

produce the perpendiculars until they cut the sphere AA’ BOC’D £,
&¢., which are called the poles of the faces, which they meet.

In this construction, in which, for the sake of distinctness, only the
front side is drawn, we see immediately that the poles of tautozonal
faces, A D B E A’ for instance, lie in a great circle of the sphere, because
the normals of tautozonal faces lie in a plane, which must pass through
0, from which point all the normals are produced; a plane passing
through the middle point, however, cuts the sphere in a great circle,
which consequently contains the pole of the tautozonal faces.

In order to draw a sphere containing the poles of the faces of a crystal,
we may select several different methods of projection. Of these the
stereographic method, introduced by Miller, is the most convenient.

As plane of projection let us take, for this purpose, a plane pass-
ing through the center of the
sphere c, (Fig.7) which, accord-
ing tothe above, cuts the sphere
in a great circle, ABC; let us
draw a diameter of the sphere,
OC, perpendicular to this,
whose extremities, O and ©, are
90° from every point of the
principal circle, so that the
lower pole O shall be the point
of sight; let us now join by a
straight line every pole of the
sphere ABCDEF.... with
the point of sight O. The inter-
sections ABcdef.... of these
straight lines with the princi-
pal circle give the stereographic projection of the pole ABCD.

In general, the principal circle will be taken perpendicular to the faces

Figs of a zone, so that the projection of these
i‘ points of the faces will be the periphery
of the circle.

: ; The most important peculiarities of such
Ke ey | \ a projection are the following : {

poe \ 1. Every circle will be projected on the
se io __| Sphere, either as a circle or a diameter.

Fug 7.

80° 2. Every great circle will be projected on

\ / the sphere as an are, which cuts the prin-
x K\4 / cipal circle in the extremities of a diameter
Ni \ tera of the zone, or as a diameter itself. In such
Bons =: an are, for that reason, also, the poles of the

tautozonal faces lie, as, for instance, Ae f A’; Bde B’; Bef B’; AdcA’.
3. Let every point, P, which, on the sphere, is at 90° from all points of
this cirele, be the pole of a zone-circle, H K, (Fig. 8,) which is also the

PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 245

projection of a face perpendicular to the zone-faces. The proposition
obtains that the normal angle of two faces, H and K, is equal to the are
hk, which is cut off from the principal circle by the straight lines P H
and P K produced.

From these three characteristics all the laws for the construction of
stereographic projection are derived.

It is immediately apparent that the normal angle of all faces projected
by points on the principal circle are determined by the ares contained
between the poles; that all zones passing the center of the main cirele
will be projected as diameters; Fig9
that, further, the pole of such a
zone falls again in the principal
circle, and will be on one of the
extremities of the diameter per-
pendicular to the zone.

If the projection of a pole, P, P
(Fig. 9,) is given, and that of the
opposite face parallel to it sought,
it is at once clear that it must lie
outside of the principal circle. If
a zone is determined by P and the center, o, of the main circle, the oppo-
site pole P’ must be in the same zone, because every zone in which a
face lies must also contain the opposite face which is parallel to it. In
the zone P O we have now only to look for the point at 180° from P in
order to determine P’. For this purpose we must, according to the third
characteristic of projection mentioned above, draw from -one of the
points R or Q, which, as before, represent the pole of the zone P O, the
point R for instance, a straight line, R P p, to its intersection with the
principal circle; find the point p/
of the principal circle, which is,
at the required angle, 180°, from
p; and then draw a straight line,
Rip’ P’, whose section with the
zone P O gives the pole opposite
tore.

If two poles, P Q, (Fig. 10,) be
given, and the zone passing
through them be sought, we look
for the opposite pole of one of
them, P’ for instance, which in
any case must lie in the zone P Q.
Through the three points P QP’ we draw, according to the known method,
(erection of a perpendicular in the middle of a line joining any two
points,) an are, which represents the required zone.

In order to find the pole of a given zone, C R, (Fig. 11,) we must con-
sider that it must be 90° distant from every point of the zone-circle. If,

——aiR

™~

LAS
1G.te

246 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

now, C,D are the points of section of the zone with the main circle,
we draw the diameter C D and a perpendicular to it, E F, and it is clear
that the pole sought for must lie in the zone EI’. Since, now, it must
be 90° distant from every point of the
2 zone, and therefore also from R, while
the pole of the zone EF is one of the
points C or D, we draw the straight line
CRr and CP p, so that the are rp = 90°,
and thus find the pole p of the zone
‘CRD. |
Thus, all the expedients are given which
are necessary for the construction and
use of the projection; in general, the sim-
plest of these are sufficient, especially
while in this method of projection we do
not aim at the greatest exactitude attainable, but only a presentable
representation of the arrangement of the faces.

fig11,

As a close of this section we shall give some special modes of the
laws of zones, and an example of a complete development of them.
1. Zone passing through two pinacoids—
100 100
010 010
0.0—0.1;0.1—1.0;1.1—0.0
0 0 1

[0 01] is the symbol of the third pinacoid. If a face, h & 1, lies in this
zone, so must—
h.o+tk.o+l.l=o
also, 1 = 1, the general symbol of a face lying in the zone 100.016—
[O01] ishko.
2. Zone passing through a pinacoid and any face:

hkl hkt

100 100

k.o—l.o;l.1—h.o; h.o—k.1

0 l i

If a third face, x y 2, lies in the zone [o [7%], so must—

v.o+ty.l—k.z=0
or—
If. therefore, a zone passes through a pinacoid, the relation of those two
indices, which, in the symbol of the pinacoid, are 0, is constant for all the
faces of this zone.

PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. QA7T

3. The cases given under the second and third rules are special cases
of a more general one; and, certainly, two given faces, (hkl) and (pqr),
in which—

can always be so represented that their symbols have the form (ew v)
and (wwv), because the three indices of a face may be multiplied by the
same number without changing the symbol.

For the zone we have—

euv Eun

Rw eUe

U.V—Y.Uj; U.G—EC.U; 6-U—U.e
0; v(v@—e); U(e— 2)

or, if we divide the three zone-indices by (w —e), [Ov u]; a face, (7st),
lies in this zone, if—
o.rt+tv.s—u.t=o
so—
s_ ou

t v

Let any two faces of a zone be represented by the symbols (#wv) and
(€uv), or, generally, let them have two similarly-situated indices in both
faces with like relations, all the faces of this zone will be represented in
the form (p uv).

That the second law comes also under this head is clear, because the
relation és indeterminate, and therefore can answer to every value.

O
As an example of development by zones, we have chosen the erystal
represented in Fig. 12. Because we assume that there are no measure-

fig 13. ioo
ae ino
a0 ejon
in boro
Stl
pl os
we 4
we F}toy
n tio
m 0
a 100

ments, but only the data of the zones, we shall presume, in the projec-
tion, (Fig. 13,) that it is triclinic. In this projection we record the faces
in the order in which they are to be determined.

248 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

Let the zones to be determined be—
bman; bdce; afc; apd; bpfq; cspm; dsfn; cqn; aqe
The existence of these will be seen principally from the parallelism of
the respective edges. Where there is no real edge, as is the case in the
angle aq, the hypothetical zone-axis can be found by turning the erystal
round. All faces which, in turning round the same axis, reflect the
light are tautozonal.

In order to determine the combination, it is first necessary to select a
system of axes. Regard will be had to the real or apparent symmetry of
the crystal, in this way, that when a system less symmetrical in com-
pleteness and inclination of the faces approaches one of higher sym-
metry, this analogy is retained.

We select three faces, abe, for the planes of the axes; their lines of
section give the crystallographic axes. We project these in such a way
that the zone ab is contained in the principal circle.

The exactitude of the relation of the angles makes naturally no dif-
ference, if it is only a question of the solution of the combination. The
faces are introduced into the projection in the order in which they are
to be determined, first a be. .

The faces a b ¢ then are designated by the symbol belonging to the
pinacoids, 1 00,010,001.

In order to fix a ground-form, we have yet to determine the relations
of the axes; this, according to the relation of p, may be (1 1 1); the axes-
sections of the face p give also the value o A,o B,oC, from which the
parameters of every other face will be determined.

That the indices of p must be 1 1 1 follows from the equat®n (p. 9) in
which the indices of a face are defermined, as—

Substituting the section o A, o B,oC, in this equation, we have—

== t=

After the outline and the axes of the crystal are determined, the
drawing of the faces can be developed.

Determination of m. m lies in the zones b} man and c.--.pm. In or-
der that a face may lie in the first zone, it is a necessary and sufficient
condition that it has the symbol h ko, that is, is parallel to the axis ¢,
as also follows from the derivation of the zone-equation.

For the second zone we have the condition—

ee
h
because, aS we have seen, the equality of the same index-relations, in
two faces of a zone, determines their equality for all the faces of that
zone ; thus—
h

k

PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. QAI

This results also from the zone-equation—
ATT 3 ach
001 O01 .
Met O.1; 1.0 1,.15,1.0—0..1
which gives [1 1 0] as the zone-equation, or—
1.27—1.y+0.2=0orv=y
as condition of the tautozonality of a face, vy z, with 001 and111; the
symbol of mh ko becomes changed under these circumstances into (1 1 0).
In the same way the position of d, in the zones b de and ap d, is deter-
mined. The first zone gives, as condition, the first index as equal to 0,it is
thuso hl; the second gives the equation of the second and third index—
ety 70
lt

and therefore the symbol (0 1 1).
Finally, the face fis determined in the same way by the zone a fe, as
hol, and by the zone b pf, as 1 0 1, because—
Pesci ag) 0g
Lave dltiens0)
Thus it is to be kept in view that the quotient © may have any rational

value which is first fixed by the two faces.
For the face n we have the zone b m an, by which we get the symbol
khoandd fn; for the last we have—
On ite Ont
IORI O
LO Le Ors 0,0 ht
or [111]; also as condition— ;
h.1t+k.1—0.1=0lo0rh=—k
This condition is satisfied by 110 and 11 0, of which the first is the
symbol for the face in front, and the last for the opposite one behind.
For the determination of q we have the zonescqnanddp fq; the
first gives, when h k lis the symbol of g—

aie 0 ate

ae ot Ue ee)
the last—

Camel We

Tie ie Ai al

which, when contracted, is 1 1 1.
The face e lies in the zone b d ce, whereforeh =o; and ina qe, for
which reason—

e has thus the symbol (0 1 1).
There remains s in the zones m p se and ds f n to be determined; the
first zone gives—

250 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

or the general symbol hhi; and has [111] for its zone-index, so—
h+h—l=O0or2h=l1
which condition is satisfied by (11 2).

Thus the collective forms of this combination are determined.

There certainly may be cases presented where the existing zones do
not suffice to determine all the faces of a combination; these cases are,
however, rare, and occur in very few instances.

Instead of the above selection of a face, (111), determining the collect-
ive relations of the axes, two domes in two pinacoid zones could very well
be used, as110, in which a: b, and 101, by which a: ¢, is determined.

In the simpler and often recurring faces, as we have seen above, even
the very simple calculation of the symbols from two zone-symbols, by
crosswise multiplication, is superfluous, because at least the conditions
for it, in a zone, can be at once expressed in the general symbol of the
face, so that by substitution in the equation—

hatky+lz=0
the indices hkl are fully determined.

SECTION II.
SYMMETRY OF THE SYSTEMS OF CRYSTALLIZATION.
§ 1.—DERIVATION OF THE SYSTEM FROM THE LAW OF RATIONAL INDICES.

The rationality of the indices is, for the possibility of a face of a
crystal, as we have said above, not only a necessary but a sufficient
condition. It is, therefore, a possibility of every face whose indices are
rational numbers. <A collection of faces, therefore, which is to obey the
law of rational indices must also answer to all the consequences which
in mathematics follow from this law.

The carrying-out of this deduction, which can here only be announced,
leads us to the different-elements of symmetry, and especially to the
consideration of planes of symmetry.

A plane of symmetry bas the peculiarity that its physical relations
are equal on both sides of it.

The identity of the physical peculiarities of two faces or lines is also

Figl3.a. determined by the similarity of their position with

4 respect to the plane of symmetry, and this condition
is really fulfilled by two planes when they are tau-
togonal with the plane of symmetry, and are:so sit-
uated with regard to both sides that they form like
anzles with them, (Fig. 13a, where the angle P: Q= «9
and P!: Q = '° are equal to each other.) Two lines,
o Aand o B, (Fig. 13b,) satisfy the condition if they,
with respect to the plane of symmetry P, contain a
similar angle; and if a plane, R, at right angles to the
plane of symmetry can be passed through, then are A C = are OB.

The derivation of the crystalline system is as follows: Let two possi-
ble faces of a crystal be taken which are symmetrical with respect to a

PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 151

plane; it is to be determined if symmetry with regard to another plane
does not follow from it; given a zone, which is symmetrical with respect
to one or more faces, 7. ¢., that for every
face of the zone there is also a possible
one which will be symmetrical with it,
it is required if from this,symmetry in
other directions does not follow, 7%. e.,
if for every possible face of the given
zone another face is not also possible,
with which, according to presumption,
the zone sought for is parallel.

The criterion of the possibility of a face is, therefore, always the ra-
tionality of its indices. Proceeding in this way, we recognize that only
that reunion of faces is, crystallographically speaking, possible, which,
by the number and position of their planes of symmetry, belong to one
of the seven characteristic crystalline systems. By plane of symmetry
of a crystal we understand a plane in relation to which all the possible
faces of a crystal are symmetrical, so that for every possible face of a
crystal there is another which, so far as the plane of symmetry is con-

Fig. 13.6. "

Fig.14. Fig. 45

Oey

cerned, is symmetrical with it. It is therefore apparent, that only the

following combinations are possible:

1. No plane of symmetry existing.............-.- TRICLINIC SYSTEM.

2. One plane of symmetry, B, (Fig. 14)..-..-.-... MONOCLINIC SYSTEM.

3. Three different planesof symmetry at right angles to each other,
Jake 1835 OH a(( BUI UD) Se ae ee RHOMBIC (ORTHORHOMBIC) SYSTEM.

hig ti.

Fig 16

4, Three tautozonal and similar planes of symmetry inclined to each at
angles of 60° and 120°, A A’ A”, (Fig. 16), RHOMBOHEDRAL SYSTEM.

252 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

5. Five planes of symmetry, of which four are tautozonal and inclined
to each other 45° and 90°, every two 90° apart stmilar, A A’,

A’ A”, (Fig. 17.) The fifth, C, at right angles to all the others, and

NOt SimiUate sense ee een ee aaa eee TETRAGONAL SYSTEM.

6. Seven planes of symmetry, six of which are tautozonal and inclined
30° and 60°, every three 60° apart, similar, A A’ A”, B B’ B”, (Fig.

18.) The seventh, C, at right angles to all the others, not
SUMMENS (OG o S52" Seah Sancus a doe nec 2a55 eae 55 HEXAGONAL SYSTEM.
Fig.18.

7. Nine planes of symmetry, three of which, A A’ A”, (Fig. 19,) are at
right angles to each other, and similar. The other six, similar to
each other, B B’/ B” .... BY, intercalated between every two tautoz-
onal A, and at an angle of 45°, TESSERAL (ISOMETRIC) SYSTEM.

§ 2.—CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SYSTEMS.

From the above statement of the relations of symmetry in each erystal-
line system we shall next derive the single faces belonging to each form
as well as the most practical method of selecting the axes of the erystal.

For axes we may select any three edges or zone-axes which are formed
by three possible faces of the crystal not tautozonal with each other.

We shall, however, on account of the existence of planes of symmetry,
so select the axes that, wherever it is possible, they are placed sym-
metrically to the planes of symmetry, by which we shall at once see that
all the faces of a form will take the same numerical indices, but arranged
in different orders. We understand by form the combination of all those
faces which are symmetrical with each other, according to the planes of
symmetry of the given crystal, and which, together, possess the same
physical peculiarities.

With regard to the selection of the axes, we only remark that it ap-
pears necessary, on theoretical grounds, which were first developed by
Frankenstein, so to select the axes that every acute axis-angle shall be
greater than 60°, and that every obtuse one shall be less than 120°,
which is always possible.

1. TRICLINIC SyYSTEM.—No plane of symmetry. The choice of the
axes is arbitrary, as also the face 111, by which the plane of the axes
is determined—

PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. PAB

Five elements are undetermined, two relations and three angles of the
axes. Because no plane of symmetry exists, a single face, hk 1, (Fig. 20,)
with the one parallel to it, constitutes a form. It is only necessary to
consider this analogy in the selection of the axes, where there exists a

Fig.20 Fig. 81.

similarity in the angle and in the composition of the faces, with a more
highly symmetrical system, as the monoclinic or orthorhombic.

2. MONOCLINIC SYSTEM.—One plane of symmetry, B, (Fig. 21.) We
first select this plane as one of the planes of the axes, especially for the
plane X Z, so that it takes the symbol 010. For every face, hkl, a
second one is now possible, which, with it, is placed symmetrically with
regard to the plane of symmetry 010, and, therofore, as is easily seen,
takes the symbol hkl. These two faces, with those opposite to them,
constitute together the general form of the monoclinic system. A zone-
axis is determined by every two such pairs of faces, which, as is easily
perceived, must lie in the plane of symmetry, because 010 lies in the
zone [(hkl) (hkl)]. If two such zone-axes are taken for the axis of X Z,
it is at once clear that the angles of the axes will be—

XY=¢f=909; YZ=£=90°; (KXZ=7) 2 90°
A fourth face gives the sections of the axes a = b 2 ¢, and we have in
this system three unknown elements, two ratios, and one angle of the
axes.

3. ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM.—Three planes of symmetry, A BC, (Fig.
22,) at right angles to one another, which
we select for the planes of the axes, with
the symbols 100,010,001. The three
axes will, for this reason, be at right an-
gles to each other, and we have now, by
means of a fourth plane, to determine ,,,
their lengths, so that—

CEeWebe sS=p=He— ws
In this system we have, therefore, two un-

a Ob
known elements, —, —; the four faces,
Oi

joo

Fug. 22.

hkl, hkl, hkl, hkl, with their opposites, are similar, so that the general
form is an eight-sided rhombic pyramid.

254 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

With regard to the selection of the three pinacoids, there may be a
number of assumptions. Grailich and Lang take a > b> e:; Schrauf
selects, in substances which can be optically examined, 001, perpendic-
wlar to the bisectrix, 100 and 010, so that a > b; other authors follow
no principle, but take the first method of exhibition.

4, RHOMBOHEDRAL SYSTEM.—Three planes of symmetry, A A’ A”,
(Fig. 23,) which are tautozonal, similar, and

Grr inclined to each other at an angle of 60°,

SU In this case it is not admissible to select

5 Kih\ », the planes of symmetry for the planes of
—F\ \ the axes, because they are tautozonal. In
order to observe the symmetry of the
method of notation, we select for the planes
of the axes three faces of the crystal which
‘io are Symmetrically situated with regard to
the planes of symmetry, and so constitute
ys a form. The faces 100, 010, 001, must
be perpendicular to every plane of symmetry, because only one sueh
form, composed of only three faces with their opposites, exists; every
other one is composed of six or of two. For the determination of the
planes of the axes we select a face, as 111, which is at right angles
to the zone-axis of the planes of symmetry, and is consequently simi-
larly inclined to the three planes of the axes. Therefore—

o2 -
EJ S2. joy

on

-A single dimension, the angle of the axes, is undetermined.

The three planes of symmetry have the symbols 101 =A; 011= A’;
110= A”. The symbol of each, with the faces tautozonal to the plane
of symmetry, which are prisms according to the general notation, thus
deviating from usage in the other erystalline systems, is liable to the
condition k + k + l= 0, because the symbol of the zone of symmetry is
[111]. The other forms are scalenohedrons, which is the general form
of this system, with six faces, hkl, (Fig. 23,) and their opposites; rhom-

t0g.2% 190 bohedrons, whose faces are perpendicu-

<a he lar to every plane of symmetry; the
SN base 111.

Itis plain that the axis-angle = is equal
to plane-angle of the faces at the vertex

*° of the primitive rhombohedron, (10 0).
5. TETRAGONAL SYSTEM.—Four tau-
tozonal planes of symmetry inclined at
aad uo an angle of 45° to each other; every al-
= ternate two, A A’, BB’, (Fig. 24,) simi-
lar; a fifth one, C, perpendicular to these, but not similar. For planes
of the axes we select two similar planes of symmetry, which are perpen-
dicular to each other, B A A’, and the single plane of symmetry, ©, at

10>

PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 255

right angles to it, and finally 001 as plane of X Y. For the determina-
tion of the lengths of the axes we select a face, 111, perpendicular to
one of the intermediate planes of symmetry. We thus have the ele-

ments—
eI 1c0er (ar 18) 0

OGG ,
Thus we have only one unknown quantity, -. The intermediate planes
C

of symmetry have the symbols 110,110. The most general form is a
pyramid of sixteen faces. The similar faces of hkl may be seen in
Fig. 24.

6. HEXAGONAL SYSTEM.—Seven planes of symmetry, six of which
are tautozonal and inclined at an é.25.
angle of 30°; every other one,
A A!’ A”, BB’ B", (Fig. 25,) simi-
lar; and the seventh, which is at
right angles to them, not similar.
We might here have selected for
the planes of the axes three planes | /
of symmetry, as C, and two others
from the zone, symmetrical to the
planes of the axes, but the sym-
metry of the notation would thus
be lost. We select, therefore, as
in the rhombohedric system, three
alternate faces, of a form perpen-
dicular to the six planes of sym-
metry, for the planes of the axes 100,010,001. We determine the
length of the axes, as in the rhombohedric system, by the face 111,
which is perpendicular to the axis of the zone of symmetry, by means
of which we get, as before—

a=b=c; (§=7=6) 2 900

tie

Because in particular values of their elements there is no difference
between this and the rhombohedric system, they are often united, which
is contrary, however, to physical laws.

In this system it is no longer possible to represent the united faces of
a form with the same indices with regard to the symbols of the planes
of symmetry, as 101, 011, 110, it is for the primary 112,121, 211;
for the secondary planes, B B/ B”, whose sign follows from the zones,
we have, for the faces e/g, belonging to those lying opposite to hkl, the
determinative equations—

e= —h+2k+21

f= 2h— k+21
The most general form of this system is a twenty-four-faced pyramid,
the half of whose faces, as is seen on Fig. 25, are represented by the

156 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

symbols hkl, and the other half by efg. The forms of this system are
generally pyramids of twenty-four faces, two orders of twelve-faced pyra-
mids, whose faces are perpendicular to the principal section, prisms of
twelve faces, two orders of six-faced prisms, and the base.
7. TESSERAL (ISOMETRIC) SYSTEM.—Nine planes of symmetry, three
Lg. 26. io of which, A A’ A”, (Fig. 26,)

are similar and at right an-
gles to each other; the others
tautozonal in pairs, with an
A intercalated between each
two, B.... BY, at an angle
of 45° to them. We select
the three which are perpen-
dicular to each other for the
plane of the axes, and deter-
mine the length of the axes
by the face 111, which lies
in an intermediate zone; we
thus have—
Vi $7) 6 SS

The five elements are determined.

The most general form, hkl, consists of forty-eight faces, whose dis-
tribution is shown in Fig. 26.

In the previous development only the most general form, hkl, has
been considered ; it is, however, very easy by specializing the symbols,
as by an equation of two indices, for instance, or by conditions which can be
conceived in the projection, to represent all the forms of a system by
the number and signs of the faces.

We wish, for example, the symbol of the faces of the six-sided, the
twelve-faced pyramid of the hexagonal system. Their symbols result
from the relation of the zones. On the other hand, a simple inspection
of the planes of symmetry of this system shows that a face occurring
in the zone [(111) (21 1)] has on the upper side five similar faces. Thus
it results that the symbol of the opposite rhombohedron, similar to the
primitive rhombohedron, is (122), according to the formula, (p. 22.)
Partial forms have not been included in the above representation, any
more than the researches on the symmetry of lines and planes, which
will be given in another place.

SECTION III.

OPTICAL RELATIONS OF CRYSTALS.
§ 1—DOUBLE REFRACTION AND ABSORPTION.

It is known that in media of equal density throughout, also in unerys-
tallized media, a ray of light moves in every direction with the preserva-
tion of its condition of vibration; that, further, its velocity of propagation

PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 257

is only dependent on the color of the beam of light, and on a factor
which is constant for the entire medium, and not from the direction in
which it moves.

If, therefore, a beam of light, under any condition of vibration, enters
such an isotrope medium, it can very easily, taking into consideration
its angle of incidence, change the direction, and, taking into considera-
tion its color and molecular constants, the velocity of its propagation ;
the condition of vibration, however, remains constant. The condition of
vibration of the beam of light is said to be completely polarized, partially
polarized, or unpolarized, according as the whole of the light or only
part of it vibrates in a constant path, or this course takes in an infinitely
short space every possible transversal position. In the first case, where
the whole light has a constant path of vibration, we say again that the
light is polarized in a straight line, circularly, or elliptically, according
as the path of oscillation is a straight line, perpendicular to the direc-
tion of propagation, a circle, or an ellipse. The movement of the light
in an isotrope medium is, therefore, dependent on that of the incident
light, the angle of incidence, and a molecular constant.

In a crystallized medium, in which the density can be supposed vari-
able with the direction, only two beams of light of a determined velocity
of propagation for each color, and determined direction of vibration,
can, in general, be propagated in any determined direction; on the con-
trary, a beam of light entering a crystalline medium will not only be
deviated from its direction, but separated into two divergent beams,
each one of which, according to its direction in the crystal, will have
variable velocities of propagation and direction of vibration.

Just as the intensity of the light is weakened by its passage through
an isotrope medium, and has different strengths for different colors, so
is it the case with crystalline media, only here the unequal absorption for
different colors depends on the direction in the crystal; the same is here
true as of the manner of vibration and the velocity of propagation.
The same direction in a crystal corresponds thus to two determined
beams with determined velocities of propagation, direction of vibration,
and absorption; and a ray of light entering a crystal is divided into two
beams of determined but different directions of propagation, velocities,
directions of vibration, and absorption.

§ 2.—THE ELLIPSOID OF POLARIZATION.

The law according to which the whole movement of light in a erystal
is determined can, so far as is necessary for our present purpose, be
enunciated as follows :

In every crystal an ellipsoid with three axes can be constructed in
such a way that the velocity of propagation and the direction of vibra-
tion of the two rays of light, which can move in a fixed direction in a
crystal, may be determined by the major and minor axes of the ellipse,
which Sas when, from the center of the ellipsoid, a plane is passed

Ss

258 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

perpendicular to the given direction of propagation of both of the beams,
and this prolonged to its section with the ellipse.
Let o A, 0 B, 0 C, (Fig. 27,) be the principal axes of the ellip-
Fig.22. A soid, at right angles to each
: other; S 0, the direction,
passing through the center,
in which the two beams of
light should move. Let us
\ pass through O a plane per-
¢ pendicular to o S, which cuts
the ellipsoid in the points
MN oM’, which points be-
long to an ellipse whose ma-
jor and minor half-axes are
o X and 0 Y; of these two
A beams, propagated in the di-
rection S o, the one has the direction of vibration o X and the velocity

of propagation = and the other O Y and 7

The situation and the length of the principal axis.of this ellipsoid are,
in general, different for every color. The absorption of the light in any
direction can also be determined from the principal axis. With the co-
efficient of absorption of the principal axis we can again construct an
ellipsoid whose axes correspond to those of the ellipsoid of polarization.
The co-efficient of absorption for the two rays of light corresponding to
a direction will be determined sometimes by the ellipse-section and
sometimes by the absorption-ellipsoid ; the major and minor axes of this
ellipse, it is true, do not coincide exactly, but they do approximatively
with those of the direction of vibration.

In the most general case, which we shall first discuss, the three axes
Fig.28 A of the ellipsoid are of unequal

oe lengths; they will be called
axes of polarization or of elas-
ticity; by the last is also spe-

Sa eral Mian : oe cially understood their recip-
cs rocal lengths, as—
Cy c it 1 1
6. == — = Se
0 A’ 0B’ oC

in which a > b > ¢ is chosen;
hence the distances o A, o B,
o ©, are themselves propor-
tional to the prixcipal quotient
A of refraction.

A plane of the axes containing two axes of elasticity is called the
principal section, and is perpendicular to the third axis.

A plane parallel to one axis, as 0 C, (Fig. 28,) cuts the ellipsoid in an

PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 259

ellipse, C P C’, one axis of which coincides with the known axis of elas-
ticity, and the other axis, o P, is perpendicular to it in the principal
section A Bo.

A plane M N 0, (Fig. 27,) inclined to all three of the axes of elasticity,
euts the ellipsoid in an ellipse, whose axes are not parallel to any of the
axes of elasticity. In general, a > b > ¢ is true in the principal section
A oC, (Fig. 29,) whenever
there isa radius,Ob,whose 49-9 a patie Jigs
length is equal to the mid- ‘
dle axis of elasticity, O B. ffornsananonnn é
If a plane, B o b, is passed
through this last and this nace al
radius, their section of the gen
ellipsoid is a circle; the ©
normal o a to this circle-
face lies in the principal
section of the largest and
smallest axes of elasticity,
o A C, and is called an op- 5 Be
tical axis. This ellipsoid,
which has three axes, has two optical axes, 0 a and oa’, (Fig. 29,) which
are in the planes of the greatest and smallest axes of elaSticity, and are
Situated symmetrically with regard to both.

The optical axes form with each other two supplementary angles, an
acute, 2 Y a, and an obtuse, 2 Y 0, so that 2 Y a—180° — 2 Y 0, which
are equally divided by the axes A and ©; that axis which divides the
acute-angle axis is called the first middle line, (bisectrix,) and the one
which divides the obtuse-angle axis is called the second middle line, so
that two cases are again possible :

. ~wos

BE

First middle line “” second middle line ¢: negative crystal.

First middle line © second middle line a: positive crystal.

+

The first case is assumed in Fig. 29. Fig. 30 shows a sketch of the last.

According as the nature of double refrac- Fig.30.
tion consists in a difference of the velocity
of propagation and of the direction of vi-
bration of the two beams of light capable
of being propagated in the same direction,
it is at once clear that the double refraction
must disappear along the optical axes. The
plane normal to a beam of light, that is, the
one which propagatesitself in thedireection | o<------,
of an optical axis, cuts the ellipsoid in a
circle; the velocities of propagation of the
beains of light given by tworadii are equal 8
to each other; the directions of vibration are undetermined, i. e., remain
unchanged, as they were before their entrance into the crystalline medium.

260 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

If a erystal has a plane of symmetry, it must coincide with a princi-
pal section of the ellipsoid for every color, because an ellipsoid with
three axes is Symmetrical only in its principal sections; this coincidence
must not, however, occur in the same principal section for every color ;
thus, for red light, bc, and for biue light, a¢, may fall in the plane of sym-
metry. If two axes of elasticity of the same ellipsoid are equal, their
principal section will be a circle, and the two axes become reduced to one ;
if, for instance, the third axis of elasticity is perpendicular to this principal
section, the ellipsoid is an ellipsoid of rotation. The sections of such
an ellipsoid, with a plane, are either perpendicular to the optical axis,
section a circle, no double refraction, direction of vibration undeter-
mined; or parallel to the optical axis, section an ellipse, one axis of which
is the optical axis, the other has a constant value, which is that of the
axis of elasticity originating in the circle; or inclined to the optical axis,
section an ellipse, whose axes are inclined to the optical axes. Ellipsoids
with a single axis are of two kinds, lengthened or flattened, according as—

= 0% “ the optical axis; negative crystal, (Fig. 31.)

C

+
Fig 24. Fig.32

Ui De the optical axis; positive crystal, (Fig. 32.)

\ =>)
2

a

If all three of the axes of elasticity of the ellipsoid are equal to each
other, it becomes a sphere; every section by a plane will be a circle; all
the axes of such a circle will be equal to each other. Such a crystal is
monorefringent, and has no determined direction of vibration, that is to
say, the direction of vibration of the beam of light entering the crystal
remains the same.

As has been already mentioned above, the relations of absorption in
the whole crystal can be determined if they are given for the three axes
of elasticity. If we construct an ellipsoid from the three principal ab-
sorption-constants (for a determined color) as axes, we find, exactly as
in the ellipsoid of polarization, the amount of absorption for a given
direction in the crystal by passing a normal plane and determining the
axes of the ellipse-section so produced.

PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 261

§ 3.—OPTICAL RELATIONS OF PLANE PLATES WHOSE SIDES ARE
PARALLEL,

We shall first consider the relations of plane plates of crystals whose
sides are parallel, in straight-lined parallel light and perpendicular inci-
dence. Let the entering beam of parallel straight-lined light polar-
ized by any means, such as a nichol prism, heropathite, or a plate of
tourmaline, fall perpendicularly upon a plane plate of the erystal whose
sides are parallel. In consequence of its perpendicular incidence, for
we can treat parallel light always so, the beam of light enters the
crystal without deviation; in this defined direction only two beams,
whose direction of vibration is determined according to § 2 of this see-
tion, can transmit themselves in the crystal, because we bring the plane
of the plates, which is perpendicular to the path of the beam of light,
into the section of the ellipsoid of polarization.

The entering beam of light must now be divided, according to these
two lines at right angles to each other, into two component parts, which
then follow the same path entirely through the crystal; passing out of
it, however, they fall upon a second polarizing arrangement, the
analyzer, which, as the polarizer, allows the vibrating light to pass only
in a given direction. Here the two beams of light are divided in such
a way that only that component which falls in the plane of vibration of
the analyzer comes out of it; finally, both these components, polarized
in straight lines, have similar directions of vibration, and the same path,
and for this reason unite in a straight polarized beam of light, with the
same direction of vibration as component and analyzer.

We suppose that both the polarizer and the analyzer are so placed
that their directions of vibration are parallel to
each other, which position is once for all deter-
mined. Let us now turn the crystal-plate in its | p
own plane until its directions of vibration come
together, the one, 0é, (Fig. 33,) with o P of the po-
larizer, the other, oy, with o A of the analyzer,
and we have the following result :

Straight-lined polarized light comes from the
polarizer in the direction of vibrating light, 0 P. A
By its entrance into the crystal it will be divided ° 1
in the direction 0¢ and 07, which is its direction of vibration; thus no
component escapes, especially in the direction 07, but the beam passes
through the plate in the direction 0 &, and passes out of it with the di-
rection of vibration o &, falls upon the analyzer, is here divided into two
components, of which only the parallel one, o A, is allowed to pass
parallel too A; however, 0 € gives out no component, which means that
in this case no light whatever comes through the analyzer.

We see also that any crystal-plate with parallel planes appears dark
when placed between polarizers which are at right angles to each other,

Fig.33,

262 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

as soon as its direction of vibration coincides with that of the analyzer
and polarizer.

In order to observe the absorption, we have only, when the plate is in
the position of darkness, to take away the analyzer or the polarizer. In
this case only the color corresponding to the one direction of vibration
of the plate appears. This occurrence thus shows itself entirely analo-
gous to the previous one.

It is at once clear that a plate perpendicular to an optical axis ap-
pears dark in every position of the crossed polarizers. Respecting the
relations of a plate with parallel sides between polarizers in a cone of
monochromatic light, we only remark that optical axes are shown by a
system of very nearly concentric rings, through whose center a dark,
straight or hyperbolic beam, or a dark cross, appears. The appearance
of these in white light will be described for some of the systems.

§ 4.—OPTICAL RELATIONS IN EACH CRYSTALLINE SYSTEM.

As has already been mentioned above, the position of the principal
optical section and the value of the axes of elasticity are different for
different colors. A coincidence takes place only in the case of the exist-
ence of one or more planes of symmetry, because such a one must
always be a principal optical section.

1. TRICLINIC SYSTEM.—No plane of symmetry. The position of the
ellipsoid of polarization for the different colors cannot be determined @
priori; the axes of elasticity are inclined to the axes of the crystal; all
the principal optical sections are dispersed, that is, have a different po-
sition for every color. In general, the dispersion of the principal section,
both here and in the following erystalline systems, is small, and seldom
goes beyond one or two degrees. The appearances of color in plane
plates with parallel sides, which allow the optical axes to be distin-
guished, are in monochromatic light as follows: A plate perpendicular
to the bisectrix shows, when the polarizers are crossed, a black cross,
(Fig. 34,) upon one arm of which the elliptical rings of the optical axes

appear surrounded by lemniscates if the principal axes of the plate co-
incide with those of the polarizer; when hyperbole (Fig. 35) pass
through the rings of the axes, the principal sections of the plate are
inclined 45° to the polarizer; in white light the rings of some colors

PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 263

appear superposed ; on account of the dispersion of the principal section,
both of the two images of the axes, and also the arrangement of the
colors in both of them, will be unsymmetrical with regard to the prinei-
pal section, which is marked by a somewhat faint and black beam. The
detail of this image of the axes is most simply described by saying that
a union of the cases of dispersion, met with in variable intensity in the
following system of crystallization, is to be here observed.

2. MONOCLINIC SYSTEM.—One plane of symmetry. A principal opti-
cal section of every color must coincide with the plane of symmetry, so
an axis of elasticity of every color must coincide with the axes of the
crystal o Y, perpendicular to the plane of symmetry. The two other
principal sections, as also the two axes of elasticity lying in the plane
of symmetry, are dispersive for the different colors. There are here
three possible cases :

First. The principal section ac, containing the optical axes of a color,
coincides with the plane of symmetry, inclined dispersion, (dispersion
inclinée of Descloiseaux.) The general case is, that the analogous principal
sections have for all colors very nearly the same position; in this case
the optical axes, for all the colors, lie in the plane of symmetry; the
image of a plate perpendicular to a bisectrix, (convergent light,) on
account of the correspondence of the direction of vibration of the plate
and the polarizer, is symmetrical with respect to the black beam joining
the image of the axes, (I*ig. 36.)

Secondly. The principal section of the axes is perpendicular to the
plane of symmetry; the bisectrix Fig. 36.
lies in the plane of symmetry, hori-
zontal dispersion, (dispersion horizon-
tale of Descloiseaux.) In this case
eb for positive crystals, and ab for
negative crystals, coincide with the
plane of symmetry.

If the general case of the approximate coincidence of similar prinei-
pal sections for different colors is selected, we see that here the planes
of the optical axes are dispersive. The image of the axis appears sym-
metrical with respect to a beam perpendicular to the line of the optical
axes, (Fig. 37.)

Thirdly. The section of the axes ac and the bisectrix are perpendic-
ular to the plane of Symmetry ; the prin. 47.37.
cipal section ab for positive, and ¢b for
negative crystals, coincide, therefore,
with the plane of symmetry ; cross-wise —
dispersion, (dispersion croisée of Descloi-
seaux.) ‘The planes of tbe axes are dis-
persive.

Under the same supposition as before,
the image of the axes will not be symmetrical with regard to any line;

264 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

the planes of the axes appear round the normal to the plate, (second
crystallographic axes, o Y, bisecting,) dispersed in the shape of a fan,
(Fig. 38.)

3. ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM.—Three unequal planes of symmetry at
right angles to each other. Every plane
of symmetry must coincide with a prin-
cipal section; here the position of the
principal optical section is completely
i determined, and only the value and po-
sition of the axes of elasticity are unde-

termined. In most cases the similar
[ principal sections of all colors coincide,
as also do the axes of elasticity a, b, ¢.

The image of the axes, according to the former suppositions, is sym-
metrical with regard to the two black beams; it appears also in white
light, similar to Fig. 34, but in this case the black ellipses are replaced
with color. The principal optical section is not dispersive ; the optical
axes, however, are; that is, the angle of the axes is different for different
colors, as in both the previous systems.

4, KHOMBOHEDRIC SYSTEM.—Three tautogonal and similar planes of
symmetry, inclined at an angle of 60°. Every one of these must be a
principal section of the ellipsoid; this is only possible if all these zones
belonging to the section of the ellipsoid are equal to each other; that is,
it is an ellipsoid of rotation; the principal section perpendicular to the
plane of symmetry is a circle; the axis of the zone of symmetry is the
optical axis of all the colors. Here, as we have already mentioned, two
cases are possible, positive or negative crystals, according as b =¢ or

a.

If we again make the supposition that the similar axes of elasticity
coincide for all colors, we get, as the image of a plate cut perpendicular
to the optical axis between two crossed polarizers, a black cross with
concentric colored rings, (Fig. 39.)

5. TETRAGONAL SYSTEM.—F ive planes of symmetry, four of which

Fig 39. , are inclined 45° to each other, every alternate one
being similar, the fifth perpendicular to the four
others.

A principal optical section is parallel to this
——*= last, as the hypothetical plane of symmetry 001.
All its perpendicular ellipsoid sections must be
equal to each other, because in this zone four
planes of symmetry exist, all of which must be
principal sections of the ellipsoid. The tetragonal system, therefore, is
optically exactly like the rhombohedral.

6. HEXAGONAL SYSTEM.—Seven planes of symmetry, six tautogonal
inclined 30°, every alternate three similar, one perpendicular to them.
This last, taken as a principal section, makes, as in the two previous

Fig.38. uti}
|

PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 265

systems, all sections perpendicular to it similar, on account of the sym-
metry according to the six tautozonal planes of symmetry; on this
account, therefore, having the same optical relations. The base 111 is
perpendicular to the optical axis.

7. TESSERAL (ISOMETRIC) SYSTEM.—Nine planes of symmetry, three
perpendicular to each other and similar, the other six intercalated tau-
tozonally at 45° between each two of the first.

If we take the first three planes of symmetry parallel to the three
principal sections, it results immediately, from the existence of the other
planes of symmetry, that the ellipsoid of polarization must be a sphere
whose radius is different for different colors. A sphere bas only cireu-
lar sections; therefore, simple refraction is produced in all directions.

We have above considered only the cases where the similar principal
sections of all colors very nearly coincided ; the exceptions to this law
are really yery rare, and present no difficulties. Observation by means
of monochromatic glasses or sources of light always allows a very quick
orientation.

We have also in the above description left out crystals with one axis,
which polarize circularly, because they, in spite of the greatest theoret-
ical differences, can practically be regarded exactly as the other mono-
axial crystals, with the exception of the image of the axis, which inside
of the rings shows that the black cross is replaced by a uniform color,
which is dependent on the thickness of the plate.

It is now no longer necessary to describe the special behavior of sec-
tions of different crystals with respect to the orientation of their direc-
tion of vibration. The orientation of the ellipsoid, with regard to the
axes of the crystal and their respective planes of symmetry, is given
above ; if, therefore, the crystallographic orientation of a plate is known,
the kind of section in the ellipsoid and the directions of vibration ean
be at once determined. Inversely, the experimentally easily-determined
position of the direction of vibration of a section of known crystal-
lographie orientation gives a starting-point for the determination of
the system.

Reviewing the method of development of the foregoing sketch, we
see, as the starting-point, the law of experience, that by the selection
of a certain method of representation, the symbols of all faces and zones
consist of whole numbers, whose relations with one another are therefore
rational numbers.

From the rationality of these numbers follows, in a way which we
could only briefly dwell upon, that only such groupings of faces are
possible which belong to one of the seven different kinds of symmetry,
the seven systems of crystallization. From the general law of the

266 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

movement of light in erystals resulted the ellipsoid of polarization for
the derivation of all special rules. The relations of symmetry of the
separate systems of crystallization allow us to discover in a very simple
manner the nature of the ellipsoid of polarization, and with it the optical
characters of every system, with which we have completed the object
of this memoir.

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

By Dr. WaIkor, -
Of the Russian Imperial Geographical Society.

The first meteorological observations in Russia were made about the
middle of the eighteenth century. The points of observation were few,
scattered irregularly over the country, with very different methods and
instruments. About the end of the last century attention was directed
to that distant but highly interesting land, Siberia. The natural his-
tory of the country having been studied by Lepechin, Pallas, Gmelin, and
others, the necessity of investigating its climate was also felt. Some
efforts were made in this direction ; thermometers were distributed, but
the result was not encouraging, and we know next to nothing relative to
these first Siberian observations. Even at the beginning of the nine-
teenth century the necessity of the study of meteorology was not gener-
ally recognized in Russia, and only as late as about 1820 were the num-
ber of points of observation increased. Between the years 1820 and
1835 meteorological observations were made in about thirty places, gen-
erally by private individuals, without any unity of plan, and often with
imperfect instruments. Probably even many of the journals kept at
that time were lost to science, for every observer worked by himself,
and had generally no communication with each other and the leading
savans of the time.

The great impulse given to the study of magnetism in 1828 had an
influence on meteorology. In that year the ‘“ magnetische verein” was
founded in Germany, and its president, Baron Humboldt, made great
efforts to induce the Russian government to establish magnetical obser-
vations in itsdominions. The Academy of Sciences warmly seconded
this effort, and in consequence magnetical observatories were estab-
lished at St. Petersburg, Kasan, Nicolajef, Sitka,and Pekin, and some-
time afterward at Catherinenburg, (Ural,) Barnaul, (West Siberia,) and
the mines of Nertschinsk, (Hast Siberia.)

In 1833 Kupfer presented a plan of reorganization of the mag-
netical observatories, so as to include meteorology. He was supported
by the minister of finance and the chief of the engineers of mines,
K. W. Tchefkine. This plan was approved by the Emperor Nicholas,
and, like the system of magnetical observations, was placed under super-
vision of the department of mines, with its center at St. Petersburg.
Magnetical and hourly observations were to be made at the following
places: St. Petersburg, Barnaul, Catherinenburg, and Nertschinsk, and,

268 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

in addition, meteorological observations at Bogoslovlsk and Zlatouste,
(Ural) and Lugan, (Southern Russia.) The observations were to be pub-
lished at the expense of the department of mines; and Kupfer was ap-
pointed director of the system. All this was accompiished between 1835
and 1841. The observatories, bowever, of Nicolajef, Sitka, and Pekin
were not under Kupfer’s direction, nor was that of Tiflis, founded in
1844, A yearly publication, under the title of “ Annuaire magnetique et
meteorologique,” was devoted to the meteorological observations of the
stations of the department of mines, as also to those of Sitka, Pekin,
and Tiflis.

In 1549 the Russian central physical observatory was founded. No
change was made in the position of the principal points, but the obser-
vatory entered in communication with private observers, furnished them
with good compared instruments, and published the daily means of
their observations, as also those of the government stations, in a quar-
terly volume named ‘Correspondence meteorologique.” The publication
of the hourly observations of the principal stations continued under the
title of ‘‘ Annales de V’observatoire physique central.” Thus for the first
time a general system of meteorological observations was founded in
Russia. New observers volunteered to assist in the work, and public
institutions took part in this movement. The department of public
lands furnished good instruments to its schools of agriculture, and some
of their observations are very valuable. Mr. Wesselovsky stimulated
their zeal and began at the same time to collect the meteorological
journals of private observers, for a general work on the climate of Russia.
Many journals were thus saved from oblivion, and the results of many
private exertions were placed in the reach of the scientific world.

His “ Climate of Russia” appeared in 1857, and, being still the most
extensive and complete work on this subject, I may be allowed to give
an account of its contents:

The author having the intention of publishing a strictly climatological
work, with a view to apply his researches to statistics, and especially to
the influence of climate on man, unfortunately excluded all that relates
to the pressure of the air. Extensive tables are, however, given of the
mean temperature for one hundred and forty-seven stations, in which
number twenty-six are for Siberia and Russian America, with a clear ex-
position of the principal features of the distribution of the temperature,
and an appendix on the heating power of the sun’s rays and the tem-
perature of the soil. <A table is also given of the freezing and opening
of one hundred and forty rivers and lakes. In this respect the compiler,
Mr. Wesselovsky, was favored by the particular position of the rivers of
Russia, and the attention always paid to this subject. Yet the collection
of much of the datawas due to his strenuous exertions. We are present-
ed with an unbroken record of the time of freezing and opening of the
Neva, at St. Petersburg, reaching back to 1706, that is, for one hun-
dred and sixty-seven years, and records of from eighty to one hundred

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. 269

years for about ten other places. The most important part of the work
relates to the winds. Wesselovsky was the first to prove that in south-
ern Russia the winds are easterly in autumn and winter, while in the
center and northern part of the country they are from the southwest at
this time of year, the same asin England and Germany. These relations
of the wind to the seasons were exposed with the greatest clearness,
and the new data since collected have only confirmed Wesselovsky’s
views; as I shall afterwards show, surprising as it may appear, the
anemology of Russia and Siberia is even now misunderstood, especially
by foreign meterologists. A chapter on vapor, clouds, rain, and hail
follows. The observations were very few, while these phenomena,
being local, can only be well studied when we have a great number
of observations. The last chapter of the work is also of great import-
ance ; it treats of the changes of climate, and presents conclusive evi-
dence that appreciable changes have not taken place in historical times.
By consulting the classical authors, Wesselovsky shows that the general
opinion that the climate of Southern Russia has become milder has no
foundation. If Ovid, banished to the countries of the lower Danube, is
astonished at the rigor of the climate, this is quite natural for a south-
erner. The Danube froze at that time as it freezes now, at least in its
lower parts. The facts related by Herodotus relative to Scythia are still
more important. At that time, as now, rains and thunder-storms were
frequent in summer, and this was new to a Greek, accustomed as he was
to arainless summer in his own country, while the rains of winter were
less abundant in Seythia than on the shores of the Mediterranean,

Herodotus also tells us that Southern Russia was a steppe, (') at his
time, as it is now, and probably has been during the whole of the pres-
ent geological period.

The freezing and opening of rivers affords the author another proof
that the climate has not changed in this respect since the beginning of
the eighteenth century; at least that the time when the temperature
is below the freezing-point is now the same as before. There is certainly
a great variation in this respect in single years, and even in periods of
from ten to twenty years. But nothing indicates a permanent change
of climate. Cold years are followed by warm ones, and vice versa. If
we take periods of thirty years at St. Petersburg, we have as follows:

Years. Freezing. | Opening. | Days frozen.
5 t=yet || D ¥

November.| April.

1 Ef) Se a ASS 5 AS eee Rae ee LR AES A 20.0 22.6 148.7
OSES 5 H2L2 eee ea seeest Ue cd Lee e ee es 29.7 20.6 143.4
MiS4S LSS O52 23 ee eee Gores, LOS ee Baa 22.0 23.2 153.2
STASI SAB a! 033 fy. PERE Aer ce ore. lis oUetS ee Pa | 26.9 19.5 144.6

(') Jreeles’ region, prarie.

270 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

If we take periods of sixty years the difference is still less.

Years. Freezing. | Days frozen.
November.
L7QAAN 7 BSR ee AE BA ae SS Se Ea ee Ue ee ee 27A 145.1
17 94 1B BTA eee ae crass eae oe le aa ets reer eee 24.5 147-9

The Diina at Riga, where we have some observations made in the

sixteenth century, gives a similar result. The average time of the open-
ing of the river, in forty years of the sixteenth century, was April 9.6;
in ninety-one years of the eighteenth century, it was April 7.2; in fifty-
four years of the nineteenth century was 8.4. The Dwina at Arch-
angel and the Dnepr at Kiev also show very slight differences between
this century and the last.
The second part of Wesselovski’s work contains extensive tables in-
valuable to the meteorologists. The mean temperature, the number of
rainy days, and amount of fallen water, are given for every month of
every year, so far as he could obtain the data. This collection of obser-
vations is extremely important for the study of the non-periodie varia-
tions of the meterological elements. The freezing and opening of riv-
ers is given for every year separately, and it is much to be desired that
such tables should be obtained for other countries. As yet they are
very few in number, and no country of any considerable extent has
tables of this kind comparable to those given by Wesselovsky.

About the year 1850 the geographical society of Russia began to col-
lect information on the climate of the empire. Nosociety or institution
has the means of enlisting the co-operation of so many meterological
observers as this society, it being widely known throughout the coun-
try, and having a great number of correspondents. It was thought
necessary to collect topographical descriptions of different places, as a
foundation of local climate, as well as observations of the periodical
phenomena. In 1857 a meterological committee of the society recom.
mended the establishment of a periodical devoted to the meteorology
of Russia, as well as to allied branches of this science. The society

adopted this recommendation, and the journal known as the ‘“ Reperto-
rium fiir Meteorologie” was established under the directorship of
eKiimtz from 1859 to 1863. Three volumes appeared and were highly
valued by men of science. The most important contribution was
by Kiimtz, ‘‘ Klima der siidrussischen Steppen.” About this time, espe-
cially since 1860, a general belief was entertained that the system of
meteorological observations established in Russia had proved a failure,
the money given by the government had been expended to little
purpose, that the whole system required reorganization. Asis generally
found in such cases, there was considerable truth, and also a great deal

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. PAL (AL

of exaggeration in this opinion. The enormous extent of country over
which the meteorological stations were scattered prevented their fre-
quent revision, a condition necessary to the successful working of
a meteorological s¥stem. The instruments of the stations were not fre-
quently enough compared with the standards. All this certainly rendered
the observations less valuable than they would otherwise have been,
yet the location of the observatories, especially those of Barnaul and
of Nertschinsk, in a country the study of which is especially important
to meteorology, rendered even second-rate observations valuable. On
the other hand, the liberality of the Russian government in publishing
the observations in full was of great use to science. It is only within
the last ten or fifteen years that we have learned the great value of ac-
tual observations, while in former times monthly means were thought
quite sufficient. The Russian publications were not valued as highly
as they merited, because they were in advance of their time, and we
are now able to say that the system of observations and publications
established by the Russian government was not a failure, but rendered
good service to science.

About the year 1865 efforts were made to extend the meleorological
observations and establish a system of telegraphic bulletins. The min-
isters of the navy and public instruction took an interest in the
enterprise, but the practical result was next to nothing.

After the death of Kupfer, Kiimtz was nominated director of the
physical observatory. Extensive reforms in the organization of the
meteorological system began at this time, and were continued by his
successor, Dr. H. Wild. The physical observatory is now placed under
the authority of the academy of sciences, and that body has the choice
of its director. A new set of instruments was ordered to be made,
compared at the observatory, and sent to the different stations. The
centigrade scale for the thermometer, and metrical divisions for
the barometer, and rain-gauge have been in use since 1870, so that
nearly the whole continent of Europe have the same measures for the
meteorologicalinstruments. The German meteorological system, directed
by Dové, alone forms an exception, having the Reaumur scale for the
thermometer and the old French measures for barometer and rain-
gauge. The form of publication was also changed; hourly observa-
tions had ceased since 1868 except at Tiflis, and it was decided to
publish the observations made thrice a day, without any difference
between stations maintained by the government and those of private
observers. The first Annales published in this way were those of 1865;
those of 1866, 1867, and 1868 were in the same form, while the obser-
vations of 1870 and 1871, made after the new system, are already pub-
lished, and those of 1872 in active preparation. No meteorological
system in Europe has a publication of the same importance, for
it must be repeated that original data are especially necessary in the
present condition of science. These data must be printed to render

FZ METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

them most useful, and also to place them within reach of every
student of meteorology. This is generally recognized by ail men of
science in Europe, and they would establish a similar system of publi-
cations if only the money could be procured to defray the expense. In
the present position of central and western Europe this is very difficult,
as the expenditnre for military operations has increased to the utmost,
and the governments are very economical in their appropriations for
scientific purposes. Happily Russia is now in a better condition, and
can afford to devote more means to the cultivation of science and other
truly useful purposes.

We have seen that the system of publication adapted in Russia is com-
mendable. The other points of the system are far from being as good.
(1.) There are too few stations in many parts of the country, especially in
the North and in Siberia. (2.) The stations are too seldom visited, and
their instruments compared with standards. (3.) The practical applica-
tions of meteorology are lost sight of by the physical observatory. The
inconvenience arising from the too great distance of the stations from
the central observatory has already been recognized. Wild proposed to
have branch central observatories in the university towns, and some
other principal cities of the empire, the director of which would each
have the supervision of a part of the country. The directors of these
observatories would inspect the stations as often as possible, and com-
pare their instrument with standards. The central physical observatory
at St. Petersburg would have to determine as to the system of ob-
servation and registration to be adopted, and to reduce, discuss, and
publish the observations from all parts of Russia. It was proposed to
have such branch observatories in Moscow, Kasan, Charkof, Kiev,
Odessa, Dorpat, Warsaw, and Helsingfors, Wilna, Tiflis, Irkutsk, Tasch-
kend, and Pekin which would complete the system. At Tiflis the system
is in operation, as the director of the observatory at this place has the
control of the observations made in the Caucasian provinces, inspects their
instruments, &c., and sends their observations, after discussion, to Peters-
burg to be published. Unfortunately this system of centres could not
be fully realized for want of means. The principal reason why the me-
teorological system of Russia, so excellent in many respects, cannot be
completed as was intended, is that meteorology has not been practically
applied in Russia, and the observatory has not interested the people at
large in its principles and importance. This is true to such an extent
that very few, even in St. Petersburg, have an idea of the existence
of a central physical observatory. Indeed the notion is prevalent that
meteorology is a part of the operations of the astronomical observatory
of Pulkowa; this being the case, a much less number of observers are
willing to do the work imposed by the regulations of the government,
and for which they are not paid, because they do not have a definite no-
tion of what becomes of their work whenit is sent to St. Petersburg.
Some of the former observers have refused to undertake the greater

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. Dies

amount of labor necessary in carrying out the new system, and certainly
there are many of these who are quite unknown to men of science,
whose laborious efforts have in a great measure been lost for want of
proper instructions of what and how to observe. A second drawback
experienced in carrying on this system is the difficulty, to which we
have before alluded, of getting the additional grant of public money so
necessary to the further progress of meteorology as weil as to its prac-
tical application. So far from interfering with the progress of pure
science, the practical applications, in extending the number of observa-
tions and increasing the number of men interested in science, can only
conduct to new discoveries.

In speaking of practical appliances I, of course, refer to the system
of weather telegrams and predictions so extensively used at present in
the United States.

As some .of the general movements of the atmosphere have been
determined, and it is known that in Russia the storms move from west
to east, as they generally do in the middle latitudes of the globe, we
are in a very favorable position for the prediction of the weather, much
more so than those in Western Europe, and scarcely less than in the
United States. As a great many meteorological stations exist in the
west of Europe, it is easy to obtain telegraphic communications relative
to the weather from them for the mere expense of the telegrams. The
Norwegian meteorological institute has already established forewarn-
ings of storms, and it would be only necessary to establish telegraphic
lines to the shores of the Arctic and White Seas, for the benefit of the
shipping and fisheries of these regions. The western part of Russia,
with the Arctic, White, Baltic, and Black Seas, would thus mainly de-
pend on intelligence received from abroad, while the railroad officials and
travelers inland could be warned of the approach of storms of snow and
rain by the intelligence received from Western Russia. The delays ou
the railroads and the great loss of life which frequently occur on ordinary
roads could thus to a great extent be prevented. After the climatical
features of Russia have been sufliciently studied, agriculture itself would
profit by the warnings of heavy rains and thunder-storms predicted in
advance; they would be prepared for and lose a part of their baleful
influence. Within the three last years the geographical society has
again busily occupied itself in promoting the study of meteorology in
Russia, and the success of the first two years of this work is very en-
couraging. The geographical society did not, however, wish to inter-
fere with the, business of the physical observatory, yet the inability ot
this institution to perform all the labor was too clear to be ignored. It
was proposed to elect a meteorological commission from among the mem-
bers of the society. This commission was elected in the beginning of
the year 1870, and discharges the duties of meteorological societies in
otiver countries ; that is, it furnishes the theoretical and practical prop-
ositions of the science.

188

24 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

A general system of rains and thunder-storm observations was com-
menced, in the prosecution of which the society was much favored by
its extensive correspondence throughout the country. Circulars ex-
plaining the necessity and mode of observations were sent to the corre-
sponding members, to various schools, to the presidents of the district
assemblies, &c. A cheap rain-gauge was also adopted, of which the
principle is simple and its use easy to understand. Of these there were
about sixty new observers in the spring of 1871, while all the necessary
preparations were not completed until the autumn of 1870. A year
later the number of observers had increased to about two hundred, and
this state of things continued to be very promising up to the time when
I left St. Petersburg, in December, 1872. The success of this effort
proves that it is not difficult to find many persons willing to work for
science, even if an immediate practical result is not expected, provided
only that the final utility of the results is properly explained.

To obtain this very desirable result it was necessary to publish and
send to the observers papers on meteorological subjects, which would tend
to awaken and sustain their interest in the subject. This was done by
the geographical society in Nos. land 5 of its “iswastia” which contained
papers of this kind, copies of which were sent to all observers, and
generally distributed. Being secretary of the meteorological commis-
sion, I was charged with the duty of drawing up the result of the first year
of observation, from December, 1870, to November, 1871. The results
obtained were better than could have been expected from the variable
nature of aqueous precipitation. It was even possible from the data to
draw isohyetal lines, the first ever attempted in Russia, for the months
of May, July, August, and September, 1871. It was found easier to
draw isohyetal lines for one single month than for means of different
years in different places. As to the thunder-storms, it was less easy to
obtain general results from the few observations made in 1871; maps
could not be drawn from them. On the other hand, the results for the
direction of thunder-storms and the hours at which they occurred were
satisfactory. The most prevailing direction was from southwest, next
from south,southeast, west and northwest, while from the other direc-
tions their appearance was very seldom indeed. The hour of the most
frequent occurrence of thunder-storms was about 3 p.m. At some sta-
tions situated from one hundred to two hundred and fifty miles east
of the Ural mountains a second hour of maximum occurrence existed
jatein the evening. As the storms move from W. to H. these latter ones
evidently originated in the Ural mountains, where it is known that fre-
quent and very violent thunder-storms occur in summer, and moving
eastward arrived later in the day. A similar feature could be noticed
in the southwestern group, Kiev, Podolia, and Volhynia. They are to
the east of the Karpathians, and the thunder-storms from that quarter
reach them in the night.

The geographical society further decided to devote a volume of its

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. PAT

'

(“‘ Sapiski”) memoirs entirely to meteorology, especially to investiga-
tions relative to the climate of Russia. The reason of this decision was
the desire that was felt to have this subject thoroughly investigated, so
as to produce a work on the level of the science of our time, as
Wesselovski was of that of sixteen years before. It was hoped that
the members of the meteorological commission would contribute to the
desired result, which could only be attained by the united efforts of
many laborers. The plan of periodical publication of the society
‘“isvastia” was not well adapted to meteorological works of great
extent, being principally devoted to the progress of geography. The
Siberian section of the geographical society at Irkutsk has also estab-
lished a meteorological commission, with the same powers as that of
St. Petersburg. Many observations made in Eastern Siberia are reduced
and discussed there, and much progress in the science may be ex-
pected from. that quarter. There are few countries so interesting to
meteorology and yet so little known as Hastern Siberia. It includes
the meteorological pole of winter—that is the coldest region in this sea-
son—and besides embraces an enormous extent of country, with every
variety of local climates.

A secondary meteorological center at Irkutsk is also very important
for the supervision of stations and comparison of instruments. It is
next to impossible to effect these objects from St. Petersburg.

It would be going too far to mention the efforts of the various gov-
ernment boards and societies to establish systems of meteorological ob-
servations in different parts of Russia, the more so asa unity of direc-
tions is now shown to be necessary to the progress of this science. Most
of these systems are now united with that of the physical observatory,
having adopted the same measures and methods. This is the case with
the navy, which has meteorological stations on the White, Baltic,
Black, and Caspian Seas, and also on the Pacific coast.

We shall now give a brief exposition of what is known of the climate
of Russia, what are the advances made in latter years, and what re-
mains to be done in this respect.

Our knowledge of the temperature of Russia is far more complete
than that of the other meteorological elements. A striking fact has
been brought to our knowledge in the last ten or fifteen years, that the
mean temperature of winter is higher on the shores of the Arctic Ocean
than to the south of it on the same meridian. Near the North Cape it
is higher, even if we advance from southwest to northeast, while in the
rest of Europe the northeastis the coldest quarter. This isdue tothe warm
waters of the Gulf Stream, which flows along the north coast of Norway,
and farther along the Russian Murman coast as far as the Svjatoi Noss,
(Holy Cape.) The waters in this region never freeze, even masses of
floating ice are never seen in them, and they communicate their tem-
perature to the surrounding air. The places in the interior of the con-
tinent, far from the warming influences of the Gulf stream, will natur-

276 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

ally have a lower winter temperature. No long meteorological observa-
tions have been made on the Murman coast, but the cities of Northern
Norway situated on the same ocean, and subjected also to the influence
of the Gulf stream, have a very similar climate. For the consideration
of the winter and summer temperature of the same meridian from north
to south we will refer to the following table:

Meridian about 22°.

Winter. | Summer. Diff.

lee hanrne ssi, THIN Sop ektides oobSSoeeedososoEd S606 23.9 49.0 25.9
TROL EOMOGOUN aaletcttsate ie hemes sateen anteater ete eine 6.4 57.9 51.5
iFfelsinefors} iO0O INGA See seas toe ne yaomiaeietae) coer 20.7 59N0 38. 3
IMGT BUS Mase ced tea smdeteas SoncSodeooud Gaqs enc 24.8 62.1 37.3
\WWEREN AO) INES eno Ge Seno eee Sau noe Gap oasene seOcoe 27.0 63.5 36.5

Meridian about.29° E. from Greenwich.
Winter. | Summer. Diff.
lances ZAIN 35 o55cde cacoce cossas cnasasoseces is 21.9 45.9 24.0
Iara ous, GWE IN| Gach cooshe csobcobsbcssoccesss ce5e 17.4 60.8 43.4
Goma, B42 IN caccco on coop onnasg o66500 bn0606 OSE. Gace 18.1 61.5 43.4
TRG BOO INT cessn5 s6ccc6 sosees SH56 Sa50560 BenSsesone 22.6 65.3 PRES,
Ouessey Zio IN eee sss taccisossHooy copouoEcocuaosecods ila’) 70.3 42.4
SuRETO OL, 4BS IN oat sso ob eensSoccuahe s conden cease 36.9 eS 35.8

We see that Wardoe has nearly the same temperature in winter as
that of Kiev, situated 20° to the south on the same meridian. Even far
from the shores of the Arctic Ocean the increase of temperature from
north to south is very slow. It is accelerated only when we approach
the shores of the Black Sea. Here again the warming influence of the
salt-water basins is felt, while the temperature of summer also increases
rapidly, and this for the reason that South Russia is principally a steppe,
(prairie,) and such treeless regions are more heated by the sun than
those covered with woods.

In the case of increase of temperature from north to south, Northern
and Central Russia are very different from the United States, the former
having the least and the latter the largest increase of temperature from
north to south known in any extensive region. This increase is as fol-
lows in Russia, for 1 degree of latitude in degrees of Fahr.:

Year. Winter. Summer.
iP romiG4eoNeto 50° Nice saeco eecee]ceaicee eae 0.70 0.58 0.76
Brom S0SINtOAVoOUN -S-csee see eeneies cece eae 1 vis) 2.79 0.81

Wither elnGO ees Ne eee ee So eee ee ene 1.08 ONO TI 0. 05

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. rita

The temperature of the winter is also higher on the western coast of
Nova Zembla than in the northeast of European Russia and Western
Siberia. It has been found to be 5.7 on the 74° north in Nova Zembla,
while it is — 6.5 at Berezov, (64° N.,) 1.6 at Ischim (56° N.,) and 10. 2
at Kasalinsk, on the lower Syr-Daria, (46° N.,) so that itis only 449.
higher, for a difference of 28° of latitude. The mildness of winter tem-
perature on the Arctic Ocean is also illustrated by the fact that, while
this ocean does not freeze so far as the Swjotoi Noss, the Caspian and
Azov Seas, in a latitude of about 46°, freeze to a great extent.

The observations made in Russia furnish us with the means of tracing
the changes of temperature from east to west, from the Atlantic to the
Pacific Ocean. Generally the winter temperature decreases as we ad-
vance into the interior of the continent from west to east, and increases
a little on the eastern shoresof Asia. Yet, being much lower there than
in Western Europe, the temperature in the interior is a little higher in
summer than near the Atlantic, and decreases very rapidly near the
Pacific, being much colder there than anywhere else on the same pat-
allel in Europe or Asia.

Parallel of 70° N.

Winter. | Summer. Diff.

Wivmcloey (ONGOING) PIE 8 ca ososaeene soeoEe Ean bad 21.9| 45.9 24.0

Seb coasthiot NovarZemila, 542 Bisse oe o- aaeiae Sue 35.6 32.4
WStANSK SSS ecm ee secenie: ce eneeccieeeiaceee Co eeen —— loone 46.8 Ds

- Parallel of 62° to 64° N.

Winter. | Summer. Diff.
iihorshavn Meroe slandiioiWieesencicias aac coese eines 39. 2 54.7 15S
SOmdinGH, NOR we, GIN co555 sooauseooul oacces boar Pele Al | 55.8 28. 7
\WGRO; (GNAERIGL)) en Rees See eee esos oosses 17.4 59. 4 42.0
WStSISOl Sire sIlOR Rte cron wrcrtee ayc is sue wicinve Se sere otancisteens Wo® 59. 4 51.9
IBELOZO WA OOSM Ee eis coe westerns eae. os eda thee ce — 6.5 58. 1 64.6
Halsutsksl SOR ee A eet e LANES. entree ARETE SA sy == BY 8h | 58.6 95.9

The difference between the limited climate of the shores of the Atlan-
tic and the excessive climate of the interior of Eastern Siberia is strik-
ingly illustrated by this example. The difference of the mean temper-
ature of January and July in the last place is more than 100°, (January,
— 41.4; July, 63.3.) Unfortunately we have no observations on the
shores of the Pacific north of the 59th degree. The winter temperature
would certainly be much higher there than at Jakutsk.

278 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

Parallel of 59° N.

Winter. | Summer. Diff.
SandwicktOrkne yao iWiesee eee eee ae eee = eee 39. 7 Hoa 13.8
Rewally 20 Seba sem stanciis sremtaia else sea ese aoa rato 22.3 59. 0 36.7
WiologdaA0S Mies see ae Picsisieleacicceye siooescwclsees ee 12.9 60.8 47.9
Bovgoslowsk, G60 eee eee eee eee seein eee eee — 0.2 58. 9 59) 1)
OchotztaCeaciie eta 3OMw Reese ee sere eee eee — 8.1 52. 1 60. 2
Parallel of 56° N.
Winter. | Summer. Diff.
Gilasc Owe ACe WW) Sacenee ss tse sles eieneawe nm eee 38. 8 57.2 18.4
Copenhagent (30M Ri oases eer ns eerie teres ce amaiatee 31.3 62.1 30. 8
MOSCOWHS do Het en aetinc ot cincse sem cmerecee ices ees 14.7 64.3 49. 6
earned OO Bernie nctevece sie eiein sieiecloieiialele Baer Ose 11.0 64.8 53.8
HS CHIM MOOS M Ress moos ese cee eels See ean c ees ES 63. 6 61.1
AEH, (EROS) Nstse) 1D. 35 eS eaGescooeEaonSbascoesaes — 1.1 51.4 52.5
Parallel of 53° N.
Winter. | Summer. Diff.
DublinwGO Wee cise BIS hes sone ste secces 41.6 58. 6 17.0
Grominige neg Cab e ee ereeeter ase eelene es aere cee <a 30. 1 63.5 28. 4
Orel) 362; Be osb = Camemmertesrseod Oskte-esecsesos Tie 65. 1 48.0
leocbiad beh Breesses poe saclaeread Soanee ade dacbos SSce 8.1 65. 3 57.2
Barkawl 340 Misc ctsuelaie cioteie ateiss <n setae eee ease 10) 64.9 63.9
Nicolajevska(Am oor) g40C Ei esem seem eels erie — 6.3 58. 9 65. 2
Retropavloyvsk, Kamiichatka rn. scce.-- eco =e aie 20.3 55. 5 30. 2
Parallel of 46° N.
Winter. | Summer. Ditf.
PawRochelle Owe tie eo wate coe eee ee eteents AP 39.7 67.6 69
Venice d 2°) Br asgsa ata. Seo SBC RON ole, Janae ane 38. 8 72.5 33. 7
Odessi7a0C Wine. pacer ws ese cee eee te jeter of 27.9 70.3 42.4
Astracham 480 Fis os. . See eee en meec epee Br oe eres Oe 22.4 74.9 52.5
Kiasalinsla G40 0b << <\se seee) Sate cnc nae 10. 2 73. 6 63.4

(‘) Above 700 feet eastern slope of the Ural.

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. 279

Parallel of 39° to 40° N.

Winter. | Summer. Diff.
LAR DOM OM Vines at tee laisinto ceca cies clase cic teas cece 50.0 70.0 90, 0
INAV ONE) IB! 1064 Sopoee Seer solsbop SESeaClone ron ee aCooe 47.8 72.9 pel
Menkorans(@ arrcasus:)/48¢ Hes eben y eee ees seen 39.9 75. 6 | 35.7
12a siioy, (inti) heoseoe Se se cEeee or eeo ene oO eobor oe aoree 28, 8 We 49. 1

The difference between the east and west is less sensible in the lower
latitudes than north of the 50th degree. Scarcely will the winter be found
colder anywhere on the 40th degree than in Pekin, and yet the difference
between this place and Lisbon, on the Atlantic, is only 26°, while the
winter climates of Dublin and Nicolajevsk differ by 47.9, and yet in the
last place the temperature is already milder, because of the proximity
of the Pacific. Blagovestschensk, on the upper Amoor, latitude 50°,
has a winter temperature of —8.5, while in Helston, in Southwestern
England, it is 46.0; difference, 54.5.

The summer temperatures are much more equable, being lowest on
the Pacific shore, (Ochotsk, Ajan, Petropavlovsk.)

The ratio of the change of temperature in European Russia from west
to east may be adopted as follows, in degrees F. for 1° of longitude : For
the year: —0.25; winter, — 0.56; summer, 0.13, (!) that is, it increases
very little in summer and decreases very rapidly in winter. In this last
season the decrease from west to east and from south to north is the
same.

The extensive plains of Russia and Western Siberia are very favorably
situated for this kind of study, since the local peculiarities do not in-
terfere with the result as much as in other countries. -In Kastern Sibe-
ria the conditions are different ; the country is intersected by many
mountain chains ; the vicinity of the Pacific modifies the climate to a
great extent. On tbe other hand, as the points of observation are very
widely scattered, it is not to be wondered that we know very little as
yet of the climate of this interesting country. The pole of winter cold
is situated, we know, at or near Jakutsk, on the Lena. As I have said
before, the general system of meteorological observations did not extend
so far northward, and it was a private individual, Mr. Neverof, to whom
we are indebted for the twenty-five years’ observations at Jakutsk. In
Eastern Siberia, as in Western, the cold of winter is more intense in the
interior of the continent than on the shores of the Arctic; the coldest
known winter being at Jakutsk, latitude 62° N. In this respect Asia
seems to differ very much from America, as here the coldest peninsulas
and islands of the Arctic Ocean are far beyond 70° N.

The cause of this difference is probably that the Arctic north of the
Asiatic continent is not entirely frozen, even in winter, while the nu-

(‘) Hann, 1. ¢., p. 394.

280 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

merous bays and sounds north of America are covered with an un-
broken sheet of ice and snow. These bodies being very bad conduct-
ors of heat, their surface, and the air immediately overlying them, can
cool to a great extent, as would a continent. These facts should be borne
in mind when speaking of the climate of Eastern Asia and America, ex-
plaining the differences found, contrary to the general opinion of the
similarity of the eastern shores of both great continents. The changes
of temperature with elevation are also very much modified by the gen-
eral features of Eastern Siberia, geographically and climatically. We
know two high points of thiscountry which havea higher mean winter
temperature than the surrounding lowlands. These points are Mount
Alibert 52° 30/ N. latitude, and 100° 41’ longitude E. of Greenwich,
7,300 feet high, and the mines of Wosnesensk, 58° 46’ latitude N., 115°
16’ E., 2,817 teet high.(') I give here the temperatures of January as they
were observed, and the supposed temperatures of the same points at sea-
level, according to Dove’s isothermal map.

Temperature, of January.

Observed. Supposed. Difference.
Mines of Wosnesensk. - 3,0 — 26.5 13.5
Mount Alibert--....---- Quilt — 6.0 8.1

We see that these high points have a much warmer winter tempera-
ture than was supposed. Wosnesensk is not very far from Jakutsk,
where the temperature of January is — 41° 4’, that is, more than 27° lower.
Irkutsk is not far from Mount Alibert, and has a much lower winter
temperature.

The increase with the height in winter in these two cases being shown,
the question follows as to the cause. In clear, cold spring nights vegeta-
bles are often known to suffer from frost in low situations, while those
on hills escape injury. This has long been explained by the action of
radiation and gravity, when the air is calm. The colder and denser
portions have a natural tendency to flow downward, and this tendency
in a clear, calm night is not counteracted by the sun and winds, as it
is generally during the day. Now a condition, analogous to that of
spring, does prevail very generally in Eastern Siberia, especially in
winter. The air is calm, the sky clear, the sun appears only for a short
time, and the superposition of strata of air which would be caused by
radiation and gravity is very little impeded. It is not to be wondered
at, then, that a condition which is rare in Europe and the United States
should be so common in Siberia, so as to raise even the mean tempera-
ture of high stations above that of low ones. A very general and strong

(1) For further particulars see “ Zeitschrift der Osterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir
Meteorologie,” year 1871, p. 52.

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. 281

west wind was also noticed in winter at Mount Alibert, and described
as a warm wind, while, as we have said before, calms with intense radi-
ation prevailed in the lowlands.

These facts, as also much of what we begin to know about the plateaus
of North America, show that the so-called laws of decrease of tempera-
ture with elevation are not generally applicable. The older notions on
this point are taken from the observations in tropical South America
and the mountain regions of Western Europe; that is, from maritime
climates and mountain-chains. In regard to plateaus, these laws, we
are sure, must be very different, but we are not able at present to state
what they really are. In the present state of our knowledge we can
only say that the decrease of temperature will be greater, first, in mount-
ain-chains than on plateaus ; secondly, in sammer than in winter, or gen-
erally in warm temperatures than in cold; thirdly, in dry than in moist
alr.

The parts of Asia belonging to Russia present the most interesting
problems relative to the inflrence of position on the distribution of
temperatare which can be found. Unfortunately these countries are
scarcely emerged from darkness.

The range of temperature is an important element, which ought to be
more studied than it is at present. I will refer only to an opinion very
widely entertained in Russia, that the Siberian climate is very constant
in comparison with that of Hurope. This is erroneous, at least so far
as Western Siberia is concerned, which has a very variable temperature
especially in winter, scarcely less than that of the Mississippi Valley, so
conspicuous in this respect.

The following table shows the mean highest and lowest temperatures
of each month, observed with maximum and minimum thermometers,
for twelve years, from 1851 to 1862.

| Nertschinsk (2,000
. Tees 1 \
St. Petersburg. TEugan, (Sor ans eeu maul, ( West feet,) (East Si-
| east Russia.) Siberia.) ie
beria.)
3 B 5 3 a 5 = 5 5 5 5
Be ees ret lie aa IRS Hees fall sees ing a heal cae se |e
o “4 o is “4 q Ko = }
ie A= eee as cst ea =n eg ee a)
Soi cai (Ser eta lieiee eaviieet Ml etl cShaly epeltetalse
|
DANUAny? oe oes eee 35. 4/—11.2! 46. 4| 39. T/—15.7| 55.4] 28.2,—43.1) 71.3 2. 1-—42.9) 45.0
Mebruary Wee... ose 34.0/— 8&5} 42.5) 40.5)—13.4) 53.9) 37.1/—36.4] 68.6) 17.4—35.1] 52.5
|
Mame S22 ceclatagecaaetses 39. 7/—.2.6) 42.3! 56.3/— 9.4) 58.7) 41.2/—27.4! 68.6) 40.6'—22,.2] 62.8
BARU Se ai.7-. cba eee se = do.2| 15.6) 39:6} 77.0) 91.0) 56.0) 63.7 1.4) 62.3) 60. 8) Ql, O87
1 Os Se Pile eee 14.3} 29.1) 45.2) 86.9] 34.5] 52.4} 82.0] 23.0) 59.0] 79.2) 21.4) 57.8
| |
NING sarcice wink ots ba ait rate 79, 2)' 39.2) 40.0) 92:7) 42.6) 50.1) 87.1) 36.7] 50.4) 87.6) 347] 52.9
| |
Hlyes.coctde le eee 83.3] 48.9} 34.4] 95.0] 50.0] 45.0] 99.4). 46.3] 43.1) 86.5) 45.1] 41.4
TN eae (| CR ee 77.4] 45.3] 32.1] 93,9] 44,4] 49.5) 85.5]: 39.6] 45.9| 94.4)- 35.1] 49.3
Septemiber’.- 2025422552... 68.7) 34.9) 33.8) 85.3) 34.7) 50.6) 75.6) 25.9) 49.7) 72: 3 22:8) 49.5
Ocioherzs +--+. ore eae 57. 4) 23.0) 344) 74.8! 19.2) 55.6) 62.6 8} 57.8) 57.0\— 1.1) 58.1
= =| i
Novemberieacs: = seekers 43.5 4.1) 39.4] 56.1 5. 7 50.4) 41.9)—22.7) 64.6) 33.8)—25.1) 58.9
Decembers 2. ..25 82 ees 37. 0/— 4.7) 41.7) 43.0)— 2.2) 45.2) 33,1)—-34.6) 67.7) 11. ilo 6} 49.7

282 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

Barnaul, in West Siberia, has the greatest range of temperature, at
least from November to May. In the winter Nertschinsk has a rel-
atively small range; it is the constant winter of Eastern Siberia; in Jan-
uary the range is even smaller than at St. Petersburg. The maxima
are clearly seen in Nertschinsk in March and November, while January
and July have the leastrange. The temperature sometimes may fall as
low in Western Siberia as in the eastern part of that country, only in
the latter the cold is constant, and the thermometer never rises above
the freezing-point from the first days of November to the middle of
March. The following table gives the absolute maxima and minima of
the winter months in the same period ; to which I have added those of
Jakutsk for ten years, 1845-1854, from observations taken thrice a day

St. Petersburg, Lugan, Barnaul, Nertschinsk, Jakutsk,
absolute. absolute. absolute. absolute. absolute.
a) Se | ed etcetera Tete tea eae et ene!
Dee mi 41. o\-17.5 58. 5 52. 7-33. 2) 85.9} 40: 5|—67. 0) 107. 5| Air 3} 71.8 0. ae 64.5
Jan ..| 383—3:.0) 69.3) 45.3 31.0) 76.3] 36.5/—64.7) 101.2) 14.0\-49. 7] 63.7, 0. |—63.6) 63.6
Feb ..| 37. 2|—23. 1) 60.3} 56.3)—25.1) 81.4) 42.1/—58. 7) 100, “| 28 6|—45 6 74.2) 11. 7/—60.1) 71.8
| ! ! | | | | |

The absolute range is less in January in Eastern Siberia than in any
other of the given points, while it surpasses 100° at Barnaul. At this
last point 36°.5 were observed on the 4th of December, 1860, and —67.0
on the 16th of the same month, being a difference of 105.5° in twelve
days. These enormous variations of temperature have also been ob-
served in the valley of the Jenissei—for example at Krasnojarsk, 53.1 on
28th of November, 1840, and —51.2 on the 30th, being 84.5 difference
in 46 hours. In Eastern Siberia these enormous changes are unknown
in mid-winter.

The pressure of the air has received much less attention in Russia
than the temperature, and this can be said of the observations, as well as
of their calculation and tabulation. We do not possess as yet good
barometrical tables, although we may hope to have them, as Lieutenant
Rikatschef and Baron Maydell, both of the physical observatory, are occu-
pied with the reduction and discussion of all the barometrical observa-
tions which they could obtain in Russia. The largest collection of
barometrical means for Russia is that in Buchan’s work on * Mean
pressure and winds.”

The great summer depression of the barometer is strongly marked in
Southern and Central Russia, and is perceptible even farther to the
west. It probably attains its greatest amount on the plateau of Cen-
tral Asia, from Eastern Turkestan to the Gobi, but we have not a single
year of continued barometrical observation in this widely-extended
country. The greatest amount of the summer depression known to us

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. - 285
|

was observed west of the plateaus, on the upper Irtysch and east of
them at Pekin. The following table shows the distribution of pressure
in different months:

S..| :
Ee ~ -
ae B F a
3 5 & 2
= Be S| E ia A
5 5 al 5 5 a
Western Europe. | South and East Russia.
| |
Reikiavig, (Iceland) -...--. | 29.47 | 29.69 122) OGESS8R ~ o2sss-50-~'=2 = =2 | 29.88 | 29.67 —.21
Greénwich!:2.. 222.22 j . 76 Ate) SUB) MOAN co sseSoppoeesecose ake) 48 —. 35
Hammerpest, Norway -.-. ol 3 192} ||(Samarajecsass- 2220 -85)- > 80 43 =. 37
Udine, North Italy ...--. . 63 obits) || oe WI Onennye Ges scacsceceac- . 87 44 —. 43
Valin an sas Sacer eect er . 38 230) 108) Atstracams ae -e- =m nee a 30.22 | 29.88 —. 34
vorth and West Russia. Caucasus.
PAT CHAN Peli eens densa s .74 70 | —..04 || Redut Kale..~-.--..--.-1 . 09 84 —.25
Nine ebersDUroene ees e-ee neo isi il =n (0re ||P abbas) sae cont Smee 28,55 | 28.29 —. 26
TSOStROM ie seeks eck = 34 -15 | —.19 |} Bakwsssiise) ostece csseee 30. 21 |) 29. 81 —. 40
V ars 5 _— 5 || = ‘s
wh: stn ile arta? me oe -59 is -15 || West Siberia and Central
KG Gvysacmes wise se cseeeee: | . 88 .67 | —.21 Asia.
Eastern Asia. Bogosloysk ..----.+--=-- 1-99.98} 2905] —==93
Teleatek o¢.78| 28.19 | —.59 || Catherinburg.--...-.--- 29,13 | 28.78 —.35
ay S 9 ee te!
Nertichinsk ..........-.. 27.96 | 97.56) —. 49 || Batnaul-..--.-.--.- -----[ 81] 29-10 “Tit
Nya) pay be « ~9 =
Pele ke (eat _| 30.24] 99.67| —.77 Novo Petrovsk Se aeseee| 30. 08 Err. - 36
it

The monthly differences of pressure have only lately attracted general
attention. The cause of this is that in Western Europe, Eastern North
America, and the tropics, these differences are very small. It was only
after the observations in Siberia, China, and India were known, that the
barometrical depression of the summer was noticed, and the summer
monsoon of India and China was explained by the rarefaction of the
air in the middle of the continent, and the consequent drawing in of the
air of the surrounding seas.

Now that the relations of the pressure to the winds are better known,
much more attention is given to barometrical observations, and espe-
cially those of the Asiatic continent attract the attention of all me-
teorologists. There are two problems which remain to be solved here
in regard to this matter: (1) Barometrical observations in the interior of
Asia, to ascertain the true amount of summer depression at a distance
from the influence of the ocean, and (2) a line of levels from the Baltic
to the Pacific Ocean. So long as the true height of Siberian points of
observation is not known, and the adopted heights may be wrong from
500 to 500 feet, we can know very little of the pressure of the air in this
region. It isa circulus vitiosus, as the heights are measured by the
barometer, and afterwards the observed barometrical readings arereduced
to sea-level, on the supposition that the obtained height is true. The
isobars drawn in Buchan’s excellent work on the mean'pressure are not
free from this reproach, as any isobars must be so long as the actual
height is not accurately known. The plan of a line of levels from the

84 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

Ww

Ural Mountains to Lake Baikal was discussed last year by a special
commission of the Russian geographical society, and the importance of
this work clearly pointed out. The council of the society, however,
declined to undertake the work immediately for want of adequate
means, yet it was hoped that private individuals would help the society
in this important enterprise, the more so as it has a practical bearing.
A line of railroad from Nijny-Novgorod over the Ural to Irkutsk,
and from thence to the Amoor River, or directly to China, is in serious
contemplation. Its feasibility is beyond doubt, as the difficulties are
far from being so great as those of the American Pacifie Railroads.

The barometrical minima have an important bearing on the produc-
tion cf storms, as it is now well ascertained that these violent commo-
tions of the atmosphere are caused by a great barometrical difference
between places near each other. Generally the barometer is very low in
the center of a storm, this center drawing in from every direction the
surrounding air. On the other hand, a great barometrical depression
can only be sustained by the condensation of vapor; cold and dry con-
tinental areas will then arrest the progress of storms moving towards
them. The coldest region of Siberia can have no storms in winter, if
the foregoing views are correct. Thisis also the case; for example, at
Nertschinsk, we find scarcely a moderate wind in the three winter
months, calm or very light northwest winds being the rule. In West-
ern Siberia calms prevail in very cold winter months, while the winds
are stronger in warm winters. In considering European winter storms,
*Mohn arrives at the following conclusions:

Storm-centers move from 8S. 71° W. in the Arctic and Atlantic
Oceans, from N. 7° W. in Scandinavia and Germany, and from N. 27°
W.in Russia. He says that the air is too cold and dry in Northern and
Eastern Russia to sustain the barometrical depression ; the condensation
on the southern side is much greater, and so the storm moves south-
ward, while the barometer rises in its center. The mean pressure in
the center of storms is 28.68 inches over Scandinavia and Germany,
and 29.15 over Russia.

Mohn has not attempted to trace the European storms to Siberia, as
the observations were too few for this purpose. I have tried to gain
some knowledge of the subject of storms by considering the barometri-
cal range; that is, the mean maxima and minima of each monthj I
can, however, only briefly state the results: The mean barometrical
minima of the winter months, reduced to sea-level, are: At Reikiavik, in
Iceland, 726 millimeters, or 28.5 inches; at Hammerfest, Norway, 730
millimeters, or 28.7 inches; at St. Petersburg, 737.3 millimeters, 29.0
inches. At Barnaul, (West Siberia,) 754.7 millimeters, or 29.7 inches ;
at Nertschinsk, (East Siberia,) 763 millimeters, or 30.04 inches. In
the last-mentioned place, the mean barometrical minima are an inch and

= In his “Storm-Aflas.”
+ Zeitschrift der Gsterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie, year 1871, p. 161.

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. — 285

Mean monthly barometric curves.

Bu Gis 2 8 8 :
| See Deer hunter Conic Vane
ands ac om pester Se fey ate
=| =] =) — =] 5 5 A =
OTs tks, | POT ae Ren te ee em ee oS ie
Se iE) Gl he Seep segs ci eS
OP POMC eee es) WS Lever Ol OO
Br sy ete el Ss Fo a Ione 1

; St. Louis, Mo.

i Brunswick, Me.

Hammerfest, Norway, 71° N.

St. Petersburg, 60° N.

Vienna, 48° N.

Lugan, S. Russia, 48° N.

» Orenburg, E. Russia, 51° N.

Catharinenburg, Ural, 57° N.

Barnaul, S. W. Siberia, 53° N.

} Mines of Nertschinsk, E. Siberia, 51° N.,
2,000 feet.

Pekin, China, 40° N.

286 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

a half higher than in Iceland. In Siberia the mean minima are also
higher in January than in the other months, while generally in Europe
and North America the contrary is the case, indicating a greater inten-
sity of the storms in midwinter. In the annexed diagram the move-
ment of the minima is graphically represented. North America and
Western Europe have the same system of curves, the minima being
highest in summer, lowest in winter. In Siberia and Eastern Asia the
contrary is the case; this is especially marked at Pekin. The stations
of Lugan, in 8S. Russia, and Catharinenburg, on the Ural, occupy an
intermediary position, having neither the oceanic nor the true continental
type. The greatest difference between the last two places being that in
Lugan October has the highest minima in the year, and Catharinenburg
the lowest. This is not accidental. In October the conditions of the
temperature and moisture of the air on the Ural, and in Siberia, are
more favorable to the propagation of storms than in winter. In the
same season the Atlantic storms take a more northern course, causing
a great depression of the minima on the Ural. In Southern Russia
the pressure is generally high in autumn, as also the minima. Octo-
ber is not a stormy month there, while November and December are.

It is possible that in October Atlantic storms may reach as far as
Jakutsk. The sky is generally overcast there, it is the most cloudy
month of the year,and the number of west and southwest winds is great,
The temperature has not yet fallen so low, even in the northern inte-
rior of Siberia, as to prevent the propagation of storms.

We shall next consider the winds, which are in so intimate a connection
with the pressure of the air. IJ have said before that Wesselovsky had
proved the existence of a belt of eastern winds during autumn and winter
in Southern Russia, while at the same time the southwest winds prevail
in the northern part of the country. The movements of the atmosphere
are better known at the present time as far as the Jenissei, and I have
been able to prove the existence of a belt of prevailing southwest winds
in Northern Siberia, and of eastern winds in the south of that country
and Central Asia. The division line runs about the parallel of 50° or
52° north in Siberia, and a little more south near the shores of the Black
Sea.*

This is illustrated by the following table, which shows the percentage of
winds in winter in Western Siberia, Central Asia, and Southeastern
Russia:

South of 52°.

Nis ENE |) Ei) Sade SS Soe Vee EN/ SW is

Onenbure reese eee scssiccs -aecetee eee eeaee eee coe ce 11 17 19 8 11 17 9 7
Semipalatinskseecss-mcn.s-csceses see aeeneeee 1 4 26 19 15 13 13 9
Raimsk, (Syo-Daria)--....-...2. hoe eee Eee ow LE BES 9 19 Q1 18 8 7 12 8
PA SLTACH AN occa seenices his se ode cece te beeen een eas Ms 6 16 22 16 3 8 15 15

~““Tswistia” of the Russian Geographical Society, year 1871, No. 5.)

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. 287

North of 52°.

”
N. |N.E.| E | S.. |S. SW.) We. INOW:
(eae
Eastern Ural, (three stations) -...-..---.----------- 5 5 1 10 10 24 Q7 17
tT SONS) Sewn sine Code 1 22 SD CORED SEO DSRD SES eseoe CoO Be 4 A 7 30 21 12 | 9 13
Disc iiimipee ee se orem cease Raine sc akaams 8 5 6 By 12s) o4taai ed 10
WROUR PAM = a5 oe = som n-ne nnn nn ean nnn nnn nine 12 8 9 | 10 20 ey || a 9
(OWNER nos so peccodSesessnapNogebuaE ico eddéSocoondss 4 13 6 9 10 24 | 16 19
ES YER a Lear eee ai> ara teeine Sain lore la\= se alot nietcloime = =< 8 13 1 15 44 | 9 5
Nomncnay Pies ches cecaeeee =p comenonoseDBSIe5e Hosa Se 4 6 fal ee 2 66 | 14 5
| \

The prevalence of southwest winds in the northern part of the country
is clearly seen in this table. Even Orenburg and Semipalatinsk, situ-
ated between 50° and 52°, have prevailing east winds, but a great num-
ber of southerly also, while Astrachan and Raimsk have much less
southwest and much more northeast winds than all the other points.
The differences we notice between the several points are easily accounted
for, if we consider the rough mode of observing the wind-gauge and the
different local circumstances having an influence on the indications of
this instrument.

I have aiso noticed an influence of the upper river valley, the winds
in the direction of this being generally more frequent. For example,
at Tobolsk the Irtysch comes from the southeast, and the winds trom
that quarter prevail. At Jschim, Barnaul, and Krasnojarsk the rivers
flow from the southwest, and so the local direction corresponds with
the general one, giving an enormous prevalence to the southwest winds,
At Omsk only this isnot the case; the rivers flow from east and south-
east, and yet the prevailing wind is southwest. This is probably due to
the very level position of the surroundings of Omsk. The winds of this
place can be considered as typical for Western Siberia, north of 52°,
that is, a moderate prevalence of the southwest, extending also to the
south and west winds. Three or four years ago nothing accurate was
known as to the winds in the basin of the Yenissei. Now we know that
the southwest extends as far as there, and probably even to the east of
this river.

Further to the east the winds are so rare and irregular in the winter,
and calms so general, that I may eall this region one of prevailing
calms. It embraces the basin of the Lena and the tributaries of the
Northern Ocean, east and west of it, as also Transbaikalia. It is the
region of the Siberian meteorological pole. The atmosphere is generally
clear and calm, with cold generated on the spot by radiation, and not
brought from other places by the winds. We must not imagine that this
region is of equal magnitude every winter; it extends and contracts
unperiodically. In very cold winters it stretches westward to the Ural,
and even farther, while the warm winters of Western Siberia are those
in which it shares in the atmospherical currents of Europe. To prove
this I calculated the temperature of the winds at Krasnojarsk in the

288 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

winter months of 187071, as given in the following table, in which N.
C. indicates the number of winds observed :

”
N.E DA hie Sli S.E S. W. WwW. | N.W. | Calms
|

Month: E z | E E S e ee A

Josie Veal cir sila a o |S : a Ra t= Balitics ; =

o ae) Sh ss =e g 1é) =e) Sale g Oo | 3

aS 2 2 : o : SD) . 3) 5 A > ‘ r

eae Doi cia et = P= | el
December..| 0 |....-- On /Eatoes } JO Res! Oilessese 44) 0 Dd |—24.7] 6 |—4.0 7 \—27.6
Ure eiay aac) DSS) Aiea! @iLseso: iW itgeeee Fl Chee ll Osa) “Miilbgesce 16 —13.2
February --| 5] —1.5} 1] 24.6] 2] 21.2) 6] 9.0 46) 1.4) 9 5.2) 2 |—19.1 tS ee dro

{ |

The temperatures of the months were: in December, —12.2; Jan-

uary, —4.2; February, 4.0. February is much warmer than Decem-
ber, yet the temperature of the prevailing southwest winds is nearly the
same, differing only 1.4, while the mean temperature differs by 169.2.
But we see that in December calms were much more prevalent than in
February, and the temperature of the calm days very low. To show
more clearly that the movement of the airin thisregion tends to elevate
the temperature, I have calculated separately the temperature of light,
moderate, and strong southwest winds.

S.W.
Month.
Light. |Moderate.| Strong.
December? sa. aac sem scct Se cececk cecaseecese- eee —3.1 —2.4 ONG
INA ers rice ene oj ee Soke este ie = epee ae epecieepetaee —2.0 1.2 13.8
INSDENATY pee seie cee eas, aie oe, Sy eek ae a Ae oe —2.4 14.4

The strong winds are by far the warmest, the difference of tempera-
ture between light and strong being 12.8 in December, 15.8 in Janu-
ary, and 12.3in February. The region of caims, or of the Siberian pole,
is bounded on the south and east by that of the Asiatic monsoons, or
periodic winds, blowing from the land in winter and from the sea in
summer. It is only within the last year that the true extent of this
interesting region has become known. In the winter the interior of the
continent is cooled by radiation, the atmospheric pressure rises, and the
air flows out to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, where the pressure is
less. In summer the continent is heated, the pressure is much lowered,
and the air from the surrounding seas flows in upon Asia. Encounter-
ing high mountains on the south and east, the sea-air is forced up into
a higher and colder altitude, and loses its vapor in copious rains; so
the gap can never be filled, as the precipitation causes a low pressure
near the mountain sides. These movements of air are especially marked
in Southern and Eastern Asia, because the heated plateaus of the inte-

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. 289

rior are there nearest to the ocean. Air is also drawn into Central
Asia from the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, but, having a much longer
distance to travel before reaching the mountains, and being originally
colder, it does not cause such a great precipitation. The in-draught
from the north and west is also less regular, since the pressure over the
Arctic is not high in summer, and the air of the Atlantic is also drawn
toward the deserts of Africa where the pressure is low in summer.

The Asiatic monsoons were first known to the Europeans in India, and
therefore we often find them called Indian monsoons. It is also supposed
that they always blow from the northeast in winter, (dry monsoons,) and
from the southwest in summer, (wet monsoons.) In the lately published
“pilot-chart” of the British admiralty the monsoon region is repre-
sented as extending northward to Southern China only. But the
winds much farther to the north have the same periodical character.
Even in Northern China, Japan, Mantschuria, the Russian Amoor
provinces, and on the western coast of the Sea of Ochotsk, cold, dry
winds (northwest) from the interior of the continent generally prevail in
winter, while in summer they are from the sea, bringing cloud and rain.
There is, therefore, no reason why we should not extend the Asiatic
monsoons to these countries, since their climates are of the same char-
acter as that of India, the temperature alone excepted, the winter being
the clear, dry time of the year, and the summer being the rainy period.
Sometimes the summer monsoon extends as far inland as Lake Baikal.
In 1869 this lake, the greatest fresh-water basin of the world except
Lake Superior, rose more than 10 feet above its ordinary level, causing
disastrous floods in the neighborhood. Such copious and long-continued
rains in summer are unknown in European Russia; the great rivers are
unaccompanied with freshets in SUID eE, especially those traversing
great lakes, as the Neva.

The following table shows the periodical character of the winds in
the regions of Eastern Asia:

Percentage of winds at Nicolajevsk, mouth of the Amoor.

Months. N. | NE.| E. |SE.| S. |SW.| W. |NW
JAMMU Angee hae es seis iss ses ee eee fe cn eae HOR VO SEA OS e020) By I ts
He Dray eeeeegee ot pennies Some sa rei. scan aoe 10) 4 TA ON Satan 36
Marching as seman ai aiee cee, saeise st Saciawcuteetaae GH |e lS oe As le me SO es
PST Man aac SIE TOSI a eco t ison aatieeeee TON |LL4 | SL. ly - Ona ieee Rosia as
Meigen = hake eee Rees Set. SUR Pere PSO A! HSE Tere tae OG) 9
TRH OR NLT SS Scere SORE, LER ei i2. oe SST et) La og a) 1a ts) 6
mT oe - 2/2 ss Se wae sep ee Ad acerde Sete PHU |: (OF 4G: Wana ely ETS Ina 9
PUSS ert aee - ro Sfaeeaseaee cis oe see SS. Seta eettit || 101i Gt (ESGaleed hy PO tS O38
Seplernber 52.26. so eet htt et eee ee 10; | AS AGal Oe Ol Oy 2). 236
Octo Eth or 3-4) a ee ips al, ees. |) OUTS LOM CAN dol. oa, Log
INGVETAING hae ees sei eee PEI > che (oem As eee ON Salou era
WWEGR MAC R pe cs fcotoe tee ary Sic lena ss eae eee HOS | ES aE ae By eax ae

290 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

The western winter monsoon is established as early as the end of
September; that is, in the time of the typhoons of the Southern China
Seas. ‘The navigators in the Sea of Ochotsk have long known the
periodicity of the winds in this region, of which they take advantage in
going in the summer from Kamtschatka to the western coast of this
sea, and returning in September or October, when the western winds
have fairly set in.

The extremely unpleasant cold and damp summer climate of these
regions is caused by the prevailing east wind coming from the cold Sea
of Ochotsk, a true polar basin transfered to a lower latitude. The
yearly increase of temperature is also checked to a great degree by this
influence, the warmest month being generally August, when the sea-
water has acquired a higher temperature.

The summer rains are very copious, even in places inland as far as
Pekin. In this place, as also at the mines of Nertschinsk, the fall of
water is more than fifty times larger in July than in January. In the
last place there is hardly any sledging in winter, though the tempera-
ture remains six months below the freezing-point. The countries on the
Lower Amoor and Japan have more of snow and rain in autumn and
winter. The east winds from the adjoining sea are seldom experienced,
yet when they do occur the precipitation is copious, the difference of
temperature between land and sea being very great. We find a resem-
blance to this in the climate of Eastern North America, where the rain-
fall is more copious than in Kurope; yet the sky is clearer and the
number of rainy days less.

Precipitation in inches,

|
| Year. | Winter, | Spring. | Summer, | Autumn.

| Greatest, Least.

Rekinge acess Rea ASAE 24. 21 0. 64 2/23 17. 36 4.00 | 8. 06JSuly.) 0. 14 dan.
Nertschinsk.......c-..eeceee- | i547] * 0.30 1.73 10, 64 2. 80 | 3,96 Ang.| 0.07 Feb.
Hakodadi, Japan ............- | 44. 01 8. 14 8. 49 16, 46 10, $4 | 8. 21 July.} 1.89 Jan.

T have said before that the monsoon climate is characterized by a gen-
erally clear winter and a rather cloudy summer. The amount of cloudi-
ness has only begun within the last few years to attract the attention of
scientific men. An extensive collection of tables of this element has
been commenced by Kamtz, and continued by Wild, who has published
the results in the new “ Repertorium fiir Meteorology.” They embrace
many places in Russia and in Siberia. I present here an extract from
these tables, in which the means of several places have been combined
together. The amount of cloudiness is expressed in percentage; acloud-
less sky taken as zero.

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. 291

het eel asec late oneness | aul.
PS EC FOE A Thar Se EBs geil mia | ee leh ed
© Aito |S) elSisieble)eisle “i
AlBRIifbB# lalallala lnlalalolal
(1) Alaska:
PTR Weececatalintrettdita ale slefe'a’sielciw n’ole tees yn iate'on ans 63} 65 | 66) GL | 638°) G6 ) 72) YS | 74) 71) 73 |) 6B 68
(2) Eastern Asia :
SR LNs ee reeves te teiciotal o = iclm elalpiw ais ania atejeimieimince 23 | 25 | 31 | 39 | 46 | 49 | 56 | 63 | 56 | 46} 30 | 32 42
Ochotsk, Ajan, Nicolajovsk......-......-.. 26 | 25 | 27 | 35 | 37 | 48 | 47 | 48 | 50) 44 | 35] 34] 37
VEIN GMIOLNOUGSCOIN SIS «ein cislrieninielein caisio'ia ene 19 | 13 | 14 | 22 | 36 | 44 | 47 | 48 | 46 | 44] 38) 25] 83
(3) Central and West Siberia :
PPRUIUR Cp ehitetenite pins ep alcioicis ain« bislels tialoielale'n’s 46 | 46 | 35 | 26 | 37} 49 | 49 | 47 | 49 | 55 | 69 | 48 | 46
BATT) Ail cetetatete nite chere ecabaty sinisicueix' die oinis'ein'giniswninls 51 | 41 |, 39 | 35.) 38 | 37 | 39 | 38 | 38} 55 | 46 |} 54 tL
Tobolsk, ‘Lara, TUR GUM Se icisininicleeiaine ainin’s'e: ia 54 | 46 | 43 | 41 | 42) 44 | 45 | 44 | 47 | 40 | 58 | 58 13
Bogoslowsk and Berezov .:......--..--..--- 42 | 43 | 40 | 38 | 43 | 46 | 44 | 43 | 46 | 53) 52] 50] 45
(4) Central and Northern Russia : .
Weliki-Ustjug, Glazov, Slobodskoi........ 66 | 60 | 61 | 52] 47 | 42 | 40 | 34 | 43 | 49 | 67 | TL] 52
Ardatoy, Balachua, Gorbatoy, Tambov, Sim-

ITS KOUNVOISIE, ceteacincislarsince ca Siaretslatainieie eins 66 | 60 | 60 | 50 | 49 | 44 | 42 | 42 | 41 | 47 | 62 | 68 52
Anandus, Reval, Baltischport, Riga :....... 59 | 541 52 | 48 | 44 | 38 | 87 | 34 | 35 | 44 | 56] 61 47
OZ STR MAIND Biase phtecat naan omni dan emcees 75 | 76 | 65 | 59 | 49 | 43] 42] 41 | 42 | 50 | 64] 74) 55

(5) Southern Russia:
TIME Key OVC Mea tara /e'nie wiwraiele a'ciaw o/01< ctere\e\sin'eiwinjove'a!s 70 | 63 | 58 | 50} 47 | 40 | 388 |] 38 | 37 | 47 | 55 | 65 51
Sudscha, Lugan, Catherinbosburg.......... 72 | 63 | 64 | 57 | 42] 33 | 31 | 31 | 80 | 38 | 52) 68) 48
OdesepeNicolojey scisccacs deawcileposesctils 73 | 70 | 63 | 62 | 52 | 44 | 40 | 36 | 32 | 36 | 49:| 68] 52
(6) Southeastern Steppes:
Astrachan, It. Alexander, Uralsk .........- 57 | 57 | 49 | 43 | 34 | 28 | 26 | 24 | 21 | 24) 34] 389) 37
Raimsk, Kasalinsk, and Fort Perovski...... 46 | 41 | 40 | 37 | 27 | 28 | 25 | 23) 19 | 20} 24 | 34) 30
(7) Caspian :
Baku, Lenkoran, Ashur-Ade ......-....---- 59 | 59 | 64 | 62] 56] 48} 44 | 38] 39 | 46] 49) 59] SL

The contrasting climates are those of European Russia and Eastern
Asia, the first having the greatest amount of cloud generally in Decem-
ber, the last in July or August. The greatest part of Siberia is a land
of transition, haying the least amount of cloud in March and the great-
est in October or November. Barnaul has very little cloudiness trom
February to August, so as to form a transition between the steppes on
the southwest, and the countries on the east of it. Yet it must be said
that the accuracy of this table is not very great, the amount of cloud-
iness not being observed in former times in Russia, and only such des-
ignations as clear, cloudy, overcast, &¢., being given, and sometimes
also the different qualities of clouds, (cirro cumulus,) &e. It seems
especially that the amount of cloudiness in Southern Russia is less than
that Shown in Wild’s table, and the same probably applies to the south-
east steppes. In regions where the sky:is clear for some weeks together
the observers will record “ cloudy ” if only a few clouds appear, &c. A
cloudiness of from 70 to 72 at Odessa and Lugan seems to me quite
impossible.

I have already spoken of the summer winds in the monsoon region.
In the region of the southwest winds the change from winter to summer
is far less marked, the winds being a little more from the north in sum-

292 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

mer, the prevailing direction being still west. In the steppes of South-
ern Russia, and far into Central Asia, the winds are also west in June
and July, the prevailing direction being the opposite of that of winter.
Yet this has not so great an influence on all the features of the climate
as in Eastern Asia—1st, because winds from other directions are more or
Jess common in both seasons; and 2d, because there is not the contrast
existing in Eastern Asia between the winds from the continent and those
_ from the ocean.

Jn Transcaucasia the winds are also generally easterly in winter and
westerly insummer, as on the northern shores of the Black Sea. Yet
the influence of the mountains and sea is strongly felt. On the Caspian,
especially, the day and night breezes are very regular in summer. The
Persian sailors know this very well, and in going from the south to As-
trachan they keep along the eastern shore, where the breezes are stronger
than on the western.

We possess very few observations on the quantity of falling water,
and this has induced the Geographical Society to establish a more gen-
eral system, especially for this element. Yet we must wait at least from
ten to fifteen years before having reliable data from the new stations.
Some general features can, however, be ascertained even now, with the
aid of the few points of observation we possess. In awork on the rains
of Russia* I have divided the country thus:

1. Region of prevailing summer rains, with a maximum in July: In-
cluding the northern part of Russia and Siberiaas far as the 50° in the
west, and 54° in the east.

2, Region of prevailing summer rains, with a maximum in June: In-
cluding the country south of the former, being the principal part of the
steppes (prairies) of southern and eastern Russia.

The two regions differ, moreover, in this, that the second has a very
marked dry time in September and October, with easterly winds, and
a second maximum in November.

Possibly the difference of the time of most copious rains coincides
with the physical aspect of the country, being well wooded in the north
and nearly naked in the south. In the beginning of the summer the
grasses and corn-fields of the steppes are green, and in this condition
the evaporation is considerable, giving enough of vapor to the air,
while at the same time the cold caused by evaporation is favorable to
the condensation of moisture. In July the grasses are already withered,
the corn ripened, and in these conditions the plants evaporate much less
water, and therefore the rains are less frequent and copious.

In the wooded region of the north evaporation from the leaves of
trees goes on the whole summer, the best conditions for rain being in
July, the hottest month. In the United States the conditions are simi-
lar. The country east of the Rocky Mountains is also principally one of

*To be published in the “Sapiski” of the Russian Geographical Society ; also,
“Zeitschrift der ésterreichischen Gessellschaft fiir Meteorologie,” year 1871, p. 193.

i)

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. Zoe

summer rains, but in the prairie States the maximum of falling water is
reached earlier ; so in Missouri and Kansas there is a marked maximum
in June; farther to the south even in April and May, which is due to
the earlier vegetation. In the wooded Atlantic sea-board, on the con-
trary, there is no such tendency to an early maximum, the rains being
very equally distributed in the Northern States, and having a maximum
in July or August in the South.

Besides the above stated difference between the north and south,
there is a marked one between the east and west of Russia. Precipi-
tation in winteris much less in the former. This is not due to the differ-
ence of the currents of the air, but to the winter cold, which is greater
in the east. The warm, moist southwest winds contain little vapor in
Eastern Russia, and therefore the quantity precipitated cannot be great.
Yet snow falls occasionally, and in small quantities, even at Jakutsk,
which has the coldest winter of which we have any knowledge. Snow-
falls have been observed there at temperatures of from — 40 to — 46 Fahr.
The rain-fall of summer does not diminish generally from the Baltic to
the Obi in Siberia. Local circumstances seem to have a great influence
on the summer rains, but their study requires many more observations.
There are also two small regions with prevailing rains in autumn—one
on the Baltic coast, comprising Southwest Finland and Libau; another
in the southern part of the Crimea, south of the Jaila Mountains.’

3. Nearly rainless region of the Caspian and Kirghez steppes. Here
the amount of rain falling yearly is from 4 to 6 inches, and is very irreg-
ularly distributed. It is an arid, desolate country, in which agriculture
is impossible without irrigation. The boundary of the region of sum-
mer rains No. 2 is very clearly marked on the west. It is the high, right
bank of the Volga from 50° to 48° N., and a line of heights called Jergeni,
forming its continuation tothe south, extending tothe Kuma-Manytsch
depression, about 46° N. On the south of this depression the plateau
of the Western Caucasus rises, and its eastern border is also the line
of division between the two regions, the eastern being low, salt, and
desert; the western having regular summer rains, and a luxurious nat-
ural grass vegetation. A great part of it is already under cultivation,
yielding excellent corn-crops.

The mountains of Central Asia have more rains than the steppes at
their foot, and the rivers descending from them are extensively used
for irrigation. The inhabitants are well aware of the benefit of this sys-
tem, and, though not very civilized, have excellent modes of irrigation.
The whole of Central Asia, as much as we know of it, has a similar eli-
mate, the sedentary inhabitants gathering, around mountain streams,
and often draining them to the last drop for their fields.

4. East of this country is the monsoon region of Eastern Asia, with an
enormous prevalence of summer rains. The principal features and ex-
tent of this region have been already described. These are the four
principal regions from the Baltic to the Pacific. The floods of the riv-

294 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

ers furnish us also means of distinguishing the European climate from
that of the Pacific slope. All great rivers of European Russia, as also
the Obi and Jenissei, have one principal tlood in the year, after the melt-
ing of the winter snow. The rise of water is more or less protracted,
owing to the climate and extent of the basin, so that the highest stage
of water is reached as late as the 15th of June by the Volga at Astra-
chan, owing to the late melting of the snow on the western slopes of
the Ural and the enormous distance the water has to pass from thence
to Astrachan.

The summer rains are not long enough continued, and too local to
have great influence on the rivers.

The Angara River, tributary of the Jenissei, does not rise generally
in Spring, the quantity of snow falling there being too small. But
sometimes the river and Lake Baikal, which it traverses, rise very high
in summer. The Amoor has alsono great flood, due to the melting of
snow, but rises very high sometimes in summer. The disastrous flood
of 1872 will long be remembered by the inhabitants of the country.
The rivers of China have also floods, due to the spring and summer
rains, and, like all rivers in such condition, their floods are very disas-
trous and irregular.

The Caucasian provinces, though of small extent, show great differen-
ces in the quantity and ahananeae of their rains. South of the principal
chain we must distinguish three principal belts: (1) that of the eastern
coast of the Black Sea, a country of very copious precipitation. It in-
cludes Mingrelia, Imeretia, Guria, and Abchasia, being bounded on
the northeast by the principal chain of the Caucasus, and on the east
by the Suram Mountains, separating Imeretia from Grusia. About 60
inches fall in the year, which is tolerably well distributed, the maxima
being in June and December. A warm climate and copious rains pro-
duce a rank, luxurious vegetation, having some features of that of the
tropics. Climbing plants are especially favored by the climate, and the
trees of Central Europe attain immense dimensions. (2.) Grusia has a
less rainy climate, the maximum falling in May. Irrigation is found
much necessary in the valleys, while the mountain-sides, from 2,000 to
5,000 feet high, are clad with forests. The maximum of rain-fall in May
is strongly marked, this month at Tiflis having also the greatest number
of rainy days and the greatest amount of cloud. On the higher plateau
of Armenia, 4,800 feet, May is also the rainiest month, as it is due north
of the Caucasian chain at Alagir. (3.) The western shores of the
Caspian have sub-tropical rains—that is, the greatest quantity falls in
autumn and winter, while the summer is decidedly dry. The distribu-
tion is nearly the same along all this shore, while the quantity varies
much; Lenkoran, for example, has more than 50 inches, while Baku has
only 10. The vapor coming from the Caspian, places having mountains -
to the westward receive copious rains. Lenkoran has a similar position,
the Talysh Mountains rising from 5,000 to 7,000 feet due west of the

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. 295

town. Baku is situated in a low, arid country north of this place.
The vicinity of Kuba and Derbent has much more rains, because the
ramifications of the high Shah-Dagh approach the Caspian. This country
has magnificent forests and very favorable conditions for agriculture.

I have already said that the opening and freezing of rivers was long
ago observed in Russia. These data give us the means of ascertaining
something of climates where no thermometrical observations have been
made.

In the following table the rivers are arranged according to natural
basins. The principal rivers are taken from their source to their mouth,
and their affluents afterwards.

Number of days the rivers were frozen.

BASIN OF THE PACIFIC.

ANMOOMATPNICOl al OySKiert celsecsee scsiacm ccilnaeicsine cine clo sioee ats seis = aor eee see 193
MnonumeauNeLvichinskesoasee Messe sen eee sie saisewie a tae s a ep ccmisiee ee sepsis cee 170

BASIN OF THE ARCTIC.

Vine ohn URES ks MUS DN BBEReoicocerD Oopmoo noacen sane os CosSOn Gg eaGor) aces conoses6 260
Men ayabwMOnensketose cae cissercc sca imcccce cloves susie clcisteis ciate ie = nis sem eae eee 204
Men mAbaVak ous, 622 -s2si.0-accias-c\eeeelsccaisisne cect occ aee o aaa ee yee ee 204
Noeniserabevemisseisks OOo) sae mis ele se cia sins = 2asS08 ceo ses oa SSon00 onoson dross 171
Aoane) hp JEAROOUEIK: 22) Sse ece aac peCOAs bcp oon E20 OSneTs NG SIRO heCoosaS case Coonee 87
Ol idatwsarmal HSS ke ene oic!oncaisicieisinloysiais's (nian am w\ja02 ajn)aia ls mints alee ei ye See eee ee 167
Ieeiiein, anh INOW OIES, Gise 5 Bo Sos Sar cisoooeolc bo canosadas Se Sebase 6de PP ee bik UN A. 73
MOMEAT MOMS sc Ol semitone sciaisteereisieie lee slalearaieioral ere earae eh seeie rater yaaa eae epee 180
Tool aij IRWIN oR NN BoSSc0 daucbS Gaosrcooodaesooend Loon ose. soos cncKes ssa ks SeeeSo o50- ilzfil
SWS 2) Qi Telemees OI, WHS 5 oo be5 those cso Soo son cs bss S000s05 sobees QbS550 aSSese Gas ace 207
JSSE5 Fh Caylee tye oe a oomeas esa g Sse Soe SO SED EES IO se Sse Hone sseeee ae saesnG 179
PROMO Ab TIE AOI YN, ONO sao dos ceo RE Eee or seeno F600 BoLb ace Boeead Bascde Beaeoc 240
ID Ayabagh Gy AURG Ahn) HG a) eRe eee oro Bea e ee Oe-CooSpeSEScor Ceo beLoeeeeaeesaas UGiil
SOMA eit WSUWIos cosctScedass Suc co eoestooD Sonos see cu osenouserdsucsaduecuodaT 168
Ways Nee emma tie tlie Kerem teeta et ea reer anal al i re -- 132
Dolado aiNMolos@a;iS992= -meswe tats antec ssje sate sof -lncio ee cee va creeapaeee see ee)
OmagE, Geo so onbeodcoccce. epee tapaneeSto tens ser dosodo HB Gaon couELoescDce caceoe 169
Tana at Utsjoki, 69°....-. 6 boccecdngs yaad bn0e Hocene Guccnedesapecdd suadcoua ceoser 197
BASIN OF THE BALTIC.
Teepe mvepne AMoMeOy) (DAC Soo Bosc sosche psesooondaeo Seay BoboD po ebaoe sed eoon bese 207
MONTE KOISNOSS Sse snigc damsel tgas oe coo Se el sclera Stents acs led os Saya ees pe aeee 298
LORS) Bein WWI er ya eee ee eee ae ee ee! AP Arye 201
NG Vicia LoSoe ee rerebUll, OOP aan aes nc.5 2 oop ieee eas omtn sa Je ana ee eee eG]
NarovyanabuNanvyastoo oars tosis sciceeicr = +04 sysicimeinoic saeieciscii~ nies oousis eaten. seen 137
EmbachvabsDorpatyosO™ Sas,<cet)asyis/- 1s < se seme ean ae ets eee eee eee aeere) Lol
DD veinavatew Lbehekawo Oe ce sts Awa cers, eos emeee acin aac eicieataa ce oneacicts aetna anaes 134
Dwyane at) RIC dei sient cid eee has Ss « aasemtaes ajemeni scot oles beens eae aie ata 126
INiieomentab Kiovnoy odes Ie fess ossS.s o's aa esas kiss Saepgue meebo etewcecesel 90
WASTUAL ALE \ ViaLSAW ROC mesa neisienis aie 5 ele meinsi ces asl eo ae merece ee seais ccisteee 85
BASIN OF THE BLACK AND AZOV SEAS.
DanmberatrG alatz sabes A scis so Se sete wacmtcene oe ceeeveateenose She Pn Pe ee 48

PDC BOTAN Vs) 00 beatae setters </2 ee ake meemisceie t= ceamem ester tas sas tibe cede Se seu OF

296 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

Wneperiat Catherinenslav, 48° 2- Sere seme aesocaseeeane esse tese sani eee er eee 91
ID yay aYerP NH INTO, GI 5 Sod Soc coda ehosc0 Geos castes cess cede Sones ease tess pene 80
Soschvat/Gomel, (520 ence eicee eee e eminem eeeale sae ete eee es eeee Caesarea 122
IsYeyeevalon wah haere onyy BYES BS Bebo Saas Ge odooodens Gono Shoo ubog agéo onto. datacos 129
IBA oe AnH MIMO GZ, BS) Socadu cdokow oasd cosa SuSo cooRes Hoos osce So cesesoDReS bass ashe 105

Donat’ Ust-Medivedizo,|/ AQ Jo Si a. Se se Se ae tant secis cee soe ee eelgs
Bon aibiAlesaiyA 70! ous eee ek Soest ee ae dee. Yes eee wel wales s Siar Ey ee eed ag
AWVORoNANE) EY he \AOMROMNEH (2) BIOS < So S555 cons Ge ce cg co ewe ed as Hono s os basesescacecco INE
Ibayrin Ayn Clea BS connce pés ons cbosdecobS sade co oecdccencdscccedocedescopess) le

BASIN OF THE CASPIAN.

LR OER rh SUNG) 5 eS Seino Sees So eS Hes isnae he SoectsoocbeoGemses Sécoss dhoocs 147
WroloarateVanoslavn O82 teen acsetens sel clomtele = selae aetna ete Sea ete ae ieee etna eel
Wroleatatikostromay S6ete= soo casclese srisemiosceieeisee cee see see ie ese eee Onn

\ Wola s un ISEB BSS poe sao oeece ses SposasepoSess Soudous esoscasq ade sconces. IE
NYGUSE NGI SEh IE ee Obs aeonsa gaSaood Spr aeaG osanG Oooko sabaa SseoUuSob ods Saud ssecc 150
\VGlkary Rip SRE MO p IMO BS = bad cae east oSod Ace né cb ocd aS ab oshocecccdkosesosequcden ee
Wola Astra hal 40ceec. cee ee ee er eee Eee eee ee eee ae eee ee 39
Oka at’ Orel 59or.2. sesh sods es eel SESS SEE SSeS ck SSS a Lee isa ieee oe eee 130
Jnafatambovso3ohioe one seo eee ae ade tae eases near See eee 146
Kama near) eqjuchina soe 42 cece 365 See ae aie los ec anit oie ele 120

Kamarat) Ussolje, G00. o.oo. oie. oe Se Saais cents Sees on eine aise eee eee eo
CAIN GAD OLM OSS as secre erste deals ee eyec Salls)o recat eels IEEE ene CCIE CEE er ee RLOU
Kamavat J elabuga 000s)... ae= se eeceeae en ss coe meee ocacce acer seaneeceeteeaeeEe OO
Way bkcaiabe Veja Kay ooe Sat ec Once See ee eae: CER ES So See eee 163
Byelajarat Witay boosie. nhl oe fey EUS he see Nee She ere ek ee vere eal
Ural atyOrenbures S10. .2 24 <etee smecie cee coo. ce. tise tote sige adeoeieemece eee Od

BASIN OF THE ARAL SEA.

Syr-Dariaaaikchodjent, 40° e222. scan mcemea ce emesis mebelee setae etree ake mame
Syr-Daniarab dts POLOVSKT Ao cai csaine No ctr be de nets ete eie ceeinsiniee ate aaa saree pe n= eames
Syr-Dariatat Kasalinsk, 40°20 220220 -co Se soe oe eae erates re eerie nee eee ee en

The time of opening and closing of rivers depends not only on the
intensity and duration of frost, but also on many local conditions, as, for
example, the strength of the current. On this account the Angara at
Irkutsk is frozen only half the time it would be if its current were not so
very strong. This river very seldom freezes near Lake Baikal, and at
Irkutsk the freezing begins at the bottom. Rivers of such an exceptional
character are seldom met with in Russia, as the greatest part of the
country is a level plain, only slightly undulating. There seems not tobe
a very great difference in the time at which large and small rivers are
frozen; the former freeze and open alittle later. Great and deep bodies
of water are not so easily cooled as small, and so great rivers freeze later.
The later opening in spring has a different cause: The ice of the smaller
rivers is broken by the inrush of water from melted snow. The channels
of great rivers do not fill so rapidly and their ice must be more worn
before it breaks. The Volga at Saratov, where it carries an enormous
body of water, and the Oka at Orel, where it is a very small river, are
covered with ice nearly the same number of days. But the Volga is
frozen only from the 8th of December to the 19th April, while the Oka

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. 297

freezes the 25th of November and opens the 4th of April. It is thus
closed thirteen days earlier and opened fifteen days earlier than the
Volga.

The rivers are frozen a much longer time in Eastern than in Western
Russia ; for example, at Orenburg the river is one hundred and sixty-four
days covered with ice; at Turov, in the same latitude, the river is one
hundred and seven days frozen, and at Warsaw only eighty-five days.
The duration of cold weather is the principal feature of the climate to
be considered. Furthermore, extremes of cold seem to have very little
influence; for example, in the winter of 1870~71, the coldest of this
century, the Neva froze seven days later and opened ten days earlier
than is generally the case. In this winter the cold was restricted to
the months of December, January, and February, the months of Novem-
ber, 1870, and especially March, 1871, being comparatively warm.

An extensive collection of data relating to the freezing of rivers,
lakes, and bays is in progress in Russia. It is the work of Lieutenant

tikatschef, who presented his plan to the Geographical Society in the
beginning of 1870. Circulars asking for such observations were sent
to every part of the empire, and it was also thought necessary to extend
the work to foreign countries. Iam happy to say that this plan received
the hearty assistance of the late Professor Coffin, and of Professor
Henry, who tried to obtain all available data from North America.

I have now briefly stated the most important facts relating to the
meteorology and climatology of Russia, and will end with expressing
the hope that the practical application of science to weather-foreeasts
may soon extend to my country, and that thus telegraphical weather-
communications may encircle the globe. Everything that is useful to
mankind spreads so rapidly in our day that we shall probably see at
no distant date, difficult as it may seem, the system extend even to
countries nearly desert, such as Eastern Siberia and Alaska. We shall
then see our Baltic harbors warned of the approach of Atlantic storms
many days before their occurrence, while the Russian stations on the
Pacific will at the same time render a similar service to California and
Oregon.

I mention here some of the principal sources of information relative
to the meteorology and climatology of Russia, especially those published
in German or French, which are more generally known than the Russian
language.

Annuaire magnétique et météorologique, from 1837 to 1848.

Annales de Vobservatoire physique central, from 1849 to 1864, contain-
ing the detailed, partly horary, magnetical and meteorological observa-
tions of the great stations.

Correspondance météorologique, from 1850 to 1864 quarterly, daily means
of all stations in correspondence with the physical observatory.

Annalen des physikalischen Central-Observatoriwms, (Russian and Ger-

298 METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

man,) for 1865, 1866, 1867, 1868, 1870, and 1871, tri-daily means of the
meteorological elements. No magnetical observations.

Repertorium fiir Meteorologie, edited by the geographical society, re-
dacteur, Kamtz, 1858 to 1863 ; a very important source of information ;
valuable contributions by Kamtz and other scientific men.

Repertorium fiir Meteorologie, edited by the academy of sciences, re-
dacteur, Dr. Wild, containing works on the climate of Russia by him
and his assistants, appears since 1870 irregularly.

Wesselovki’s “‘O klimate Rossie,” (on the climate of Russia,) 1857. A
very important source of information.

The works of the geographical society contain a great deal of informa-
tion, especially some of the older volumes of the memoirs, (Sapiski,) and
the year 1871 of the “ Jsvastia.” A new volume of the memoirs now
in print is devoted entirely to meteorology. The publications of the
Caucasian and Siberian branches of the society should also be men-
tioned. The only volume edited by the new Orenburg section, contains
an important contribution by Mr. Ovodof on the winds of Orenburg.

The Bulletin de la Société des naturalistes, &e., of Moscow, contains
meteorological observations of Moscow from 1841 to 1855, and from 1861
to 1872, as also meteorological contributions of a more general kind.
Mediko-Topograftscheski collection, edited by the medical department
of the interior, two vols., 1870 to 1872. The “ Zeitschrift der Osterret-
chischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie” contains many papers relating to
the climate of Russia. I mention only the tables of temperature in
the year 1870, Nos. 10, 14, and 15.

The Bulletin and the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences of St.
Petersburg contained much information in former times; for example,
Abich’s contributions on the Caucasus, in the years 1849 and 1850.
Since the foundation of the “ Repertorium fiir Meteorologie,” in 1870, the
meteorological contributions appear there.

The important works of Dove on temperature, of Buchan on mean
pressure and winds, of Coffin, on the winds of the northern hemisphere,
published by the Smithsonian Institution, as also Hann, “ Untersu-
chungen ueber die Winde der nérdlichen Hemisphire,” contain valuable
information about Russia.

The publications of the universities (Utschenija Sapiski, Jsvastia,
&e.) contain much information, especially in former times, when the
centralization of the publications relating to meteorology was not yet
begun.

Observations are also often published by newspapers, but it would be
too much to mention them all here. The same may be said of some
special and old works.

PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES DURING THE
GREAT AURORA BOREALIS OF FEBRUARY 4, 1872; AND THE
ORIGIN OF NORTHERN LIGHTS,

By ProFressor G. B. Donatt,
Superintendent of the Astronomical Observatory at Florence.

[Translated from the Italian for the Smithsonian Institution from the Rivista Scien-
tifico-Industriale. ]

It is not necessary for me to give a description of the luminous phe-
nomena manifested during the great aurora of the 4th of February last.
So many descriptions of these have been published, that it is very easy
for any one to obtain information on the subject. But it will not be
unnecessary for scientific purposes to make known the results derived
from the observations which during that exhibition of northern lights
were made in the various telegraphic offices of this kingdom, and to
compare those observations with others made contemporaneously beyond
Italy. In doing this I am indebted to the favor of Mr. Commendator
D’ Amico, director-general of the Italian telegraphic lines, who furnished
me with all the observations made by his subordinates on that occa-
sion. From the aggregate of those observations, the following conclu-
sions, I think, may safely be drawn: >

The fitful currents and the corresponding perturbations manifested
along the telegraphic lines, on the occasion of the aurora of February 4,
were greater on the lines extending from east to west than on those ex-
tending from north to south. This was the case even when the lines
running from east to west were much shorter than those from north to
south. In fact, Inspector-General Masi, who was at the office of Bag-
nara, Calabria, from his accurate observations concludes that the line
from Bagnara to Naples, which runs almost entirely along the meridian,
and which is the longest of all the lines that meet at Bagnara, gave by
the needle of the galvanometer the least deviation of all other lines.
And that, on the other hand, the line from Bagnara to St. Euphemia, al-
though shorter, but running almost exactly from east to west, showed
the influence of the aurora more than any other line. The same conclu-
sion is drawn from the observations made in Sardinia. On the lines
from Cagliari to Iglesias, and from Santa Teresa to Isola Madalena,
both very short lines and running from east to west, the perturbations
were greater than on the long lines from Santa Teresa to Cagliari, both
the latter lines running from north to south. This fact had been noticed

300 PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC.

by General Masi and entered in his minutes on the exhibition of the
aurora on the 24th of October, 1870, and was also observed by Messrs.
Sureau and H. Tarry along the French lines. *

The changes: of direction as well as the changes of intensity which
the currents that ran over the telegraphic wires underwent, were very
great during the aurora. The perturbations produced by the aurora
began to be noticed on the Italian lines at 4 o’clock 30 minutes p. m. of
the 4th. The maximum of the current manifested itself at 6 o’clock 31
minutes, and in that moment the current changed its direction suddenly.
Another maximum somewhat less than the preceding manifested itself at
6 hours 37 minutes. At 6 hours 52 minutes the needles of the galvanome-
ters remained stationary for about 3 minutes. Toward 8 p.m. the pertur-
bations lest much of their intensity, and after this no perturbations took
place intense enough to obstruct the transmission of dispatches. Not-
withstanding this, the luminous phenomena, taken as a whole, though
very variable, were not less splendid from 8 to 10 than they had been
from 6 to 8. Mr. Masi in his account of the phenomena states as fol-
lows: “ Looking at my compass, and at the same time at the luminous
phenomena, I observed that the deflection of the compass increased
with the increase of the luminosity at the northwest and decreased with
its decrease.” Mr. Masi’s remark of the correspondence between the
deflection of the needle of the compass and the luminous variations of
the aurora in the northwest may be true, but it seems to me, from the
examination I have been able to make of the various observations, that
the intensity of the luminous phenomena, considered as a whole, was
not proportionate to the amount of the perturbations. Indeed, | think
that the magnetic perturbations on the telegraphic lines preceded in
time the luminous phenomena.

Mr. Masi was led by his observations to think that, on the telegraphic
lines which were situated much above the level of the sea, the phenom-
ena produced by the aurora were manifested sooner and with greater
energy than on lines less elevated. And also that on the latter lines
the phenomena exhibited themselves later and with less intensity. Mr.
Masi, however, adds that we have not a sufficient number of observa-
tions to consider this as an established fact, but that it deserves atten-
tion in the future.

The time given above is mean time at Rome, and it would be very im-
portant to ascertain whether in other lines, differing considerably in
longitude from the Italian lines, the same phenomena manifested them-
selves, and exactly at what time. Mr. H. Tarry, who attempted to
ascertain this circumstance, says that the magnetic perturbations which
took place on the telegraphic lines manifested themselves at the same
time in Italy, France, and America, within perhaps one minute’s differ-
ence.t

* Comptes-rendus de ’Académie des sciences, Vol. LXXIV, page 484.
+t Comptes-rendus, Vol. LX XIV, page 519.

PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC. 301

But the facts on which he bases his conclusion seem to me too gen-
eral and too few, and that we require more particular and more numer-
ous observations before accepting his statement as that of an estab-
lished fact. Mr. Tarry also adds that ‘“‘in the telegraphic line from
Brest to Paris, from 5h. 55m. to 6 o’clock p. m. (Paris time) there were
two very singular waves. The deflection of the needle at first increased
progressively from 0° to + 60°. Then there was for one minute a firm
adherence of the armature of the telegraphic instrument, with per-
sistent deflection. After this the needle went gradually down to 0,
then up to + 60°, where it remained one minute. At six it jumped
suddenly from + 60° to — 60°.*

I have tried to ascertain whether in the interval of time which cor-
responds to between 5h. 55m. and 6 o’clock, mean time of Paris, there
were any observations made in Italy, in order to compare them with
those made in France, and I find that from the observations made at
Rome by Messrs. Perelli and Gotti, on the line from Rome to Milan, and
from those made at Florence by Messrs. Donalisio, Guidi, and Gabrielli,
on the line from Florence to Turin, the following table can be con-

structed:
Line from Rome to Milan.t

Mean time of Paris. The needle of the galvanometer, at 1000 turns.

From 5° 55™ to 55 57™, moves gradually from.-.-..... — 62° to + 78°
Do 57 5. 57.5, passes rapidly from.......-..- - + 78 — 50
5 57.5 5 358, oe ss SOREN es ere S50 + 73
5 58 B FE8ib, wae ee RO tare ea + 73 — 65
5 58.5 5 59 almost stationary between.... + 73 — 65
5 59 GuCUoPEUSHEeS) OVER ZELO LOlins cases etree tere sis. + 60

Line from Florence to Turin.

From 5" 55" to 5" 56™, oscilates and goes rapidly from — 80° to + 80°
5 57 moves rapidly from.........-. + 80 — 60
5 58 gs gs GOSEN Vere EY - — 60 + 75
5 58.5 MOVES! HOMT LEG SSSA OL LETS — 65
Toen e600 4: almost stationary towards...-.- — 70
then jumps violently tows wioitll. Jo. 22 + 10

In comparing the preceding observations with those reported by Mr.
Tarry, it seems as if we may conclude that both in Italy and in France

*Comptes-rendus, Vol.LXXIV, page 484.

+The line from Rome to Milan passes through Foligno, Florence, Bologna, and Pia-
cenza. The line from Florence to Turin passes through Empoli, Pisa, Spezia, Genoa.
The time of the Italian observations are reduced to mean Paris time, by subtracting
40™, from the time indicated by the observers of Rome and Florence. The observa-
tions made at Rome are preceded by the following notice. It being known on which
side the needle is deflected when Rome sends a positive current, the deflection ob-
served on the opposite quarter is marked thus, (-+) and that on the same quarter is
marked thus(—.) The resistance of the galvanometer used in Florence was 101, and
that used at Rome 104 Tiemens units.

302 PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC.

from 5°.55 to 5".57 (mean time of Paris) there was a gradual movement
of the needle; that after this there occurred sudden leaps, and that at 6
o’clock the needle remained stationary for about one minute ; after this
rest the needle moved violently.

Mr. Tarry reports that at 5°.28™ the needle jumped in France from
— 40° to + 60°. At that time the galvanometer had not as yet been used
by the inspectors at the office of Rome, but I find that the needle of the
common compass used by telegraphists jumped in Rome from + 20° to
— 22° at 5%.27™. Mr. Tarry also reports that at 5".34™ the needle of the
galvanometer moved suddenly in France from — 40° to + 50; and I
find that the needle of the common compass at Rome moved from +
36° to — 26° between 5°.30™ and 55.37".

No comparison can be instituted with the observations made in Florence
during the the above-mentioned time, for observations in that city com-
menced later. They are all given in mean Paris time.

Mr. Coumbary, director of the observatory at Constantinople, says that
on the lines of Turkey, toward 74.35™ the current was reversed and be-
came positive, showing great intensity. Judging from the whole of his
remarks, it appears that at the above-mentioned time the greatest per-
turbation occurred, which manifested itself on the Turkish lines.* I have
already said that the Italian lines had reached their maximum at 6.31",
(mean time of Rome ;) if the time stated by Mr. Coumbary is given in
mean time of Constantinople, (as is presumable,) then the greatest per-
turbations on the Turkish lines manifested themselves at 6%.25™ mean
time of Rome.t

Mr. Coumbary says that at 9 o’clock (7".54" mean time of Rome) tele-
graphic communication was resumed in Turkey. It has been already
mentioned that in Italy perturbations on the lines became much weaker
toward 8 o’clock, (mean time of Rome.) So that it seems that the great
perturbations ceased contemporaneously in Italy and in Turkey. Irom
what has been stated it appears that we may conclude with Mr. Tarry
that the perturbations on the telegraphic lines took place, as a general
rule, simultaneously. On this important point, however, more extensive
researches are needed, and with more particulars than have hitherto
been given; inasmuch as the perturbations on the telegraphic wires
followed each other almost continuously, and errors, however small, in
the times noted, or in the deflections observed, might make acoincidence
appear where there was really none.

To prove the general simultaneousness of the electrical perturbations -
which manifest themselves in the electrical telegraphs im auroral mani-
festations, would be the much more important, inasmuch as it appears
sufficiently proved by experience that the luminous phenomena proceed-
ing from auroras are not at all simultaneous, but manifest themselves
first in the more eastern countries, and then in the western. In support

>

* Comptes-rendus, Vol. LXXIV, page 828.
t Constantinople is east from Rome about 1».06™,

PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC. 303

of the above view, Professor Olmstead cites many facts in a learned
essay, published in the contributions of the Smithsonian Institution of
America. Mr. Tarry also has noted a similar fact in the great aurora of
February 4, 1872, while comparing the times in which the luminous phe-
nomena were seen in Europe with the times in which they were seen in
Duxbury, near Boston.*

To this I can add that the J alia consul of Cyprus addressed a letter
to his excellenecy our minister of foreign affairs, which was kindly com-
municated to me, from which it appears that the luminous phenomena
of the aurora of February 4 last were very conspicuous at Cyprus, that
they became feebler toward 10 o’clock, (local time,) and after that disap-
peared almost entirely. At Paris, also, the luminous phenomena of the
same aurora were very vivid till 10 o’clock, (local time,) then became
much weaker, and disappeared almost entirely. Now, as Cyprus is about
two hours east of Paris, it follows that in absolute time the luminous
phenomena of the aurora ceased at Cyprus two hours before they dis-
appeared in Paris. If it were not so, and the light of the aurora borealis
had been very bright at Cyprus at the same time that it appeared very
splendid in Paris, instead of beginning to decrease in the latter place
at 10 o’clock without any further increase of brightness, it ought to have
continued in its splendor till after midnight.

Now, how can we explain the fact that the luminous phenomena of
the aurora borealis appear first in the east and after in the west? The
theory that the aurora is nothing else but a slow electrical discharge,
which takes place between the upper and the lower strata of our atmos-
phere, is well known, generally admitted, and confirmed by the beauti-
ful experiments of De La Rive. On this point there can be very little
doubt at present. But is this a complete explanation; that is, does it
give a reason for all the circumstances which accompany the aurora bo-
realis? Besides the circumstance that the luminous phenomena of the
aurora move, so to speak, from east to west, there is another very im-
portant one which must not be overlooked when we are seeking for an
explanation of these phenomena as satisfactory as we can obtain. The
late researches made by Professor Loomis prove that in latitudes which
are not very high the number of auroras and their luminous intensity
has a maximum and a minimum about every ten years; and this fact is
also confirmed by an examination which I have undertaken of an ex-
tensive series of observations existing in this observatory, in which the
exhibitions of auroras are accurately recorded. Although the theory
which regards the aurora borealis as the result of slow and prolonged
discharges of electricity is physically complete, and explains fully the
electrical and luminous phenomena, it does not seem of itself to give
a satisfactory reason either for the periodicity of the auroras or of
the successive progress of the phenomena from east to west. That the-

* Denison Olmstead, Smithsonian Contributions January, 1855, pp. 44-45; H. Tarry,
Comptes-rendus, Vol. LXXIV, p. 549.

304 PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC.

ory may still be adopted as general exposition of the phenomena, al-
though it may require to be supplemented with additional hypotheses.
It seems to me that this can be done by adinitting, with Sir John Her-
schel, that between the sun and the planets there may be an interchange
of electrical currents. In such a case these currents will be at different
times more or less intense, according to the position and the distance
which the planets occupy in space with respect to the sun and to each
other; and on this account the resulting phenomena will be subject to
a periodicity. If we admit that between the different bodies of our sys-
tem there is a continuous exchange of electrical action, that is, if we ad-
mit that there exists a cosmical electricity, the former may combine with
the natural electricity of the earth, and procuce almost constant auro-
ras at the poles, where.the terrestrial magnetism is more energetic ; then,
if from any cause whatever the cosmical electricity increases, the north-
ern lights may increase correspondingly, so as to become visible even in
places very distant from the poles.

If the existence of cosmical electrical currents is admitted, we may
also imagine that in certain cases an electrical discharge takes place
toward the sun or from it; in such a case we can conceive that certain
phenomena can occur only in such places as have a certain direction and
a certain position with respect to that discharge. Consequently such
phenomena will make themselves visible successively under the differ-
ent meridians, according as, by the diurnal motion of the earth, they
come to occupy successively the same position and the same direction
with respect to the discharge which we have imagined. It is true that
we have no direct proof of these cosmical electrical currents, but it is a
very old idea, put forth by Galileo, Kepler, and many other philosophers,
that the sun and the planets may be magnetic bodies, and why not
electrical as well as the earth? and if this is the case, (which seems very
natural,) it may also be admitted that through that ether which is gen-
erally admitted as filling the universe, there may be an interchange of
electric currents between planet and planet, and between tbe planets
and the sun.

Sir John Herschel, in a note at the end of the fifth chapter of his
astronomy published in 1833, writes as follows:

‘‘Blectricity traversing excessively rarefied air or vapors gives out
light, and, doubtless, also heat. May not a continual current of electric
matter be constantly circulating in the sun’s immediate neighborhood,
or traversing the planetary spaces, and exciting, in the upper regions of
its atmosphere, those phenomena of which, on however diminutive a
scale, we have yet an unequivocal manifestation in our aurora borealis ?
The possible analogy of the solar light to that of the aurora has been
distinctly insisted on by my father, in his paper already cited. It would
be a highly curious subject of experimental inquiry, how far a mere re-
duplication of sheets of flame, at a distance one behind the other, (by
which their light might be brought to any required intensity,) would

PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC. 305

communicate to the heat of the resulting compound ray the penetrating
character which distinguishes the solar calorific rays. We may also
observe that the tranquillity of the sun’s polar, as compared with its
equatorial regions, (if its spots be really atmospheric,) cannot be ac-
counted for by its rotation on its axis only, but must arise from some
cause external to the sun, as we see the belts of Jupiter and Saturn, and
our trade-winds, arise from a cause external to these planets, combining
itself with their rotation, which alone can produce no motions when
once the form of equilibrium is attained.

“The prismatic analysis of the solar beam exhibits in the spectrum a
series of fixed lines, totally unlike those which belong to the light of
any known terrestrial flame. This may, hereafter, lead us to a clearer
insight into its origin.” *

Though science cannot prove directly that electrical currents travel
through the planetary spaces, yet there exist not a few data which
seem to indicate sufficiently that certain phenomena which take place
in the sun and the planets depend on the distance and the position of
the latter with respect to the sun and with respect to themselves.

Galileo, in one of his letters, says: “The fact that the spots of the
sun are on that belt of the solar globe which is under that part of the
heavens through which the planets travel, and nowhere else, is an indi-
cation that those planets may have something to do with that result.”f
This suggestion of Galileo, that the phenomena of the solar spots may
have some connection with the position of the planets, has remained
unnoticed for nearly two centuries and a half, until lately new facts
have come to light which indicate its importance.

In 1859, Mr. Wolf undertook to investigate whether the phenomena
of the solar spots varied with the distances of the planets from the sun,
and he reached results which generally tend to prove that, with the
change of those distances, and especially with those of Jupiter, the
number of solar spots also changes within certain limits. Mr. Carring-
ton, in his work on the solar spots, published in 1863, presented the
results of a similar research, and having determined the number of solar
spots observed every year from 1750 to 1860, he compared them with
the distances of Jupiter from the sun, and concludes that according as
Jupiter moves away from the sun the number of solar spots increases,
and when Jupiter approaches the sun the number of spots decreases.

Professor Loomis has lately announced that the decennial period of
the solar spots, instead of corresponding with the distance of Jupiter
alone, has a nearer and more regular correspondence with another
period which can be found by comparing together the movements of
Jupiter and of Saturn. These two planets, in fact, occupy in space

*A remarkable prediction, well worthy of attention as an evidence of the sagacity
of this eminent savant to whom itis due.—J. H.
+ Lettera seconda di Galilei a Marco Valseri; nuovamente pubblicata dal Prof. P.
Volpicelli. Roma, tipografia delle Belle Arti, 1860.
208

306 PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC.

such positions that every ten years Jupiter is either in conjunction or
in opposition with Saturn. Other relations seem to exist between the
solar spots and the positions of the planets. Messrs. De La Rue, Stewart,
and Loewy, in a series of essays, which they published together from
1845 to 1848, concerning the physics of the sun, have shown that the
spots of this luminary (irrespective of their number) increase in size
when, by means of the solar rotation, they are carried farthest from the
place which Venus occupies in space, and that they diminish in size
when they aproach that planet. Mars also contributes to the increase and
decrease of the size of the solar spots in the same way that Venus does,
but his influence is less powerful than that of Venus, perhaps on ac-
count of his greater distance from the sun. Mercury seems to possess
somewhat of a similar influence, which, however, shows itself less dis-
tinetly on account of the rapidity with which he moves round the sun.
The position as well as the size of the solar spots depends on the place
occupied by the planets in space. When Jupiter and Venus, in their
orbital motions, cross the plane of the solar equator, then the spots
appear nearer the same equator ; and, on the contrary, when these two
planets occupy positions distant from the sun’s equator, then these spots
also appear farthest from the same equator.

From some observations made on the occasion of the solar eclipse,
December 22, 1870, Professor Serpieri concludes that the protuberances
which emerge from the sun during the eclipses are directed toward the
planets. In fact, he observed one protuberance bending toward Saturn.
Serpieri’s conclusions seem confirmed by other observations made by
Professor Tacchini, who, on the 27th May, 1571, saw, while the sun was
shining, one of those protuberances, which seemed directed toward a
eroup of planets. But if the number, the position, and the size of the
solar spots depend on the positions of the planets, terrestrial magnetism
must be dependent on the same; for it is established, with considerable
certainty, that the phenomena of the variations and perturbations of
all the magnetic elements are also connected with the solar spots. Con-
sequently, (to resume the subject which more especially concerns us,)
the auroras also may somewhat depend on the relative positions of the
planets, and therefore they are subject to periodicity, and also advance
from east to west in the way and for reasons already mentioned.

[The remainder of the paper of Professor Donati is occupied with a
defense of his claim to the foregoing hypothesis, which, being of no in-
terest to the readers of this report, is omitted. 1t is proper, however, to
remark that, in this translation, the expression electrical currents has
been substituted for the phrase magnetic currents, used by the author.
The reasons for this change are, because this is the term used by Sir
John Herschel in the quotation from his astronomy by Professor Donati,
and furthermore because there is, strictly speaking, nothing in the phe-
nomenon of magnetism to which we canapply the term current, or a trans-
ference of magnetism from one body to another, as is the case in the phe-

PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC. 307

nomenon of an electrical discharge. If we rightly understand it, the
theory given in this essay by Professor Donati is, that the sun and the
planets, including the earth, are electrical, and that electrical discharges
may take place from one to the other. This hypothesis has the support
of the fact that the earth is known to be a great charged conductor, per-
manently electrified negatively, and that the intensity of this electrical
condition is varied from time to time by perturbations produced by ter-
restrial, and, possibly, by cosmical causes. There is another theory ad-
vanced by the distinguished physicist Balfour Stewart, professor of
natural philosophy in Owen’s College, Manchester, according to which
the sun and planets, like the earth, are great magnetic bodies, with op-
posite poles of greater intensity, subject to perturbations from cosmical
ar special causes, and that these poles, acting by induction on the mag-
retism of the earth, give rise to the movements of the magnetic needle,
and to the induced electrical currents to which the appearance of the
aurora is attributed.

There is still another hypothesis proposed by M. Becquerel as to the
origin of the electricity of the atmosphere and of the aurora polaris
which has been modified by M. Faye. This hypothesis, like that of
Uerschel, refers the electricity of our atmosphere to the sun, and founds
the conception of it on the constitution of that luminary as revealed by
modern spectroscopic discoveries. From these discoveries the following
conclusions have been deduced :

Ist. The sun consists of a nucleus, relatively obscure, having a tem-
perature excessively elevated, and which is in a fluid state at least to a
certain depth.

2d. This nucleus, on account of the cooling by radiatien, is surrounded
by a terminated envelope which has the constitution of a gas with par-
ticles floating in or disseminated through it, of a solid or liquid nature.
These minute particles radiate energetically as do the particles of car-
bon in the flame of burning gas, and give to this envelope, which is
called the photosphere, its name and its luminosity.

3d. Above the photosphere is found the chromosphere, formed princi-
pally of a thin layer of incandescent hydrogen. To this stratum appar-
ently belong the protuberances which of late years have excited so
much interest.

4th. Lastly, above the photosphere is found a fourth atmosphere,
discovered during the last solar eclipse, which has been named the cor-
onal. This, which appears to be extremely rare, is very distinet from
the chromosphere, although formed of the same gas, namely, hydrogen.

The foregoing propositions are considered as facts immediately de-
duced from the phenomena and well-established physical principles.
The hypothesis as to the origin of this condition is that the nucleus of
the sun, as seen through the spots as a darker mass, is in reality much
hotter than the photosphere—so hot, indeed, as to prevent the union of
the oxygen with the hydrogen and the vapor of other substances

308 PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC.

whose presence is manifest by the spectroscope. That the spots them- ,
selves are craters of eruptions through which the dark gases issue into
the chromosphere, and being reduced in temperature combine, giving rise
to intense light on account of the vibrations of the solid or liquid parti-
cles produced by this union. The hydrogen, being the liglttest of all the
gases, will be driven farthest from the center of the sun by its expan-
sion, and will appear, as it is seen to do, in the form of the protuber-
ances, which are found to consist of this gas in a pure but highly attenu-
ated condition. Now, although neither evaporization nor condensation
of vapor produces electricity, chemical action does in a high degree; and,
therefore, at every eruption of matter from the lower into the upper
stratum of the sun, there must be a great development of positive
electricity, the nucleus being negative. Whatever influence this elece-
tricity may have on the electricity of the earth and the appearance of
the aurora must be manifest at the time of the appearance of spots on
the sun, and hence we have an hypothetical cause for the connection of
two phenomena which have been established by Woolf and others.

But the question occurs, how does the variable electrical condition of
the sun affect that of the earth? Two answers may be given to this
question: First, it may affect it by induction, or action, at a distance.
The redundant electricity of the surface of the sun, acting by repulsion
on the electricity of the earth, thus disturbs its equilibrium. But if
the nucleus of the sun is electrified minus to an equal degree as the
outer spheres are electrified plus, the two resulting actions would neu-
tralize each other, and the effect at the distance of the earth would be
nothing.

M. Faye gives another suggestion as to the means by which the elec-
tricity of the sun affects the electrical condition of the earth. He claims
to have found a repulsive force in the sun, of which he considers the
existence strikingly manifest in the gigantic phenomena of comets.
This force, unlike that of attraction, is not proportional to the mass but
to the surface of the body repelled; it is insensible in the case of dense
bodies such as the planets, while it exerts very marked effects upon
bodies which are greatly rarified, such as the nebulosity of comets and the
outer hydrogen of the sun. A small portion of this latter, according to
M. Faye, at every eruption is driven off into space, carrying with it its
charge of plus electricity, which extends to all the planets, and in unit-
ing with the ozone in the higher regions of the atmosphere may be con-
verted into the vapor of water, while the electric charge produces the
electricity of the higher atmosphere of our earth. The quantity of hy-
drogen thus lost by the sun is too minute to be sensible by any of our
measurements during the historic period. There is one phenomenon
connected with this subject which is not clearly explained by this hypo-
thesis, and that is the apparent fact that the appearance of the aurora
and the disturbance of the magnetic needle are almost, if not quite, sim-
ultaneous with the commotions in the sun. This would indicate an in-

PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES, ETC. 309

duetive action analogous to attraction in the instantaneousness of its
action at a distance.

A similar hypothesis has been proposed by Professor Newton, of Yale
College. According to this the corona is made up of matter in the act
of streaming off from the sun, instead of being a permanent solar at-
mosphere, or a mass of revolving meteors. The explosive actions, which
are the most probable causes of the spots, may, perhaps, furnish the
luminary matter, which, dispersed at intervals by reason of the varying
action of the planets as it flows away into space, forms the corona,
with its accompanying radiations and streamers, visible in the total
eclipses. The zodiacal light is also made of the streams of particles flow-
ing away from the sun under the operation of solar repulsion.

In the American Journal of Science, (March and July, 1855,) Profes-
sor Newton explains the irregular perturbations of the magnetic needle
by electric currents developed in the upper atmosphere (or photosphere)
of the earth by the arrival of the solar matter, which is probably the
substance of terrestrial auroras.

Whatever truth may be in these speculations, they indicate a tendency
in the scientific mind of the day to adopt the conclusion that many of
the phenomena which have heretofore been considered entirely of a ter-
restrial character really belong to the solar system; that not only are
disturbances of the magnetism of the earth connected with commotions
in the sun, but that cyclones and other violent movements of our atmos-
phere have a similar relation to the central luminary.—J. H.

ETHNOLOGY.

THE TROGLODYTES, OR CAVE-DWELLERS, OF THE VALLEY OF THE VEZURE.
By M. PAu BRo¢CA.

An Address delivered before the French Association for the Advancement of Science.
{Translated from ‘‘La Revue Scientifique,” November 16, 1872, for the Smithsonian Institution.]

LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: Impressed by the splendor which sur-
rounds me, and by the sight of this large audience, I am impelled to
render homage to the beauty and intelligence which have prepared so
brilliant a reception for the French Association. The members of the
society have reason to congratulate themselves upon having chosen
Bordeaux for its first session.

Our institution is one that appeals to general interest. Although it
has originated entirely in private enterprise, it rests upon bases which
assure its continuance, and it cannot fail to survive the struggle which
may be maintained for years against public indifference. Yes, although
our début should be greeted with coldness and neglect, we would persevere,
for we consider the diffusion of knowledge as an important element of
the greatness of nations, and surely the necessity of this diffusion has
been rendered palpable by the recent disasters which have shown the
danger of extreme intellectual centralization. Convinced of the utility
of our objects, undismayed by obstacles, and undiscouraged by apparent
defeat, we will renew our sessions year by year, increasing in numbers
as we gradually enlist recruits, and assured that in a country like ours
success, however long deferred, must sooner or later crown our efforts.

For the success of the first session, which has far surpassed our hopes,
thanks are due to my esteemed colaborers, MM. Broca and Girondin; also,
to the distinguished gentlemen of the local committee, especially Profes-
sor Azani, the intelligent and indefatigable secretary.

The subject of my discourse is the troglodytes, or cave-dwellers, of
the Vézere, that fossil population whose subterraneous dwellings we are
about to investigate.

Their existence dates back to a remote antiquity. We do not know
their names; no historian has mentioned them, and it is only eight
years since the first traces of them were discovered, and yet in some re-
spects we are better acquainted with them than with certain celebrated
nations of classicrenown. We know their mode of existence, their arts,
their industries, many details of their lives. Does not such knowledge
constitute the real history of nations, a history more interesting than
that of their battles, their conquests, and even their dynasties ?

ETHNOLOGY. oul

How does it happen that we know so much about people who have
left no trace in the memory of man, and whose existence, even twenty
years ago, was deemed impossible? Are they children of romanee, iike
the celebrated troglodytes of Montesque? On the contrary, nothing is
more real than our troglodytes; nothing is more authentic than theiz
annals. In the caves they inhabited, or in which they deposited thei:
dead, we find the residue of their feasts, the products of their indus-
tries and their arts, and the remains of their bodies. These are the
books in which we read their history; these are the documents which
have resuscitated their past.

Several savans have taken part in these investigations ; among them
Christy, the Marquis of Vibrage, M. Falconer, and our two colleagues,
MM. Louis Lartet and Elie Massénat, deserve respect; but one name
eclipses all others—that of the founder of human paleontology, Edward
Lartet.

We with reason admire Cuvier, who, in his study of fossil bones, suc-
ceeded in restoring the successive fauna of the geological periods ; also
Champollion, who, with so much sagacity and patience, deciphered the
hieroglyphical monuments of Egypt, but not less admirable in his im-
portant labors was Edward Lartet. His field of investigation lay be-
tween that of Cuvier and that of Champollion, and shared in both. He
revived human associations in those paleontological periods in which
Cuvier found only extinct brute animals; he discovered the history and
the chronology of the ancient man, the contemporary of the mammoth, as
Champollion discovered that of the architects of the great pyramids.
These three men are the glory of French science. They were initiators;
they founded schools. Their disciples and followers have but widened
the paths they opened, and although foreign savans have made great
progress, they do not forget that to France belongs the honor of having
led the way.

J.—DETERMINATION OF TIME.

Before discussing a population it may be well to assign it a place in
time. But in this case ordinary chronology is not applicable, for we
have to do with periods of inealeulable length. Since the time when
our troglodytes were in existence great changes’ have taken place in
climate and fauna. These were produced without revolution, without
violent action, by the gradual influence of insensible causes, which are
still in exereise at the present day ; and when we think that these causes,
during the course of the centuries known to us, have produced only
changes almost inappreciable, we may form some idea of the immense
duration of what is called a geological period.

It is not by years, centuries, or thousands of years, that we can meas-
ure these immense periods ; it is not by figures that we can express these
dates; but we can deterfnine the order in which these geological periods
succeeded each other, and the sub-periods of which each was composed.

at? THE TROGLODYTES.

These are the dates of the history of our planet, and the elements of
what Edward Lartet called the chronology of paleontology.

I need not speak of the Primary and Secondary geological periods, as
they are foreign to the chronology of man, since he did not then exist ;
nor need the Tertiary period scarcely more arrest our attention. It is
true that the discoveries of M. Desnoyers in the Pliocene chalk-pits of
Saint Prest, show the existence of man as early as the end of the Ter-
tiary period in company with the southern elephant, the rhinoceros
leptorhinus, and the great hippopotamus; he even lived, according to
the Abbé Bourgeois, during the Miocene period, contemporary with the
mastodons, the predecessors of the elephants: but the latter fact is
doubtful; and as to the Tertiary man of Saint Prest, he was so much
anterior to our troglodytes, that he need not figure in our chronology.
It is sufficient in the determination of our dates to commence with the
beginning of the Quaternary period.

The end of the Tertiary period was distinguished by a remarkable
phenomenon, the causes of which are still imperfectly known. The
northern hemisphere was gradually cooled. Immense masses of ice de-
scended the sides of the mountains, into the valleys and plains, and
covered a large part of Europe, Asia, and North America, and the tempe-
rature of our zone, previously torrid, gradually became glacial. This
cold period, called the Glacial period, was excessively long. After reach-
ing their utmost southern extent the glaciers receded considerably, and
then advanced again without attaining their previous limits. This was
the last phase of the Tertiary epoch. The Glacial period came to an end.
The gradual increase of temperature melted the ice, and the Quater-
nary period commenced.

The masses of snow constituting the glaciers, which had been accu-
mulating for years, produced, by their melting, immense floods, which
bore upon their powerful waves the débris of the mountains, inundated
the plains, plowed the surface of the earth, excavated valleys, and
left in their passage large deposits of sand, clay, and bowlders. From
this period, called the Diluvian, date our present rivers, which give us,
however, but a faint idea of their former magnitude. In their now limited
and unchanging channels they transmit only the water which descends
day by day from the clouds, while the freshets occasioned by the melt-
ing of winter snows are of very little moment compared with those im-
mense inundations formerly produced when the heat of summer melted
not only the annual snows, but a part of the ancient glacier.

The great power of the floods of water was especially remarkable dur-
ing the first part of the Quaternary period. It became less and less
until the glaciers were reduced to their present limits, and the tempera-
ture to its'present degree. It was at this time that the phenomena of
great changes ceased, and the Quaternary period came to anend. Since
then, although mountain torrents carry with them sand and pebbles,
and sometimes tear from the sides of the valleys masses of considerable

ETHNOLOGY. 13

size, the rivers and smaller streams bear with them only fine particles
of earthy matter, which give rise to alluvial deposits.

The time which has elapsed since the end of the Quaternary period
bears the name of the present period, and the strata formed during its
continuance are called recent deposits. They are recent compared with
those of the Quaternary period, but not so when estimated by our ordi-
nary chronology, since in most cases their formation has required thou-
sands of centuries.

These preliminary ideas enable us to comprehend the essential facts
which determine the dates of human paleontology. These dates are
established, in the first place by pure geology, in the second by paleont-
ology, in the third by prehistoric archeology.

The geological dates are principally inscribed in the valleys and in
the plains, where the great floods of water of the Quaternary period
have left deposits in the form of beds, more or less regularly stratified.
If these strata have remained undisturbed, they are found superposed
according toage. ‘The oldest lie lowest, and are called the lowest levels;
above them lie the mean levels, which are posterior to them, and which
in turn are covered by the upper levels, formed during the latter part of
the Quaternary period. Finally astratum, more or less thick, of recent
formation, consisting of alluvicns, peat, &c., almost always covers the
Quaternary deposits.

These different strata are not everywhere found in complete series,

and the nature of the elements of which they are composed varies more
or less with the locality; but I cannot now enter into details. I can
only give a general idea of the way in which, by the study of the superpo-
sition of these beds, thatis to say, their stratification, the relative age of
the various deposits, recent or Quaternary, is determined.

In this determination we first apply to geology. Thanks to the data
it furnishes, we know the age of the animals whose bones are found in
the different strata; these animals in turn serve to establish the periods,
and also the dates of certain formations or partial deposits which do not
form a part of a complete and regular stratification.

Of the animals living at the commencement of the Quaternary period,
some, like the mammoth, only exist now as fossils; these are the extinct
animals; others, like the fox, have disappeared from our locality, but still
live in other parts of the world; these are migrated animals; and others,
like the horse, continue with uso the present day; these are called per-
sisting animals.

Extinct animals abounded in the first part of the Quaternary period.
Some of them were immense mammals with terribly powerful limbs,
beside which man, naked and feeble, was of little account. Such were
the large bear of the caves, (Ursus speleus ;) the great lion, also of the
caves, (elis speleus ;) the amphibious hippopotamus, (Hip. amphibius ;)
the rhinoceros, with chambered nostrils, (2h. tichorhinus ;) the ancient ele-
phant, (Hlephas antiquus;) and, above all, the giant king of this fauna, the

wo

314 THE TROGLODYTES.

mammoth, (Hlephas primigenius.) Of the other extinct species of the
period it would be superfluous to speak. The reindeer and several other
migrated animals are found in this fauna, but are rare, and a large num-
ber of persistent species had already made their appearance.

Of all these animals, the most remarkable, the most powerful in strength
and numbers, was the mammoth. Protected from the cold by a thick
covering of fur, and provided with formidable means of defense against
its enemies, it prospered and multiplied; it spread and dominated over
all the earth, so that the first part of the Quaternary period, which cor-
responds with the lower levels of the valleys, may well be called the
age of the mammoth. At that time every condition was favorable to
the prosperity of this animal. But in time there were changes which
led to its decadence. An elevation in the temperature allowed the exten-
sion of numerous herbivorous species hitherto restrained in their devel-
opment. The reindeer, the horse, the ox, and the bison multiplied. These,
his powerful rivals, disputed with the mammoth his vegetable nutrition,
and with him commenced the struggle for existence. Already he saw
opposed to him the power of man, which under the ameliorated condi-
tions of climate was sufficient to declare war against him, and finally
this same climate which was so favorable to his enemies and rivals became
directly prejudicial to his organization, intended for a boreal tempera-
ture.

Thus the mammoth, once so important in the first part of the Quater-
nary period, commenced to decline. He ceased to be the predominant
species of the fauna, and as to the other animals which formed his ancient
cortége, many yielded with him to the destructive influence of the
changed temperature, and decreasing in numbers we see them slowly,
one after the other, disappear. Some, it is true, survive, and may pro-
long their existence to the end of paleontological time, but their reign
is over.

Thus about the middle of the Quaternary period there was an inter-
mediate age, corresponding with the mean levels of the valleys ; an age
when several species contemporary with the mammoth had already be-
come extinet, and others, which had almost disappeared, were repre-
sented by only a few individuals, while animals better adapted to the
changed conditions prospered. Prominent among the latter was the
reindeer, (Cervus tarandus,) but it was not until the following period that
it attained its full importance. ’

The fauna of the intermediate age has no especial paleontological
characteristics. It is distinguished less by the nature of the species
than by the relative proportion of their representation. Certain ani-
mals of the age of the mammoth no longer existed, but others were found
here and there. The mammoth, although reduced in numbers, had not
yet become rare, while the reindeer, the stag, the horse, and the ox had
become common.

This intermediate age gradually yielded to the third and last age of

ETHNOLOGY. 315

the Quaternary period. When the strata of the upper levels began to
be formed, the animals we call extinct had almost entirely disappeared.
A. few rare specimens of the mammoth still survived. Still more rare
was the great Irish stag (Jlegaceros hibernicus) and the large lion of
the caves. The rest of the fauna had changed but little. The reindeer,
however, had increased to a most extraordinary extent, and the third
period is deservedly called the age of the reindeer.

It is not only in the existence of the reindeer that this period differs
from that of our day. In company with the reindeer lived in our still
cold region a number of animals to whom frost and snow were congenial
elements, and who could not exist in temperate climates. As the tem-
perature approached its present condition, the individuals which upon
our plateaus and in our plains represented these species disappeared ;
but the species themselves, far from perishing, found in a colder climate
a more congenial temperature, and have been perpetuated to the present
day. Among these species called migratory, some, like the reindeer, the
sloth, the musk-ox, have gone toward the north; others, such as the
chamois, the goat, the marmot, have not left our zone, but have sought
greater altitudes, and have taken refuge in the lofty peaks of the Alps
and the Pyrenees.

The disappearance of the reindeer and other migratory species
marked the end of the Quaternary period, and of paleontological time.
Then comménced the modern period. Our climate, at that time, was
probably rather colder than at present, but it was already temperate,
and the slight changes it has since undergone have not been sufficient
to produce the extinction of species. It is true that the urus, (Bos
primigenius,) and the aurochs, (Bison europeus,) have disappeared —
from our region, but this must be attributed to the destructive actior
of man rather than to the effects of climate; and to man, also, is
attributable the introduction of certain new species, for the most part
domestic. With these exceptions, we may say that since the end of the
Quaternary period our fauna has undergone no change, and that the
recent deposits contain only actual or living species.

The dates we seek toestablish are then determined both by strat-
ography and~ paleontology. They also rest upon a certain order of
facts which to-day constitutes a new science—that of prehistoric arche-
ology.

Man lived in all the periods of which we have just spoken. It does
not concern us whether or not he existed in the latter part of the Ter-
tiary period. This Tertiary man does not come within the limits of our
present observations, and, besides, it is by no means certain that he
existed. But what does concern us, and has been positively proved by
Boucher de Perthes, is, that the most ancient strata of the Quaternary
period contain evidences of human industry. The knowledge of the
use of metals dates, we may say, only from yesterday. But before man
possessed these powerful auxiliaries he was not without instruments of

316 THE TROGLODYTES.

labor or means of defense. He fabricated tools and weapons of war-
fare, out of various hard materials, such as the bones, teeth, and horns
of animals, and above all of stone, especially flint, and this is the reason
why in the history of man the name of Stone age has been given to the
whole period which preceded the use of metals.

This age of stone still continues among certain savage tribes, and it
came to an end with the most anciently civilized nations at a period
only a very little anterior to historic times. It therefore includes almost
the entire duration of the existence of humanity. Now, the mode of
fabrication, the form and nature of these instruments, necessarily varied
during this immense period, with the needs, the kind of life, and the so-
cial state of the men who employed them; and when we remember that
hard substances like stones may be preserved for an unlimited period in
the ground, we comprehend that these remains of human industry con-
stitute ineffaceable records of the past, chronological documents of the
utmost importance.

The dates established by prehistoric archeology accord very well, and
Sometimes coincide, in a most remarkable manner, with those of paleon
tology and stratography. Just as certain species of animals have con-
tinued from the earliest Quaternary times, So certain forms of flint instru-
ments have been perpetuated through several archeological ages. Such
are the elongated pieces of stone, with their two edges sharpened, and
one face cut with two sides, while the other has but one, called knives.
The small knives of obsidian, still in use among the aborigines of Mex-
ico, and the flint knives, which our ancestors of the Bronze age frequently
deposited in their sepulchers, are very similar to those of the age of the
mammoth. But this is an exceptional case ; in general, prehistori¢ in-
struments have from age to age undergone various modifications.

I cannot attempt here to mention, still less to describe, the numerous
instruments of each period ; axes, knives, points of lances, or of arrows,
scrapers, hammers, &c. Geologists frequently, as we have seen, deter-
mine and designate an entire fauna by a single characteristic species.
So archeologists distinguish the different periods of the Stone age by
the instrument the most characteristic of each of them.

A precise determination of these periods and of their number is not
possible ; for the flint instruments have, during the same period, under-
gone different changes in different localities, but a general reduction into
three has been made by M. de Mortillet of the archeological divisions of
the Quaternary period.

1. The most remarkable type of the first Quaternary division is the
so-called Saint Acheul ax. (See Figs. land 2.) It is of flint, of variable
size, always quite large, longer than wide, thick in the middle, sharp-
ened at the edges, with one end pointed, or rather orgival, while the other
is rounded; but its most distinguishing characteristic is that its two
faces or sides are shaped; these are more or less convex, and more or
less symmetrical. This type abounds at Saint Acheul, near Amiens, in
the valley of the Somme; hence its name; but it is found in almost all

ETHNOLOGY. yl (i

,

the deposits of the Mammoth age, and sometimes, though rarely, in less
ancient strata.

wi Lh),
f wate

ni ie,

i

afl \ \

UN ‘|
A
\ \ x
oss ih
Ve

(Uj
. fa
\ A &

Fig. 2. ( Fig. 1.

The Saint Acheul type——Ax with both faces shaped. Fig. 1, view of face. Fig. 2,
view of edge.

2. The second division of the Stone age is characterized by the Moustier
spear-head. (See Figs. 3, 4, and 5.) This instrument, which was at-
tached to the end of a long lance, differs little in contour from the Saint
Acheul ax—is somewhat more pointed, but is distinguished by having
only one of its sides shaped. The other was made at one blow which
split it from the adjacent stone, and was never retouched. It is there-
fore not biconvex, like the preceding, but plano-convex, and conse-
quently only half as thick.

SG \

AK \

——=> .S ,
\\

Ber (UMA a SSW
’E.BECHER DEL
; tees :
Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 3.

The Moustier type——Lance-head shaped only upon one side. Fig.3, the side not
shaped, showing at the base the point of percussion. Fig. 4, the shaped side. Fig. 5,
side view.

318 THE TROGLODYTES.

The Moustier type takes its name from the Moustier cave, where it is
very common and where it was first discovered by Edward Lartet and
Christy. A few specimens have been found in more ancient deposits,
corresponding with the first Quaternary period, and also in more recent
deposits corresponding with the latest; but it properly belongs to the
intermediate.

3. In a third period, which corresponds to the age of the reindeer, the
flint instrument was perfected. The ends are more pointed, the contour
more regular and symmetrical, and the edges have evidently been formed
with finer touches. This period of the stone age is distinguished. more
by the character of the manufacture than by the kind of instrument.
The lance-head of Solutré has been generally taken as a type, because
only a short time ago the lances from Solutré, in Maconnais, were the
best made instruments which had been found in the Quaternary depos-
its, (see Fig. 6;) but since then Dr. Jules Parrot, and his brother, M.
Philippe Parrot, have found at Saint Martin of Excideuil, (Dordogne,)
in a cave of the age of the reindeer, numerous flint instruments much

more perfected.

The Solutré type.—Point of Solutré lance. The polished ax.

We have now come to the end of the age of the reindeer, and to the
commencement of the present period. We now find an improvement in
the manufacture of flint instruments, which marks the beginning of a

‘ ETHNOLOGY. 319

new archeological era. Hitherto these instruments were made by per-
cussion or by pressure; although, it is true, some implements of sec-
ondary use were rounded into shape by friction, but the flint tools and
weapons were always chipped. In the era upon which we are now en-
tering these implements were made in the same way, but the flint was
polished, and the polished ax, too well known to need description, be-
came the principal auxiliary of man. (See Fig. 7.)

This ax characterized the period of polished stone or the neolithic
period which terminated the stone age, and consequently lasted until
the introduction of the metals.

All the periods which precede the appearance of the polished ax con-
stitute the period of stone, also called the archzolithic, or, rather, the
paleolithic period.

The various phases of the age of chipped stone succeeded each other
progressively, and by almost insensible transitions, like the correspond-
ing geological periods; but the change to the period of polished stone
was much more abrupt. Its commencement coincides exactly with the
disappearance of the reindeer, that is with the end of paleontological
time, and with the beginning of the present geological era. It coin-
cides also with a complete change in the social condition of man, with
the domestication of the dog, with the adoption of pastoral life, marked
by the domestication of several herbivorous animals, and also with the
introduction of agriculture. Thus many centuries passed until the
appearance of the bronze, which put an.end to the stone age. The
length of the period of polished stone was very great; the entire dura-
tion of historic time was nothing in comparison, and yet it was immeas-
urably shorter than any of those which form the age of chipped stone.

We have thus examined the succession of pre-historic ages from the
commencement of the Quaternary period, under the triple point of view
of stratigraphy, paleontology, and archeology, and we have obtained
three series of dates which, if not altogether precise, are sufficiently
approximate to form the following table, which may serve as a review :

Stratigraphical periods. Paleontological periods. Archeological periods.

5 Lower strata of valleys undis- | Age of mammoth..-.-.......-. The St. Acheul ax.

= 'S | turbed.

oH NN “ . :

= Ss | Mie diamisimaitiays)\)mc/ta)sasjsas als alee Intermediate age -..-..--.-- Lance-head of Moustier.
= “

je (0) Upperisirata eee asia ata Age of reindeer. .------.---- Lance-head of Solutré.
Present ? ».,, F ° isan : =

period. § ReEcenindepositig ss seeesecewees Actoalstaumnayee=— sees The polished ax.

|

-IL.—SUCCESSIVE LOCALITIES OF THE TROGLODYTES OF THE VE-
ZERE.

We now possess the knowledge requisite to assign a place in time
to the troglodytes of the valley of the Vézéere. In their numerous
localities not a single polished ax has been found; their industrial im-
plements belong to the age of chipped stone, and are, therefore, anterior

AyAY) THE TROGLODYTES.

to the recent period. They were familiar with the mammoth, fought
with him, fed upon him, and even sketched him, and yet in their most
ancient locality, at least the most ancient known, the extinct species are
rare. Therefore, our troglodytes do not date from the first Quaternary
period, or the age of the mammoth. The Moustier locality incontesta-
bly belongs to the age we have called intermediate, and which precedes
the age of the reindeer, while their other localities descend from period
to period until the end of the age of the reindeer. They witnessed then
the extinction of the ancient fauna. They did not, it is true, see disap-
pear the last survivor—the mammoth—for occasional remains of this
animal are found in the most recent caves of the Vézére, although afew
leagues from there, at Excideuil, MM. Jules and Philippe Parrot discov-
ered a paleolithic cave in which there was no trace of the extinct spe-
cies, and even the reindeer was rare.

Thus the troglodytes of Périgord existed during the last two divisions
of the Quaternary period, from the decadence of the mammoth to the
disappearance of the reindeer. It is impossible to calculate the number
of centuries they lived, but we can form some idea from the relation of
their localities to the present level of the Vézére.

After the Moustier cave ceased to be inhabited it was frequently
inundated by the Vézere, and gradually filled with alluvium. This
stratum of earth, which is about 64 feet in thickness, contains no
osseous or siliceous remains. Below it lies the stratum which formed
the habitation of man, in which he left traces of his industry and re-
mains of his feasts. his proves that the opening of the cave was once
beyond the reach of the waters, and consequently above the level of
the river, while now it is 30 yards below low-water mark. The bottom
of the valley has, therefore, been considerably elevated by deposition
since the time of the troglodytes of Moustier.

On the other hand, the Madelaine locality, which is perhaps the most
recent of the valley, is a little above the level of the highest present
tide, and we may therefore conclude that the valley at that period was
very much the same as it is now, the level having become only a little
lower.

Thus this deposit of 30 yards, due to the action of the waters, was
effected almost entirely under the eyes of our troglodytes, and since
then, throughout the entire duration of the recent period, that is to say,
for thousands of centuries, little change appears. Judge, then, what
countless generations of humanity must have intervened between the
time of the Moustier locality and that of the Madelaine.

It is evident that, in this immense lapse of time, the habits and manu-
factures of these people must have undergone great changes, which we
find to have been the case in examining their different localities.

All the localities now known are found in a very circumscribed
district, grouped on both sides of the river Vézere. From that of
Moustier, the highest up the river, to the Eyzies, the lowest, the distance

ETHNOLOGY. By Al

is only about 5 miles in a straight line, but almost double as far if the
sinuosities of the valley are followed. Between these extreme stations
lie, upon the right shore, those of the Madelaine, of Upper and Lower
Laugerie, of the Gorge d’Enfer ; on the left shore that of Cromagnon,
very near the Eyzies. (See map.)

.

Aull @Tuutnys OS

ik,

2000 3000
Echelle de 86-600

Figure 8.—Map of quaternary localities of the Vézere. 1. Cave of Moustier. 2. Hol-

low rock of Moustier. 3. Hollow rock of Madelaine. 4. Sepulcher of Cromagnon. 5.

Hollow rock of Upper Laugerie. 6. Hollow rock of Lower Laugerie. 7. Cave of
Gorge @’Enfer. 8. Cave of the Eyzies.

Some of these are genuine caves; others merely hollows in the rocks,
largely open to the valley. At the Moustier there is both a cave and a
hollow. The Gorge d’Enfer and the Eyzies are caves; the Madelaine,
the two Laugerie, and Cromagnon are hollows, but these distinctions
have no chronological importance. The most ancient troglodytes, as
well as the more recent, used both the cave and the hollow; it is not
from the kind of habitation they occupied, but from the nature of their
remains, that we judge of their relative age.

218

aon THE TROGLODYTES.

The Moustier locality evidently preceded all the others; that of Cro-
magnon is less ancient, but still belongs, with the Moustier, to the inter-
mediate age. The Upper Laugerie and Gorge d’Enfer are of the age
of the reindeer; and, lastly, the Lower Laugerie, the Eyzies, and the
Madelaine form a group which leads us to the end of the Quaternary
period.

The troglodytes of the Moustier were completely uncivilized. They
formed neither bone nor horn, but only stone implements. Tools of
chipped flint abound in their various localities, but with the exception
of a single arrow-head, which is carefully fashioned, these are of rude
manufacture. No delicate objects; no small instruments; a few rare
axes of the Saint Acheul type; a few thin pieces of stone, which may
have been used for knives, and a large number of massive hatchets, with
a Single convex edge, to be held in the hand; such were the only im-
plements of domestic use; all their other instruments were for warfare.
A few arrow-heads prove that they were not ignorant of the use of the
bow; but this was not their ordinary weapon. The true means of de.
fense which characterized this period was the lance, or spear, already
described. (See Figs. 3, 4, and 5.) This sturdy instrument, with ogi-
val point, and both sides shaped, large enough to make severe wounds,
yet small enough to penetrate the flesh easily, constituted a much more
terrible weapon than the Saint Acheul ax. Fastened at the end of a
spear it brought death to the largest mammal. Hitherto man, badly
armed, could not compete with those powerful animals. He maintained
with them merely a defensive warfare. But now he took the offensive.
He ceased to fear them; their gigantic forms were no longer beyond his
reach. With his long lance in his hand he assayed the conquest of the
world.

At Moustier remains of the mammoth, of the great lion, and of the
great hyena of the caves have been found; but the principal food of
man at this period was first the horse, then the urus, and only third in
importance the reindeer. The instruments of the chase were made
for attacking game which would resist rather than take flight, and the
arrow and other instruments for the killing of smaller quadrupeds or
birds were probably unknown. Not a single bone of a bird or of a fish
is found in the Moustier locality. These rude hunters cared only for
violent combats, to which they devoted their entire energy and intelli-
gence.

The men of Cromagnon, less ancient than those of Moustier, made notice-
able progress; their tools were less massive, more numerous, more varied,
and, above all, better made. The Moustier lance was superseded by a
species of flint poignard. They wore ornaments of shells, and the large
number of scraping-knives seems to indicate that they prepared skins
for clothing. Their principal food was still the horse, but their larder
was already varied. We find among the remains of their repasts, beside
the reindeer, then commencing to be common, the bones and teeth of

ETHNOLOGY. 523

the urus, the boar, the stag, the goat, the wolf, the fox, the hare, and
even of a bird of the crane species. Man hunted then the smaller ani-
mals, as well as large game, but he had not yet learne? how to reach
the fish.

Prominent among the animal remains we always find the mammoth
and the great lion of the caves. There is alsoa great bear, probably
the Ursus speleus. The reindeer had not yet begun to multiply, and
appears less frequently than the horse; so the period is still intermediate,
while, in the localities we next notice, we enter definitely the age of the
reindeer, and the remains of this animal are more abundant in them
alone than in all the other periods taken together.

We observed at Cromagnon evident improvement in the manufacture
of flint instruments; in the generations which followed further prog-
ress was made in this art, which attained its greatest perfection at
Upper Laugerie. The most beautiful flint implements of the valley of
the Vézere belong to this locality. All the industrial instruments and
weapons found here are of flint. They are innumerable, and very varied
in form and dimension. It is true, many are in no way remarkable;
some are even very rude in construction, such as certain lance or spear
heads, which resemble the Moustier. But side by side with these im-
perfect objects we find others of elegant form and elaborated contour,
evidently the result of skillful workmanship.

These beautiful flint instruments of Upper Laugerie belong to the type
called Solutré. Their form is sharply lanceolate; they have little thick-
ness, and their sides, chipped into fine edges, are regular and symmetri-
. cal; their base is often fashioned so as to be easily inserted in a handle.
They were evidently intended to be attached to the extremity of a long
wooden handle. Their dimension varies greatly, but whether large, of
medium size, or small, they are all very nearly of the same type. It is
evident that the smallest are the heads of arrows; the medium s:ze, of
‘darts, tarown with the hand. The largest were lance-heads, but their
want of breadth shows that the handle was not heavy, but quite light.

For combating the mammoth or great lion weapons such as these
could not compare with the Moustier spear. But these dangerous ani-
mals had become rare. The brute creation no longer resisted man, but
fled at his approach. Arms which were light and easily portable were
necessary. If the reindeer avoided the lance he might be pierced by the
dart; but, if too fleet for the dart, he could not escape the swift arrow.
But the arrow and the dart failed of their end; they were too rudely
constructed. The slightest irregularity or want of symmetry in form,
a single point too heavy, caused them to deviate from their course
This the men of Upper Laugerie understood, and they improved the
working of flint in order to perfect their armory. They were guided by
no artistic sensibility. Art was still a stranger to them; they had as
yet only made acquaintance with utility. They gave a more elegant
form to their arrow-head, only that it might fly with greater precision.

324 THE TROGLODYTES.

They did not take time to form their other implements with the same
care.

These finely-formed arrow-heads, so common at Upper Laugerie, are
not met with in the ulterior localities of the Vézere Valley. It would
seem that the manufacture of flint instruments, after improving until
the age of Upper Laugerie, then declined. It is astonishing that a people
so skillful as the troglodytes of the age of the reindeer have proved them-
selves to be, should thus have allowed to perish their fundamental art.
But several instruments found in their more recent localities show that
they had not lost the secrets of this delicate workmanship, and if they
ceased to form arrow-points like those of Upper Laugerie, it was because
they no longer needed them.

A great step had been taken. They had learned to make use of the
antlers of the reindeer and the bones of animals. Out of these sub-
stances, more manageable than flint, not so hard undoubtedly, but still
sufficiently strong, they manufactured implements for the chase of
longer reach and greater precision; and having learned the value of
horn and bone in the construction of such implements, they proceeded
to form utensils of all kinds out of the same materials.

But the reign of flint was not over. On the contrary, there never had
been a greater or more varied assortment of flint instruments; to those
used as weapons, or utensils, had been added a number of small tools,
used for working the horns of the reindeer.

Here was an important evolution in industry. Hitherto the hand
alone had been used in forming the manufactured substance, but now a
secondary means was employed. Tools were made to use in constructing
others. From the earliest times it is true that flint had.been used as a
means of manufacture. From the commencement of the Stone age it
nad been employed to cut wood, make piles, clubs, stems of lances, and
arrows. Nor was the idea of substituting the hard parts of animals for
stone any newer, for, in the ancient station of Cromagnon, several arrow- .
points of deer-horn, and even of ivory, have been found. What was pe-
culiar to the period we are entering upon, was the creation of a kind of
tool, which did not directly minister to the necessities of life, but was
intended to facilitate and perfect the fabrication of the instruments in
use. It was the commencement of that division of labor which later
increased a hundred fold the power of man, and brought nature under
his subjection.

The use of deer-horn was far advanced in the locality of Gorge D’En-
ter. We find there a large assortment of lances, darts, arrows, bod-
kins, needles, &c., very well made, but without ornament, and the weap-
ons for the chase are of very simple form, merely conical points, without
barbs. (See Fig. 9.) :

The invention of the barbs is worthy of attention. These recurrent
points undoubtedly rendered the weapon more dangerous. The pro-
jectile remained fixed in the flesh, and the wounded animal could not

ETHNOLOGY. 325

get rid of it by brushing through the bushes. But this was probably
not the principal intention of the barbs. Disposed in regular series on
each side of the arrow (see Fig. 10) they sustained it in the air like

E.BECHER. DLL:

Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Veryag,
Figure 9.—Horn point without barbs, (Gorge d@’Enfer.) Fig. 10.—Arrow with
bilateral barbs. Fig. 11.—Harpoon with unilateral barbs.

wings, and added to the extent and precision of its flight this improve-
ment indicates a certain acquaintance with experimental physics. The
barbs generally have upon one of their faces one or several furrows, sup-
posed to be intended to receive poison.

The barb, and more or less artistic ornamentation, are the two distin-
guishing characteristics of the localities of the last period. These are
three in number: the Eyzies, Lower Laugerie, and the Madelaine.
They strongly resemble each other, and were probably almost contem-
porary. In some respects art is in a higher state of perfection at the
Madelaine, but the difference is not sufficient to establish a chronologi-
cal distinction. These three localities, remarkable for the number and
variety of works of art and industry, have furnished the largest part of
the means we now have of studying the life and habits of the troglo-
dytes of the Vézére.

II.—THE SOCIETY OF THE TROGLODYTES.

The caves of the troglodytes were situated at a short distance from
the river, with no particular orientation, except that they were never

326 THE TROGLODYTES.

open to the north. In them these people lived throughout the year, as
we discover by the remains of their repasts. We find that the young of
the deer formed their food at each stage of its development, and by the
study of the teeth, the bones, and the growth of the horn, we can esti-
mate their age, and, consequently, at what season of the year they were
killed. We conclude, therefore, that the troglodytes had a fixed place
of abode; in other words, that they were not nomads.

When they started on their fishing or hunting expeditions, they closed
the mouths of their caves to prevent the incursion of carnivorous ani-
mals. A bone found at the Madelaine shows the marks of the teeth of
a hyena, which, probably by accident, had gained admittance. The
hyena was rare at this period, but wolves and foxes were numerous, and
if the bones, scattered freely over the floors of the caves, were undis-
turbed by them, it was because they were carefully excluded.

By what means was the entrance to these habitations guarded? In
other localities we find sepulchral caves closed by a slab of stone. This
answered very well for the dead, but the living required a door more
easily removed, and as no vestige remains in these caves of a defense of
stone, we conclude that palisades were used for this purpose.

Fhey lived by hunting and fishing. Did they add to their régime any
vegetable nutriment? There is no proof of this. We find, itis true, in the
three localities of the last period, a certain number of stones of granite,
sandstone, or quartz, rounded and polished by friction, with a regular
cup-shaped depression on one side, which resemble small mortars. It
has been suggested that these were intended to receive the end of a
piece of dry wood, which was then turned rapidly with the hands, in
order to produce fire—a celebrated custom of the ancient Aryans, and
still observed among savages; but these vessels are too shallow in pro-
portion to their width for this purpose. They were evidently mortars,
and certain rounded stones of the size of the cup seem to have been
used as pestles. Hence has arisen the supposition that the troglodytes
pounded or bruised grain to prepare it for food, but everything tends to
prove that they knew nothing of agriculture, and these mortars were
probably intended for the preparation of poisons or colors.

Their principal occupation and means of support was the chase. They
hunted animals of every size, from the little bird to the huge mammoth.
This old giant of Quaternary times still survived, although he had be-
come very rare. Fora long time it was supposed that he became extinct
about the middle of the Quaternary period, and when several teeth of
the animal, and various pieces of carved ivory were found in the more
recent troglodytic localities of the Vézeére, it was thought by many per-
sons that these remains belonged to an anterior epoch ; that long after
the extinction of the mammoth, man collected and used the fossil ivory,
as is done to-day by the people of Siberia. In that polar region the
summer heat affects only a superficial stratum of the ground; the lower
soil has been frozen for centuries, and has preserved the bodies of mam-

ETHNOLOGY.

327

moths entire, so perfectly that their flesh is still good to eat, or rather
One of my friends has tasted it, and found it tough as leather.
Owing to these favorable circumstances the ivory of Siberia is in such a

very bad.

Fig. 12.

4 al ah
ft
PS

arr

(
Dal ta i
\

aah
s

ae
a

i thin h
WVHA il
hee

Ss
CSS

im yy \ i wi
ANS

i THe ,
Pray Ubon 7 ii nf |
i Tah) MIA
nul Neal 4
N )
ul 1

Hell

i
\

aN

i

Nae
al

aA

a
AAU i
an Ns ul : Wy
Sa
en)
a /
Ney]
“he y

condition that it can be employed in the arts and in industry, but ordi-
nary fossil ivory is only of value in the museum. The alternations of
temperature and humidity to which it has been subjected have altered
its texture—veined and softened it so that it is of no practical use what-

ever.

328 THE TROGLODYTES.

Now the climate of the Vézére, at the age of the reindeer, although
still cold, had long ceased to be glacial, and if the men of the period had
dug into the soil, which they did not, the fossil ivory they found would
have been of no use. The mammoths, then, whose ivory they carved,
must have been their contemporaries. We have besides a decisive proof
of this. Here is a cast (see Fig. 12) of an ivory plate discovered in 1864
at the Madelaine by MM. Ed. Lartet, de Verneuil, and Falconer. Upon
this plate is engraved a representation of the mammoth, with his large
head, concave forehead, his curved tusks, his small eye, his trunk, his
curled-up tail, and his long mane; in fact, exactly such a mammoth as
perpetual frost has preserved, until our day, on the shore of the Lena.

The troglodytes of the age of the reindeer did not often encounter
the mammoth. They more frequently hunted the boar, the horse, the
ox. It was undoubtedly for combat with these large animals that they
still retained some large lances armed with flint, differing little from
those of Moustier. But their weapons were mostly light, and arrow-
heads of horn had replaced the flint points of the anterior periods.

The bow had become the principal weapon. The animal, as we have
said, no longer defied man, but fled before him, and the combat was
succeeded by the chase. There were two kinds of arrows. The small-
pointed arrow, not barbed, for the smaller animals and birds, and the
large arrow, with double rows of barbs, which was chiefly used in killing
the reindeer. Light lances terminated with flattened points, darts with
conical points, and long and sharp poignards, completed the equipment
of the huntsman.

I was about to forget the rallying whistle. This was a bone of the
reindeer, at one end pierced by an oblique hole, which did not pass
entirely through the bone, but only to the medullary canal. By blow-
ing upon this hole as upon a hollow key, sound can still be produced.

Fish furnished a means of support for our later troglodytes, unknown
to their predecessors. Their various localities contain a great many
bones, and, what is worthy of remark, they all belong to the fishes of the
salmon species. Now, the salmon of the present day does not come up
as high as the Vézére, nor even to that part of the Dordogne into which
that river empties. A few leagues below the confluence of the two
streams, not far from Lalinde, there exists in the bed of the Dordogne a
bank of rocks, which in high water forms a rapid, and at low water a
regular cascade, called the Saut de la Gratusse. This is the present limit
of the salmon, and as, in the days of the troglodytes, they did not stop
here, we must conclude that the level of the Dordogne since then has
lowered, either by the wearing down of the bed of the river, which uncov-
ered the rocks, or by loss of a portion of the waters.

These antique fishermen evidently did not use nets, for with nets all
kinds of fish are taken. Their sole instrument was the harpoon, with
which they could only catch the large fish, and among these they chose
the one whose flesh they preferred. Had they boats for fishing? There

ETHNOLOGY. 329

is no evidence of it; besides the river was then sufficiently narrow to
allow the use of the harpoon from its banks.

The harpoon was a small dart of reindeer horn, very
like the large barbed arrows, except that the barbs were
only on one side ; aslight protuberance at the base allowed
a cord to be attached, which was held in the hand of the
fisherman. (See Fig. 11.) It has been frequently, and is
still, confounded with the arrow. It is clear that an ar-
row barbed only on one side would be very defective in
flight, as it describes a long curve; its course is necessa-
rily affected by the resistance of the air which sustains it;
but in the short flight of the harpoon this inconvenience
is much less, and besides the direction of the harpoon is
downward, and it does not need to be sustained by the
air. The instrument barbed only on one side is then not
an arrow, and must bea harpoon. The use of its barbs
was to catch and retain the fish after it was struck, but
why were they all upon one side? To diminish the width
of the dart so that it might penetrate more readily? I
cannot say.*

Nig. 13,

After hunting and fishing the troglodytes resorted to
the caves for their meals. They carried with them en-
tire the carcasses of the reindeer, and the smaller animals
they had killed, but the larger animals, such as the horse
and the ox, were too heavy for transportation; they
were cut up where they fell, and only the head and limbs
were taken. This accounts for the fact that no bones
of the body of the large mammifers are found among the
residue of these feasts, while the skeletons of the reindeer
and of the smaller animals are complete.

Throughout all these caves, wherever these broken
bones are found, there is always a large amount of char-
coal; and this association is so general, so uniform, that

Harpoon of bone, of the inhabitants of Terra del Fuego.

* One of my colleagues of the French Association, M. Lecoq, of Boisbeaudran, in a
communication before the anthropological section, makes some very interesting re-
marks upon the mode of action of the unilateral barbs of the harpoon. While passing
through the air these barbs do not cause the harpoon to deviate perceptibly, but as
soon as it enters the water the unequal resistance it encounters must necessarily change
its direction. It would seem, then, that the fisherman who aimed straight fer the fish
would miss it. Now, it is well known that astraight stick appears to be broken when
plunged obliquely in water; in like manner, in consequence of the refraction of the
luminous rays, the image of the fish is displaced, and if direct aim was taken at this
image it would also be missed. Here are, then, two causes of error. Now, it is evident
that if they can be brought to act in opposite directions they will counteract each
other, and M. Lecoq shows that when the barbed side is turned up the harpoon will reach
its destination. This arrangement of the harpoon was then intended to rectify its
course, which indicates great sagacity of observation in our troglodytes.

The inhabitants of Terre-de-Feu still use a harpoon barbed on one side only. (See
Fig. 13.)

330 THE TROGLODYTES.

it is difficult to believe that the fires which were lighted, not only
every day, but at every season of the year, were only for warmth. It is
much more probable that they were used by the troglodytes for cooking
their food. P

We do not know how they produced the fire; whether by striking flint,
or heating wood by friction. Nor do we know anything about their
arrangements for cooking. They had no pottery, and could not boil
their meat; neither did they roast it, for only occasionally calcined bones
are found, and these are calcined evidently by accident. It is possible
that they used wooden vessels, in which the water was brought to the
boiling-point by the immersion of red-hot pebbles, but it seems to me
much more probable that the food was cooked under the ashes, as is
still the custom among savage people.

They were very fond of the brain of animals, and of the marrow of the
long bones, for the heads and the marrow-bones (to the exclusion of all
others) are uniformly broken. Marrow is considered a great delicacy
among all savages. They break the bone in a peculiar manner, and the
head of the tribe is honored with the first suck. Our troglodytes used
wedge-shaped pieces of flint as a kind of hatchet for breaking the bones.
They also had an instrument of horn, which was probably employed in
extracting the marrow. (See Fig. 14.) Archzeologists disagree in regard
to this instrument. Some have supposed it to be a dart, because one of
its extremities, if not pointed, is conical in shape, and that the cavity
formed in the other was intended to admit the handle; but, if so, the
latter extremity would not have been sharpened to an oblique point
before the cavity was made. On the contrary, the part used for the
handle, where strength was required, would have been heavier, not
smaller and weaker. Besides, the elegant ornamentation of the exterior
surface indicates that it was an object of luxury. The time required
for such work was not wasted in forming a weapon which might be lost
in the first thicket encountered. I therefore think, with Edward Lar-
tet and Christy, that this instrument was for extracting marrow, and
was only used by persons of distinction.

The troglodytes, when their repasts were ended, left the bones seat-
tered upon the ground. Ina warm climate these would have exhaled
frightful odors, but we must remember that the temperature was much
lower then than now. Moreover, we must admit that cleanliness was
not the dominant virtue of the men of this period, but their want of
neathess serves us well, for, in consequence, the floors of their caves
show us exactly what they had to eat. The flesh of the reindeer was
their principal food, but they also lived upon the horse, the urus, seve-
ral species of ox, the chamois, the goat, and even of the carnivorous
animals. Thus far they but followed the example of their predecessors;
but they had, in addition, the products of the fisheries, while the im-
provement of the bow enriched their larder with a great variety of
birds, whose bones are found among the remains of the repasts.

ETHNOLOGY. gol

Among all these osseous fragments there is not a single human bone.
Our good troglodytes were not anthropophagi. They were unacquainted
with the savage delight of eating a vanquished enemy. I state this
with satisfaction, although I am not of the number of those who attach
great importance to cannibalism. In the eyes of a philosopher the
crime consists not in eating the man, but in killing him. I» the latter
respect we are perhaps more barbarous than they, for our boasted civiliza-
tion, which ought to put an end to war, has only rendered it more mur-
derous. I do not suppose the troglodytes always lived in peace; they
were obliged sometimes to fight in order to defend or increase their
hunting. grounds, but their weapons are those of men of the chase—
hunters, rather than warriors.

Fig. 14, Fig. 18. Fig. 17. Fig. 15. Fig. 16.

Fig. 14. Spoon for marrow. Figs. 15 and 16. Needles. Fig. 17. A hunting scorer
and marker. Fig. 18. Record.

When we review their panoply we find their most formidable weap-
ons, those which could be used in a hand-to-hand conflict, are few in
number, so we must conclude that they were pacific in their habits.

It has been supposed that they wore no clothing, because the figures
of them drawn by their artists are entirely naked. But this is no proof;
the Greeks always represented their gods and heroes in a state of nudity.

Bye THE TROGLODYTES.

We found in the caves all the instruments needful for sewing. They
had needles of bone and horn; some with only a point like our shoe-
maker’s awl; others with an eye for carrying thread. (See Figs. 15 and
16.) Some are very fine; we have seen a needle-case made of the
bone of a bird, which contained several needles. Lartet and Christy
have discovered the mode of manufacture. They found a metacarpus of
a horse, in which, made with a fine saw, were incisions, longitudinal and
parallel, isolating narrow and regular pieces of bone. The work was
unfinished, but it is evident that these isolated splinters of bone were to
be formed into needles.

The nature of the thread employed varied greatly. Did they use vege-
table fiber and narrow slips of leather? Itis possible, and even probable.
It is certain that our troglodytes made thread, or at least cord, out of
tendons. Several savage tribes at this day use fine tendinous fibers for
sewing. The large posterior ligament of the herbivora might have fur-
nished thread and cord of great strength. I have known this part of
the ox to be used in more recent times by parents, in the moral improve-
ment of their children. Whether the sinews of the reindeer were used for
sewing I do not know, but the long tendons of the limbs were detached
with great care, by means of a peculiar stroke which produced a slight
but regular abrasion of the bone. This abrasion, always the same, is
found on different bones, but always at the point of insertion of a ten-
don, and was evidently the result of an operation methodically per-
formed, probably before the animals were handed over to the cooking
department, and which had for its object the preparation of thread for
sewing.

The art of sewing implies the existence of clothing, not merely that
primitive vesture which consists of a single skin thrown over the
shoulders, but a much more complete raiment, formed, perhaps, of sev-
eral skins. The abundance of needles, and of scrapers used in the prep-
aration of skins, shows that the use of clothing was general.

They also wore ornaments, which, perhaps, served as marks of dis-
tinction, such as bracelets and necklaces formed of shells, perforated
and strung together. These are found in almost all the localities, and
in great numbers in the ancient burial-place of Cromagnon. Some
plates of ivory, prepared with great care and pierced with two holes,
seem to have served as fastenings for these necklaces.

These were not the only manifestations of that spirit of vanity which
leads man to adorn himself. Almost all savages make use of paint, and
the barbarous practice of tattooing, in order to embellish their persons,
and we have no right to look down upon them, for in the most civilized
countries the tattoo is still in favor, especially among sailors, and the
fine lady of society has not, it is said, entirely forgotten the use of pig-
ments. It is therefore not surprising that we find among the troglo-
dytes similar customs. Their caves contain numerous fragments of a
species of redstone, called sanguine. The stripes observed upon these

ETHNOLOGY. 393

show that they have been scraped. A red color was thus formed, which
was constantly used in personal adornments. It is likely that tattooing
also was practiced, since among the figures engraved upon various objects
of reindeer horn, there are several representing the hand and fore-arm
of a man, and upon the lower part of the fore-arm are designs in such
regular patterns they can hardly be anything else than tattooing.

I have already said our troglodytes were not nomadic; individuals
may have undertaken long journeys, but the tribe seldom or never
wintered far from the cave. They must have obtained, by exchange or
commerce, certain articles foreign to the locality, such as the perforated
shells, of which their necklaces and bracelets were made. These were
mostly of the species Littorina littorea, and came from the shores of the
Atlantic, where they are abundant. They were recent shells, that is, not
fossils, which is proved by the tints they retain to this day. There are
others also pierced with a hole for suspension, which belong to five ex-
tinct species of the Miocene age. They are entirely discolored; and
their molecular condition and worn appearance prove that they had
been for a long time in the fossil state before they were unearthed to
assist in adornment. Now the places where these fossils were found
were not in the neighborhood of the Vézere; the nearest were those
of Touraine, and thence, in all probability, our troglodytes imported this
addition to their toilet. We also find at these localities, and especially
at Upper Laugerie, small objects of rock-erystal, which substance must
have come from the Pyrenees, the Alps, or the mountains of Auvergne.
The foreign relations of the troglodytes were therefore far extended.

Had they religious belief? We found in their dwelling-places no
objects which could serve for worship; but they wore a talisman, or
amulet, which consisted of a canine or incisor tooth of the wolf, the
reindeer, the ox, or the horse; a hole was carefully perforated in one
end of the tooth to receive the suspending cord. Similar talismans are
worn at the present day to assist the fortunes of the chase, and M. de
Mortillet has observed in Italy an analogous custom. To counteract
the influence of evil spirits, the tooth of a hog, mounted in silver, is fast-
ened to the swaddling-clothes of the new-born child; and later, when
the teeth commence to appear, it is suspended from the neck of the
infant, and serves as a coral or rattle.

The perforated teeth of the troglodytes were certainly not rattles;
they were, perhaps, protective amulets, but more probably talismans
for hunting. In either case, they were objects of superstitious venera-
tion. May it not then be said that these people had a religion? I am
no theologian; I cannot say. It is difficult to know where superstition
ends and religion begins.

At the same period of time in other places certain funeral rites were
observed. The dead were deposited in a cave, the narrow opening of
which was closed with a stone slab. In front of the cave was a small
esplanade upon which the afflicted relatives comforted themselves with

aoe THE TROGLODYTES.

a feast. This mode of consolation has been continued from age to age,
even down to the present time.

At present only one burial-place of the troglodytes of the Vézére is
known—that of Cromagnon. It is a hollow rock, not a cave. Near the
bodies were placed some flint instruments and ornaments of shells, but
there is no trace of a closing stone.

The government of the troglodytes was hierarchically organized.
There were dignitaries of several degrees of importance. The proofs of
such organization are found only in the localities of the latest period :
the Eyzies, Lower Laugerie, and the Madelaine. They consist of cer-
tain large pieces of the horn of the reindeer, carefully formed, and gen-
erally called rulers’ staves or batons. They are very numerous, and of
a uniform type. Their entire surface is richly ornamented with various
designs, representing figures of animals, or hunting scenes. The care
taken to make them as thin as possible, in proportion to their width,
shows that lightness, and not strength, was desired. Most of them,
not all, have, in one of their extremities, round holes, varying in num-
ber from one to four. (See Figs. 19 and 20.) The destination of these

Fig. 19. Fig. 20.

BECKERDEL.

Fig. 19.—Ruler’s stave or baton, with one hole, reduced to one-third. Fig. 20.—The
sane, with four holes, reduced to one-third. Fig. 21.—The pogamagan of the Esqui-
maux, reduced to one-fourth.

ETHNOLOGY. 335

remarkable instruments has been, and still is, a subject of discussion.
They have been considered weapons, and it must be confessed they re-
semble in form the pogamagan employed by the Esquimaux of Macken-
zie’s River as a tomahawk, one end of which, formed into a blunt chisel,
serves to break the ice. The pogamagan, however, are longer, larger, and
heavier, and instead of being flattened their cylindrical form has been
preserved, so that, resistance being equal in every direction, they admit
of violent blows. They also are not pierced by the large holes which
rendered the batons of the troglodytes too fragile for any mechanical
use. These batons may then be considered as the insignia of office.
They recall the scepter of the ancients, which was carried not only by
kings, but by chiefs of lower rank. At the present day the dignity of
a marshal is represented by a baton, a similar symbol of office.

The batons of the troglodytes are too numerous to be marks of royalty.
They were simply signs of hierarchal distinction, the holes, like the
gold and silver lace of our officers, indicating the rank of the wearer ;
those with four holes represented the highest office; those without any,
the lowest.

The unity of design in the ornamentation, which generally includes
the holes, shows that the baton was made after the individual for whom
it was intended was invested with his office. But in some cases the
holes were evidently added afterward, as they cut into and mutilate
the drawings. For instance, on one baton a horse is represented; and,
later, a hole was pierced, which divided the horse into two portions,
‘see Fig. 19,) the possessor having been so fortunate as to receive a
yvromotion.

This division into ranks, or grades, a sure sign that the community
was large, may have arisen out of the necessities of war; but it is much
more probable that they originated in the organization of hunting expedi-
tions, for the chase was the principal element of publie prosperity, and it
was of the utmost importance that it should be properly regulated, since
upon it depended the sustenance of the whole people. The tempera-
ture was then much lower than it is now, and the flesh of the game could
be preserved for a long time, especially during the winter months, so that
there was constantly a greater or less amount of food stored in the cave,
and the intervention of a domestic economy was necessary to avoid either
waste or unjust division of these provisions. Certain rods of horn, with
a great number of notches upon them, arranged in regular series, seem
to have served as account books. These objects, known as hunting regis-
ters, (see Fig.17,) resemble the recording sticks used at the present day
by the bakers of small villages, and in the country, to keep the accounts
of those, alas too numerous, who can no more read than our troglodytes.
A wide, thin plate of bone, or ivory, with two rows of notches on the
sides, and its two faces covered with series of points arranged trans-
versely, seems also to have been a register of accounts. (See Fig. 18.)

Thanks to the organization and administration whose indications we

336 THE TROGLODYTES.

have just noticed, the troglodytes, though a large community, lived
at ease. Food was so abundant that they could select the better parts,
and reject those inferior in quality. Thus they disdained the feet of
animals, which contain, between the bones and tendons, a considerable
amount of alimentary matter, and we find in their caves entire feet of
the deer, with every bone in place, as perfect as those of the skeletons
of our museums. They were evidently cast aside as undesirable for
food, a fact which shows that the sources of subsistence more than sup-
plied actualneed. The destruction of the dangerous animals had insured
safety, and the perfection of the chase secured abundance of food. The
more urgent necessities of life no longer required an entire consecration
of the activity, intelligence, and time of the tribe. Leisure hours were
possible, and leisure, combined with intelligence, engenders the arts.

IV.—THE ARTS OF THE TROGLODYTES.

To Egypt no longer belongs the distinction of having originated the
arts. We learned a few years ago, to our great astonishment, that the
men of the age of the reindeer practiced drawing, carving, and even sculp-
ture. At first their efforts received only our admiration; but now, the
excitement of discovery over, we must confess there were some very
bad artists among them. Still, although a large number of the draw-
ings are very crude, resembling the rude sketches made by idle children
with charcoal upon our walls, there are some truly remarkable, indi-
cating not only a skillful hand, but an eye accustomed to the observa-
tion of nature. .

Drawing, with these people, undoubtedly preceded sculpture. Fig-
ures in relief are much more rare and less perfect than those made by
lines. The latter are found quite frequently at the Eyzies, and at Lower
Laugerie, but are particularly abundant at the Madelaine, where they
are also much more correct.

All the drawings are made with indented lines, that is, etched, and for
the most part ornament various objects of reindeer horn, such as the
commanders’ batons, or the handles of poignards. There are some,
however, made upon certain plates of ivory or horn, which could have
been intended for no other purpose than to receive and display the work
of the artist. (See Fig. 12 and Fig. 22.)

Almost all the drawings are of natural objects, although there are
some merely ornamental lines, forming zigzags and festoons of more or
less elegance; and, with the exception of three rose-like leaves engraved
upon the handle of deer’s horn, which seem intended to represent a poly-
petal flower, they are principally of animals. The reindeer most fre-
quently appears, then the horse; the ox and the urus more seldom.
These animals are readily recognizable. Their characteristics are repro-
duced with great accuracy, and often with elegance ; frequently they are
isolated figures, covering without order, and in great numbers, the entire
surface of an instrument, but sometimes they are formed into groups,
and are seen in combat, or flying before man.

ETHNOLOGY. aot

Of all these drawings the most important, and also the most rare,
since, at present there is but one specimen, is a representation of the
mammoth, to which I have already alluded. It was found at the Made-
laine in 1864, The execution of the head is remarkably correct. (See
Fig. 12.) Since then the Marquis de Vibraye has discovered at Lower
Laugerie a fragment of a commander’s baton, with the head of a mam-
moth seulptured upon it. These are the only representations of the
animal transmitted to us by the artists of the Vézére, but they are suffi-
cient to prove that it was not yet extinct.

Fig. 22.—Combat of reindeers.

Representations of fish are quite common, and, with a single exception,
that of an eel or lamprey, (if it is not a serpent,) they generally resem-
ble the salmon in form. M. Elie Massénat has discovered at Lower
Laugerie, upon a fragment of the scapula of an ox, a rude drawing of a
fishing scene. It represents a man in the act of harpooning an aquatic
animal. The latter, although it has the form of a fish, is so much larger
than the man that it has been supposed to be one of the cetacea, probably
a whale, and that the artist, in consequence, must have found his way to
the Gulf of Gascogne. I am not disposed to admit this interpretation.
It is hardly possible that the men of that time were sufficiently expert
navigators to venture upon the ocean to harpoon the whale. — It is said
the tail and back suggest the form of a cetaceous animal; but may it
not rather be a porpoise than a whale? Porpoises sometimes sport in
the Gironde, and I saw once, in my childhood, one of these animals car-
ried by a flood even into the Dordogne, where it was stranded between
Libourne and Castillon. It was killed by fishermen with boat-hooks,
and exhibited from village to village. If, as is probable, the tide rose
higher in those days than now, and particularly if the Dordogne was
wider and deeper, it is conceivable that a porpoise might ascend the
river high enough to come within reach of the harpoons of our troglo-
dytes, and so unusual an event would naturally inspire the enthusiasm

of an artist—in this case very unskillful.
oe g
ad ted

338 THE TROGLODYTES.

But I am tempted to believe that this preteuded cetacean is only a badly
drawn fish. The relative size of the man proves nothing, for the artist
throughout the entire sketch has manifested entire contempt for propor-
tion. This too diminutive man has a gigantic arm, and the harpoon he
throws is proportioned to the size of the fish. Weare reminded of cer-
tain jocose drawings of the present day,in which puny bodies are supplied
with enormous heads. The great interest of this particular work of art
consists in the unanswerable proof it gives that the troglodytes used the
harpoon in fishing. I have already shown by indirect evidence that
the darts, barbed only on one side, could only be used as harpoons, and
this drawing fully confirms that conclusion.

The troglodytes, sometimes so skillful in the representation of animals,
drew the human form very badly. They very seldom attempted it, and
only a single study of a head has been found. It is in profile, very
small, and very grotesque. Two other drawings, very similar to each
other, represent a fore-arm, terminated by a hand with four fingers, the
thumb hidden from view. Add to these the fisherman with the harpoon,
and two hunting scenes, in which a man entirely naked, and armed
with a dart, ov baton, is very rudely drawn, among figures of animals
very skillfully executed, and you have a complete list of all the repre-
sentations of man to be found in the gallery of the troglodytes.

I have already said that the specimens of sculpture Fig. 23.
are much more rare than the drawings. We only
know of about half a dozen, and they all came from
Lower Laugerie. One of them, belonging to the Mar-
quis of Vibraye, represents a woman; the others the
following animals: a reindeer, (see Fig. 23,) the head of
a reindeer, the head of a mammoth already mentioned,
and the head of an animal not yet identified ; lastly, a
specimen discovered by M. Elie Massénat, called the '
twin oxen, representing two animals which may be
either oxen or uri.

These sculptures are sometimes unfinished, and _ al-
ways badly executed. It is true they ornament the
handles of poignards, or commanders’ batons, and in
order toaccommodate the animal forms employed to this
purpose, the artist was obliged to choose unnatural and
ungraceful positions; but, in spite of these extenuating
circumstances, it must be confessed that the troglodytes
were very poor sculptors.

On the contrary, in the art of drawing they mani-
fested surprising skill. From [ know not what rea- ype eee ot ee
son they paid little attention to the human form, and ¢lengated reindeer.
failed in its representation, but the characteristics of animals were
reproduced with such faithfulness, elegance, and spirit, as to denote true
artistic feeling.

ETHNOLOGY. 339

V.—THE RACE.

In concluding the study of this interesting people we will now deter-
mine the race to which they belong. The human bones thus far col-
lected are, unfortunately, not sufficiently numerous to satisfy entirely
our curiosity. Still, they suffice to prove that their race was very differ-
ent from those which succeeded it, and that the learned anthropologist
Retzius and his disciples were mistaken in supposing that all the popu-
lations of Southern Europe, before the comparatively recent period of
the Indo-European migrations, belonged to the type of the short heads, or
brachycéphales.

M. Elie Massénat discovered a few months ago, at Lower Laugerie, the
skeleton of a man who appeared to have been killed by an aceidental
fall of earth. But the anatomical description of this valuable specimen
has not yet been published, which I especially regret, since it is the sole
representative of the troglodytes of the latest period. The skulls and
bones in the annexed drawings belong to a very much more ancient
date. They came from the ancient sepulcher of Cromagnon, of which M.
Louis Lartet, worthy son of an illustrious father, has determined, with
great accuracy, the geological, paleontological, and archeological char-
acteristics. This burial-place contained the remains of at least five indi-
viduals; but only three skulls, two masculine, one feminine, were suffi-
ciently preserved for examination. One of the men was apparently
very old; the other was an adult, as was also the woman. Near them
was a young child.

They were superior in stature to ourselves. The length of the femur
of the old man indicates a height of five feet nine inches, while the size
of the bones, the extent and roughness of the surfaces of muscular in-
sertion, and the extraordinary development of the maxillary bone, in
which are inserted the masticatory muscles, manifest a strong constitu-
tion.

The tibias, instead of being triangular and prismatic like ours, are
flattened like those of a gorilla. (See Fig. 24.) The upper part of the
cubitus is very large and curved, and has a very small sigmoidal cavity,
which characteristics recall the cubitus of the gorilla. But the con-
fomation of the femur differs radically from that of the apes. With the
anthropomorphous apes the body of the femur is flattened, is much
wider than it is thick, and has not upon its posterior surfaces the longi-
tudinal crease which in man is called the sharp line. In existing races
the thickness of the body of the femur is, in general, greater than its
width, but the difference is slight. In the specimens of Cromagnon the
femur is much thicker than wide. The sharp line, enormously devel-
oped, is no longer a simple ridge, but a thick and prominent osseus col-
umn, which greatly increases the strength of the bone and the extent
of the muscular insertions. In this respect the people of Cromagnon
differed much more from the simian type than the present races.

The skeletons of these robust troglodytes bear traces of the violence
of their manners; in the lower extremity of one of the femurs of the old

340 THE TROGLODYTES.

man is a hollow similar to that sometimes produced in our day by a
spent ball. It is evidently the result of an old wound received, perhaps,
in the chase; perhaps in war; but a human hand, armed with a flint
instrument, must have produced a long, deep aperture which appears

Fig. 26.

Fig. 24.—Flattened tibia of the old man of Cromagnon. Fig.25.—Femur of the same in profile. Fig.
26.—Fibula of the same.

in the skull of the woman; the width of the opening shows that the brain
must have been injured, but still the victim was not killed instantly by
the blow. The vascularization of the bone and the internal surface of
the skull show that she survived about fifteen days. (See Figs. 27 and 28.)
This shameful murder of a woman is not to the credit of the people of
Cromagnon. The study of the industries of these people has already
shown us that their social condition was not above that of a savage tribe,
and an examination of their skulls confirms this opinion. With them
the sutures of the anterior cranial region are very simple, while those
of the posterior region are quite complicated. Besides, the former have
a decided tendency to close long before the latter, two characteristics
always observed in races or individuals leading an entirely material life.
The troglodytes of Cromagnon were then savages, but savages of intel-

ETHNOLOGY. 34]

ligence, and capable of improvement. We find among them certain signs
of a powerful cerebral organization. The skulls are large in diameter,
curve, and capacity, and surpass the mean of those of existing races.
They are very elongated in form, such as are called dolichocéphales,
(which means long headed,) but this shape of the head is not due, as with
the Australian negroes, to narrowness of the skull; on the contrary, the

Y
LY «

I) »; \ (a
Yi \\\Y

\ i i DAYS

LA

Skull of the woman of Cromagnon in profile; the aperture in the frontal bone is apparent.

transversal dimensions are well developed ; it is the increase of the
antero-posterior diameter which gives the elongated form; the alveolar
arch of the old man is oblique, but the upper part of the face is vertical,
and the facial angle very obtuse. The forehead is wide, not ‘receding,

Fig. 28.

Skull of the woman of Cromagnon ; front view.

and describes a beautiful curve. The amplitude of the trontal compart-
ment denotes a great development of the anterior cerebral lobes, which
are the seat of the most noble faculties of the mind.

342 THE TROGLODYTES.

If the troglodytes of Cromagnon were in a savage state it was be-
cause the surrounding conditions were unfavorable to their development.
The conformation of their brains shows that they were capable of
culture, and, under favorable auspices, would make great and rapid ad-

Fig. 29.

Skull of the old man of Cromagnon; profile view.

vances in civilization. These rude hunters of the mammoth, the lion,
and the bear are the worthy ancestors of the artists of the Madelaine.

Skull of the old man of Cromagnon ; front view.

I have now given you the principal facts in the history of the troglo-

ETHNOLOGY. 343

dytes of the Vézere. For want of time I have been obliged to omit and
curtail much that woulc have been interesting to have dwelt upon, but
hope that you have been enabled to follow from Moustier to Cromagnon,
from Cromagnon to Upper Laugerie and George d’Enfer, and then to
the three localities of the Eyzies, Lower Laugerie, and the Madelaine,
the progressive evolution of an intelligent race who advanced gradually
from the most savage state to the very threshold of civilization; for the
troglodytes of the last period, with a regularly organized society, and
possessing industry and the arts—the two great levers of progress—
were, So to say, within one step of a truly civilized condition.

at
wil it mn fi

I
a

Ae ee
uc me

Skull of the old man of Cromagnon ; vertical view.

This interesting people suddenly disappeared, leaving no trace in the
traditions of men, not gradually, after a period of decadence, but rapidly,
without transition, perhaps suddenly, and with them the light of the
arts is extinguished. Then followsa period of darkness, a sort of middle
age, of unknown duration. The chain of time is broken, and, when we
would resume it again, we find in the place of the hunters of the rein-
deer a new society, a new industry, a new race, a people who are
acquainted with agriculture, who domesticate animals, raise megalithic
monuments, and have the ax of polished flint. It is the dawn of a
new day, but the knowledge of the arts has been lost. Sculpture and
design have entirely disappeared, and it is not until the latest days of
polished stone that we discover, and then only here and there upon an
occasional monument, some attempts at ornamentation, which have
absolutely nothing in common with the remarkable artistic productions
of the troglodytes.

This sudden and complete extinction of the troglodytes suggests the
occurence of a cataclysm, but such a supposition is contradicted by

344 THE TROGLODY'TES.

geology, and, in order to explain this phenomenon, it is not necessary to
introduce any other influence than that of man. Our hunters of the rein-
deer, with their peaceable mode of life and their light weapons, were not
prepared for combat, and not in a condition to resist attack, so that their
budding civilization yielded immediately when their valleys were in-
vaded by tribes better equipped for war; perhaps already in possession
of the polished ax. Then, as now, might was right.

APPENDIX.
EXCURSION TO THE EYZIES.

At 5 o’clock a special train carried seventy-two excursionists; the
sun arose in splendor and announced a beautiful day. The road as far
as Periguex presented little to attract attention, and animated conver-
sation beguiled the time until at 6 o’clock we entered the celebrated
valley of the Vézere, and stopped at the station of the Eyzies.

After partaking of an excellent repast prepared for us, at 11 o’clock
we climbed the steep sides of the eminence which overlooks the present
village, on the banks of the Beune, and, surrounding M. Louis Lartet,
were so fortunate as to hear a detailed account of the discoveries which
have rendered so illustrious the cave of the Eyzies, where his father,
our regretted master, with the aid of Christy, commenced his series of
distinguished explorations.

The cave still contains numerous osseous fragments, in which are
mingled pieces of bone, flint implements, rounded or angular pebbles
and schistose plates of rock, for the most part foreign to the valley.
Many a museum has been enriched by similar fragments from the
Eyzies by MM. Ed. Lartet and Christy, and we were each allowed to col-
lect some specimens. In this cave were found the first drawings of the
age of the reindeer. (August, 1563.)

Near the entrance of the cave, upon the lateral and exterior prolonga-
tion of the platform are traces of artificial constructions, of a relatively
very recent period. A stable was partly suspended in the air, and
covered, doubtless, with a pent-house roof supported in holes in the rock
which still exist.

We then proceeded to Cromagnon, a place very celebrated in the
annals of science. In 1868 the construction of the railroad necessitated
the removal of an enormous talus at the base of the rocks on the left
shore of the Vézére, and at the bottom of a cave so shallow it might
rather be called a hollow, some human bones were discovered. M. Louis
Lartet was immediately sent to the place by the minister of public in-
struction, and found that there were four superposed strata blackened
by fire.

In all these strata were the same industrial implements, flint chiefly
shaped into scrapers, instruments of bone, bodkins, arrows, &c., and

ETIINOLOGY. 345

also the same animals—the great bear, Felis spelwa, the wolf, Canis
vulpes, a spermophile, two Lepus, the Hlephas primigenius, the sus, the
horse very abundant, the reindeer, the urus, some teeth of the com-
ion deer, and lastly a species of goose. Without a doubt the vestiges
of successive habitation in the hollow of Cromagnon are traces of the
same race of hunters. When the accumulation of culinary débris had
considerably reduced the height of the little cave it became the final
abode of a few of these ancient people. Five skeletons, a woman, a
child, an old man, and two young men were found in it, and, with them, |
nearly three hundred marine shells, especially the Littorina littorea,
some amulets of ivory-pierced teeth, instruments of reindeer horn, &e.

From the absence of barbed arrows and of engraving on stone, and
from the predominance of the horse over the reindeer, Cromagnon dates
before the last period of the caves, and is very nearly contemporary
with that of Upper Laugerie, which was visited immediately afterward
by the association. Each member had been supplied by M. Emile Car-
tailhac with a map of the valley of the Vézére, on the side of which were
represented the excavations of Cromagnon and Lower Laugerie.

In passing to Tayae the association stopped for a few moments to
examine an interesting Roman church ; a short distance further on they
crossed the Vézeére in a ferry-boat, and were charmed with the pictur-
esque aspect of the valley. The right branch of the river is not wide,
and the steep declivities which rise almost vertically are less than 50
meters from the river. Above the hamlet of Upper Laugerie we ob-
served a talus with a line of enormous blocks of stone upon it, and were
told that it was a cornice of rock which had fallen during the last cen-
tury, destroying human habitations, sheep, and cows in its descent. The
present occupants of the soil, with no fear of a similar accident, have
rebuilt their miserable cabins upon some of the fallen rocks. It is here
that MM. de Vibraye and Franchet collected, sometimes below the level
of the waters of the Vézére, large quantities of those flint instruments
with oval ends and both sides shaped, which have become characteristic
of an intermediate period between the age of the locality of the Moustier
which succeeded that of Saint Acheul, and the age of Eyzies, of the
Madelaine, &e.

Above this important stratum lie the deposits of the last period of
the time of the reindeer, which witnessed the birth of industry and the
arts, of drawing and of sculpture. These commence at Upper Laugerie,
and continue for several hundred yards toward Lower Laugerie, where
they form a talus of 12 meters in thickness. Protected from the damp by
the overhanging rocks, the bones are admirably preserved, and the
excavations made have been attended with astonishing results. MM.
Ed. Lartet and Christy, and the Marquis of Vibraye commenced the work
which was continued for six years by M. Elie Massenat, (de Brives.)

Numerous relics of every period have been collected at the surface of
the talus, but especially of the age of bronze and of polished stone.

346 THE TROGLODYTES.

The superficial strata have been trequently searched for specimens, as
they sdll continue to be by the present inhabitants. These poor people
even dig up the floors of their dwellings for this purpose, and we were
quite astonished to find deep holes under their beds and tables and
bureaus, excavated for the extraction of these vestiges of ancient life.

We have especially noticed the avalanche of rocks of the Upper
Laugerie, but similar occurrences have taken place all along the valley.
Rocks have constantly fallen. The savages of the age of the reindeer
were established on the banks of the Vézere when the valley was in its
present condition. Undismayed by the avalanches of stone which, at
intervals, destroyed their homes, they fearlessly re-assumed possession
of the soil and rekindled their extinguished fires in the space between
the fallen rocks.

It is between the rocks, therefore, that the excavations have been made,
but these irregular subterranean passages are difficult and dangerous to
explore. The day before our visit heavy rain had fallen, the Vézere had
risen 3 meters, and the modern troglodyte who was in M. Massénat’s
employ had heard ominous cracking sounds. The rocks around which
the opening had been made had settled down, and at any moment might
fall. Prudence deterred us, the excursionists, from venturing into the
deep passages, through which it would have been necessary to crawl on —
hands and knees; and, by the light of a candle, we looked into an open-
ing black as night, in which we could see broken bones and flint instru-
ments without number. M. Massénat then conducted us to the place
where, last March, in company with MM. Lalande and Cartailhac, he
had exhumed an entire human skeleton, all the bones of which have
been preserved and cast.

The members of the association were convinced that these valuable
remains were contemporary with the great extension of the reindeer in
the country, but one of their number was doubtful as to the cause of
their presence position. He supposed that the place in which they
rested must have been a sepulcher. MM. Massénat, Lalande, and Car-
tailhac, who had carefully observed every circumstance of the discovery,
thought that the man had been killed by the descent of an avalanche,
and Professor Broca and others adopted the latter opinion.

M. Massénat spoke of the human bones he had frequently found in
the kitchen remains, which he regarded as a proof of cannibalism, or at
least that the men of the age of the reindeer paid little respect to their
dead, a fact which increased his doubts as to the existence of sepul-
chers at this time, although later they were employed, beyond a doubt.

But time was passing, and, leaving Lower Laugerie, where each
member of the association bad made ample collections of flint instru-
ments, fossil bones, reindeer-lorn, &e., we descended to the Gorge
D’Enter. Here the luxuriance of the vegetation was in strong contrast
with the somewhat desolate aspect of the declivities of the Végere.

ETHNOLOGY. ord

We entered an immense cave, as large as a great theater, dimly lighted
by such rays of the setting sun as found their way through the foliage
of a thicket of trees which shaded the entrance. It was empty. Most
of the fossil bones it once contained had been used to enrich the fields
it overlooked, and the remainder had been carefully removed by M.
Lartet. They were especially valuable, for this locality is more ancient
than that of Lower Laugerie and others of a similar age.

We had now seen all the prehistoric localities of the Eyzies, with the
exception of the Moustier cave, which is a type of the most ancient
deposits made by men in the caves when the valley was only partially
formed ; but this excursion could not be made on foot, and our time was
too limited for its accomplishment.

Thanks to the exertions of M. Laganne, from the Eyzies, head work-
man of MM. Christy and Lartet, the arrangements for the comfort of
the excursionists throughout the day were unexceptionable, and as we
descended the Vézéere in order to reach the ferry near the railroad
bridge, we found some ladders placed against the declivity, which en-
abled us to climb into an artificial cave of several interior stories. In
these chambers were niches, mangers for the animals, rings, &e., cut in
the rather softrock. These caves are not rare in this neighborhood. In
Corréze, about Brives, at Lamourou an entire hill is cut into five
stories of stalls, large and small, and very irrregular in form. Similar
excavations are found all over France, and in certain regions, Aisne, for
example, are still inhabited. In Dordogne and Corréze they must be of
very ancient date.

At 5 o’clock we retook the train, and our regret, as we rapidly left
the valley of the Vézere, was tempered by the pleasant memory of what
we had seen and heard. Our locomotive saluted the declivities of Lau-
gerie in passing, and we thought there could not be a more striking
demonstration of the law of progress than to speed, with the full power of
steam, under the brows of the mountain which had served our savage
ancestors as a rendezvous for the chase. See the people of Moustier,
hunting the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the bear, and the lion with rude
stone implements, held in the hand or imbedded in a heavy spear.
Again, long after, when the river had deepened its bed 30 meters, be-
hold their descendants of Upper Laugerie, the gorge d’Enfer, Cromag-
non, armed with the bow and arrow. Then civilization commenced ; at
the Madelaine, the Eyzies, Lower Laugerie, bone was worked into va-
rious forms and art was generated. Then appeared a new people, with
pottery, domestic animals, and the polished ax; we know the rest. Upon
such facts may be based the most happy auspices for the future; a future,
it is true, not of nations nor of races, but of humanity.

At Perigueux we dined at the railroad-station, and entered Bordeaux
at half past 11 o’clock.

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

By CHARLES Rav.

The following essay was published in German, Vol. V of the Archiv fiir Anthro-
pologie (Braunschweig, 1872); but as the subject is purely North American in char-
acter, the author has deemed it proper to prepare a version in the language of the
country to which it refers. The present reproduction, however, is enlarged and im-
proved.

CONTENTS.

Page. Page.
Imtroduction! {h-cesss-bee eseasecee eee aes 1 in Ge SSE RE Sk eT hs aE ee G2 18
Coppers.asecce reek < hans ses tste seo s- theres 3 Red) Pipestone =} -i5=,.<60etee ss cbe estes cs 21
Galena sateen cect siete ae aes ne Ces 8 Shells’. 23.2 scesese recess hae os es cee aaek ecules 25
OOsIGIAN Wwesasee ee pee se aero en oe eee eee 10 Pearls ti: ssedieh a lestied EAR ee 36
Mica 2.2. thea. creeeete eee Shee eck t 13 MivisioniofMiahorss. see sesssessameeds ce < 39
DlahOpeesccisehen meee tic «acta ostiea cies sate 15 Conclusion .\2 2 -Sasje.=a<cmce sos snes aisles, V4
INTRODUCTION.

Indications are not wanting that a kind of trade or traffic of some
extent existed among the prehistoric inhabitants of Europe, even at a
time when they stood comparatively low in the scale of human develop-
ment. The same practice prevailed in North America, before that part
of the new world was settled by Europeans; and as the the subject of
primitive commerce is of particular interest, because it sheds addi-
tional light on the conditions of life among by-gone races, I have col-
lected a number of data bearing on the trade-relations of the former
inhabitants of North America. The fact that such a trade was carried
on is proved, beyond any doubt, by the frequent occurrence of Indian
manufactures consisting of materials which were evidently obtained from
far distant localities. In many cases, however, these manufactures may
have been brought as booty, and not by trade, to the places where they
are found in our days. The modern Indians, itis well known, sometimes
undertook expeditions of a thousand or twelve hundred miles, in order to
attack their enemies. The warlike Iroquois, for example, who inhabited
the present State of New York, frequently followed the war-path as far
as the Mississippi river. Thus, in the year 1680, six hundred warriors
of the Seneca tribe invaded the territory of the Illinois, among whom La
Salle sojourned just at that time, preparing to descend the Mississippi
to the Gulf of Mexico.* More than a hundred years ago, the traveler

* Morgan, League of the Iroquois, Rochester, 1851, p. 13. More precise information
concerning this memorable expedition is to be found in the writings of Hennepin,
Membré, Lahontan, and others.

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 349

Carver learned from the Winnebagoes (in the present State of Wiscon-
sin) that they sometimes made war-excursions to the southwestern parts
inhabited by Spaniards (New Mexico), and that it required months to
arrive there.* Similar excursions and migrations, of course, took place
during the early unknown periods of North American history. In the
course of such enterprises the property of the vanquished naturally fell
into the hands of the victors, who appropriated everything that ap-
peared useful or desirable to them. The consequence was an exchange
by force—if I may call it so—which caused many of the manufactures
and commodities of the various tribes to be scattered over the face of
the country. This having been the case, it is, of course, impossible to
draw a line between peaceable barter and appropriation by right of
war, and, therefore, while employing hereafter frequently the terms
“trade” or ‘¢exchange,” I interpose that reservation which is neces-
sitated by the circumstances just mentioned.

Of the Indian commerce that has sprung up since the arrival of the
Europeans I shall say but little, considering that this subject has suffi-
ciently been treated in ethnological and other works on North America;
and I shall likewise omit to draw within the sphere of my observations
that interesting trade which was, and still is, carried on between the tribes
inhabiting the high north of Asia and America, where Behring’s Strait
separates the two continents. My attention is chiefly directed to the
more ancient manufactures occurring in Indian mounds and elsewhere ;
and the distribution of these relics over distant parts of the country,
in connection with the known or presumed localities which furnished
the materials composing them, forms the basis of my deductions. Thus,
my essay will assume an archeological character, and for this reason I
shall confine my remarks to that part of the United States concerning
whose antiquities we possess the most detailed information, namely, the
area which is bounded by the Mississippi valley (in an extended sense),
by the Great Lakes, the Atlantic coast, and the Gulf of Mexico.

A number of archeologists make a distinction between the builders
of the extensive mural earthworks and tumuli of North America and
the tribes whom the whites found in possession of the country, and
consequently separate the relies of the so-called mound-builders from
those of the later inhabitants. Such a line of demarcation certainly
must appear totally obliterated with regard to the relations which I am
about to discuss, for which reason I shall by no means adhere to this
vague division in my essay, but shall only advert to the former Indian
population in general.

In the following sections I have first treated of a number of materials
which formed objects of trade, either in an unwrought state or in the
shape of implements and ornaments; and subsequently, in conclusion,
Ihave made some observations tending to add more completeness to
my preceding statements.

* Carver, Travels, &c., Harper’s reprint, New York, 1838, p. 42.

350 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

COPPER.

Every one knows that the region where Lake Superior borders on the
northern part of Michigan abounds in copper, which occurs here in a
native state and in immense masses, the separation of which and rais-
ing to the surface contribute in no slight degree to the difficulties of
the mining process. Long before Europeans penetrated to those parts,
the aborigines already possessed a knowledge of this wealth of copper.
This fact became known in 1847, at which time the traces of ancient
aboriginal mining of some extent were pointed out in that district. The
circumstances of this discovery and the means employed by the natives
for obtaining the copper being now well known, a repetition of those
details hardly would be in place, and I merely refer to the writings
relating to this subject.*

Copper was, indeed, the onty metal which the North American
tribes employed for some purposes before their territories were colo-
nized by Europeans. Traces of wrought silver have been found, but
they are so exceedingly scanty that the technical significance of this
metal hardly can be taken into consideration. Gold was seen by the
earliest travelers in small quantities (in grains) among the Florida In-
dians ;+ yet, to my knowledge, no object made of gold, that can with
certainty be attributed to the North American Indians, has thus far
been discovered.t The use of copper, likewise, was comparatively lim-
ited, and cannot have exerted any marked influence on the material
development of the natives. The copper articles left by the former in-
habitants are by no means abundant. As an example I will only
mention that, during a sojourn of thirteen years in the neighborhood of
St. Louis, which is particularly rich in tumular structures and other
tokens of Indian occupancy, I did not succeed in obtaining a single
specimen belonging to this class. Copper implements, such as axes,
chisels, gravers, knives, and points of arrows and spears, have been
found in the Indian mounds and in other places; but most of the ob-
jects made of this metal served for ornamental purposes, which circum-
stance alone would go far to prove that copper played but an indifferent
part in the industrial advancement of the race. If the ancient inhabit-
ants had understood the art of melting copper, or, moreover, had na-
ture furnished them with sufficient supplies of tin ore for producing

* Squier and Davis, Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, Smithsonian In-
stitution, Washington, 1848. Foster and Whitney, Report on the Geology and Topog-
raphy of the Lake Superior Land District, Part I, Washington, 1850. Schoolcraft,
Indian Tribes of the United States, Vol. I, Philadelphia, 1851. Lapham, The Antiqui-
ties of Wisconsin, Washington, 1855. Whittlesey, Ancient Mining on the Shores of
Lake Superior, Washington, 1863. Sir John Lubboek, Prehistoric Times, London,
1865, &ce.

+ See: Brinton, Notes on the Floridian Peninsula, Philadelphia, 1859, Appendix III.

t In the Smithsonian Report for 1870, just published, the occurrence of gold beads in
a mound near Cartersville, in the Etowah valley, Georgia, is recorded. Native gold is
said to be found in the neighborhood, (p. 380.)

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 351

bronze, that peculiar composition which the Mexicans and Peruvians
employed, their state of civilization doubtless would have been much
higher when the whites arrived in their country. They lacked, how-
ever, as far as investigations hitherto have shown, the knowledge of
rendering copper serviceable to their purposes by the process of melt-
ing, contenting themselves by hammering purely metallic masses of
copper with great labor into the shapes of implements or articles of
decoration. These masses they doubtless obtained principally, if not
entirely, from the copper districts of Lake Superior.* Owing to the
arborescent or indented form under which the copper occurs in the
above-named region, nearly all copper articles of aboriginal origin ex-
hibit a distinct Jaminar structure, though quite a considerable degree of
density has been imparted to the metal by continued hammering. It
must be admitted, furthermore, that the aborigines had acquired great
skill in working the copper in a cold state. From an archeological
point of view this peculiar application of natural copper is certainly
very remarkable, and, therefore, has often been cited, both by American
and European writers. To the native population, however, the com-
paratively sparing use of copper cannot have afforded great material
aid, and its chief importance doubtless consisted in the promotion of
intercourse among the various tribes.

The first travelers who visited North America saw copper ornaments
and other objects made of this metal in the possession of the natives,
and very scrupulously mention this fact in their accounts, while they
often leave matters of greater importance entirely unnoticed. This can-
not surprise us, considering that the first discoverers were possessed of
an immoderate greediness for precious metals, and therefore also paid
particular attention to those of less value. The Florentine navigator,
Giovanni Verazzano, who sailed in 1524, by order of Francis the First
of France, along the Atlantic coast of North America for purposes of
discovery, noticed, as he states in his ietter to the French king, on the
persons of the natives pieces of wrought copper, ‘which they esteemed
more than gold.” Many of them wore copper ear-rings.t In the nar-
rative which the anonymous Portuguese nobleman, called the Knight of
Elvas, has left of De Soto’s ill-fated expedition (1539-43) it 1s stated
that the Spaniardssaw, in the province of Cutifachiqui, some copper axes,
or chopping- knives, which apparently contained an adimixture of gold.
The Indians pointed to the province of Chisca as the country where
the people were familiar with the process of melting copper or another

* Some of the natives of the northernmost part of the United States, lately pur-
chased from Russia, worked copper before the European occupation. Their industry
was, of course, entirely independent of that here under consideration. (See, for in-
stance, Von Wrangell, Russische Besitzungen an der Nordwestkiiste von Amerika, St. Peters-
burg, 1839.)

tThe Voyage of John de Verazzano, in Collections of the New York Historical So-
ciety, Second Series, Vol. I, New York, 1841, pp. 47 and 50.

oon ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

metal of a lighter color and inferior hardness.* It is very natural that
these gold-seeking adventurers should have anticipated everywhere
traces of that valuable metal; and concerning the statements of the
Indians in relation to the melting, it is well known how apt the crafty
natives always were to regulate their answers according to the wishes
of the inquirers. Yet, notwithstanding these improbabilities, the fact
remains that the natives of the present Southern States used imple-
ments of copper some centuries ago. Indeed, I have seen in the col-
lection of Colonel Charles C. Jones, of Brooklyn, copper articles of the
above description, obtained in the State of Georgia. When Henry
Hudson discovered, in 1609, the magnificent river that bears his name,
he noticed among the Indians of that region pipes and ornaments made
of copper. ‘They had red copper tobacco-pipes, and other things of
copper they did wear about their necks.” Robert Juet, who served un-
der Hudson as mate in the Half-Moon, relates these details in the jour-
nal he has left behind.+ Additional statements of similar purport
might be cited from the early relations concerning the discovery of
North America.

Vhile Messrs. Squier and Davis were engaged, more than twenty
years ago, in surveying the earthworks of the Mississippi valley, more
especially those of the State of Ohio, they found in the sepulehral and
so-called sacrificial mounds a number of copper objects, which they have
described and figured in the work containing the results of their investi-
gations.¢ They also met small pieces of the unwrought natural metal
in some of the mounds. The copper specimens obtained during this sur-
vey were formerly in the possession of Dr. Davis, one of the explorers,
and I had frequent occasion to examine them. At present they forma
part of the Blackmore Museum, at Salisbury, England, to which insti-
tute Dr. Davis sold lis valuable collection. They are either implements,
such as axes, chisels, and gravers; or bracelets, beads, and other probably
ornamental objects, exhibiting quite peculiar forms, which were, perhaps,
owing to the singular methods employed in fashioning the copper into
definite shapes. The axes resemble the flat celts of the European bronze
period, and doubtless were fastened in handles like the latter. Some
of the bracelets of the better class are of very good workmanship, the
Simple rods which form them being well rounded and smoothed, and
bent into a regular circle until their ends meet. I have seen quite simi-
lar bronze bracelets in European collections. The objects just described
obviously have been fashioned by hammering; others, however, con-
sisting of hammered copper sheet, received their final shape by pressure.
To these belong certain circular concavo-convex discs, from one and one-

*Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto in the Conquest of Florida, as told
by a Knight of Elvas, and in a Relation by Luys Hernandez de Biedma, Factor of
the Expedition. Translated by Buckingham Smith. New York, 1866, p. 72.

tJournal of the Voyaye of the Half-Moon, in Collections of the New York Historical
Society, Second Series, Vol. I, 1841, p. 323.

t Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, pp. 196-207.

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. S50

half inches to two inches in diameter, which have been likened to the
bosses observed on harnesses. Concerning their use, nothing is defin-
itely known, but it is presumed that they were destined for purposes of
ornament. The manipulation of pressure was likewise employed in mak-
ing smaller articles of decoration resembling the convex metal buttons
still seen on the clothes of the peasantry of Germany and other Euro-
pean countries. However, in minutely describing these remarkable
products of aboriginal art, | would merely repeat what already has
been stated, detailed accounts being given in the well-known work of
Messrs. Squier and Davis.

Although the fire on the hearths or altars now inclosed by the sacri-
ficial mounds* was sometimes sufficiently strong to melt the deposited
copper articles, it does seem that this proceeding induced the ancient
inhabitants to avail themselves of fire in working copper; they persisted
in the tedious practice of hammering. Yet one copper axe, evidently
cast, and resembling those taken from the mounds of Ohio, has been
ploughed up near Auburn, in Cayuga County, in the State of New York.t
This specimen, which bears no traces of use, may date from the earlier
times of European colonization. It certainly would be wrong to place
much stress on such an isolated case. The Indians, moreover, learned
very soon from the whites the art of casting metals. For this we have
the authority of Roger Williams, who makes the following statement in
reference to the New England Indians; ‘They have an excellent Art to
cast our Pewter and Brasse into very neate and artificiall Pipes.”<

In the Lake Superior district, resorted to by the aboriginal miners,
there have been found, besides many grooved stone hammers (sometimes
of very large size) and rude wooden tools, various copper implements,
such as chisels, gads, &c., and some spear-heads in which, in lieu of a
socket, the flat sides at the lower end are partly bent over,§ a feature
also peculiar to certain European bronze celts, which, on this account,
are denominated “ winged” celts.

The copper-lands of Northern Michigan, it has been stated, were
visited by the aborigines for the sake of obtaining copper at a pericd
anteceding the arrival of the whites. It is probable that small bands of
various northern tribes made periodical excursions to that locality, return-
ing to their homes when they had supplied themselves with sufficient quan-
tities of the much-desired metal. The indications of permanent settle-
ments, namely, burial-places, defensive works, traces of cultivation and

*For a precise description of the remarkable stratified mounds denominated “sacri-
ficial,” I must refer to the “Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley.” Burned
human bones being often discovered in them in connection with manufactured objects,
Sir John Lubbock suggests that these mounds are of a sepulchral rather than a sacri-
ficial character. (Prehistoric Times, first ed., p. 219, &c.)

tSquier, Aboriginal Monuments of the State of New York, Washington, 1849, p. 78.

¢ Roger Williams, A Key into the Language of America; Providence, 1827, p. 55. (Re-
print of the London edition of 1643.)

§ Whittlesey, Ancient Mining, &c.

238

-

354 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

dwellings, &¢., are wanting, and the smali number of chaseable animals,
indeed, offered but little inducement to a protracted sojourn. The ques-
tion, at what time the natives ceased to resort to the mines, has been
answered in various ways. Mr. Whittlesey is of opinion that from five
to six hundred years may have elapsed since that time, basing his argu-
ment on the growth of trees that have sprung up in the rubbish thrown
out from the mines; Mr. Lapkam, on the other hand, believes in a con-
tinuance of the aboriginal mining operations to more recent periods, and
thinks they were carried on by the progenitors of the Indians still in-
habiting the neighboring parts, although they possess no traditions
relative to such labors. Probably as early as the first half of the sev-
enteenth century the French of Canada entertained with those tribes a
trade that provided the latter with iron tools, and the ornaments and
trinkets so much coveted by the red race. Thus, the inducements to
obtain copper ceased, and the practice of procuring it being once dis-
continued, a few centuries may have sufficed to efface the tradition from
the memory of the succeeding generations. Yet, like many other points
of North American archeology, this matter is still involved in obscu-
rity, and it would be hazardous, at present, to pronounce any decided
opinion on the subject.*

The occurrence of native copper in the United States is not confined
to the shore of Lake Superior. As I am informed by Professor James
D. Dana, it is also met, in pieces of several pounds’ weight, in the valley
of the Connecticut river, and likewise, in smaller pieces, in the State
of New Jersey, probably originating in both cases from the red sand-
stone formation. Near New Haven, Connecticut, a mass was found
weighing ninety pounds. Such copper finds may have furnished a small
part of the metal worked by the aboriginal inhabitants; its real source,
however, must be sought, in all probability, in the mining district of
Lake Superior. It is a remarkable circumstance that the native copper
there occurring sometimes incloses small masses of native silver, a jux-
taposition which, as I believe, is not to be observed at any other place
in the United States; and just such pieces in which the two natural
metals are combined have been taken from a few of the tumuli of
Ohio.

Though copper articles of Indian origin are comparatively scarce in

*The Indians certainly are a forgetful race. The traveler Stephens, who has exam-
ined and described the grand ruins of ancient buildings in Yucatan and the neighboring
states, maintains—and I believe on good grounds—that these erections, at least in
part, are the work of the same Indian populations with whom the conquistadores
(Hernandez de Cérdova, Grijalva, Cortés) were brought into contact during the six-
teenth century. The present descendants of the builders of those magnificent works
have preserved no recollections of their more advanced ancestors. Whenever Stephens
asked them concerning the origin of the buildings, their answer was, they had been
erected by the antiguos; but they could not explain their destination ; they were un-
acquainted with the meaning of the statues and fresco paintings, and manifested in
general a total ignorance of all that related to their former history.

4

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. B00

the United States,* the field of their distribution, nevertheless, is very
wide, extending from the Great Lakes to the Gulf States, and from the
Atlantic coast to the Mississippi, and, perhaps, some distance beyond
that river. Taking it for granted, as we may do, that the northern part of
Michigan is the point from which the metal was spread over that area,
the traffic in copper presents itself as very extensive as far as distance
is concerned. The difficulties connected with the labor of obtaining this
metal doubtless rendered it a valuable object, perhaps no less esteemed
than bronze in Europe, when the introduction of that composition was
yet of recent date. The copper probably was bartered in the shape of
raw material. Small pieces of this description, I have already stated,
were taken from the mounds of Ohio, and larger masses occasionally
have been met in the neighborhood of these works. One mass weigh-
ing twenty-three pounds, from which smaller portions evidently had
been detached, was discovered in the Scioto valley, near Chillicothe,
Ohio.t Of course, it is impossible at present to demonstrate in what
manner the copper trade was carried on, and we have to rest satisfied
with the presumption that the raw or worked copper went from hand to
hand in exchange for other productions of nature or art, until it reached
the places where we now find it. Perhaps there were certain persons
who made it their business to trade incopper. I must not omit to refer
here to some passages bearing, though indirectly, on the latter question,
which are contained in the old accounts of Hernando de Soto’s expedi-
tion. Garcilasso de la Vega speaks of wandering Indian merchants
(marchands), who traded in salt. The Knight of Elvas is still more
explicit on this point. According to him, the Indians of the province
of Cayag obtained salt by the evaporation of saline water. The method
is accurately described. They exported salt into other provinces, and
took in return skins and other commodities. Biedma, who accompanied
that memorable expedition as accountant, likewise speaks in various
places of salt-making among the Indians.§

GALENA.

It has been a common experience of discoverers that the primitive
peoples with whom they came in contact manifested, like children, a re-
markable predilection for brightly-colored and brilliant objects, which,
without serving for any definite purpose, were valued merely on account
of their external qualities. The later North American Indians exhibited

*The Smithsonian Institution has been receiving for years Indian antiquities from
all parts of North America, yet possessed in 1870 only seven copper objects ; namely,
three spearheads, two small rods, a semilunar knife with convex cutting edge, and an
axe of good shape. Professsor Baird was kind enough to send me photographs and
descriptions of these articles.

t Ancient Monuments, &c., p. 203.

¢ Conquéte de la Floride, Leide, 1731, Vol. II, p. 400.

§ Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto, &¢., p. 124. Biedma, pp. 152, 153,
and 207,

356 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

this tendency ina marked degree, and their predecessors, whose history
is shrouded in darkness, seem to have been moved by similar impulses.
Thus the common ore of lead, or galena, was much prized by the for-
mer inhabitants of North America, though there is, thus far, no conelu-
sive evidence of their having understood how to render it serviceable
by melting. Quite considerable quantities of this shining mineral
have been met in the mounds of Ohio. On the hearth of one of the
sacrificial mounds of that State, Messrs. Squier and Davis discovered a
deposit of galena, in pieces weighing from two ounces to three pounds,
the whole quantity amounting perhaps to thirty pounds. The sacrificial
fire had not been strong enough to convert the ore into pure metal, ,
though some of the pieces showed the beginning of fusion.* As
stated before, there is no definite proof that the aborigines were ac-
quainted with the process of reducing lead from its ore; for as yet no
leaden implements or ornaments have been discovered that can be as-
scribed with certainty to the former population. The peculiarly shaped
object of pure lead figured on page 209 of the “Ancient Monuments,”
which came to light while a well was sunk within the ditch of the earth-
work at Circleville, Ohio, was perhaps made by whites, or by Indians
at a period when they already had acquired from the former the know-
ledge of casting lead. This curious relic is in possession of Dr. Davis,
and I have often examined it. The archeological collection of the
Smithsonian Institute contains not a single Indian article of lead, but
quantities of galena, which were taken from various mounds. Yet,
supposing the Indians had known the fusibility of galena, the lead ex-
tracted therefrom could not have afforded them great advantages, con-
sidering that its very nature hardly admitted of any useful application.
“Too soft for axes or knives, too fusible for vessels, and too soon tar-
nished to be valuable for ornament, there was little inducement for its
manufacture.”—(Squier and Davis.) However, in making net-sinkers, it
would have been preferable to the flat pebbles notched on two opposite
sides, which the natives used as weights for their nets. Pebbles of this
description abound in the valley of the Susquehanna and in various
other places of the United States, especially in ‘the neighborhood of
rivers.

The frequent occurrence of galena on the altars of the sacrificial
mounds proves, at any rate, that the ancient inhabitants attributed a
peculiar value to it, deeming it worthy to be offered as a sacrificial
gift. The pieces of galena found in Ohio were, in all probability, ob-
tained in Iilinois or Missouri, from which regions they were transferred
by way of barter, as we may presume, to the Ohio valley. No original
deposits of galena are known in greater proximity that could have
furnished pieces equal to those taken from the mounds of Ohio.

*Ancient Monuments, pp. 149 and 209.

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. gol

OBSIDIAN.

The peculiar glass-like stone of voleanie origin, called obsidian, which
played such an important part in the household of the ancient Mexi-
cans, has not been met im situ within that large portion of the United
States (probably of North America in general) that lies north of Mexico
and to the east of the Rocky Mountains. Messrs. Squier and Davis,
nevertheless, have found obsidian in the shape of points for arrows and
spears and cutting implements, though mostly broken, in five mounds
of the Scioto valley, in Ohio; an object made of this material was like-
wise found in Tennessee,* and the numerous unopened mounds of the
United States may inclose many more articles of this class. The cop-
per used by the Indians, it has been seen, occurs as a product of nature
within the area over which it was spread by human agency ; it is differ-
ent, however, with regard to obsidian, and the question therefore arises,
from what region the builders of the large inclosures and tumuli in
Ohio obtained the last-named mineral. Obsidian, we know, is found
in the present territory of the United States on the western side of the
Rocky Mountains. Captain Bonneville noticed, about forty years ago,
that the Shoshonees or Snake Indians inthe neighborhood of Snake river
(or Lewis river) used arrows armed with points of obsidian, which, he
adds, abounds in that vicinity.t The latter fact is confirmed by Samuel
Parker, who found, some years later (1855), in the volcanic formations
of that region, “many large and fine specimens of pure obsidian or vol-
canic glass.”"{ According to Wyeth, the Shoshonees also employ sharp
obsidian flakes of convenient shape as knives, which they sometimes
* provide with handles of wood or horn. The same author mentions the
frequent occurrence of obsidian in the district inhabited by the Shosho-
nees.§ It is known that various tribes in New Mexico, Arizona, and
neighboring parts, Apaches, Mojaves, and others, frequently employ
obsidian in the manufacture of their arrowheads,

Mr. John R. Bartlett, from 1850 to 1853 commissioner of the United
States for determining the boundary line between the latter and Mexico,
found pieces of obsidian and fragments of painted pottery along the
Gila river, wherever there had been any Indian villages; and also
among the ruins of the Casas grandes, in Chihuahua, as well as those of
the Gila and Salinas rivers.|| The same observation has been made by
earlier and later travelers. The natives of Upper California employ
obsidian extensively for making arrowheads. Mr. Caleb Lyon, who

* Troost, Ancient Remains in Tennessee, in: Transactions of the American Ethnologi-
cal Society, New York, 1845, Vol. I, p. 361.

t Irving, Adventures of Captain Bonneville, New York, 1851, p. 255.

¢{ Parker, Exploring Tour beyond the Rocky Mountains, Ithaca, New York, 1844,
p. 98.

§ Wyeth, in Schooeraft’s Indian Tribes, Vol. I, p. 213.

|| Bartlett, Personal Narrative, &c., New York, 1854, Vol. II, p. 50. Compare: Hum-
boldt, Essai politique sur la Nouvelle-Espagne, Paris, 1825, Vol. I, p. 243, and Clavi-
gero, History of Mexico, Philadelphia, 1817, Vol. I, p. lal, }

358 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

was, about ten years ago, among the Shasta Indians in California, saw
one of the tribe engaged in making arrowheads from obsidian as well
as from the glass of a broken*porter-bottle. He describes the method
of manufacture in a letter which was published by the American Eth-
nological Society.* To this letter I shall refer in a succeeding section
of this essay, when treating of the division of labor among the North
American Indians. Mr. Bartlett visited, while in California, a locality
in the Napa valley (north of San Francisco), where obsidian occurs
in pieces from the size of a pea to that of an ostrich egg, which are
imbedded in a mass resembling a coarse,mortar of lime, sand, and
gravel. He found the surface in many places covered, from six to
twelve inches in depth, with broken piecesand small boulders of this
voleanie substance. The appearance of these spots reminded him of a
newiy-made macadamized road.t

The most extensive use of obsidian, however, was formerly made in
Mexico, before the empire of the Aztecs succumbed to the Spanish in-
vaders. Old obsidian mines are still seen on the Cerro de Navajas, or
‘Hill of Knives,” which is situated in a northeasterly direction from
the city of Mexico, at some distance from the Indian town Atotonilco el
Grande. These mines provided the ancient population of Mexico with
vast quantities of the much-prized stone, of which they made those fine
double-edged knives, arrow and spear-heads, mirrors, very skilfully
executed masks, and ornaments of various kinds. Humboldt speaks of
the Hill of Knives in a transient manner;t for a precise description we
are indebted to the meritorious English ethnologist, EK. B. Tylor, who
visited that interesting locality in 1856, while traveling through Mexico
in company with the late Mr. Christy.§ In describing the mines, Mr.
Tylor says: “Some of the trachytic porphyry which forms the substance
of the hills had happened to have cooled, under suitable conditions, from
the molten’state into a sort of slag, or volcanic glass, which is the obsid-
ian in question; and, in places, this vitreous lava, from one layer hav-
ing flowed over another which was already cool, was regularly stratified.
The mines were mere wells, not very deep, with horizontal workings
into the obsidian where it was very good and in thick layers. Round
about were heaps of fragments, hundreds of tons of them; and it was
clear, from the shape of these, that some of the manufacturing was done
on the spot. There had been great numbers of pits worked, and it was
from these minillas, little mines, as they are called, that we first got an
idea how important an element this obsidian was in the old Aztee civi-
lization. In excursions made since, we traveled over whole districts in
the plains where fragments of these arrows and knives were to be found

* Bulletin of the American Ethnological Society, New York, 1861, Vol. I, p. 39.

+ Personal Narrative, Vol. II, p. 49.

{ Essai politique sur la Nouvelle-Espagne, Vol. III, p. 122.

§ Tylor, Anahuac: or Mexico and the Mexicans, Ancient and Modern, Lond., 1861.
This volume contains, besides many facts relating to the archeology and ethnology of
Mexico, the best observations on obsidian I have found in any work on that country.

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 309

literally at every step, mixed with morsels of pottery, and here and
there a little clay idol.” *

From the centre of the State of Ohio to the country of the Sho-
shonees, as well as to the Rio Gila, and the just-described mines in
Mexico, the straight distances are almost equal, measuring about seven-
teen hundred English miles; indeed, the Mexican mines are a trifle
nearer to Ohio than the above-mentioned districts. It would be lost
labor, therefore, to indulge in speculations from which of these locali-
ties the obsidian found in Ohio and Tennessee was derived. The num-
ber of articles of this stone that has been met east of the Mississipp1
is so exceedingly small that its technical significance hardly deserves
any consideration. Yet, the sole fact of finding worked obsidian at
such great distances from the nearest places where it occurs either in

* Anahuace, p. 99. The following interesting communication was addressed to me by
Dr. C. H. Berendt :

“During one of many excursions which I made in the years 1853~56 around the
Citlaltepetl, or Pico de Orizaba (in the State of Vera Cruz), I saw an obsidian mine on
the western slope of that mountain. I had heard of it from my friend the late Mr. C.
Sartorius ,who had visited the place years ago. I was informed that the Indians of the
village of Alpatlahua knew the place, but that they did not like to have it visited.
Some say they have treasures hidden in the caves of the neighborhood; while others
believe that they have idols in those lonely places which they still secretly worship.
The cura of San Juan Coscomatepec, who was of this latter opinion, gave me the name
of a mestizo farmer in the neighborhood who might be induced to show me the place.
Our party followed from Coscomatepec the road which leads to the rancho Jacal and the
pass of La Cuchilla. We did not find the mestizo at home, but his wife, who directed
her boy to show us the cave. Reaching the bridge of the Jamapa river, we took a
by-road parting to the north, which brought us to the village of Alpatlahua, and about
four miles farther north to a branch of the Jamapa river, which we crossed. We then
left the road and proceeded about half a mile up the river through thick woods, when
we found ourselves suddenly before the entrance of the cave. It was about fifty feet
high and of considerable width, but obstructed by fallen rocks and shrubs. Heaps of
obsidian chips of more than a man’s height filled the bottom of the grotto, which had.
apparently no considerable horizontal depth. To the left the mine was seen, an excavation
of from six to eight square yards, the bottom filled up with rubbish and chips. Obsidian,
evidently, had not only been quarried, but also been made into implements at this
spot, the latter fact being proved by the occurrence of cores, or nuclei, of all sizes,
from which flakes or knives had been detached. We were not prepared for digging,
and it was too late for undertaking explorations that day. So we left, with the purpose
to return better prepared at another time, hoping to find some relics of the miners
and workmen, and, perhaps, other antiquities. But it happened that I never had an
opportunity to visit the place again. Mr. Sartorius saw in this cave three entrances
walled up with stone and mortar, but these I did not discover, having, as stated, no
time for a careful examination. Future travelers, I hope, will be more successful.

“Mr. Sartorious mentioned another place, likewise in the State of Vera Cruz, where
obsidian formerly was quarried. This place is situated in the chain of mountains ex-
tending from the Pice de Orizaba to the Cofre de Perote. One of the intervening
mountains, called Xalistac, is distinguished by a white spot that can be seen at the
distance of many miles, even at Vera Cruz. 1t is produced by an outcropping of puntice-
stone resting on an immense mass of obsidian that has been worked in various places.
I know the mountain well, but not the road leading to it, never having traveled in that
direction.”

360 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

situ or in consequence of human agency (as, perhaps, on the Gila), is in
itself of importance, for it furnishes an additional illustration of the far-
reaching communications among the aborigines of North America.

MICA.

Like the shining galena, mica (commonly called isin-glass), was a
substance held in high estimation by the former inhabitants ; but, while
the first-named mineral apparently fulfilled no definite purpose, being
deemed valuable merely for its brilliancy, the latter was often made into
articles of ornament, a purpose for which it certainly was well fitted on
account of its metallic lustre. It is also said to have been used for
mirrors. Mica is found in the tumuli in considerable quantities, some-
times in bushels, and is often ploughed up in the neighborhood of old
earthworks. It occurs in sepulchral mounds as well as, though more
rarely, in those of supposed sacrificial character. In the former the
plates of mica are placed on the chest or above the head of the skeleton,
and sometimes they cover it almost entirely. If I speak here of “plates
of mica,” the expression is to be taken literally, it being known
that this mineral occurs in some of the eastern parts of North America
in masses of considerable size, as, for instance, in New Hampshire,
where pieces of from two to three feet in diameter have been observed.

The most important archeological finds of mica, as far as I know,
occurred in Ohio. Of some of them I will give here a brief account.

Mr. Atwater has left a very accurate description of the earthwork at
Circleville, Ohio, now mostly obliterated, which consisted of a large cir-
cular and adjoining quadratic embankment. In the centre of the circle
there arose a sepulehral mound which contained two skeletons and
various objects of art, among which was a “mirror” of mica, about three
feet long, one foot and a half wide, and one inch and a half in thickness.
Atwater found these so-called mirrors at least in fifty different places in
Ohio, mostly in mounds. ‘They were common among that people,” he
says, “and answered very well the purpose for which they were in-
tended. ‘These mirrors were very thick, otherwise they would not have
reflected the light.”* It has been doubted, however, whether the objects
served as mirrors. It is true, every one who has come in contact with
the modern Indians knows how eager they are, prompted by vanity, to
obtain from the traders small looking-glasses, which they often carry
about their persons in order to contemplate their features, or to have
them on hand when they are about to paint their faces, or to eradicate
their scanty growth of beard. Yet, after all, 1 am inclinded to believe
that Atwater’s so-called mirrors were nothing else but those large plates
of mica, probably of symbolic character (as will be seen), which have
frequently been met since the publication of his account.

In the year 1828, during the digging of a canal near Newark, Ohio,
one of the low mounds frequent in that neighborhood was removed. It

* Atwater, in: Archeologica Americana, Worcester, 1820, Vol. I, pp. 178, 225.

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 361

contained fourteen skeletons in a high state of decomposition, which
were covered with a regular layer of mica plates. The latter were from
eight to ten inches in length, four or five inches wide, and from half an
inch to an inch in thickness. The quantity of mica thrown up from this
mound amounted to jifteen or twenty bushels.*

During their archeological investigations, Messrs. Squier and Davis
frequently found mica in the mounds, and they have given precise ac-
counts of their discoveries. In one of the sacrificial mounds near Chilli-
cothe, Ohio, they came upon a layer of round plates of silvery mica,
measuring from ten to twelye inches in diameter, which overlapped each
other like the tiles or slates on a roof, and were deposited in the shape
of a half-moon. The excavation laid. bare more than one-half of this
crescent, which could not have measured less than twenty feet from
horn to horn. The greatest width (in the middle) was five feet. It has
been thought that the shape of this curious deposit of mica might be
suggestive of the religious views of the builders of the mound, and
imply a tendency to moon-worship.t Another mound not far from the
preceding one—both belonged to a group of twenty-three within an in-
closure—likewise contained mica.t The circular cavity of the altar in
this mound was filled with fine ashes intermixed with fragments of clay
vessels and some small convex copper discs. Over these contents of
the basin a layer of mica sheets, overlapping each other, was spread
like a cover, which, again, served as the basis for a heap of burned
human bones, probably belonging to a single person.§

The authors of the “Ancient Monuments” also found occasionally in
the mounds ornaments made of thin sheets of mica, cut out very neatly
and with great regularity in the shapes of scrolls, oval plates, and dises,
and pierced with small holes for suspension or attachment. They
doubtless were intended to embellish the dress of persons of distinction.||
Dr. Davis has some of these ornaments which, fastened on black vel-
vet, almost might be taken for silver objects, the mica of which they
are made being of the perfectly opaque kind. Ornamental plates of
mica, further, were met in the large Grave-Creek Mound, situated
twelve miles below Wheeling, in Western Virginia. This burial-
mound, which is one of the highest in the United States—it Is seventy
feet high—was opened in 1838. Near one of the skeletons, one hun-
dred and fifty rather irregularly-shaped thin sheets of mica, from one
inch and a half to two inches in size, were collected. They were all
provided with two or more holes for stringing them together, and had
evidently formed a scarf or some other article of personal adornment.

* Ancient Monuments, p. 72.

t+ Ancient Monuments, p. 154.

{This earthwork, called ‘“ Mound City” by Squier and Davis, willbe described in asub-
sequent section.

§ Ancient Monuments, p. 145.

|| Ancient Monuments, p. 155; representations on p. 240.

{ Schoolcraft, in: Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, Vol. I, p. 399.

362 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

The preceding quotations, to which others of similar purport might
be added, will suffice to show how much mica was valued by the
former inhabitants of the Mississippi valley; indeed, the frequent and
peculiar occurrence of this mineral in the mounds almost might justify
the conjecture that it was believed to be invested with some mysterious
significance, and played a part in the superstitious rites of the abori-
gines. Mica has been found in a worked and raw state in districts
where it is not furnished by nature, and therefore may be safely classed
among the aboriginal articles of exchange. In the State of Ohio, to ,
which my observations chiefly refer, mica is not found in situ, and it is
presumed that the mineral discovered in that State was derived from
the southern spurs of the Alleghany Mountains. Yet, it may have
been brought from greater distances, and from various points, to its
present places of occurrence.

SLATE.

Various kinds of ancient Indian stone manufactures frequently con-
sist of a greenish slate, which is often marked with darker parallel or
concentric stripes or bands, giving the objects made of it a very pretty
appearance. This slateis not very hard, but of close grain and therefore
easily worked and polished. The objects made of this stone, which occur
on the surface as well as in mounds, are generally executed with great
care and regularity, and itis muchto be regretted that the destination of
some of them is not quite well known. Among the latter are certain
straight tubes of cylindrical and other shapes and various lengths,
which sometimes terminate in a kind of ‘‘mouth-piece.” While the
smaller ones, which often measure only a few inches, have been thought
to represent articles of ornament, or amulets, a different purpose has
been ascribed to the longer specimens. Schoolcraft appears to consider
these latter as telescopic instruments which the ancient inhabitants
used for observing the stars. This view, I think, has been generally re-
jected. It is far more probable that these tubes, in part at least, were
implements of the sorcerers or medicine-men, who employed them in
their pretended cures of diseases. They applied one end of the tube to
the suffering part of the patient and sucked at the other end, in order
to draw out, as it were, the morbid matter, which they afterwards
feigned to eject with many gesticulations and contortions of the body.
Coxreal calls the tubes used by the medicine-men of the Florida Indians
a kind of shepherd’s flute (wne espéce de chalumeau) and the character of
some of the stone implements in question that have been found cer-
tainly justifies this comparison.* Kohl saw, as late as 1855, one of the
above-mentioned cures performed among the Ojibways of Lake Supe-

* Coreal, Voyages aux Indes Occidentales, Amsterdam, 1722, Vol. I, p. 39.

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 363

rior; in this instance, however, the tube used by the medicine-man was
a smooth hollow bone, probably of the brant-goose.*

A far more numerous class of articles often made of the greenish
striped slate is represented by small, variously-shaped tablets of great
regularity and finish, which are pierced in the middle with one, two, or
more round holes. The most frequent shape of these tablets is illus-
trated by the upper figure on Plate 28 in Vol. I of Sehoolcraft’s work on
the Indian tribes. It is that of a rectangle with sides exhibiting a sight
outward curve. The full-size drawing of this rather large specimen is
done in volors, and thus affords the advantage of showing the greenish
tint and the markings of the stone. Other tablets are lozenge-shaped,
quadratic with inwardly-curved sides, oval, cruciform, &c.t Most of
them have two perforations, though specimens with only one are not
sSearce, while those that have more than two holes are of less frequent
occurrence. The holes are drilled either from one side or from both,
and, accordingly, of conical or bi-conical shape. They seldom have
more than one-eighth of an inch in diameter at the narrowest part.
Concerning the destination of the tablets nothing is definitely known.
At first sight one might be inclined to consider them as objects of orna-
ment or as badges of distinction; but this view is not corroborated by
the appearance of the perforations, which exhibit no traces of the wear
produced by continued suspension, being, on the contrary, in most cases
as perfect as if they had but lately been drilled. The classification of
the tablets as “ gorgets,” therefore, may be regarded as erroneous.
Schoolcraft calls them implements for twine-making. It has been sug-
gested that they were used in condensing and rounding bow-strings by
drawing the wet strips of hide, or the sinews employed for that pur-
pose, through the round perforations. The diameter of the latter, it is
true, corresponds to the thickness of an ordinary Indian bow-string;
but also in this case the usually unworn state of the holes rather speaks
against this supposition.

Being desirous to learn whether Mr. George Catlin had seen, during
his first sojourn among the western tribes, anything like those tabiets
used by them in making bow-strings, I availed myself of that gentle-
man’s return to the United States, and asked him by letter, among other
matters, for information concerning this subject. He replied (Decem-
ber 24, 1871) as follows:

“Of the tablets you speak of, I have seen several, but the holes were
much larger than those you describe. Those that I have seen were

* Kohl, Kitschi-Gami, oder Erziihlungen vom Obern See, Bremen, 1856, Vol. I, p.
148. Compare: Venegas, History of California, London, 1759, Vol. I, p. 97, and Baegert’s
Account of the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Californian Peninsula, Smithsonian Re-
port for 1864, p. 386. Drawings of the stone tubes are given on pp. 224-27 of the
“Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley.”

tThe various shapes of these tablets, and of other perforated objects, not exactly
tablets, but probably intended for the same purpose, are represented on pages 236 and
237 of the “Ancient Monuments.”

364 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

used by the Indians for grooving the shafts of their arrows. All arrows
of the primitive Indians are found with three grooves from the arrow’s
shoulder, at the fluke, extending to, and conducting the air between,
the feathers, to give them steadiness. These grooves, on close exam-
ination, are found to be indented by pressure, and not in any way cut
out; and this pressure is produced, while forcing the arrow, softened
by steam, through a hole in the tablet, with the incisor of a bear set
firmly in a handle and projecting over the rim of the hole as the arrow-
shaft is forced downward through the tablet, getting compactness, and
on the surface and in the groove a smoothness, which no cutting, filing,
or scraping can produce. It would be useless to pass the bow-string
through the tablet, for the evenness and the hardness of the strings are
produced much more easily and effectually by rolling them, as they do,
between two flat stones while saturated with heated glue.”

Thus, Mr. Catlin’s experience is rather unfavorable to the supposition
that the pierced stone tablets mentioned by me were used in condens-
ing bow-strings. Yet, after all, they probably served for some similar
purpose, which may be clearly defined hereafter by continued examina-
tion and comparison. I regard them as implements, and not as objects
of ornament or distinction.*

The greenish slate is frequently the material of another numerous
class of Indian relics of enigmatical character. I allude to those curious
articles bearing a distant resemblance to a bird, which are pierced at
the base with diagonal holes, evidently for suspension, the traces of
wear being distinctly visible. They probably represent insignia or
amulets. I have also heard the suggestion that they were used for
removing the husk of Indian corn.t

Of much rarer occurrence than the articles thus far enumerated in this
section are perforated implements somewhat resembling an axe with
two cutting edges, or, more often, a double pick-axe, which, doubtless,
were provided with handles and worn as badges of distinction by the
superiors.{ These objects are for the most part elegantly shaped, but
of small size, and cannot have been applied to any practical use, their
material, moreover, consisting generally of soft stone, more particularly
of the greenish slate in question. It is evident, therefore, that they ful-
filled a symbolical purpose, and were employed in the manner just men-
tioned.

*The Smithsonian Report for 1870, which has appeared since the above was written,
contains, among other ethnological matter, an account of an exploration of mounds in
Kentucky, by Mr. Sidney 8. Lyon. Among the contents of oneof the mounds was “a
black stone with holes through it.” J have seen this kind of an instrument, says Mr.
Lyon, used by the Pah- Utes of Southeastern Nevada, for giving uniform size to their bow-strings.
(p. 404.)

tA group of these singular objects is represented on page 239 of the “ Ancient Monu-
ments.”

t Schooleraft gives on Plate 11, Vol. I, of his large work, two colored half-size repre-
sentations of such implements, which he calls “ maces.”

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 365

Having now briefly described the most important classes of relics
made of the striped slate, I pass over to the principal point of inquiry,
namely, the extent of their occurrence. I know from personal expe-
rience that they are found from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi
river, a distance about equal to one-third of the whole breadth of
the United States. It is possible that they are scattered over a far
greater area. In 1848, when Squier and Davis published their work, in
which aboriginal manufactures were for the first time accurately described,
they could not syecify the locality from which the oft-mentioned slate
was derived. Since that time geological surveys have been made in all
States of the Union, and the places of its occurrence are no longer un-
known. Jt appears, I am informed, as the oldest sedimentary forma-
tion, in quite considerable masses along the Atlantic coast, and has
been observed from Rhode Island to Canada. This slate is not believed
to occur in other parts of the Union, and it may be presumed, therefore,
that it was brought from the Atlantic coast-districts, either in a rough or
already worked condition, to the more western regions of the United
States.

FLINT.

-The real flint (Feuerstein in German) which is found abundantly, in
rounded pieces or nodules in the cretaceous formations of the countries
bordering on the Baltic, of England, France, &c., and which-has played
such an important part in the prehistoric ages of Europe, does not seem
to occur within the United States. For this information I am person-
ally indebted to Professor James D. Dana. On the other hand, many
parts of this country are very rich in various kinds of stones of a sili-
cious character, which, in consequence of their hardness and conchoidal
fracture, were well fitted to replace the missing variety in the produc-
tion of chipped implements. The term “ flint,” therefore, is used here in a
rather extensive sense, comprising hornstone, jasper, chalcedony, fer-
ruginous quartz, sweetwater quartz, milky quartz, semi-opulic stones,
&e., and the numerous transitions from one quartzy variety into another,
for which the science of mineralogy has no special denominations. The
common white quartz, also, I may remark in this place, and the trans-
parent rock-crystal, were used for pointing arrows; and in districts
where harder stones were scarce, even slates and greenstones served as
substitutes for them in the fabrication of arrow and spearheads.

As in Europe, so also in the United States, places have been discov-
ered where the manufacture of flint implements was carried on. These
‘‘open-air workshops” (ateliers en plein air) are by no means rare in
North America, and they begin to attract considerable attention since
the successful archeological researches in Europe have stimulated to
similar pursuits in this country. As the North American tribes all used
the bow, and consequently were in constant need of arrowheads, the
manufacture of the latter took place in many localities, especially in
such as furnished the stones most proper for that purpose. The Ajoek-

366 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

kenmoedding at Keyport, New Jersey, described by me in the Smithson-
ian Report for 1864, evidently was one of the places where flint imple-
ments were made by the natives. I not only saw there among the shell-
heaps countless chips of flint, but found also a number of unfinished
arrowheads, which had been thrown aside on account of a wrong crack
or some other defect in the stone. The necessary material was here fur-
nished on the spot, in the shape of innumerable water-worn pebbles of
silicious character, which lie intermixed with the shells. Among the un-
finished arrowheads picked up by me at this place there are some which
exhibit a part of the smooth water-worn surface of the pebble from
which they were made.

In the middle part of the Mississippi valley, where I lived many
years, and had occasion to make various observations, the Indians were
amply provided by nature with the material employed in the fabrication
of spear and arrowheads. The prevailing rock of those regions is a
limestone in which several of the varieties of the quartz family are
found, either in layers or in irregular concretions.. In the bluff forma-
tions of the ‘American Bottom” in Ilinois, for instance, I have traced
myself layers of hornstone, chalcedony, &e., for the distance of miles.
In the districts under notice, moreover, the surface is covered here and
there with many silicious pebbles and boulders, which furnished an
inexhaustible supply of available material.

An important locality to which the aborigines resorted, perhaps from
great distances, for quarrying flint, is in Ohio, on the line of a caleareo-
silicious deposit, called “‘ Flint Ridge,” which extends through Muskin-
gum and Licking Counties of that State. ‘The compact silicious mate-
rial of which this ridge is made up,” says Dr. Hildreth, ‘‘ seems to have
attracted the notice of the aborigines, who have manufactured it largely
into arrow and spearheads, if we may be allowed to judge from the
numerous circular excavations which have been made in mining the
rock, and the piles of chipped quartz lying on the surface. How exten-
sively it has been worked for these purposes, may be imagined from the
countless number of the pits, experience having taught them that the
rock recently dug from the earth could be split with more freedom
than that which had lain exposed to the weather. These excavations
are found the whole length of the outcrop, but more abundantly at
‘Flint Ridge,’ where it is most compact and diversified with rich
colors.”*

The Indian working-places of which I spoke are not always met in
the neighborhood of those spots where flint was quarried or otherwise
abundant, but also sometimes at considerable distances from the latter,
in which cases they are, of course, of comparatively small extent.
Their existence, however, proves that the material was transported from
place to place, and thus assumed the character of a ware. Colonel

* Hildreth, in Mather’s First Annual Report on the Geological Survey of the State
of Ohio, Columbus, 1838, p. 31.

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 367

Charles C. Jones, of Brooklyn, who has paid particular attention to the
former history of his native State Georgia, informed me he had ob-
served quantities of silicious stone, surrounded by numerous rejected
fragments and unfinished spear and arrowheads of the same material,
in districts of that State where far and near no quartz minerals occur
in situ. He showed me a number of these incomplete flint objects ob-
tained from such places,

For the fact that stones for arrowheads formed an object of traffic
among the natives, even historical evidence is not wanting. I refer to
a passage in the relation of Cabeca de Vaca, the first European who
has given an account of the interior of North America. The passage
in question will be quoted in a subsequent section.

1am of opinion that flint in a half-worked state, that is, in flattish
pieces roughly chipped around their circumference and presenting
irregular heart-shaped, oval, or round outlines, formed an object of ex-
change, and as such was transported to places far distant from the sites
which furnished the raw material. Those who quarried the flint fash-
ioned it in this manner for the sake of saving space and for easier tran-
sportation. Smaller or greater quantities of such worked flint frag-
ments of homogeneous character are sometimes found in the earth,
where the natives had buried them, believing that flint splits more
readily when recently taken from the ground. These deposits, however,
are not always composed of pieces which required further chipping in
order to receive their final shape, but also sometimes of finished imple-
ments. I have treated of these buried deposits of flint objects in an
article published in the Smithsonian Report for 1868, to which I refer
in order to avoid repetitions.* The agricultural implements of East
St. Louis, described in that article, are very skilfully executed
manufactures of the aborigines; the large flint discs, on the contrary,
which, as I mentioned, Messrs. Squier and Davis found in great num-
ber in a mound of ‘Clark’s Work” in Ohio, and the rude flint objects
of elongated oval outline from the bank of the Mississippi between
St. Louis and Carondelet, present, in all probability, only rudi-
mentary forms of implements, and were destined to be finished at a
future time. It cannot be doubted that the stone of which the dises
of Clark’s Work are made was derived from the quarries of Flint
Ridge. This fact has been established by careful comparisons. The
stone in question is designated as hornstone. It is a beautiful ma-
terial, resembling in color and grain certain varieties of the real
European flint, and is sometimes marked with darker or lighter con-
centric bands, the centre of which is formed by a small nucleus of
blue chalcedony. These bands are particularly observable on the sur-
faces which have undergone a.change of color by exposure. The stone,
in general, possesses qualities by which it can be recognized at once,
even when met in a wrought state far from its original place of occur-

* A Deposit of Agricultural Flint Implements in Southern Ilinois, p. 401.

368 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMEBICA.

renee. According to Mr. Squier, arrowheads made of this hornstone
have been found in Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan. That
they occur in Llinois, I can attest from personal experience.

A very remarkable find of objects manufactured from the hornstone
of Flint Ridge occurred in the summer of 1869 on the farm of Oliver H.
Mullen, near Fayetteville, in St. Clair County, of the State of Illinois.
Some children, amusing themselves near the barn of that farm, happened
to dig into the ground, and came upon a deposit of fifty-two disc-like
flint implements, which lay closely heaped together. I obtained a num-
ber of these implements through my indefatigable co-laborer, Dr. Pat- .
rick, of Belleville, itinois. They coincide in shape with those of Clark’s
Work, but are somewhat smaller, and not, like the latter, superficially
prepared objects, but highly-finished implements. This factis shown by
the careful chipping of the edges, to which sharpness and roundness have
been imparted by small and carefully measured blows. Unlike the de-
posit of East St. Louis, which consisted of perfectly new implements,
that of Fayetteville was made up of such as had already done service.
To this conclusion I am lead by the character of their edges, which ex-
hibit a slight wear or polish. I regard these implements as scraping or
smoothing tools, to which purposes they were well adapted by their
shape; and I have but little doubt that the less finished dises of Clark’s
Work were to be converted, by further chipping, into implements of the
same kind.

In connection with the object, however, which I have in view in this
essay, the identity of the stone of Flint Ridge with that of which the
tools found at Fayetteville in Illinois consist, is the point that deserves
particular consideration. This identity admits of no doubt. I was
convineed of it at first sight when I[ received the implements from Fay-
etteville, and so were Messrs. Squier and Davis, to whom I showed my
specimens. The direct distance from the quarries at Flint hidge to
Fayetteville is about four hundred English miles, and thus.far, at least,
the stone was exported, in a rudimentary or finished shape, from its
original site. So muchis certain; but itis not unlikely that implements
made of this hornstone will be found hereafter at still greater distances
from the quarries in Ohio.

RED PIPESTONE.

The celebrated red pipestone, that highly valued material employed
by the Indians of past and present times in the manufacture of their
calumets, occurs in situ on the Coteau des Prairies, an elevation extend-
ing between the Missouri and the headwaters of the Mississippi.
This is the classical ground of the surrounding tribes, and many le
gends lend a romantic interest to that region. It was here that the
Great Spirit assembled the various Indian nations and instructed them
in the art of making pipes of peace, as related by Longfellow in his

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 369

charming “Song of Hiawatha.” Even hostile tribes met here in peace,
for this district was, by common consent, regarded as neutral ground,
where strife and feuds were suspended, that all might resort unmolested
to the quarry and supply themselves with the much-prized red stone.
This material, though compact, is not hard, and therefore easily worked,
and, moreover, capable of a high polish. It consists chiefly of silica
and alumina, with an admixture of iron, which produces the red color.
American, and probably also European, mineralogists call this stone
Catlinite, in honor of the zealous ethnologist and painter, Catlin, who
was the first to give an accurate account of its place of océurrence, and
to relate the traditions connected with the red pipestone quarry.* This
locality is the only one in North America where this peculiar stone is
found, and it is doubtful, indeed, whether in any other place on both
hemispheres a mineral substance is met which corresponds in every re-
spect to the one in question.

The enterprising Jesuit missionary, Marquette, whose name is for-
ever linked with the exploration of the Mississippi, smoked already in
the year 1673 the pipe of peace with the Illinois Indians, and gives the
following exact description of that important utensil, the bowl of which,
it will be seen, consisted of the red stone of Coteau des Prairies. “It
is made of a polished red stone, like marble, so pierced that one end
serves to hold the tobacco, while the other is fastened on the stem,
which is a stick two feet long, as thick as a common cane, and pierced
in the middle; it is ornamented with the head and neck of different
birds of beautiful plumage; they also add large feathers of red, green
and other colors, with which it is all covered.”+ His ecclesiastical sue-
cessors also frequently mention the red pipes in their writings, but none
of them, as far as I know, alludes to the locality where the stone was ob-
tained. The first notice referable to that place, I found in the *‘ History of
Louisiana” by DuPratz, and even his statement is totally erroneous as far
as the situation of the quarry isconcerned. ‘ On the bank of the Missouri,”
he says, “there is to be seen a pretty high cliff (écore), which rises so
abruptly from the water that the nimblest rat could not climbit. From
the middle part of this cliff projects a mass of red stone, which is
marked with white spots like porphyry, from which it differs, however,
by inferior hardness, being almost as soft as tufa. It is covered by an-
other kind of stone of no value, and rests upon the same sort of earth
that forms the other hills. The inhabitants of the country, knowing
the applicability of that stone, are in the habit of detaching pieces of
it by arrow-shots, which pieces, falling into the water, are recovered by
diving. From fragments of sufficient size they make calumets, using
their knives and awls in manufacturing them. This stone can be

~ Catlin, North American Indians, London, 1848, Vol II, Letters 54 and 55.
tShea, Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley, New York, 1852, p. 35.
248

370 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

worked without difficulty and resists the fire very well.”* Leaving aside the
incorrect description of the locality and of the character of occurrence,
the stone here mentioned corresponds exactly to that of Coteau des Prai-
ries, the latter being, indeed, very often marked with lighter (though
not white) spots, which give it a perfectly porphyritic appearance.
I have seen many raw pieces of the red pipestone and have some my-
self, in which this peculiarity is prominently exhibited. The unworked
stone is usually of a dull pale red, the heightened color appearing only
after the process of polishing.

Carver, who explored the region of the Upper Mississippi in 1766~68,
mentions the red stone, but does not seem to have visited its place of oc-
currence, which he marks on his map as the ‘Country of Peace.” He
also states distinctly in his work that even individuals belonging to hos-
tile tribes met in peace at the ‘* Red Mountain,” where they obtained the
stone for their pipes.t This shows that, at his time, the neutrality of the
district was still respected. This laudable regulation, it also appears,
had not yet become obsolete in the beginning of the present century,
for on the map accompanying the work in which Lewis and Clarke
describe the territories explored by them in 1804~’6, the locality in ques-
tion is thus designated: ‘ Here the different Tribes meet in Friendship
and collect Stone for Pipes.” Yet, about forty years ago, when Catlin
visited the Coteau des Prairies, the warlike Sioux or Dakotahs had
usurped the exclusive authority over the quarry, not permitting their
enemies to provide themselves with stone. Catlin and his English
traveling companion encountered at first difficulties on their way to the
quarry, a band of those Indians trying to prevent them from going
there. ‘ As this red stone,” the warriors said, “was a part of their
flesh, it would be sacrilegious for white men to touch or take it away; a
hole would be made in their flesh and the blood could never be made to
stop running.”{ When, subsequently, after Catlin’s return from the
quarry, an old chief of the Sacs saw some pieces of the red stone in the
traveler’s possession, he observed: ‘My friend, when I was young I
used to go with our young men to the Mountain of the Red Pipe and dig
out pieces for our pipes. We do not go now, and our red pipes, as you
see, are but few. The Dakotahs have spilled the blood of the red men on
that place and the Great Spirit is offended.Ӥ

Mr. Catlin is of opinion that the Indian quarrying operations at
Coteau des Prairies reach back into far remote times, basing his view

* Du Pratz, Histoire de la Louisiane, Paris, 1758, Vol. I, p. 326. The passage in
question is not quite elear. It remains doubtful whether DuPratz, in speaking of the
stone resembling porphyry, relates what he has heard himself, or alludes to the jour-
nal of M. de Bourgmont, to which he refers on the preceding page. The last-named
cavalier undertook, in 1724, an expedition to the country of the Padoucas, or Co-
manches. The erroneous account may be due to the natives, who purposely misplaced
the locality of the quarry.

+ Carver, Travels, p. 78.

t Catlin, Vol. II, p. 166.

§ Ibid., Vol. II, p. 171,

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. oak:

chiefly on the traditions of the Indians, which certainly indicate a com-
paratively long acquaintance with the locality. It appears, however,
hardly admissible to ascribe a very high antiquity to the quarry, consider-
ing that thus far no pipes or objects of ornament made of the red stone
have been discovered in the oldest tumuli of the Mississippi valley, aud
the results of a recent examination of the Coteau des Prairies by Dr.
F. V. Hayden likewise tend to detract much from the supposed antiquity
of this aboriginal place of resort. According to Dr. Hayden, the layer of
Catlinite, hardly a foot in thickness, rests upon a gray quartzite, and
there are about five feet of the same gray quartzite above it, which the
Indians had to remove with great labor before the pipestone could be
secured. A ditch from four to five feet wide and about five hundred
yards in length indicates the extent of work done by the Indians. Only
about one-fourth of the pipestone layer, thin as it is, can be used for the
manufacture of pipes and other objects, the remainder being too impure,
slaty, or fragile. Dr. Hayden describes the place as unpicturesque and
deficient in trees. He found no stone implements in the vicinity, nor
did he learn that any had ever been found; rusty iron tools, on the
other hand, are frequently discovered. According to his view, the quarry
belongs to a comparatively recent period.t

Nevertheless the fact seems to be well established that ‘he surround-
ing tribes resorted for many succeeding generations to this locality, and
that it formed a neutral ground, which they approached with a kind of
superstitious awe. The Indians looked upon the red stone as a particu-
larly valuable gift of the Great Spirit, and Catlin relates from personal
observation that they humbly sacrificed tobacco before five huge boul-
ders of granite near the quarry, in order to acquire the privilege, as it
were, to take away a few pieces of the stone.t At present the settle-
ments of the whites are advancing toward that interesting spot, which
lies now, indeed, within the State of Minnesota, close to its western
border, and in a county to which the name “ Pipestone” has been given.
A communication from Dr. Hayden informs me that the place is still
visited by Dakotah Indians, but not very frequentiy, and without the
observance of those ceremonies which formerly appeared indispensable.
Not much longer, however, will the red man be seen to make his pil-
grimage to the quarry of Coteau des Prairies.

Mr. Catlin has published very good drawings of the red pipes, which
are, moreover, familiar to every one who has paid some attention to
Indian matters. Some of them bear testimony to the skill and patience
of their makers, who, in most cases, probably possess no other imple-
ments than the knives and files obtained from the traders. The cylin-
drical or conical cavities in the bowl and neck of these pipes are drilled
with a hard stick and sharp sand and water.{

* Hayden, in American Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. XLIII, January, 1867.
t Catlin, Vol. II, p. 166.
¢ Catlin, Vol. I, p. 234.

372 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

Not long ago a small Catlinite pipe of unusual shape was sent to me,
which had been ploughed up in a maize-field near Centreville, in Southern
Illinois (St. Clair County). Such older specimens are even met in
the New England States, near the Atlantic coast. The collection of the
Smithsonian Institute contains some pipes and ornaments made of Cat-
linite, which were taken from Indian graves in the State of New York,
or obtained from the Iroquois still inhabiting the same State. The raw
or worked red pipestone, therefore, constituted an article of barter,
which was brought from its original place of occurrence to the present
Eastern States of the Union. <A passage in Loskiel, who chiefly treats
of the Delawares and Iroquois, refers to this trade. In describing the
pipes of those Indians, he says: ‘‘Some are manufactured from a kind
of red stone, which is sometimes brought for sale by Indians who live
near the Marble river, on the western side of the Mississippi, where they
extract it (sic) from a mountain.”* This passage, it will be noticed, im-
plies.a direct trade-connection of great extent, the distance between the
red pipestone quarry and the Northern Atlantic States being equal to
twelve or thirteen hundred English miles.

SHELLS.

A substance pleasing to the eye, and easily worked, such as is offered
by nature in the shells of marine and fresh-water mollusks, could not
fail to attract the attention of men in the earliest times. The love of
personal adornment, moreover, already manifests itself in the lowest
stages of human development,t and shells being, above other natural
productions, particularly fitted to be made into ornaments, it is not sur-
prising that they were employed for that purpose in all parts of the
world. The North American tribes made an extensive use of the shells
of the sea-coast as well as of those of their rivers, and fossil marine
shells were also employed as ornaments. The valves of recent marine
mollusks, indeed, must have been widely circulated by barter, consider-
ing that they are found, in the shape of ornaments, and sometimes of
utensils, in the interior of North America, at great distances from the
shores of the sea. The oldest reference to the shell-trade among the
aborigines is contained in the remarkable account of the Spaniard
Alvar Nufiez Cabeca de Vaca, who accompanied in the year 1527, as
treasurer and alguazil mayor, the unfortunate Pamphilo de Narvaez on

* Loskiel, Mission der evangelischen Briider unter den Indianern in Nordamerika,
Barby, 1789, p. 66.

tIt is probable that the barbarous manufacturers of the rude flint tools found, asso-
ciated with the bones of extinct animals, in the diluvial deposits of Northern France,
_ used small round petrefacts of the chalk (Coscinopora globularis, D’Orb.) as beads, by
stringing them together, these petrified bodies being provided by nature with holes
passing through their middle (Lyell, Antiquity of Man, p. 119). Personal vanity is a
prominent feature in the character of the North American Indians. Among the mis-
_ erable Root-Diggers an old woman has been seen, who “had absolutely nothing on
her person but a thread ;ound her neck, from which was pendent a solitary bead.”
(irving, Adventures of Captain Bonneville, p. 261.)

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 373
his expedition for the conquest of Florida The leader and nearly all
his followers having perished, Cabeca de Vaca, one of the survivors,
wandered with his companions for many years through North America,
until he finally succeeded in reaching the settlements of his country-
men near Culiacan, in the present Mexican province of Sinaloa, after
having traversed the whole continent from the Floridian peninsula to the
Pacific coast. The description of his adventures and sufferings forms
one of the most remarkable early works on North America, being, in-
deed, the first that treats of the interior of the country and of its na-
tive population. For the latter reason it is of particular value to the
ethnologist, presenting, as it does, the Indians as they were seen by the
first white visitors.* While he sojourned among the Charruco Indians,
a tribe inhabiting the coast, he carried on the business of a trader,
which, as he observes, suited him very well, because it protected him at
least from starvation. The excursions undertaken in the pursuit of his
trade sometimes extended as far as forty or fifty leagues from the coast into
the interior of the district. His wares consisted of pieces and “ hearts”
of sea-shells (pedagos de caracoles de la mar y coragones de ellos), ot
shells employed by the Indians as cutting implements, and of a smaller
kind that was used as money. These objécts of trade he transported
to parts distant from the sea, exchanging them there for other articles
of which the coast-people were in want, such as hides, a red earth
for painting their faces, stones for arrowheads, hard reeds for shafting
the latter, and, finally, tufts of deer’s hair dyed of a scarlet color, which
were worn as head-dresses.t This passage, indeed, is of particular in-
terest in connection with the subject treated in this essay, because it
affords not only some insight into the system of Indian trade, but like-
wise informs us that among the objects of exchange those were con-
spicuous which served for the gratification of personal vanity. By the
‘‘hearts” of sea-shells Cabeca de Vaca understands the spines or colu-
melle of large conchs, which parts were worked by the aborigines into a
kind of ornament, of which more will be said hereafter.

Large quantities of shell-ornaments, mostly destined to be strung
together or to be worn as pendants, have been found in the sepulchral
mounds and other burial-places of the Indian race. In Ohio, accord-
ing to Messrs. Squier and Davis, beads made of shell and other mate-

* The importance of Cabega de Vaca’s work, it seems to me, has been undervalued,
perhaps on account of the marvelous cures which he pretends to have performed
among the natives. Imbued with the superstitions of his time, he probably believed
in his own powers of healing the sick in a supernatural way. When these incredible
details are taken away, there remains much in the book that deserves the highest ap-
preciation. According to Arthur Helps, a most careful investigator, his account
“bears every mark of truthfulness.” See: Helps, The Spanish Conquest in America,
Harper’s edition, Vol. IV, p. 397.

+t Relation et Naufrages d’Alvar Nuiez Cabega de Vaca, (Ternaux-Compans Col-
lection), Paris, 1837, p. 121, &c. The Spanish original appeared in the year 1555 at
Valladolid.

374 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

rials occur even more frequently in the sacrificial mounds than in those
of a sepulchral character, a circumstance that may be accounted for by
the value attached to these objects by their owners, who deemed them
worthy of being offered in their sacrificial rites. The methods employed
by the manufacturers doubtless being of the most primitive character,
each shell-bead was the result of a certain amount of patient labor, and
consequently was esteemed according to the time and art bestowed on
its production.

The Indian shell-ornament in its simplest form consisted of entire
specimens of small marine univalves, such as species of Marginella,
Natica, and Oliva, which, after being conveniently pierced, could be
strung together at once without further preparation, and worn as neck-
laces, armlets, &c. The above-mentioned kinds were met by Squier and
Davis in the mounds of Ohio, and in opening the Grave Creek Mound
five hundred specimens of Marginella were obtained near one of the
skeletons. Some time ago, [ received pierced specimens of Marginella,
recovered in removing a mound at East St. Louis, in Southern Jili-
nois, which, I believe, contained a great number of them. Small sea-
shells appear to be particularly abundant in the Indian graves of the
Gulf States. More than a hundred years ago, it was noticed by Carver
that sea-shells were much worn by the Indians of the interior parts—
he chiefly refers to the Dakotahs on the Upper Mississippi—-and reck-
oned very ornamental. He could not learn how they procured them,
but thought they were obtained by traffic with other nations nearer the
sea.* Small fossil marine shells were sometimes used for the same pur-
pose. In an article published in the Smithsonian Report for 1868, I
have stated that a large number of such fossil shells were found, asso-
ciated with agricultural flint implements, under the surface at Hast
St. Louis, the place already mentioned.t They belonged almost ex-
clusively to the genus Conovulus (Melampus), and many of them were
prepared for stringing by a lateral perforation, as shown in the drawing
(on p. 404) representing one of those shells. My knowledge, however,
that the Indians used small fossil sea-shells as ornaments is not confined
to the case in question, and I presume that many of the small marine
shells taken from the mounds, which are considered as belonging to
recent species, are, in reality, of fossil origin. Other fossil remains in
a worked state, it may be mentioned in this connection, were obtained
from the mounds of Ohio, as, for instance, shark’s teeth, and others of
considerable size, perhaps belonging to a cetaceous animal. The for-
mer are notched on both sides, or pierced at the lower end, and may
have served, respectively, as amulets, arrowheads, or cutting imple-
ments.

Yet, the number of entire sea-shells employed as beads by the natives

* Carver, Travels, p. 151.
+ Their fossil character was first pointed out to me by a competent conchologist, Mr.
Thomas Bland, of Brooklyn,

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. ald

appears insignificant when compared with the enormous quantity of
objects of the same class, which they manufactured from fragments
of the valves of marine and fluviatile shells. These wrought beads ex-
hibit various forms and sizes, but, according to my experience, are
mostly found in the shape of more or less regular sections of cylinders,
pierced through the centre. They are often proportionately thick, but
sometimes rather thin, resembling the small bone buttons of commerce.
IT have shell-beads from different parts of the United States. Most of
them are small, not exceeding six or seven millimetres in diameter ; my
largest specimens, however, have a diameter of no less than twenty-
eight millimetres. These latter, which were found, some time ago, with
skeletons in the now leveled “ Big Mound” at St. Louis, are very flat
in proportion to their diameter, and may be called dises rather than
beads. They are evidently made from the valves of species of Unio of
the Mississippi valley. These and other shells, which abound in many
rivers of the United States, frequently may have furnished the material
for ornaments, especially in districts remote from the sea-coast. The
holes of Indian shell-beads generally are drilled from both sides, and
therefore mostly of a bi-conical shape.* The colored glass beads and
enameled beads often found in Indian graves are, of course, of Euro-
pean origin, the art of making them being unknown to the aborigines,
aud their occurrence in Indian burial-places, therefore, indicates that
the interment took place at a period when an intercourse with the
whites already had been established. Of the so-called wampum-beads
I shall speak at the close of this section.

The largest and therefore the most esteemed beads and pendants,
however, were made by the Indians from the columella, or, as Cabeca
de Vaca expresses it, from the “hearts,” of large conchs, among which
the Strombus gigas seems to have been most frequently used. These
beads are more or less cylindrical, or globular, and always drilled length-
wise. Some are tapering at both ends, resembling a cigar in shape. I
have seen specimens of two and one-half inches in length. The aborigines
also made from the columelle of large marine univalves peculiar pin-
shaped articles, consisting of a more or less massive stem, which termi-
nates inaround knob. Professor Wyman mentions, in the Third Annual
Report on the Peabody Museum (1870), a specimen of this kind found
in Tennessee, which is five inches long, with a head an inch in diame-
ter. In the collection of Colonel Charles C. Jones, of Brooklyn, there
are quite similar specimens of this class. Their destination is yet unex-

* Flat shell-beads are among the oldest antiquities of Europe. Lartet found them in
the grotto of Aurignac, which served as a burial-place at a period, when the cave-bear,
cave-hyena, mammoth, rhinoceros, &c., still existed. Somesmall flat beads in my pos-
session, made of Cardium, which were obtained from a dolmen in Southern France, can-
not be distinguished from similar productions of the North American Indians. Entire
sea-shells (mostly Litorina litorea), pierced for stringing, occurred in the cave of Cro-
Magnon, in the valley of the Vézére. Pierced valves of fossil sea-shells were found at
other stations of the reindeer-period in the same valley, &c.

376 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

plained ; they were perhaps attached to the head-dress, or worn as orna-
ments in some other way. The unwrought columelle of large sea-shells
have been found at considerable distances from the coast, as, for in-
stance, in Ohio and Tennessee.

I have seen some very old Indian shell-ornaments, which were worn
suspended from, the weck, like medals or gorgets. They are round or
oval plates, from two to four inches in diameter, on which various de-
signs, sometimes quite tasteful, are engraved or cut through. In some
instances their ornamentation consists in regularly disposed perfora-
tions.*

Very large sea-shells of the univalve kind, either in their natural
state or more or less changed by art, frequently have been found in In-
dian burial-places and in localities generally, where the traces of Indian
occupancy are met. Species of the Pyrula and Cassis occur most fre-
quently. By the removal of the inner whorls and spines, and other
modifications, these shells are sometimes prepared to serve as drinking-
vessels and dishes. Professor Wyman speaks in the before-mentioned
report of such vessels obtained from Tennessee and Florida, which
are made from shells of the Pyrula perversa, Lam. One of the vessels
measures a foot in length, though the pointed end is wanting. Dr.
Troost gives the description and representation of a large, entirely hol-
lowed Cassis flammea, Lam., found in Tennessee, which served as the
receptacle of a kneeling human figure of clay, to which he attributes
the character of an idol.t I saw in the collection of Colonel Jones, of
Brooklyn, a Cassis, likewise hollowed, which is eight inches and a half
long, and has a diameter of seven inches, where its periphery is widest.
This specimen is one of two which were found near Clarksville, Haber-
sham County, Georgia, in one of those Indian stone-graves, which are
met, sometimes many of them together, in various parts of the United
States.

In the State of Ohio, where the former inhabitants have left the most
conspicuous traces of their occupancy in the shape of numerous earth-

* “They oftentimes make, of this shell, a sort of gorge, which they wear about their
neck in a string; so it hangs on their collar, whereon sometimes is engraven a cross,
or some odd sort of figure, which comes next in their fancy. The gorges will some-
times sell for three or four buckskins ready dressed.” Lawson, History of Carolina,
London, 1714; reprint, Raleigh, 1860, p. 315. For drawings see Schoolcraft, Vol. I,
plate 19, figure 3, and plate 25, figures 29 and 30; also, Morgan, League of the Iroquois,
p- 339.

t Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, Vol. I, p. 361.

t The stone-grave in question contained a skeleton, much decayed, and, besides the
two Cassis-shells, stone axes and chisels, some perforated objects of stone, &c. The
most important piece, however, was a copper axe, which deserves particular mention.
This axe is very long, but narrow and thin, and shows on both sides very distinctly
the friction produced by haying been inserted into the split end of a wooden handle.
The objects found in this grave are all in the possession of Colonel Jones, who intends
to publish an illustrated description of this find in his forthcoming work on the an-
tiquities of Georgia.

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 9377

7

works of various descriptions, and sometimes of stupendous extent, these
large shells of marine mollusks are of frequent occurrence. Atwater
already mentions them in the first volume of the Archeologia Amert-
cana, published in 1820. What Squier and Davis observed in regard
to sea-shells generally during their investigations in Ohio, I will reca-
pitulate here in a few words. They found in the mounds the smaller
shells already specified, namely, Marginella, Oliva, and Natica, as well
as entire specimens or fragments of Cassis and Pyrula perversa, and also
the unwrought columelle of a large species of conch, probably Strombus
gigas. Entire specimens of the Pyrula perversa, they state, frequently
have been discovered outside of the mounds, in excavating at different
points in the Scioto valley. They found in one of the mounds a large
Cassis, from which the inner whorls and columella had been removed,
to adapt it for use as a vessel. This specimen, eleven inches and a half
in length by twenty-four in circumference at the largest part, is now in
the Blackmore Museum.*

The above-mentioned marine shells, all pertaining to tropical or semi-
tropical regions, occur in the United States only on the eastern shore of
the peninsula of Florida (perhaps a little higher northward) and on the
coast of the Gulf of Mexico. From these localities, therefore, they must
have found their way into the interior. Adopting, for example, Cape
St. Blas, in the Mexican Gulf, and the centre of Ohio as the limits of
shell-trade from south to north (an estimate probably much below
reality), we find an intervening distance of nearly eight hundred Eng-
lish miles.

Having repeatedly alluded to large sea-shells prepared by the abo-
rigines to serve as vessels, [ will also mention that the Florida Indians,
when first seen by Europeans, used such shells as drinking-cups. This
we learn from the plates and descriptions contained in the “ Brevis Nar-
ratio,” of Jacques le Moyne de Morgues, in the second volume of DeBry’s
«¢ Peregrinationes ” (Francoforti ad Moenum,1591). Plate 19 represents
Indian widows who have cut off their hair in token of mourning, and
scatter it over the graves of their husbands. On the graves are de-

posited bows and arrows, spears, and the large shells * out of which °

they drank.”+ The same shells may be seen on Plate 29, where warriors
use them as drinking-cups. Plate 40, finally, illustrates the ceremonies
which were performed at the death of a chieftain. The tumulus is
already heaped up, and around its base arrows are stuck perpendicu-
larly in the ground. The drinking-vessel of the deceased, a large shell,
is placed on the top of the mound.t Though the shells are figured quite
large in these plates, it is impossible to perceive to what species they

*Ancient Monuments, p. 283.

t The accompanying text runs thus: “4d maritorum sepulcra pervenientes, capillos sub
auribus presecant, illisque per sepulcra sparsis, maritorum arma g conchas ex quibus bibe-
bant ibidem adjiciunt, in strenuorum virorum memoriam.”

{In the text: “ Defuncto aliquo Rege ejus Provincia, magna solennitate sepelitur, § ejus
tumulo crater, e quo bibere solebai, imponitur, defixis circa ipsum tumulum multis sagittis.”

va

378 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

belong. Le Moyne drew his scenes of Indian life many years after his
return from America, while living in England, and as he executed these
delineations from memory, they are doubtless deficient in that minute-
ness of detail which entitles to safe comparisons and deductions.
Among some tribes of the interior marine shells seem to have been
looked upon with a kind of religious reverence, and indications are not
wanting that they played a part in their religious ceremonies. The pe-
culiar sound produced by a sea-shell when approached to the ear necessa-
rily appeared strange and mysterious to them, and the rareness of the
shells, together with their elegant forms and beautiful colors, doubtless
increased their value in the eyes of the natives. According to Long, the
Omahas possessed, about half a century ago, a large shell (already trans-
mitted from generation to generation) to which they paid an almost relig-
ious veneration. ‘A skin lodge or temple,” says Long, ‘is appropriated
for its preservation, in which a person constantly resides, charged with
the care of it, and appointed its guard. It is placed upon a stand and
is never suifered to touch the earth. It is concealed from the sight by
several envelops, which are composed of strands of the proper skins,
plaited and joined together in the form of a mat. The whole constitutes
a parcel of considerable size, from which various articles are suspended,
such as tobacco and roots of certain plants. No person dares to open
all the coverings of this sacred deposit in order to expose the shell to
view. ‘Tradition informs them that curiosity induced three different
persons to examine the mysterious shell, who were immediately pun-
ished for their profanation by instant and total loss of sight. The last
of these offenders, whose name is Ish-ka-tappe, is still living. It was
ten years since that he attempted so unveil the sacred shell, but, like
his predecessors, he was visited with blindness, which still continues,
and is attributed by the Indians, as well as by himself, to his commit-
ting of the forbidden act. This shell is taken with the band to all the
national hunts, and is then transported on the back of aman. Pre-
viously to undertaking a national expedition against an enemy, the
sacred shell is consulted as an oracle. For this purpose the magi of the
‘band seat themselves around the great medicine lodge, the lower part
of which is then thrown up like curtains and the exterior envelop is
carefully removed from the mysterious parcel, that the shell may receive
air. A portion of the tobacco, consecrated by being long suspended to
the skin-mats or coverings of the shell, is now taken and distributed to
the magi, who fill their pipes with it to smoke to the great medicine.
During this ceremony an individual occasionally inclines his head for-
ward and listens attentively to catch some sound which he expects to
issue from the shell. At length, some one imagines that he hears a
sound like that of a forced expiration of air from the lungs, or like the
noise made by the report of a gun at a great distance. ‘This is consid-
ered as a favorable omen, and the nation prepare for the projected ex-
pedition with a confidence of success. But, on the contrary, should no

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 379

sound be perceived, the issue of the expedition would be considered
doubtfal.”"* This shell, it cannot be doubted, was of marine origin,
though the fact is not stated in the text. The nearest sea-coast from
which it could have been obtained is that of the Mexican Gulf, distant
about nine hundred miles from the district inhabited by the Omahas.

The white traders used to derive great profit by selling fine sea-shells
to the tribes of the interior. Kohl, for instance, learned from Canadian
fur-traders that the Ojibways, on Lake Superior, formerly purchased
sea-shells from them at considerable prices. *‘* When they (the traders)
exhibited a fine large shell, and held it to the ears of the Indians, these
latter were astonished, saying they heard the roaring of the ocean in it,
and paid for such a marvelous shell furs to the value of thirty or forty
dollars, and even more.”t

Having undertaken to compose this essay for the purpose of bringing
together a series of facts relating to the trade among the aborigines of
North America, I would be guilty of an omission, if I neglected to men-
tiong the wampum-beads, which, besides other uses, represented the
money among them. The term *“* wampum” is often applied to shell-beads
in general, but should be cenfined, I think, to a certain class of cylindri-
cal beads, usually one-fourth of an inch long and drilled lengthwise,
which were chiefly manufactured from the shells of the common hard-
shell clam (Venus mercenaria, Lin). This bivalve occurring, as every
one knows, in great abundance on the North American coasts, formed
an important article of food of the Indians living near the sea, a fact
demonstrated by the enormous quantity of castaway clam-shells, which
form a considerable part of North American Kjoekkenmoeddings. The
natives used to string the mollusks and to dry them for consumption
during winter. The blue or violet portions of the clam-shells furnished
the material for the dark wampum, which was held in much higher es-
timation than that made of the white part of the shells, or of the spines
of certain univales. Even at the present time places are pointed out on
the Atlantic sea-board, for example on that of Long Island, where the
Indians manufactured wampum, and such localities may be recognized
by the accumulations of clam-shells from which the blue portions are
broken off.

Wampum-beads formed a favorite material for the manutacture of
necklaces, bracelets, and other articles of ornament, and they constituted
the strings and belts of wampum, which played such a conspicuous part
in Indian history.

Loskiel makes the following statement in reference to wampum: “ Be-
fore North America was discovered by the Europeans, the Indians
mostly made their strings and belts of small pieces of wood, cut to an
equal size and dyed white and black. They made some of shells, which

*Long, Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, performed in the years
1819 and 1820, London, 1823, Vol. II, p. 47, &c.
tKohl, Kitschi-Gami, Vol. I, p. 186.

380 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

they highly esteemed, but they manufactured them very rarely, because
this labor required much time for want of the proper tools; and the
beads, moreover, were of a rude and clumsy appearance. Soon after
their arrival in America, the Europeans began to manufacture wampum
from shells, very neatly and in abundance, exchanging it tothe Indians for
other commodities, thus carrying on a very profitable trade. The Indians
now abandoned their wooden belts and strings, and substituted those
of shell. The latter, of course, gradually declined in value, but, never-
theless, were and still are much prized.”*

T have little faith in Loskiel’s statement that the Indians chiefly used
wood for the above-mentioned purpose, before they had intercourse with
the whites. Loskiel never visited America; he composed, as he observes
in the preface, his work from the journals and reports of Protestant
missionaries, and probably was totally unacquainted with the early
writings relating to North America, in which wampum is mentioned.
Roger Williams, for example, who emigrated to North America in 1631,
is quite explicit on that point. He states that the Indians manufactgred
white and dark wampum-beads, and that six of the former and three of
the latter were equivalent to an English penny. Yet it appears that even
at his time the colonists imitated the wampum, and used it in their trade
with the natives. ‘ The Indians,” he says, ‘‘ bring downe all their sorts
of Furs, which they take in the countrey, both to the Indians and to the
English for this Indian Money: this Money the English, Frenck, and
Dutch, trade to the Indians, six hundred miles in severall parts (North
and South from New-England) for their Furres, and whatsoever they
stand in need of from them: as Corne, Venison, &c.”t Similar statements
are contained in the writings and records of various persons who lived
in North America contemporaneously with the liberal-minded founder
of Rhode Island. Even in the intercourse of the English colonists
among themselves, wampum served at certain periods instead of the
common ¢curreney, and the courts of New England issued from time to
time regulations for fixing the money-value of the wampum. In trans-
actions of some importance it was measured by the fathom, the dark or
blue kind generally being double the value of the white.t According
to Roger Williams, the Indians of New England—he chiefly refers to
the Narragansetts—denoted by the term wompam (which signifies white)
the white beads, while they called the dark kind suckauhock (from sdeki,
black).§ The great value attached to wampum as an ornament is well
Hlustrated by the following passage from the same author: ‘ They
hang these strings of money about their necks and wrists; as also upon

* Loskiel, Mission der evangelischen Briider, &c., p. 34.

t Roger Williams, A Key, &ce., p. 128.

t Interesting details concerning wampum are given by Mr. Stevens in “ Flint Chips,”
London, 1870, pp. 454-64.

§ Roger Williams, 1. c. p. 130. In another place (p. 154) he gives the word wémpi for
white. Wampumpeage, peak, seawant, roanok, were othe names to signify wampum.

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 381

the necks and wrists of their wives and children. Mdchequoce, a Girdle 3
which they make curiously of one, two, three, foure, and five inches
thicknesse and more, of this money which (sometimes to the value of ten
pounds and more) they weare about their middle and as a searfe about
their shoulders and breasts. Yea, the Princes make rich Caps and Aprons
(or small breeches) of these Beads thus curiously strung into many formes
and figures: their blacke and white finely mixt together.”*

The wampum-belts, so often mentioned in connection with the histo-
ry of the eastern tribes, consisted of broad straps of leather, upon which
white and blue wampum-beads were sewed in rows, being so arranged
that by the contrast of the light and dark colors certain figures were
produced. The Indians, it is well known, exchanged these belts at the
conclusion of peace, and on other solemn occasions, in order to ratify
the transaction and to perpetuate the remembrance of the event. When
sharp admonitions or threatening demonstrations were deemed neces-
sary, the wampum-belts likewise played a part, and they were even
sent as challenges of war. In these various cases the arrangement of
the colors and figures of the belts corresponded to the object in view:
on peaceable occasions the white color predominated; if the complica-
tions were of a serious character, the dark prevailed; and in the case of
a declaration of war, it is stated, the belt was entirely of a somber hue,
and, moreover, covered with red paint, while there appeared in the
middle the figure of a hatchet executed in white. The old accounts,
however, are not quite accordant concerning these details, probably be-
cause the different Atlantic tribes followed in this particular their own
taste rather than a general rule. At any rate, however, the wampum-
belts were considered as objects of importance, being, as has been
stated, the tokens by which the memory of remarkable events was
transmitted to posterity. They were employed somewhat in the manner
of the Peruvian quipu, which they also resembled in that particular,
that their meaning could not be conveyed without oral comment. At
certain times the belts were exhibited, and their relations to former
occurrences explained. This was done by the aged and experienced of
the tribe, in the presence of young men, who made themselves thor-
oughly acquainted with the shape, size, and marks of the belts as well
as with the events they were destined to commemorate, in order to be
able to transmit these details to others at a future time. Thus the
wampum-belts represented the archives of polished nations. Among
the Iroquois tribes, who formed the celebrated “league,” there was a
special “ keeper of the wampum,” whose duty it was to preserve the
belts and to interpret their meaning, when required. This oflice, which
bore some resemblance to that of the quipu-decipherer (quipu-camayoc)
of the Peruvians, was intrusted to a sachem of the Onondagas.t

In March, 1864, a delegation of Iroquois of the State of New York

* Ibid., p. 131.
t Morgan, League of the Iroquois, p. 121.

382 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

passed through New York City on their way to Washington, where they
intended to negotiate with the Government concerning former treaties
relative to their lands. They had brought with them their old wampum-
belts, as documents to prove the justness of their claims. One of these
belts, if Iam not mistaken, had been given them by General Washing-
ton on some mnportant occasion ; for even the whites of that period were
under the necessity of conforming to the established rule in their trans-
actions with the natives. The New York Historical Society honored
these delegates with a public reception, which ceremony took place in
the large hall of the Society. The president delivered the speech of wel-
come, which an old chief, unable to express himself in English, answered
in the Seneca dialect. A younger chief, Dr. Peter Wilson, called by
the people of his tribe De-jih-non-da-weh-hoh, or the “ Pacificator,” served
as interpreter, being well versed in both languages. He afterward ex-.
hibited the belts, and explained their significance. They were, as far
as I ean recollect, about two feet long and of a hand’s breadth. The
ground consisted of white beads, while blue ones formed the figures or
marks. The latter resembled ornamental designs, and I could not dis-
cover in them the form of any known object. I compared them at the
time to somewhat roughly executed embroideries of simple patterns. I
asked the “ Pacificator ” whether these belts were the work of Indians
or of whites; but he was unable to give me any definite information on

that point.*
I possess a number of white and blue wampum-beads from an Indian

grave, opened in 1861, near Charlestown, in the State of Rhode Island.
The late Dr. Usher Parsons, of Deedee Rhode Island, to whom I
am indebted for these beads, has described the grave, and thinks it
enclosed the remains of a daughter of Ninigret, Sachem of the Niantic
or Nahantic tribe of Indians. The interment is supposed to have taken
place about the year 1660. These beads are regularly worked cylinders,
drilled lengthwise, and from five to nine millimetres in length, by four
or five in diameter. Of course, it cannot now be decided whether Indi-
ans or whites were their manufacturers. The grave contained many
other objects, but almost without exception derived from the colonists
of that period. I may also state, in this place, that thus far I have not
found in the oldest English works on North America a perfectly satis-
factory account of the method originally employed by the Indians in
the manufacture, and especially in the drilling, of the wampum-beads.t

Among the tribes of the northwestern coast of North America, from

* This is the same chief who delivered, in 1847, before the New York Historical
Society, a powerful speech, quoted by Morgan, (League of the Iroquois, p. 440). The
chief’s name was then Wd-o-wo-wd-nd-onk.

t New York Historical Magazine, February, 1863.

t “Before ever they had awle blades from Europe, they made shift to bore this their
shell money, with stones, and to fell their trees with stone set in a wooden staff, and
used wooden Lowes; which some old and poore women (fearfull to leave the old tradi-
tion) use to this day.”—Roger Williams, Key, p. 130,

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 383

the northern border of California far upward to the north, the shells of
the Dentaliwm represented, until within the latest time, the wampum of
the Atlantic region, being used, like the latter, both as ornament and
money. These shells, which abound in certain places of the Pacific
coast, may be likened to small, tapering, and somewhat curved tubes.
Being open at both ends, they can be strung without further prepara-
tion. As my essay relates only to that portion of North America which
lies east of the Rocky Mountains, I probably would not have mentioned
the use of Dentalium-shells, were it not for the fact that they have
been found in the interior of the country, far from the Pacific coast, as
personal ornament of existing tribes, and even in the ancient mounds of
Ohio.* The latter fact, indeed, is of great interest in its bearing on the
extent of former aboriginal trade-relations, the distance from the Pacific
to the State of Ohio being almost equal to the whole breadth of the
North American continent.t+

PEARLS.

Perforated pearls, destined to serve as beads, often form a part of the
contents of ancient North American mounds. Squier and Davis found
them on the hearths of five distinct groups of mounds in Ohio, and
sometimes in such abundance that they could be gathered by the hun-
dred. Most of them had greatly suffered by the action of fire, being in
many cases so calcined that they crumbled when handled ; yet, several
hundred were found sufficiently well preserved to permit of their being
strung. The pearls in question are generally of irregular form, mostly
pear-shaped, though perfectly round ones are also among them. The
smaller specimens measure about one-fourth of an inch in diameter, but
the largest has a diameter of no less than three-fourths of an inch.t
According to Squier and Davis, pearl-bearing shells occur in the rivers
of the region whose antiquities they describe, but not in” such
abundance that they could have furnished the amount discovered in —
the tumuli; and the pearls of these fluviatile shells, moreover, are said
to be far inferior in size to those recovered from the altars. The latter,
they think, were derived from the Atlantic coast and from that of the
Mexican Gulf. It is a fact that the Indians, who inhabited the present
Scuthern States of the Union, made an extensive use of pearls for
ornamental purposes. This is attested by the earliest accounts, and more
especially by the chroniclers of De Soto’s expedition (the anonymous
Portuguese gentleman and Garcilasso de la Vega), who speak of almost
fabulous quantities of pearls, which that daring leader and his followers

* Stevens, Flint Chips, p. 468.

t Since writing the above, I learned, by consulting Woodward’s work on conchology,
that the Dentalium is also found in the West Indies. If it should likewise occur on the
southern coasts of the United States, there is at least a possibility that the specimens
found in Ohio may have been obtained from the last-named region.

¢ Ancient Monuments, p. 232.

384 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

saw among the Indians of the parts traversed by them. Pearls, how-
ever, belonged to the things most desired by the Spaniards, and the
accounts relatin g¢ to them, perhaps, may be somewhat exaggerated. The
following passage from Garcilasso de la Vega is of particular interest:

‘¢ While De Soto sojourned in the province of Ichiaha,* the cacique
visited him one day, and gave him a string of pearls about two fathoms
(deux brasses) long. This present might have been considered a valu-
able one, if the pearls had not been pierced ; for they were all of equal
size and as large as hazlenuts.t Soto acknowledged this favor by pre-
senting the Indian with some pieces of velvet and cloth, which were
highly appreciated by the latter. He then asked him concerning the
pearl-fishing, upon which he replied that this was done in his province.
A great number of pearls were stored in the temple of the town of
Ichiaha, where his ancestors were buried, and he might take as many
of them as he pleased. The general expressed his obligation, but ob-
served that he would take away nothing from the temple, and that he
had accepted his present only to please him. He wished to learn, how-
ever, in what manner the pearls were extracted from the shells. The
cacique replied that he would send out people to fish for pearls all night,
and on the following day at eight o’clock (sic) his wish should be grati-
fied. He ordered at once four boats to be dispatched for pearl-fishing,
which should be back in the morning. In the meantime much wood
was burned on the bank, producing a large quantity of glowing coals.
When the boats had returned, the shells were placed on the hot coals,
and they opened in consequence of the heat. In the very first, ten or
twelve pearls of the size of a pea were found, and handed to the
cacique and the general, who were present. They thought them very
fine, though the fire had partly deprived them of their lustre. When
the general had satisfied his curiosity, he retired to take his dinner.
While thus engaged, a soldier came in, who told him that in eating some
of the oysters caught by the Indians, a very fine and brilliant pearl had
got between his teeth, and he begged him to accept it as a present for the
governess of Cuba.t Soto very civilly refused the present, but assured
the soldier that he was just as much obliged to him as though he had
accepted his gift: he would try to reward him one day for his kindness
and for the regard he was showing to his wife. He advised him to keep
his (intended) present, and to buy horses for it at Havana, The Span-
iards, who were with the general at that moment, examined the pearl of
this soldier, and some, who considered themselves as experts in the mat-
ter of jewelry, thought it was worth four hundred ducats. It had re-

*The province and town of Iciaha, or Ichiaha, have been located in that part of North-
ern Georgia where the Oostanaula and Etowah rivers unite, and form the Coosa river.
(See Theodore Irving’s “ Conquest of Florida,” second edition, p. 242; also McCulloh’s
“ Researches,” p. 525.)

t The Indians used to pierce them with a heated copper wire, a process by which they

were spoiled.
{Dofia Isabel de Bobadilla, De Soto’s wife.

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 385

tained its original lustre, not having been extracted by means of
fire.”*

It is evident, therefore, that the Indians obtained their pearls, in part
at least, from their river-muscles, many of which are known to be
margaritiferous.f These mollusks undoubtedly were used as food by
the aborigines, who ate alligators, snakes, and other animals less tempt-
ing than the contents of fluviatile shells. Indeed, I learned from Dr.
Brinton, who was attached to the Army of the Cumberland during the
late civil war, that muscles of the Tennessee river were occasionally
eaten “as a change” by the soldiers of that corps, and pronounced no
bad article of diet. Shells of the Unio are sometimes found in Indian
graves, where they had been deposited with the dead, to serve as food
during the journey to the land of spirits. In many parts of the North
American inland heaps of fresh-water shells are seen, indicating the
places where the natives feasted upon the mollusks. Atwater has drawn
attention to such accumulations on the banks of the Muskingum, in
Ohio.t Heaps of muscle-shells may be seen in Alabama, along the
rivers wherever Indians used to live. Thousands of the shells lie
banked up, some deep in the ground.§ Dr. Brinton saw on the Tennes-
see river and its tributaries numerous shell-heaps, consisting almost
exclusively of the Unio virginianus (Lamarck?). In all instances he
found the shell-heaps close to the water-courses, on the rich alluvial
bottom-lands. ‘The mollusks,” he says, ‘had evidently been opened
by placing them on a fire. The Tennessee muscle is magaritiferous, and
there is no doubt but that it was from this species that the early tribes
obtained the hoards of pearls which the historians of De Soto’s explor-
ation estimated by bushels, and which were so much prized as orna-
ments. It is still a profitable employment, the jewelers buying them
at prices varying from one to fifty dollars.”|| Ajoekkenmoeddings on the
St. John’s river, in Florida, consisting of river-shells, were examined
by Professor Wyman, and described by him; he saw similar accumula-
tions on the banks of the Concord river in Massachusetts, and was in-
formed by eye-witnesses that they are numerous in California.g On
Stalling’s Island, in the Savannah river, more than two hundred miles
above its mouth, there stands a mound of elliptical shape, chiefly com-
posed of the muscles, clams, and snail-shells of the river. This tumu-

* Garcilasso de la Vega, Conquéte de la Floride, Vol. II, p. 296.

t As Mr. Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia, informs me, pearls are found in various species
of the Unionida, more frequently in Unio complanatus, Margaritana margaritifera, and
Anodonta flwiatilis. But they occur occasionally in all the species of this family. Very
large and valuable pearls have been found in New Jersey.

t Archeologia Americana, Vol. i, p. 226.

§ Pickett, History of Alabama, Charleston, 1851, Vol. I p. 12.

|| Brinton, Artificial Shell-Deposits in the United States, Smithsonian Report for
1866, p. 357.

q Wyman, Fresh-Water Shell-Heaps of the St. John’s River, East Florida, Salem,
Massachusetts, 1868, p. 6.

208

386 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

lus, which is about three hundred feet long, one hundred and twenty feet
wide, and, perhaps, over twenty feet high, was found to contain a large
number of skeletons. ‘‘ Several pits have been opened in the northeast-
ern end. At the depth of twelve feet the amount of shells was undi-
minished. They appear to have been distributed in layers of eight or
ten inches in thickness, with intervening strata of sand. An examina-
tion into the contents of the mound proves conclusively that it must
have been used only for burial purposes; that it is, in fact, a huge ne-
eropolis. It could not have been the work of a year, or of a generation.
Stratum upon stratum has been heaped, each covering the dead of its
age, until by degrees, and with the lapseof time, it grew into its present
surprising dimensions.’”*

It is probable that the natives of North America obtained pearls,
both from fluviatile and marine shells, and further that they caught
the bivalves, not solely on account of the pearls they inclosed, but for
using them as food. The pearls themselves, in all likelihood, were
looked upon as additional, highly valued gifts of nature.

DIVISION OF LABOR.

Among the later Indians, at least those who lived east of the Rocky
Mountains, nearly all work was performed by women. When, during
times of peace, the master of a lodge had supplied his family with the
game necessary for its support, he thought to be relieved of further
duties, and abandoned himself either to indolence or to his favorite
pastimes, such as games of hazard, and exercises calculated to impart
streneth and agility to the body. He manufactured, however, his arms
and kept them in repair, and also condescended to work, when a larger
object, a canoe for instance, was to be made, or a dwelling to be con-
structed. Far more varied, on the other hand, were the duties imposed
upon women. Not only had they to procure water and fire-wood, to
prepare the meals, to collect the fruits serving as winter-provisions, to
make moccasins and other articles of dress, but it was also incumbent upon
them to perform many other labors, which, from their nature, would seem
to be more suited for men. Thus, the fields were cultivated by women ;t
they dressed the skins to fit them for garments and other purposes ;
the manufacture of pottery was a branch of female industry; they did
the principal work in the erection of the huts or tents (of skins, mats
or bark), and their assistance was even required when canoes, especially
those of bark, were made. During the march they carried heavy loads,
and on the water they handled the paddle as skilfully as the men. If
to all those tasks and toils the bringing up of children is added, the lot
of the Indian woman appears by no means an enviable one, though she
bore her burden patiently, not being accustomed to a different manner
of existence. She was, indeed, hardly more than the servant of her lord

* Jones (Charles C.), Monumental Remains of Georgia, Savannah, 1861, p. 14.
t Also, to some extent, by enslaved prisoners of war.

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 387

and master, who frequently lived in a state of polygamy merely for com
manding more assistance in his domestic affairs.

Such were the occupations of Indian men and women in general. Nev-
ertheless, there are indications that the germs of handicrafts already

-cxisted among the North American tribes, or, to speak more distinctly,
that certain individuals of the male sex, who were, by natural inclina-
tion or practice, particularly qualified for a distinct kind of manual labor,
devoted themselves principally or entirely to this labor. I refer, of
course, to the period anteceding the occupation of the country by Euro-
peans—that period about which so little is known, that a careful exam-
ination of the still existing earth-works, and of the minor products of
industry left by the former inhabitants, affords the principal guidance
in the attempt to determine their mode of existence. The earliest writ-
ings on North America are exceedingly deficient in those details which
are of interest to the archeologist, and form, as it were, his points of
departure; and it becomes therefore necessary to adopt here, in the
pursuit of archeological investigation, the same system of careful in-
quiry and deduction that has been so successfully employed in Europe.
The only difference is, that in the latter part of the world “ prehistoric
times” reach back thousands of years into the remotest antiquity, while
in America a comparatively recent period must be drawn within the
precinct of antiquarian research.

Any one who examines a collection of North American chipped flint
implements will notice quite rude and clumsy specimens, but also, along-
side of these, others of great regularity and exquisite finish, which could
only have been fashioned by practised workers in flint. This applies par-
ticularly to the points of arrows and lances, some of which are so sharp and
pointed that they, when properly shafted, almost would be as effectual as
iron ones. In fact, the oldest Spanish writings contain marvelous ac-
counts of the penetrating force of the flint-pointed arrows used by the
Indians of Florida in their encounters with the whites. Not every warrior,
it may be presumed, was able to make stone-points, especially those of a
superior kind, this labor requiring a skill that could only be attained by
long practice. There were doubtless certain persons among the various
tribes who practised arrow-making as a profession, and disposed of
their manufactures by way of exchange. In reference to this subject
Mr. Schoolcraft observes as follows: “ A hunter, or warrior, it is true,
expected to make his own arms or implements, yet the manufacture of
flint and hornstone into darts and spears and arrowheads demanded too
much skill and mechanical dexterity for the generality of the Indians to
succeed in. According to the Ojibway tradition, before the introduction
of fire-arms, there was a class of men among the northern tribes who were
called makers of arrowheads. They selected proper stones, and devoted
themselves to this art, taking in exchange for their manufactures, the
skins and flesh of animals.” According to Colonel Jones, the tradition
has been preserved in Georgia “ that among the Indians who inhabited

388 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

the mountains, there was a certain number or class who devoted their
time and attention to the manufacture of these darts. That as soon as
they had prepared a general supply, they left their mountain homes and
visited the sea-board and intermediate localities, exchanging their spear
and arrowheads for other articles not to be readily obtained in the region,
where they inhabited. The further fact is stated that these persons
never mingled in the excitements of war; that to them a free passport
was a$ all times granted, even among tribes actually at variance with
that of which they were members; that their avocation was esteemed
honorable, and they themselves treated with universal hospitality. If
such was the ease, it was surely a remarkable and interesting recogni-
tion of the claims of the manufacturer by an untutored race.” *

In a former section I have mentioned a Californian Indian of the
Shasta tribe, who was seen making arrowheads of obsidian by Mr. Caleb
Lyon. ‘The Indian,” he says, “ seated himself on the floor, and, placing
a stone anvil upon his knee, which was of compact talcose slate, with
oue blow of his agate chisel he separated the obsidian pebble into two
parts, then giving another blow to the fractured side he split off a slab
a fourth of an inch in thickness. Holding the piece against the anvil
with the thumb and finger of his left land, he commenced a series of
continuous blows, every one of which chipped off fragments of the brittle
substance. It gradually assumed the required shape. After finishing
the base of the arrowhead (the whole being only a little over an inch
in length) he began striking gentler blows, every one of which I expected
would break it into pieces. Yet such was their adroit application, his
skill and dexterity, that in little over an hour he produced a perfect
obsidian arrowhead. Among them arrow-making is a distinct trade or
profession, which many attempt, but in which few attain excellence.” t

Another method of arrow-making practised by the Californian tribes
is mentioned by Mr. Edward E. Chever in an article published in the
«American Naturalist,” May, 1870. He has figured the implement used
in the process (p. 139). ‘ The arrow-head,” he says, ‘is held in the left
hand while the nick in the side of the tool is used as a nipper to chip
off small fragments.”

Mr. Catlin gives an interesting and full account of the manufacture of
arrowheads among the Apaches and other tribes living west of or in the
Rocky Mountains. The following extract contains his principal state-
ments: ‘¢ Erratic boulders of flint are collected (and sometimes brought
an immense distance) and broken with a sort of sledge-hammer made of
a rounded pebble of hornstone, set in a twisted withe, holding the stone
and forming a handle. The flint, at the indiscriminate blows of the
sledge, is broken into a hundred pieces. The master-workman, seated
on the ground, lays one of these flakes on the palm of his left-hand,

* Jones (Charles C.), Indian Remains in Southern Georgia. Address delivered before
the Georgia Historical Society, Savannah, 1859, p. 19.
f Bulletin of the American Ethnological-Society, New York, 1861, Vol. I, p. 39.

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 389

holding it firmly down with two or more fingers of the same hand, and
with bis right hand, between the thumb and two forefingers places his
chisel or punch* on the point that is to be broken off; and a co-
operator (a striker) sitting in front of him, with a mallet of very hard
wood, strikes the chisel on the upper end, flaking the flint off on the
under side, below each projecting point that is struck. The flint is
then turned and chipped in the same manner from the opposite side ;
and so turned and chipped until the required shape and dimensions are
obtained, all fractures being made on the palm of the hand, whose
yielding elasticity enables the chip to come off without breaking the
body of the flint, which would be the case if they were broken on a
hard substanee. This operation is very curious, both the holder and the
striker singing, and the strokes of the mallet given exactly in time with
the music, and with a sharp and rebounding blow, in which, the Indians
tell us, is the great medicine (or mystery) of the operation. Every tribe
has its factory in which these arrowheads are made, and in those only
certain adepts are able or allowed to make them for the use of the tribe.” t

Thus tradition as well as modern experience justify the belief that
the manufacture of arrow and spearheads was formerly carried on as a
eraft by certain individuals of the North American tribes, and Longfel-
low’s “Ancient Arrow-maker,” therefore, is not a mythical person, but
the ideal type of a class of men whose art flourished in by-gone times.

The skilfully executed agricultural flint implements of East St.
Louis, described by me in the Smithsonian Report for 1868, have alto-
gether the appearance as if one hand had fashioned them. Is it not
probable that they formed the magazine of an aboriginal artisan, who
devoted his time chiefly to the manufacture of such tools?) The making
of wampum and of shell-beads in general may have formed a trade
among the tribes inhabiting the sea-board ; for this labor required much
time and promised success only to those who, by long practice, had
attained skill in the operation. The supposition gains some ground by
an observation of Roger Williams, who states that ‘‘most on the Sea
side make Money and Store up shells in Summer against Winter whereof
to make their money.” He further observes on the same page: “ They
have some who follow onely making of Bowes,some Arrowes, some Dishes
(and the women make all their Karthen Vessells,) some follow fishing,
some hunting.”

The most remarkable productions of ancient aboriginal industry are
the carved stone pipes of peculiar shape exhumed by Messrs. Squier
and Davis from the mounds of Ohio, and minutely deseribed and fig-
ured by them in the “Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley.§”

*Six or seven inches in length, and made of an incisor of the sperm-whale, often
stranded on the coast of the Pacific.

+ Catlin, Last Rambles amongst the Indians, New York, 1867, p. 187, &c.

t Roger Williams, A Key, &c., p. 1383.

§ Chapter XV, Sculptures from the Mounds, pp. 242-278.

390 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

Four miles north of Chillicothe, Ohio, there lies, close to the Scioto
river, an embankment of earth somewhat in the shape of a square
with strongly rounded angles, and enclosing an area of thirteen acres,
over which twenty-three mounds are scattered without much regularity.
This work has been called “ Mound City,” from the great number of
mounds within its walls. In digging into the mounds, Squier and
Davis discovered hearths in many of them, which furnished a great
number of aboriginal relics. From one of the hearths nearly two hun-
dred of those peculiar stone pipes were taken, many of them, unfortu-
nately, cracked by the action of the fire, and otherwise damaged. The
occurrence of these ‘mound-pipes,” however, was not confined to the
mound in question, similar ones having occasionally been found else-
where. In the more elaborate pipes from Mound City, the bowl is some-
times formed in imitation of the human head, but generally of the body
of an animal, and in the latter cases the peculiar characteristics of the
species which have served as models are frequently expressed with sur-
prising fidelity. The following mammals have been recognized: the
beaver, otter, elk, bear, wolf, dog, panther, wild cat, raccoon, opossum,
squirrel, and sea-cow (Manati, Lamantin, Trichecus manatus, Lin.).
Of the last-named animal, no less than seven representations were
found, a circumstance deserving particular notice, because this inhabit-
ant of tropical waters is not met in the higher latitudes of North Amer-
ica, but only on the coast of Florida, which is many hundred miles dis-
tant from Ohio. The Florida Indians called this animal the “big
beaver,” and hunted it on account of its flesh and bones.* Most fre-
quent are carvings of birds, among which the eagle, hawk, falcon, tur-
key-buzzard, heron, several species of owls, the raven, swallow, paro-
quet, duck, and other land and water-birds, have been recognized. One
of the specimens is supposed to represent the toucan, a tropical bird
not inhabiting the United States. Worthy of particular mention as a
well-executed sculpture is a species of eagle or hawk in the attitude of
tearing a smaller bird held in its claws; and so is that of the tufted
heron feeding on a fish. The amphibious animals, likewise, have their
representatives in the snake, toad, frog, turtle, and alligator. One spe-
cimen shows a snake that winds itself around the bowl of the pipe.
The toads, in particular, are very faithful imitations of nature. Indeed,
it is said in the “Ancient Monuments” that, if placed in the grass be-
fore an unsuspecting observer, they would probably be mistaken for
the natural objects; and .this statement is in no way exaggerated, as
every one will admit who has seen the specimens in question. The bird-
figure supposed to represent the toucan, I think, is not of sufficient dis-
tinctness to identify the original that was before the artist’s mind; it
would not be safe, therefore, to make this specimen the subject of far-
reaching speculations. For the rest, the imitated animals belong, with-

* Bartram, Travels, Dublin, 1793, p. 229.

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 391

out exception, to the North American fauna; and there is, moreover,
the greatest probability that the sculptures in question were made in or
near the present State of Ohio, where, in corroboration of the last sup-
position, a few unfinished specimens have occurred among the complete
articles. The discovery of the manati-figures, however, is in so far of
interest as it indicates a communication between the ancient inhabitants
of Ohio and those of the Floridian coast-region.

It was formerly believed most of these pipes were composed of a kind
of porphyry; but since their transfer to the Blackmore Museum, they
were carefully examined and partly analysed by Professer A. H. Church,
who found them to consist of softer materials.* Nevertheless, they
constitute the most remarkable class of Indian products of art thus far
discovered, for some of them are so skilfully executed that a modern
artist, notwithstanding his far superior instruments, would find no little
difficulty in reproducing them. The manufacture of stone pipes, neces-
sarily a painful and tedious labor, therefore may have formed a braneh
of aboriginal industry, and the skilful pipe-carver probably occupied
among the former Indians a rank equal to that of the experienced
sculptor in our time. Even among modern Indians pipe-makers some-
times have been met. Thus, Dr. Wilson mentions an old Ojibway In-
dian, whose name is Pabahmesad, or the “ Flier,” but who, from his
skill in making pipes, is more commonly known as Pwahguneka—* he
makes pipes.”t Kohl, also, speaks of an Ojibway pipe-maker whom he
met on Lake Superior. “There are persons among them,” he says,
‘‘ who possess particular skill in the carving of pipes, and make it their
profession, or at least the means of gaining in part their livelihood. I
made the acquaintance of such a faiseur de calumet, and visited him
occasionally, He inlaid his pipes very tastefully with figures of stars
and flowers of black and white stones. But his work proceeded very
slowly, and he sold his pipes at high prices, from four to five dollars
apiece. Yet the Indians sometimes pay much higher prices.” {

In addition to the articles thus far enumerated, others may have been
manufactured more or less extensively by way of trade; but, in default
of corroborating data, we must rest satisfied with the supposition that
such was the case. European archeologists, in estimating the condi-
tions of prehistoric races of the Old World, have derived much aid from
inquiries into the modes of life among still-existing primitive popula-
tions of foreign parts. The same system may be applied in antiquarian

-researches relative to North America, where the customs and manners
of the yet lingering aboriginal population can be brought into requisi-
tion for elucidating the past. Thus, some statements made by Mr.
James G. Swan, in a recent work on the Makah Indians of Cape Flat-
tery, (published by the Smithsonian Institute,) are of great interest in

* Church, in “Flint Chips,” p, 414.
t Wilson, Prehistoric Man, Lond., 1862, Vol. II, p, 15.
¢ Kohl, Kitschi-Gami, Vol. II, p. 82.

aoe ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

connection with the object treated in this article. ‘‘The manufacture
of implements,” he says, “‘is practised by all; some, however, produc-
ing neater articles, are more employed in eis way. The manufacture
of whaling implements, particularly the staff of the harpoon and the
harpoon-head, is confined to individuals who dispose of them to the
others. This is also the case with rope-making; although all under-
stand the process, some are peculiarly expert, and generally do the most
of the work. Canoe-making is another branch that is confined to cer-
tain persons who have more skill than others in forming the model and
in finishing the work. Although they do not seem to have regular
trades in these manufactures, yet the most expert principally confine
themselves to certain branches. Some are quite skilful in working iron
and copper, others in carving or in painting, while Cane: again are
more expert in catching fish or killing whales.”*

It is true, the conditions of existence of a northern tribe bordering on
the Pacific coast cannot serve as a standard for the populations for-
merly inhabiting the valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio, or the Atlantic
sea-board; yet, that the latter were led by similar motives, in regard to
the division of labor, seems to be confirmed by the observations and
extracts given in this sketch.

CONCLUSION.

In the preceding series of articles 1 have almost exclusively referred
to manufactures, and among these, of course, only to such as could,
from their nature, resist the destroying influence of time. Yet, it can-
not be doubted that articles consisting of less durable materials, for
instance, dressed skins, basket-work, mats, wooden ware, &c., formed
objects of traffic. The most extensive exchange, perhaps, was carried
on in provisions that could be preserved, such as dried or buccaned
meat, maize, maple-sugar, and other animal or vegetable substances.
mupse who were abundantly provided with one or the other article of
food bartered it to their less favored neighbors, who, in return, paid
them in Superfluous products or in manufactures of their own. Con-
cerning the ways of communication, the North American continent
afforded, by its many navigable waters, rivers as well as lakes, perhaps
greater facilities for a primitive commerce than any other part of the
earth, and the canoe was the means of conveyance for carrying on this
commerce.

The learned Jesuit, Lafitan, has given some account of Indian trade
as if was in the beginning of the eighteenth century, at which period
he lived, as a missionary, in North America. “The savage nations,”
he says, ‘‘always trade among each other. Their commerce is, like that
of the ancients, a simple exchange of wares against wares. They all
have something particular which the others have not, and the traffic

*Swan, The Indians of Cape Flattery, at the Entrance to the Strait of Fuca, Wash-
ington Territory, Washington, 1870, p. 48.

ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA. 393

makes these things circulate among them. Their wares are grain, por-
celain (wampum), furs, robes, tobacco, mats, canoes, work made of moose
or bufialo hair and of porcupine quills, cotton-beds, domestic utensils—
in a word, all sorts of necessaries of life required by them.”* A passage
from Lawson, a contemporary of Lafitau, may also be inserted with pro-
priety in this place. Speaking of the natives of Carolina, he says:
“The women make baskets and mats to lie upon, and those that are not
extraordinary hunters make bowls, dishes, and spoons of gum-wood and
the tulip-tree; others, where they find a vein of white clay fit for their
purpose, make tobacco-pipes, all which are often transported to other
Indians that, perhaps, have greater plenty of deer and other game, &e.”t

The arrival of the whites produced a thorough change in Indian life,
wherever a contact between the two races took place. The age of stone
and that of iron met, almost without an intervening link, for the so-
called North American ‘ copper period” was but of little practical sig-
nificance. Simultaneously with the settlement of the eastern parts of
North America by the whites, there arose a traffic between these and the
Indians in their neighborhood, which provided the latter with imple.
ments and utensils so far superior to their own, that they scon ceased to
manufacture and use them. The keen-edged steel axe superseded the
clumsy and far less serviceable stone tomahawk; the European knife
did away with the cutting implement of flint; and those of the natives
who could not obtain fire-arms at least headed their arrows with points
of iron or brass. The potter’s art was neglected, solid and durable
vessels of metal supplying the place of the fragile aboriginal fabrics of
clay. Instead of procuring fire by turning a wooden stick, fitting in a
small cavity of another piece of wood, rapidly oetween their hands until
ignition was effected, the natives now resorted to the far preferable
method of striking fire with steel and flint. Their dress, too, underwent
changes, pliant woolen and cotton textures being employed to a certain
extent instead of dressed skins. Formerly, when the Indians wished to
make one of their more durable canoes or a large mortar for pounding
maize, they had first to fell a suitable tree, a task which, on account of
the insufficiency of their tools, required much labor and time. Being
unable to cut down a tree with their stone axes, they resorted to fire,
burning the tree around its foot and removing the charred portion with
their stone implements. This was continued until the tree fell. Then
they marked the length to be given to the object, and resumed at the
proper place the process of burning and removing. In a similar manner
the hollowing of the tree was effected. But now a few strokes of the
European axe did the same work which formerly, perhaps, required days ;
and to a race as indolent and averse to labor as the Indians, the effect
of that simple tool must have appeared almost miraculous.

*Lafitau, Moeurs des Sauvages Amériquains, Paris, 1724, Vol. IT, p. 352.
t Lawson, History of Carolina, London, 1714; reprint, Raleigh, 1860, p. 336.

394 ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NORTH AMERICA.

Greater, however, than these and many other advantages were the
evils which the contact with the whites brought upon them; and in
succumbing to the overwhelming power of the Caucasians, they shared
the fate of every inferior race that takes up the contest with one cxcu-
pying a higher rank in thy family of men.

NORTH AMERICAN STONE IMPLEMENTS.

By CuHaries Rav.

The division of the European stone age into a period of chipped stone,
and a succeeding one of ground or polished stone, or, into the palaeo-
lithic and neolithic periods, seems to be fully borne out by facts, and is
likely to remain an uncontroverted basis for future investigation in
Europe. In North America chipped as well as ground implements are
abundant; yet they occur promiscuously, and thus far cannot be re-
ferred respectively to certain epochs in the development of the abo-
rigines of the country. Archeological investigation in North America,
however, is but of recent date, and a careful examination of our caves
and drift-beds possibly may lead to results similar to those obtained in
Europe. When in the latter part of the world man lived contempo-
raneously with the now extinct large pachydermatous and carnivorous
animals, he used unground flint tools of rude workmanship, which were
superseded in the later stages of the European stone age, comprising
the neolithic period, by more finished articles of flint and other stone,
many of which were brought into final shape by the processes of grind-
ing and polishing. In North America stone implements likewise have
been found associated with the osseous remains of extinct animals; yet
these implements, it appears, differed in no wise from those in use among
the aborigines at the period of their first intercourse with the whites.

In the year 1839, the late Dr. Albert C. Koch discovered in the bot-
tom of the Bourbeuse River, in Gasconade County, Missouri, the re-
mains of a Mastodon giganteus under very peculiar cireumstances. The
greater portion of the bones appeared more or less burned, and there
was sufficient evidence that the fire had been kindled by human agency,
and with the design of killing the huge creature, which had been found
mired in the mud, and in an entirely helpless condition, The animal’s
fore and hind legs, untouched by the fire, were in a perpendicular posi-
tion, with the toes attached to the feet, showing that the ground in
which the animal had sunk, now a grayish-colored clay, was in a plastic
condition when the occurrence took place. Those portions of the skele-
ton, however, which had been exposed above the surface of the clay,
were partially consumed by the fire, and a layer of wood-ashes and
charred bones, varying in thickness from two to six inches, indicated
that the burning had been continued for some length of time. The fire
appeared, to have been most destructive around the head of the animal.
Mingled with the ashes and bones was a large number of broken pieces

396 NORTH AMERICAN STONE IMPLEMENTS.

of rock, which evidently had been carried to the spot from the bank of
the Bourbeuse River to be hurled at the animal. But the burning and
hurling of stones, it seems, did not satisfy the assailants of the masto-
don; for Dr. Koch found among the ashes, bones, and rocks several
stone arrow-heads, a spear-head, and some stone axes, which were taken
out in the presence of a number of witnesses, consisting of the people of
the neighborhood, who had been attracted by the novelty of the exca-
vation. The layer of ashes and bones was covered by strata of alluvial
deposits, consisting of clay, sand, and soil, from eight to nine feet thick,
whieh form the bottom of the Bourbeuse River in general.

About one year after this excavation, Dr. Koch found at another
place, in Benton County, Missouri, in the bottom of the Pomme de Terre
River, about ten miles above its junction with the Osage, several stone
arrow-heads mingled with the bones of a nearly entire skeleton of the
Missourium. The two arrow-heads found with the bones “ were in such
a position as to furnish evidence still more conclusive, perhaps, than in
the other case, of their being of equal, if not older date, than the bones
themselves; for, besides that they were found in a layer of vegetable
mold which was covered by twenty feet in thickness of alternate layers
of sand, clay, and gravel, one of the arrow-heads lay underneath the
thigh-bone of the skeleton, the bone actually resting in contact upon it,
so that it could not have been brought thither after the deposit of the
bone; a faet which I was careful thoroughly to investigate.’”*

Fig. 1. It affords me particular satisfaction to
present in Fig. 1 a full-size drawing of the
last-named arrow-head, which is still in the
possession of Mrs. Hlizabeth Koch, of Saint
Louis, the widow of the discoverer. The
crawing was made after a photograph, for
which I am indebted to Mrs. Koch. It will
be noticed that the point, one of the barbs,
and a corner of the stem of this arrow-head—
if it really was an arrow-head, and not the
armature of a javelin or spear—are broken
- ha ri) p) off; but there remains enough of it to make
fon mae aut its original shape, which is exactly that

of similar weapons used by the aborigines
in historieal times. The specimen in ques-
tion, which, as I-presume, was found by Dr.
iN ag in its present mutilated shape, con-
sists of a light-brown, somewhat mottled flint.t

Ps . si
je By

gr

“Koch, in Transactions of the Academy of Science of Saint Louis,vol. i,(1869,) p. 61, &e.
+I am well aware that the reality of Dr. Koch’s discovery has been doubted by some, _
although it is difficult to perceive why he should have made those statements, if not
true, at a time when the antiquity of man was not yet discussed, either in Europe or
here, and he, therefore, could expect nothing but contradiction, public opinion being

NORTH AMERICAN STONE IMPLEMENTS. 397

In referring to these discoveries of Dr. Koch, and some other indica-
tions of the high antiquity of man in America, Sir John Lubbock con-
cludes that “there does not as yet appear to be any satisfactory proof
that man co-existed in America with the Mammoth and Mastodon.”*
Yet, it may be expected, almost with certainty, that the results of fu-
ture investigations in North America will fully corroborate Dr. Koch’s
discoveries, and vindicate the truthfulness of his statements. Indeed,
some facts have come to light during the late geological survey of Illinois,
which confirm, in a general way, the conclusions arrived at by the
above-named explorer. According to this survey, the blue clays at the
base of the drift contain fragments of wood and trunks of trees, but
no fossil remains of animais; but the brown clays above, underlying
the Loess, contain remains of the Mammoth, the Mastodon, and the Pec-
cary; and bones of the Mastodon were found in a bed of “local drift,”
near Alton, underlying the Loess in situ above, and also in the same hori-
zon, stone axes and flint spear-heads, indicating the co-existence of the
human race with the extinct mammalia of the Quaternary period.t

tt must not be overlooked that both Dr. Koch and the Illinois survey
mention flint arrow and spear-heads as well as stone axes as being asso-
ciated, directly or indirectly, with the remains of extinct animals.
These stone axes undoubtedly were ground implements; for, had they
differed in any way from the ordinary Indian manufactures of the same
class, the fact certainly would have been noticed by the observers.
Thus far, then, we are not entitled to speak of a North American pal-
aeolithie and neolithic period. In the new world, therefore, the human
contemporary of the Mastodon and the Mammoth, it would seem, was
more advanced inthe manufacture of stone weapons than his savage
brother of the European drift period, a cireumstance which favors the
view that the extinct large mammalia ceased to exist at a later epoch
in America than in Europe. The remarks of Lieutenant-Colonel C. H.
Smith on this point are of interest. ‘‘ Over a considerable part of the
eastern side of the great (American) mountain ridge,” he says, ‘ more
particularly where ancient lakes have been converted into morasses, or
have been filled by alluvials, organic remains of above thirty species of
mammals, of the same orders and genera, in some cases of the same
species, (as in Europe,) have been discovered, demonstrating their ex-

totally unprepared for such revelations. Not being as@ientific palaeontologist, he cer-
tainly made some mistakes in putting together the bones of the animals exhumed by
him; but these failings, in my opinion, have no bearing on his observations relative to
the co-existence of man with extinct animals in North America. Only a short time
ago some remarks tending to depreciate Dr. Koch’s account were made by Dr. Schmidt,
in an article on the antiquity of man in America, published in vol. v, of the Archiv fir
Anthropologie. I may state here that I was personally acquainted with Dr. Koch, whom
I saw repeatedly at the meetings of the Academy of Science of Saint Louis.

* Prehistoric Times, Ist ed., p. 236.
tGeological Survey of Illinois, by A. H. Worthen, vel. i, (1866,) p. 38; quoted in
Transactions of the Academy of Science of Saint Louis, vol. ii, (1868,) p. 567,

398 WORTH AMERICAN STONE IMPLEMENTS.

istence in a contemporary era with those of the old continent, and under
similar cireumstances. But their period of duration in the new world
may have been prolonged to dates of a subsequent time, since the Pachy-

_derms of the United States, as well as those of the Pampas of Brazil,
are much more perfect: and, in many cases, possess characters ascribed
to bones in a recent state. Alligators and crocodiles, moreover, con-
tinue to exist in latitudes where they endure a winter state of torpidity
beneath ice, as an evidence that the great Saurians in that region have
not yet entirely worked out their mission; whereas, on the old conti-
nent they had ceased to exist in high latitudes long before the extinc-
tion of the great Ungulata.”*

Flint implements of the European ‘“ drift type,” however, are by no
means scarce in North America, although they cannot (thus far) be
referred to any particular period, but must be classed with the other
chipped and ground implements in use among the North American abo-
rigines during historical times.

In the first place I will mention certain leaf-shaped flint implements
which have been found in mounds and on the surface, as well as in de-
posits below it. They are comparatively thin, of regular outline, and
exhibit well-chipped edges all around the circumferences. On the whole,
they are among the best North American flint articles which have
fallen under my notice. The specimens found by Messrs. Squier and
Davis ina mound of the inclosure called Mound City, on the Scioto
River, some miles north of Chillicothe, Ohio, belong to this class. Most
of them were broken, but a few were found entire, one of which is repre-
sented in half size by Fig. 100 on page 211 of the “Ancient Monuments
of the Mississippi Valley.” This specimen measures four inches in
length and about three inches across the broad rounded end. I have a
still larger one, consisting of a reddish mottled flint, which was found
on the surface in Jefferson County, Missouri. The annexed full-size
drawing, Fig. 2, shows its outline. The edge on the right side is a little
damaged by subsequent fractures, but for the sake of greater distinct-
ness [ have represented it as perfect. The finest leaf shaped imple-
ments which I have had occasion to examine, are in the possession of
Mr. M. Cowing, of Seneca Falls, New York. The owner told me he had
more than a hundred of them, which were all derived from a locality-in
the State of New York, where they were accidentally discovered, form-
ing a deposit under the surface. Mr. Cowing, who is constantly engaged
in collecting and buying up Indian relies, refused to give me any in-
formation coneerning the place and precise character of the deposit,
basing his refusal on the ground that a few of these implements were
still in the hands of mdividuals in the neighborhood, and that he would
reveal nothing in relation to the deposit until he had obtained every
specimen originally belonging to it. Iam, therefore, unable to give any

*The Natural History of the Human Species, London, 1852, p. 89. The comparative
freshness of the bones of extinct Nurth American animals was noticed by Cuvier.

NORTH AMERICAN STONE IMPLEMENTS. 399

particulars, and must confine myself to the statement that the speci-
mens shown to me present in general the outline of the original of Fig. 2,
though they are a little smaller; and that they are thin, sharp-edged,
and exquisitely wrought, and consist of a beautiful, variously-colored
flint, which bears some resemblance to chalcedony.

Concerning the use or Fie
uses of North American
leaf-shaped articles, Iam
hardly prepared to give a
definite opinion, though
I think it probable that
they served for purposes
of cutting. They were
certainly not intended for
spear-heads, their shape
being ill-adapted for that
end; nor do I think that
they were used as scrap-
ers, as other more massive
implements of a kindred
character probably were,
of which I shall speak
hereafter.

The aborigines were in
the habit of burying arti-
cles of flintin the ground,
and such deposits, some-
times quite large, have
been discovered in various
parts of the United States.
These deposits consist of
articles representing va-
rious types, among which
I will mention the leaf-
shaped implements in the Mul Uy,
possession of Mr. Cowing; the agricultural tools found at East Saint
Louis, Illinois, of which I have given an account in the Smithsonian
report for 1868; and the rude flint articles of an elongated oval shape,
which were found about 1860 on the bank of the Mississippi, between
Carondelet and Saint Louis, Missouri, and doubtless belonged to a de-
posit. I have described them in the above-named Smithsonian report,
(p. 405,) and have also given there a drawing of one of the specimens
in my possession. This drawing has been reproduced by Mr. E. T,
Stevens, on page 441 of his valuable work entitled “ Flint Chips,” (Lon-
don, 1870,) with remarks tending to show that the specimen does not
represent an unfinished implement, as I am inclined to believe, but a

vw

400 NORTH AMERICAN STONE IMPLEMENTS.

complete one. I must admit that my drawing is not a very good one.
It gives the object a more definite character than it really possesses, the
chipping appearing in the representation far less superficial than it is
in the original, which, indeed, has such a shape that it could easily be
reduced to a smaller size by blows aimed at its circumference. I have
myself scaled off large flat flakes from similarly-shaped pieces of flint,
using a small iron hammer and directing my blows against the edge,
and have thus become convinced that the further working of objects
like that in question could offer no serious difficulties to a practised
flint-chipper. My collection, moreover, contains several smaller flint
objects of similar shape, which are undoubtedly the rudiments of arrow
and spear-heads, and I may add that I obtained a few from places where
the manufacture of such weapons was carried on.

Yet the most important deposit of flint implements resembling cer-
tain types of the European drift, is that discovered by Messrs. Squier
and Davis during their researches in Ohio. They have described this
interesting find in the “Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,”
and a résumé of their account was given by me in the Smithsonian re-
port for 1868, (p. 404.) The implements in question, I stated, occurred
in one of the so-called sacrificial mounds of Clark’s Work, on North
Fork of Paint Creek, Ross County, Ohio. This flat, but very broad
mound contained, instead of the hearth usually found in this class of
earth-structures, an enormous number of flint discs, standing on their
edges and arranged in two layers, one above the other, at the bottom of
the mound. The whole extent of these layers has not been ascertained,
but an excavation six feet long and four broad disclosed upward of six
hundred of those dises, rudely blocked out of a superior kind of dark
flimt. I had occasion to examine the specimens from this mound, which
were formerly in the collection of Dr. Davis, and have now in my col-
lection a number that belonged to the same deposit. They are either
roundish, oval, or heart-shaped, and of various sizes, but on an average
six inches long, four inches wide, and from three-quarters to an inch in
thickness. These flint dises are believed to have been buried as a re-
ligicus offering, and the peculiar structure of the mound which inclosed
them rather favors this opinion, while their enormous number, on the
other hand, affords some probability to the view that they constituted a
depot or magazine. Many of them are clumsy, and roughly chipped
around their edges; and hence it has been suggested that they are no
finished implements, but merely rudimentary forms, destined to receive
more symmetry of outline by subsequent labor. Many of the dises un-
der notice bear a striking resemblance to the flint “ hatchets” discovered
by Boucher de Perthes and Dr. Rigollot in the diluvial gravels of the
valley of the Somme, in Northern France. The similarity in form, how-
ever, is the only analogy that can be claimed for the rude flint articles
of both continents, considering that they occurred under totally differ-
ent circumstances. The drift implements of Kurope represent the most
primitive attempts of man in the art of working stone, while the Ohio

NORTH AMERICAN STON® IMPLEMENTS. A401

discs, if finished at all, are certainly very rougb samples of the handi-
craft of a race that constructed earthworks of astonishing regularity and
magnitude, and was already highly skilled in the art of chipping flint
into various shapes.

On page 214 of the “Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,” a
group of the flint articles from Clark’s Work is represented. The drawing
exhibits pretty correctly the irregular outline and general rudeness of
these specimens; yet Mr. Stevens states (Flint Chips, p. 440) that “the
representations are not at all satisfactory.” The only fault, [ think, that
can be found with these drawings is their small scale, a fault which is very
excusable, considering that at the period when Messrs. Squier and Davis
published their work, (1848,) flint articles of such shape were no objects
of particular attention; for just then the results of the researches of
Boucher de Perthes were first laid before the scientific world, which, it
is well known, ignored for a long time the significance of the rude flint
tools discovered by the indefatigable and enthusiastic French savant in
the diluvial gravel-beds of the Somme. It is true, however, that some
of the flint dises of Clark’s Work are wrought with more care than those
represented in the “Ancient Monuments.” This fact may be ascribed
toa whim of the worker or workers, who gave some of the articles a
ereater degree of regularity by some additional blows. Mr. Stevens has
only seen specimens of this better class, for such were those which Dr.
Davis sold to the Blackmore Museum among his collection of Indian
relics, and hence the author of ‘ Flint Chips” seems to attribute to them
a better general character than they really possess. I learn, however,
that Mr. Blackmore, during a recent visit to Ohio, has succeeded in re-
covering a considerable number of the implements of Clark’s Work, and
thus an opportunity will be afforded again to investigate the true nature
of these relics of a bygone people.

The objects in question consist of the compact silicious stone of * Flint
Ridge,” in Ohio, a locality described on page 214 of the ‘‘Ancient Mon-
uments.”* <A careful comparison has established this fact beyond any
doubt. The flint or hornstone which occurs in that region, is a beauti-
ful material of a dark color, resembling somewhat the real flint found in
nodules in the cretaceous formations of Europe. It is occasionally
marked with darker or lighter concentric stripes or bands, the centre of
which is formed by a small nucleus of blue chalcedony ; and this inter-

al structure appears particularly distinct in specimens which, by ex-
posure, have undergone a superficial change of color. The stone, in
general, possesses peculiarities by which it can be recognized at once,
even when met in a wrought state far from its original site. According
to Mr. Squier, arrow-heads made of this hornstone have been found in
Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan. That they occur in Mlinois,
I can attest from personal experience.

*More particularly in Squier’s ‘Aboriginal Monuments of New York,’ Buffalo, 1851,
p. 126.
268

402 NORTH AMERICAN STONE IMPLEMENTS.

A few years ago, when treating of the flint implements of Clark’s
Work, I was not prepared to express a definite opinion concerning the
manner in which they were used, In the mean time, however, I have ob-
tained additional information in relation to the class of implements under
notice, which enabies me, as I think, to point out the purposes for which
those of Clark’s Work, as well as similar ones from other localities, were
designed. In the summer of 1869, some children, who were amusing
themselves near the barn on the farm of Oliver H. Mullen, in the neigh-
borhood of Fayetteville, Saint Clair County, Iinois, dug into the ground
and discovered a deposit of fifty-two dise-shaped flint implements, which
lay closely heaped together. Several of them came into my possession
through the assistance of Dr. Patrick, of Belleville, in the same county.
They consist, like those of Clark’s Work, of the peculiar stone of Flint
Ridge. This I noticed at first sight, and so did Messrs. Squier and
Davis, to whom I showed them. They resemble, in general shape, the

———
= Ss
SSS SS
S=S—=— =
EES SSS
SSS aS =
SSS

\

\

| Ws r Re
(Qe

————)
———

2
——

Wes

\\'
\\\\\

u

hi ZZ
GD:

objects of Clark’s Work, but are somewhat smaller and of perfectly sym-
metrical outline, having a well-chipped, though strong edge; in one
word, they are highly finished implements, far superior to those of
Clark’s Work. In Fig. 3 I give a full-size drawing of one of my speci-

NORTH AMERICAN STONE IMPLEMENTS. 403

mens from Fayetteville, which is twenty millimeters thick in the middle,
The slight irregularities observable in the circumference are owing to
later accidental fractures. In this specimen, as in the others from the
same find, the edge is produced by small, carefully-measured blows.
The edges of my specimens from Fayetteville, moreover, exhibit traces of
wear, being rubbed off to a small degree, and this cireumstance, in con-
nection with their shape, induces me to believe that they were used as
scraping or smoothing implements. The aborigines, it is well known, hol-
lowed their canoes and wooden mortars with the assistance of fire, and
the implements just described, were, as I presume, employed for removing
the charred portions of the wood. They are well adapted to the grasp
of the hand, and, indeed, of the most convenient form and size to serve
in that operation. Probably they were likewise used in cleaning hides,
and for other purposes. The tools of Fayetteville, however, are much
more handy than those of Clark’s Work.

The fact. that implements made of the hornstone of Flint Ridge are
found in [linois—a distance of about four hundred miles intervening—
is of particular interest, as it shows that the material was quarried for
exportation to remote parts of the country. It doubtless formed an ar-
ticle of traffic among the natives, like copper, sea-shells, and other nat-
ural productions which they applied to the exigencies of common life
or used for personal adornment.

Concerning North American flint implements of the European drift
type in general, Mr. Stevens expresses himself thus: ‘The legitimate
conclusion at which we may at present arrive, is that implements, in form
resembling some of the European palaeolithic types, were made by the
aborigines of America at a comparatively late period, and that the peo-
ple usually termed the ‘mound-builders,’ were, probably, the makers of
these implements.” (p. 443.)

There is no sufficient ground, I think, for attributing these implements
exclusively to the mound-builders, considering that they occur on the
surface, and in deposits below it, in regions where the people desiguated
as the mound-builders are not supposed to have left their traces. In
the States of New York and New Jersey, for instance, such articles
repeatedly have been met. I will only refer to the leaf-shaped imple-
ments in possession of Mr. Cowing, which were found in New York, and
are the finest specimens of that kind ever brought to my notice. That
the people who erected the mounds made and used tools resembling the
palaeolithic types of Europe, is proved by the occurrence of those tools
in the mounds; but it follows by no means that they are to be consid-
ered as the sole makers of that class of implements. Supposing that
the mound-builders really were a people superior in their attainments
to the aborigines found in possession of the country by the whites, it is
certainly very difficult to draw a line of demarcation between the manu-
factures of the ancient and those of the more recent indigenous inhabi-
tants of North America, The mound-builders—to preserve the adopted

404. NORTH AMERICAN STONE IMPLEMENTS.

term—certainly did not stow away all their articles of use and ornament
in the mounds, but necessarily left a great many of them scattered over
the surface, which became mingled with those of the succeeding oeccu-
pants of the soil. Both the mound-builders and the later Indians lived
in an age of stone, and as their wants were the same, they resorted to
the same means to satisty them. Their manufactures, therefore, must
exhibit a considerable degree of similarity; and hence the great diffi-
culty of separating them.

Yet Mr. Stevens goes in this respect farther than any one before him.
He is particularly orthodox in the matter of pipes. Those who have
paid some attention to the antiquities of North America, are aware of
the fact that Messrs. Squier and Davis found in the mounds of Ohio,
especially in one mound near Chillicothe, a number of stone pipes of
peculiar shape, which they have described in the ‘“‘Ancient Monuments
of the Mississippi Valley.” In these pipes the bowl rises from the mid-
dle of a flat and somewhat curved base, one side of which communicates
by means of a narrow perforation, usually one-sixth of an inch (about
four millimeters) in diameter, with the hollow of the bowl, and repre-
sents the tube, or rather the mouth-piece of the pipe, while the other
unpertforated end forms the handle by which the smoker held the in-
plement and approached it to his mouth. In the more elaborate speci-
mens the bowl is formed, in some instances, in imitation of the human
head, but generally of the body of an animal—mammal, bird, or reptile.
These pipes, then, were smoked either without any stem, which seems
probable, or by means of a very diminutive tube of some kind, the nar-
row bore of the base not allowing the insertion of anything like a mas-
sive stem. The authors of the “Ancient Monuments” called these pipes
‘ mound-pipes,” merely to designate that particular class of smoking
utensils; it was not their intention to convey the idea that the mound-
builders had been unacquainted with pipes into which stems were in-
serted. On the contrary, they distinctly assign a beautiful pipe of the
latter kind, representing the body of a bird with a human head* to the
mound-builders, though this specimen was not found in a mound, but
within an ancient inclosure twelve miles below the city of Chillicothe.

teferring to this pipe, Mr. Stevens says: “Squier and Davis consider
that this object is a relic of the mound-builders; but it does not appear
that any pipe of similar form, cr indeed any pipe intended to be smoked
by means of an inserted stem, has been found in any of the Ohio mounds.”
Upon inquiry I learned from Dr. Davis that mounds had been leveled
by the plough within the inclosure where the pipe in question was found,
which, he is convinced, belonged to the original contents of one of those
obliterated mounds. In the Smithsonian report for 1868, I published
(on page 399) the drawing of a pipe then in possession of Dr. Davis.
Its shape is that of a barrel somewhat narrowing at the bottom, and its
material an almost transparent rock-erystal. The two hollows, one for

* Tig. 147 on p. 247 of the “Ancient Monuments;” Fig. 106 on p.509 of “ Flint Chips.”

NORTH AMERICAN STONE IMPLEMENTS. AOSD

the reception of the smoking material, and the other for inserting a
stem, meet under an obtuse angle. This pipe was taken from a mound
near Bainbridge, Ross County, Ohio. Mr. Stevens suggests it had been
associated with a secondary interment, (p. 524.) Dr. Davis, however,
who is acquainted with the circumstances of its discovery, told me that
it belonged, with various other objects, to the primary deposit of the
mound. Thus it would seem that the mound-builders confined them-
selves by no means to the use of one particular class of pipes.

Those who advocate a strict classification of North American relics
according to earlier or later periods, should bear in mind that mound-
building was sti!l in use—if not in Ohio, at least in other parts of the
present United States—when the first Europeans arrived, though the
practice seems to have been abandoned soon after the colonization of
the country by the whites. Yet, even in comparatively modern times,
isolated cases of mound-building have been recorded,* which fact would
indicate, perhaps, a lingering inclination to perpetuate an ancient,
almost forgotten custom. Many of the earthworks in the Southern
States doubtless were built by the race of Indians inhabiting the country
when the Spaniards under De Soto made a vain attempt to take pos-
session of that vast territory, then comprised under the name of Florida.
For this we have Garcilasso de la Vega’s often-quoted statement relat-
ing to the earth-structures of the Indians. The Floridians, we also
know, erected at the same period mounds to mark the resting-places of
their defunct chieftains. Le Moyne de Morgues has left in the “ Brevis
Narratio” a representation and description of a funeral of this kind.
When the mound was heaped up, the mourners stuck arrows in the
ground around its base, and placed the drinking vessel of the deceased,
made of a large sea-shell, on the apex of the pilet But even without
such historical testimony. the continuance of mound-building might be
deduced from the fact that articles of European origin are met, though
rarely, among the primary deposits of mounds. The following inter-
esting communication, for which I am indebted to Colonel Charles C.
Jones, will serve to illustrate one case of mound-burial that can be re-
ferred with certainty to a period posterior to the European occupation
of the country:

‘“‘T have found in several mounds,” says my informant, “ glass beads
and silver ornaments, and, in one instance, a part of a rifle-barrel, which
were evidently buried with the dead. These, however, were secondary
interments, the graves being upon the top, or sides, or near the base of
the mound, and only a few feet deep. Never but in one ease have I
discovered any article of European manufacture interred with the dead’
in whose honor the mound was clearly erected. Upon opening a small
earth-mound on the Georgia coast, a few miles below Savannah, I found
& clay vessel, several flint arrow-heads, a hand-axe of stone, and a por-

*Squier, Aboriginal Monuments of New York, p. 112, &e.
tLe Moyne, in De Bry, vol. ii, Francoforti ad Moenum, 1591, pl. XL.

406 NORTH AMERICAN STONE IMPLEMENTS.

tion of an old-fashioned sword deposited with the decayed bones of the
skeleton. This tumulus was conical in shape, about seven feet high,
and possessed a base diameter of some twenty feet. It contained only

Fig. 4. one skeleton, and that lay, with the articies I have
enumerated, at the bottom of the mound, and ona
level with the plain. The oaken hilt, most of the
guard, and about seven inches of the blade of the
sword still remained. The rest of the blade had _per-
ished from rust. Strange to say, the oak had best
resisted the ‘gnawing tooth of time’ This mound
had never been opened or in any way disturbed, ex-
cept by the winds and rains of the changing seasons.
I have no doubt but that the interment was primary,
and that all the articles enumerated were deposited
with the dead before this mound-tomb was heaped
above him. This, within the range of my observa-
tion, is an interesting and exceptional case. I am
: persuaded that mound-building, at least upon the
Georgia coast, was abandoned by the natives very shortly after their
primal contact with the whites.”

From mound-building I turn again to North American flint imple-
ments. Mr. Stevens refers in his work to the absence of flint scrapers
in the series from the United States exhibited in the Blackmore Museum.
Scrapers of the European spoon-shaped type, however, are not as searce
in the United States as Mr. Stevens seems to suppose. The collection
of the Smithsonian Institution contains a number of them; and I found
myself two characteristic specimens in the Kjékkenmédding at Key-
port, New Jersey, described by me in the Smithsonian report for 1864,
They lay upon the shell-covered ground, a short distance from each other,
and were perhaps made by the same hand. In Fig. 4 I give a full-size
drawing of one of my specimens, both of which consist of a brown kind
of flint, such as probably would be called jasper by mineralogists. The

Fig. 5. figured specimen, it will be seen, possesses all
AN : the characteristics of a European scraper. Its
lower surface is formed by a single curved
fracture. The rounded head is somewhat
turned toward the right, a feature likewise ex-
hibited in the other specimen, which is a little
larger, but not quite as typical as the original
of Fig. 4. As the peculiar curve of the broad
part is observable in both specimens, it must
be considered as having been produced inten-
tionally. Indeed, Lhave among my flint serap-
ers from the pilework at Robenhausen one
zai which is curved in the same direction. In fash-
ioning their implements in this particular manner, the Indian and the
ancient lake-man possibly had the same object in view.

NORTH AMERICAN STONE IMPLEMENTS. 407

There is, however, another somewhat different class of North Ameri:
ean flint articles, which, as [I believe, were employed by the aborigines
for scraping and smoothing wood, horn, and other materials in which
they worked, or perhaps, also, in the preparation of skins. They resem-
ble stemmed arrow-heads, which, instead of being pointed, terminate in
a semi-lunar, regularly chipped edge. It is probable that they were
partly made from arrow-heads which had lost Fig. 6.
their points. Schoolcraft gives in Fig. 3, of S
Plate 18, in the first volume of his large work,
the drawing of an object of this class, calling it
“the blunt arrow or Beekwuk, (Algonkin,) which
was fired at a mark.” It is likely enough that
these articles served in part the purpose as-
signed to them by Mr. Schooleraft. Yet, I
have in my collection several in which the
rounded edge is worn and polished, while the remaining part retains its
original sharpness of fracture, a circumstance that can only be ascribed
to continued use, and therefore leads me to believe that they were em-
ployed in the manner already indicated. These implements hardly could
be used without handles. Fig. 5 represents, in natural size, one of my
specimens, which was found on the surface near West Belleville, Saint
Clair County, Illinois. The material is a yellowish-brown flint. The edge,
it will be seen, is perfectly Vig. 7
seraper-like. Inserted in-
to a stout handle, this ob-
ject would make an ex-
cellent scraper. The edge
of this specimen is not
polished, but it seems as
if small particles of the
edge had been scaled off
by the pressure exerted
in the use of the imple-
ment. In the original of
the above full-size rep-
presentation, Fig. 6, on
the contrary, the curved
edge is rubbed off to a ‘
considerable extent and Gl
perfectly polished, while the portion opposite the edge bears not the
slightest trace of friction. This specimen, which consists of a whitish
flint, was found in Saint Clair County, Illinois. In Fig. 7, lastly, I
represent, in natural size, a fine large specimen, which I class among
the implements under notice. I formerly supposed it to be a tool des-
tined for cutting purposes, but the condition of the edge, which is rather
blunt and hardly fit for cutting, afterward induced me to change my

408 NORTH AMERICAN STONE IMPLEMENTS.

opinion. Originally, perhaps, one of those unusually large spear-hesds,
which are occasionally found, it may have been reduced subsequently,
after having lost the point, to its present shape. Yet, it may never
have possessed a form different from that which it now exhibits. This
specimen is chipped from a fine reddish flint which contains encrinites.
I obtained it from quarrymen near West Belleville, who found it in the
earth while they were engaged in-baring the rock for extending the
quarry. In conclusion, I will state that, since writing the preceding
pages, I received a number of stone implements from Muncy, Lycoming
County, Pennsylvania, among which there are some large scrapers of
the European type. Their material, however, is not flint, but either
graywacke or a kind of tough slate.

GREEN RIVER VALLEY. 409

INDIAN ENGRAVINGS ON THE FACE OF ROCKS ALONG GREEN RIVER VALLEY
IN THE SIERRA NEVADA BANGE OF MOUNTAINS.

By J. G. BRUFF.

In 1850, accompanied by a party of twenty-three persons in all, well
mounted and armed, I explored a mountain district probably never before
visited by the whites. The Pi-utah Indians, numerous and hostile, an-
noyed us much, stole a horse, and killed one of the party. I had a pocket-
compass, a protractor, scale, and dividers, with which, taking the bearings
of the snow-capped peaks of Shasta and Mount Saint José, or Lassen’s
Peak, I fixed our position upon the map. We soon commenced descend-
ing the eastern slope of the mountain, following ridges and valleys through

evhat Lassen, who was one of the party, very aptly termed “a blown-up
country.” It isall of volcanic origin, with fissures, extinct craters, obsid-
ian, &e., &e. Atlength, descending the side of an extensive ridge, by an
Indian or brute trail, we reached a gulch-head, in which was a delightful
spring of clear water, the source of a stream, at first a mere brook, which
after a few hours’ ride became a considerable creek, bordered with a lux-
uriant growth of willows, grass, and trees of all sizes. From near the
spring commenced a volcanic rent, running in a general northeasterly di-
rection diagonally across an extensive inclined sterile plain, covered with
Sharp angular blocks of a brown plutonic rock, among which, through
this defile, the creek meandered. All indications showed this to be a
favorite resort of Indians. Game abounded; tracks of grizzly bears, deer,
antelopes, panthers, wolves, &c., were seen at the numerous crossings of
the stream, with several shooting-lodges of the natives, one of which I
sketched. We traveled at a quick pace the greater part of the day,
in this defile, in imminent danger from the Indians, who might from the
willow jungles, or from the top of the walls, have unhorsed the entire party
with their obsidian -pointed arrows. The southern side of the defile was a
vertical wall, as of masonry; the other was irregular and broken. From
its head the creek-bottom, having a greater declination than the general
surface, gave the walls more height, until the southern one was on an
average 20 feet. Several large blocks of stone oceasionally projected over
the wall, and the top all along was very irregular, with rocks and clumps
of cedar-bushes. But that which was the principal point of interest in
this defile of some fifteen or twenty miles in length was the fact that the
surface of the rock was covered with sculptured characters. (Fig. 1.)
The highest ranges of these remarkable records, some of which are cut in
the under face of overhanging rocks, could only have been executed by
the aid of platforms. The rock is of such a hard nature that in order to
make similar markings we would be compelled to use a well-tempered
chisel and hammer. They are generally of the size of a crow-quill, say
one-tenth of an inch, but were originally greater. Some, here and there,
were partially obliterated by the action of the elements for many years.

A410 ETHNOLOGY.

Thelabor and time required to execute these engravings are sufficient
proof of their importance to the people who produced them. We atlength
came to a rugged pile of detritus, where the wall had been broken down,
perhaps by the action of frost, and clambered up to the plain above, from

Bi

‘ill

isi

covering the basaltic walls of a defile of many miles in extent, averaging,
e SIERRA NEVADA MOUNTAINS

perhaps, 20ft, in height, on the eastern slope of th

Discovered by J. G. BRUFF, Oct. 11850. [Selections on a large scale. }

ANCIENT HIEROGLYPHICAL RECORDS,

2 t
whence I perceived the dark line of the ravine trending away in the
same general direction, till lest to view in a distance of about twelve or
fifteen miles, the markings doubtless extending all the way. The same
amount of markings roughly executed with a brush would involve the
labor of many painters for several months. The creek doubtless emptied
into the northern end of a lake, which we discovered soon after, which,
from a delicious manna found on its banks, we named Honey Lake.
Being greatly interested in these historical records, I could not resist
the temptation of copying some of them. The party proceeded, and

;

: *surequnoyy AYyooy oy Jo odoyTs:
UI9}SOM OY] WOdN ‘OANT W99LD JO Ao[[VA OY} JO Opis Usojsoar YIP OUOYSpUTsS v UO ‘GYTONUM NVIGNT

GREEN RIVER VALLEY. All

called back to me in the most emphatic terms to come on, or I would be
caught by the Indians. Two young men volunteered, however, to guard
me while I sketched, and, with cocked rifles, watching the top of the
wall, urged me to get through as speedily as possible, making use of

——————

i:

AY\\VAY
\\

those cogent expletives found only in the vocabulary of such charae-
ters. It might truly be deemed sketching under difficulties.

Figure 2 exhibits forty-three rifles, a small lean horse, his ribs being
visible, and a principal chief; stretched along the main branch of the

A12 ETHNOLOGY.

stream. On the other side, north of the main stream, are two chief*, two:
braves, and a good-conditioned horse at rest. It is on a vertical cliff of
fine gray sandstone, at the foot of an inclined plane, where the trail
runs into the valley from the elevated land dividing it from La Fontenelle
Creek. The significance of the record appears to me as follows: The
forty-three mounted warriors had left an impoverished district, and
descended to this valley, full of grass, fuel, game, &e., whereby they
were enabled to recruit themselves and become successful in their expe-
dition. The drawing is notin proportion. The men were about 3 feet
above the base, and not 3 feet in height. Assuming the tallest man to
be 3 feet in height, 3 feet from ground, and the cliff 12 feet, the other pro-
portions will be sufficiently correct. The markings when first observed
were almost entirely obscured with dust; but, with a small branch of a
tree, I dusted off the surface of the rock, and copied them in rough
sketches in my note-book.

ANCIENT RUIN IN ARIZONA,
By. OF Ye ane:

In the heart of the Pinal Mountains in Arizona, and the center of
what is known as the Apache country, is a little valley of not more
than 150 acres in extent. This valley is sometimes called Mason’s
Valley, after General Jno. S. Mason, major of the Fifteenth Infantry,
by whom, when commanding the district of Arizona, in 1864, it was
discovered. It is a beautiful valley, with groves of luxuriant trees,
green sward, and abundant foliage, by no means common in this
Territory. Its altitude is probably about 5,000 feet above the level
of the sea, and from 3,500 to 4,000 feet above the table-land, at the
base of the mountains. Around it, to great heights, on every side save
two passes, one to the eastward and one to the westward, rise the peaks
of the Pinal Mountains, very abrupt and very picturesque. From the
summit of these, far away eastward and northward, stretch, in unend-
ing succession, mountain-peaks, cafions, and chasms. I have never seen
so rough a country, and have no words to adequately describe it.

While exploring this region, under orders from General Stoneman,
we found in the valley described the remains of a very extensive build-
ing. No walls were left:standing, but the stone foundations were distinct,
so that the apartments could still be easily traced. There could not
have been less than twenty or thirty rooms, some of which were very
large, and others small. The ruin was on a little eminence, or mound
of gravel, but whether so constructed originally, or whether the mound
had been formed by the faliing walls, it was impossible to tell. About
the spot, pieces of broken earthen-ware were discovered, of which the
accompanying pieces are samples. They are better finished than those
now made by the Indians, and seem of different composition. By whom

LINCOLN COUNTY, DAKOTA. 413

the building was erected, or by whom inhabited, I cannot determine ;
whether it had been the home of the Jesuits during the period of their
residence in this country, is not clear, as the place indicates the build-
ing to be of a date prior to that epoch; and, besides, most of their
buildings are yet standing.

The place is so remote and inaccessible that I can hardly suppose the
Jesuits would have reached it. And as the Apaches have held the
region for long, long years, so long that it is looked upon by them as
their original home, and is certainly their stronghold, I incline to the
opinion that it is an ancient Aztec or Toltee ruin.

THE HAYSTACK MOUND, LINCOLN COUNTY, DAKOTA.

By A. BARRANDT, OF SIoUx CITY.

This mound, one of the finest specimens of archeological remains in
the Northwest, is situated in Lincoln County, near the west fork of the
Little Sioux of Dakota or Turkey Creek, nearly eighty-five miles north-
west of Sioux City. Itissituated on afine bottom, and is 327 feet inlength
at the base on the northwest side, and 290 feet on the southeast side,
and 120 feet wide. Its sides slope at an angle of about 50°; it is from
34 to 41 feet in height, the northeast end being the higher. To the sum-
mit, which is from 28 to 33 feet wide, there is a well-beaten path. It is
composed of calcined clay, which by burning has become hard and of a
dark brick color. Toward its base on the northeast side there is a
large portion of the side built of soft sandstone and limestone, which
were probably extracted from the large hill lying about three miles and
a half in a northwesterly direction, as I have found a large hole in the
side hill partially filled by the caving in of the bank. At first I thought
that it was a spur of the main ridge of hill that had been isolated by
the action of water which in former ages rushed down that valley, as
the cut banks on both sides of the creek clearly indicate ; but, on closer
examination, I found that it was built of the above-mentioned materials,
What led to making a part of the mound with stone, Iam at a loss to
conjecture. While examining the mound, I discovered on its southeast
side a hole which had all the appearance of a badger-hole; if was about
18 feet from the base of the mound. I determined to ascertain whether
it was a badger-hole or some inlet which in the course of time might
have been filled up by the falling débris. I accordingly had a hole dug,
and, after reaching a distance of 23 feet horizontally, discovered a cavity
which was found to contain a part of the vertebra of an elk, several
bones, belonging probably to the same animal, and thirty-six broken
fragments of pottery, together with a pile of ashes and about half a
bushel of charcoal, and charred wood. This cavity was nearly circular,
about 7 feet in diameter, and about 34 or 4 feet high.

AIA ETHNOLOGY.

I conjectured that at one time this cavity must have reached the
summit of the mound, and consequently I ordered that a hole should
be dug as nearly as possible above it. After having dug to the depth
of 9 feet, we came to within two feet of the cavity. Here we found
several large sand-stones and a stick of oak, very well preserved, pro-
jecting over the top of the cavity. This stick was probably used as a
support for pots hung over the fire, for that the culinary art was
practiced in this hole is clearly indicated by the ashes and bones
strewn around. But how this hole got filled up, 1 am at loss to de-
termine. I am sanguine that if the mound was properly explored
some valuable relics of this industrious race of mound-builders would
be found; owing to its being at a distance from the banks of the
Missouri, and the generally traveled road, it has never been examined
by any scientific explorer. From afar it resembles a haystack, and
hence this name was given to it by the emigrant.

Annexed you will find a sketch, which will probably give a better
idea of its locality and surroundings:

Sketch of the Haystack Mound, Lincoln County, D. T.

That portion of the Mound,
constructed of sandstone,
ts indicated thus, ®

EARTH-WORKS IN WISCONSIN.
By E. E. BREED.

Presuming that any notes relating to the aboriginal inhabitants of
this State would be of service to you, I submit the following.

There is a series of pits on the northwest of the northwest section
10, and northeast of the northwest section 10, township 25, range 15

WISCONSIN. 41d

east, (town of Matteson.) The pits are in an irregular line, general
direction from northwest to southeast, from four to six rods apart.
Quite a number are in pairs. The depth, as found by excavating the
earth that had caved in, was originally from 4 to 5 feet, diameter 3
feet. In almost every instance the earth was thrown out on the south-
west side. Soil sandy.

A few years ago the land was covered by a heavy growth of timber,
principally hemlock. Trees over two hundred years old grew on the
earth that had been thrown out. The chain is broken by a smail pond,
perhaps ten rods across, but follows a sandy ridge most of the way.
The site is just such as might be selected to form a line of defense.

MOUND IN WISCONSIN,

By C. K. DEAN, BoscoBEL, GRANT COUNTY, WISCONSIN.

We have, or had, in the Wisconsin Valley, which I have seen and
sketched in part, many curious mounds resembling animals, those of fly-
ing birds being the most common; but nothing in the shape of an ele-
phant or any extinct animal. The most striking among my notes is one
in the form of a man, immense in proportions, sketched twenty years
ago at Black Harth. The other in the shape of a huge molar tooth.
This was in the town of Dover, about fifty miles above us. I saw the
man-mound the next day after it had been opened at the breast to the
natural level of the ground, and observed that it was designed as a
tomb and memorial of some one evidently distinguished in life. The
tomb was made from a blue-clay, brought in balls from some distance—
none such near—was well packed and smooth, and of full length. The
walls near two feet thick, inclosing a vacant space containing traces of
burial of one, or perhaps two bodies. A few relics of little importance
were reported—two stone hatchets, some arrow-heads, &c., which I
did not see; but ashes and the smell of mortality were still there. The
arms of this figure were extended north and south, each 330 feet in
length, or about 700 feet altogether, including the width of the body, and
the body to the east about 100 feet in length. ‘The legs were partially
obliterated by cultivation of the ground, but were evidently about 600
feet long. The head was about 25 feet in diameter, and the elevation of
the body above the surface of the ground about 5 feet.

SS

416 ETHNOLOGY.

| THE BIG ELEPHANT MOUND IN GRANT COUNTY, WISCONSIN.

By JARED WARNER, OF PATCH GROVE, WISCONSIN.

Wi mea Hmmm |
ZF OWN,

Wy,
Aig Yo

== \ LCs HT ANHTABLMAERUUUATURUUUAUNCLEETEER aay ==
NN \\ My Gy aw i Hil | | | | Wi, ===
ee

80 Feet )

Scale 34 feot to the inch. .

This mound has been known here for the last twenty-five years as the
* Hlephant Mound.” It is situated on the high sandy bottom-lands of
the Mississippi, on the east side, about eight miles below the mouth of
the Wisconsin River. There are on each side of the mound, some fifteen
to twenty rods distant, sandy, grassy ridges, some 15 feet higher than
the land about the mound; the mound is, therefore, in a shallow valley,
sloping gently to the Mississippi River, and only about 8 feet above
high water. Its total length is 135 feet; from hind feet to back, 60
feet ; from fore feet to back, 66 feet; width across fore legs, 21 feet;
across hind legs, 24 feet; from end of proboscis or snout to neck or
throat, 31 feet ; space between fore and hind legs, 51 feet; from end of
proboscis to fore legs, 39 feet; across the body, 36 feet; general height
of body above surrounding ground, 5 feet. The head is large, and the
proportions of the whole so symmetrical that the mound well deserves
the name of the “ Big Elephant Mound.”

The figure is from a drawing taken on the ground, in company with
Alex. Paul, J. C. Orr, and J. C. Scott, in October, 1872.

Is not the existence of such a mound good evidence of the contempora-
neous existence of the mastodon and the mound-builders, and also of
the very small change, if any, of the present bed of the Mississippi

tiver ?

There are many mounds in the form of animals in this section of coun-
try which I have seen within the last thirty-five years; namely, in the
Shape of birds, bears, deer, foxes, and men, the latter with legs only to
the knees.

NORTHWESTERN IOWA. ANT

ANCIENT RELICS IN NORTHWESTERN IOWA,

By J. B. Curtrs.

During a recent journey over Northwestern Towa I found some frag-
ments of ornamented pottery-ware under circumstances of sufficient
interest to induce me to forward to you a brief account of them. I
obtained these fragments from about three feet below the surface of the
ground, on the banks of Little Sioux River, in township 935, range 39.

The valley of the river is about one mile in width between the line of
biuffs on each side, and through the middle of this valley the river has
cut its present channel, leaving a terrace on either side, the level of
which is from 10 to 12 feet above the water.

A section of the bank presents a grayish clay at the bottom, covered
by 6 or 8 feet of alluvial soil, free from rocks or gravel, and composed
principally of transported loess. In this upper deposit I excavated and
obtained in the course of half an hour nearly half a peck of fragments,
in pieces from the size of an inch to several inches square, and from
one-eighth to one-half an inch in thickness. In many cases these frag-
ments were ornamented on the outside surface by cross and parallel
lines and indentations, the whole exhibiting considerable skill in fash-
ioning the material, as well as taste in its ornamentation. There were
evidently vessels of various size and degrees of ornament. They were
found, as before stated, about 3 feet below the surface. First, at the
bottom, occurred a row of stones, each about the size of a man’s fist, and
arranged in the form of a circle, as is often done in building fires to boil
one’s coffee in the open air. From the center of this circle I obtained
several pieces of charcoal of the size of my thumb. Above this circle
of rocks were found the pieces of pottery, and above these the bones of
animals, which my companion pronounced to be those of the buffalo, elk,
and beaver. The order of arrangement at once suggested a fire built
within a small circle of rocks, on which rested the pottery vessels filled
with the flesh of animals, either for ordinary cookery or as a part of
that Indian custom which supplied the dead with provisions for their
long journey, the whole being then covered with earth, the weight of
which has broken the vessels and pressed itself into every interstice,
but left the order of succession plain. I could find no human remains
during my brief examination; no traces of mounds or Indian residence
in the neighborhood.

The depth below the surface at which these articles were found forbids
the supposition of their being of late date.

The country has been settled by whites only within five or six years
past.

278

A18 ETHNOLOGY.

MOUNDS NEAR ANNA, UNION COUNTY, ILLINOIS.

By T. M. PERRIN.

The most extensive works of the mound-builders in this county are
situated in the Mississippi bottom, fifteen miles from Anna. At that
point the creek makes a bend resembling very much in shape a_horse-
shoe, which renders the place very favorable for a defensive work. The
earth-work follows the bend in the creek, and is, at this time, about 4
feet high. The entrance to the inclosure is on the south side, with a
large oblong mound in front of the opening. This mound is about 30
feet by 50, and about 350 feet high at the highest point, with a depres-
sion in the center, which makes it appear in profile like a double mound.

West of this mound, a short distance, is a round mound about 30 feet
in diameter and 15 feet high. The earth-work incloses about twenty
acres. Within the area of the inclosure there is another mound cover-
ing about two acres, which is evidently a sepulchral remain, as a large
number of skeletons have been found in it, none of them perfect, how-
ever, though the earth is compact and dry. The skulls are very large,
but fall to pieces on being exposed to the air. One skull has been found
that would have measured 56 inches in circumference. The skeletons
in this mound were all carefully inclosed with flat stones, each skeleton
being separate.

The other mounds appear to have been used for another purpose,
probably for defense, as nothing has been found in them. Half of the
inclosure, as well as all the mounds, are in acultivated field. The round
mound to the west of the opening and part of the earth-work are in the
woods, and covered with large timber. In the sepulchral mound are
found pottery-ware, and stone and flint articles, but no metal or bone
implements. One mile northeast of this, on a high beach-flat, and over-
looking a lake, is another sepulchral mound, but no earth-work. In this
mound nothing was found with the skeletons. This, like the former,
has stone around each skeleton, but the grave is not more than 3 feet
long and 18 inches deep. The body must have been buried with the
feet drawn up to the trunk.

Five miles north of this there is another mound, on the top of the
highest hill in the vicinity, and bordering on Bluff Lake. Nothing has
been found in connection with this except two or three copper rings—
no skeletons, although indications are that it has been used for burial
purposes.

About one and a half miles northwest of the last-mentioned mound
there is another sepulchral mound, but as it is in a cultivated field it is
now very nearly level with the surface of the ground ; but only recently
have any skeletons been found in it, which tends to show that they were
buried in the bottom of the mound and are brought to light every
year as the plow removes some of the stones placed around the graves.

UNION COUNTY, ILLINOIS. A419

The parts of skeletons found here are very long. The skulls crumble at
the slightest touch, but the thigh-bones can be handled, with care.

About five miles north of this are other mounds, located on the banks
of Running Lake. There are four mounds in this group, but only two
have been opened. Some years ago it became necessary to build a
bridge across the lake at the site of the mounds. The dirt for this pur-
pose was taken from two of them, leaving about one-half of each. The
skeletons appeared to be scattered promiscuously through the earth
composing the mounds, and no stones were placed around them. These
mounds are formed of black sand and gravel mixed in with pieces of
shell. There are also found pottery-ware, stone and flint spear-heads,
stone axes, &c. The pottery has been in the ground so long that it is
almost impossible to preserve it.

Between these mounds and those five miles south appears from the
remains to be what was once quite a settlement, which is now, however,
covered with a dense forest of large growth, as well as the crumbling
trunks of trees half hidden in the accumulating soil.

In Pope County, in this State, and about fifty miles east of this, there
is another very interesting earth-work. It occupies the summit of the
highest hill, very steep, and with but one approach, and this is pro-
tected by a stone and earth embankment across a narrow neck. The
defenses consist principally of stone work. Some of the stones are very
large, and yet have been brought from some other point, as none of the
same formation are found in this hill. Of course nothing like a true
wall now exists. This remain is known as the stone fort.

Within a mile of this place, and on a high ridge, are two sepulchral
stone circles, but nothing has been found in them. They are evidently
very ancient.

Since writing youl have made another visit to the mounds in the
‘“‘ Mississippi bottom,” and as I have obtained some rather interesting
additions to what I communicated before, I have concluded to write
again. We first opened the mound described as the large mound in
front of the opening of the earth-works. It was my intention to have
dug a ditch through the mound, but the weather was so warm the men
could not endure the work, so I commenced by sinking a hole in the
center where the depression which I mentioned exists. After going
down about three feet we came to what looked like a chimney made of
sun-burned brick, and on removing some four feet of this we came to
the foundation. We then ditched both ways, east and west, and came
on one side to a wall, on removing the earth from which, we found it to
be arched. The arch appeared to have been formed in three layers of
stone with a layer of grass between each, but looked as though it had
been exposed to fire. At the bottom and around the chimney there ap-
peared to have been placed a matting made of cane, but not firm enough
to be moved only in small particles. Here we found earthen pots re-
spectively of the capacity of one, one and a half, and two gallons; the large

A420 ETHNOLOGY.

pot was unfortunately broken in removing it. I also found an image,
but differing from the other one I found; this one is hollow and holds
half a pint, with a good face and a fine bust. It is evidently intended
to represent a woman with the arms hanging on the side, and the hands
folded across the abdomen ; the opening is on the back of the head. I
also found a small ornament of rock crystal three-fourths of an inch
long, with a small hole through one end; in color it is a beautiful purple,
and perfectly translucent. This mound, I am under the impression,
was a dwelling-place, from the fact that nothing indicated that it has
been used for anything else. Furthermore, we found under the arch a
large quantity of charcoal, which appeared as if it had been burned in
the place. The arch, we ascertained by digging holes, run through the
mound from east to west, and is about six inches thick. I have no
doubt but that this is quite an interesting mound, and if properly ex-
amined would show much relative to the habits of the mound-builders,
I forgot to mention that I found one of those stones with a hole
through it, known in this vicinity by the name of “ tool-stones;” it is
about two inches in diameter. I also found three handsome flints.

ANCIENT MOUNDS IN KENTUCKY.
By Dr. RoBERT PETER, OF LEXINGTON, KENTUCKY.

I have the pleasure to forward to the Smithsonian Institution, by
Adams Express, to-day, a small box, containing a portion of the relics
found by my sons and myself in the small ancient mound which we
opened on the 19th of October last, to wit: Some of the red earth in
which the relics were imbedded, with fragments of much-decomposed
bones, charcoal, &c., a number of flint implements of various shapes,
portions of soft sandstone which seem to have been used for grinding or
polishing implements, a broken door-button-shaped article of the white
compact sulphate of baryta, found here in veins in our limestone, and a
rude pipe which has been made of soft sandstone.

The mound is about fifty feet in diameter, not rising in the center
more than three feet above the general surface of the woodland pasture
in which it is located. Trees as large as any in the woods around grew
on the mound, which seemed of sub-soil earth thrown up on the natural
surface.

The flint implements were mostly found arranged in an elliptical
figure, they being laid end to end, overlapping each other.

A little rude, copper bead was found in the earth, which seemed to
have been accidentally dropped there.

This mound is on the farm of Mr. Jer. Tarlton, close to the boundary-
line of the farm belonging to myself. It lies about a mile from the other

GEORGIA. A?1

small mound, on the farm of Mr. G. Fisher, (on North Elkhorn Creek,)
from which we obtained the copper articles, &c., last forwarded by me,
and is one of the series of ancient works mentioned in my communica-
tion published in the Smithsonian report for 1871.

MOUNDS IN BARTOW COUNTY, NEAR CARTERSVILLE, GEORGIA.
By M. F. STEPHENSON.

The most extensive and perfect series of tumuli exist in Bartow
County on the Etowah River, near Cartersville, a sketch of which I
send you:

A, large mound, 88 feet high. B, circular mound, 65 feet high. C, pentagonal
? D ) ts) ? ] 5S d fo)
mound, 25 feet high. D, excavation of an acre. F, mounds. I, terrace, 20 feet high
P R, mounds outside. T, crossings. Area inclosed by ditch and river, fifty acres.

It consists of ten mounds, situated in the bend of the river, and pro-
tected from attack on the land side by a moat, which is from 20 to 30
feet deep, and doubtless was once filled with water. The central mound
is square, and measures 150 feet on top,* with raised platform on the
east side 20 feet high and 40 wide; probably sacrifices were offered
here, as an idol of sandstone was plowed up at this place, with
excavated disks or mortars, 6 inches in diameter and of translucent
quartz, of elegant workmanship; also a stone ax, a small native copper
vessel, a perforated marzenella shell, (which is found in all the mounds,)

*Tt is not exactly a quadrangle, but the north side is 150 feet, the eastern side 160
feet, southeastern side 100 feet, south side 90 feet, and the western side 100 feet.

A?2 ETHNOLOGY.

a mica mirror, and the only gold beads ever met with—native gold
being found in the neighborhood. This mound is 88 feet high, and a
few rods from it is a circular one 65 feet high, which twenty years ago
had a parapet on top 5 feet high. The remainder are small and only
about 20 feet high. There are two excavations an acre square, as deep
as the moat, from which earth was probably obtained to raise the
mounds.

The valley and country for twenty miles westward and northward is
very fertile, and exhibits evidence everywhere of having been densely
peopled by the mound-builders.

At the falls of Little River, near the Alabama line, on the crest of the
fall, are three chambers hewed out of the solid sandstone, and at Na-
coochee the crest of a conical hill is cut off at about 50 feet, so as to
embrace an acre and a half; on two sides this is quite precipitous, and
on another a ditch and wall, which formerly was 6 feet high, inclosing
20 acres, used by De Soto in the battle he had with the Cherokees in
1540, which is proved by the relics found.

At Macon are stupendous remains, as also in Campbell County on
the Chattahoochee. Among these is the Yond Mountain, 4,000 feet
high, of solid granite; it is a cone crested with trees, nearly perpendicular
on all sides except at one place, which was walled with stone: Also
the Stone Mountain, which is without vegetation—2,560 feet high—a
cone, and accessible on one side only. This was walled with stone.
All defensible mountains in this country were fortified. Neither the
Cherokees, Creeks, nor Seminoles had any tradition of the extinct race,
which is proved to have been-a powerful nation, from the extent of
their territory and the stupendous character of their fortifications and
cemeteries.

MOUNDS IN GEORGIA.
By Witi1aM McIKON LEY, MILLEDGEVILLE, GA.

There are many groups of mounds in Georgia, an account of which
would be of importance to the archeologist to have permanently re-
corded. With this view, I send you an account of mounds on Sapelo
Island, McIntosh County.

South of High Point there are three mound-circles, having plain areas.
No. 1 is 240 feet wide; 9 feet high; base, 30 feet; no gateway; built of
earth and shells, densely overgrown with live oak, palmetto, myrtle,
erape-vines, which perfectly mask it; western s:de built aiong the very
edge of the table-land, so as to front a salt m rsh and Mud River as
a wall 20 feet high; on the north, skirting a {fresh-water flag and bul-
rush marsh or stream, 150 feet wide, separating it from circle No. 2,
which is 210 feet wide, in an open field long cultivated; mound now
rising 3 feet on 20-feet base, composed of shel!s and earth; area plain.
Circle No. 3 is 150 feet wide, just like No. 2.

GEORGIA. 423

These circles are surrounded by hundreds of sheil-mounds, about 3 feet
high, on bases of 20 to 50 feet, which crowd, without visible order, a field
of one hundred acres or more, bounded on the west by salt marsh and in-

MOUNDS
on

SAPELO ISLAND
MCINTOSH CO., GA.

Statute Miles.

a eease

land salt river, and on the east by fresh-water jungle. On all these shell-
mounds and over all this plain are found fragments of Indian pottery,
both plain and ornamented. No funeral mounds are nearer than three
miles. The shells are all of mollusks yet living ip the neighboring waters,
the oyster, clam, conch, scallop, &e., which fact, and the broken pottery,
show plainly that these shell-mounds, indicated by dots on the map,.in
countless number, are ancient camps of the Indians or mound-builders,
where they dwelt, while the three great mound-circles were doubt-
less for councils or games. The big circle, yet perfect, was probably
the “ pow-wow” or state house, and place of torture of captives, ‘chunk-
yard” of the Uchees; it was certainly the most important; while the
other two were perhaps for dances and athletic sports and games. These
three circles and this field of thickly set, countless shell-mounds, are on
the west shore of Sapelo Island. The cemetery or funeral mounds are
found far off—three at Kenan, six miles southerly; one very large one
at *¢ Druid Grove,” or “‘ Spalding,” ten miles off; and two on the eastern
shore on Blackbeard’s River, three miles off. None others are known;
but very much of the intervening central part of the island is impene-
trable palmetto thicket, and it is possible other mounds exist in this

424 ETHNOLOGY.

thicket. These cemetery-mounds are very ancient. Sapelo Island is
famous for its wonderful moss-hung live oaks; but the largest bodied
tree on the island, one over 4 feet in diameter at the stump, and 7 feet
in height, to just below the first fork, grows on top of the biggest
burial-mound at the place marked “Kenan.” Considering the great
compactness of live-oak, this tree is probably six hundred years or more
old. How old, then, is the mound? It is yet about 8 feet high, ona
base of 50 feet diameter, a little elliptical, situated in an open field, and
covered with live oak and cedar.

The big mound on the east side, at Bobone field, (negro corruption of
Bourbon, as the old French colonists called it,) is yet 9 feet high, or
more, 70 feet in diameter, and is circular in form. The negroes report it
full of pottery and men’s bones. Lhope soon to send you specimens of its
pottery and implements. It stands on the inland tide-marsh side, near
the south end of a field of seventy-five acres, the entire surface of which
field is dotted and white with hundreds of shell-mounds, from 2 to 4 feet
high, and from 15 to 50 feet base. Broken pottery and broken stone imple-
ments from the far-off mountain quarries are found here, as at the circle-
mounds on the west shore; but, so far, not a weapon of fight, or of the
hunter, of any sort, large or small, has been found on Sapelo. I find the
tanner’s tool, but no weapon of death. This fact is very remarkable.
On the main-land, in the hill region of Middle and Upper Georgia, almost
every acre has its ancient stone weapons, its arrow-beads, javelins, dirks,
slung-shot, or battle-axes; but the ancient fishermen of Sapelo—its for-
gotten. mound-builders—either had no weapons of war, or they were not
of stone, and have perished. At least none are found or heard of now.
If any ever existed there, they must be buried in the mounds. How-
ever, I will soon know, as my young friends on the island, and Mrs.
Spalding, all of whom enter ardently into my explorations, will, in the
course of this year, get the negroes to open the mounds, and will send
me the relics for the Georgia department in the museum of the Smith-
sonian Institution.

In the meanwhile I will procure a survey of the mound-fields of South-
western Georgia, aS you request; and perhaps, too, of the chain of
Ockmulgee mounds, which are very large cones.

¥ * * * * * *

The two groups of mounds which I have had surveyed by James N.
Evans, at the expense of the Institution, are in Early County, Ga.
One group is near Kolee Mokee Creek, and the other at Dry Creek.

The following is a representation from actual survey of the position
and form of the mounds and earth walls on Kolee Mokee Creek, in Early
County, Georgia. They are principally on a plantation now occupied by
Mr. A. J. Mercier. I say principaliy, because the eastern portion of the
walls extends over on to the plantation of Judge Joshua Harris.

In the investigation of these ancient remains we began by measuring
the large pyramidal mound, which we found of the following dimen-
sion: Circumference, 1,128 feet ; length of base, 350 feet; width of base,

GEORGIA. 425

214 feet; length of plane of summit, 181 feet; width of plane of sum-
mit, 824 feet; sloping side, a little diagonal, 125 feet; estimated height
of pyramid, 95 feet.

LEE

pou: f fOKER PED Wee
=z

BY | Pyramid
Mound No. 37 $

Great Ditch 40 by 90 ft., 400 yds. long

PYRAMID
OF
EKOLEE MOKEE
EARLY CO., GA.
Surveyed by James N. Evans,
County Surveyer.

Scale: 20 chs. tg the inch
sp 2 =

East 10 ch.

The plan of the base, and also that of the summit of this pyramid,
may be said to be rectangular, their length and breadth being as stated
above. The direction of the longer side of the mound is N. 10° W.,,
varying only 10° from a due north and south line. At the south end of
this pyramid there is a pit from which it is supposed the earth oi which
the mound is composed was originally excavated. A well has been at
some time sunk into about the center of this mound to a consider-
able depth, probably in search of treasures, but apparently without sue-
CESS.

Starting from the middle of the western side of the base of the pyra-
mid and running S. 81° W. 14 chains, we arrive at a conical mound,
which I have denominated No. 2. The circumference of this mound is
2164 feet; the diameter 72 feet; the sloping side 433 feet; the height of
axis of cone 24 feet. From the west side of mound No. 2, running S.
86° W. 23 chains, we come to mound No. 3, which has a diameter and
a height nearly the same as those of No. 2. At a distance of 17 chains
from the western base of monnd No. 2 we come to the inner wall, or
breastwork. Commencing at the eastern terminus of the southern wing

426 ETHNOLOGY.

of the wall, the courses and distances along it to a bastion marked
‘¢ Mercier’s burial ground,” are as follows: 8S. 84° W.15 chains; N. 84°
W. 5 chains; N. 51° W. 4 chains; N. 40° W. 4 chains. From this bas-
tion to the other bastion there is no appearance of a wall.

From bastion No.1 to bastion No.2, the direction is N. 15° W.,
distance 7 chains. J'rom bastion No. 2 the courses and distances along
the northern portion of the outer wall to Kolee Mokee Creek are as fol-
lows: N. 10° KE. 5chains ; N. 23° H. 4 chains; N. 56° E. 7 chains; N.
52° HK. 15 chains; N. 67° EK. 17 chains; E. 29 chains to the creek.

The southern portion of the outer wall has its starting-point near the
southern or No. 1 bastion, which is not parallel with the inner wall, but
runs as follows: 8S. 114° HE. 10 chains; 8S. 10° H. 10 chains; 8. 17° EK.
5 chains; 8. 39° HE. 74 chains; 8S. 42° BE. 8 chains; E. 10 chains to
its terminus. The wall in the woods is a little more than 14 feet high—
that in the plantation not exceeding 15 inches, the former having been
protected from the effects of cultivation. The base of these walls is
at present about 50 feet wide, probably much greater than they for-
merly were. They very gradually slope from base to middle. One of
the oldest citizens in the county tells me that he has seen these walls
when they were at least double the height; they have gradually de-
creased in elevation and increased in breadth of base. I have also
been informed that some of the facial bones of human skeletons have
been taken from one of the mounds in the Mercier plantation, which are
said to have been much larger than those of our own race, leaving the
inference that the mound-builders were almost of a giant stature,
but this tradition may be the result of the natural tendency to indulge
in the marvelous.

While engaged in the field-work I noticed a large number of fragments
of carved ware and arrow-heads along the line of the walls and about
the mounds, both on Kolee Mokee and on Dry Creek.

The following sketch represents a piece of land on Dry Creek
known as the Walnut Fork, on which are situated ancient mounds in
great numbers. The area of the whole lot is fifty-one acres, and is of a
triangular form, bounded on the east by the swamp-ground of Dry
Creek, and on the west by a ditch which was once occupied by a small
stream emptying itself into Dry Creek. The portion of this lot which is
occupied by the mounds consists of about twenty-one acres.

The mounds are eighty-three in number, although some of them are
now not very distinct. To give a minute description of each of these
small mounds would occupy considerable space, and add but little to the
interest of the subject. It will be sufficient to say that they vary in
height from that of a few inches to 10 feet, and in diameter from 15 feet
to 100, there being a single one of the latter size, but most of them are
from 30 to 40 feet. Nearly all those of medium size are parapeted.
The largest one and some of the smaller are convex on the top, while
others are concave or level. They do not appear to have been arranged

GEORGIA. AD

in accordance with any definite plan, but are scattered about promis-
cuously on the northern boundary of the lot. Several mounds are situ-
ated on an east and west line.

z : 4” Robt. B. Taylor.

Original Land Line

BS
=
=,
=
iS
3
A

Gigantic Forest of White Oaks & Magnolias

INDIAN MOUNDS
ow
DRY CREEK in SACRED GROVE
EARLY CO. GA,
Surveyed by James N. Evans,

County Surveyer.

Scale 20 chs. to the inch.

0 5 p 10 15

It will be seen by a reference to the diagram that there is a spring
marked on it, and that there is an open space free of mounds between
this spring and a pond to the west of it. We know not for what this
open space was intended, but there cannot be any doubt that there was
a design in the arrangement. It may have been used as a parade-
ground or for games. From the fact that human bones have been
exhumed from some of these mounds, we are led to the conclusion that
they are places of sepulcher. The great pyramid of Kolee Mokee is the
only one of this form in Georgia, while the large mound of Dry Creek
is entirely unique in all its main features. It is evidently a mound of
sacrifice. A little stone idol was found on it. The site of this group
of mounds is covered with a grove of black-walnut trees 100 feet high,
and the mounds themselves are hidden in the depths of the almost im-
penetrable swamp, so as to be wholly unknown, until lately, even to
the oldest inhabitants of the neighborhood.

428 ETHNOLOGY.

* * * * * * *

T have the pleasure of reporting further collections of relies—weapons,
mortars, tools of art, perforated stone implements of extreme hardness,
perfectly bored with a spiral auger; arrow-heads of jasper, obsidian
rock crystal, hornstone, and moss-agate; and, last and best, to-day I
have obtained from the Oconee River swamp a funeral win, like those
of Japan, with a close lid, 14 inches high by 124 inches middle diameter,
containing human relics, very discernible fingers, bones, &¢., which soon
moldered away after exposure to the air. The urn, which is of clay,
is covered all over with elaborate etchings of what I take to be written
characters. The lid was left in the swamp, but will probably be found,
and come to me sound or broken. When my collection is more increased,
I will send all my specimens for the Georgia department of the Smith-
sonian Institution.

In regard to the discovery of the urn which I have mentioned, allow
me to congratulate myself as a collector, but I beg you to inform me
whether my exultation is unreasonable. Am I right in thinking that
“funeral urns” have not before this been found in the United States?
I think I have found a rich field and a new one for discoveries of this
kind.

INDIAN REMAINS FOUND 32 FEET BELOW THE SURFACE, NEAR WALLACE
LAKE, IN CADDO PARISH, LOUISIANA.*

By T. P. Horcukiss, OF SHREVEPORT, LOUISIANA.

In July, 1862, W. H. Waldrum, while engaged in digging a well on the
edge of Post-Oak ridge, one and a half miles from Wallace Lake, after
passing through the thirty-two feet of earth came upon an Indian grave.

First.— Deseription of strata from surface to grave.

1. Soil about 4 feet like post-oak soil, but mixed with some sand from
washings of hiil-side.

2. Red clayey earth, which, dissolving almost as freely in water as
sugar, and of near the same specific gravity when in suspension, ex-
tended down to the leafy deposit. This red deposit underlies nearly all
this country, extending to the very sources of the river, usually imme-
diately under the soil, and furnishes the coloring matter of Red River.

3. Mushy, rich ground, mixed with undecomposed leaves and
branches of trees.

4, Small muscle-shells mixed with a sandy deposit for 5 or 6 feet.
In this deposit were found the bones and darts placed side by side, with
a Slight lap, the points directed from the body. The largest spear was

* Now in the National Museum, Washington.

LOUISIANA. 429

114 inches in length. They were four in number and wrought from
pure flint-rock.

Second.— Description of strata below the grave to depth of the well.

1. Immediately below the grave a red deposit, like clay, 20 feet.

2. Then four feet through white clay.

3. And remainder of the distance through blue clay, until water was
found 71 feet below the surface.

The ancient crockery, &c., I send you was found one and a half miles
above Shreveport, in Bossier Parish, at a cut-off made in Red River by
the swamp-land commissioner in 1859.

Eighteen feet beneath surface, through Red River soil to the deposit
—which underlies all the red soil of the valley—the washing of the river
has exposed a large burial-ground, containing numbers of remains of
bodies and of articles buried with them, such as implements of cooking,
jugs, plates, &c., of a peculiar workmanship ; also, remains of some-
thing, supposed to be a turtle.

MOUNDS IN LOUISIANA.
By Pror. SAMUEL H. LocKETT, OF THE LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE.

While prosecuting my topographical survey of Louisiana this summer
I visited, near Jackson’s Ferry, four miles south of Floyd, on Bayou
Macon, some very remarkable Indian mounds. Six of these are within
a mile of Mrs. Jackson’s. Four of them are almost perfect; the other
two are partly destroyed by the caving of the banks of the Bayou Ma-
gon. They are connected with each other by a levee or narrow embank-
ment of earth, making a nearly semicircular figure. There are two
much larger mounds nearer to Floyd, one on Mr. Mabin’s, and one on
Mr. Motley’s land. The latter must be between 20 and 30 feet in height.

430 ETHNOLOGY.

On the sides of all of the mounds, and in their vicinity, are found
great numbers of relics, such as human bones, arrow-heads, plumb-
bobs” very perfect in form, and immense quantities of broken pottery.
Many of the pieces of pottery are highly ornamented. From the quan-
tity of pottery, I imagine there must have been a factory of this ware
in this locality. Excavations would in all probability reveal some very
raluable and interesting specimens, and I think it should be done by
one accustomed to searching for archeological remains.

PRE-HISTORIC REMAINS FOUND IN THE VICINITY OF THE CITY OF WASH-
INGTON, D. OC.

B yee WAR.

The positions chosen by the ancient inhabitants of this country for
their temporary or permanent occupation were generally at the mouth
of smaller streams emptying into larger ones, or on jutting points of
land favorably situated for hunting and fishing, and which could be
readily defended against the attacks of an enemy. Wherever such
places occur, in almost any part of the United States, remains of the
ancient inhabitants are to be found in greater or less numbers. These
remains are, as a general rule, more numerous on the border of fresh-
water streams in the interior of the country than ou the coast, which
appears to have been visited periodically for fishing in the intervals
perhaps of the hunting seasons and those of the cultivation of Indian
corn. The stone implements may also be found in less numbers along
the southern coast, because the minerals out of which they were fabri-
cated do not exist on the sea-board much south of the latitude of the
city of New York.

The site of the city of Washington, and its vicinity, must have
been a favorite locality for at least the temporary residence of the
ancient people, since the remains of their implements are found in
great numbers at different points, especially along the river. It does
not appear that the implements were manufactured here, as heaps of
the débris or chippings are not met with, as in other localities. It is
probable, however, that some of the arrow-points were made here, for
though the material of which they are composed is not found in place,
yet they occur in sufficient quantity in the bowlders of the northern drift,
which appears to be terminated in the interior of the country, in about
this latitude. That part of the city on which the arsenal stands, called
Greenleaf’s Point, was evidently a camping ground, since numerous
specimens of arrow-heads and other perfect articles have been found
in this locality. The point of land at the mouth of what was called the
Tiber, near the Washington monument, is another locality on which
specimens of the kind in question are found. But I have found the

WASHINGTON, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 431

greatest number of these implements on the west side of the Potomac,
directly opposite the city, along the shore from Analostan Island to the
Long Bridge. The number of remains found here is supposed to war-
rant the conclusion that this was a favorite resort of the ancient people.
From Analostan Island to the Long Bridge, the remains of pottery
and stone implements are sufficiently numerous to warrant the con-
clusion that the whole space was occupied, either at once or at many
times, as a continuous town. This space, which now forms a part of
the main land, was apparently once an island.

Another locality which exhibits abundance of remains is at the
Little Falls of the Potomac, about five miles above the city. At this
place, on either side of the river, on the rising ground, the implements
are found. They consist of arrow-heads, hatchets, chisels, and earthen
ware. This locality was probably resorted to for fishing, as it is at the
present day. The fish, ascending the rapids in the spring to deposit
their spawn, were readily caught by the spear, the net, and the line—
the use of the latter being indicated by the number of stone sinkers
which are found.

The materials of which the stone implements are formed consist of
quartz, jasper, and slate or horn-stone. The latter is not found in this
vicinity in place, but in the drift. At least four-fifths are of quartz.
The arrow-heads, as usual, are of two kinds, one apparently for war, and
the other for the chase; the first is of a triangular form with a re-entering
angle at the base, by which it was attached to the shaft in a notch at
the end. This form of arrow was adopted in order that when the shaft
was withdrawn from the wound, the arrow-head might remain.
The other arrow-head is also of a triangular form, with sides
slightly convex, but terminated at the base with a projecting point
forming two notches, one on each side, by which it was permanently
attached by thread, probably of sinews, to the shaft. The second form
of arrow-head is by far the most numerous. Besides the arrow-heads,
there are found many of the fragments of quartz which are in reality
perfect instruments intended for cutting, carving, &c. When these are
critically examined they are seen to have a cutting edge or a point
carefully worked, while the opposite side is left rough to be inserted in
a handle of wood or horn, which completed the perfect instrument. In
some of the specimens there are notches on the upper side of the knife
or chisel by which they could be more securely fastened to the handle.
The other implements, hatchets, adzes, chisels, and hammers, are usually
made of trap-rock, which is found among the bowlders of the drift. Some
of these are polished with care. Pestles of the same material are also
found, though these are not as numerous as in other localities, particu-
larly in those of Pennsylvania.

Fragments of pottery occur of porous clay, hardened in the fire, and
almost in all cases ornamented with impressions of the corn-cob, indieat-
ing the use of this artide of food at an early period, and marking a

432 ETHNOLOGY.

point in the civilization of the people. 'The fragments have never been
found of sufficient size to indicate the original form of the vessel.

In this connection it may be stated, in relation to the large shell-heaps
which are found along our coast, that it is probable they were formed
by periodical visitors who annually resorted to the sea-shore for a sup-
ply of shell-fish for food. It is said that within the historic period the
Indians on the coast of New Jersey were in the habit of opening their
oysters and clams by the aid of fire, and of drying them on strings for
winter food. A custom of this kind would account for the remains of
pieces of charred wood which are found in these heaps without
adopting the hypothesis that they were the sites of kitchen meddings.
These heaps were the result, perhaps, of thousands of years’ accumula-
tion.

It may also be remarked that on high ground I have generally found
no other implements than those which were used for the purpose of war.
This would appear to indicate that they were buried with warriors and
chiefs, according to the custom of the Indians of the present day, on
prominences, or elevated jutting points of land. Comparisons of this
kind are of importance to the study of archeology, in the way of ex-
plaining facts of the past by reference to the usages of peoples of the
present in the same state of civilization.

CATALOGUE OF A CABINET OF INDIAN RELICS COLLECTED BY J. H. DE-
VEREUX, OF CLEVELAND, OHIO, FROM THE YEARS 1848 TO 1868, INCLU-
SIVE, AND PRESENTED BY HIM TO THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

Miscellaneous implements.

1 to 26, inclusive. Knives or chisels, from Tennessee.
27. Skinning-stone, from Ohio.

28. Hatchet or pick, from Ohio.

29. Skinning-stone, from Ohio.

30. Skinning-stone, from Ohio.

31. Hatchet or pick, from Ohio.

33. Chisel, or perhaps bark- or wood-wedge, from Ohio.
34, Chisel, or perhaps bark- or wood-wedge, from Ohio.
35 to 36. Tomahawks, from Ohio.

37. Skinning-stone, from Ohio.

38 to 40, inclusive. Skinning-stones, from Ohio.

41. Chisel, from Ohio.

42, Skinning-stone, from Ohio.

43 to 51, inclusive. Skinning-stones, from Ohio.

52. Skinning-stone, from Tennessee.

52 to 58, inclusive. Skinning-stones, from Ohio.

59. Skinning-stone, from Tennessee.

60. Skinning-stone, from Ohio.

61. Hatchet, from Ohio.

62.
63 ¢
65.
66.

CATALOGUE OF RELICS.

(?), from Ohio.

und 64. Hatchets or picks, from Ohio.

(?), from Erie County, Pennsylvania.
Pipe (?), from Erie County, Pennsylvania.

433

It was dug up, and

shows spade-mark. The blackening of orifice was caused by a boy charg-
ing it with gunpowder and seeking to use it as a cannon.

67.
68.
69.

Pestle, from Ohio.

Pipe, taken from Indian grave, from Ohio.

Gorget, from Summit County, Ohio.

70 and 71. Amulets (?), from an Indian grave.

Dan

BS) ay ea a) a Se

(oe)
S ©

co
82.

Gouge, from Ohio.

Spear-head, from Tennessee.
Spear-head, from Ohio.

Chisel or wedge, from Massachusetts.
Gouge, from Massachusetts.

Pestle, from Massachusetts.

(2), from Massachusetts.

Pestle, from Ohio.

. Totem, from Ohio.

Skinning-stone, from Tennessee.
Hatchet, from Ohio.

83 and 84. Skinning-stones, from Ohio.
85 to 88, inclusive. Skinning-stones, from Tennessee.

89.

Chisel, from Tennessee.

90 and 91. Skinning-stones, from Tennessee.
be) ?

92.
93.
94,

95.

Ax, from Ohio.

Ax, from Tennessee.
Pestle, from Tennessee.
Ax, from Ohio.

Ohio.

96 to 98, inclusive. Mortars or pallets, from Tennessee.

2 )5
100

102.
103.

104
105
106
107

108.

109
110

113 and 116, inclusive. Knives, from Tennessee.

Le

(2), from Tennessee.

and 101. (2), from Tennessee.

Ball, from Tennessee.

Ball, from Tennessee.
. Horn or trumpet (?), from Tennessee.
. Grinder?
. Ball, from Ohio.
. (?), from Tennessee.
(2), from Indian grave, Tennessee.
. (2), from Tennessee.
, 111, and 112. (?), from Tennessee.

and 118. (2), from Tennessee.

119. (There should be two more of these found in box sent containing

the pottery.)

Tenn,

288

From a grave in old Indian burial-plaee, Clarksville,

434 ETHNOLOGY.

120. Sledge of ancient copper-workers, lake Superior.

121. Hatchet, from Massachusetts.

122. Knife, from Massachusetts.

123. Pipe, Indian (?), plowed up in a field in which several arrow-
heads were found, from Massachusetts.

124 to 155, inclusive. All from Western Reserve, Ohio.

156. Chisel, from Ohio.

157 and 158. (?), from Ohio.

159. Pipe, Indian (?), plowed up near a small mound. From Ohio.

160. (2), from Ohio.

161. Horn or trumpet, from Ohio.

162. Horn or trumpet, from Ohio.

163. Pipe, from an ancient mound in Tennessee. It was given to me
by Mr. John Pierce, of Hudson, Ohio, whose father was president of the
Western Reserve College, located at Hudson, and where I was visiting at
the time of the gift, about 1852. Young Pierce told me this pipe,
with two others, had been sent to one of the former professors by
some former graduates of the coliege who had gone to Tennessee.
Young Pierce was positive as to the fact that it was a relic from an ancient
mound, and searched for the original letter accompanying the pipes,
which he said contained full and authenticated details of their discovery.
But the letter could not be found. I have no doubt whatever of the
facts as stated relative to this relic.

164. Fragment of one of the other pipes, which was found with speci-
men 163, as above.

165. Sioux pipe, smoked at a council between some missionaries
going from Western Reserve College to Western Missouri about 1837 to
reclaim the Sioux Indians, and by the missionaries forwarded to Presi-
dent Pierce, of said college, whose son presented me with the relic.

166. Pipe of a Lake Superior chief, 1850.

167. Copper ornament, found with human bones in a small Indian
mound near Painesville, Ohio. Hatchets and arrow-heads were mingled
with the remains.

168. Brooch from breast of skeleton in old Indian grave-yard, Con-
neaut, Ohio.

169. (?), from a mound, Ohio.

170. From Ohio.

171 to 173, inclusive. Beads from an Indian grave, Tennessee.

174. Pipe from an ancient mound, Tennessee, found and given to me
by Professor Safford, State geologist, about 1858.

175, Arrow-head from Lake Superior.

176. Fragment of (knife ?), Tennessee.

177 to 182, inclusive. Arrow-heads from Ohio.

183. Arrow-head, remarkable for symmetry and finish, picked up

CATALOGUE OF RELICS. 435

in Franklin County, Southern Central Pennsylvania, within 600 feet of
the ancient war-lodge of the Senecas.

184 to 186, inclusive. Arrow-heads from Tennessee.

187 to 196, inclusive. Fragments of pottery, from some very remarkable
mounds, three miles southeast of Franklin, Williamson County, Tenn.

197. Fragment of pottery, from South Hadley, Mass.

198. Fragment of pottery, from mound in Ohio.

199. Fragment of brick, from mound in Iowa.

200 to 203, inclusive. Fragments of pottery, from mounds in Georgia.

204 to 206, inclusive. Fragments of pottery, from mound in Maury
County, Tennessee.

Arrow-heads.—Three packages of these were sent in one of the boxes,
respectively collected in the New England States, in the Western
States, and in the Southern States, and the aforesaid division of States
marked on the packages accordingly. It had been my aim to collect
arrow-heads of the various tribes of Indians, and to have preserved them
thus distinct in the cabinet; but I found that the differences in shapes,
style, &e., were so slight (if at all distinct) as not to justify the trouble.

Ancient pottery.

All of the pottery sent is from an ancient burial-place in Arkansas,
with one exception—a portion of a bowl, (say one-half,) broken, I think,
in two pieces, and in appearance so very thick and clumsy, compared
with the other specimens, that its recognition is a matter of no difficulty.
This bowl is from an Indian grave at ‘“‘ Hamilton Place,” (residence of
Gen. Lucius Q. Polk,) Maury County, Tennessee.

At ‘Maple Grove,” Maury County, Tennessee, February 7, 1860,
Jerome B. Pillow, esq., (brother of Gen. Gideon J. Pillow,) made the
following statement in regard to the ancient pottery discovered by him,
and then and there presented to me:

‘The spot where this pottery was found is in Phillips County, Ar.
kansas, adjacent to the Mississippi River, and (measured along the
river) eighteen and three-fourths miles below Helena.”

A map of the locality is given in the accompanying Fig. 1.

The point designated A is the ancient burying-place where the pot-
tery was procured.

In the construction of the levee across Old Town Lake and Long
Lake a vast quantity of earth was required to make the embankment,
and to procure which Mr. Jerome B. Pillow commenced removing ma-
terial from a site which proved to have been a most extensive cemetery.
Hundreds of human skeletons of all ages and of both sexes were ex-
humed, and with them many specimens of pottery of varied shapes and
sizes. The skeletons were found buried in a sitting posture, and from
three to ten feet below the surface; the bones in all cases in a perfect
state of preservation.

436 ETHNOLOGY.

Trees from three to five feet in diameter were growing over the graves,
one, a * sassafras,” five feet in diameter, had come to maturity, died, then
withered away, leaving only its roots in a sound condition. The negro

dios
HELENA 44

\\\ =

3 S .
2 ww .
5 LY HNWOS*
* Sigs ii Ws

a
INS]

laborers, with superstitious terror, would fain have fled from their work
on the first discovery of the bones, and they were persistent in destroy-
ing the pottery to prevent its removal. Their aim was to conceal in the
‘dump or embankment both bones and pottery. It was, therefore, with
some difficulty perfect specimens were procured by Mr. Pillow, and those
obtained (my gift comprised about one-third of the number) were
brought to his residence in Maury County, Tennessee. In this rare col-
lection there was one vessel, capable ot holding half a gallon, in the
shape of ananimal. It bere great similarity toa vessel, which some time
before I had examined, brought frem the pyramids, Egypt, by the Rev.
Dr. Burgess, of Dediam, Mass.

N THE ACOUBACY @F CATLIN’S ACCOUNT OF THE MANBAN CEREMONIES.
By JAmrES KIpp.

We publish the following letter as an act of justice to the memory of
the late Mr. Catlin, and as a verification of the truth of his account of
a very interesting ceremony among the Mandan Indians, a tribe now
extinct. The ceremony was especially interesting in its resemblance to
some of the self-inflicted tortures of the devotees of eastern superstitions,

MANDAN CEREMONIES. 437

In regard to the remarks relative to Mr. Schoolcraft, it is but justice to
state that we were intimately acquainted with him, and cannot for a mo-
ment harbor the thought that he would have done anything to disparage
the veracity of any one from any other motive than a desire to promote
the truth. The statements of Mr. Catlin were at the time so remarkable,
the ceremonies which he described being so unlike those of other indian
tribes, that Mr. Schoolcraft was justifiable in receiving the account with
doubt, although he may have expressed his disbelief in stronger terms
than he would have done had he been more intimately acquainted with
the character of Mr. Catlin than he appears to have been.—[J. H.]

Barry, Clay County, Mo., August 12, 1872.

DEAR Sir: Though a stranger to you, I take the liberty of addressing
you this note as important to science and to the ethnology of our coun-
try, as well as important to the reputation of one who has devoted much
of a long and hazardous life in portraying and perpetuating the customs
of the dying races of man in America. Mr. Schoolcraft sent me, some
years past, a copy of a large work he had published for the Government
of the United States on the North American Indians, and of which
work some thousands of copies were presented by the Government to
the libraries of the institutions of the New and the Old World. In this
work I find that Mr. Schoolcraft denies the truth of Mr. Catlin’s descrip-
tion of the Mandan religious ceremonies—the truth of his assertion that
the Mandan youths suspended the weight of their bodies by splints run
‘through the flesh on the breast and shoulders, &c.; and asserts, also,
that his whole account of the Mandan religion is all wrong. It isa
great pity that Mr. Schooleraft, who never visited the Mandans, should
have put forth such false and unfounded assertions as these on a subject
so important to science, and so well established by proved facts.

I had the sole control of the American Fur Company’s business with
the Mandans, and lived in their village, for the space of thirteen years,
from 1822 to 1855, and was doubtless the first white man who ever
learned to speak their language. In the summer of 1832 Mr. George
Catlin was a guest in my fort at the Mandan village, observing and
learning the customs of those interesting and peculiar people, and paint-
ing the portraits of their celebrated men, of which he made many and
with great exactness. It was during that summer that Mr. Catlin wit-
nessed the Mandan religious ceremonies, the O-kee-pa described in his
notes of travels among the North American Indians, and to which Mr.
Schoolcraft has applied the insulting epithet of falsity in his great work.
By the certificate published by Mr. Catlin, signed by my chief clerk and
myself, on the 28th day of July, 1832, in the Mandan village, certifying
that we witnessed, in company with Mr. Catlin, the whole of those four
days’ ceremonies, and that he has represented in his four paintings,
then and there made of them, exactly what we saw, and without addi-
tion or exaggeration, it will be seen that I witnessed those scenes with

A3 ETHNOLOGY.

Mr. Catlin and interpreted their whole meaning for him as they are
described in his work. Since the extinction of this friendly tribe, and
the end of this peculiar and unaccountable custom, and in the eighty-
fifth year of my own age, from a sense of duty to my ancient friend Mr.
Catlin, and a wish for the truthfulness of history, 1 have taken the
liberty of committing to your care and for your use, as you may be dis-
posed, the foregoing statements.
Yours, truly,

JAMES KIPP.
Professor HENRY,

Smithsonian Institution.

CONTENTS OF REPORT FOR 1872.

Orderroie Coneress OMT Mopb We; ne OLU Reeser ter same =e ae alan eet iets
Letter from the Secretary submitting report to Congress ....-....-..-..---------
List of regents, committees, and members ex-officio of the institution ...--...-----
QVHGEES OP WAS LOMO coe sé coss0 cnssco ceas baeseso cooe 5a56 DOSS BoEGDE 4065 Sane
Prosrammeronoereanization/oL the Imstrtaiomy sa je one)aeleisen ele oa clam
ReOPORTORZRONESSOR HENRY) SEC RIMDAURY esis- eps cleat eee eee ey-oiieintae ae
Review of past history ..--- 56a066 SEA CIDEN Cnc Mott GCE ae CepEcoerae onae
Terms, increase and diffusion of knowledge, defined.-...-....--..----..------ 3
Personal listony of appoimt ment and policy = =~). «eee ce eee = =) =
IPA) OP OMNI RASCH No oso5 ose pee edsaees sscnad sousds Soodun seands deqsaoee
Division of income between active operations and local objects ...-..-------
IbTPAY GE COMPARES e556 oseono caches 6abc0Gs cobose SoSedC DopU EarSon sshOa0 S000
Improvement of public grounds......--....--..--- Bf Ha or Acie ie ee
Building should be purchased by Congress..-.--------------- baer sie Bases
National Museum should be established .-....------------.. .<.--.---. ----<.
Gallery ofaxt, established by; Mrs Corcoran! <222-\- <--> === im
SIMECESS Or yollayas Ml eel 6605 socece's doonn be5500 550 d5en CodehD SpEa dsaecosc
IPR OP OMAN ANTON Ore JONAH NO) Ne ee eoo sbeebs saeco decane Fens Ssa5sa5 25500
Means:forn promotino natural Wistory, -2-scc- === — ss el amine) ae ae ee
ORATION OF AYMAN) NOOR, 36 Sono Sogo coeene Sono ceeded Gasso5 cuoo dase ocas sane
Restriction of expenditures to the income ..-....-----.--.---------+------+-
IMMMNOAS s5ocos 5505 cossoo bSo0ns o6aaHd Saeu SUseos sessed s oSeooe sono osocsso6cc
Publications—general account -....-..---------------------s----- -+-+-------
eMOin@AMOMNS TW Goss copsod cosoaade Sebo Sbebos cEpeboucCaS soso ce coerce coc
JOE] Caosau ueeEce Re ecssanae preci Beale corsociseoeis Saree nee See cee

Wei Dray ect erero sister ara Re Se oe ic ae er OE Sr a eee isazaieese -
Work done in the Institution and in connection with other establishments . --
IMeteorolomye sa aisee tectee ee Sees oie See ce ninhe = nails stains o siel cinch aictara
Miscellaneous: researches, franking, bequests, &c ..---..----.--------------
(Chillin Ibn er Nery oo5 coeececsosos so50s0 4eC9 odEced descso 1sacsa55ess5uenc
Nations Muse wipes ala=> li POSE GORE OOO CSS SSROn eo nodenn BearcocsGuc
Additions) toundis72simyceorraphicaliord er eee ei crete = ata ita

SIMS TURAN TIIO EVA GSE po pO beDR Ae bone COO LEUEe ES oo HeeceOeee sede oc ee calc
Work done in the museum.....- Saal een see oe die cists Sosoecsmeela eee see
DIShID MnO NOLS Pe CINVeN Sree seats e eee asta eee eee eee ee eee
Mineralosicalecolle cto mies rrtseter see ietetstars ie a ele ata al
Notes relative to George Catlin ....-...---.--...- Sep sede eect hos/s sa steeneen ee aes
APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY .----- --- BE ones presen ere
Entries in museum record-books in 1871 and 1872 .....----...-----.---------
Distribution of duplicate specimens to end of 1872 ...-...-...--------------
Additions to the collections in 1872.---- Bye rate Sige a See eee eee yorsse( eleee
Statistics of literary and scientific exchanges. ...--...-.-..---.-------------
Meteorological stations and observers ..---.-------------- -----------+-------
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE....--..------------------ -----+--------
SHMUCINEM OF WINS HOG coco ponoed edenannacnen G50ec05 064505 dene bansad c6a556
TREN DIS) WRoeo ShoyANS\OM WOM Soo Season coee boas soon cobecH 9506 aaegnaD0u0 Gace

440 CONTENTS.

Page.
Expenditures from Smithson fund.--..-..- sleaiee lacie ris Se eRe Oe ee 7
Repayments to Smithson fund 92025 -ss2220ee5- sess aoe shis See easee oseeeen WO
Mstinates for USi airs sos ee cals ioiant eee eine ene Se eee Oe ee eee 76
Nation aluMinisemm, necelp ts) seen. --eeeeaee 5 foe eevee ie a see oe eens Le
INA IOMeEY| MASS UIAN, Co: pen UI ERE 65536 oooh ede s dogged cegcusoccceueces BoKeC 78
ApPpPropriabions Diya CONSTESS =e meas e eee eee ee ae eee eee 17,78
JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOaRD OF REGENTS.-.-...---.-.---.---..----- £0
Meetingsot Jantar yell 0; bSi3 as seer see eae eee eer eer oer 80
Meetinglon January 209187 oie. omc -= acre ee eee an ee ee eee
Mecting.of Mebruaryels; 1803 teste acts ence arene eee ene eee ne ae B84
Appendix to the journal of the regents—
Prof. Louis Agassiz’s narrative..--- ieee clase eeiecee oem e serene Seater eee 87
WilltonsRrop Alexei) ib acheserar nce ee cee Heals ais es ersia ol laters Se see Mtoe Saree ete 93
CorcoranvArt-Gallerva sDeedion foundationsseesse esse eee neee sae 94
Monerwlecturess, Weediofioundationesss ees ase eee ae ase ee eee ee eel Oil

iyndalivirnstn Deedtot foun datomaeee =e a= teases eee ae eee er eee
IBEGWeSt On nama es) Ep evmalito reser pee ae ee ee ete eee)
Circular sent with specimens presented to institutions .--........--.-...-.-. 107

sENERAL APPENDIX.

ES ULOGYON AM PII ae by Mie ATA COs -.5 ee cee see cee Sete ee ieee eee eee Tatil
SCIENLIBIG LABORSION DWAR, iby Dre iScherea eee esseee seca eee 172
SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF MECHANICS AND ARTISANS. By Prof. Andrew P. Pea-

DOs as Saisie Rue iat Ree cise RAK soci cris #2 eiaioe tases Se ake es EEO eee 185
ARGANTCABASES Ve Vie lO hw An sD AUC tie See resee ee ee ae ee ee On eR ee EEE eee 196
NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN.CHEMISTRY. By Prof. Kletzinsky....-....-..-.---- 203
SCHEME FOR THE QUALITATIVE DETERMINATION OF SUBSTANCES BY THE BLOW-

pips. By Prof. Th. He.eston --.-- REO SOHOR aa seco paaaaa ort Shas doer okoo Sd 219
BLOW-PIPE APPARATUS of Hawkins & Wiale -----.--------22--+-ses- BS SRO 228
BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND HISTORY. By Edw. Sness......-......- 223
EXPLANATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND CRYSTALLOPHYSICS.

VAP AG ADVE ZN Oi orcysratelsieesre ronerctors eewslslero mn teicteseletemie ee pene cia errs ake STR oT ta a 233
METER OROLOGWeUIN USSSA: gS ye Wit At VViOe Others eye eae ee 267
PHENOMENA MANIFESTED IN TELEGRAPHIC LINES DURING THE AURORA BOREALIS ;

AND THE ORIGIN OF NORTHERN LIGHTS. By Prof. G. B. Donati -.-.-.-.....---. 299
ETHNOLOGY.

THE TROGLODYTES, OR CAVE-DWELLERS, OF THE VALLEY OF THE VEZERE. By
Paul Brocarssas sees seeseeoeeees gaiete dream emer ars Siebel setae ee se areee ee 310
ls Determination lof time.jaa. Sees = oe eee ee eeee ee sere hee ene re 311
2 -wOUCCESSLV.ENOCAMIOS tase practmeceree eee ee eceero acts Cee eee nee 319
ds NOCieby-Or the troglod yibesieece see sono e eee eee ere cieee eee 320
A Arts of theitrogiod yitess 532. s sense oe eee oe eee en eee 336
fy Mhewace: css sesso sel ee ere cetera oes aici se eh ee ee 2c ee ieee 339
6: Appendix——Excursion to the by zies 2o45 ase) seo eeeie= oe Seeeieeae 344
ANCIENT ABORIGINAL TRADE IN NortTH AMERICA. By Charles Rau-..----.....- 348
ieelntroductloneeeeeaeseeee sooo. sis ale tara ad en ey Sa Meee stereo ore ea Ie 348
ae O OPEL sacteienasectes caer bedece ese <hetedel se AR ee com epee oui ae See 350
3: GOON Oi 2202 se ashes ade Pesce ae eS ee I Sas AOS eee ee oe ae ee ee nee 355
A Obsidian: ..22ssgss5-c se2eeeoee seen Se etie hice Betas oo ce A ee 307
5 MU CO ecirss 5 oe renee a sacrsooetecmarteh Mae eae eee Seer » = Je ae See 360
Os Slates cts sanccdosestseiaaecan jee thes We Ee A Bisse cecelee Sot eee ROOe
Ge EMM tcc scig isis ovis one sc noccaeeincctocine a ssos cee Sep eE Sete see eee OOD

8... Red pipesstone sc sj p-)2is swe Soins Seti ss cocineteiee See ini > sy = cisetereate ara siee rts OOS

CONTENTS. 441

ETHNOLOGY—Continued. an
Oo Shellsscase= 56 DOS GRS SONOCH DH OES CO ean e SE SASS BAO RE SESS DOE etm
MOM Rearlsts-ro <5 tss0tsee se ie paeyver mv ate sparen te as taper Ste Lye eee ee Seer ahs, BES
1 MDivgsronno ts Lal Ores pause ean sree cro cesses Sate erae eae een aeeie OSG
POMC ONCNISIONY ss semss eis svsa se sees we eeisele 22 lees Ree See e ae Bat aomees 392
NortTH AMERICAN STONE IMPLEMEN?TS. By Charles Rau ........-.....--.--- 395
INDIAN ENGRAVINGS ON THE FACE OF ROCKS ALONG GREEN RIVER VALLEY IN
SHEN MORI CINMORAUDYN. leh dg (Cig JOAN) Beaascuagan secass CsakossaseaoeoeeeS 409
JXNCHOINIE IROPRMIET LUCAS, Jey dlp Oo Wollicceascaocasccs dooeon Gaenoe beno Sece 412
Haystack Mowunpb, LINCOLN County, Daxora. By A. Barrandt............. 413
HARTH-WORKS IN) WISCONSIN. By lH. Breedio’.. -22.2. - 2-25-22 --- ecee ee 414
MO UN DEINRVWIES © ONSING Mp aya Cats) Caer ee sia reteper ares eer eae ee = ee ree 415
Big ELEPHANT MOUND IN GRANT GOUNTY, WISCONSIN. By Jared Warner... 416
ANCIENT RELICS IN NORTHWESTERN Iowa. By J. B. Cutts...............-..- 417
MOUNDS NEAR ANNA, UNION CouNTY, ILLINOIS. By T. M. Perrin ..........- 418
ANCIENT MOUNDS IN Kentucky. By Dr. Robert Peter.-..~....:--.--...---:- 420
Mounpbs 1n Bartow County, Grorera. By M. F. Stephenson ..--.........- 421

MounpDs IN MCINTOSH AND EARLY COUNTIES, GEORGIA. By William McKinley. 422
INDIAN REMAINS IN CADDO PanrisH, LoursrANA. By IT. P. Hotchkiss......... 428

MOUNDSIN LOUISIANA, By, Prof. Samuel Hl lockett------ ----.5--.. .22- s2ee 429
PREHISTORIC REMAINS IN VICINITY OF CITY OF WASHINGTON, D. C. By T.
SP eal) OS eerste ca ias Soee eoe iene See Seem a eicc eee Sees ee ae 430
CATALOGUE OF CABINET OF INDIAN RELICS presented by J. H. Devereux to
MAMTA SOMIAM PINS EUG LOM = emer eee Osetra aie cslnine ci siereeeuslae seine s. 432

ANCIENT POTTERY FROM Puiniirs County, Arkansas. By J. H. Deverenx.. 435
ON THE ACCURACY OF CATLIN’S ACCOUNT OF THE MANDAN CEREMONIES. By
PRIMES Dy sccemeciecaise te eel soe, ciao cieeroclacuscce mine ote ence coe etee orem ees 435

en ay ee
we ’ eat aan ve a y
oh = ie

ree!) a
bet ns Lily eee

Soa

PE Ex Sun eA eOuNis::

NITROGEN BODIES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. “oF
JMiGaniey 1b (is Web CIOL No Com oHatoBo> DaSEoEooB aus CeoboD AS Soounonses cocode 204
CO xy Gomer jam act taainis oe csicos oc tiebersrlee asatseisheeiceiemetecre esters 204
G)RINitro wengaesacveee sooo cmetaciee ria steer reeioe PARED sanseoe 204
@)aCarboneeasse ae coco see ese oe tins oes Sa cay aetobcias ey seer Ree 204

eg Acebylas crescent cise eacie cites science aceysoss ces Souter eee 205
Sh Oba xueal sooone R50 OSU r CECHEa SE EeTe OMS Ae Oem eCoe Gene Dabeea paemse 205
A Acetate) on the Ox1d elonammonitiM 2=s) seeelo= sais =.) see eee 205
Oe andiG. Atcetomitrylis sen eerie seein setae yaidisier Seleteiceee aaiees 205
Ha NItLO=ACetOMIbLY Sens ce oisisiaysicineineeiee oeemicie tse eiee cee eeoe caaece 208
SeHulminateOf Mercury) oscar se saree ree cialaerieraeae cle eee stoccies 206
OPA COMOL Sasi evc sets ics) xG diate clase siarjnteiet= Sscte Sine sheleyate teicie atom e totem elele inte 206
OFAN ULE OLcurrys eae eset s ers se alee cle tapes aie eters Spey ereeetantebers a cteraiete eee 205
11 and 12. Nitro-acetonitryl....-.... Peas intent ioe uaa sale esi aes were 207
L3 ee Lri=mibro=-avCebomibLy lL js-/ece soe seis ne cieks ae ene ete ale eueeieciee 207
14> Detonatine Casinos nossa aee ces ps atisseseiass Neccemencee ease 1208
IBY, \WGEGEINIG Wie Seon akenee AsGecr coee Honsem case a5 one pasos one 209
GR BOnZOlisscecistere ac cictseioe peer sata ts Soke crcl ayarans tay te ahs Reet ies Sere 213
CRYS TAIT 0 GRAREBY co mece caisieereleeeleisee ricias soja soccer Sasa Sere sees eceee 238
Eioume wale aubozonalletacessernperscrae emails ea aeateleeettaeeiaiae eae eae 238
Qmandes:) Millersisymibels) sass yes eis cers steele se eee ele ee enetaieielete 240
AMMillers sym Olsi 5s tens 2A NS ese eons altace eens cseeen jacion 241
Drala waOllZONesy .\a54 soos eae cis as tice ne ae See ee Seeaneeos semaine ae
GmSpuericalliproj ection taa-nes sass seis ee ees sees se eee 243
CU ByAGMeh ISO MEMOAN HAO KACO soda cone aacose sen boon scSosoussa coer 244
SRandalOMSphericalenrojectioneess esses sees aac eee 245
jiasphericaliprojectionee saa cces soe ce neces cee e ee eae eters 246
i2@andelsasphericaleprojectionyesse--msece eee cee ee ee ae eeree eee 247
Sasa DerivatlonkomuhevsysbemMe amas sac enleee = ee eee miei e te 250
ISD peDEerivicbioniof thers ystemyss yess eee ee clase eee oe eee 251
A Monoclimcisystemueseaertsie-nel eee eiae oye: see ele ease eee 251
Lowivhombicisysbemeenec secre se sec censce eee be mee aoe eee ere eee 251
loxkhombohednalssystemecenes eee seine caesrse nee a ee nine ae eneeee es 251
i erketragonalsystemysasassacesce mete tec ose ole se eee ene eee alee 251
le Hexaronallisy stem ons acts ancoiesee ase elena tie ee ea ee ee 252
19S Messeralisyshemeees-eecea eee eee pea e Hebe Sal ee sseeas = 252
20) .Trichimicisystenmene ater eoeee eee Se renee cmon ee ae eee 253
21 Moroclinicisystenie- sos cco ts: soe basse eee ee see eee 253
Py (OSA ONO AON a oocon depose sacoguadam Hecosocodas sconces 253

Pay eWay call oo AMALIE ON oO Saocaae Case OU OSG SOR ESeaeo “cbosuc aconer 25
Arm letrag Onalysyste mi. ser eetaaala\ teats a nc cel eclocie ae eee one eee
QomEexacOnalisystemM«ser tees ee elo erie oe eer ee else 255
abo Resseral/system!sone c= dose scics ee b sietossteey ciate usierate eeiejoraya,er a cicire 236
ieee linsoldiompolanizanlonensseoeemeee eet eeeee eeeeea seen ceeecee 258
Zh IHU OG Oro Ey OLA OM conatorSes Gand dace cou6 coeeee beboeo co6e 258
2s), Jeb asorel Chu ole inVANHO MN sea eee oeécosGsod sce eesdeaeconoosccs Dae!
SO Mea ipsoldiorpolanizatloneeesm sae se eemaeek eee o.ce ss eee ee eee me
OL Pllipsoid of polarizations acc <)ce<s cele nte mete ss oj<ccisninjsicarsmciaee 260

A444

ILLUSTRATIONS.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY—Continued.

32.
33.
34.
30.
36.
37.
38.
39)

Mean monthly barometric curves. ---.-

Ellipsoid of polarization ........-..--
Plane plates whose sides are parallel

TPLICMMICISVSEO My, sss eal aie sees seis “yoeieeeel ee veer
EP rIGlIMIG ISVS FCM fa oa cioee se ele) shee sere es ae eee ee = aera erent

Monoclinie system

NU OPaVOIKS RAFI. oss os ceck eSts Se a500 bop Ss 0500 D560 COgeHE SODS aC
Orthorhombic sy Shem soe omrparys seit selon ee ah eee alate 3
ANE RE YRO MEN SHWE Go 5566 co50Gs cseeus sscceD Sans G6n6 sb s4ce Somede

METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA.

THE TROGLODYTES.

Figure 1.

a

ww Ww
Co 0

SD 0%
OO

ol.

. Saint Acheul type, stone-ax, (edge)
. Moustier types, spear-head, side not shaped
. Moustier types, spear-head, shaped side
. Moustier types, spear-head, side view
. Solutré type, point of lance
; Nolutré type polished ax...-25...--.-
. Map of quaternary localities of the Vézeére
. Deer-horn point, without barbs
» Deer=horn) arrow, wathe bilateral barlsesssce eee esse eee ee eee
. Deer-horn harpoon, with unilateral barbs
. Ivory plate, with representation of mammoth
3. Harpoon of bone, of the inhabitants of Terra del Fuego
. Horn spoon for marrow
. Horn needle

Saint Acheul type, stone-ax, (ace)

ee ee

ee i ee i a ars

j\ Horm necdlescsccscn ance eceete
. Horn hunting scorer and marker
. Horn record

Norru AMERICAN STONE IMPLEMENTS.

Figure 1.

Your & UW

. Horn, ruler’s stave, or baton, with one hole
. Horn, ruler’s stave, or baton, with four holes
. Horn pogmagan of the Esquimaux
. Combat of reindeers

3. Carved head of a poignard representing an elongated reindeer-. -
. Flattened tibia of the old man of Cromagnon....-.
. Femur of the old man of Cromagnon
». Fibula of the old man of Cromagnon
. Skull of the woman of Cromagnon, in profile
3. Skall of the woman of Cromagnon, front view
29. Skull of the old man of Cromagnon, profile ....-.-.-
. Skull of the old man of Cromagnon, front view ..---.----.--.---
Skull of the old man of Cromagnon, vertical view

Arrow-head discovered by Dr. Koch, with a skeleton of the Mis-
SOUTIUM Si. Soot necittenicae seelwiies Stee ene Ee eeeeeeos some aaa

. Leaf-shaped flint implement found in Jefferson County, Mo
. Disk-shaped flint implement from Fayetteville, Il
. Flint scraper, from Keyport, N. J
. lint seraper, fron: West Belleville, Il].. -.-----.=.....

. Flint scraper, from Saint Clair County, Ill _.----.. .--:..-:
. Flint scraper, from West Belleville, Ill

sete es eee es ee es te ee ewe oe

ILLUSTRATIONS.

INDIAN ENGRAVINGS ON ROCKS IN GREEN RIVER VALLEY.

Hicune wean cient bieraclyphicalecords sss ase ee eee eee cise siae
OLN dian record ony sandsvuone Clit se. eee as sense oo eee eee oe eee

SASEMUACI Ee Ni KonsnDs, IbpesKaKovent (Conwumpars'g, IDNIMOWUN nooeoubeno sadcbe seuacce nas paosee
icuresiens kenchyomuhe a ystacks Mound saa. se acer a aetis eee ee eee
Bia ELEPHANT MOUND IN GRANT COUNTY, WISCONSIN.
Hicures ly Sketchiof therbicy Elephant Mound! 2224-5) sa25e5 56- sere cece E
Mounps in Barrow Country, GEORGIA.
Eroureresskenchvomlocanongotmoundssecesseee see ee ee eee eee ese
MOUNDS IN GEORGIA.

Figure 1. Mounds on Sapelo Island, McIntosh County............----.----
PeEAYV LAM CeOtiNoleeWwokee, Warhya © OWN al Glens eee eee eer ae
3. Mounds on Dry Creek, Sacred Grove, Early County, Ga..---..... Z

INDIAN REMAINS IN LOUISIANA.

hioure ie sketchvor Wallace ake Indian ravers. -422- 42 sess oe oes
INDIAN REMAINS IN ARKANSAS.

Higure 1. Sketch of J. B: Pillow’s plantation, Arkansas .---......---.---- ae

: i iy 7 u th ' mie . : i a ue fa ‘ ~ A pry bs | ts 7 <i, ;
P Mey y a aye Pe a ‘; A et ew i. Aaehe apart ani a me ; 7 1s

ty ihe a we ' 7 BA art ages ae ‘ wisi Ha avert ed
; 7 Pie i, ut

Eyre en hed i ies ne, m hehe Nisrcion iv

ad er a eta ae cg oe. srt op) shot ieee

7 Pe dn ew at ; ; i. wer ae ey, fe - vl : :
| ee eee Dy ui ee = . a aoe Tie is ¥ te Mae ies th - ;
a Li, . Fs = ; ee. que’ ¢ s, tn BY ee wit wi Ipod uh aa

ay " t : ti ‘ » 7 43

La ; - ip, HT AG ry

e ’ , y aa Ca
es Ore ree
t 7 f a lp + rng ; :
7” * v8
aan 7 ri i
t Any r 2 i
1 2
: in 5 eke
} “i ; a7 =)
j 7 ih A ,
, ; i oe:
: > of
y ae ae met
)
{ i. - -
i ' ! oo oe.
. : § : aes ; ae 7 }
ey)
; ana i
‘ : ; u q mer i.
: tres tate
1 6
} te , iad ‘
‘ U - rans ~A0T
; ‘ aan : ty
} a i
i Z mr oo wy
1 ‘
: : J 37 ad

I? . ‘a (era h ; = Gl gare
ies 1 | i ieee. 0 i eee

: : : a ; 7 : i a ‘
» : ; op aes Via
: y : ot ; . i 3 © ay ;
i

itt, 5 aes ; 7 : ; ieee.
1 ; es i i ~
Se i Oh RRS (Mae Ba ac opin Haul

Le i. Je. poe - af 3 Ak, os Tih gt
. a i Hi ; } " Ps
Ss oy fe lr ; bye r al ciel aes |

id Lcwcre alae n, o*

iy

EIN Jou Ex.

Page
Aboriginalirade. by Charles hattcenenci ses. cacjsia2 see eiaaia sean aeaee eeeeee 348
Academy of Natural Science, Philadelphia, stereotypes plates stored with. ..--- z 21
Additions orthercollectionsmmplei2rese sees ce see ee eee eae eee eee 56
Agassiz, Erol. WOUIS, ACbSs! Of ASELC RON be as alse ecise vals e laste iae oe a aa eee eee ae 80, 82
trustectot/bache tum diesen sate ewes caecis ce ose ate eee 93

commendation of Catlin collection......---. ae eee = 8

narrative ol Hasslemexpeditioussseneeeee eee eeee eee eee 84,8

remarks of, relative to museum of comparative zoology and
Smithsonian Institution..---..---........ RR Ae a ee 8
Agricultural colleges, aid from Congress to......--..---.-. Ar ea i a ae 83, 85
Aericnlture. WoeparbmentrOr, MCLCOROlOGY ae— she ena oes selcme canta e ae 22
/ Nae), taReKs) \yeHTeIey Loy IDI els Oo WWOOG ae coono cba epares besosoe os cessose SScene 22
Aulkal old Seresealch GSiOMerme cele cies cane site e cies eles els ae elas) eee oo saee olOG
ANGE CShEWOL Keron Dyess NucholSonie. meee see ee enter meee eee eee nee 23
Ammonia bases..- - -- jaecbode cogsesc5cde Scie cee Dalia nda ects olsen 196, 204
Ampere, Andre Mane ;eulomy On; Wye AAG Ones a ane yes ale fete ier aaale SaaS 111
sketch of, from Blackwood’s Mawazine ..:....--.----- eee 1G)
Amal ysisn Dye blow-pipe eH sleston/Sischeme)eeesieee sere rae etee eee see 219
ApPavavustOMy ssc e Sawa eee see eke creeine Glos iaterieeeeee 222
Ancient aboriginal trade in North America, by Charles Rau.-.--..----.-------- 348
KUINAMeATIZOMAY Dya Ji CV neO) S22 ci55 os eels arse ee ea ara oe sever aoe 412
Aniline: productionvob 322622 ssn sss clea sees haces sectws Goeieee aseeince anaes 202
Jain MESES, INTO WORE: Oil oaoc5d cope Ssseade bs ssceceacdeDs oo ess0 scan sos 605 155
Anthropology, attention paid to, by the Institution...............-...--..---- : 18
(See Lartet, Suess, ethnology.)

AN DOCOCIOS, SOC con opases6o socconscenacs ase5 seca0e ascusa cae Ukinoaes Seen ae 109
to report of the secretaryy= 222202225 2285 22s sen neeeiseee see aati 55
Appropriations by Congress for National Museum..-.-.......---...-.------.-- dds
Arago, eulogy on Ampére by --.----.-- Bek Semiomet eeces tae ase sole nae eta s anisms 111
ArnyaG overmnornvaluablercollections ron ens=== ese eese eee cee ciara o saree 45
Actesianiwells tempenrvbunestOhe sees. seme ees cris sce seimiee Seats le een secre 40
Art-Gallery, account of foundation by W. W. Corcoran .......--...---..------- 16, 94
Aurora) borealis; ettectiot.ons teleonaphssssa--csaaeeoesa sl eens eee ee eee a aeee 299
OLISINIOLybyaWonaticosseeeceeeee les eee eerie aS /spaictearsiete 299
bacheserot. Ay Dy extractsutrom) they wallllotes aa ae ere are wal binesease 86, 93
Baird, S: E., assistant secretary of the Institution =-<-.- 22-2 2.2----.s-2-- == 6
account ofexplorations/andlmuseumlns eer ese alee ee = aie eee AB
DOES UOPNROS |D\/osdcohecesas nigcoooHDGop cosa sanesc codabonsES shee 30
Bannister, Henry M., museum clerk...-....---- sels Sus eerste serail aetna 6
Barnard, Dr. F. A. P., recommendation of Wood’s Alew...-...--..--.-.-.----- 22
Barnes, Surzeon-General, aid rendered by:.-22---5-+- 9982224. so2s2 ee sees oe ose ne
Barrandt, A., account of hay-stack mound, Dakota--22-. --2- --..--2------- ~--- 413
Bases, lectureron by Prof. AmB auere none ee vases sce oe Sele setae Nettie seins Sars 196
Basile modelvoirdeposited at MountmViernomees aa c= = sees aes eer ere 41
Bauer, Prof. A., lecture on organic bases--.-------- BER Sater eki cals alta istaieats 196
Bedford, Henrietta Jane, bequest of to Institution.-.. ..--.....-. pasate eee Al

Benzol, production of... =-.-.---- See cree cate elses ae me sete pneHAS 6s 213

448 INDEX.

~ :
Bequests, (see Tyndall, Bache, Hamilton, Bedford.) ee
Bey, A. Mariette, present from, of fac-simile of papyrus....-...---. -........--. 35
Biography, (see Ampére, Lartet.)
Blow-piper apparatus, yy: elanwaleins| ke SWietl Crys e erate alee ete ta eee 222
determination, Wolestomisischementorssests==-2 eee eee a= ear eeaee 219
Bosler, Abram, letter from, relative to Hamilton bequest.--....--...-...--.---- 107
IB} Reva, Oyo! rayisuanlonaec MON coon go lsono bode se Soscee ceo one boeeos coe se0 aso HEHoSs 233
British association, underoround ibemiperabunes == ete a steerer 40
Broca Paul, theitromlodytes jon cavie-dwviellCrs a= areata eee 310
Brown SOlaG- uransporcatlonh Clohicese= eee eee aaa eee ee eee ee 6
Bruit, J.1G.. account on indian enerayin'os OnpOcks=--e sees eee ee eee eee 409
Brussels, center of scientific exchanges .----...---- ongde osSbGS SEGaESsoGa0 ceoase 32
Balding | Coneress shoul dip elias ee eer eters eee lole ere oe onal alee tee etal 16
CoLOVSIH COUN saeLeLOp ATS TAAL (UFC OlBoe con coec odes Goeao4 cosa ones doosce ee sacnasue 73
Capronmrlonac enc 0-0 erat Only Olesya ere tetsae ta iete tetera ey ea 22
Catalogue of Indian relies collected and presented by J. H. Devereux..---.-.-. 432
Catlin, George, accuracy of account of Mancan ceremonies -..-......-....-.-:- 436
Indian ‘paintings, accountiofs.- 22-542 ee no eee eee 41, 82
MOLES CALICO mae ee eee Seen eee eee Ee Sete Saya oes 53
Cavie-dwellers of thesvalley of the Viezeres ce a-iee eee eeeee cee eee een ieeee 310
Chase; Chief Justice, actsiofjas recentiss-- = 4eeee= ee eee ee eee eee eee 80, 81, 84
Chemicalianalysis,blow-=pipeapparabusylone- ssa ceee ees eee eee eee 222
researches, by A. Bauer. -co538s-5 Sete a: cea eee see ee eee 196
by Brofessoricletzinsky 522246 saeeieerisereete eee eee 203
Circular sent with specimens presented to institutions ..--- Maas Sa aeees 5a Bee sie
Classimcationlofthe/sciences, Ampere Ones soesee tee eee eee eee eee 149
Cofim yd. dk. discussionlom wwindSibyeeeenaeaete cet eee esto cree Eero eer 338
NOLICE Of, Dy erOressomileninyes = seer ee eee tee ee eee eee ee 85
Colfax-y Hons. nacts oi pastamec enti e tere mesa aaisele men ace teeter ke eee 80
OGIMecctioavss en akalniayalsy (Woy nba) Wey kee se oSoo pocecocacs cneccaccobbs Sasosee ace 55
Colleges in the United States, list of, published .---....-..- .2.--.--5---- 2 22- 28
(Crohn ts 1k pysnomaee Cove) Why SS ceienecoo cacoop cos otcodcy saccceboee sHoaceosie 21
Clolkacivo ns jORNchronigi Oli 5554 65ceqe st6n o5acco cecnad oso socace conaoseoce sea5n5+ 211
(CLouMeaRe sey Ayay ORO} HONING Wy? Roce ee chacon.ec5ooCnbo cosesbescu og dsy ben Sne éoncée 16,77
Choke} Henry). acts of -assrecentioa- so. 32 ee ereeer ae ee eee eee ere 84
Coppersvancienb! USeOl eso ee scree ee cee elit ere tei rete ee eee OO)
Copyright not taken on Smithsonian publications....-.......----...-.--.----. 21
Corcoran Art-Gallery, account of foundation of.-25-- -.2 5. ---22s250e sees == 16, 94
report of committee relavivie tonsa. -—- ssc eee alee 84
resolutions of recemts relativomOe- sce aoe eee a= 81
Correspondents; list oftforetemi suse ssa eet sensei ae ee eee eee er 28, 30
‘Aime nica: Se 22.2 etc eee seer ace lees GO eer oe Cone ne cen ce 23
Coues) Dr: sets of smaller rodents by-s-225-2- eer ee =) oe eee eco eee 51
Crystallography and crystallophysics, explanation of, by Brezina...--.-..-.--.- 233
Cutts) I, B. ancienitprelics in) Nonthwesternplowaresosceace cose eta. - eee 417
Dall Wallan! E:. valuabletcollectionsmtrom sass ees ek- ee sees ee =e eee 44
Danube, account of work on improvement of mouth of .......---..----.....-- 34
Davis, Hon. Garrett, resolutions relative to the death of.........-------------- 80
Dean, C. K., account of mound in Wisconsin...--...-.- AO Se ee see eee A415
Delaware Historical Society, bequests) t0ms- oc oos- ser sesek ete a - eeee aeeee 41
Devereux, J. H., catalogue of Indian relics presented by..---- .--.-- -2.2).--=--- 432
Diebitsch, Hermanjmeteorolomicalliclerke 2s eo. -sase eee eee eee 6
Distribution of publications, rules of_....-2.----:------ eee: Pe oe sere eat 20

DrstrilbubionvomspecimrenSe ssc ake eae eee ete eee Loi ere eee 5ON55
>

INDEX. 449

- Page.
Donati, origin of aurora and eftect on telegraph... . 2.25. -socececeseene-s~ sees 299
Duplicatespecimens distr bUblOni Obese emeceier es sale sels miele cette ete tae ers a 50, 55
IDES), ROGIHCHIOM Ol oi cc sodnoasdesotos doonse poseigccase DSuCob costes boos saHGee 215
Earth-works. (See Ethnology.)
Education, distinction between, and original research...---..----..----...---. 13
HaucationOmmechanicsySclembiliCaa saya e ee) ee sees ooeeicicee acre eae nine Somme Oo
Heleston, Prot. f., arrangement or minerals:—.<-- 2.2... cscs --c se se eee eee eee 51
onrerystallocraphiy, Sasacsce= sce acvan seine co oee Oe eeiee ee eee 233
scheme for blow-pipe determimations|.----- 2-2. --c2s+s22e2-e5 219
IBSAY I, COMI NOG TCE Wall Nsscocupo Gong 6S0555 ceBGee teu loses cand SnesccaGco cose 34
EKG SHUCTMIE SV OE ENO) Sooo coce oceems coon cbesousSoEdoleaad ssocco cosa osoc 04, 35
Plectro-dwnami cssyAimperes eseatcheseaaceryseecieae see asec oee see ee eee 136
Blephant Mound in Grant County, Wisconsin... -.-<)5-- 22) sscce- oc eee sees cee 416
MikiottyEenry WwW. valuablercollections tromb=as=—- 252-2 no ssc eeeao ee cece cee 43
Pneravings On Locks by INdtanS yd. Grp DEW... s.cs sane eS aneyacmoee nese eee 409
Espy, James P., meteorological investigations of...--...-...-.-.---.---.------ 37
Establishment of the Institution, members of...--...-.-.-. 2. .2:i:2..-..--- - 5
HsoumatesuHorkihe: year WSUS) sc2 so cceios jaar seivevers/ anes ne sare acietoerioce aes 76
Ethnology :
SEM EVO Ore ILA So65o5 Gouge onpons Hoan msoa Ce aaogaco™u Gonos goUoue 172
Marl beds of Sansan.-.--.-- NOOO G00 9e60 Co OS0 HoScuS Guan DosD Contos Bee Sonn < 173
DRNGY Ose Was) CANCE nao cosocounqsado uses casane coca Hues. cabo aeaeea pebU cuoSer 180
Boundary line between geology and MISCO Y= (aac )sesatselosey se eee eee ene 223
Pirst appearance of man in Central Hurope as. .-2 22. too sc,on-sc. ce - ee 223
I SICIAGL EG). on Seco o Gear sOeono Sons cuce SoeeEg be Hobos ema aseS asc cenenadice | ee)
SHOE PR@cscs saacSs soosbe S60 Se60 Sess SoS0e0 SoGe6d SAEs Gane bas oSeSsonesosoe 224
Schimenlinevandysprine7s discovierleseane i) seaeel eel cei ee nian ecieinine sees 229
Perthesrandsbrestwachisudiscoveries\s= seeeeceocee eee sence eee ne eee eee 230
The Troglodytes, or cave-dwellers of the valley of the Vézére .........-... 310
IM buaie WAN OEMNETMIS 550 sog6c0 650500 Soba 65450. 06nl coa5 onan ean Hobe bebo bo0E Osos 316
OU Gildas faasenicesond Sogcug sepobennode, ese Nboeod soaeEeeten BbaaAbabas 321
Deer horneimplementsee pyc. sect eeee meses a sarees eee eee ee ee eee 324
Skeleronsianduskullisyotrcavie-diwellensiasesss-ee = eerie see eee eee 339
OldinianvandswomantotCromapnoneess see eeeee eee eee ee eeeTe eee ener 341
Ancient aboriginal trade in’ North America ....--..--..-.-+ <2. 2.22 --2--s- 348
Coppetmimplomon GS eset elec e cena basin -eeee ses yas sence see 350
Galenapnrancient mound sisa- sacceeateeceeerea es eineesreeericee ce eee ee ee meee 355
Obsidian implements ..--- 0 cane aona son0 bo0000 CauoND SOdGsO BaeSed SodeeSasSS 357
IMicarirom MOUNUS see apets ois jae aisle aes oats easter alas aaice asa ce one eee 360
Nlatemmanutaccune ss yall ciamisess ese erent tert eee 362
Catlin’s description of Indian method of making arrows, &c..........---. 363, 388
Ln Ta SG Se Sato d ae MOOS Se GbE Sepp Ben DREOL ASE cEoRInOBEON Cele boleh 365
Red pipe-stone, localities and manufactures ......-..-..--...2....-.....-. 368
Shells yeimcivan! w, OT kes camera sae aio io eure Sislchens Siataia atefeictara eae toe ia ee 372
Wampum; manufacturesand: use Ofssnsa 32 s1a22 ss sS. 222 Sey Soe. 379
Rearlstound an: moundspeess senses aense cates eee ce anc saa aee eee 383
Rahboror nits -oascee cesarean eRe eel arse ces ete eee eee oe. 386
North American stone implements...-....-...5.202.2.-.. BOBS coSne Eoeee 395
Indian engravings on rocks in Green River Valley ..--............-.--.---- 409
ATI CIEN pu Ne ATI ZONA smc ceisscie ise ociaee cee een eee ce nee 412
Hay-stack mound in Lincoln County, Dakota................2- Ph aera 413
Baksh yw OLkKswins WASCONSIN <5 2s = sniocntince snot ees Se Pee ed Soke oes ee be!
MOUNGEIMUASCONS tas se aeee eee eee ee 5 SC RA! «1s SUI Naa al 415

450 INDEX.

Ethonology—Continued. ict
Ancient relics in Northwestern Iowa........ --- Fo ga'olisin ete > bins efsae se aoc 417
Mounds meareAnnas Union County WUE Rees ss ser hee sree ee eees eee nee 418
Ancient wounds nent ckyeesesetesees oe a aaeee een ee Eee eee 420
Moundsrin® Bartow, County \Georrlaers esses e ease eer eeeae eee eee 421
Mounds MelntosheCounbyGeorclareee: Eee eeee eee eee peer eeeerrr 423
Indiantremamsanweaddorebansh-wvoulsianaeeeeene eee e eee eee eee eee ee 428
Moun dsinmonisianarrcrce-ceiseceiseee aes e astra eae eee EE eerenr merece 429
Pre-historic remainsin) District of Columbiai-ss-.--e e225 2s eee ee eeeeeeee 430
Catalogue of a cabinet of Indian relics collected by J. H. Devereux, of Cleve-

land, Ohio, presented to the Smithsonian Institution............-....... 432
Accuracy of Catlin’s account of Mandan ceremonies...............-..-..-- 436
Ethnology, geographical arrangement.
JOU) Sons coe ase connSo cesses AO0686 0O5S00 Be0NGe G6 o505e0 cESaNe coUaSA Sees 172, 223
WOH AVIS Cocor0 cbe0 05508 960n08 noOs esEooe BHOoSUEKaseanBaoN ceKe dese 348, 395
WIG saoqoqndo0 dace nocubd cos5 Boones do5500 conHbO 6505 Fase TODS ceeaso Ces 358, 359
MAE Se es50 dando Qo0N BOOUbe Good Sono cobdes Saab GHue os50 e0ne Ease aseecese 354
United States.
MATIZ OD Bp cic we eis speinto oasis cio ne inseecia e(esusistaleveteleane eleleine Seis nee ee ereieeeeosiee 357, 412
IAT KCAN SAS Ss arateleicjsvinieioroisie sinielearoiaie elelsioleisinielciat eisieiaccita eee ee eee eee 5560285 4s
(CHINOWDUIEY cooccocosees cdobde SoStad cou SoscEs coeo eDONSCOSSeSbs oo Sse 308, 385, 388
CWOnNeCticuts. a icric a .fecen saeoelnceas Sea ee reeeseeiaie sie seeieie ne ae ates 354
ID PIRI) nace Gon Geb onG060 660060 050509 HEDGE OLGGHS Naoko obos60 HbaESeHasCECS 413
Districtio£ (Columbia -- ees ccc ~ secre ee Sos =e =e) eee eee ee eee eee 430
HN Onid aeecccemaceceece cles aceenisrinemer ee ieiscis seer 373, 376, 377, 385, 390, 405
(C@OHubiccesooSs Soasodscooddoodsod 352, 367, 376, 384, 385, 387, 405, 421, 422, 424, 435
Green River Valleys sc ai--osce 2 atone lees stesso ecieseci eine see nice 409
Illinois. ..-.....-.----. 066, 367, 368, 372, 374, 389, 397, 399, 401, 402, 403, 407, 418, 419
IhoVObenRi 56 o6G6n6 650 050 bobs DeGd00 Send Sous d6a6 Sooddg codensco cé5es6 cocone 368, 401
OWE eeeo cases BORO UIASOG BODO COAD BAGG Bel, SACS Doodacna GadaKb uSsabopies base 417, 435
Kentuckys2. cas cen cntsie cies sits eis acetens siaisiee ears winloeial Se iniaisin aevesin=ra se OOO Oa)
MUOUISTANM Aisars os eteinis cree eietsiesise eters Se teaiereinieie nicleoeredenelem oie eleaaesenmetnercreios 428, 429
Massachusetts. a1 = acne ctcciei seine sienna see atcininioala ec epaeise alee maiee es OCONAOa TOO)
Michigan ccemissclccd oncece welce ee clcss caw a sm a= =“ sinlmiaist 3050, dol, 3 35% 3, 362, 368, 379, 401
I GUChe Oe Weeae BOC ooo DeTOOOCREODACCSO DO Sod da tace aEnaSocSHaNio oSesEooere 371
MASSOUTI= 25 s-csezi-s soe ciece cies oes Sese ee en seen eeceere 350, 368, 395, 396, 398, 399
Newstlampshirevcncteiasssssiseecectecoeremrt sence ent loaee eee eee tee 360
ING WW. (JOTSGVic oes cieic tee em isei noch ciel cms sieciaeieiseise citeee ays 394, 366, 403, 406
New: Mexico). ciacccSsescctec nciacie scewers slosmanisacs/=sia\s)=s se\a me eae ees sol
ING Wi OT Kes ooo cic potoinepo iors seteoce se eieiae ene Spine bias pierces 350, 372, 382, 398, 403
Ohio... .-...--2- secees eeecee cece 352, 355, 356, 357, 360, 362, 366, 373, 374, 376 377,
383, 389, 390, 398, 400, 401, 404, 432, 433, 434
JEEVAN AVENUE, op Sccn56 Goan GoGo bG OT acd Se5o cee COTeeO boo TES CooToSasEe 408, 433, 455
1edavova vey G(s) oe eee eS ae eee ee ee eigudalss osocéeueesebee lyaleey ait)
Sierra Nevada, Mountains ssocesceoo pecciececen cece cee eerie -cieeeeerre 409
Southi Carolina cccscecwtee cincieetoo ate atrocious See ee sii snee Eche eee isn sae ee ere 393
MENNESHEO coca scecc ee sees Ce ae ace e pee Ee OOl BLO OV OOO Ae, Aoo Apa OO tO
Wiversabiover roy (OAS CAS cass edod aonGobonde Sa655 be0GnS 6500 seca sesere becoos 430
Washington Territory... -c--------- wiafoacheieie Seis une Bees ee = Se ere ae 391

Wrest War oinia. <2.) 2o ee ee de ee sce oat se eo deine a see oes eriene a ante eee OO Lacie
WisSCOnSINS co.cc lnc e cre eee ee eee etn SRE RoE cece ota a al sera)

HMOs yon Ampereip ye ALAC One ete sae eee ease eae areata eee aaa eee terete 1b
Hyans, James Ni, survey, Of Mounds Dy sceeee eee cee atsieenstseee eerie 425, 427
Everett, Prof. J. D., underground temperatures a ears Seiamione ied siaisise sireieeeiepoe es 40

PUAN Ati OM VOL ACCOM CS csr See ear eee er ee ieee teretete 79

INDEX. AD51

Page
ROMS, ACCOR ANS Oinaacce -daposaqueuS badanu Coco uNa0Es BOU Ss00ccCaCo GaG0or 30
REPU AMON Sol Sy SbOMle gaan mae aetaaeeselsasiee tee eae Hees 633 AAAS Ae 32
BtALISUICS OL! sj caciieisee coe a acsiecineisea ascitic ocinatte netomat cine os 62
BXCCUGiIN eC LCOMMM GE) OL CHEMIN SLUDUTLOME aa re slate crete mala inl a ele rare eer eeic eter ae eae 5
preliminary reportiOtes sete aes see ee cee nee ee eee 80

NEPOLUS Ofte se ose seme e sles eee see eee ene oe ee ne ene 74, 84
PE PeHdiiuMres OL Hern hit MGOMNIn) LO 2 eam seers ote cele aie aeeieee satdeie oe 75
TESiMICbedstO anneal ouMbeLeSbeeaa\sjaie1= sss lenielsleelcee cael a eee eeeeees 19
Explorations, Professor Agassiz’s narrative of.......... 22.222 .---------e0-- 87
Professor Baird’s account of...--.-.....-.- FDAaROSSOmEO Reso sitGoc 43
Feiger, Don Edward de, human head presented by..--...----..--. asia ose ove aie 46
BIGETO!, WVllitay OMY CON UC eSt mecca nace sua access siscisans eats aciee disci ypoiectere 23
HINANCesOte lin siiiublon COndinOMOle see sclera eee cation e eeeeiseseione leone 19,74
mscher, Dr ik. onscientinc labors Of Wartetoss- 12-2 ance sce. we mee ee cceaet os 172
Rishes;drawinesiot presented by DrvAarneusse- s.r ao eeee sieaee ase eene seceeee 35
Gullisiarrancementromtamiliestotess-sesseeaee see aeiee eeieceee see eee eee PH)
INVESCO AULONS Dye LOLessOLe Dalnd= sate e ee eee eee eae eee nena eae 35
Mh PATICIOM ISO) Olemeras sen see ees coe oe entices slat ese eieniis aero pes eee - . 365

implements. (See Ethnology.)

Horelenecorrespondents slistiol. a= seeeeen cece ele oe cies ere Sake ss cone sae 5 28
Hossis, labors of Wartet relative. tO: ow. cse1s- 2-25-54 sciniscebaccwcsesees Saesee a) Lge
Franking privileges granted to the Institution.....-.......... Bebe Seis ee sees 40, 82
Franklin’s punch-strainer bequeathed to Institution.....................2.2.-- 41
Freights free granted by steamship and railroad companies.......-.......----- 31
Frost, B. D., observations on underground temperatures.............-.-..----. 40
Galena, ancient use of....-- 656050526 Jbansdn65 ssa sogeesc0co0s Saosbe sSaKe S655Se 355
CaTtiole wonder Ae ACUS Oly ASLLOP CO besa c race cle soo eee serene ee eho 80, 81, 84
Geology and history, lecture on boundary between, by Suess......-...--...---. 293
Gibbs cGeorce imdinavocabulames DYaere cess) aeaecieseenee eee eee aio/ae Sisisievees 26
Gill, Prof. Theodore, catalogues of mollusks, mammals, and fishes......-.----- 27
Green, James, meteorolosical imstrumenbts. = 2... 4-4 - +.) eee = cess cee eee eee eee 37
Green River Valley, Indian engravings on rocks in.-.--.........-----.-------- 409
Grounds, improvement of Smithsonian ........-....-- ryaeeiafeciee ees sisters e ase eee 15, 16
Gun-conon produ Chon Olsamaresanlaasineas =e Saces Jzaccoeesecoes couse teen 209
Cinine on WGlETs, OGIO D0) (OE cocoa soS5 soRbos. 560850 Gabdco bal oeds coon ope SSR ABS Ae 208
Cay OuvElolvAc pe teOLological tADIEB See. cocset eesin soe te eee oe eer ene 37
ea SYA Ch CODSERVALIONS occ l-s1\rele] sats yee Semi ac Ree e oe ceee eae eee 35
Hamilton, James bequest of $1,000 to Smithsonian Institution..........-.2...-- 85, 106
Jalmllia, Iskollely AVIS OH BIS WeYMeMiooqo gaoces odocce uoLOSEcesooncoas oaosec 80, 81, 82, 84
efforts of, to secure franking privilege for the Institution ...-. 40, 82
Hamason joseph; aid tooMr. Catlin Se ste oo lee nen Joh.ss eee sae O_o eat 41
Hasslienexpedition, Arassiz/s accountOf---4- 40: .22<-bas/oscce nee ores sce. scceee 87
Hawdcnsco Wales blow-pipe apparatng- 2b ee ite sed okt etl s22 bee 222
Hayden, Prof. F. V., distribution of sets of coilections of..............-....--- 50
valuable: colléetions! from: 2245-5524<4-5 fee. es sesso eee 44
Hay-stack mound, Lincoln County, Dakota, by A. Barrandt........-.-........ 413
Head prepared by Jivaro Indians, presented to Institution.................---. 46
ieishts. works en by VW. 05,. NIChOlSOM-- =n-coee | neice cert eaten ae 2.8 occ 28
Heute Joseph secrevarysOl uae uNStibublo nesses se see eer pa eee yee ee 5,6
history of appointment as Secretary of the Institution........-. 14
REPOLD ROL LOL UST2= case ticia emer e eae cane ad ce occu se 13
solar origin of magnetic and other phenomena........-.....--- 309

president of National Academy of Sciences..................--- 5 30

452 INDEX.

Page.
Henry, Joseph, trastee/of, Bache fund --\-. 5522 sonar eae eee 93
TLUStSe OL CorcorangArtCallenwas.eeee eee ee ee eerste Ee eee 96
iLUstesor one lecture-tundesas eco se nese sens eter ae eee ee 101
Herron, Joseph, janitor of, the Institution 52228 sesesee—e eee eee eee eee eee 6
En storyand geology, lecture Dy Suess Onese sear eee eee eee eee eee 993
History.ofthednstilubionin-\soneetse sealers aa ae eee eee eee nine oe ee eee 13
Floosac\ Lanne), thermometers|sentib0s4--14---e- eee ee ee eee serene eee ee eee 40
Hotchkiss, T. P., Indian remains found 82 feet below the surface, Louisiana--.. 428
Hutt, J. W., printings, doneunder superintendence Of -5-2--=---eee ee esses cess 21
Ey psometrical map of North: Aimerica << 22 -\ese ¢ewisee eo ieee oe eee ee 28
Indian engravings on rocks in Sierra Nevada Mountains, by J. G. Bruff .....--. 409
indiansvocabualariesssoibespublashedtjasea.) eee coca ease ceaeee Se cee ences 26
Indians ancient ttad oOf=.aa5.s2 2 soc oe eee ee Seo ene ee ee ee nee 348
Gatlinist accountroas.) 2a. ae ee ee Bee ee ee ee ee eee 436
(See Ethnology.)

Insane, Lospital werot lennyaay visitOTtOsete-t er see enone eeeiee ester eeies 35
Journaliofsboard of Rerents s225 cls ne ene cie Dae a nee eerste cise neers 80
Mhediverot sl ay pt spresenbsyirO Mls eee eersysiatele set ei ae eeee eee ee eres 35
Kipp, James, accuracy of Catlin’s account of Mandan ceremonies. ........---.-- 436
eletzinsksya Ons MitGro Kens) Odes emia a eemtalealeinelatacaiera este aise leila taal sste eee 203
Knowledge, distinction between increase and diffusion of.........-....-...---- 13
Lartet, Edward, scientifie labors of, by Dr. P. Fischer .----..----.---.---..--.-.- 172

Leech, Daniel, corresponding clerk of the Institution ..-...........-...-----.-
Meew JC Xeqaccounb ofancient ruin mMeATIZON aie sees leceraee asin eae see ae 412
Tabranesim Unitedistates, listiot published eern---s eee eee eeeseeeeeeeee eee 28
Icibrabyeaccountof Smibhsonian, tom O/2eeeesse essere eee ee sees eee teee 32
ISTO, Ore Sieve NOI oon soGouass caso cue0 Sen co conbansase bonnes se 15
Light-House Board, Secretary’s connection with-.--....-..--...----.-.-..--..- 35
HishoLioreion! correspond entseneeter seeieees eee eee eae ee eee eee ieee see ee ae 28
scientific, educational, and literary establishments in the United States - 28
juockett, Prof. Samuel H.; mounds in Louisiana .:- 2.2 2-22-- -2--.c2+ ---2-- 2-5 == 429
Maclean RevaUrs«wohn acts Of asec ents a- aa) ce ea ieaineieeas eles eater 80, 82
TEport of Executive COMMITEE s=-- = 42sec oe ose eee 79
report on claim for portrait of Washington.....-..---. 81, 82
Mammals, Gill’s. arrangement of families Of Jo. 2-5 2.0 <= 2 onsiei= o> 2 == eee = 27
Mandamiceremoni es) Cablinisnaccounibese-aeeaeneeiosencisece eee eeee eee eeeee 436
MaproimNoxnthyAim erica: hy pSOMethiCaleeseeiee eerie eeleeeta eee etee etait 28
Mathematics Am pore ssl aborstes tassel -atee oleae eeteeee etter 132
Wie, Wt, 1BG, mee ROE? [ON Goe caanso a6ono0 cones co65 cea QRoSes cso c95a05 SaEc 37

Maiximsrof theslnstitutionmess=saees a eee eerie ae eee eee iaeee eee eer nemiatacreias
McKinley, William, mounds in McIntosh County, Georgia.........--...----.-- 422
mounds in Early County, Georgia....-.....-. oocuesEsccoc 424
Mechanics and artisans, scientific education of-:----------:-----2-+----------4 | 185
Medical department of Army, aid from, in meteorology ....-------------------- 22
Medicine, oneriund foriadvancement ote seco eines les ee ele aieeteat=a == ole) tetera 101
Medicines, (see Kletzinsky)paiacs voces ce eaten cace acer ee means tao oiatecrare) rea
Wiierelies 185 18h sy opate Cloyne) ony, 300) Wey!) ose o5 Soon Sono ee so ueeoddoDs cScHeueeosecss ct 36
Members/ex-officio of the Institution <-— 2-2 .ce a nee e seein 5

Memoirs. (See Ampére, Lartet.)

Metaphysics, *Ampére:on iu S8e2cu selec. cer eee eee neo aeiae ae eee mmc

Meteorological observers of the Institution! -.. 32.2 22.scs- es = =e een =e 63
system) offeredito Generali iyer= access see ee eee 38
teleoranis: 2. as THESE ce ele Oe ee eee ee reer ncrae 37

INDEX. 4538

Page

Meteorology, account of system ....-.---------+ +--+ +--+ 22 eter ee ee cece cece 37
inussia by Dr WicellsOfe 04526 Sel men sae sim = seeceaeaiceain=- | S0m

Mica, ancient use of....-....---------- +--+ 2 22 ee cee ee eee ee ne rere terete 360
Mineralogical Pareenea rd to Tereaiion from bane: OvGERY Se oS550Ke 52
Mirbanol, production of.....--.--------- +--+ +--+ +--+ ++ seen ee ee nee eer rete 213
27

Mollusks, Gill’s arrangement of families of.-.-..---------------------+--------

Morphine, production of-...-..-------+------ +--+ 222222 eee eee cee ee eee 196, 200

Mounds. (See ethnology.)

Mount Vernon, articles deposited at......--------------------------+-++------ 41

Museum, appropriations for........-----------------+-+------- 22-222 e eee 42,77, 78
AL CLUE TAS EO at en a eas She nas CE eee etat erage a OOO

distribution of dimplicateses-— a.) == acs ale = oats ore aan mm amelie 50
OMALLES MELE CONG =D OOKS as erecta ars sete te rao alee ea olen alt ae la 55
ISHOR 7 Of aol ante oie cco em om eieeie 9 2 onl ain win wenn emia = =i = oni = 15
re-arrangement of, and CalalOsWes sansa n seta as oases ieee 26
receipts and expenditures..---..----------- -----+-----+----2+ ee eee- da
TO OWNS TWN as so6p p60 CoomeoeoenEE saenu coodcD Beomas Ceseocssonsador 49
Myer, General A. J., Signal Corps, meteorology ..---.---.------------+++-+-+ +--+ 37
National Academy of Sciences, Professor Henry, president..-..-..-------------- 35
bequest of Professor Bache to.-.-...-..-.-..----- 93, 94
National Library, organization of......-------------------------+------+----- 15
National Museum, appropriations for.....--.----------++------------------- 42,77,78
ACM MODEKOS55G56 ooaoeo beoe5n 6505 USdacs Goan baceco saoSos ace 43
receipts and expenditures....-...---.------+-----+---------- ae
(See Museum.)
Natural history, policy of Institution relative to .....----..------------------- 18
(See Museum.)

Netherlands, central bureau of exchange... -.-.-5.-- .- -s--:< jeri samcins -201~-= = ol
Newberry, Prof. J. S., arrangement of specimens by..---..-----.----.--------- 51
ING Co Ms), AOE Sh Oa OAviAGe WGI S655 s555s6ceqond Geesed cooeud caucke Goce 24

New York, Newfoundland and London Cable Telegraph Company, free tele-
grams of astronomical discoveries .......--. .----- ------ ------ s---+------- 82
Nicholson, Walter L., hypsometrical map by.----..----.-----.---.------------ 28
Ini WES occs sascer coe poodoo coecse cea OsSg beEesd SacbSs Becouecpacesouc 196, 203
bodies of modern chemistry, by Kletzinsky........--....--..-.------- 203
Nitro glycerine, production of. ........ .--- ---- = -- 22 ees en- wo = o-oo nee 2 n= 217
North American stone implements, by Charles Rau..........---..-..---------- 395
Nom agien Ie) ns) Creat Cl -- 5 booe. cebend occ eon con Sen ode SES codcee coesea e550 cast 299
Obsidian, ancient use Of........ ..---- 22-2 --- = eons one eee een eee e ee nee nees 357
COven@ers) Gi avs) IGS ANON S 555 casano cude seconde oo Coge dens GoUGeD esbbceHeOaCao00s 5,6
piumipreseanchestomes sm aerseeteers se lseke ee akoses eek ee eer steel = ole = alate aii 200
Organic bases, lecture on, by Prof. A. Bauer...--..----..----- -----20-0---- ---- 196
Organization of the Institution, programme.... ..---..----- ----------+-++----- 7
Paleontology, labors. of Lartet relative to... . 2... 2. ---0)220 seccee een ses ecen-=- 172
Parker, Honieeter, acts! Ol,as) LGC tase sss eee = ao loan elastase elon 80, 82, 84
preliminary report on finances, by..---...----------------- 80
report of executive committee.----..-...--.--------------- 79
report relative to Corcoran Art-Gallery......-.-...-..----- 84
Peabody, Prof. A. P., address on scientific education of mechanics and artizans. 185
Peale, C..W., portrait of Washington by, report on..-.-.......-.-- -.---------- 81, 82
Peale, T. R., prehistoric remains in vicinity of Washington......-...---.------ 430
iPertumery, chenicalsresearches Ones-=-- joes -lceme= a4) = sein === =cl) 1 213
Pierce, Benj., trustee of Bache fund .........-..-.-.--- PRS Pe Foo oa ec ae Ree 93

Perrin’ DT. M.. mounds near Anna, Union County, ssc 2c< snsccqscuccicquece- 416

454 INDEX.

Page
Peter, Dr: Robert, ancient moundsan’ Kentuclkyin 2542-2 ee se aloe | fee eee 400
Peters, Dr: ©. Hi: discovery, ofiplanet Dy sa--n eee ences ae oem Sees ee eet eer 85
Physical map, workronesessesses—- Bal batter total oatuhatfalatata haxetore tareye gulereyeoPe ae ne eRe eS 29
Picric acid; productionyof so cte. see eee eente eo ance eee eee eet coats 216
Pillow, Jerome b,, ancient remains found! byea-: == --ss ass leone Seeiee ee eeee 435
Pistols of Washington bequeathed to Institution.................--- he cbew ee 41
Planet, discoveryrot, by sDr. Retersseec sa-osaaenes eee e eee see eeee eee eelee ae 85
Teter OVEN CY YESS .5g Go 30 One bed 9500 55855 2555 Ja0d coco 00S coco coca os =ec008eG0C 125
Poisoning; researches) relative tosses sie ces tees ce ceees reece meters ae 199
Poland, Hon pL. P.actsiof, as regent ss. cssscs= Sse ee see eie ee eee eters 80, 82, 84
Pottery, cabalooueiOb---cacaaseoeer cies s se see nemrenieees accines sislele Se eadaneiecis 435
Powell, Prof. J. W., explorations of, in charge of Institution..........-.---.---- 35
TEPOLL OL Sen to) C ONPICKSPese ee eee ease eee eee eee ee 86
valuable collections from...--.--.--..----..--------+------ 45

Predictions) of weather)... cnicisere eniecic tase see ee Bees Rene aa eee Stee cre 3
Probabilities, Ampere on! 2). )=-j.75-)--)5os21e sae eeee ie ee eee eee eee ee 121
WOEAUNET 28 52) eieei ecole sissies ion tein ert watareritelise Ma Hee selee ee eicie 37
Programme of organization of the Institution..........----..---- wieinsiatsets telemere af
Printinovor reportiordered by Coneresse-a. 24s aan ese aeaie eee oer eee 2
for institution done by Collins, Philadelphia..---.-..--......-..-.-< 21
ibsy.cholory, AmperelOne. sce.--ssineee soos reste = eee eee eee eee meee 128
Publications, ceneralidescriptiony Ofate=s- =m a2 sae = ee ele eee atee= steele eee 20
TM LST 2 oS eee cess Mec eiee res ee aa ciao eI eee ieee ee ae 21
Punch-strainer of Franklin bequeathed to Institution... -.......-.....-.....-. 41
Rabenhorst/sisy stent ofall Coe Sa. «chess ince = ee aerate eee ee ae eae 23
Raincand snow ables, accounbiob-s-.s—ase sce ee ee eee eee ease emer eae seer 21
Rain-gauge, description of......-.--..-.-.. setae he dche oe etedkts oe cinveeriogets 38
Rau, Charles, aboriginal Pie in North enenee HEA Basse see maaeee 348
NorthyAmericanstonenmplements smcmese eee eet eee ee 395
Receipts of the Institution 1m 1872 22 <== <a ee nettle ala olm alam = ae eel niae 75
Red pipe-stone, ancient Wse Of —- - =o. <a c lem a naw miele te mae ta eal a faleiw ot elalnl 368
Regents of the Institution......----.----- +--+ --5--- 0-222 eee eee ee cece ee 5
journal’ Of. pee oe ar afer o ene ee ete aa ete te &0
original plans of, for the operations of the Institution....-..----.--.. 15
Repayments to Institution---------.-----------------+-+ ------ eo ++ 2 2 eee 76
Report of the executive committee-.-------------. 2. eee - ee eee ee ene eee eee 74
of executive committee adopted by board....-....--.-.--.-.---21---.--- 82
of the Institution for 1871. Extra copies not ordered....-.....-.....-. 29
Of the lnstinubion ford Sal icontentsiohiecs--. r= = ae eeee eee eee 30
reprinted from: 18630. 1870le. 2. -\emeneineenee= === 29
oni @orcoran;Ant-Galleryeoscerme] oe eee ae mee eee alee aoe ariel 84
Of thel-SeCrebany 1 ORM SG seas ielo aie nee eteieteletera\e lorie ate eats team aie 13
on portrait of Washington.....-....--..-.-.- nega oo Cano adc6 c2s99808555¢ 81, 82
Research and education, distinction between.........-.--.-.------------------ 13
Resolution of Congress to print 12,500 copies of report ...--.------------------ 2
of board of regents to submit report to Congress..-..--.----------- 86
thanks to telegraph companies for free astronomical telegrams. ..---. 82
relative:to Corcoran Art-Gallery!o:2 23.5s--eccee eee @ = ool = ee ee Oued
relative to death of Professor!@ offint-2~ === sleet eel alain &5
Telative to deathvor Garretts Davasee- se cece =e t= ota 80
to procure facts relative to Catlin collection........---------------- 83
to publish accounts of Bache, Toner, and Tyndall foundations. ...--. 86
Reuss, Dr. A., drawings of fishes-presented by.-..----2..--252- 2-00 ---s-cence> 35
Rhees, William J., chief clerk of the Institution.............-..-...---------- 6

list of mstitutions in the United States..-..........-...---- 28

‘INDEX. 455

Page

Fevers, OpenInS aNd JNCCZIME Of oe. - seme ee ancien wie tale alesie ates sisal ni's 295
Ee nlesHOMCistelbUnLonOL publications scl - saci ce emis osoecietieeciesenecice = 20

TP Er <AIMS SoS ono ne Soo Cab500 CONE Sec oon GaSe Seon eaeehees ccosdeae 32
USsiasmMeLeorolopyain bye Drs WVice lO fen: -\-m Soest ace coat eee cee eee coll
Scammons Capt... M...valuablecolleetionsstromeas--- as. = sides sere ereee ee eines 44
Scheme for qualitative determinations by blow-pipe, by Professor Egleston. --.. 219
Schoolcrantions Mandan\ceremonitesys sc. -- joe ose eens eee seen eee eeeeeee 437
BehotiiewA., CISCUSSION) Of LEMPOLAL UTES a2 cial <peccyso;0/a in nn) nnich nia icine anise serse eee 38
Sronginuuive IE Ou OL VENI ooccsa.coog osann hoes coos ee ancoosecocScecncooseeca dacs] Lz

educationommechanics ancdiartisans sep. sence cciee ee sale eceee eee eee Loo

‘SOUND Mais PTS CONE Ot ooond pase Gace cae © seen Ten SE Eene SOT RR Oana CoC me Jetewor 3 13
WOES CWS) |Sh/coosec oncoco cacodeos S505.c005 S60 cone bona ocsocnas aabsee 3D
(See Henry.)
Sherman, General William T., acts of, as regent.........--.---..---------e---- 80, 82
report of on CorcoranyATt-Gallenys oc csce-<1scisicinelswsines Sess seen seeee 84
EOPOLb Ol EXECULLVO s COMMMIMNDUCE = ae nleeferain oiois aie'a|sni oe le eee einiee enor 79
WAS LOU LO ME NID be tee te cence ote iseieleate mela cimerslcicet io ale siavslo aie actos saya eras 3
Slate, ancient use of......-... Balalaa aNeisiccis eretoee ee laciae oe slew eeae cca ne one 362
Smithson AwallvoLseee aes oaeteta= cree miacevesleransaeicion wine e\sisiwie eeimeicin Some een eene tees 7,19
Specimens 4circularssenti will secetasceeeeee cece see ee ms see ece seen cee a aeee 107
Buea POW EL. BIS COLY) Obaer feel ee ote riemmieaees sles ca ciieee == oaeeee eee ee 190
Stephenson, M. F., mounds near Cartersville, Bartow County, Ky...-......-...- 421
Stereotype plates deposited in vault of Academy Natural Science, Philadelphia-. 21
Stevenusmimstitute, Dlow-pipeapparatusee sae aoe eeeea eee ess ose esee see eens 222
Slevenson, elon. J VWe, acts Of, as Tevenbe=-- seasons oes se elee screen eenece 5abea th); teill
Stone age. (See Suess, Lartet, Rau, ethnology.)
Stone implements, North American, by Charles Rauw..---.......0--.+--+2-. ess. 395
sion, Conca cir JoeAqo, GNA DBN Es cess coco Suse cuasau oobese cane oben osedce 34
Stuart, Joseph H., letter from, relative to Hamilton bequest............-------- 107
Suess, Edw., lecture on boundary between geology and history........-...-.--- 223
Swainson, William, on the increase and diffusion of knowledge.......-....---- 13
Telegraph first employed by Institution in prediction of weather.......-.-...-. 37
Telegraphic announcements of astronomical discoveries...............-.-----. 82
lines phenomena, during-autora---- 252-2. ..2-25-.05-2. seen 299
Temperatures, discussion of... --. FRC GOD no DOA SOSA DOSES TP HOCO GEGEOE 6 oSead ai: 39, 38
Temperature of the earth downward increases one degree for sixty feet....--.. 40
pes He ror Vili a Mmeb eTre lyons meets eee) sees ee eee ee ee ee 23
lobacco, chemical researches On... 25255 snes boaccs8 oc sses soe cokes een lene 201

Toner, Dr. J. M., foundation of, for lectures on advancement of medicine. ....- 86, 101

Torrey, Dr. John, recommendation of Wood's algw................---.-2-2---- 22
Troglodytes, or cave-dwellers of the Valley of the Vezére..........-....-....- 310
Trompuil, Hon: L.,.acts.of, as regent. - 22202. .2- «<2 to se Joe etches 80, 81, 84
Samer, Janewn. ex chang evGlerks,.o2,92tee oni oS aoeses fee O Send oe eo 6
Tyndale, Gen. Hector, trusteo of Tyndall fund. .-....<.-..2:2:.2550<22c-cccc-e. 105
Tyndall, Prof. John, letter to Professor Henry relative to trust for promotion of
Beience in United Statesd=:.52s2csos.. 2 aos eo eee. = 2s 104
deed of trust for promotion of science in the United States. 86, 104
nderproundsremperatures: oss 566.5. >a2 25-5. ade cat See ates. coe 40
Unity of structure in organized beings, Ampére on.....-...----- .------------- 147
rans, erpibjotmby.brof., Ss Newconib..=. 35825-2252 se. 4b. aoe <2 oreo oo: 24
Virginia stock, statement relative to.............--. I iy tye 19,74, 84
Mocabularies otelndiank tribess-25 -252.4-5-... 25 -eis w eeeos. oco hoes oe: 26
Waldrum, W. H., remains in Caddo Parish, Louisiana...........-.......-..--- 428

Wampum, history of 379

456 INDEX.

Page.
Ward, Prof. H. A., presentation of fossil casts by ..----------.--.--.----..----. 78
Warner, Jared, account of big elephant mound in Wisconsin......-------.---- 416
Washington City, account of prehistoric remains found in..--....------------ 480
Washington, pistols of, bequeathed to Institution--...-----.--..--------------- 41
Washington, report on claim for portrait of........--..----.------------------ 81, 82
WEEP ee ORO S o 36550 GeSSa0 CoSe55 Seeded Sdene oscean oShooS cescocosHede 37
Western Union Telegraph Company, free telegrams of astronomical discoveries. 82
Wheeler, Lieutenant, valuable collection from...--.....-.-.-.-----------.----- 45
WandstofethelolobediscussioniOfe camer ai elsere alae seer eee erator eet telat ral 38
Wing, Hon. R., valuable collections from. ..---.---.-.----.----.-------------- 46
Weikoff, Dr. A. J., meteorology in Russia...-..-..-.-.---.-----.-------------- 267
Wood, Dr: Horatio C., on fresh) water aloce\.- 222. - =... es-eem eee oe a) 22
Worcester, free institute of science, Peabody’s address.....-..--.-------------- 185
Work done in the Institution and in connection with cther establishments. - - --- 30
Youmans, Dr. E. L., trustee of Tyndall fund......--....-- Faces oe ee ee rice 105

Young, Clarence B., bookkeeper of the Institution. -...--- Ne nega oe ease ce nee oe 6

a Ny et sy

- if i iw) ie Nwe

y AM :
ETE tee iA
Lon Poe y ;

Re ee

renin

f
on |

ee ay a ie
} ie ia ravi ie

iy
ns Ty
yi

Ti mi

ity

i on iy |
i i vf! i 7 '

es ae pias
Nee PW i i 1h ah
1 J My
fi j

+ Mae

=

s . Py 8
1 ‘ i ~

ri nw x
4% a i * { . i oy
i 4% \ ; : VLR en 5 2 i

, Q sia , _

4 any o b ) we )

ath as ' , )3 H BR . + 5
" \ ‘ ‘ * 5 \ \ ‘ 5

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES

wil

3 9088 01421 6311 VR PUA ey Nee ae cs

| . 5 i } 4 a
AAS Sy 4 ‘ .
, ‘ sy ay ) ) 1 ‘
ag Vb Hoh . Pin f ; «
‘ 4 ‘ \ ' .
‘ cA YA , is
( ey, ‘ SAS 1 1 d i y
4 \ x eM { r
‘ A t\h\ ‘ :
, i 4 ‘ Aa t Wi) . p
é 1 ‘ rey
‘s ‘ £ ft . { 4
5 ‘ A tn " C ; Wy, s é x N oe
‘ earns 1 ‘ yy hs ,
. . s ‘ { a ‘ \ ‘
5 { 4
j ‘ ‘ 4 ‘
‘ , { ‘
r } 1 4
pf) 4 ) f4\ ¢
} ) H
: \ “he
} : } POA \ : }
5 ) 0
5 yy
i
o
7