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ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
ier hin ab niG HN Ls
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION
OF THE INSTITUTION
aes aX EAE, eS Bae
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
188 3.
IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES,
June 20, 1882.
The following resolution was agreed to by the Senate May 16, 1882, and concurred
in by the House of Representatives June 20, 1882:
Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concurring), That fifteen thousand
five hundred and sixty copies of the Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the
year 1281 be printed; two thousand five hundred copies of which shall be for the use
of the Senate, six thousand and sixty copies for the use of the House of Representa-
tives, and seyen thousand copies for the use of the Smithsonian Institution.
Attest :
FRANCIS E. SHOBER,
Acting Secretary.
ie er hh R
SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
The annual report of the Board of Regents of that Institution for the year
1881.
May 16, 1882.—Ordered to be printed.
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, March 1, 1882.
GENTLEMEN: In behalf of the Board of Regents, I have the honor
to submit to the Congress of the United States the annual report of the
operations, expenditures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution
for the year 1881.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
Hon. DAvID DAVIS,
President of the United States Senate, and
Hon. J. WARREN KEIFER,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.
HI
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR
THE YEAR 1881.
SUBJECTS.
1. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the session of January,
1882.
2. Annual report of the Secretary, giving an account of the operations
and condition of the Institution for the year 1881, with the statistics of
collections, exchanges, We.
3. Report of the Executive Committee, exhibiting the financial affairs
of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, the re-
ceipts and expenditures for the year 1881, and the estimates for 1882.
4, General appendix, comprising a record of recent progress in the
principal departments of science, and special memoirs, original and
selected, of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Institu-
tion, teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge.
IV
CONTENTS.
Page
Resolution of Congress to print extra copies of the Report ..---.-..---------- ii
Letter from the Secretary, submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to
CCTs Ste Re a Oe SS En aes See eet Eola ialc\ sa sleiee Na loisis Sale =/ciele lil
General subjects of the Annual Report ..---.----.----- .----+- -----------+----- iv
(GOTH ETON HS) COLE UHLDKEN LENE COV US ee ah ers RO le ee acho SoS saeeracio eso Soe esase Ni
Regents of the Smithsonian Institution ...--....--.-------------------++--+-- vili
JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS......---.------------- ix
Members ex-officio of the ‘‘ Establishment,” and Regents of the Institution... xv
Officers and assistants of the Institution, and of the National Museum.....--- xvi
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
4 Metre) VO Os SSYOINBONIN? J DNIGIB ELUNE COIN Ses eones pono euoe eee oSbo baOCCoDomocS GoUDoE vooe 1
TIME CUBITT 6 ot Seok eS Oene geo Seo Cbd Gna gan dactod Sar cor EDSON SRS e SUC EOO SSS if
The President’s Inaugural Reception, March 4, 1881 .................. 1
Death of General Garfield, September 19, 1881 ..........-...........- 3
New Recents of therinshiiutlOme. sp cmsee ee erie eae ee em 4
Services of Hon. Hannibal Hamlin ..-----..-.----.------------------ 5
Meetings of the Members of the ‘‘ Establishment” ...-...----.-.--------- 5
Andon he DOALGsOlsRe CCN Ss sas een eee see seeks lee wlaie) cleealeleloietlelatal= a 6
ANG sli Ste sooo Hee pa56 baocsooouD scenes cadaoemaoeoos Baeags cones 6
. DINING Ss Boo ea GE ReaD Te Aa RO OOS BE Gabe pee O TEU O EO DEO CSS SSniCsce Seer 7
Condition of; thesfund,;Jannany, (S82e5- 22s. cae aal- eee oie ee a 8
Bnilobuieigs| Bee So ohh ance donde cee A eiae obopEon peeceosoeEe | Scere ssascos 9
Siem Aivsyonone sy joven Gobinytes es eee eonesog capone cone odbscodosd as05¢ 9
Na iCMeN AM bret in WewNbhave) 2 Bee Ge So eho Gasenode be ahos coneco eases 10
ATTRA, OMNIA aOR Sa Rego Bocee noQDnOUS Bone Jogbes Sase sade 12
Ibo Oe INR IELTS Goe sociseha coecab pseede debce Jeoaeooce ne: 12
Tednpogmu sven, Moree Orb aac) Lbs OA NNO 6 Soee doe coc oa aobebeS USO. cONoOnE Coo robscor 13
AGT RRATHOIA 355 55558 Seascad doaeen ods pococtionoboacous Bucboscdsde 13
(CONKESPOMCONGe me = see as erases eee ee peeieia aes eee a lolale = eniefm mim 13
Whos abou wo wyaeeeeeeae ete sata sioa ainie osiate iets iniae ara seiaeinint= ala iol nani 14
Researches and Hxplorations -2- 2 ~~~ <2 oe <n nee an See ee == wen as 15
Ri rence 2 Seen GEOR Soe I On CBRE COS OO BUSn0 UO SCOS IE DOODOC RAIS pe oar ae 24
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge ....-.---------.----- -------- 25
AL dein anoubd Solis ass Rees OA Fee Coo dena cbb oe eo sUeorecsbec 25
lee ILO Ans soe beh ees Sono ance DOC DOuEE od odo baseee scesoce 26
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections ..---.----.2----.-------------- 26
PWenbleLMnVOlUMe sees eric omee see eee ee a am iSie aie els) snloiaie ainiml swim sia~ 27
Twenty-first volume .....- 2.2.2. 2.0 -- ene woos woe e eee eee 000 === 27
Check-list of Smithsonian publications ...........----...-------- 27
Bulletins'ot the National’ Museum o---2=-- 2 3-25.22. a eae
Proceedings of the National Museum ....-..-.--.----.----.+----- 27
Smibhsonlan Annuals ROpOLt ss. -s sue aces cose nlcsee caesar amine ance 23
Contentsior meporh tOn CeO ccna ae a saw cnl acces enone son)= n=l 28
VI CONTENTS.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY—Continued.
Astronomical announcements by telegraph......--- ---- -22- 22. -eeee- oe
JONES aa de eS SSS a on cooS Cee Sco Dny [on cues Saba socosqeesdiceas aces Sado c- fe
International exchanges.---.-.--...<-- Hedeaecosueneidssbasosc Sob eebc
Government exchanges.. .-. wee eee ene eee eens cence eee eee cee
Dishhibulonsess eee eee eee eee cee Boca HO SaNe CHa ao Sono Géae S656
Distrbunlonmohf pubhcavionetesaseee— tees eee eee eee eee
Distribution of specimens ..---.-.-.- FS HIC SEDO CORO Rone cous cborcok
IOWA, GAgaSo Saco coos ado bes pode Seoe seco! coddlocecaseted cokh cess sabetocc
AC GiblOns TOR tHe Wealan ee =e aaa eee ee eee = ine ele se ete teme see eee etna
INPUT Lue, WU QUISTORO AE Se os Soo ss ane cecces conbon cosdEs HoOgS0 OobecE HodeSS Sosoag¢
[OVERS CORE YaWs) GNIS WNIN WH Se Sh oce Sh Seco co ceo bsoeTs chose lessenose
MECC Peon a sea boeSSe posed bestoSh55000 56 Seocet osese
Special contributions -<-- 2.22222. 252. ose ke ate See error errs
IPCI OVC) ON JOPUEES MOEN os a S-5 aocscocsen once cansocoscac BPE Ee Hse Baas Sua
CO-OPERATION WITH OTHER ESTABLISHMENTS. ..---- 25. ------ sacce Be cieeee ne
Pacitic Mail Steamship Company 222... 4-noscmee poets ee ee ee ere
Corcoran Galleryiot Antis-- cea eecersep cae sae eae eso ad Goes cagsud Gsesas babe 5
AER bare ID ey MANE Go 5665 soon e noose sens csens cosasd bec ssa cosets sobssc
Coastyand' Geodetic Survey eacs== so sac eee ooeieneece ieee le eeeeaieet=
IGNATIUS IRON SOE NRL cess scaoea soca sewsse Sone dosea5 soon gases Ssondéd snea ¢
IMIS CISL ARDDOWS) cadens sbon cosaeoeseo See csh coda pnbobeC SC oauoedoes eoc0sme sbacss
ING CROC Aye 58 S54 sd dese bo eae Censcbesho onSOoh ode abo dane coueoE coOnSe dood
International Exhibitions; (Ace. oso ecte nasi oreo etn oe seer erepeeies
Congress/of Americanists a. --4 cos 4-1 Lore fof Sialele ovate are otal tet are cEat eet
Ceosraphicali@ onoressiee a saeeere eee eee eee Secomcisceeeoeet
External relations of the Smithsonian Institution............. wEeet aeenee
UNCED STATES Bis: COMMISSION <c-cec-54==6 oes cece sce eee eae ee eee
Generaliobjecisand results se -ee> ee cease eee sweeseeenee be
Pish hatchine. sh. acc Set eabsie tee ee uies eae chee a eise meee ser eee
Mishtdistribubion'ss so 2. sekbeteaee tae eee estes Sees eee ero eee
Fisheries! Census. ets ceasemice ce cele nuse moles eee eee eee Eee eee eee
APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY .--..----.----- CORIEDU DESH OSE OSE
Report on the operations of Exchanges for 1881 -....--.....-2-.---.------
I. Roreionshexchanges S22. Gens tice selec edaa cise sear sere eee ye eats
Centeéersof:Distribmbionie sa seer ee cere eee eee eee eee eeeee
Shipping Agents of the Institution ...-- aieisieeicieS edicts SIA Ines eye tees
Receipt and distribution/of “Mxchanges 5---)2252 220 2-n esse reese
AMOUM trans MiGhed abroad MSS nese see eee eee eee
2. Domestic;Exchanges 52.22.25 os. en eee ech see oats eee
Receipiamasdis trio wiblow ime Slee ey eae ee
3. Exchange of Government documents... . 22220. 22.--2-4.--426 s2c0
List of Government documents distributed in 1881 ......-.....-..
Report of Assistant Director of the U. S. National Museum for 1881.....-.
Periods in the history, of ‘the Museum 22.205. 2520. a seee eee
Plan-of ‘organization’... 223.0 Uo S2e. ad See ea
Museum Library sc8e3 osteo sem cece eee nee ae eee
Wrorkioftthe -Breparatonsis cs soe bee ase eee eee ee
Details ofgadmimiis hie tl Omi eset pase ee ee ye eee ee ee
Departments ofthe Curators esse se eee eee eee eee
Appendix A. List of officers of the Museum for 1881 ......--..
Appendix B. Bibhography of Museum work for 1881... .-....
Appendix C. List of contributors to the Museum for 1881. -.-..
Report of the Chemist: 320068 te i wee aa a a
ae)
Pe
03
®
Go 0) 0
of @
ae)
©
CONTENTS.
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE for the year 1881 .... .......-....---.
Condition of the fands January 1, 1662. << occ Sn Hoke ea wcas paste tsrese~ ne
Recep tsetonUhenyeale ars asse teat ea cloe coos he Saisie aioe ance eieiscmee see
PESO N TES OR GOI ORT cas aeeae cS eco Ge sae dtisce) pedis erent cceise tn to os
BISPIMOLES MOL ONO RY Gata COe sae nee) ate ee enna oe ome ene yee otepen Slem Satori
National Museum appropriations by Congress ..---....--..----..---------
Appropriations for Ethnology, and for Exchanges ...--........----:------
REPORT OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM BUILDING COMMISSION for 1881.-....-----
Iteport of the Architects of the National Museum building for 1881 ....---
ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS relative to the Smithsonian Institution
and National Museums: sso hac ss a ccicie cise cise = = te me wetceicecels te te seleesieiss coe =
GENERAL APPENDIX.
RECORD: OF RECENT SCINNTINIC PROGRESS ccc as socccee seeeee eneceacccce-
IMoLOGUCHON ND YiO, Mee Dainese ieee mas hetero] ener atiacciercta eens seca
ASTRONOMY s DVL iS etlOlGOD sclera sinc sae al aaeisins Sacer cites eee aeeicemece saee
Meteorolory, etc:, by Cleveland Abber= 25. --cs2osssses goes ee eee coe
Physicsabva Gul bal kerr sae setts a Seca sa ase eae eaers ete eee
Chemisiny, by Gob Barker, jo45-\s-cees) oace ene See eiee Satin cnecineedels seer
BotanyarDye wn arallowi seme suscets secs te acileadones ameinceteieceens
HOOD Ya LN COOL Gl sce sset ame eee ie eae encase ees eee eee
Anthro polosy, bys Ose Masinccke ooanss Sa. cece e ass eee pects
1 SS TCIM MONIT O WIE ONBOISS) 3A 6 ooocnsaSacus sobaas baoSue osUcueSereouosaso+
Miscellaneous papers relating to Anthropology ......---..--.-..-----...-
Abstracts from Anthropological correspondence .......--.---..----------
Tackahoejor indian bread, by.J. Howard Gores- 22 sess > oe essence so =
History of the Smithsonian system of Exchanges, by George H. Boehmer.
INDEX COVUNENVONUIMNG 52 ssslnacieee.occcciet aansbeeeeesane Selse catecemeccesGeceescs
REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
By the organizing act approved August 10, 1846, Revised Statutes,
title Ixxiii, section 5580, “‘ The business of the Institution shall be con-
ducted at the city of Washington by a Board of Regents, named the
Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, to be composed of the Vice-
President, the Chief Justice of the United States, [and the Governor of
the District of Columbia,] three members of the Senate, and three mem-
bers of the House of Representatives, together with six other persons,
other than members of Congress, two of whom shall be resident in the
city of Washington, and the other four shall be inhabitants of some
State, but no two of them of the same State.”
REGENTS FOR THE YEAR 1881.
Term expires.
The Vice-President :
VEE VANT PAC n VV EER EB eas soe tee eee ate rele ofentatssteiea siajetaiate\etaretatatat= Mar. 4, 1881
CHESTER A. ARTHUR (became President) ....-. .------------------ Sept. 19, 1881
DAVID -DAVAS! (p10 tem.) = scm cer aec ees ce eeee onealomle=arlemmalan sao Mar. 4, 1883
The Chief Justice, MORRISON R. WAITE.
United States Senators:
GEORGE F.. HOAR (from Feb. 21, 1881) ..-. 2. 2.2. eo e-- cnewne -0-- ---- Mar. 4, 1883
NARHANTHE 2.) Finn) romp ayal Oe GSl)) lest cceetesistelsie ets tetaatela) enters Mar. 4, 1885
SAAMI NDS MuAK ye Grom May 19 oi SS)) Nese ecletaeteiae le sc) aelale tele alalele ie Mar. 4, 1887
Members of the House of Representatives:
IDTES TER OLYIMER \oc:cciouh ela rele ears ste mates ela tee maton nletaeene een seers Dec. 28, 1881
JANES ZASIGARETEILD 122 aise cise sce eete ears eRe ele eee iaecemereeioe Dec. 28, 1881
Aosioleise JA Mov abe fsbo oe CSpot ooeee roo sno Haciacersho nebo ctacquooecabe Dec. 28, 1881
Citizens of Washington:
PATER PARKER (appoitedin 1868) ieseae nesses eee ciee ee eiee ae Dec. 19, 1885
WILLIAM DT. SHERMAN (appointed in 187)\esae ese ceeeice ee sei Mar. 25, 1885
Citizens of a State:
JOHN MACLEAN, of New Jersey (appointed in 1868)...-...-----.-..- Dec. 19, 1885
Asa GRAY, of Massachusetts (appointed in 1874) .............-.--- ~Dec. 19, 1885
HENRY Corpse, of Pennsylvania (appointed in 1874)....-.-.-...---Dec. 19, 1885
Noau Porter, of Connecticut (appointed in 1878)....-....-.--.--- Jan. 26, 1884
Morrison R. Waite, Chancellor of the Institution and President of the Board of .
Regents.
VIIl
JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
WASHINGTON, D. C., January 18, 1882,
The annual meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian In-
stitution was held this day at 10 o’clock a. m., in the Regent’s room.
Present: The Chancellor—Chief Justice Waite, Hon. Geo. F. Hoar,
Hon. N. P. Hill, Hon. 8.:B. Maxey, Hon. N. C. Deering, Hon. E. B.
Taylor, Hon. S. S. Cox, Rey. Dr. John Maclean, Hon. Peter Parker, Dr.
Asa Gray, Dr. Henry Coppée, General Wm. T. Sherman, Dr. Noah Por-
ter, and the Secretary, Prof. 8S. F. Baird.
The Chancellor made the following announcement relative to the ap-
pointment of members of the Board:
On the 21st of February, 1881, the Vice-President (Mr. WHEELER)
appointed Hon. G. F. HoAR as Regent, vice Hon. H. Hamlin, resigned.
On the 19th of May, 1881, the Vice-President (Mr. ARTHUR) ap-
pointed Hon. S. B. MAxry, of Texas, and Hon. N. P. HILu, of Colorado,
Regents, vice Hon. Rk. 8. Withers and Hon. N. Booth, whose terms had
expired.
On the 9th of January, 1882, the Speaker of the House (Mr. Keifer)
appointed as Regents tor the term of the 47th Congress, Hon. N. C.
DEERING, of Iowa, Hon. E. B. TAYLOR, of Ohio, and Hon. 8.8. Cox, of
New York.
The Chancellor called the attention of the Board to the death of Presi-
dent GARFIELD, ez officio presiding officer of the Institution, and for
many years one of its Regents.
On motion of Dr. Gray it was—
Resolved, That the Chancellor be requested to enter upon the record
an expression of the sense of the great loss which the Institution has
sustained by the death of one of its most devoted and distinguished
administrators.
In compliance with the foregoing resolution, the Chancellor presented
the following memorial notice :
General Garfield first took his seat in Congress at the end of the
year 1863. He was then but thirty-six years old.
At the beginning of his second term he was appointed a member of
this Board by the Speaker of the House of Representatives, and was
present at the meeting of February 3, 1866. He continued to hold the
IX
x JOURNAL OF THE BOARD.
same position until 1875, when another was appointed in his place. He
appeared again, however, in 1877, and we were never afterwards de-
prived of his counsels until he was elected President of the United
States, which made him ex officio the presiding officer of the Smithso-
nian Institution.
From the beginning his presence here was felt. He was eminently
fitted for such a trust.
He was himself a scholar, and the ‘ inerease and diffusion of knowl-
edge among men” always gave him the greatest pleasure.
At every meeting of the Board during his successive terms when he
could be present, his hame appears among the active and thoughtful
members. He manifested his appreciation of the place he filled by
always doing what it was his privilege to do, and doing it well. When
on former occasions the Board has given expression to its feelings upon
the death of a member his words of heartfelt sympathy have often been
heard. The records show that he knew and appreciated the great and
good qualities of Chief Justice Chase, and that he fully realized the
debt science owed to Agassiz. But the crowning act of all was when,
out of the fullness of his heart, at the memorial services in the hall of
the House of Representatives, he made those who heard him feel how
great the life of Professor Henry had been.
It is not for us to say he ought to have been spared longer. Few
men seemed to possess greater power for good. He died as he lived, an
honor to human nature.
The Secretary presented an exhibit of the finances of the Institution,
showing the condition of the permanent fund, the receipts and expend-
itures for the year 1881.
Dr. Parker presented the annual report of the Executive Committee,
which was read.
On motion of Dr. Gray, it was—
Resolved, That the report of the Executive Committee for 1881 be ac-
cepted.
Resolved, That the income for the year 1882 be appropriated for the
service of the Institution upon the basis of the above report, to be ex-
pended by thé Secretary with full discretion as to the items, subject to
the approval of the Executive Committee.
General Sherman presented the report of the National Museum Build-
ing Commission for 1881, with the report of the architects, which were
read.
On motion of Dr. Coppée, it was—
Resolved, That the report be accepted and the Commission be dis-
charged, with the thanks of the Board for the able and satisfactory man-
ner in which it had discharged its duties.
On motion of Dr. Parker, it was—
Resolved, That, in accordance with the recommendation of the National
Museum Building Commission, the thanks of the Board of Regents of
JOURNAL OF THE BOARD. XI
the Smithsonian Institution are hereby tendered to General M. C.
MEIGS, Quartermaster-General United States Army, for his highly val-
ued services as consulting engineer of the National Museum Building
Commission, in connection with the duty with which the Commission
was charged by the Board in the construction of a fire-proof building
for the United States National Museum.
Dr. Gray presented the following report of the Special Committee to
prepare the Henry Memorial Volume:
To the BOARD OF REGENTS:
GENTLEMEN: The Special Committee of the Board of Regents ap-
pointed to prepare for publication a volume of suitable notices and ad-
dresses commemorative of the late Professor Henry, have the honor to
present the following report:
At a meeting of the Board of Regents held January 17, 1879, it was—
** Resolved, That a special committee of three be appointed, of which
the Secretary of the Institution shall be one, to prepare a memorial of
Protessor Henry, to include in a separate volume of the Smithsonian
series such biographies and notices of the late Secretary of the Institution
as may be considered by them worthy of preservation and publication ;”
whereupon the Chancellor appointed Messrs. Gray, Parker, and Baird
as the committee. \
On the 6th of February, 1879, a concurrent resolution was adopted
by Congress to print 15,000 copies of the Memorial Exercises in honor
of Professor Henry, held in the hall of the House of Representatives on
the 16th of January, 1879, in a memorial volume, together with such
articles as may be furnished by the Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution, 7,000 copies of which were for the use of the House
of Representatives, 3,000 copies for the use of the Senate, and 5,000
copies for the use of the Smithsonian Institution.
These two proceedings thus covered substantially the same ground.
In accordance with its instructions your committee has prepared a
memorial volume, prefaced with a brief account of the proceedings in
Congress relative to a public commemoration by services in the hall of
the House of Representatives, and consisting of three parts, viz:
Part 1. The Obsequies of Joseph Henry and the proceedings con-
nected therewith.
Part 2. The Memorial Exercises and Addresses at the Capitol, on the
evening of January 16, 1879.
Part 3. A collection of proceedings by, and addresses before, some of
the principal societies in this country with which Professor Henry had
been connected.
An appendix of four pages contains an account of the proceedings in
Congress ordering the erection of a bronze statue of the distinguished
subject of our memorial.
The whole forms an octavo volume of 532 pages, which has been pub-
lished as vol. 21 of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.
XI JOURNAL OF THE BOARD.
This work has also been published by Congress in a royal-octavo
volume, and has been widely distributed during the present year.
Respectfully submitted.
ASA GRAY,
Chairman of the Committee.
On motion of Dr. Maclean, it was—
Resolved, That the report be accepted, and the thanks of the Board
tendered to the Committee for the satisfactory manner in which the duty
devolved upon them had been discharged.
General Sherman, from the Executive Committee, presented the fol-
lowing report:
To the BOARD OF REGENTS:
GENTLEMEN: The Executive Committee, having had its attention
called by the Secretary to the combustible nature and insecure condi-
tion of the eastern portion of the Smithsonian building, together with
its want of adaptability to the purposes of the Institution, has decided
to recommend that measures be taken to substitute fire-proof materials
for the present wood and plaster partitions of the apartments.
Messrs. Cluss & Schultze, architects, have presented plans for this
purpose, which, without materially changing the general architecture
of the building, will provide largely increased accommodations for the
offices and working rooms, the storage of publications, exchange depart-
ment, &e.
The Committee, therefore, after due consideration of the subject,
recommends to the Board of Regents the adoption of the following
resolution:
Resolved, That the Secretary and Executive Committee present to
Congress plans and estimates for rendering the east wing of the Smith-
sonian building fire-proof, to request an appropriation therefor, and, if
the means are furnished, to proceed with the work.
PETER PARKER.
JOHN MACLEAN.
WILLIAM T. SHERMAN.
The resolution was unanimously adopted.
The Secretary called attention to the approaching annual meeting of
the National Academy of Sciences, and requested instructions as to
granting the use of a hall in the new museum for its sessions and those
of similar scientific bodies.
On motion of Dr. Gray, it was—
Kesolved, That the Secretary be authorized to provide, in the building
of the National Museum, such accommodation as the National Academy
of Sciences may need at its meetings in Washington, and which may
be afforded without inconvenience to the establishment; also, that the
JOURNAL OF THE BOARD. XII
Secretary, under the sanction of the Executive Committee, may extend
similar hospitality to other organizations or meetings of cognate char-
acter and importance.
General Sherman, in behalf of the Executive Committee, presented
the following report:
To the BOARD OF REGENTS:
GENTLEMEN: The Board, at its last meeting, January, 1881, antici-
pating that the statue of Professor Henry, by Mr. Story, might be re-
ceived during its recess, ordered that the site for the statue should be
selected by the Executive Committee.
The artist has informed the Secretary of the Institution that the
statue will be finished in January or February, and has requested him
to order the pedestal according to a design he has furnished himself.
This is to consist of a die of Red Beach granite, finely polished,
octagonal in shape, 4 feet diameter, 4 feet high, the whole height of
pedestal, with cap and bases of gray Quincy g ane, to be 7 feet 3 inches.
A contract has been made with the Quincy Granite Polishing Works,
at Quincy, Mass., to furnish this pedestal on the Smithsonian SNOUEEUS
within three months, for $982.
At a full meeting of the Committee on Monday, January 16, 1882,
after inspection of a plan of the Smithsonian grounds, and a visit to
each of the sites that had been suggested as appropriate for the purpose,
it was decided to make the following recommendations to the Board:
The Committee is inclined to select the triangular plot to the north-
west of the Smithsonian building, the statue to face toward the south.
Itis deemed advisable, however, to submit this suggestion, together with
a plan of the Smithsonian grounds, to the artist, Mr. Story, and to await
his opinion before making a final selection of the site.
The Committee recommends that the words “JOSEPH HENRY” be
placed in raised block letters on the front of the die, and on the reverse
“First Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1846—1878,” and noth-
ing else whatever.
In respect to the site and inscription the Committee desires that the
Board should assume the responsibility of the decision.
The Committee further recommends that the Chancellor of the Institu-
tion be requested to perform the ceremony of unveiling the statue with
appropriate remarks, and that an address be delivered on the occasion
by Hon. Hiester Clymer.
Respectfully submitted.
PETER PARKER.
JOHN MACLEAN.
WILLIAM T. SHERMAN.
Upon a full consideration of the subject, the Regents expressed their
approval of the site preferred by the Executive Committee, and, on
motion of Dr. Coppée, it was—
EV: JOURNAL OF THE BOARD.
Resolved, That the Executive Committee have full power as to the
site and position of the statue.
In regard to the inscription, after consideration, it was, on motion of
Dr. Maclean, unanimously—
Resolved, That the inscription on the pedestal of the statue consist
of the name ‘“ Joseph Henry.”
After consideration of the subject of the ceremonies to be observed
at the unveiling of the statue, on motion of Dr. Porter, it was—
Resolved, That the Executive Committee be authorized to take such
action in regard to the erection of the statue as it may think best.
The Secretary presented the annual report of the operations of the
Institution for the year 1881.
On motion of Dr. Coppée, it was—
Resolved, That the report of the Secretary be referred to the Execu-
tive Committee, with authority to transmit it to Congress.
On motion, the Board then adjourned sine die.
Pe SMELESONIAN INSTITUTION.
MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE “ESTABLISHMENT.”*
(January 1, 1882.)
CHESTER A. ARTHUR, President of the United States.
DAVID DAVIS, President of the United States Senate.
MORRISON R. WAITE, Chief Jasiice of the United States.
FREDERICK T. FRELINGHUYSEN, Secretary of State.
CHARLES J. FOLGER, Secretary of the Treasury.
ROBERT T.- LINCOLN, Secretary of War.
WILLIAM H. HUNT, Secretary of the Navy.
TIMOTHY O. HOWE, Postmaster-General.
SAMUEL J. KIRI WOOD, Secretary of the Interior,
BENJAMIN H. BREWSTER, Attorney-General.
EDGAR M. MARBLE, Cominissioner of Patents.
REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION.
(January 1, 182.)
MORRISON R. WAITE, Chief Justice of the United States,
President of the Board.
DAVID DAVIS, President of the United States Senate.
GEORGE F. HOAR, member of the Senate of the United States.
NATHANIEL P. HILL, member of the Senate of the United States.
SAMUEL B. MAXEY, member of the Senate of the United States.
NATHANIEL C. DEERING, member of the House of Representatives.
EZRA B. TAYLOR, member of the House of Representatives.
SAMUEL S. COX, member of the House of Representatives.
JOHN MACLEAN, citizen of New Jersey.
PETER PARKER, citizen of Washington, D. C.
ASA GRAY, citizen of Massachusetts.
HENRY COPPER, citizen of Pennsylvania.
WILLIAM T. SHERMAN, citizen of Washington, D. C.
NOAH PORTER, citizen of Connecticut.
Executive Commitiee of the Board of Regents.
PETER PARKER. JOHN MACLEAN. WILLIAM T. SHERMAN.
*The year 1881 has been an exceptional one in the number of changes oc-
curring in the ‘‘ Establishment.” The President of the United States from January
1, 1881, to March 4, was RurHERFORD B. Hayes; from March 4 to September 19,
JAMES A. GARFIELD, and from September 19 to December 31, CHESTER A. ARTHUR.
The Vice-Presidents were similarly WILLIAM A. WHEELER, CHESTER A. ARTHUR, and
Davib Davis. The members of the Cabinet in like manner were all changed during
the year.
2.0)",
OFFICERS AND ASSISTANTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTI-
TUTION AND NATIONAL MUSEUM, JANUARY, 1882.
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary, Director of the Institution.
WILLIAM J. RHEES, Chief Clerk.
DANIEL LEECH, ‘Corresponding Clerk.
NATIONAL MUSEUM.
SPENCER F. BAIRD, Director.
G. BROWN GOODE, Assistant Direcior, Curaior, Department of Art and Industry.
WM. H. DALL, Honorary Curator, Department of Conchology.
ROBERT RIDGWAY, Curator, Department of Ornithology.
CHARLES RAU, Curator, Department of Archeology.
TARLETON H. BEAN, Curator, Department of Ichthyology.
HENRY C. YARROW, Honorary Curator, Department of Herpetology.
CHARLES A. WHITE, Curator, Department of Invertebrate Paleontology.
GEORGE W. HAWES, Curator, Department of Geology.
JAMES M. FLINT, Honorary Curator, Department of Materia Medica.
RICHARD RATHBUN, Curator, Departinent Marine Invertebrates.
EDW. FOREMAN, Assistant, Department of Ethnography.
PRED. W. TRUE, Curator, Department of Mammals, and Librarian.
FRED. W. TAYLOR, Chemist.
GEO. P. MERRILL, did, Department of Mineralogy.
WM. 8S. YEATES, Aid, Department of Mineralogy.
XVI
REPORT OF PROFESSOR BAIRD,
SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, FOR 1881.
To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution :
GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to present herewith a report of the
operations and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year
1881.
As heretofore, in addition to matters pertaining strictly to the Smith-
sonian Institution, I give an account of the operations of the National
Museum and of the Bureau of Ethnology, which by Congress have been
placed under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, as also of
those of the United States Fish Commission, of which your secretary is
the chief officer.
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
INTRODUCTORY.
The operations of the Smithsonian Institution, in their various sub-
divisions, have been conducted during the year with the usual success,
and, [ trust, to the satisfaction of all interested.
While, as will be seen, the scale and magnitude of the work accom-
plished have in many cases been greatly increased in comparison with
the work of previous years, at the same time, by a more thorough or-
ganization and the increasing efficiency of assistants by long experi-
ence, the expenditures have not been augmented. Indeed, in no
previous year of the history of the Institution have the funds shown a
better condition at the close of the calendar year.
The work of the department of exchanges has never been so eee
while the explorations and researches that have been prosecuted have
been of very great interest and importance.
The new organization of the National Museum has been successfully
established, and it is now in satisfactory working order. The Ethno-
logical Bureau, under the charge of Major Powell, has accomplished a
great deal towards the solution of interesting problems connected with
the science of anthropology, and the labors of the Fish Commission have
largely increased in extent as well as in economical importance.
The President’s Inaugural Reception, March 4, 1881.—The anticipation
of the completion of the new building of the National Museum by the 4th
8, Mis. 109-——1
2 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
of March, 1881, naturally suggested the idea of using it for the inaugural
reception of the incoming President, and a formal application was
made to your honorable body for the privilege. At a meeting called in
December, 1880, to consider this subject, it was decided to grant the
use of the building for the purpose in question, with the distinct pro-
viso, however, that this was not to establish a precedent for its use for
similar purposes hereafter. At the time the building was substantially
completed and unoccupied by the Institution for its intended purposes.
All that remained to fit it for the object desired by the committee of
citizens was the construction of floors in the four main halls and in the
rotunda, and the special fittings and embellishments required for the re-
ception. While the other ftoors were to be of wood, these were to be
laid in concrete, and the work was deferred until the building could be
cleared of its seaffolding and other obstructions.
Considerable dissatisfaction, however, was expressed at the idea of
using concrete for the great floor, and it was decided to refer the matter
to Congress, with a view of obtaining, if possible, an appropriation to
meet the additional cost of marble and encaustic tiles. As such an
appropriation could not be obtained in time for service in connection
with the reception, it was determined by the citizens’ committee to lay
a strong, although temporary, floor in these five rooms, so that the
entire ground level of the building could be available. One of the
seventeen rooms, containing at the time plaster casts of fishes, was
boarded up and acorrodl The remainder of the building, without any
restriction, was given up to the committee, in accordance with the
direction of the Board of Regents.
The Institution made such permanent fittings in the building as were
contemplated in the plan, namely, the introduction of electrical wires
for the purpose of working time- and watch-clocks, telephones, tele-
graphs, signals, ete.; the completion of the fitting up of the reception
and retiring rooms for gentlemen and ladies, etc.; while the citizens’
committee, on its part, in addition to the laying of the temporary floors,
erected about ten thousand bins for the reception of hats, coats, and
wraps for the visitors, and introduced some three thousand gas-burners,
supplied by pipes of suitable size.
The decorations prepared by the committee consisted of a colossal
statue of Liberty, erected in the rotunda, a series of emblematical and
allegorical shields, monograms of the President and Vice-President, and
miles of festooning suspended from the roof.
The reception, which, of course, took place on the night of the 4th
of March, was a great success, being attended by about seven thousand
persons. The occasion was extremely brilliant. Two powerful elec-
trie lights were suspended in the rotunda, and several were erected
outside, where they were supplemented by a large number of calcium
lights, placed in different parts of the grounds.
As there was no room in the building for supplying refreshments, a
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3
temporary edifice was erected, the entrance to which was made through
the eastern doorway.
In the anticipation of a possible failure of the receipts to meet the
outlays, the committee asked and obtained permission to give a prome-
nade concert on the following night, which was also largely attended,
and the results of the two evenings were entirely satisfactory, enough
money having been taken in to pay all expenses, and to relieve a num-
ber of persons from their responsibility who had guaranteed the nec-
essary funds for the occasion.
Numerous applications were received from various organizations,
civil and military, for the use of the room during the inauguration
week, but, in accordance with the instructions of the board, these were
refused,
Death of General Garfield._In the last report (for 1880) was men-
tioned as one of the most noteworthy events of the year the elevation
of an honored Regent of the Institution, General JAMES A. GARFIELD,
to the highest position in our National Government. Little, indeed,
could it then be anticipated that an administration soon to be inaug-
urated with more than the usual tokens of good will and general satis-
faction would, within six months, be suddenly closed under peculiarly
grievous circumstances. In the present report we have the painful
task of recording the death of the President by a murder most atro-
cious and unprovoked. Mortally wounded by the bullet of an assassin
on the 2d of July, 1881, he lingered through suffering borne with he-
roic fortitude for two and a half months, breathing his last on the 19th
of September.
Eminent for his abilities as a scholar, an orator, and a statesman,
distinguished by his dignified and gracious bearing no less than by his
prudence and solid judgment, he found time to give a large share of bis
attention to the meetings and consultations of the Regents, and he
always proved a warm friend to this Institution and an earnest chain-
pion for the advancement of its highest interests. ‘Thoroughly con-
versant with the history of the early struggle of opinion in framing the
plan for its operations, he was in full accord with its established
methods for the promotion of original research. In his eloquent trib-
ute to the memory of Professor Henry, in the Capitol of the Nation,
on the occasion of the memorial services held therein on the 6th of
January, 1879, he held this language :
“Smithson did not trammel the bequest with conditions. In
nine words he set forth its object—‘for the increase and diffusion of
knowledge among men.’ He asked and believed that America would
interpret his wish aright, and with the liberal wisdom of science. . . .
‘‘ For ten years Congress wrestled with those nine words of Smithson
and could not handle them. Some political philosophers of that period
held that we had no constitutional authority to accept the gift at all,
4 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
and proposed to send it back to England. Every conceivable proposi-
tion was made. The colleges clutched at it; the libraries wanted it;
the publication societies desired to scatter it. The fortunate settlement
of the question was this: after ten years of wrangling, Congress was
wise enough to acknowledge its own ignorance, and authorized a body
of men to find some one who knew how to settle it. And these men
were wise enough to choose your great comrade to undertake the task.
Sacrificing his brilliant prospects as a discoverer, he undertook the diffi-
cult work. He drafted a paper in which he offered an interpretation of
the will of Smithson, mapped out a plan which would meet the de-
mands of science, and submitted it to the suffrage of the republic of
scientific scholars. After due deliberation it received the almost unan-
imous approval of the scientific world. With faith and sturdy perse-
verence he adhered to the plan, and steadily resisted all attempts to
overthrow it. In the thirty-two years during which he administered
the great trust, he never swerved from his first purpose: and he suc-
ceeded at last in realizing the ideas with which he set out.”
By virtue of his office as President of the United States, General
Garfield still maintained his connection with the Institution, being by
law the presiding officer of the “ Establishment,” and amid the exact-
ing occupations of his station, he evinced his continued interest in its
affairs by promptly attending a called meeting, and visiting officially
the Institution, on the 4th of last May. His loss deserves, therefore,
from us (apart from its national aspects) a special expression of pro-
found regret, and his memory a special tribute of affectionate gratitude
and respect.
New Regents of the Institution.—By a very remarkable conjuncture of
circumstances the terms of service of the entire body of Congressional
Regents of the Smithsonian Institution expired at the close of the
Forty-sixth Congress, leaving three to be appointed from the Senate
and three from the House of Representatives. The resignation, how- -
ever, of Hon. Hannibal Hamlin a short time before the fourth of
March permitted the president of the Senate to select a successor in
the person of Hon. George F. Hoar, who was thus the sole Congres-
sional Regent of the Forty-seventh Congress on its commencement,
March 4, 1881. Subsequently, however, Vice-President Arthur ap-
pointed Hon. N. P. Hill, of Colorado, and Hon. 8S. B. Maxey, of Texas,
thus completing the number of Senate members of the board.
In the law establishing the Smithsonian Institution provision was
made for the appointment of a new Senate Regent every second year,
so that at the close of each Congress there would be two members hold-
ing over. Owing to the failure on the part of the appointing power to
bear this provision in mind, as vacancies occurred Senators have been
appointed other than those whose terms were to extend for a full six-
year period. In making the recent appointments the attention of the
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5
president of the Senate was called to this circumstance, and he so ar-
ranged his selections as to fulfill the original provision, so that of the
present Senate Regents the terms of service will be—six years for the
Hon. 8. B. Maxey, four for the Hon. N. P. Hill, and two for the Hon.
George I. Hoar; subject, of course, to renomination by the president of
the Senate if they should be re-elected to the Senate at the end of their
respective terms.
At the time of writing this report no appointment of Regents from
the House of Representatives had been made by the Speaker.
Services of Hon. H. Hamlin.—The Smithsonian Institution owes a
very great debt of gratitude to the Hon. Hannibal Hamlin, one of the
retiring Regents, for advice and assistance rendered during his twenty
years’ period of service as a member of the board, representing more
than half the entire history of the Institution. Many important meas-
ures of legislation by Congress, deeply affecting its interest and that of
the scientific enterprises in its charge, have been initiated by him and
largely consummated through his efforts. The thanks of the Institution
are also due to the other retiring members for their attention to its in-
terests.
MEETINGS OF THE ESTABLISHMENT AND OF THE REGENTS.
Meeting of the Members of the Establishment.—By the first section of
the act of Congress organizing the Institution, the President and Vice-
President of the United States, the members of the Cabinet, the Chief
Justice of the Supreme Court, and the Commissioner of Patents,
“during the time for which they shall hold their respective offices, and
such other persons as they may elect honorary members,” are ‘ consti-
tuted an establishment by the name of the Smithsonian Institution.”
Aud by the eighth section of the said act “ the members and honorary
members of the said Institution may hold stated and special meet-
ings for the supervision of the affairs of said Institution and the advice
and instruction of the Board of Regents, to be called in the manner
provided for in the by-laws of said Institution.” .
By the third section of the said act “the business of the said Insti-
tution shall be conducted at the city of Washington by a Board of Re-
gents, by the name of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, to be
composed” as specified therein, two of the members of the establish-
ment (to wit, the Vice-President and the Chief Justice) being also named
as regents. The distinguished officers of the government thus desig-
nated as members of the establishment constitute in effect a board
of visitors, invested with the general oversight of affairs and the fune-
tion of suggesting to the regents sucli lines of action as to them may
seem called for; and endeavors have been made to secure the annual
attendance of this body, in compliance with the objects indicated in the
organic law. Although a certain day has been specified for the meet-
6 ; REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
ing of the members, and for the presentation to their consideration
of the general condition of the Institution, it has usually been found
difiicult to secure their attendance. The pressure of their responsible
public duties and the fact that the deliberations and proceedings of ihe
board of visiting members are merely advisory have conspired to pre-
vent them from making any special efforts at meeting together for
consultation; and, especially, as from the high character and qualifica-
tions of the regents any specific action with regard to matters of admin-
istration has heretofore been considered as unnecessary, comparatively
little interest in such meetings could be felt by them. Accordingly,
although the President is always duly notified in time of the date of the
proposed meeting, he has seldom thought it necessary to take any ac-
tion thereon. In the report of the Institution for the year 1879 a state-
ment was given of the meetings of the members of the establishment
held since the organization of the Institution, showing that the whole
number during that period had amounted to but nine.
In the case of the incoming administration, however, President Gar-
field, our lamented coadjutor, called a meeting of the members of the
establishment for the 4th of May, 1881; but the only ones in attend-
ance on that day were the President of the board himself and Secretary
Lincoln, of the War Department. To them was explained the general
Cees of the affairs of the Institution, and a personal inspection was
made by them of the building and of the collections.
Meeting of the Boardof Regents.—Reference was made in the last report
to the special meeting of the board held on the 8th of December, 1880,
for the purpose of considering an application by the citizens’ commit-
tee for the use of the National Museum building on the fourth of March
following, for the purpose of the inaugural reception of the incoming
President.
The regular annual meeting of the Regents took place on the 19th of
January, 1881, and its early occurrence in the year, as usual, rendered
it possible to include an account of its proceedings in the last report, for
1880.
THE HENRY STATUE.
it will be remembered that an appropriation of $15,000 was made by
Congress on the Ist of June, 1880, for the erection in the grounds of
the Smithsonian Institution of a statue in bronze of Professor Henry,
to be executed by Mr. W. W. Story, of Rome, Italy, and that a pro-
visional contract was made with Mr. Story and approved by the Board
on the 8th of December, 1880, by which it was stipulated that the
work was to be paid for in four equal installments—the first on the
completion of the design; the second on the completion of the model
in clay; the third on the completion of the statue in bronze, and
the fourth and last on the erection of the statue in the Smithsonian
grounds. In pursuance of this contract, on the receipt of formal
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 7
notice from the American minister at Rome, the Hon. George P. Marsh,
that the sculptor had completed the design for the statue, the first in-
stallment of $5,750 was paid to him on the 26th of February, 1881.
On receiving the certificate of Mr. Marsh that the model in clay had
been finished, the second installment of $3,750 was paid to the sculptor
on the 8th of June, 1881. As we are informed by Mr. Story that the
bronze casting from this model will very soon be made, the third install-
ment of $3,750 will be due early in 1882. It is thought that the bronze
statue will be at once shipped, and probably received in Washington
during the month of March of this year.
In compliance with Mr. Story’s request a number of photographs
were sent to him to be used in preparing the model of this statue;
also, a cast of the face and a bust, executed by Mr. Clark Mills; and,
finally, an academic gown belonging to Dr. Maclean, of Princeton,
similar to the one used by Professor Henry when a member of tlie
faculty of Princeton College.
As the law of Congress provides that the pedestal of the statue shall
be furnished by Mr. Story, at his request estimates for executing the de-
sign by him were invited from various manufacturers in the United
States. As might have been expected, these varied considerably in
amount; but the proposals were all duly submitted to Mr. Story, who
selected the offer of the Maine Red Granite Company, which has been
assimed by the Quincy Granite Polishing Works. They offer a ped-
estal according to Mr. Story’s plan, the die to be of Red Beach gran-
ite and the remainder of Quincy gray granite ;_ the die to be polished,
the remainder fine-axed; the whole, securely boxed and delivered in
Washington, for $982.
An important point, namely, that of the precise location of the statue
in the Smithsonian grounds yet remains to be considered. I would re-
spectfully suggest that the spot be designated at as early adate as pos-
sible; also that provision be made for appropriate ceremonies con-
nected with the inauguration of the statue.
FINANCES.
General condition.—The condition of the finances of the Smithsonian
Institution at the end of the year 1881, is entirely satisfactory. All
liabilities have been paid, and a larger balance than usual remains, with
which to conmence the work of the calendar year 1882. The reason of
this surplus is due to several causes, and, among others, to the redue-
tion of the expenses of the system of exchanges, consequent upon the
appropriation by Congress, of three thousand dollars, for that purpose,
of which one-half has been collected. Several specific appropriations
have also been made by Congress to meet the share of expenses of par-
ticular departments of the Government, especially of the Engineer Bu-
reau of the War Department and of the Naval Observatory. On this
account, although the magnitude of the work is much greater than that
8 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
in any previous year, and the expenses correspondingly increased, yet
the entire cost to the Institution has been only $7,467.84. A consider-
able amount of printing, also, which might have been chargeable to the
Smithsonian fund, has been carried on at the expense of the printing
fund of the National Museum.
The appropriations for the year by Congress, for the National Mu-
seum have been liberal, and the results of the expenditure entirely sat-
isfactory, as I trust will be shown in considering this charge of the
Smithsonian Institution.
Virginia bonds.—At the meeting of the Board of Regents, January
19, 1881, the Executive Committee was authorized, at its discretion, to
dispose of the Virginia securities owned by the Institution and deposit
the proceeds in the Treasury of the United States as a part of the per-
manent fund.
The Executive Committee, after, the adjournment of the board, took
this subject into consideration, and, after consultation with Mr. Geo.
W. Riggs and others qualified to give an opinion on the matter, decided
that the time was opportune for the disposal of the Virginia securities,
and directed their sale accordingly. The following is a statement of the
results of this sale :
$58,700.00 par value in Virginia consolidated bonds, sold at
an average of about 79 per cent., yielded............... $46, 417 87
$29,375.07 Virginia deferred certificates, at 133 per cent.... 4,039 08
$50.13 Virginia consolidated scrip, at 152 per cent........- 58 03
50,514 98
The Executive Committee deposited this amount in the Treasury of
the United States, adding to it from the sale of the coupons of Virginia
bonds due Ist January, 1881, $985.02, so as to make the whole sum,
$51,500, to be added to the permanent Smithson fund, which was thus
increased to $703,000, and on which 6 per cent. interest will be paid
perpetually.
The fluctuations of the stock market, the anticipations of loss from
improper legislation and other causes, have thus been removed from
the anxieties of the managers of the Institution, the funds are now se-
cure in one investment, and that as enduring as the nation itself.
Condition of the fund January, 1882.
The amount received as the bequest of James Smithson,
deposited in the Treasury of the United States, in ac-
cordance with the acts of Congress of August 10, 1846,
and Nebruary 8, 186%. 2522) boar sere re $515, 169 00
tesiduary legacy of Smithson, added to the fund by act
of Congress, February 8,186 sc... 2s eee 26, 210 63
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 9
Addition to the fund from savings, etc., by act of Con-
Meters HOLMAN Og MOGU he eae aera aoa lash, n cies pipe =l='m © $108, 620 37
Addition to the fund by bequest of James Hamilton, of
Benin Volta sO ners aa 2 tei elaine alain Mela = ww ois am mains oe 1,000 00
Addition to the fund by bequest of Dr. Simeon Habel, of
News York, 158002. <-. 2 235 +- BSE Er POE eR RRR Weep oA 500 00
Addition to the fund by proceeds of sale of Virginia
BORG B CPS. 2 ee eee terete an aioe Sais acc des Spe apes © 51, 500 00
Total permanent Smithson fund in the Treasury of the
United States, bearing interest at 6 per cent... ... $703, 000 00
The bequest of $1,000 from James Hamilton, of Carlisle, Pa. (1874),
and of $500 from Simeon Habel, of New York (1880), have been men-
tioned in previous reports.
In this connection, it is desirable again to refer to the fact that per-
sons intending to leave bequests, or to make donations for the promo-
tion of science, can do nothing promising greater security for their
money, or a more faithful administration of the trust, than to follow
the examples here cited.
The domain of science is large, its fields of research numerous, and
the methods and appliances for successful investigation exceedingly
varied. This Institution, with its present equipment, has inaugurated,
or prosecuted, or directly fostered original advances in almost every
department of physical and biological inquiry. Hence, with its exist-
ing facilities and approved experience, it is in a condition to apply most
completely and economically any material aid delegated to it, either to
purposes of general or special promotion of human knowledge, with
but little, if any, expenditure in the necessary apparatus of organiza-
tion and direction.
Any one, therefore, meditating a moderate bequest (say of a few
thousand dollars), and feeling an interest in the advancement of any
particular branch of science, could probably obtain in no other way so
unabated a devotion of the means to the specific purpose, or so large
areturn of benefit to future students, and therefore of public credit to
the grantor, as by selecting the Smithsonian Institution for his repre-
sentative and curator.
BUILDINGS OF THE INSTITUTION.
The Smithsonian Building.— During the year many important changes
have been made within the Smithsonian building, which, though involv-
ing a comparatively slight expense, have greatly improved the conven-
ience and adaptation of several apartments for the necessary work
transacted. Most of the earthen and brick floors of the basement have
been replaced by a pavement of concrete, as have also some of the por-
tions previously covered with boards, which furnished a harbor for
10 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
rats. These floors, together with the walls and ceilings, have beeti
whitewashed, adding greatly to the purity of the air, and increasing
materially the amount of light. Bins have been erected, in which have
been stored a large number of the stereotype plates of Smithsonian
and Fish Commission reports, and of the bulletins and proceedings of
the National Museum, rendering them more readily accessible when-
ever new issues of either of these works or of any portions thereof may
be required.
The most important alteration has been made in the arrangement of
the basement rooms of the eastern end of the building, which have
been fitted up with more special reference to the conditions required by
the increasing amount and complexity of the transportation operations
connected with the business of exchanges. These rooms number seven
in all, arranged at present in the following order : General reception
and delivery; temporary storage; unpacking; assorting; packing;
private storage, and storage of duplicates. On the first floor, or main
story of the west connecting range, in connection with the introduction
of new cases, the ceilings and walls have been painted of a brighter tint,
so as to both increase the amount of light and improve the general
effect.
At no distant time some expensive work of renovation will be re-
quired upon the ceiling of the great hall in the second story of the
main building, as in some places the plaster appears in danger of fall-
ing off and injuring the cases and specimens on exhibition below.
Complaint has occasionally been made for some years past of the in-
sufficient heating of the main building, and especially of the large up-
per story known as the ethnological hall, in very cold weather. Dur-
ing the past year the radiators have been rearranged and some addi-
tional ones introduced, so that it is hoped there will be no cause of
dissatisfaction in this respect in the future.
National Museum Building.—This building may now be considered as
completed and ready for its final occupation by the various depart-
ments which have been assigned to it. An appropriation of $26,000
yas made by Congress for covering the four halls with marble tiling
and the rotunda with encaustic tiling. The introduction of a fountain
basin, 20 feet in diameter, in the rotunda, greatly reduced the amount of
tiling to be done, and added much to the general effect. It is proposed
to have a small fountain jet in this basin, and to have various orna-
mental plants growing in it, forming a pleasing prospect in looking
across the long extent of over 300 feet from one main entrance to
another.
The only remaining unfinished floor has been covered with boards,
like the others of its class.
The ceilings of a part of the building, after they had dried, were
found to be insecure, owing to the lack of sufficient bond. As the
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 1i
plaster was falling in patches from time to time, and greatly endanger- .
ing life and property in the Museum, it was deemed best to adopt the
heroic treatment of taking it all down and calcimining the exposed sur-
face. This occupied the greater part of the summer, and created a
rast amount of dust and of refuse matter, to be taken away. This has
now been cleared up, and the rooms restored to their previous condi-
tion.
It has always been considered desirable to have a supplementary
ceiling or skin to the main ceiling, inclosing an air-space between the
two, for the purpose of preventing the escape of heat in winter and its
access during the summer, and an experimental trial was made by put-
ting up one section of corrugated iron. ‘This has been found to produce
a very agreeable effect, and will probably tend, so far as it goes, to
remedy the disadvantage referred to. It would be desirable, if the
money could be obtained, to complete this work over the entire build-
ing, as the hot weather of the last summer proved to be extremely try-
ing inside of the building. The introduction of some additional venti-
lators considerably relieved this difficulty.
In certain cotton mills in New England the experiment has been made
of moistening the air by means of a system of aspirators, for the
purpose of improving the facilities of cotton spinning. While accom-
plishing this object, it has been found that the reduction of tempera-
ture in hot weather amounted to 8° or 10° in some eases, while at the
same time the air was rendered very much more agreeable as well
as more wholesome at all times. An offer has been made by the pat-
entee to apply his apparatus to the National Museum ait a cost of about
$7,000, he guaranteeing that a reduction of from six to eight degrees
of temperature shall be accomplished during the hot season of the year.
This will be a question for determination in the future.
During the very cold weather of the winter of 1880, ’81, it was found
that the northeastern pavilion occupied by the ethnological and geologi-
eal bureau was insufliciently heated, this portion of the building being
most distant from the furnaces. A supplementary steam furnace was
therefore introduced into this division.
The fitting and furnishing of the photographic laboratory in the south-
eastern building has been completed, and it is now thoroughly adapted
to its purposes. The operations of the Institution require a great deal
of photographie work, which is now carried on in this building.
The fitting up of the chemical department in the southeastern divis-
ion has been completed during the year. The laboratory is now fully
equipped and able to perform any chemical work required. The chem-
ists have been constantly employed in solving problems committed to
them, and a great deal of excellent work has been performed.
A special assay laboratory has been fitted up with the necessary ap-
paratus.
Proper connections have been made in and between all the buildings
12 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
for. improved telephonic service, and at the present time about thirty
telephones are in use, all centering in and intercommunicating through
a switch board in the north tower of the Museum. This arrangement
is independent of the city office, and by a proper disposition of the
watchmen, is available at all hours of the day and night. Its utility
is demonstrated every day in facilitating the work of the Institution
and in reducing the number of messengers, watchmen, &ec., necessary
to carry on the various operations.
The room in which the telephone exchange is situated is also the
center or headquarters of the remaining electrical service, consisting of
a tower clock working 18 electric dials in the two buildings, a watch-
men’s clock for regulating the rounds of the watchmen and inspectors,
a burglar alarm connection with all the doors and windows of the build-
ing, call bells and signals everywhere, as well as the telephone service
itself. Indeed it is believed that in no building in the world, with the
exception, perhaps, of the Grand Opera House in Paris, is there so per-
fect and complete application of electricity to practical purposes.
A series of tunnels permeates the floors of the building in every di-
rection, and in these are stretched the various wires, some 200 in num-
ber, by means of which any electrical service can be maintained. It is
proposed, at an early day, to introduce the electric light into the pho-
tographic laboratory for use in cloudy days or at night, and also for
purposes of illumination when required.
The Armory Building.—This edifice, situated at the corner of Sixth
street and South B, has for some years been assigned by Congress for
the use of the National Museum and of the Fish Commission, and with-
out its facilities of storage, it would be difficult to carry on the work of
these two departments. It has been until recently filled with the ob-
jects presented to the United States at the International Exhibition of
1876. Most of these, however, have been transferred to the new Mu-
seum, where they have been either set up or are wailing their oppor-
tunity. The vacancy, however, has been filled by the use of the build-
ing for the temporary storage of the immense collection of mineralogy
and ethnology made by the United States Geological Survey and the
Ethnological Bureau, and also by the storage therein of the movable
property of the United States Fish Commission. It is proposed to fit
up a part of this building for fish culture and touse it for hatching
shad, salmon, and other fish on a large scale.
Laboratory of Natural History.—This building, situated at the south-
west of the Smithsonian building, and originally erected for the purpose
of facilitating the preparation of the material of the International Ex-
hibition of 1876, continues to be of great utility in the functions of the
Institution. It is used partly as a stable and carriage-house, and partly
as quarters for the practical operations of the Museum, such as the
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 13
preparation of skeletons, the mounting of mammals and birds, the
preparation of plaster and papier-maché casts, the painting of these casts,
and for general photography. The transfer of one division of the work
of photography to its new quarters at the southeastern corner of the
new Museum building has permitted the assignment of the rooms vacated
to the photographic department of the United States Geological Sur-
vey, and they have been fitted up for the purpose of preparing the pho-
tegraphic prints of collections of western scenery, Indian life and por-
traiture, and other interesting objects. These itis proposed toinsert in
the windows of the new Museum, in which there are nearly 1,000 open:
ings available for this purpose, thus adding very greatly to the attrac-
tions of the building. A window has been fitted up experimentally in
this manner, and has attracted much attention.
In addition to the work done to the buildings themselves, greatly im-
proved drainage of the new Museum building has been effected. The
drain-pipes and sewers originally available for the purpose have been
found insufficient for the drainage of 24 acres of roof during heavy
rains, and an appropriation was made by Congress to remedy this de-
fect. New drain-pipes have accordingly been laid from the northwest
corner of the building along the west, south, and east sides, empty-
ing into a large drain and carried directly through the Smithsonian
grounds to the great sewer on North B street. Since its completion no
difficulty has been experienced in the matter referred to, and it is
thought there will be no further trouble.
An appropriation was made by Congress for the construction of a
concrete foot-way along the north side of the building, from Seventh to
Twelfth streets. This has added greatly to the facility of reaching the
building. The repaving of South B street, fronting on the grounds
of the Institution and the Museum, replacing the wornout wooden pave-
ment, has also added much to the convenience of approach.
ROUTINE WORK OF THE INSTITUTION.
Administration.—The executive details of current operations present
nothing of sufficient importance to be specially noticed, the organiza-
tion and personnel of previous years having continued in successful
operation, and the internal affairs of the Institution having been satis-
factorily conducted.
Correspondence.—With the increase of work in the various depart-
ments of active operations prosecuted by the Institution, there is neces-
sarily a corresponding increase in the general correspondence. It is
unnecessary to enter into any detailed description of the different
classes of correspondence which constitute the principai work in this
branch of current operations, as this has been sufliciently indicated in
previous reports. A view of its extent will appear from the general
result that the number of letters received, acted upon, filed, indexed,
14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
and bound amounts to somewhat more than 6,000, making about 15,000
pages. The official letters written amount to about 7,000 pages. ‘The
correspondence relating to the affairs of the National Museum has been
not much less in amount.
THE LABORATORY.
One of the provisions specially designated in the fifth section of the
act of 1846, establishing the Smithsonian Institution, was that of a
chemical laboratory, in which scientific research could be prosecuted.
During the entire period of the history of the Institution this require-
ment*has been borne in mind, and at no time has the Institution been
without some kind of arrangements for chemical and physical investiga-
tion. The great drawback, however, has been the lack of suitable
rooms in which the work could be prosecuted without encroaching too
much on the other branches, and endangering the safety of the build-
ing.
Advantage was taken in the erection of the new Museum to provide
suitable accommodations for a chemical laboratory, and I have now the
pleasure of reporting that such an establishment is in successful opera-
tion, and is believed to be fully equal in its equipment and facilities to
any other in the United States. A large room, about thirty feet square,
has been fitted up with tables for analytical work, with conveniences
for heating, filtering, blow-pipe work, &c. Attached to this is a room
13 feet square, in which are kept the balances and more delicate glass
work. <A second adjacent room furnishes an office for the chemist in
charge. Next to this is an assay laboratory room, 30 feet square, hav-
ing a stone floor and furnished with muffles, sand baths, water-distilling
apparatus, &e.
The work done in the laboratory consists mainly in the examination
of the chemical composition of the various undetermined minerals in
the National Museum, and in the prosecution of chemical investigations
in behalf of the different departments of the government. Requests
for such service are always complhed with as far as possible. Among
such subjects of examination may be mentioned a process for preparing
wood for naval purposes, so as to protect it against decomposition and
the attacks of insects, presented to the Navy Department. At the
request of the department, Dr. Taylor, the chemist of the Institution,
was detailed for service with the board, embracing in addition Dr. J.
M. Flint, of the Navy, as chairman, and Dr. Mew, of the Army Medical
Museum, to thoroughly investigate the subject. Their report has been
made and presented to the Navy Department for its consideration.
In addition to this work specimens (most frequently of mineral sub-
Stances) are continually received by the Institution from private sources
in all parts of the country—in number averaging probably some half a
dozen a day—with the request for an analysis and report of constituents.
As these require merely a general or qualitative determination, they do
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15
not consume a great part of the chemists time. The work of making
precise quantitative assays is much inore tedious and laborious, and is
undertaken only in the service of the public interests.
The chemist’s report, which is given in the appenlix, presents some
account of the arrangements made in fitting up the new laboratory in
the Museum building, as already referred to.
RESEARCHES AND EXPLORATIONS.
In the promotion of original research it has always been the policy of
the Institution to so employ its limited means as to effect what appeared
to be the most promising return in the increase of knowledge, with but
little consideration whether such efforts should be made independently
or in concert with other agencies. Reserving for a separate notice some
of the principal operations undertaken during the year, in co-operation
with other institutions, reference will here be made to the researches
and explorations of which the Institution has borne alone the burden
and responsibility. Of these one of the most important was that of
Mr. L. Belding, of Stockton, Cal., who, at our suggestion, visited Guad-
alupe and Cerros Islands on @he coast of Lower California, as well
as certain portions of the main land. His collections of birds, fishes,
plants, &c., have been submitted to examination, and include many in-
teresting objects. This gentleman returned home in the summer, and
started again to his chosen field of labor in December, proceeding di-
rect to La Paz, on the Gulf of Lower California, where he expected to
remain till spring, and then to visit Cape Saint Lucas, a-region made
memorable by the labors of Mr. John Xantus.
Mr. Xantus, in his explorations twenty years ago, collected numbers
of new species, the types of which have been lost by deterioration, and
it is considered especially advisable to secure fresh specimens of these
and of any additional species that may be procurable.
During the summer, Mr. James Bell, of the Land Office, stationed in
Florida, has utilized his spare moments in continuing the explorations
referred to in the report for 1880. His contributions have consisted es-
pecially in living reptiles for the modeling department of the National
Museum. Numbers of birds, Indian relies, &¢., have also been furnished
by him.
Mr. 8. T. Walker, also working in West Florida, but farther north
than Mr. Bell, has made numerous contributions ef interest from the
Indian mounds and graves, thereby greatly extending our knowledge
of the archeology of Western Florida.
Among the most interesting and important explorations of the year
in Florida is that of Mr, J. F. LaBaron, who discovered a rich deposit of
fossil bones, which are now in the hands of Professor Leidy for exami-
nation and determination. Among these itis believed there are several
new species of mammals and reptiles.
Prof. O. P. Hay, of Irvington, Ind., with the co-operation of the
16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
Smithsonian Institution, has continued his series of investigations into
the ichthyology of the Mississippi Valley, collecting many rare and new
species of fish, a series of which has been transmitted to the Institu-
tion.
Dr. R. Ellsworth Call, of Des Moines, has also made similar explora-
tions relating more specially to fresh water shells.
Hon. John G. Henderson, of Winchester, Ill., has continued and com-
pleted certain explorations in the mounds of that State 1t the expense
of the Smithsonian Institution. Some very valuable and interesting
objects have rewarded his search.
Mr. B. F. Norris, Superintendent of the National Yellowstone Park,
has brought to the Institution a large collection of the natural objects
of the park, among them a fumarole of a small geyser, which it is pro-
posed to utilize for the purpose of a fountain in the rotunda of the
museum.
Prof. C. H. Gilbert, who was associated with Professor Jordan in the
exploration of the ichthyology of the Pacific coast of America (as men-
tioned in the Report for 1880), remained for some time at Panama, con-
tinuing his gatherings, and then returned to his residence at Blooming-
ton, Ind. The results of his work and that of Professor Jordan have
been published from time to time in the proceedings of the National
Museum. Mr. Gilbert will probably return to Central America before
long, under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, to continue and
complete his work.
Mr. H. H. Rusby, of Franklin, N. J., has completed during the year
his researches into the botany of New Mexico, in which he has been en-
gaged for several years past. The Institution was able to obtain for
him important facilities in the way of transportation of his collections,
and has secured thereby a series of his specimens.
During a recent visit to Mexico of Mr. S. B. Evans, of Ottumwa, I1.,
in the interest of archeology, the Institution was able to render him
assistance by a letter of introduction to its correspondents in that eoun-
try. Mr. Evans has brought back quite an amount of interesting in-
formation, especially relating to his discovery of a new so-called sacri-
ficial stone.
Mr. I’. A. Ober, in the course of a visit to Mexico during the past
winter, obtained some copper axes and some interesting birds.
A large amount of exploration has been prosecuted by correspondents
of the Smithsonian in the West Indies and South America; among these
may be mentioned the work of Dr. H. A. Alford Nicholls, of Dominica,
an English physician of much eminence in his profession, and distin-
guished as a naturalist, who furnished several new species of birds and
a first installment of a large collection of fishes. Dr. Nicholls proposes
to prepare a work on the ichthyology of Dominica, to be published by
the Smithsonian, and to send specimens to Washington for identifica-
tion.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17
A similar arrangement to that made with Dr. Nicholls has been en-
tered into with Mr. Musgrave, of Jamaica, his object being to extend
and complete the work upon the natural history of Jamaica commenced
many years ago by Mr. Gosse. A large collection of fishes already sent
in has been under investigation by Mr. Goode and Dr. Bean. Valuable
contributions have also been received from Hon. Edward Newton, of the
colonial government of Jamaica.
Mr. L. Guesde, of Guadaloupe, has undertaken to furnish to the Insti-
tution, for publication, a series of drawings illustrating the archeology
of that island. He has accordingly transmitted a large number of de-
scriptions and figures of many curious objects, of which Professor Mason
has charge in editing them for the report. He has also furnished a num-
ber of specimens of reptiles and fishes illustrating the natural history
of the island.
Mr. Wells, of Antigua, has aided the Smithsonian Institution by send-
ing birds, fishes, and ethnological objects. Hiss labors and those of
other valued correspondents in the West Indies were secured to the
Institution by Mr. Frederick A. Ober in the course of tours of service in
the West Indies. This co-operation of resident naturalists in the West
Indies has been especially interesting to the Smithsonian Institution,
as there still remain many important problems in relation to that region.
The work of Mr. P. Figyelmesy, at Demerara, for several years has con-
tributed much to the ethnology and natural history of the colony. Similar
work has been done by Dr. C. Hering, at Surinam. No special research
has been carried on in other parts of the Old World, with the exception
of that connected with the “ Palos,” Captain Green, commander, referred
to further on.
In the report for 1879, at p. 45, mention was made of the co-operation
of the Smithsonian Institution with the Navy Department and Mr. James
Gordon Bennett in the preparation for natural history work, on board
the “Jeannette.” At the request of Mr. Bennett the Institution secured
the services of Mr. Raymond L. Newcomb, an experienced naturalist and
taxidermist, of Salem, Mass., and prepared for him a complete outfit,
principally at the expense of Mr. Bennett. When the vessel touched at
St. Michaels, in 1879, some interesting specimens had already been
gathered by Mr. Newcomb, and the expectation of interesting results
in the future was, of course, very reasonably entertained. Wenow have
the information that the steamer was crushed in the ice, and that the offi-
cers and crew betook themselves in three boats to the mainland. Infor-
mation has been received from two of these boats; one with Engineer Mel-
ville in charge, and including Mr. Newcomb in the party. Of the third
nothing has yet been heard. It is probable that any collections made
by the steamer have been lost in the wreck; but there is no doubt that
Mr. Newcomb, on his return, will be able to furnish interesting informa-
tion, either from notes preserved, or from personal recollection.
During the early part of 1881, in response to an urgent public senti-
S. Mis. 109 2
18 REPOKT OF THE SECRETARY.
ment, Congress made an appropriation for the purchase of a whaling
steamer, the “Helen and Mary,” then at San Francisco, and to fit it out
for the purpose of engaging in the search for the “Jeannette.” A board
of naval officers was formed to select a,plan for search and prepare the
necessary instructions. Of this board Admiral John Rodgers was presi-
dent, and in commemoration of his services in that respect, and also
of his having been the only American naval officer who had previously
nrade an official exploration in the arctic region to be visited, the name
of the vessel was changed to that of the *‘ Rodgers,” and Lieutenant
Berry placed in command. Although extended investigations in natu-
ral and physical science were not contemplated by the board, yet, with
a proper spirit of inquiry, Lieutenant Berry asked for suggestions as to
what could be done in the line of natural history, and they were furnished
by the Smithsonian Institution with much pleasure, together with some
apparatus, alcohol, &c., necessary in connection with the capture and
preservation of specimens.
The “ Rodgers” made a complete exploration of the mysterious Wran-
gel Land, and entered into winter quarters on the shores of Siberia, ex-
pecting in the spring to resume its search for the “Jeannette.” It will,
however, be made acquainted with the fate of the “Jeannette” in time
to prevent any waste of effort, and the vessel, it is understood, will re-
turn at once to the United States. |
No report has yet been made as to any scientific results obtained by
the expedition.
For some years past Commander I’. M. Green, of the Navy, has been
engaged, under the direction of the Bureau of Navigation, in making
a determination of the longitudes of various points in the Atlantic
Ocean. and adjacent thereto, the work being mainly dcne by means of
the numerous submarine and land telegraphs. In the spring of 1881
Commander Green was ordered to continue his work in the Pacific
Ocean, and the steamer “ Palos,” then in the Chinese and Japanese
Seas, was placed in readiness for his use. Commander Green invited
the co-operation of the Smithsohian Institution in making his work
productive of results in the department of natural history as well as in
that of physical science; and Dr. F. C. Dale was detailed as a surgeon,
and a gentleman weil and favorably known for his attainments as a nat-
uralist. He took with him as an assistant Mr. P. L. Jouy, for a long
time in the employ of the National Museum, and accomplished in the
preservation of objects of natural history. The party proceeded by
land to San Francisco, and thence by steamer to Yokahama, the com-
mander there meeting the vessel and entering upon his work. Very
valuable collections were made, first in Japan, and secondly at Shanghai,
in China. The portion of the expedition that was sent to Vladivostock
also obtained some interesting collections. Through their instrumen-
tality, also, the government authorities in Tokio and the Natural His-
tory Museum at Shanghai contributed quite largely to the collections,
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19
with the understanding that some specified exchanges were to be re-
turned by the National Museum. Six cases of birds, mammals, alco-
holic specimens, &c., have already been received front Dr. Dale, and
several others are now on the way. It is quite probable that the results
of this expedition will rank favorably with those procured by any na-
tion from the same region.
While connected with the expedition under Commander Lull, U.S.
N., for determining the character and best route of acanal from ocean
to ocean through Nicaragua, Dr. J. F. Bransford made some interest-
ing collections in natural history, ethnology, and archeology, which
were presented by him to the Smithsonian Institution. Additional in-
formation being required in regard to this route, Dr. Bransford was
twice sent out to again review the ground and to investigate more par-
ticularly certain obscure points. In both cases he asked and obtained
suggestions from the Smithsonian Institution as to collateral researches,
and made some extremely important gatherings of spécimens for the
National Museum. The results, so far as the archeology of Nicaragua
is concerned have lately been published by the Institution in a well ilus-
trated quarto memoir.
Dr. Bransford was recently again detailed by the Navy Department
to revisit Central America, for the purpose of making some determina-
tions as to the natural conditions and commercial relations of certain im-
portant drugs largely used in medicine at the present time; and was
directed also to apply his previous experience as an archeologist to the
solution of some problems of the science, especially in Guatemala, Costa
Rica, and Honduras. He accordingly left Washington in December
last on his mission, proceeding directly to Aspinwall and Panama. His
route will take him first to Guatemala, thence across to Coban, and then
returning by the Gulf of Nicoya. One of the problems submitted to
Dr. Bransford is the discovery of the precise locality whence the material
for the many jade and jadeite ornaments, found in various parts of
America, has been derived. Such objects are among the choicest and
most highly prized of American antiquarian collections, while the mines
whence the raw material has been derived are entirely unknown. It has
been suggested that the material must have been brought in the rough
from China or Australia, although there is no good evidence to prove
such a conclusion.
Should Dr. Bransford find the locality of this mineral it will contrib-
ute towards solving one of the most interesting problems of the day.
The co-operation of the Smithsonian Institution and that of the
United States Signal Office of the War Department in prosecuting re-
searches into the physical condition of various portions of North Amer-
ica, Which has been adverted to in previous reports, continues in avery
satisfactory manner. This relationship was first established by the
transfer to the Signal Office of the entire system of meteorological re-
search initiated and for nearly a quarter of a century prosecuted by
20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
the Smithsonian Institution. Since then all the material and problems
connected with meteorology have been transferred to the Signal Office,
which on its part has not failed to extend its aid to the Institution in
connection with branches of science other than those constituting more
particularly its functions. Many important results, both in zodlogy and
ethnology, accomplished by the Institution inrelation to Northern, North-
eastern, and even Arctic America, have been attained in connection
with General Myer, and afterwards his successor, General William B.
Hazen. In establishing meteorological stations in different parts of
Arctic America, the Smithsonian Institution has been invited to nomi-
nate observers, who, while competent to the duties of the Signal Office,
may, if convenient, be able to make collections of objects in natural
history and ethnology. In pursuance of this co-operation, a number of
years ago Mr. Lucien M. Turner was selected and stationed first at
Saint Michael’s and then along the chain of the Aleutian Islands. Mr.
Nelson succeeded him at Saint Michael’s, and continued his work.
Under instruction of the Treasury Department, through Mr. E. W.
Clarke, chief of the Bureau of the Revenue Marine, Captain Hooper, in
command of the revenue cutter ‘ Corwin,” visited the arctic coast, both
in the interest of the revenue service and for the purpose of obtain-
ing information in regard to the “ Jeannette.” He was instructed to
take Mr. Nelson to Saint Michael’s, and give him an opportunity of
visiting Saint Lawrence Island, the special object being to allow the
collecting of the remains of the Esquimaux who to the number of sey-
eral hundred perished there by starvation. Mr. Nelson was accord-
ingly taken on board, and obtained on the island, in addition to a very
fine collection of implements, utensils, dresses, &c., a large number of
crania, filling an important deficiency in the Museum. The vessel then
proceeded to various points on the Siberian coast, and subsequently
made the first known landing on Wrangell Land, that mysterious re-
gion which had been the special object of investigation on the part of
the “ Jeannette.”
On the island a magnificent polar bear, killed by the party, was
brought back by Mr. Nelson, and is now duly exhibited in the National
Museum. '
The thanks of the Institution are due not only to the Treasury De-
partment but also to Captain Hooper fer his kind co-operation in Mr.
Nelson’s work, by rendering all possible facilities.
Mr. Lucien M. Turner, who, under orders from the signal service
of the United States Army, to make meteorological observations in
Alaska, arrived at Unalashka Island May 10, 1874, succeeded dur-
ing the five days he remained there in collecting several species of
birds. He reached Saint Michael’s, Alaska, May 25, commencing his
meteorological work June 26, and during the leisure permitted by close
attention to his official duties, continued his collections of natural his-
tory specimens from the locality, until July 9, 1877, when at his request
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21
he was granted leave to return to Washington. In March, 1878, Mr.
Turner again proceeded to Alaska, under orders from the signal serv-
ice, to establish meteorological stations at Saint Paul’s Island, Attu
Island, Atkha Island, Belkovsky on the peninsula of Aliaska, and at
Nushagak on Bristol Bay. During the year he visited, through the
kindness of the Alaska Commercial Company, the stations at Kuskokvim
River, Ugashik, Tugitik, Nushagak, Port Moller, Akootan, and Saa-
nak Island, spending the winter at Dliulink, on Unalashka Island.
He passed the summer of 1879, at Atkha Island, collecting many nat-
ural history specimens: spent the winter at Unalashka Island; and in
June, 1880, went to Attu Island, remaining there till May, 1881.
During the leisure hours at his disposition he collected for the Na-
tional Museum one hundred and sixty species of birds—some of which
were for the first time ascertained to occur within our limits, thirty
species of fish, several species of mammals, nearly thirteen thousand
specimens of insects, a good series of the land and marine shells,
several thousand specimens of plants—embracing over two hundred
species; and paid especial attention to collecting a complete series
of implements and other articles of ethnological and archeological
character embracing over three thousand specimens, some of which
were for the first time obtained. Much attention was given to the
study of linguistics of the Unaleet and Malemut Orarians, Nulato, Ing-
alet, and Unalashkan Aleuts. The vocabularies are comprehensive, con-
taining not only a list of words, but much of etymologic value, stories,
history, and other valuable information concerning these people, of whom
little was previously known.
Mr. E. W. Nelson, also under orders from the signal service, as a
meteorological observer in Alaska, was authorized by co-operative ar-
rangement between that bureau and the Institution, to prosecute inves-
tigations during his intervals of official leisure, for the advancement of
scientific knowledge. He reached the Aleutian Islands in May, 1877,
and for about a month availed himself of the opportunity of making
collections in Unalashka of bird skins and of fishes. He also procured
ethnological specimens, both recent and from the ancignt village sites,
of which considerable numbers are found along the shore. Visiting Sa-
nak Island (to the eastward of Unalashka,) he made various interesting
notes on the life and habits of the sea-otter, this curious animal being
particularly abundant in this locality. Leaving in June, 1877, for Saint
Michael’s, Norton Sound, Mr. Nelson occupied his spare time for a year
in making collections of mammals, birds, fishes, and insects. The field
among the Eskimo of this region was also very rich in ethnological ma-
terial and observations. Most friendly and valuable assistance in these
researches was rendered by the agents of the Alaska Commercial Com-
pany, and by the fur traders connected with it.
During the winter of 1878~79, Mr. Nelson made a dog-sledge journey
of over a thousand miles in the country between the Lower Yukon and
22 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
the Kuskoquin Rivers, securing over three thousand ethnological speci-
mens, of which a considerable portion consisted of articles of carved
walrus ivory. Much information was also noted regarding the topog-
raphy of the country, as well as about its people and productions.
In May and June, 1879, the mouths of the Yukon were visited to
study the habits of the proms water-fowl, and a fine series of the
skins and eggs of the emperor goose were obtained. The following
winter, from February 9th to April 3, 1880, was occupied in a reconnais-
sance of the coast region, from Saint Michael’s north to Sledge Island
near Bering’s Straits.
A large series of ethnologica was secured, besides copious notes upon
the people and their language. November 16, 1880, to January 19, 1881,
was occupied in a sledge journey into the interior, beyond the coast belt
occupied by the Eskimo, into the country of the Ingaliks or Indians. As
on the previous journeys, a large series of ethnologica and field-notes
were secured.
June 25,1881, througk the courtesy of Mr. E. W. Clarke, chief of
the Revenue Marine Bureau, the revenue steamer ‘‘ Corwin” was per-
mitted totake Mr. Nelson on board, at Saint Michael’s, to accompany her
during her cruise in the Arctic, in the course of which he visited Saint
Lawrence Island, in Bering’s Sea, where about eight hundred Eskimo
perished in a famine two winters before. J*'rom this sad mortuary nearly
one hundred crania were secured, besides many implements.
The remainder of the season was spent in cruising along the Alaskan
coast as far north as Point Barrow, and along the Siberian coast from
Plover Bay, Bering’s Sea to North Cape in the Arctic. Visiting and ex-
ploring Herald Island, and a part of Wrangell Island, the “ Corwin” re-
turned by the Miowen Islands to San Francisco, tere there October
20, 1881.
In summing up the direct results of Mr. Nelson’s work in the north,
the unbroken series of about 12,000 meteorological observations must
be mentioned first, since to obtain these was the primary object of his
residence there. In addition to these there were obtained about 9,000
ethnological specimens, 2,100 bird skins, 500 mammal skins and skulls,
400 fishes, and various other specimens, besides vocabularies of seven
or eight Eskimo dialects, with accompanying linguistic notes and a
large amount of manuscript material upon all the branches in which
collections were made. Over 100 photographs of the people and other
scenes were secured during the last year of his residence in the north.
The necessary expenses attending this work, outside those appertaining
strictly to the meteorological work, were met by an allowance from the
Institution, where the specimens are stored at present awaiting the
elaboration of the reports.
During the year 1881 three additional stations were established by
the Signal Office—one at Nushigak, on Bristol Bay, in charge of C.
L. McKay; one at Unalashka, in charge of F. L. Applegate, and
Nee?
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23
the third at Sitka, in charge of Mr. John J. McLean. Some very in-
teresting archeological eqllections have already been received from
Mr. McLean, and others are expected from the other gentlemen men-
tioned. All were provided by the Smithsonian Institution with ap-
paratus and material for collecting and preserving specimens and the
means of procuring goods for making exchanges with the natives.
Of the localities mentioned Bristol Bay is the one least known to
naturalists and promising the largest returns.
In the system of international meteorological research, decided upon at
a convention held a year or two ago, it was desired that the United States
should establish a station at Point Barrow, the northernmost point of
Jontinental America and in Greenland, and both these measures were
carried out by the signal service during the past year, and a specific
appropriation was made by Congress for the purchase of a vessel at
Newfoundland, at which point the Franklin Bay party, under Lieuten-
ant Greely, embarked on board the whaling steamer “ Proteus,” a
vessel admirably adapted for its purpose, which had been previously
selected by Capt. H. C. Chester, an employé of the U. S. Fish Com-
mission. The vessel made a brief but successful voyage, landing
its party without any impediment and returning—after but a short ab-
sence, to Newfoundland. It is expected that this vessel will be sent
up during the coming summer to carry additional supplies and bring
back the reports¥and collections.
No special detail of a naturalist was made for this expedition, as
Dr. Pavy, of the Howgate expedition of 1880, was expected to join it,
and did so in Greenland.
A second international station—that at Point Barrow—was also es-
tablished by the Signal Office during the year, and was placed in charge
of Lieutenant Ray, an experienced army officer, and provided with
suitable apparatus. At the request of General Hazen, the Smithsonian
Institution nominated Professors Murdock of Madison, Wis., and
Smith of the Westfield Normal School, both experienced naturalists
and collectors, as observers. They were ordered to Washington to un-
dergo a training for physical research, especially as to more detailed
observations in meteorology, terrestrial magnetism, and astronomy.
The party proceeded from San Francisco by a schooner, chartered for
the purpose, and reached their destination without any untoward event.
It is expected that the advices of next summer will report them as com-
fortably established and in the successful prosecution of their work. A
part of the expense of this party is borne by the Coast and Geodetie
Survey.
For some years one of the most valued coadjutors of the National
Museum has been Capt. Charles Bendire, of the First Cavalry, a distin-
guished officer of the service and a competent naturalist and observer.
Reference has already been made to his services in 1880, in visiting the
interior of Oregon and Washington Territory for the purpose of solving
24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
some unsettled problems in regard to the salmonide of the coast. His
observations proved entirely sufficient for the purpose of informing us
of the character of the trout of Wallowa Lake, which turns out to be not
a peculiar species of the lake, as was supposed, but an anadromous sal-
mon found along the entire coast of Washington Territory and elsewhere,
and characterized during the breeding season by a peculiar red color.
Captain Bendire having again offered his services to the Institution,
he was authorized by the War Department to visit certain regions, es-
pecially that of the valley of John Day River. With a grant of money
from the United States Geological Survey for necessary and incidental
expenses, Captain Bendire made his expedition, and sent in a large
number of packages of well-selected specimens, which will shortly be-
come the subject of investigation. Some collections of fishes and other
objects in alcohol were also gathered and forwarded by Captain Ben-
dire.
Private Charles Ruby, of the Army, while at Fort Laramie, exer-
cised his skill as a taxidermist in collecting specimens of the wild ani-
mals of the country and sending them to the Smithsonian Institution.
An arrangement was made by which he was transferred to a region
better adapted to his work, near Fort Shaw, in Montana. Here he has
continued his co-operation, and has furnished a large number of skins
of larger mammals, a number of which have been mounted and introduced
in the National Museum.
The usual co-operation of the medical branch of the Army in the
matter of exploration has also been continued, many medical officers
having forwarded collections of greater or less magnitude, among these
are included a number of contributions of living reptiles to the Institu-
tion, for the purpose of being cast in plaster and placed in the appro-
priate gallery of the Museum. 3
Mention should not be omitted of the service rendered by officers of
the Army in New Mexico and Arizona, as stated in the report of Mr.
Stevenson, of his explorations in Arizona.
PUBLICATIONS.
It may not be deemed superfluous to repeat frequently, for the infor-
mation of those who may not have ready access to previous volumes
of the annual report, that the publications made directly or indirectly
by the Institution (always regarded as the most important of its agen-
cies for the “increase and diffusion of knowledge among men”), are dis-
tributed into three series. The first series comprises the “Smithsonian
Contributions to Knowledge,” published in quarto size, and designed
to embrace only the discussions of original investigations, constituting
new additions to knowledge. This series now numbers twenty-three
volumes, averaging about 600 pages. The second series comprises the
“Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,” published in octavo size, and
including, in addition to other original memoirs, the bulletins and pro-
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25
ceedings of the National Museum, special reports on particular sub-
jects of biological or physical research, tabular compilations of classifi-
cation, natural constants, and such other miscellaneous information as
is deemed of value to the scientific worker or student. ‘This series num-
bers twenty-one volumes, averaging about 800 pages each. The third
series comprises the Annual Reports of the Regents, presented to and
published by Congress. Accompanying the report proper (giving the
statistical and financial summaries required by law) interesting records
of particular advances and discoveries, or of the progress of science
generally, have been presented in a general appendix, making the
volume much sought after.
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.—Of the quarto class of pub-
lications the following memoirs have been collected and published during
the past year, as volume XXIIT of the “Contributions to Knowledge,”
forming a volume of 767 pages, illustrated by 155 wood-cuts and 16
plates:
1. Introduction, contents, &c., 16 pages.
2. Lucernariz and their allies; a memoir on the anatomy and physi-
ology of Haliclystus Auricula and other Lucernarians, with a discus-
sion of their relations to other Acalephe, to Beroids, and Polypi. By
Henry James Clark, B.8., A. B. (Published April, 1878.) 4to, 158 pp.,
4 wood-cuts and 11 plates, containing 145 figures. As stated in the
report for 1878, the lamented author died while his work was passing
through the press.
3. On the geology of Lower Louisiana and the salt deposit on Petite
Anse Island. By Eugene W. Hilgard, Ph. D., professor of chemistry
in the University of Mississippi. (Published June, 1872.) 4to, 38 pp.,
6 wood-cuts.
4. On the internal structure of the earth, considered as affecting the
phenomena of precession and nutation; supplementary to an article
under the above head in Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol.
XIX., No. 240, being the third of the problems of rotary motion. By
J.G. Barnard, U. S. Army. (Published August, 1877.) 4to, 20 pp.,
4 wood-cuts. This memoir is a continuation of the mathematical dis-
cussion of animportant problem of gyratory motion, published in 1872,
resulting in a modification of the conclusion formerly arrived at by the
author, and at the same time controverting the celebrated memoir of
Mr. Hopkins, which had been supposed to demonstrate that the terres-
trial gyration known as the “precession of the equinoxes” is incom-
patible with a molten or fluid interior to our globe. The question of
the internal fluidity of our earth thus appears to be now left (as for-
merly) to be settled by purely geological evidences.
5. A Classification and Synopsis of the Trochilide. By Daniel Gi-
raud Elliott, I’. R. 8. E.. (Published March, 1879.) 4to, 289 pp., 127
wood-cuts. This work comprises a full description of every known spe-
96 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
cies of humming-bird. In many cases the head, wing, and tail of the
bird are figured by wood-cuts inserted adjacent to the deseriptive text.
6. Fever. A Study in Morbid and Normal Physiology. By H.C.
Wood, A.M., M.D. (Published October, 1880.) 4to, 266 pp., 16 wood-
cuts and 5 plates, containing 17 figures. This memoir was more partic-
ularly described in the annual report for 1880.
Antiquities of Nicaragua.—Of separate memoirs published during the
year the first is Archeological Researches in Nicaragua, by J. F. Brans-
ford, M.D. (Published January 1881) 4to, 100 pp., 202 wood-cuts and
2 plates, containing 40 figures. This memoir gives an account of a large
number of interesting relics of the aboriginal inhabitants of Nicaragua,
disinterred by Dr. Bransford himself during visits to that place in 1876
andin1877. Thefine collection of ancient American burial-urns, pottery,
and other objects thus obtained, amounting to about 800 articles, has
been deposited in the National Museum. Of these not more than about
sixty were acquired by gift or purchase, the remainder having been dug
out from their original deposit by Dr. Bransford, or under his imme-
diate direction. More than a hundred of the larger urns were found to
contain human bones.
Rainfall Tables.—Another publication of the past year is, Tables and
Results of the presipitation in rain and snow in the United States and
at some stationsin adjacent parts of North America and in Central and
South America, collected by the Smithsonian Institution and discussed
under the direction of Joseph Henry and Spencer F. Baird, secretaries.
By Charles A. Schott. Second edition. (Published May, 1881.) 4to,
269 pp., 8 wood-cuts, 5 plates, and 5 maps or charts, exhibiting by
isohyetal curves the mean rain-fall for each of the four seasons and for
the year. The first edition of this work was published by the Institu-
tion in March, 1872, giving a tabulation of observations to the close of
1866. As aconsiderable amount of material has been subsequently ac-
cumulated, it was thought but just to have this additional information
incorporated in a new and thoroughly revised edition of the tables.
The work of arrangement and discussion was committed to the same
editor, Mr. Charles A. Schott, assisted by Mr. HE. H. Courtenay, and the
new tables include observations made from the beginning of 1867 to
the end of 1874, and in some eases to the end of 1876. This extension
has resulted in increasing the size of the original work by about 100
pages. It is believed that this compilation will prove a valuable con-
tribution to the study of American meteorology and climatology.
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.—Two volumes of the octavo
series have been published during the year, forming volume XX and
volume X XI of the “‘ Miscellaneous Collections.”
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 24
Volume XX consists of the following parts:
1. Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington. Vol. I,
March, 1871, to June, 1874, 8vo., 218 pp., 3 wood-cuts.
2. Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington. Vol. IT,
October, 1874, to November 2, 1878, 8vo., 452 pp.,9 wood-cuts and 4
plates.
3. Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington. Vol. III,
November 9, 1878, to June 19, 1880, 8vo., 169 pp., 7 wood-cuts.
Volume XXI contains the following memoirs:
1. James Smithson and his Bequest. By William J. Rhees, 1880,
8vo. 76 pp., 9 plates.
2. The Scientific Writings of James Smithson. Edited by William J.
Rhees, 1879, 8vo., 166 pp., 32 wood-cuts and 1 plate.
3. A Memorial of Joseph Henry, 1880, 8vo., 532 pp.,and 1 plate. This
latter work comprises, 1st., an account of the obsequies, with funeral
sermon, &c.; 2d the memorial addresses and services at the National
Japitol, by direction of Congress; and, 3d, as an appendix, selected
proceedings of and addresses before learned societies with which Pro-
fessor Henry had been more intimately connected.
Bulletins of the National Museum.—This series of octavo publications,
illustrating the zodlogical and ethnological collections in the United
States National Museum, has been authorized, as heretofore stated, by
the Department of the Interior, and the expenses of printing a first
issue of the same are sustained by that department. The stereotype
plates are subsequently employed in making up volumes of the ‘‘ Miscel-
laneous Collections.” During the year Bulletin No. 21 has been pub-
lished, comprising a carefully prepared digest revising the “‘ Nomen-
clature of North American Birds, chiefly contained in the United States
National Museum,” by Robert Ridgway, 1881, 8vo., 94 pp.
Proceedings of the National Musewm.—In continuation of the system-
atic description of new species received by the National Museum, and
other papers of interest to the naturalist, collected under the title of
‘** Proceedings,” a volume has been published during the year, compris-
ing valuable papers by Tarleton H. Bean, S. T. Cattie, I. M. Endlich,
Samuel Garman, Charles H. Gilbert, Theodore Gill, G. Brown Goode,
O. P. Hay, Angelo Heilprin, David S. Jordan, George N. Lawrence, W.
N. Lockington, Richard Rathbun, Robert Ridgway, John A. Ryder,
Rosa Smith, 8S. I. Smith, James G. Swan, A. E. Verrill, and Charles A.
White. This completes volume IIT of Proceedings of the United States
National Museum. 1881, 8vo., 594 pp.
Check-list of Smithsonian Publications.—During the latter part of the
year a new and revised edition of the list of publications of the Institu-
tion was printed, forming No. 487 of the Miscellaneous Collections. (De-
cember, 1881), 8vo., 22 pp.
28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
Smithsonian Annual Report.—The official report of the Board of Re.
gents for the year 1880 was presented to Congress January 19, 1881,
and an edition of 15,560 copies was ordered to be printed. This in-
cluded the usual reports of the Secretary, of the Executive Committee,
of the Board of Regents, and of the National Museum Building Com-
mission, together with the Journal of proceedings of the Board of Re-
gents. The “General Appendix” to the report, made up subsequently,
comprised, first, a record of recent scientific progress, which is regarded
as a valuable feature of the annual, and one desirable to be perma-
nently maintained. The various subjects were assigned to different col-
laborators as follows: Introduction, by the Secretary ; recent progress in
Astronomy, by Prof. E. 8S. Holden; in Geology and Mineralogy, by
Dr. George W. Hawes; in Physics and Chemistry, by Prof. George F.
Barker; in Botany, by Prof. William G. Farlow; in Zodlogy, by Dr. Theo-
dore Gill; in Anthropology, by Prof. Otis T. Mason. The remainder of
the General Appendix was occupied, secondly, with a bibliography of
Anthropology, by Prof. O. T. Mason; abstracts of Anthropological cor-
respondence of the Institution ; a report on the Luray cavern; a dis-
cussion of Professor Snell’s barometric observations, by Prof. F. H.
Loud; an account of investigations relative to illuminating materials,
by Joseph Henry (reprinted from the United States Light-House Report
for 1875) ; a synopsis of the scientific writings 6f Sir William Herschel,
by Prof. Edward 8. Holden and Charles S. Hastings; and, lastly, re-
ports giving an account of the principal astronomical observatories of
the world.
ASTRONOMICAL ANNOUNCEMENTS BY TELEGRAPH.
An important function of the Institution, initiated by my predecessor
in 1873, and since carried ont with great regularity, as exhibited in the
annual reports for nearly a decade past, comprises the transatlantic in-
terchange by telegraph of important astronomical discoveries requiring
immediate attention from numerous or widely separated observers.
These astronomical announcements through the Smithsonian Institu-
tion have been of great value in the promotion of science, and have
been highly appreciated.
The announcements of astronomical discoveries made during the past
year are as follows:
List of minor planets discovered in 1881.
Bes Itsrnic tee | al “ae Discover- spies ere day
No. | Name. Date. Discoverers. Ae NO: Observatory.
Dee iscinn .ttbnraae | Feb: 23.) Palisas 2 2:25. 29th. Pola.
29
It is noteworthy that last year is the first one since 1859 in which
more than one planetoid has not been discovered. The annual numbers
recorded during the last twenty-five years are as follows:
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
HSGV( sees 255 OF L862 2as=—e= Del L664 [ose == AM GT 2a eat Dy | MST se sey Ts
ikesyeS eeece Sal pLeooe== = Dl Wile te eeecae 12 | 1873... (| abs fie) Baa one 12
Theol! ee hee 1 ied belo Mee 3) |) lteter 2 | 1874.... Oi) ke ee eas AU
LE60Res a3. DulbMSGaseieconte SMe Oe se a1! 30) 187. <= 7) LESBO 2 2Sa3 18
ifs) Se SsSGenc LOS S602 =cc oes (So akevAL SSE Ae ay Mere ses coe 12 BBE, sees ace hcl
30 19 26 42 52
It thus appears that the quinquennial average of discoveries, so far
from decreasing, has for the past twenty years steadily and notably in-
creased, giving mo indication, therefore, of an immediate or early ex-
haustion of material. This is due, partly, to the closer scrutiny given
to this field by astronomers, partly to the increased number of ob-
servers, and partly to improvements in their instruments and in their
systematic methods of observation.
This remarkable group of planetoidal or meteoroidal bodies forms a
tolerably wide zone or ring between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter,
separating the four interior and smaller planets (including our earth)
from the four exterior and much larger planets. Ithas been estimated
by Leverrier and others, from the motion of Mars (the amount of dis-
placement of the apsides, due to the amount of counteraction of the
solar gravitation by the external attraction), that the entire mass of
this ring of meteors cannot much exceed a fourth of that of our earth.
In no great time, therefore, the discovery of new members of this group
must become more and more rare. The smallest thus far observed do
not probably exceed 20 or 30 miles in diameter, and the number which
will remain forever unseen, by even the highest powers of the telescope,
may very many times surpass the number ever made visible.
List of comets observed in 1881.
No. Name. Date. Discoverer. Observatory.
ie piaye sicometses|psosc sc albu lee custo cei.
Ul fl | See oeecemaoomase May 1 | Swift --..-...--..| Rochester, N. Y.
WE Beeeess S2-2eciase May 21 | Tebbutt..:.2.--- Windsor, New South Wales.
DVi }ceees =- ss. 2 -525| July: 16 || Scheberle..:.-.-| Ann Arbor; Mich.
V | Encke’s comet...) Aug. 27 | Common .-..----- Ealing, England.
WWillimeererccae ssc colons Sept. 20 | E. E. Bernard --.| Nashville, Tenn.
Wal ates aeniees vac ss Oets }- 45) Denning os - 2 -75- Bristol, England.
VUE | pees soc e os se s5)s-| NOMS olGL |) Switti 2225... 2 Rochester, N. Y.
The generous co-operation of the large telegraph companies, embrac-
ing those both of the transatlantic cable and of the widely ramified
land lines, cannot be too often or too warmly acknowledged. The lib-
30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
eral spirit with which these scientific messages are dispatched across
the world, without charge to the Institution, isa most gratifying tribute
of sympathy and confidence on the one hand, and a conspicuous illus-
tration of enlightened appreciation of the character of information thus
diffused on the other.
The European centers to which our telegrams of American discoveries
are gratuitously distributed are the Nationai Observatories of Green-
wich in England, Paris in France, Berlin in Germany, Vienna in Aus-
tria, and Pulkovain Russia. The telegraphic announcements of foreign
discoveries are gratuitously distributed to nineteen of the leading es-
tablishments in the United States, as wellas to some of the daily papers
and to the Associated Press generally.
INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.
No one of the various operations carried on by the Smithsonian In-
stitution is of more importance in the advancement of science than that
of the international exchange of publications between the governments
and their bureaus, departments, the learned institutions, and scientific
men of the two worlds. Notwithstanding the increase of the govern-
mental international system, in which quite a number of nations have
joined, the work of the Smithsonian Institution still continues to be of
pre-eminent magnitude and importance. Originally initiated for the
purpose of distributing the publications of the Smithsonian Institution
to libraries, societies, aud learned men abroad, and to receive returns
for the same, it was gradually extended so as to take within its sphere
all the establishmentsinthe New World requiring a similarservice. In-
deed, by its system of agencies in various portions of the world to which
packages were sent for transmission to destination, and where returns
were gathered and forwarded to Washington, it maintained an arrange-
ment of its own, entirely independent of any other organization.
If there has been any diminution of efficiency in the system of official
exchanges during the last few years since the establishment of inter-
national bureaus by various national governments, owing to the absence
of direct responsibility to the Institution which its service of paid agents
secures, it is hoped and believed that as the routine becomes better un-
derstood and appreciated all requirements will soon be satisfactorily
met.
Within a year or two by the reorganization of the service and an in-
crease in its force, the department of exchanges of the Institution, now
in charge of Mr. George H. Boehmer, has become very efficient, and
to his report, herewith appended, I refer for more minute details.
It may be proper to remark that while the number of foreign ad-
dresses in communication with the Smithsonian Institution in 1850
amounted to 173, at the close of 1881 it forms an aggregate of 2,908,
divided as follows:
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, ol
Africa, 36. .
America, exclusive of the United States, 135,
Asia, 68.
Australasia, 82.
Kurope, 2,578.
Polynesia, &ce., 9.
A detailed list of the parties in the United States sending and receiv-
ing the packages embraced in these transmissions will also be found
in the Appendix.
The expenses of the service for the year, in consequence of an ap-
propriation by Congress, have been reduced from $9,996.05 in 1880, to
$7,467.84 in 1881.
It is very desirable that the entire cost of this system of exchange,
so far as the actual expenses are concerned, should be defrayed by the
government. So far as establishments other than the Smithsonian In-
stitution are concerned, there is every reason why the government
should pay the cost, and the propriety is still greater in reference to the
exchanges of the Institution itself, since all the returns obtained are
immediately transferred to the Library of Congress, of which they con-
stitute a very important part.
The acquisition of many works, of great scientific and economical
value, unpurchasable by money, is accomplished, first, by expenditures
of the Institution for printing its publications, and then by their trans-
mission through the system of exchange to various parts of the world,
and the receipt of returns for the same.
The cost of the system of Smithsonian exchanges would be some
thousands of dollars greater than is actually the case but for the con-
tinued liberality of the various steamship lines between the United
States and other parts of the world. A list of these lines and of the
general agencies through which transmissions are made is given in the
Appendix.
Among the important additions made to this list during the past year,
special mention should be made of the Red Star Line, of which Messrs.
Peter Wright & Sons, of Philadelphia, are the agents. This line has
carried a large number of packages between New York and Antwerp
without charge. The Hamburg American Packet Company has also
extended its privileges so as to cover a much larger range of material
than heretofore.
For some years past there have been serious difficulties in the trans-
mission of the exchanges of the Smithsonian Institution to Cuba, owing
to onerous custom-house regulations, and an arrangement was finally
made through the minister of Spain, Senor Don Felipe Mendez de Vigo,
by which all our packages were to be addressed to the governor-general
of Cuba and transferred by him, with the accompanying invoice, to
Prof. Felipe Poey, of the University of Havana, by whom they are dis-
tributed,
474 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
The total number of boxes required to contain the transmissions for
the year amounted to 407, of a gross bulk of more than 2,000 cubic feet,
and a gross weight of over 100,000 pounds.
Government Hxchanges.—In addition to the regular routine work of
the exchange referred to above, the Institution has for several years
past prosecuted, under Congressional enactment, an exchange of the
publications of the United States Government for those of other nations,
the transactions being exclusively between the Government of the United
States and those of other countries. For this purpose fifty sets of all
publications made at the expense of the United States, whether by or-
der of Congress or by a department, are turned over to the Library of
Congress for transmission to the Smithsonian Institution, and these are
distributed to such nations as give corresponding publications in return.
As the amount of material printed by the United States amounts to
from 12 to 16 cubic feet every year, the aggregate transmissions are
very important, and year by year the returns come in in an increasing
proportion. The whole transaction is intended for the benefit of the
Library of Congress, so as to secure the official publications of other
nations, most of which can only be obtained by this system of exchange.
There is a curious feature connected with this distribution of public
documents, namely, with the exception of two sets which are reserved
by the Library of Congress for its use, there is no provision by which
any American library can obtain anything like so complete a series of
the official publications as are sent by the Institution to foreign govern-
ments connected with the Exchange. It seems very desirable that in-
stead of reserving fifty sets only of each government publication, there
should be at least one set reserved for the leading library of each State,
or, at any rate, for that of the State and Territorial legislatures.
Reference has been made in previous reports to the establishment of
a governmental system of international exchanges corresponding to
that of the Smithsonian Institution. No important addition to the
number of governments mentioned as concerned, has been made during
the year 1881, although its extension to all the principal countries is
much to be desired.
While the Smithsonian Institution has been named as the official
agent in this business, its labors would be greatly facilitated if it could
communicate directly with corresponding bureaus of other nations, the
work, too, would be prosecuted much more satisfactorily. The govern-
ments of Russia and Italy, although not giving a formal adhesion to
the system of the Smithsonian Institution, yet in the year 1881 estab-
lished bureaus for the practical management of international exchange.
By the exchange convention of Paris in 1875, it was provided that
each party sending should deliver its transmissions free of expense, in
the office of the other; but the stipulation, so far as the transoceanic
relationships of the United States were concerned, was extremely un-
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33
satisfactory, on account of the great number of changes required be-
tween Washington and the foreign capitals. The Smithsonian Institu-
tion, therefore, endeavored, so far as its own business was concerned, to
secure a modification of the proposition. It isa very simple thing for
charges from one point to follow the goods and be paid for in a lump
on receipt, while it is extremely difficult to know beforehand, or to
prepay expenses not yet estimated or assessed. The modification pro-
posed by the Smithsonian Institution was that each party should select
its most convenient seaport for receipt and delivery and pay expenses
to that point, or even to the port designated by the other ; the remaining
charges to be met by the recipient. The acceptance of this modifica-
tion by the governments of Russia and Italy was delayed, but ultimately
the matter was settled by making Hamburg the point of exchange
with Russia, and New York with Italy, the Institution paying only the
expenses to and from these two points.
For some years the exchanges of its publications made by the De-
partment of Agriculture with foreign institutions have been inter-
mitted, and a very important source of increase of its library thereby
interrupted. Commissioner Loring, since his accession to the charge
of the department, has expressed his desire to resume the exchange,
and has made arrangements to carry it on upon a suitable scale.
Reference has been made to the action of Congress in making an ap-
propriation for meeting, in part at least, the expense to the Institution
of the system of international exchanges. <A letter was addressed, on
the 23d of October, 1880, to Hon. William M. Evarts, Secretary of State,
calling attention to the cost to the Institution of continuing a work for
the United States Government not properly chargeable to the Smithson
fund. Ina letter, of which a copy is given in the appendix, Mr. Evarts
expressed his appreciation of the plea, and announced his intention of
asking Congress for relief. An estimate of $7,000 was sent in by him
-for this purpose, but the sum of $3,000 only was granted. This, how-
ever, as stated, has been a very material help, and it is hoped that a
larger allowance will be made for the present fiscal year, an estimate
for which has been presented.
As this work is prosecuted for the benefit of the country at large, and
especially for that uf the various bureaus of the United States Govern-
ment, there is no reason why the actual expense should be a charge
upon the income of the Smithsonian Institution, which has so many
other calls upon it. Whatever sum can be saved in one direction can
always be usefully applied in another in the interest of science and of
general education.
A history of the exchange system since its origin has been prepared
by Mr. G. H. Boehmer, and is presented in the appendix to this report,
together with a portion of the official correspondence between this In-
stitution and the department relative to the project of international ex-
change initiated by the Geographical Congress held in Paris in 1875,
S. Mis. 109 ——3
34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
and since carried out by the concurrence of most of the European
nations.
DISTRIBUTION.
Closely connected with the department of exchanges is that of the
distribution by the Smithsonian Institution of books and specimens on
its own account and that of the National Museum. As has already been
shown, the entire system of International Exchanges of the Institution
began in the desire to find a convenient method of distributing its own
publications to libraries and.societies and a provision for the receipt of
returus. On getting the machinery of distribution fairly at work it was
found sufficiently comprehensive to serve other establishments in the
United States, and little by little it grew to its present magnitude.
Distribution of Books.—The distribution by the Institution on its own
part consists mainly of copies of the Annual Reports of the Regents of
the Institution to Congress, and the various publications included in the
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge and the Miscellaneous Collee-
tions, both in their separate form and as aggregated in volumes. More
recently the Proceedings and Bulletins of the National Museum have
been added to the number of volumes to be sent out. The distribution
through the United States, however, by a law of Congress is now made
under a frank of the Smithsonian Institution, which also covers the Do-
minion of Canada. That to foreign countries is made either by mail or
by the various agencies of transportation.
As in previous years, the oceanic shipments are made almost entirely
without expense, as explained more fully in another part of the report.
The Pennsylvania Railroad and its dependencies and the Baltimore
and Ohio Road have continued to make important reductions in their
rates of charges to Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York.
Distribution of Specimens.—The distribution of specimens, either in
the way of exchanges for other articles or as donations to the museums
of colleges, academies, &c., has continued during the year on a very
large scale. The details of this will be found under the head of the op-
erations of the Museum.
LIBRARY.
As in most other branches of Smithsonian operations, the accessions
to the library show a continued increase, the numbers of books and
other publications received during the year as compared with those of
the three preceding years being indicated in the accompanying table.
This does not include the special contributions to the working library
of the National Museum, which have not been fully catalogued, but
will be reported upon hereafter.
As is well known to the Board, the books received by the Smithsonian
Institution, either by way of exchange or donation, are transferred to
the Library of Congress, in which they constitute a very conspicuous
feature, representing as they do an extensive series of transactions and
memoirs of societies and scientific and technical publications.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35
Statement of the books, maps, and charts received by the Smithsonian Institution and trans-
ferred to the Library of Congress.
Tis Sie ease 762 | 3,914
Quarto or larger. Octavo or smaller.
F | | Total.
| Vols. | Parts. | Pamph’s. | Vols. | Parts. | Pamph’s. | Charts.
pms Ee Messe ea fe | | :
ils y(s peepee | 403 | 2, 620 | 463 860 | 2,356 | 1, 953 | 74 8,729
UBIOS abe 440 | 2,612 | 591 | 1,509 | 3,240 | 1, 628 | 183 10, 203
LEBOM: feese 337 | 2,603 | 477 806 | 2,577 | 1,618 | 152 8,570
| 468 | 1,105 | 3,591 1, 931
| - 188] 11,959
|
As part of the statistical work of the United States Census, a com-
plete file of all the newspapers published in the United States during
the census year of 1880 was collected, the total amounting to some five
thousand titles. The authorities of the Census Department offered
these to the Smithsonian Institution if it could find proper accommoda-
tions for the same. As, however, the library of the Institution has
long since been merged in that of Congress, and as the expense of bind-
ing alone would have been extremely onerous, the suggestion was made
that the whole be offered to Mr. Spofford.
THE NATIONAL MUSEUM.
The organization of the National Museum may now be regarded as
practically completed, and the arrangement of a large portion of its
valuable material for instructive display at least provisionally effeeted.
A very full report of the scientific objects aimed at and of results so
far accomplished in this important branch of the public service has been
prepared by Mr. G. Brown Goode, the assistant director in charge, and
will be found in the appendix.
Reference was made in the reports for 1876 and 1877 to the enormous
amount of material presented to the United States by exhibitors at the
_ Philadelphia Centennial, and to the number of car-loads transferred to
Washington. Since the completion of the National Museum the greater
portion of these specimens have been removed from the Armory and
subjected to a provisional arrangement, precedent to their final assign-
ment to the cases.
The minerals and ores were unpacked under the direction of Dr.
Hawes, in charge, and the reserve series picked out and held in readi-
ness tor further action. The duplicates have all been properly assorted,
and to some extent distributed. This work however, cannot be satis-
factorily carried out until the coming year.
The purely metallurgical specimens have also been classified ; but are
still, for the most part, in their boxes, awaiting the appointment of a
~ specialist for that department.
Increase of the Museum.—It has been reported to the board that at
the close of the International Exhibition a company was organized in
36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
Philadelphia for the purpose of continuing the display for an indefinite
period. The great main building, covering 18 acres, was purchased
at a very low price, and from among the original:exhibits many were
either purchased by the company or presented, or deposited by the pro-
prietors. Numerous additions were also made, in certain specified di-
rections, the object being to have a display of industries, for commer-
cial purposes, and also for the general education and instruction of the
community.
The anticipations of the projectors of this exhibition were not realized,
the distance of the building from the city and the length of time nec-
essary to visit it, and the satiety of the public in regard to such dis-
plays caused the number of visitors to fall far below what was necessary
to meet the expenses, and after struggling vainly against the inevitable,
the exhibition was given up and the building sold. The owners of
property therein were notified to remove it at the earliest possible mo-
ment.
As there was much in this exhibition that fell entirely within the
plan of the industrial department of the National Museum, Mr. Thomas
Donaldson was requested to act as an agent for soliciting contributions,
which he did with such success that, by far the greater part of what
was really valuable and important, was obtained by him as a free gift
from the proprietors. Several months were spent, with a proper corps
of assistants, in taking down and packing the exhibits for transporta-
tion, and the entire mass is now stored in a temporary warehouse, await-
ing’an appropriation by Congress for transfer and installation.
A detailed list of these donations will be appended to this report.
Their money value is estimated at not less than $150,000. In addition
to the collections actually obtained, many others are promised, and are
now, for the most part, in process of preparation.
Medicinal Collections.—As indicated in previous reports, a full collee-
tion of the materia medica of the world has been projected as one of
the exhibits of the National Museum. In addition to the large amount
of material of this character obtained at the International Exhibition
of 1876, the Institution received the promise of aid by Messrs Schief-
felin & Co., of New York, a very prominent firm, connected with the
drug trade. The firm sent a representative to the International Phar-
maceutical Convention, held in London during the past summer, with
special reference to obtaining certain obscure and unusual substances
that could not otherwise be secured. Many hundreds of varieties of
great rarity resulted from this mission. As especially related to the
medical department of the Navy, Surgeon-General Wales detailed Dr.
J. M. Flint, assistant surgeon, U. S. N., to take charge of this division
of the Museum, and he is now engaged in cataloguing and labeling the
specimens as they are received.
In order to obtain the necessary information on this subject, the
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. at
Smithsonan Insititution, through the courtesy of the State Department,
has issued circulars to the foreign representatives of the United States,
asking first, whether there is a national pharmacopeia in the country
to which accredited, and second, requesting that copies if published be
sent to the Institution. Responses have very generally been received,
and a very complete collection of pharmacopeeias is at present in Doctor
Flint’s possession, from which to prepare the list referred to.
- Special Contributions.—The explorations of the United States Fish
Commission have added greatly to the material at the command of the
Smithsonian Institution, both for research and distribution. The many
new and rare species of fishes collected by the commission constitute
a very important advance in our knowledge of the deep seas. Besides
enriching the National Museum, the large mass of duplicate specimens
will enable the Institution to continue its distribution of labeled suites
of species to a large number of educational establishments in the
country.
Prof. Felipe Poey, of Havana, furnishes a supply of living reptiles for
the use of the modelers, and also rare fishes, types of many new species
described by himself.
Mr. Livingston Stone has furnished large important collections of
fossils as well as of recent animals, from the United States Fish-hatch-
ery, on the McCloud River, California, a region of very great ethnolog-
ical and zodlogical interest.
Hon. John M. Langston, United States minister to Hayti, has con-
_ tributed some valuable collections of the corals of the islards, quite a
number of which were new to the collection.
Mr. C. C. Leslie, an extensive fish dealer of Charleston, 8. C., has con-
tinued his collections in the line of ichthyology from the shores of his
State.
Mr. Silas Stearns, a fish dealer in Pensacola, has also added mate-
rially to the very large number of fishes of the Gulf of Mexico, previ-
ously presented by him. To Mr. Stearns we are indebted for quite a
number of entirely new species, which have been or will be described in
the procedings of the National Museum.
In addition to the collections of fishes and marine invertebrates by
the main parties of the United States Fish Commission, Col. M. Me-
Donald, in charge of the station for hatching Spanish mackerel at
Cherrystone, in Chesapeake Bay, made a large collection, embracing
many rarities.
In the earlier volumes of the reports of the Institution frequent men-
tion is made of contributions to the National Museum by Mr. Rh. Mac-
Farlane, of the Hudson Bay service, while stationed at Fort Yueon,
Fort Anderson, and elsewhere; and even to the present time the early
collections of Mr. MacFarlane stand pre-eminent. To him is due more
38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
than to any single person, the knowledge which we have of the natu-
ral history and ethnology of the arctic circle of North America.
Since Mr. MacFarlane’s change of station to an interior post he has
been prevented from making many additions to his series; but during
the year 1881 we were gratified at the receipt of a number of skins of
rare mammals, &e., contributions by him, and showing the persistency
of his interest in the National Museum.
Dr. James Moran, of the Medical Department of the Army, who fur-
nished collections in previous years, has also supplied several rare forms
of pottery and other aboriginal remains from Arizona.
Miss Rosa Smith has continued her contributions of fishes from San
Diego, Cal. supplementing to some extent the work prosecuted there
in 1880 by Prof. D. 8S. Jordan, as referred to in the preceding portion
of this report.
Mr. James G. Swan, of Port Townsend, Wash. Terr., whose contri-
butions to the ethnology and general natural history of Puget Sound,
have been noticed in almost every report for twenty years, has not inter-
mitted his exertions during 1881. Numerous collections of objects of
Indian manufacture, of fishes, &c., have been received from him with a
large amount of special information on the fisheries of Puget Sound.
Mr. José Zeledon, of San José, Costa Rica, to whose services as a
skilled ornithologist and collector reference has frequently been made,
has added to his many contributions by supplying some extremely rare
and possibly new species of birds of Costa Rica.
ETHNOLOGICAL BUREAU.
The Ethnological Bureau, established by Congress for prosecuting
researches among the Indian tribes of North America, with the view of
securing to ethnological science available records of races destined
ultimately to disappear, is continuing its interesting and important work,
under the able directorship of Major Powell, with marked and gratify-
ing success. The most important of these operations during the past
year consists of the work of Mr. F. H. Cushing, and that of Mr. James
Stevenson. Mr. Cushing has been a resident of the village of Zuni for
several years past, carrying his researches into the domestic habits, re-
ligious rites and ceremonies, and other features of the condition of the
Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, and he has obtained a vast body of
original information upon these subjects, which will, in time, be pub-
lished. He has made very large collections in ethnology, those ob-
tained in the caves. of New Mexico being especially noteworthy. A
peculiarity in the religious observances of the Pueblo Indians consists
in their hiding away a memento of important ceremonials, in caves ac-
cessible with great difficulty, and only visited on such occasions. The
accumulations in these caves date back many years, and the specimens
gathered, illustrating the changes in methods and chronological peculi-
arities, are very interesting.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39
Similar collections have been received through Mr. Metealfe from a
cave near Silver City, N. Mex., showing a similarity of treatment of
the subject over a wide extent of the country.
At the last session of Congress the sum of $5,000 was especially re-
served, by enactment, from the appropriation for ethnological researches
to be expended in continuing investigations into aboriginal mounds, and
several gentlemen were assigned to this business. The most important
contributions under this arrangement have been made by Dr. Edward
Palmer, who has spent several months in Tennessee, and subsequently
in Arkansas. A large number of boxes have been received from him,
containing some extremely rare and even unique objects.
Dr. W. De Hass was assigned to a certain region in West Virginia
and adjacent portions of Eastern Ohio. This work has been prosecuted
during the summer, but as yet no collections have been received.
Mr. W. J. Taylor, of Nashville, Tenn., has furnished a number of speci-
mens Similar in character to those of Mr. Palmer.
Mr. 8. T. Walker has also procured some mound relies from Florida.
His collections are all very interesting, as showing some peculiarities in
the contents of prehistoric mounds anc graves in that State as compared
with those of Tennessee and Arkansas.
Ethnological and archeological explorations, heretofore conducted by
the Bureau of Ethnology in the Northwest, under the direction of Pro-
fessor Powell, were continued over contiguous areas to those examined
the two previous years. The vast quantities of valuable material, both
ancient and modern, possessed by the Pueblo tribes made it important
that the work of collecting should be carried on extensively, in order to
secure as much as possible, before they were carried away by visitors
and speculators, who are now, since the railroads make that region ac-
cessible, visiting that country frequently. A party was equipped and
placed in charge of Mr. James Stevenson to prosecute the work among
the Indians of the Province of Tusegan, known as the Seven Moquis,
and also to secure an additional collection from the Pueblos of Zuni.
The party proceeded to each of these localities, from which large and
varied collections were made, consisting of everything pertaining to
the religious and domestic life of these tribes. The collections from Mo-
qui are unique and valuable, consisting of alarge number of ancient
earthenware vessels and stone implements. Among the formerare some
very handsome vases elaborately decorated with unknown designs, and
of new forms in structure from any hitherto found. The tribes from
whom they were obtained had no knowledge of their origin, but they
were in all probability made by the people who resided in a village of
considerable dimensions, about twelve miles east of Moqui, called by
the Navajos Tally-hogan or singing houses. An examination of this
village, which is now in ruins, revealed immense quantities of fragments
of pottery, on all of which were designs and figures, similar to those on
the ancient vessels just referred to, which were obtained from the Mo-
40 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
quis. The amount of material secured from Moqui was quite large,
aggregating about 12,000 pounds. A mapof great accuracy was made
of the seven villages, and will accompany the report of the Bureau to
show the relative positions of the villages of this province.
The collections from Zui were large and important, amounting in
weight to 21,000 pounds.
Mr. Mendeleff, with several assistants, completed a survey of Zuni for
the purpose of constructing a model of the village on a scale of five feet
to the inch. This model was completed during the present winter, and
is now on exhibition in the National Museum. The area covered by
Zuni is 1,200 by 600 feet, not including the goat and sheep corrals and
gardens, which occupy a much larger area. The model, however, will
illustrate all those features. The preparation of this model (which in-
cludes several thousand details) by Mr. Mendeleff required much labor
and skill. It is prepared in papier-maché, and presents the true colors
of the village as well as all the detaiis.
During the season, Mr. J. K. Hillers, the accomplished and skillful
photographer of the survey, in addition to the geographical and geo-
logical illustrations made by him, secured a large number of finely exe-
cuted photographie views of all the Moqui villages and of Zuii, as well
as of many ruins in the region surrounding them, among which are many
character sketches of the people, interiors of their houses, eagle pens, cor-
rals, portraits of men, women, and children, also many views of the people
while in the attitude of baking pottery, drying meat, dancing, &c. The
work was not completed ; it is therefore contemplated to make further
and more exhaustive researches in these regions in the future.
Some years ago the Smithsonian Institution had two Indians, one
named Tichkematse, a Cheyenne, and the other Geo. Tsaroff, a native
of the Aleutian Islands, in charge of the ethnological hall. The pres-
ence of these Indians in the room attracted much attention, especially _
as they were able to explain intelligently the functions of many of the
implements and other objects from a personal acquaintance with their
use. As stated in the last report, Tsaroff died of consumption in 1880,
and Tichkematse returned to his tribe in the Indian Territory, where
he exercised, in the interest of the Smithsonian Institution, his abilities
as a taxidermist. During the past season, at the request of Mr. F. H.
Cushing, he was ordered to Zuni, and rendered very important service
as an assistant in making Soeselaeies collections under the direction
of Mr. Cushing and of Mr. James Stevenson.
CO-OPERATION WITH OTHER ESTABLISHMENTS.
Pacifie Mail Steamship Company.—Among the earliest establishments
to co-operate with the Smithsonian Institution in its work of exploration
and exchange was the Pacific Mail Steamship Company; and during the
past year the Institution has been indebted to the president and officers
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 41
for important courtesies. Capt. John M. Dow, theresident agent of the
company at Panama, has continued to be of the utmost service to the
Institution, not only in transmitting valuable collections, but also in
taking charge of packages of books and specimens to and from the Insti-
tution. At his suggestion the president of the company has kindly of-
fered the facilities of the line to any explorer we may wish to send to
investigate the natural history, and especially the ichthyology, of Cen-
tral America. Arrangements will be made in the coming year to take
advantage of this desirable offer.
Corcoran Gallery of Art.—One of the departments of the Smithsonian
Institution, as designated by the act of incorporation, was the mainten-
ance of a gallery of art. On the establishment of the Corcoran Art
Gallery, with ample funds for the acquisition of paintings, engravings,
and statuary, and suitable accommodations for their display, the
Regents, under the authority vested in them by Congress, authorized
the transfer to that establishment of the collections of the art gallery;
and at present there is but little of importance in the Smithsonian
building, especially since the delivery to the Library of Congress of
the valuable collection of engravings purchased some years ago by
the Institution from the Hon. George P. Marsh, at present United
States minister to Italy. The Institution, however, still retains the
series of busts in plaster and marble of eminent historical personages
of both the Old and the New World.
Most of the objects in the art department were derived from the col-
lections of the National Institute for the Promotion of Science, an
organization which, after twenty years’ existence, expired by limitation
of charter, in accordance with which its property, in specimens, books,
&ec., was turned over to the Smithsonian Institution. Among the
paintings transferred was a full-length portrait of General Washington,
painted by the late Mr. Charles W. Peale. By authority of a law
of Congress this was sent to the International Exhibition of 1876 in
Philadelphia, and arranged with the other art collections. It was
subsequently transferred to the halls of the Academy of Fine Arts in
Philadelphia. It was, however, reclaimed by the Institution during
the past year, and placed in the Corcoran Art Gallery, where it now
remains. The ownership of this picture is claimed by Mr. Titian R.
Peale, a son of Mr. Charles W. Peale, its painter, and his claim for
compensation is now before Congress.
TREASURY DEPARTMENT.—Revenue Marine.—Reference has already
been made to the co-operation of the Treasury Department in the scien-
tific work of the Institution, in instructing Captain Hooper to take Mr.
Nelson on board the “Corwin” for the special purpose of making an
investigation of the ethnological peculiarities of the natives of St.
Lawrence Island. In many other cases the revenue marine has ren-
dered essential assistance to science by its co-operation. Many valuable
42 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
specimens have been received from the officers, especially from Capt.
C. M. Seammon, Captain Hodgden, Captain White, Capt. J. G. Baker,
Captain Howard, and numerous others. Indeed, there is scarcely an
annual list of contributions to the National Museum that does not em-
brace a donation of greater or less magnitude from that office, and the
archives of the Smithsonian Institution have further been enriched by
valuable communications on natural history and ethnological subjects.
As another example of co-operation, mention may be made of the help
extended by the Institution to the two Doctors Kraus, gentlemen sent
to America in the early part of the year 1881 by the Geographical
Society of Bremen for the purpose of carrying on ethnological and bio-
logical researches on the Asiatic shores of Behrings Straits. Com-
mended to the Institution by Dr. Lindeman, and others, letters of in-
troduction were furnished to persons in San Francisco, and a permit
was obtained from the Secretary of the Treasury authorizing the ship-
ment of ammunition and supplies for making natural history collections.
The Smithsonian Institution also furnished a quantity of alcohol for the
preservation of fishes and marine invertebrates.
These gentlemen embarked ona schooner at San Francisco. and were
last heard from at St. Lawrence Bay in Siberia. At that time they had
secured quite a number of specimens, and were prosecuting their re-
searches among the Tschuches.
The Coast and Geodetic Survey, also a bureau of the Treasury Depart-
ment, has continued its favors in authorizing the officers in charge of
shore parties or of hydrographic work to utilize any convenient oppor-
tunity at their command in collecting specimens for the National Mu-
seum. Very valuable collections were made during the year by Com-
mander Nichols, in charge of the Coast Survey steamer “ Hassler.”
These embraced fishes and reptiles from Mazatlan and elsewhere, along
the coast of Lower California, from Upper California, and from Alaska.
Quite a number of new species of fishes have already been described
from this collection.
In previous years many contributions were made by Lieut. Wm. P.
Trowbridge, Mr. Wm. H. Dall, and others of the Coast Survey, which
are among the most important accessions to the National Museum.
In this connection it should not be forgotten that the recent explora-
tions by Mr. Alexander Agassiz, in connection with the physical and
natural history of the South Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico, have been
made under the direct patronage of the Coast Survey, and that the first
series of all collections, embracing many new and rarespecies, are, by
law, the property of the National Museum.
The Light-House Board of the Treasury Department has also contin-
ued its aid. This has been extended more particularly in the way of
instructions to keepers of light-houses and light-ships to make observa-
tions in regard to the temperature of the air and of the water and of the
occurrence of the phenomena of migrations of marine animals. With
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43
the*help of thermometers furnished by the Fish Commission or the Signal
Office, a valuable body of material has been obtained, throwing impor-
tant light on the movements of fish in relation to their physical sur-
roundings.
NECROLOGY.
During the year 1881 I have to report the loss by death of two among
the employés of the Smithsonian Institution; one of these, Mr. JOHN
H. RICHARD, which took place at Philadelphia on the 18th of March;
the other, Miss MAGGIE CONNOR, at Washington, onthe 20th of Novem-
ber. Mr. Richard was a Frenchman by birth, but a resident for many
years of this country, and for a long time occupied a prominent position
among natural history draughtsmen. Originally employed by Professor
Holbrook in the preparation of the plates of his great works on the
reptiles and fishes of South Carolina, he entered the service of the
Smithsonian Institution nearly thirty years ago, and was employed for
many years in making illustrations of reptiles and fishes for the re-
ports of the Pacific Railroad, the Mexican Boundary, the Wilkes Ex-
ploring expeditions, &c. Resigning his position, he for some years en-
gaged in business in Philadelphia as a colorist, still doing more or less
work for the Institution. Subsequently he resumed his old situation,
and for seven or eight years he has been principally employed in paint-
ing casts in plaster and papier-maché of American fishes and cetaceans,
the white work having been done under the direction of Mr. Joseph
Palmer. The excellence of these representations has been universally
commended, especially as exhibited to the general public at the Inter-
national Exhibition in Philadelphia and the Fishery Exhibition in Ber-
lin. The death of Mr. Richard leaves a gap among the capable natural-
history artists of this country.
Another death among the employés of the Smithsonian Institution
was that of Miss MAGGIE CONNOR, who died of consumption on the
20th day of November. Her father was one of the earliest employés of
the Institution and died in its service, and Miss Connor has been for
many years connected with the record department of the Museum.
It is, perhaps, proper to mention also the death of Mr. George W.
Riggs, on the 25th day of August, a gentleman who, although not at
the time immediately associated with the Institution, had long been its
financial agent, and who has rendered many very important services in
connection with his profession as a banker.
MISCELLANEOUS.
For many years Mr. Townend Glover, both before and during his con-
nection with the Department of Agriculture, was engaged in preparing
and in engraving on copper, in time outside of that due to the department,
a series of illustrations of the economical entomology of the United
States, until failing health and the almost entire loss of eyesight pre-
44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. .
vented his further action. He had, however, engraved many hundreds
of plates, illustrating the life history of the insects most prominent as
beneficial or injurious to the farmer. Professor Glover published a por-
tion only of this work, printing at his own expense the text and illus-
trations. He has been desirous of obtaining help from the government
to issue the complete work, but so far has been unable to secure the
necessary appropriation, altbough the subject has been warmly recom-
mended by several of the committees on agriculture. Finding it neces-
sary to remove to Baltimore, he has deposited all his plates in fire-proof
apartments of the Institution, subject to further action. It is very de-
sirable, in the interest of the farmer and horticulturist, that this work
should be published at an early date, and the immense mass of practi-
eal information made available.
It has been the custom of the Smithsonian Institution to give to
eminent American men of science letters to its foreign correspondents,
commending them to any official attentions that may be convenient,
and requesting for them the privileges of libraries and museums. Dur-
ing the year 1881 such letters were given to Dr. J. S. Billings of the
Medical Department of the Army, a member of the National Board of
Health, who visited Europe on official business connected with the
jatter establishment, and to Dr. Durgin, President of Hillsdale College,
Michigan.
INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITIONS, ETC.
Reference was made in the report for 1880 to the part taken by the
National Musenm and the United States Fish Commission in the Inter-
national Fishery Exhibition, held at Berlin in the spring of 1880. The
collections sent to Berlin have all been returned and restored to their
places. Thereports of this exhibition by various foreign countries have
been received, and all unite in referring to the display made by the
National Museum and Fish Commission as being by far the best and
most instructive of all, this being corroborated by the receipt of the
highest awards. The grand prize, a silver gilt vase of beautiful design
and of great cost, was made personally to your Secretary as head of the
United States Fish Commission, and an act of Congress was passed
authorizing him to receive it free of the duty, which alone would have
amounted to about one thousand dollars. He has presented it to the
National Museum, of which it will doubtless constitute an attractive
object.
A second exhibition in which the Smithsonian took part was that of
the International Electrical Convention, held in Paris in August, 1881.
A series of the publications of the Institution, relating to electricity,
was transmitted and placed in charge of the American commissioner,
Hon. George Walker. The appreciation by the jury of the services of
Pofessor Henry to electrical science by his discoveries and of the Institu-
tion by its publications was shown by the grant of one of the highest
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45
awards, namely, the Diplomaof Honor. The American representatives
at the exhibition were Mr. Walker, commissioner-general, Prof. George
F, Barker, commissioner expert, &c.
The occasion of the International Electrical Congress in Paris during
the past summer was embraced by the French Government for bringing
together a commission in relation to the forthcoming transit of Venus,
and, at the request of the State Department for a nomination of an
American known to be in Paris, the name of Prof. G. F. Barker was
suggested by the Institution as a suitable representative on the part of
the United States. Although not an astronomer, Professor Barker is
well known as a most accomplished physicist, and able to take part in
any general discussion of matters and system of co-operation.
International Congress of Americanists.—An international association
devoted to recovering data in regard to the early history of the Amer-
icas has for many years held its sessions annually in the different eapi-
tals of Europe, that for 1881 being held at Madrid, under the special
patronage of His Majesty King Alfonso. The Smithsonian Institution
was invited to take an interest in this association by collecting sub-
scriptions and issuing tickets of membership. The proceedings of the
meeting have not yet been published. It has been suggested that an
invitation be extended by the President of the United States to have
one of the forthcoming meetings of the association held in this country,
and that the hospitalities of the nation be extended by an appropriation
by Congress for the expenses of oceanic travel. This matter will prob-
ably come up for the consideration of the government at the proper
time.
International Geographical Congress.—Another international econven-
tion which took place during the summer was that of the Geographi-
eal Congress at Venice. The publications of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion and of the United States Fish Commission, as far as they bear upon
geographical explorations and discovery, were presented, and the
United States was ably represented by Capt. George M. Wheeler,
United States Engineers, a gentleman well known for the magnitude
and importance of his explorations under the War Department.
EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
The Smithsonian Institution occupies a somewhat peculiar position
in its general relationships. Provided by the liberality of a foreigner
with funds for carrying out its own special work, and charged by the
government with additional duties, for which means are provided by Con-
gress, it has relations on the one side to private or special establish-
meuts, and on the other to those of the home and foreign governments.
46 REFORT OF THE SECRETARY.
In its purely Smithsonian operations, it may be designated as exercis-
ing all the functions of a great society, such as the Royal Society of
London, the academies of St. Petersburg, Berlin, Vienna, &c., with-
out any members, the work being done by a purely official bureau. In
one relationship or another it publishes results ; it superintends a great
museum and library and gallery of art; it maintains a laboratory ; it
conducts a system of international exchanges, in which its associates
are directly in communication with bureaus of foreign governments.
For the United States Government it supervises the National Museum
and the international system of exchanges. It also acts in a measure
as a Scientific adviser of the government in receiving questions for so-
lution, making chemical and other investigations of material, nominat-
ing experts or agents, in connection with scientific work, &c., its fa-
cilities being always at the command of either Congress or the depart-
ments.
UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.
ITS GENERAL OBJECTS AND RESULTS.
My appointment, at the commencement of its operations in 1871, to
the charge of the United States Fish Commission, has rendered it ex-
pedient to give some account of its operations year by year in the an-
nual report of the Smithsonian Institution.
Although commencing in the year mentioned on a very smali scale,
the demands of the public and the will of Congress have caused a no-
table extension each year, until at the present time the commission con-
stitutes a very important factor in the operations of the government,
fairly comparable, so far as the food problem is concerned, with the
Department of Agriculture.
The two branches into which the work of the Commission is divided,
namely, that of the investigation of the condition of the fishing and
the fisheries, and the propagation of food fishes, have been explained
beretofore, and with especial fullness, in the report of the Institution
for 1880, so as to render it unnecessary to go into the same detail at
the present time.
For the purpose of continuing the investigations into the condition
of the fisheries, Wood’s Holl—the locality where the first work of the
Commission was begun in 1871, and continued in 1875—was selected.
This point of the coast offers exceptional advantages as a center of in-
vestigation, mainly owing to the conveniences placed at the service of
the Commission by the Light-House Board, in the form of a suitable
building for a laboratory and store-room, and wharfage for the small
boats. The waters in the vicinity are also exceptional in their purity
and in the abundance of animal life; and the point itself is central,
permitting ready departure to any desired localiity.
As in 1880, the ‘ Fish Hawk,” the hatching steamer of the Commis-
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. AT
sion, was used for the off-shore researches and in her complete equip-
ment of apparatus answered every demand. The vessel was still in
command of Capt. Z. L. Tanner, an accomplished naval officer, who
was not only competent to take charge of the vessel in all matters of de-
tail, but by his thorough knowledge of mechanical appliances, and his
inventive powers, was able to devise many very important improve-
ments in the machinery necessary for carrying on the work.
The officers and crew of the vessel were supplied, as before, by the
Navy Department, in accordance with the law of Congress. The only
change in the detail of officers was the replacing of Engineer Boggs
by Engineer Bailey.
Fuller reference will be made in another part of this report to the
work of the ‘* Fish Hawk” in connection with the hatching of food
fishes. The vessel was first employed in this capacity in Albemarle
Sound, and afterward in the Susquehanna River, two of the stations for
the propagation of shad. She afterward proceeded to Chesapeake Bay
and engaged in experiments looking towards the artificial propagation
of the Spanish mackerel.
During the two previous seasons of occupation of the Wood’s Holl
station by the Fish Commission a very thorough investigation was made
of the inshore localities, the whole of Vineyard Sound, Buzzard’s Bay,
and other adjacent portions having been thoroughly explored in the
“Blue Light” and other smaller vessels; it was therefore determined to
contiuue the work commenced at Newport in 1880 along the eastern edge
of the continental plateau representing the hundred-fathom line. This
plateau, as has been explained in previous reports, extends along the
Atlantic coast of the United States to a distance, for the most part, of
from 75 to T00 miles, being however considerably narrower off Cape
Hatteras. The depth of water increases very gradually to one hundred
fathoms, not much faster in most cases than one fathom to the mile,
affording a level almost equal to that of a western prairie. On reach-
ing the limit, however, the descent is very abrupt, sometimes amount-
ing to 1,000 fathoms, or considerably over a mile, in a few miles. Along
the edge of this precipice animal life occurs in vast profusion, both as to
the number of individuals and of species, thus furnishing a very inter-
esting field of research in the matter of general natural history, as well
as in regard to the occurrence and distribution of valuable food fishes.
The first cruise of the “ Fish Hawk” to this ground in 1881 was made
on the 15th July, followed by others at intervals of about once a week
through the summer. As the “ Fish Hawk” had been built for inshore
work, and not with reference to standing rough weather outside, it was,
of course, necessary to watch carefully the opportunity of slipping out
under favorable auspices, the dredge and trawl not being capable of
being used to advantage in a rough sea.
Very valuable service was rendered by the Signal Office in Washing-
48 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
ington in this connection by furnishing information as to expected
storms in advance of their publication in the daily newspapers. The
vessel usually started out in the afternoon of one day and reached the
desired ground by daylight of the following morning ; then, after spend-
ing the day in dredging, returned the next night, reaching its berth the
following morning, or usually after an absence of from thirty-six to
forty eight hours.
The work in the laboratory at Wood’s Holl commenced on the 8th
July and continued until the middle of September. I remained until
the 4th October, after which I returned to Washington.
As in previous years, Prof. A. E. Verrill, of Yale College, had charge
of the collections and researches into the invertebrates, assisted spec-
ially by Mr. Richard Rathbun, Mr. Sanderson Smith, Mr. B. F. Koons,
and Mr. E. A. Andrews. Prof. L. A. Lee, of Bowdoin College, Maine,
as a volunteer, rendered essential aid.
The fishes were in charge of Dr. T. H. Bean, of the National Museum,
assisted by Mr. Peter Parker, of Washington.
The results of the season’s work were very satisfactory.
The locality of the tile-fish ground—the new food fish discovered
within the last few years, and referred to in a previous report—was re-
visited, and numerous specimens obtained for the purpose of testing
their eatable qualities. Other species of rare fishes—quite a number
new to science—were secured. Very large collections of invertebrates
were made, including many of great rarity, as well as a number of
undescribed species, while abundant materia! was obtained in all de-
partments for distribution by the Smithsonian Institution to colleges
and academies throughout the country, and for exchange with foreign
museums.
The “ Fish Hawk ” made some interesting deep-sea collections on her
return to Washington, where she arrived in the early part of October.
Her services were again called into requisition in the celebration of the
capture of Yorktown, having been tendered to and accepted by the
Secretary of War for his special service and that of his staff.
As usual at the summer stations ofthe Commission, there were numer-
ous visitors‘at Wood’s Holl during the summer, among them several
naturalists, who desired to make special investigations in their respec-
tive branches.
The fact that the entire coast of the eastern United States from the
Bay of Fundy to Long Island Sound has now been thoroughly explored
by the Fish Commission, and the geographical distribution of the various
species of marine animals ascertained, renders it desirable to fix per-
manently upon a station where the necessary appliances for storage of
material for fitting out the exploring vessels can be kept, and where in-
vestigation of the animal life can be prosecuted to the best advantage,
and also from which easy access can be had to any part of the North
Atlantic Ocean. Believing that all these requirements are met at
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49
Wood’s Holl, and finding that the accommodations so liberally furnished
by the Light-House Board would not be sufficient for the enlarging scale
of work, I was able to make provisional arrangements during the sum-
mer looking towards the erection of a station in the Wood’s Holl great
harbor.
The great harbor of Wood’s Holl, although somewhat obstructed by
rocks, is yet capable of being made, at moderate expense, one of the
most important of those on the coast, being the only one between New-
port and Provincetown in which vessels of large draught can enter and
be secure against storms from any quarter. There are several shoal-
water harbors within the district mentioned, which are, however,
usually untenable during storms from a particular direction. A vessel,
however, once in Wood’s Holl harbor is perfectly safe from any danger
from storm.
One of the obstructions to the practical use of the harbor for this
purpose is a reef running out to a considerable distance from the north
side. Upon this vessels are liable to be wrecked, and the idea of hay-
ing this obstacle removed has frequently been entertained by persons
interested. The expense, however, would be very great, and it was
found to be much cheaper to mark the reef by a pier built over it, and
in so doing protect the only vulnerable part of the inner harbor from
the swell coming from the south, thus assuring entire security to ves-
sels behind it. As this work, besides being greatly in the interest of
commerce, promised to meet all the requirements as a wharf for tne ves-
sels of the United States Fish Commission, it was determined to ob-
ain, if possible, the adjacent land for the purpose of erecting the neces-t
sary buildings, and as it is practically very difficult to secure an appro-
priation from Congress to buy land, several parties agreed to furnish
the funds necessary to purchase this land and present it to the United
States. A provisional agreement was therefore made with the proprie-
tors to sell the adjacent shore in the event of an appropriation being
made by Congress for the engineering work.
In connection with the pier it is proposed to construct basins for the
reception of fish, in which they can be penned until their eggs are ripe
enough to be removed and treated artificially. I trust that I may be
able in the report for 1882 to chronicle the successful accomplishment
of these various measures and the actual working of the station.
The second branch of the work of the Fish Commission—that of the
hatching of fish—has been carried on during the year with increasing
and eminent success.
The first division of the work to be mentioned is that relating to the
carp, a food fish, the best varieties of which were first introduced into
the United States by the United States Fish Commission, and have
been distributed very extensively to all parts of the country during the
year. The principal station ot production is in the ponds in the vicinity
of the Washington Monument, in Washington City, and from them many
S. Mis. 109——4
50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
thousands have been sent out through all parts of the United States,
this work being done either by shipments in passenger truins under the
direction of messengers, or by car loads. Much apprehension of loss
was excited by the ice gorge of the Long Bridge, at Washington, on the
12th February, 1851, by which the waters of the Potomac were backed
up so as to completely flood the carp ponds. Tortunately, however, the
grounding of the floating ice on the exterior limits of the ponds secmed
to have the effect of preventing the fish from escaping ; at least, careful
examinations induced the belief that no considerable number had been
lost.
The collecting of the eggs of the shad, and the hatching out and
distribution of the young fish, were also carried on throughout the year
ona very large scale. The three principal stations were Albemarle Sound,
the Potomac River, and the Susquehanna. The ‘Fish Hawk” was
first dispatched to Avoca, Albemarle Sound, passing through the Chesa-
peake and Albemarle Canal, for the purpose, arriving the end of March.
The steamer ‘“ Lookout,” in charge of Lieutenant Wood, was also dis-
patched to Albemarle Sound in March, and the two vessels were engaged
for several weeks in the operation of hatching shad; after which work
was transferred to the Potomac River. By the courtesy of the Navy
Department and the authority of the commandant of the navy-yard,
the principal station was made in the boat-house of the yard, to which
theeges were brought by the * Lookout” from the seine-hauling localities
down the river. The “Fish Hawk” was engaged also for a time on the
Potomac in similar work. Battery Island, on the Susquehanna, was also
utilized in a like connection, and many eggs hatched out both there and
on the “Fish Hawk”, which was for the greater part of the time anchored
some miles distant, inthe northeast. run. The shad thus obtained were
sent into almost every State of the Union, and very greatly to the
satisfaction of the inhabitants. The total number distributed amounted
to many millions.
As In previous years, the obtaining and distributing of eggs of the
California salmon were also carried on on a very large scale at the
station on McCloud River in California. Many millions of eggs were
distributed throughout all parts of the United States, and a number
sent to foreign countries in response to official requests to that effect.
As usual, several millions of the young fish were hatched and planted
in the Sacramento River for the purpose of keeping up the supply. The
hatching station itself had been destroyed by flood during the previous
winter, but a special appropriation having been made by Congress for
rebuilding it, the money was received in time to make the station avail-
able for this purpose.
The collecting of eggs of the Atlantic salmon was continued, as here-
tofore, at the station near Bucksport, on Penobscot Bay, in Maine, and
the eggs obtained were distributed, for the most part, to State fish com-
missioners, to be hatched out and planted at their discretion.
-
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51
The work connected with the land-locked salmon was continued at
Grand Lake Stream, and many eggs secured.
The multiplication of white fish constituted, for the first time, an im-
portant branch of the labors of the Commission. For this purpose a
station was established at Northville, Mich., under the charge of Mr.
‘Frank N. Clark, who obtained the eggs required in the Detroit River,
Lake Erie, and Lake Huron. Some 18,000,000 of eggs were secured and
distributed, and nearly all were returned to the waters from which they
were originally taken. Some were sent to various smaller lakes, and a
few to localities in Europe.
The species of fish enumerated above represent the most important
objects of attention and action of the Commission, although some work
has been done in connection with the multiplication of the California
trout, the brook trout, the striped bass, the Spanish mackerel, and the
oyster. Full details in regard to all these points will be found in the
report of the United States Fish Commission.
Before closing this subject brief reference may be made to an impor-
tant improvement in the method of distributing the young fish on the
part of the Commission. Heretofore this has been done by messengers
in charge of a certain number of cans containing young fish, and travel-
ing in baggage cars or express trains. Although the railroads have
almost uniformly been extremely courteous and liberal in their co-opera-
tion with the Commission, allowing, without extra charge, the trans-
portation of as many as from twelve to sixteen large cans of fish, yet
that mode of distribution was found inadequate to the requirements,
and the experiment was accordingly tried of fitting up a ear as a re-
frigerator, in which a much larger supply of fish could be carried and
kept at a uniform temperature sufficiently low to prevent injury to
the fish by the summer’s heat. Accordingly, by authority of Mr.
Isaac Hinekley, president of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Bal-
timore Railroad Company, one of the baggage cars of the company
was altered to a refrigerator ear of the Ridgway patent under the di-
rection of the patentee. This has been tested and found to answer
an admirable purpose by the delivery of the young fish at the most
remote points practically without any loss.
FISHERIES CENSUS.
In my report for 1880 I presented in considerable detail an account
of the arrangement made with General Francis A. Walker, Superin-
tendent of the Census, by which the investigation of the fisheries of
the United States was undertaken as the joint enterprise of the United
States Fish Commission and Census Bureau. This investigation was
to be made as complete as possible, statistically, historically, and with
regard to the methods employed at the present time in the fishery indus-
tries. The preparation of astatistical and historical report upon the fish-
52 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
eries, to form one of the series to be presented by the Superintendent of
the Census as the result of his investigations in 1880, has been the main
object of the work ; but in connection with this statistical work, extensive
investigation into the methods of the fisheries, into the distribution of
the fishing grounds, and thenatural history of useful aquatic animals, has
been, and is being, carried on. The direction of this investigation from
the start has been confided to Mr. G. Brown Goode, who was appointed
agent of the Census Office, and has been carrying on the work in addi-
tion to the performance of his.duties in connection with the National
Museum.
The work began on July 1, 1879, and the final report, it is hoped,
will be ready for publication as early as February, 1882. The scheme
of investigation and the methods of inquiry are described at length on
pages 78,79 of my report for 1880, and in this place it seems neces-
sary only to mention under the head of each district the names of the
persons employed and the dates during which the investigation was,
carried on. The districts and departments, twenty-four in number,
have been covered as follows:
I. Coast of Maine east of Portland, by R. E. Earll and Capt. J. W.
Collins, from August 1 to October, 1879, and from July 29 to October
20, 1880.
II. Portland to Plymouth (except Cape Ann) and eastern side of
Buzzard’s Bay, by W. A. Wilcox, from September 2, 1879, to March 1,
1881.
III. Cape Ann, by A. Howard Clark, from September, 1879, to No-
vember, 1880.
IV. Cape Cod, by F. W. True, from July, 1879, to October, 1879, and
during September and October of 1880.
VY. Provincetown, by Capt. N. E. Atwood, from August, 1879, to
August, 1880.
VI. Rhode Island and Connecticut, west to the Connecticut River,
by Ludwig Kumlien, from August 16 to October 16, 1880.
VII. Long Island and north shore of Long Island Sound and west
to Sandy Hook, by Fred. Mather, from August 1, 1879, to July, 1881.
VIIL New York City, by Barnet Phillips, from January, 1880, to
July, 1881.
IX. Coast of New Jersey, by R. E. Earll, during December, 1880.
X. Philadelphia, by C.W. Smiley and W. V. Cox, during November,
1880.
XI. Coast of Delaware, by Capt. J. W. Collins, during December,
1880.
XII. Baltimore and the oyster industry of Maryland, by R. H. Ed-
munds, at various intervals during 1880.
XIII. Atlantic coast of Southern States, by R. E. Earll, from Janu-
-ary to July, 1880.
XIV. Gulf coast, by Silas Stearns, from August, 1879, to July, 1880.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53
XV. Coast of California, Oregon, and Washington Territory, by Prof.
D.S. Jordan and C. H. Gilbert, from January, 1880, to January, 1881.
XVI. Puget Sound, by James G. Swan, from January, 1880, to Jan-
uary, 1881.
XVII. Alaska seal fisheries, by Dr. T. H. Bean, from June to Octo-
ber, 1880.
XVIII. Great Lakes fishery, by Ludwig Kumlien, from August, 1879,
to August, 1880.
XIX. River fisheries of Maine, by C. G. Atkins, during 1880.
XX. The shad and alewife fisheries, by Col. Marshall McDonald, from
October, 1879, to July, 1881.
XXIJ. Oyster fisheries, by Ernest Ingersoll, from September, 1879, to
July, 1881. :
XXII. Lobster and crab fisheries, by Richard Rathbun, from Jan-
uary, 1880, to July, 1881.
XXIII. Turtle and terrapin fisheries, by F. W. True, from October,
1880, to July, 1881.
XXIV. The seal, sea elephant, and whale fisheries, by A. Howard
Clark, from November, 1880, to February, 1881.
Respectfully submitted.
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY,
CONTAINING
1. Report on the Operations of Exchanges for 1831. By GrorGEe H. BOEHMER.
2. Report of the Assistant Director of the U. S. National Museum: G. BRowN GOODE.
3. Report of the Chemist: F. W. TAyLor.
APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, |
REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES.
By GEoRrRGE H. BOEHMER.
The increase in the number of “ foreign correspondents” of the Insti-
tution since the publication of the last printed list, corrected to Jan-
uary, 1878, together with numerous changes in organizations, has ren-
dered necessary the preparation of a new edition of the pamphlet list
brought down to the end of the past year. This has involved the dis-
tribution of a cireular of formal inquiries to each of our correspondents,
and considerable labor in the compilation of the information obtained
from the replies. The new “ List of foreign correspondents,” corrected
to January, 1882, has been carefully transcribed, and is now in the hands
of the printer. The original replies received have been arranged and
bound in volumes, so as to be readily accessible for reference at any time.
In addition to this list, card catalogues have been prepared, showing
at a glance, besides the name of each institution, the date of its estab-
lishment, and the total number of volumes-in its library, how many ot
these are Smithsonian publications, and designating the number of vol-
umes of the various series, and in this catalogue it is intended to enter
the Smithsonian publications to be sent successively to the establish-
nent.
Another card catalogue has been commenced, in which it is intended
to show:
1. The date of receipt of packages for any society, designating the
name of the sender and the contents of the parcels, if possible, and for
this purpose it is earnestly requested that all packages to be forwarded
through the Smithsonian Institution should have the name of the
sender and the contents plainly marked on the wrapper.
2. The date of transmittal, giving the number of the respective in-
voice and of the box containing the parcel ; and
3. The date of acknowledgment by the consignee.
This will necessarily increase the labor of the working force, but it
is hoped will promote the efficiency of the system also, and facilitate
by this series of checks the tracing of any miscarried parcel.
a0
56 REPORT ON
THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES.
The Smithsonian Institution, through its international exchange, is at
present in correspondence with 2,908 societies, located as follows:
AFRICA. ASIA
Algeria.........-.-.--------++---------- 9 (Qube sR Soecie one soo ecsecse ssccesae Asoe 8
INGER We Soe OD COCa DOORN cou dos Saae meee u UNG 1Bee ee sees seer Se eas 3!)
Cape Colonies.--..-.---.--.------------ 6 APP eedeassceencasabstos wSeoHseeectoes 8
Egypt.-.---------.----+++-+------------ 8 JOE edhe webocdastonchserascesSncccnds 7
DED sess ee ee 2 Philippine Islands...... a, HRs Ee ee 3
Madeira 1 StraitiSetilements -22 222 s-- sae eca cas 3
Ee ee Ae as OS eee ey ae ieee 1 La, Sie 68
Manritinst sss ssssee sacs tose aaa 5 AUSTRALASIA.
Mozambique ..---..-.------------------ 1
STerlelenseencoe ere esac cence caia 2 New: SouthiWiales-cossesceeeeeoeeaeeee 15
—— 36) Queensland. -...-.--- 2.) -2 22. -2 65-22. 4
South Australiae sso cee eee eee 8
AMERICA. Pasm ania) ~seoassacn = seeeere eee eee 7
New Zealand: 25s). cche-eeeeseanecee sass 27
British America : ; Victoria Mts Secs Teas See aes 20
(ORIG) Saaee Scena ooesso Sopsaoesse 23 Wiest) Australiaw.2! sos. 32ens tees te eels 1
Winmit0 Daas = l= alo = l= ie ll) 1 — 82
We wi Simms wiC kiss silee a= lee 3 EUROPE
Newfoundland). sts se. eee == == 1
Nova Scotia......------------------ 5 Austria-Hungary ...----------.--.------ 172
— Hi) |PoiBys Fel Woe SSSE soprano socaGac besarte nSos aoe 115
Central America: Bel carigies.a-= see eree eee ae Eee 1
CostawRicaseso>-es-eer == - eee ae ones 1 Denmark: 262 Vee ee ee 32
Guatemalayesspese--se = eae 2 5 Rrancenncsatasssesce -esseenice Le rae 489
Mexico: ~
Wee Ve se acoedeoss aca oae Se toec ese 23
— 23
West Indies :
ISMINNES) Sjosqacenc-sogb choses esse lt
Barbadoes .-----.------ Bpeeie aalenic ros 1 ‘
Cubans nese sean eeeee eee tO Ga liye Aah e cheree ie ci cistatete emo eiatne eyateiel teats 221
GuadeloupGspes- sete 1 Neueeards Silas menQnds boa cosenoodboact 81
APRON Be 6 Son Ss oo sess sadecisessos 1 INDAVENE Bbosasndeccessplseasoossomosnees 33
nin adeeeatete eee ee sere ob SodS 1 (Portucalissbase see eee eee aeve eee 38
Maris; islands asec ae ee eae 1 RuSS8ids oe sci ane eels em nition soe eats 172
—— A OSCLVED =o ci eee el cite ate lee emtere ete ak
South America: Spain..-.-.- Wao oobesbose ssbcsenedateonhes 29
Argentine Republic .....-.--.-- Saccs, lt! Swedens to. Sa. Sac eo ae See see 28
Bolivia oete ee ore ae oonee eee 1 Switzerland 525-2 s0=oeas6 seaeicet eeee es 83
Lyall (eo Sse ne doe sscnce coscceEage 10 Rork@ yee eae eee ae ecice ae 16
British Guiana 3 — 2,578
Chilteesee tere see eee 12 POLYNESIA.
Columbia 3
MO nteh: Guiands. see esas eee eae eee 2 Sandwich" islands==- =... occa-c--e tee es
TSE Nee Saha coesctesacc Sana aseis 1 poet 2
Para CUNY ces e ee seen aeeee eee aa 1 MISCELLANEOUS.
Lei eae boost Cone sce poaser cacésaos 4
UREA SY a 555 coo soussoseseesas0s5o5 5 Mascellancousi-s-ssecceese eee seeree meas 7
Wenezuela ts ceocacsecsinesateesose as 3 — 7
— 62 P ae
otal nssasec cele eos ots ooo sceabiosioe ate 2, 908
RECAPITULATION.
ISTE) oon dono qopaaoquenedassssewaboabe aan BO || GAS WE pos ssbonsceos susdsonesseasosoSaswose 68
America : ISSR MEV ISIEY so ndgedcses so opseaecooseosonce ss = 82
IBTfISACAM CHUA cc ceecseeeee eee e se eae 3 PPITO POR sce isteeaaiee ee eemia aay seis eee eeratetate 2, 578
CoentraleAmericais sees seen =e eee Polynesiavecse = +e es - eee eee eee
IMGxXiCOtso2-cssso5= Se ee a ee Te 93 Mascellanceous :>- = se<\isj-.0-ssctinnseee meee sss Tf
Wiest Indes) << Sees ans fae Secunia soe ee 14
South America....2.-...-.-- be eeseaie Sass 62 Motels 322 38 b se setae Oo ee eae 2, 908
Comparative table of foreign institutions in correspondence with the Smith-
sonian Institution during the last ten years :
chy Pega RIM a ete ek ee aa 1, 985
SF Pe Git a a FE Ue ee ES AT 2,145
OTA te te CN capt RRO ed a 2,146
TE Yin OS IA Tae ok AeNSL pera Ata a 2, 207
18762052. Shadi leg: biaratc aap le PY Pt 9, 275
In the Smithsonian system two
Cre LEE ere al LY Sy is Re es A 2, 330
TOTS eee od BG Aig A Ng Ong ha 2, 333
TE Yi ee AN HD, SRL OA Bai ghd naps OL at 2, 481
ARROWS Mos Ne ok ae ear Jnana ee iste 2, 602
rE TRE aN maT BRYN Ht Ld 2, 908
distinct branches are represented,
namely, the ‘‘ Foreign. Exchange” and the ‘‘ Domestic Exchange,” to
which may be added the “Government Exchange.”
REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES. 57
1.—FOREIGN EXCHANGE.
The “ Foreign Exchange” consists in the collecting, registering, and
sending, inregular transmissions to agents appointed either by the various
governments or paid by the Smithsonian Institution, of its own publica-
tions, those of the various government departments, scientific establish-
ments and individuals of this country, while the ‘* Domestic Exchange”
represents donations made by corresponding establishments and indi+
viduals abroad in return for contributions from this country.
The Smithsonian Institution, in this system, offering to correspond-
ents a safe and gratuitous channel of intercommunication, has to in-
sist upon the strict adherence to certain rules adopted principally in
view of the free admission, into all parts of the world, of boxes and
packages bearing its official stamp.
These conditions being well known to the ‘‘ Home Correspondents,”
the following circular is in course of preparation, and will be distributed
to all correspondents abroad on occasion of the next transmission of the
annual report, which will take place in the earlier part of the coming
year.
Rules adopted relative to scientific and literary exchanges.
1. Transmissions through the Smithsonian Institution from foreign
countries to be confined exclusively to books, pamphlets, charts, and
other printed matter sent as donations or exchanges, and not to include
those procured by purchase. The Institution and its agents will not
receive for any address apparatus and instruments, philosophical, med-
ical, etc., including microscopes, whether purchased or presented, nor
specimens of natural history, except where especial permission from
the Institution has been obtained.
2. A list of the addresses and a statement of contents of each sending
to be mailed to the Smithsonian Institution at or before the time of
transmission.
3. Packages to be legibly addressed and to be indorsed with the name
of the sender and their contents.
4, Packages to be enveloped in stout paper, and securely pasted or
tied with strong twine—never sealed with wax.
5. No package to a single address to exceed one-halt of one cubie
foot in bulk.
6. To have no inclosures of letters.
7. To be delivered to the Smithsonian Institution or its agents free
of expense.
8. To contain a blank acknowledgment, to be signed and returned
‘by the party addressed.
9. Should returns be desired, the fact is to be explicitly stated on or
in the package.
10. Unless these conditions are complied with the parcels cannot be
forwarded by the Institution.
REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES.
(ey
Centers of distribution.
In order to facilitate the scientific and literary intercourse between
the various countries, the bureaus, societies, and individuals enumerated
in the following table have been authorized to accept exchanges for
transmission to this country, and to distribute in their respective coun-
tries the sendings made through the Smithsonian Institution.
?
Country. City. Agency.
Argentine Republic.. .----- Buenos Aires....- Museo Publico.
ING RAEN (UNE T AY © ooo see 555||S ooeooceSssonno aoSD6e Same as Germany.
ASIN CIO nea SE Ot Re Stee on bHe eter see posrateees 0.
Ialkeniynin 5 5o42- ebeoesosoce IBEUSROIS@ cece eeeee Commission Belge d’Echange Internationaux.
IB YA Zils ae teeee wiewicie os aate Rio Janeiro....-.-- Comumissao Central Brazileira de Permutagades In-
ternacionaes.
lssakeslal AMNGIIEE - ooo moscuc| soease se seek ouEaoon= Same as Canada.
British Guiana .-.-..----.- Georgetown .---.... Observatory.
Ganad ares cst sane seee ee Montreal.......... McGill College.
WONearsnccene see ees Ottawa)-2--2---6-- Geological Survey of Canada.
Capo Colonies\-.- =... --24--|---2-0--2------4-=-=| Hames Great britain.
@hilipes sees ooeesesc sree eee Santiago......-...- Universidad de Chili.
@hinay ae sisaswaee sasssee Shanghai -.-:.-.... United States Consul-General.
Costa Rican. -seewess sen ald O86: a eecees- = Universidad.
Gubateeecer aeemes sceeeeee ee Havana..-......-- R. Universidad.
Menmarke-- 2-7 | cesses as Copenhagen -...-- Kong. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
Duteh Guiana ss. =. SupmMam!s--- 2. Koloniaale Bibliotheek.
Basten diesso- == eece eee ne | eee seca emo ee scents Same as Great Britain.
Beuad ote asses seen ee Onitoee sacs s-ee=e Observatorio.
Woypta cies ot eee eee @airoeesse eee sos=- Institut Egyptien.
TOA Ds Seer aut ee Aes bad Pee baSe ae BenOeee F. A. Brockhaus. Leipsig, Germany.
IOUS Gennecbschose5ssecoc JEW Gee sboesecsase Commission F'rangaise des Echanges Internationaux.
(Ministére de instruction publique et des beaux
. arts.)
Grermamyiec cece ae teen eLpSiG eee neers Dr. Felix Fliigel (49 Sidonien strasse).
Great Britain ......-...... NOG OD eeee sean William Wesley (28 Essex street, Strand).
GNCCCO js da- axieciss-tesy scenes AGH ONS Semele Bibliothéque Nationale.
Guatemala. i355 222. yen. Guatemala.....-.. Sociedad Economica de amigos de] Paris.
lai bEs eos en zk ee eek enene Port-au-Prince. ...| Secrétaire de ’Etat des Rélations Extérieures.
Veeland: 22522 3s cscee sa ser Reykjavik -..--.--. Tsland Stiptisbokasafn.
al yee sete nee nice eee ae Rome\ss 22 see case Biblioteca Nacionale Vittore Emanuele.
USO Ne Shan nets Reese dial at) coscensaceac Minister of Foreign Affairs.
AGIDOLISi ees Acoso see ealones Monrovia -=2-=5--- Liberia College.
IMGOXICO,25- oes -ekpescs seer Mexico ssss--se E! Museo Nacionale.
Netherlands. -.-..---.....- Harlem ss cessas~ Bureau Scientifique Central Néerlandais.
‘Netherlandsh Indies -2s25-|pecsasesose seen Same as Netherlands.
New Caledoniay225-%-2- 22 s|22 secon eee suepaee. Same as Great Britain.
New South Wales...-..--- Sydney =2---55--- Royal Society of New South Wales.
New, Zealand 25.) 212-22 Wellington .....-. Jolonial Museum.
ING ENS 22 Ses eneciscagscaone Christiania... -..... Kong. Norske Frederiks Universitet.
Philippine Islands. ...-...-- Manila..2......... Royal Economical Society.
ROL WM C818 sea ee ane tee Honolulu......---- Royal Hawaiian Agricultural Society.
TORE bcnocm a easeeeeccoe Escola Polytechnica.
IPRUSSIAd -caceteeche ness ese Same as Germany.
Queensland Government Meteorological Observata’ y.
RUSS at te seein is sees St. Petersburg..-.| Commission Russe des Exchanges Internationaux.
@ (Bibliothéque Impériale Publique. )
SRMOUNa a Sse gssences saceee
Stblclenas ee sesso
Same as Germany.
Same as Great Britain.
South Australia -.........- Adelaide: -.-...22- Astronomical Observatory.
Spalneees oe sea toenie tesco des Madridteseceeee Real Academia de Ciencias.
Strait Settlements ages <2 252 ee ee Same as Great Britain.
Sweden...--..-......--..-- Stockholm.-...... Kong. Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien.
Switzerland...-...........- Berne. -22e ccs. eee Eidgenossensche Bundes Canzlei.
AUSTEN oo 5 55 Saeko. Hobarton.......-. Royal Society, Tasmania,
Prinidads.2-525:-5252 Port of Spain Scientific Association.
fhomkes) Islandes eee... 6.
United States of Colombi
; | Grand Turk
Public Library.
a2 Medellimenaa-spee University of Antioquia.
Venezuela pace ee ME ere Pree jaG@anacigas <7 Dr. A. Ernst.
WWACLOLIAIS A eS eee ease | Melbourne........ Public Library.
NVUPtOM Berge aco o setae Leute ee me hepeen oan” Same as Germany.
|
Agents of transmission.
In the shipment of Smithsonian exchanges the same liberality in
granting free freights has been shown as in previous years, the follow-
ing named transportation companies deserving especial acknowledgment:
REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES. 59
Anchor Steamship Company, Compagnie Générale Transatlantique, Cun-
ard Steamship Company, Hamburg-American Packet Company, Inman
Steamship Company, Merchants’ Line of Steamers, Netherlands-Ameri-
can Steam Navigation Company, New York and Brazil Steamship Com-
pany, New York and Mexico Steamship Company, North Germau Lloyd
Steamship Company, Pacific Mail Steamship Company, Pacific Steam
Navigation Company, Panama Railroad Company, Red Star Line, Steam-
ship Lines for Brazil, Texas, Florida, and Nassau, N. P.,
White Cross
Line of steamers of Nak eee
The transmission of the Smithsonian exchanges has been effected
through the following named parties.
Country. Shipping agents.
|
PANT MUR =e ase == Ls eRe: | ‘Chomas Dennison, New York.
Argentine Republics 2-3-2441 Consul Carlos Carranza, New York.
Iga ANN sass oes cooce noses-eece | Red Star Line, Peter Wright and Sons, New York; White Cross
| Line, Funch, Edye & Co., New York.
TA os dooms boon an aegoHe | Charles Mackall, Vice-constl, Baltimore.
GING) Cee ceceanaspocosasdscodose Consul-General C. de Castro, New York.
COSta RiCAseo -peresce seen sa aes | Pacific Mail Steamship Company, New York.
(O[lesSeHeehocaddasacoteunanas Hipolito de Uriarte, cousul-general for Spain, New York.
Wenmanks sesso oe eae ae ias Henrik Braem, consul-general, New York.
IDENT! Seo e poo dse SSeodHooscs Francis Spies, consul, New York.
IRV Ou bein bmec Specs ances oe aaee | S. L. Merchant & Co., New York.
LUNA Sesh sec ecooboesonene |; Compagnie Générale Transatlantique, L.de Bébian, New York.
Germany: soon. es ce ence North German Lloyd, Oelrichs & Co., New York, and Schumacher &
Co., Baltimore.
| Cunard Steamship Company, Vernon Brown & Co., New York ; Nortb
German Llovd, Schumacher & Co., Baltimore.
(Cane ca | oSencececorSooudoree | Consul D. H. Botassi, New York.
Guatomalas-se- ses n= seeeee | Consul Jacob Baez, New York.
LSE ieee sete sae cuscOnCnCooon bE Atlas Steamship Company, Pim, Forwood & Co., New York.
Wal yasosese. jos aooisee cele = cele = M. Raffo, cousul-general, ‘New York.
ap eee ames = esa ee eee id | Consul-General Samro Takaki, New York.
IW GXICO ms seer nese me seme | Consul-General Juan N. Navarro, New York.
Netherlands 2227. < 2 = ante o< ems | Netherlands-American Steam Navigation Company, H. Cazeaus,
New South Wales
New Zealand
New York.
R. W. Cameron & Co., New York.
R. W. Cameron & Co., New York.
transfer made by copsul-general of Russia, Hamburg.
INOUWYSGascs.c cece se clsctecae ee | Consul-General Christian Bors, New York.
Portucaleessscsn.2 poe es ' Consul-General Gnstay Amsink, New York.
Queens! pn Gea diss jonsaseacee | North German Lloyd, Schumacher & Co., Baltimore; transfer made
| at Queensland department, London, England.
IRUABIAE Seca iene saciciowtaeaprata Hi: imbure- American Pecket Company, Kunhardt & Co., New York;
TPASDIANIR Ga edos cece cose se:
Venezuela
Wittotia sess cere ae Sessa crane
Wrest Indiés\-~\.2 22556 sc255ep%5
' North German Lloyd, Schumacher & Co., Baltimore ;
R. W. Cameron & Co.. New York.
Consul-General Hipolito ¢e Uriarte, New York.
..| Consul-General Christian Bors, New York.
| North German Lloyd, Schumacher & Co. Baltimore ;
transfer made
by Consul-General von Heymann, in Bremen.
Turkish Embassy, Washington, D. ¢
transfer made
by Crown agents for the colonies, London, England.
Dallet, Boulton & Co., New York.
R. W. Cameron & Co., New York.
Pacific Mail Steamship Company, New York.
1. Receipt and distribution of exchanges.
At no time in the history of the Smithsonian Institution, even during
the Centennial Exhibition of the United States, in Philadelphia, in 1876,
and in the year following, bas the increase in the receipt and distribu-
tion of the Smithsonian exchanges been so marked as in the past year.
In 1877, when large presentations of documents were made in return for
the many donations made by the various nations, through their represen-
tatives, and collections of books forwarded at the request of the respec-
60
REPORT ON
THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES.
tive commissioners, the increase over the year 1876 amounted to 25 per
cent.
on y2cord, and these will be exhibited in the following tables:
L—Receipts for foreign transmission.
The present year, however, presents results far superior to any
Number
of pack-| Weight
ages.
1.—FROM GOVERNMENT DE-
“PARTMENTS.
Pounds
Agricultural Department -. 325 1, 789
Bureau of Military Justice... 1 2
Bureau of Statistics..-.--.--- 3 47
@oastiSurveyicss---~--- se" 18 85
Commissary-General of Sub-
BISLONCOeeeanne ase esa 1 1
Comptroller of Currency..---- 900 645
Engineer Bureau...--------- 866 4, 999.
Entomological Commission. . 1 4
Fish Commission ne EE Oy 8 76
Geological Survey (Rocky
Mountain TO Z1ON) ses e eee see 54 270
Interior Department SOSBeOOL 173 768
National Museum. .....-.--. 49 4, 353
Naval Observatory..----..-- 1, 679 7, 216
Ordnance Office..----...-.---. 3 W7
Quartermaster-General - .-- - - 4 25
Revenue Marine............. | 50 25
Signal Offiee---s-se=s--4-=--- 120 2, 206
Surgeon- General’s Office. --.- 8 95
Surgeon- -General (Marine
EOSPIbAl) eee senieeeee see mses 53 25
Treasury Department.....-. 10 195
4,326 | 22, 903
2.—FROMSCIENTIFICSOCIETIES;
AND ESTABLISHMENTS.
Academy of Natural Sci-
ences, Philadelphia ..-..--. 229 667
Academy of Sciences, New
MOT KS 5 s27 o/s See see 419 245
Academy of Sciences, Saint
MGM a teen caeconee a 10
American Association for the
Advancement of Science.. 137 580
American Entomological So-
ciety, Philadelphia --...-... 17 32
American Journal of Aris
and Sciences, New Haven. 192 72
American Journal of Mathe- |
matics, Baltimore . 1 ie
American Pharmaceutical |
Association, Philadelphia. | 39 91
American Philosophical’ So-
ciety, Philadelphia -...... | 701 950
Board of Public Charities, |
Philadelphiasesaeeeee sae | 26 55
American Academy of Arts |
and Sciences, Boston ..-. 588 677
Boston Society of Natural |
IStORy ect eso ee see | 312 | 1, 869
prow Library, Providence, | |
Ii eph Gre ea ee me gy ee a 2 | 31
Burialo (New York) Society |
of Natural Sciences. .....-.! 110 22
Canadian Journal. ..........| 48 14
Columbia College, New York. 139 195
Essex Institute, Salem, Mass 294 340
Geological Survey, Harris-
burg, Penny 2 hseaca eee. 29 457
Harvard College..........-.. 1 9
Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimores: = see eee 4 10
| Bell, A
| Bessels,
Marietta (Ohio) College
| Museo Nacional, Mexico.....
Nederlandish Legation,
Washington
Nova Scotian Society of Nat-
ural Sciences, Halifax...... |
Peabody Institute, Baltimore. |
Pennsylvania Historical So-
ciety, Philadelphia
Public School Library, Saint
Louis
| Secretary of State, Lansing, |
Mich
State Library, Albany, N. Y.
3.—FROM INDIVIDUALS.
Jenene eee cwee ee
er raisin Major F. B
Gill, Dre
Hall; Prof. Jamesins5--cses-
Harkness, Prof. William....
Hawes, Dr. George W
Hayden, Dre Wissen = eee
Hessel, Dr. Rudolph
Holden, Prof. E.S
— F. B
King, Prof, C Shenbeancoadaces
Knight, Dr. E. H
Lee, Dr. William
Lesquereux, Prof. Leo.....-.
Mallery, Col. Garrick........
Mallet, J. Edmond
Marnock, G. W
Morong, Thomas.
Nipher, F. E
Palmer, Joseph
Philips weeny ee cence eee
Rawr hanes. se eee.
Rhees, William J
Smith, Prof. J. H
Solberg. Miaress ise oe aac
Stevenson, James.... _.
Stockwell, JI-N
Thomas, Prof. U....--------.
Walker, S. T
Number
of pack-
ages.
oe
seo
DAH SCH HEH WH OME R ROTO
ou
bo
nn
PHN HOA STH ROMO HE HOHE OGHHE ROWED
_
REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES. Gl
1I.—Receipts for domestic transmission.
Number of | Number of |
boxes. parcels. | Weight.
| a
Pounds.
nA ep ee SSB no Ce QSOR otc Dec cdine nd ener boeronno soseceses.4 2 32 0
Belgium......-----.--2- 2-222 eens eee eee eee ene e eee: 5 213 1, 760
IBTOZ a seeing concn clceeeaelesceia dias ncinie=clslonine'sweesee= = in =e = 4a) 87 980
JOpSS| HI EAGNES eee sodas Sec oHoo HbR Ee Sone ocosecoressqo encase 1 14 106
BT AN CO... occ. os nec enn ee cencnesnsece-enenscneess-ns-s---- 14 1, 027 3, 243
(GOED Grae ae rec aco COS HO BOO GOe ORDO COC SEDO RDEIGO OS OBooEE 34 2, 542 8, 178
Grest Britain. o- -<ccee smeaaecte © cele baieieta'al= a =m mim <1 1a [= =/=)=/=/=\= 23 1, 369 6, 808
Hor uibraryor Congressesesen ese - <= eee e == selene anise 15i | eeceeesees 2, 855
Lak E yes eo Bae QoS co osama dC00 Ho -ore soeoe eSepsepSssoeeacias 2 87 340
LIANE cp CRD OOOO COCR OOS SD SCOCNED Cel noc Gigi EDSeEeEececeece 2 58 410
Taye Soop oso dacos-GoSenr ess osegeoccssead cose scossseccr 1 1 31
ING EAY cosbg Sscneo oss sne setae cofandorreee dso scccossacssoe 2 151 405
IRTEGTINS aS ccgec hors + se cocon song so0de ss sestoesaobesesdsEsee 4 258 780
SiNthsoniaAn Uns onWOne= ecatesaea eee aioe eel awl sates [eee eee ee 1, 937 7,101
Shy alts BGS Ss doose bo ccco na sane sos be sec SaaS ESE DEN COnCO 2 114 250
INGA spc none Sacco scdossSoossoo tedatsondcsssseone 111 7, 890 33, 291
Iil.—Receipts for government exchanges.
From the Public Printer: 300 sets, of 50 copies each, of the public
documents printed by order of Congress.........-...-.--.-------- Copies, 15,000.
RECAPITULATION.
: Number of | :
parcels. | Weight.
|
|
Pounds.
1. For foreign transmission:
1. From government departments. -..-- SCOT COSCO HAC OHOS BS nOOHIC esos eS BASoee 4, 326 22, 903
AeA LOMERCION HICH SOCLOUIOS seen calctso nia ose ocear os eee as as ee caieelesnl ; 3, 631 6, 816
Sy Un marth G@ Gels one fee se Sec eS Heb ae Sena COL ECO SOSeCende 9 sacceEsasse 768 2, 937
Z- eH rom SOM GasOnia ne Lous tihlulOns = acest aoa ssseaa ee sas sem eae een seco ee 5, 436 17, 499
Seon domestioiLansmissiomcseecc ne onsccc sea coaecceccs aces ceistee dees ocies 7, 890 33, 291
TRA gee As ale eh ON ME tyne, BREN 7 abo 8 ear ae eee nae 22, 051 | 83, 446
Transmission of exchanges.
The transmission of exchanges is ordinarily in direct proportion to
the receipts. The year 1880, however, made, in a measure, an excep-
tion to this general rule, owing partly to a reorganization of the depart-
ment and partly to an unusual augmentation of the receipts during the
latter portion of the year, thus requiring an extra effort during the year
1881 not to fall behind in the transmission. This end has been attained,
and the result now presented is favorable in every respect. All former
accumulations have been worked off, and by giving immediate attention
to the constantly incoming material nothing has been allowed to aceu-
mulate, and thus the working force in this department is fully prepared
to transmit promptly any exchanges immediately upon receipt.
62 REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES.
The number of boxes transmitted during the year amounted to 407,
and compare with the transmission of former years as follows:
Number of | Bulkineubic, Weight in
boxes. feet. pounds.
|
| 1 :
179 954 26, 850
196 | 1, 476 44, 236
131 | 933 27, 990
208 1, 508 45, 500
32 2, 261 80, 750
397 2,779 99, 250
309 2, 160 69, 220
311 | 2,177 69, 975
268 | 1, 976 60, 800
407 2, 800 100, 750
The 407 boxes sent during the year 1881 were distributed as follows :*
aa/a:|¢ z
ADlaklea| 3
‘ ) too) Ba @.S |
Country. Za lnB BD q ak
ma | eo | 9-2 i =
Wesraraed a a. ~
1 Sw eA | Ae
aoia |e |o |e
AMERICA.
Argentine Republic....-.....-.- sige naag HaAgeeOS Hop desabasoseotansouse 2 MO meactor 4 7
Brazilesoes ams Bo eee Sea amt ate fatets pe ome ae aeeatyarorens arto e cls ialeya oom apelet al efacelers 4 5 A SS oes 2 7
(Ofer Ri Ee Va A eS UR Se Ue Ee Oe A a he eta rs cnmene, Ores (fel eee ee 4 10
Onn A aadathe ee nbs peo eatpeop cesce maa oe And Coca Me anOR Mm pODHuSSsOSE 5 i ate 2 8
(OI te hae eee eb ne ORG Heads Se one ouobE Heda cesccencneeeebennonS aa sa mdnaccse Ole een [omen seeeere 2
Beuador.....--. See ene ee eee eee ia titce ee ane nstee Serine aemrels Biol Sree Sosa sone 3
Catia EN ss eee en sa eee aes eee 68 Re ee oe aemenc qdobUce Decode [Se cceleeeese 1
TBE NAM aco Scene” oot Dee UN See EIS She pase nieseapacacecosog ses aneege ceded Sab serilScensallocetos 2 D)
I Kee TR Vist tne Aan ae HEE an hen SOO E SoREe Aenea e acitcocs sere nianeat aoser 4 of | saseet 2. 9
INCOR) IN Teo Cana ceenean sOGUy a see oe esa poSoScucoopbedaeepeseachienc=suDos I Nosgscslscosee|lsos-6¢ 1
SVICTIOZAL CLA e sna ce eaGe cocina eee cite cect Be ies a ate Ee | 1 ASaoS | Sea 2 3
jee es ee
STAY EAT pe re a RO Stites facie ARS LEIS oo Ss Paes 29 6 | eS 18 53
| =
ASIA.
(ON TTD SD ak 5 eee See MA SL dae Pcl coe A pet apt geht ey rN dha fair A Bie che caren ek at | Camp De 3
Fast Indies. (Included in England.)
DPR ae Cha gh b beauisd Se Ce chabsceenscuaes onto cose senecdsesontonesss 2, PAN Sees 2 6
Java. (Included in Hotand.)
—— | —__$__ | —$————_ | _
Potala soe ee oe Ale nia esis a heya oe ore atc eins = catia eeeaele 5 Dl sec 2 * 9
AFRICA.
Algiers. (Included in France.)
Cape Colonies. (Included in England.)
AUSTRALIA.
ING wrooutb Wales occ ao- oe wena sone schwcacie cance cenecseeeeeertoesiss 2 n Mal ee ee 2 5
ENG WeAOMAN Gs caren croc tec am atte cient oes c wic nme iciteas renee eee cee nnes tae sce 2 6
@TNGeNSIAN Weer iaecienicm rises « meeeeiaatses Na aats ae eeuse ener ease tees aloes es 2 3
WOUGNPAITELLATIO. acs a ate seats cab piemas 2 2
MRASMAM Ae sen tse as Bs 2 2
Wit CDOT EE at. Sets e tS sists clara hele cee bre slate ara ets cela ie tee era ete ae 2 5
OCA Se as se a Se cps ett mal doe welactee a bese ees ke Eee Rene aoe nes 12 23
*TIn all cases the number of boxes given in this report includes the boxes sent under
the system of Government documents exchanged to the various governments specified
in the special report appended, and the transmissions to Canada which will be found
specified in the detailed report on domestic exchanges.
REPORT ON TIIE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES. 63
liGline sr ik « ~
litest re ul tret 8 g =|
= D> i] . (3)
| )#8|e8/S8| &
Country. ! hea Bea @ 5 =
c [Sd | Ps | 4-4 2 &
ai | Set] 28 5 °
mei e O sa]
EUROPE. |
Austria (Smithsonian Exchanges ineluded in Germany) -.-...-- -------)--.--- | Dilizaasee loose 2
Bavaria (Smithsonian Exchanges included in Germany) -.-.------.-----|.----- ee oe 2 2
IG ny min 5. Sacbbsechddte peaboun Soe Sono na bike aoe eomiec eno ahe esoose booms 5 | | ences 2 8
INGO SIE e a AOR SEP RBOOEE MAD cmcscas op Socueb cSactEOeee specs Sauce 2 Diane 2 6
MaNiCOneereseics c-nc s ~~ SS ced 22 seb desc Sd soe dsbecdnben saab eae saoes 29 2 1 4 36
Germany se saat odo ws we cme: oer bac a cenomicner oe eae secee ebind 65 St iveeen- 2 70
(AiG SiniiChbh Saab ameE aaa vecr ono o net abo jac SeDpUnbonGeoensosnebase see 48 | CF ies 2 54
EET OCO ee ee ae Ao aoe arn Smiele ame ae aS rae eae we Satiecns seu senate cose beeeie [oe ateel tenets 2 2
TARA cies ae ey aeRO EP Ca SO tak Oped SPR Ge 4 ee mee 28 Baltes 15 46
INIGHIATAR He ea cserbe aeons SCS One Cee A uRC SEE CER REECS seh Ga SenrShacG] 10 base tS 2 14
INIOA TEN e Hes SERS CCHS BS RODE TERE SeasOatCIAe Hao! Sodoneente) Sacedesaasec 3 rl Sea 2 9
2 RN ATOR! once Ss cocges sab soda cotSon soe tuey socond aaa ceqsone se saae 2 Dill Si aeeene 2 6
Prussia (Smithsonian Exchanges included in Germany) ....---------|-.---.|.-----|.----- 2 2
TET SLE’ pleas See ks Bae MER ee Sines Ci, eg a I et tees Se celta ees Wen oH eae ee ests 37
Saxony (Smithsonian Exchanges included in Germany) .--.----------- eee eee acepes 2 2
SPAMS wo Scere aces feel! cieseaeecssac cauen SoS ee Pan apa eae pene Dy lave es 2 4
DW OUGER! cece oct ute aa chinese cacce ne See se ey so aaive se wewecaeeewe ne 6 2 Sees 2 10
Swiezenlandie. seo see ee tase here wee ans oe senso coe enesenase see sess. iit eee a eee 2 8
DUT No Re RS se Seo ie EL Seon Coe ACGSn kat alle Jk encase ein eee Sess mse Ries ar y 2
Wurtemberg (Smithsonian Exchanges included tm Germany)..--..---|------|------|------ | 2
DO tall Po siasc sae ab eG meses casapesnae ae oecese= sete oes aase see 226 29 66 322
RECAPITULATION.
AGTELS Ago Dl pc ep Dt Ba PRED pT INN | Doula eine ees 18| 53
TNE SE Gem USES MAS OS EIS An SOTO a ae eee IIE Eee Scheer ce eee Ree oe | 5 Dither 2 | 9
PAU Staaten Use ae ae hale nets ahs TREO SE OL oe RAGES AES 4 UN ences 12 | 23
MEMO Paces sass oe Oe taints a tea seems tslew oem aeae aterciwe, te cjeien a= ee | 226 29 | 1} 66; 322
2.—DoMESTIC EXCHANGES.
The receipt of exchanges for domestic transmission has been stated as
being 7,890 packages. These, together with the accumulation from the
year 1880, amounted to 8,433 packages, which have all been worked
off, not one package remaining in the office at the expiration of the year.
The total number of packages transmitted compares with former
years as follows:
| | | |
1872. | 1873. | 1874. 1875. 1876. | 1877. | 1878. | 1879. | 1880. | 1881.
| } | | | =
{ ie a
Total addresses of institu- } }
tions ... , 300! 463] 462; 329} 316] 392 | 292) 444 | 385 | 600
Total addresses of individ- | H | {
ROG eee ont ee ee 287 | 226! 288} 281! 328 374 | 370 ! 341! 560 454
Total number of parcels to | | |
WISMUUTIONS) ss2-o4 + o- na cee 3, 694 | 3, 876 | 3,221 | 3,619 | 3,705 | 3, 868 | 4,059 | 5, 786 | 4, 021 | 7, 086
Total number of apres to |
individuals ................| 941} 906 | 1,105 | 1,042 | 1, 148 | 1, 094 | 1,233 | 1,185 | 1,566 | 1,347
Total number of parcels ....: 4, 635 | 4 782 | 4,326 | 4, 661 | 4,853 | 4,962 | 5,292 | 6,971 | 5, 587 | 8,433
! | ’ |
64
REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES.
And were distributed to societies into the various States and Terri-
tories of the United States and of British America as follows:
States and Territories. | aa ei States and Territories. Berle oa
}
PAN aaa! was qleeicw elie erie wines neice foal | 1 HW Nebraska: 3..cnse ssseeemecepaaes Det 2
TAVKANGAB se Soc e vec te la ect coon 5 9 || New Hampshire 6 14
Califommia, ese. esen sje soe 21 148°) New Jersey (F24 cosets eemtieseee 11 41
Colorado eeereeacce ee ee a= 2 2NENew Work: 2222s. co saseer cerca 85 797
Connecticut ssecses-s=s2 ee oe= ee 16 322) ||| North Carolina Ge. -c-seseseseeeene 4 4
IO EES) Ges sab doangcsocéseshose 1 1) | RORIO] see ss aan area ae see eee 37 149
District of Columbia..-......-....-. AGN 24370) NOLO LON =. Si apace cea e eee 3 3
BOWED | sad aauldedasosaias soeCEcoSdoe 6 10S PR ennsvivanige eee ctaas aaa eer 17 747
MN OIS "stocks ceclenes seas cece cee os 34 209) Rhode Islands. -— 24 -eeee eet 9 21
Mm iam ae eecesee cel eceee coe 14 27) South Carolindaca se ancseeemeererce 7 24
MO ie boone meceoo eo canneradaanseace 15 135; ||) Tennessee) .\..c5/1- -= -escene=- sees el 8 8
KANSAS oe nteiaine + coei-sie isc aeacececies 5 17 2 3
Kentucky 5 11 1 1
Louisiana 8 49 7 49
Maine's. S225 ==: 15 53 10 16
Maryland | 15 84 || Washington Territory .--.---.----- 1 1
Miassichusettsi..2-<.-cccsececes=ee 7211, (039),|| West Virginiaiss.:---s---4-see4o—= 3 3
Michi vani-c2.. .ccccosescacascesses 15 G14 Wiasconsings <-,os hoe ce ses saa 11 157
WMT GE Oy ooo 5505 s50scnEpesaobace 7 28) || Saritish Americas s. -..\-c=4==-5 566 54 235
‘MiSSIBSIP Pi! 5: 2 s-jcese-e ss ccescee | 2 2 |
IMIngGOUriGAS jose nk Se ese eee ae 17 224 Totals peso Sanne ee ee 600 | 7, 086
}
List of consignees.
Recipients. ee Recipients. ee
ALABAMA. CALIFORNIA—Continued.
Tuscaloosa :
Geological Survey of Alabama ........... 1 Santa Clara :
Santa Clara College........---..---.-..-. 1
if eed LS
ARKANSAS. ————— 148
| COLORADO. ————
Fayetteville : Denver:
Industrial University. -2-+-----ssscsss-=s- 1} aGovernor Gilpinte soccer eee 1
Holly Grove: State Library. wocess osc ce seas eeseenee 1
literary unstitution, so-sceeasaee eee cee e 1
Judsonia : 2
Judson MIVerslbyeno=-6/-6 see = a= ee eee it CONNECTICUT. ==
Little Rock:
Governoriof Arkansas------.-----2-5-0 5 - 5 | Bridgeport :
Miteranyslnstitotionyes-=-..os secon see 1 || Bridgeport Library and Reading-Rooms.- 1
| Hartford :
9 || American Philological Society..--.-..--. 1
——=—"| State Board of Agriculture Seeincisiseeye seme 1
CALIFORNIA. State Library.) 22s ceises sew aee seeceeee 1
Berkeley : Theological Institution of Connecticut: - 1
University of California.............--..- 1 Trinity Collegetnt tases. a ceee eee 1
Marysville: Middletown :
Marysville Library... <<<... .-scssnccccnn ss 1 |) Wesleyan’ Univer sity.-----.---25- << 3
Oakland : New Britain:
University of California...............-.. Li StatesNormal School <2-2-2-2-----ssecnss 1
Sacramento : New Haven:
HPC HUIDNALY see nae sec ees castes seeeeee ses 1 || American Journal of Science, ete .--..-- 108
Society of Agriculture and Horticulture... 1 || American Oriental Society.----..-- -..-. 38
State Library - socesteweccaawneascaseense 3 || Connecticut Academy of Science....--.-. 139
San Francisco: Sheffield Scientific School ........-.-..-- 6
Academy, of, Sciences'-2-.5--2<5.ssecceeees 119: |} WaleCollere \. 2.2: sists eee ee 19
Agricultural and Horticultural. Society -- 2 || Young Men’s Institute -......----.--.--- 2
Biblioth eque dela Dione: -. 28522 aoe. 82 1 Waterbury:
Gorporationlofitheloibysesseenes eee 1 |iBronsonWibrary 222. esos see eeeee eee J
Piibramye woe souioseroe sities oe ce moesicnaeeo ue 1 |__——__—
Dick) ODSErvAatOry. sa. ccanas cee ee csenecee 8 322
Mechanics) Institute s.--.2 cesses ss snes. 1 DELAWARE. =
Mercantile Library sandoostdst seante tcc: 2
Odd Hellows wkbibrarys-ncceec coset eo seees 1 Wilmington :
Saint Ignatius College..........-....--- re 1 SWilmingetoniingsti¢ntes....s¢eere = aces se 1
State Geological Surver eae sas ociamiceeacee i ed
State Horticultural Soclety2s0. 422 tees 1 1
REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES.
.
List of consignees—Continued.
Recipients. ,
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
Washington:
Agricultural Department. ...-....--.-----
American Medical Association
Anthropological Society
Arm edical Museum
Belgian Legation
Board of Health
Bureau of Education
Bureau of Ethnology
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery
Bureau of Navigation
Bureau of Statistics
Census Office
Coast Survey
Columbian University
Commissioners of District of Columbia ...
Commissioner of Indian Affairs
HN PINGEM BULeas hao - ease sviacceececcces
Entomological Commission
General Land Office
Geological Survey ......
Georgetown College
Georgetown Observatory
Aly drogen bio Office ....--
Index Me‘licus
Interior Department
Library of Congress
Light-house Board
Minister of China
Minti Boreaure avers. css Se ecacetsceace
National Academy of Sciences
INGiOn A MINISOMIM ss rcs nsoceedeises ec ae ace
INeSutical AIMAnNaG 5.55020 s.2 l= con cocle
Naval Observatory .
Navy Department
Ordnance Bureau
Patent OMmees 22 ..sceescscc ese ct ecceaweceee
Philosophical Society --..-..--..........-
Provost Marshal General
SOS a 0 eos See neo ona eeboee
Smithsonian Institution
State Department
Surceon-General i... os: osu. - seen ees
Surgeon-General, Marine Hospitals
Treasury Department
War Department
GEORGIA.
' Athens:
University of Georgia
Atlanta:
Agricultural Department and State Agri-
cultural Society
City Tibrary.22 22 shih s cc a scescacceces
Cave Spring:
Institute for the Deaf and Dumb
Macon:
Public Library and Historical Society....
Savannah:
Historical’Society...<25-2-cosdccometcaceents
ILLINOIS.
Abingdon:
Abingdon College
Bloomington :
Bloomington Library
Wesleyan University
Carbondale:
Southern Mlinois Normal University
Champaign :
Industwzial University
Chicago:
Academy of Sciences .-..............5..-
Astronomical Observatory...............-
S. Mis. 1095
Pack-
ages.
| Deaf and Dumb Institute
65
Recipients.
ILLINOIS—Continued.
Dearborn Observatory
HIS torical Soclotyanw-eeo samen cease eee
Illinois Staats Zeitun
Museum of Natural
IPnblichiibrary ssc ees ke ae cee ae coos
Theological Seminary
Evanston : .
Northwestern University
Galesburg:
Knox College
Lombard University
Jacksonville:
Tlinois College
Lebanon :
McKendree College
Monmouth:
Monmouth Colleges 22-2 .s- 22 ecee ses oe
Warren County Library
Normal :
Museum of Natural History
Ottawa:
Ottawa Academy of Natural Sciences ...
Peoria:
Mercantile Library
Rantoul:
Rantoul Literary Society
Rock Island :
Public Librar
Springfield:
Geological Survey of Dlinois
Library Association
St. Joseph’s College
Statedhibrary.- 26) sa sette ences
Westtield :
Westfield College
heaton :
Wheaton College
INDIANA.
Bloomington :
University of Indiana
Crawfordsville :
Wabash’ Colleges oon occ-nese sacs aeneer
Fort Wayne:
Concordia College
Greencastle :
Asbury University
Hanover :
Hanover College.....
Indianapolis:
Academy of Science...... -- eee cee
Geological Survey of Indiana..........-.
Publiciatbranyiss-. cee so ce cce: eee es oe
SiatevMibranyececcecce pecoesae ec esee ee |
Meron:
Union Christian College
New Albany:
Society of Natural History
Notre Dame:
University of Notre Dame
St. Meinard :
St. Meinard College
Terra Haute:
State Normal School
IOWA.
|
-_
Ames:
Iowa Agricultural College
Davenport :
Academy of Sciences
Griswold College
Des Moines:
Governor of Iowa.....- Lb cdsccuseecves aes
State Library
to Boke ee
a
ee ee ee ee
a
to
~~
>
7)
oe Db
66
REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES.
" List of consignees—Continued.
Recipients.
1owa—Continued.
Dr'buqnue:
Towa Institute of Science and Arts
Fairfield :
Jefferson County Library Association. --.
Grinnell:
Iowa College
Indianola :
Siapeon Centennial College
owa City :
Geological Survey of Iowa
Iowa State University ..-..-
Iowa Weather Service
Keokuk:
Library Association
Monnt Vernon:
Cornell College
Oskaloosa :
Oskaloosa College
KANSAS.
Lawrence :
University of Kansas
Topeka:
Academy of Science
Historica! Society
State Library
Washburn College
KENTUCKY.
Danville:
Centre College
Columbia:
Christian College
Farmdale :
Kentucky Military Institute
Frankfort:
Geological Survey of Kentucky
Lonisville:
Corporation of the City..-..------.-------
LOUISIANA.
Baton Rouge:
State Wmiversitiyssc2s.cseece sae eecie es
Grand Coteau :
St. Charles College
New Orleans:
Academy of SCleNnCOiras eeeine eee ees eean ee
Athenée Louisianaise -..........---.2.---
Bibliothéque de la ville.....--..--.-<.5---
Corporation of the City --2=..--5-2+-.c--4-
New Orleans Deutsche Zeitung
University of Louisiana
MAINE.
Augusta:
Commissioner of Fisheries..........-.....!
Natural History and Geological Society -
State Board of Agriculture
State Library
Bangor:
Mechanics’ Association Public Library...
Brunswick:
Boy doiniCollegensss.aceseos6 seee ase +
HastoricaliSocilety eo. secne- cence see ee teat
Hebron:
Hebron Academy
Lewiston:
Manufacturers and Mechanics’ Association
Orono:
State Agricultural and Mechanical College
Portland:
Atheneum and Public Library...........
WHE eee ee
49
a oC
Recipients.
MAINE—Continued-
Maine Historical Society ................
Society of Natural History
Saco:
York Institute
Waterville :
Colby University
MARYLAND.
Annapolis :
St. John’s College
United States Naval Academy.....-.-.--.
Baltimore :
American Journal of Mathematics
Baltimore Deutsche Zeitung....--..----.
Corporation of the city
HistoricaliSociety=.----.---csseesee sees
Johns Hopkins University
Maryland Academy of Sciences
Maryland Institute
Mercantile Library Association
Peabody Institute ...Q@.......
St. Mary’s Seminary
State Normal School
Saint James:
Collegeof St. James
oodstock :
Woodstock College
MASSACHUSETTS.
Amherst :
| Agricultural College... --= - ooo -seee ===
| Theological Seminary
|| Boston Public Library
|| Boston Society of Natural History
|| Institute of Technology
| State Board of Health
Amherst College
Andover :
Boston:
Academy of Arts and Sciences.-...---.--.
American Board of Foreign Missions. --.
American Gynecdlogical Society
American Statistical Association
American Unitarian Association
Appalachian Mountain Club
Atheneum
Board of Agriculture
Board of Education
Board of State Charities
Boston College
Boston Hospital Library
Beston Medical and Surgical Journal ...
Bowditeh Library
Commonwealth of Massachusetts .--..--
Corporation of the city
Massachusetts Historical Society. -.-.--
Massachusetts State Library
New England Historic and Genealogical
Society
Science Observer
Brookline :
Publiehibrary--..sons--odactiess eee
Cambridge:
Anderson School, ete
Entomological Club. .....
Harvard Coll6fe: 2: 6-5 ocean eee
Herbarium of Harvard College........--
Museum of Comparative Zoology
Observatory of Havard College
Peabody Museum
“Psyche”
bo
iw)
Be Ee RENT OHHO Pe
2)
ns
HH EDR REE RHO He pe
no
conme
eR Oo
bo
Nee SOO ee
~
REPORT ON
THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES.
List of consignees—Continued.
Recipients.
MASSACHUSETTS—Continued.
~College Hill:
Tuft’s College
Concord :
Public Library
Gloucester :
Sawyer Free Library
Taverhill:
Publie Library
Hingham:
Public Library
Jamaica Plains:
BUSSEY UN SbLUUbOL sas) 523s eee suse ee cases
Lancaster :
Lancaster Town Library
Lawrence :.
Public Library
Leicester:
Public Free Library
Lowell:
Mechanic Association
Lynn:
Public Library
Nantucket:
Atheneum
Newburyport:
Public Library
Newton Centre:
Theological Institute
Northampton :
Public Library
Quincy:
Public Library
Salem :
American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science
Atheneum
ISsexuinstiiMiG=-seusech > -1s sateen eteso ay
Peabody Academy
Sou‘ Hadley:
Mount Holyoke Female Seminary
Springfield:
City Library
Taunton:
Public Library
Watertown:
Free Public Library
Wellesley:
Wellesley College
‘ Williamstown:
Williams College
Woburn:
Public Library
Worcester:
American Antiquarian Society
Free Institute of Industry
Public Ii brary jose se see
Society of Natural History
,
MICHIGAN.
Adrian:
Arian COlerescsccsesscseaerssae es eaeee
Ann Arbor:
Geological Survey of Michigan
Observatory
University of Michigan
Coldwater:
Michigan Library Association
Detroit:
PROD CLADTATY 40 oiocee cece eee eee me
State Agricultural Society................
Hillsdale:
Hillsdale College
Kalamazoo:
Kalamazoo College.............-- paosccdscr
Pack-
ages.
Recipients.
67
Pack-
ages.
to
ee a a
_
oe o oe Db »
Ce ee — ee
—
=
|| Agricultural College
|| State Library
|| University of Minnesota
| William Jewell College Library
| Chamber of Commerce
| Pustorical'Society.: -<kceetocas- seem ner eee
| Library Association
| University of Mississippi
| State Board of Agriculture
MICHIGAN—Continued.
Lansing:
State Board of Health......-...-...-.....
Marquette:
Geological Survey
Olivet:
Olivebi Collaroy: (oseces s asec aoa
Port Huron:
Ladies’ Library Association
MINNESOTA.
Duluth:
Free Public Library
Minneapolis :
Academy ot Natural Sciences.........-.
Geological Survey
Saint Paul:
MISSISSIPPI.
Daleville :
Cooper Institute
Oxford:
MISSOURI.
Fayette :
Central College
Glasgow :
Observdtorys 225 --s eee eee
Jofferson City:
Governor of the State
TRAD OEE ote ne Nios we ae aaa
TROLL Ree ete alas Ce 6B ie
Geological Survey of Missouri.-.....---
Saint Louis:
ACAGEMLY OLSClONCOS == s-incseseas coe One |
Botanical Garden
Corporation ‘of the city.................-.
Mercantile Library
Missouri Historical Society
Peabody Academy
Publie School Library
Saint Louis University
Washington University. -..22.222.-...2.-
WestlichemP ostt= sae esos cece ee ee
Warrensburgh :
State Normal School
NEBRASKA.
Lincoln:
State Library
Peru:
State Normal School
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Concord:
Historical Society
State Library
Hanover :
=
_
bo
| Or bow
to
ios)
ee
bo
iy
op)
Rite Or Oh ec -~] ~ o-
—
Ma ew
68 REPORT ON
THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES.
List of consignees—Continued.
|
Recipients. res Recipients. ene
NEW HAMPSHIRE—Continued. NEW YORK—Continued.
Manchester: Hornellsville :
Crhyalibrary= ase scee see a\teeee eee ae Ty |Elibrary Associationyess)ace><.—eeceee 1
Portsmouth : Ithaca:
JQHII ESE Bae erdoeeerosocas SsaosaEdso = LU Cornelliiniversitye--esee jase eee eee 8
—_—— || New York City:
14 || American and Foreign Bible Society... .. 1
American Chenoa See ae Aeieerxisae Sete 9
: anki American Ethnological Society. -. a 6
ENR CEES American Geographical Society -- é 132
Hoboken : American, Institute: 222 o1s-e-2-e-seeeses 16
Stevens Institute of Technology..--.-..--. 13 || American Medical Journal....-...--.-..- 17
Newark: Anieric2>n Museum of Natural History... 16
Historical Society ---— 2. sssece-cccneseae 1 Astor diibrary so 55sec ac - noe eee 29
New Brunswick : |; Collegelofithecity 22-c-s.cee-esesee-eee 1
Geological Survey of New Jersey.--.-.--. 2 || College of Pharmacy-...-..-.---.--------- 1
Rutgers Collegete-se-scce-ceaecee seat eae 1 'Columibia| Collese ns. meme sien eee 2
Newton: | GheryayereOirrten) Oh ose ose aeS =o - cis! 1
Newton Library Association...........--- LO Drag gistsiCircnlarss 22h. cose sen eeeacerte 1
. Princeton: Engineering and Mining Journal -.-...-. 3
College of New Jersey.....-.-.---------- 13 || Geneaological Society ----....-....----.- 2
Green’s School of Science. --....---------- 13\\) HistoricaliSociety oss u eee soe cee eee 4
@Gbservyatonyees-oo ee Po eeeee saan seeeeee G) |) Journal of Chemistry s2s---s--sieeeee 1
Theological Seminary...-..---.--0:5--5---- Dn ienox ie tbratye se ccutars eee cise sn ae eae 1
Rahway: Medical Library and Journal Association 1k
iprary Associations scee~ oe eee eeee 1 ||aMedicaliRecorder *o-\s.---12- 12 -eoe seer 1
‘Trenton: Moercantilewdsibrary:.jssu-se. eee 3
SDALCVEN Dra yp erie cto oe are eta atone ental 1 || Military Service Institute -.........--.-. i
Natura History Society ts. $235 5-ce2seee 1
41 || New York Academy of Medicine.-.-...... 2.
—————— pbuh nore ences, pe ueueeee nen aa
Ke 2 | New York Belletristisches Journal ..-....
‘ STS AO Se || New York Society Library, ....s-t225-5 2
Albany: aN Gw: MOrkULimes’ sts jecc ses sescceneee 9
‘Adirondack SULVCVe sss. = cece sees ee eee 4"\ New, Mork Sribunels-t s-se-e=ee sm eeeees 1
PAU ani y NS LG OLE eerie eerie Low OPSOrVvaAtOry iy uses ee yao coe eee ue 15
Commissioners State Park... -..-...-.-2- PA School of Minesiese ae cer see eee eee ee 15
Duadley Observatory ss) aes see ee 327) Scientific American) sce ceeese eee 1
New York Medical Society.--.....-.------| 2 || Union Theological Seminary....-----..-. 2
Secretary, Of Stale se-se sess seers 21) Universit yot theleity etecnee- sass 2
State Agricultural Society....-....-.-.--- | 27 | United States Sanitary Commission ..... 5
StateiCabinet: 5 \7 2 jo cae a | 22 Poughkeepsie :
State Library.......... Se aes oe rere 76 || Society of Natural Sciences...... .-..--. 9
State Normal School-....2 ....------- Bee ic\pViessar © ollezexs cschee soem steece mee eae 4
Regents State Universities ........-.....- 14 || Rochester :
Alfred Centre: University.) essa seen ee Secnete steno 1
Al frediUiniversibysses- se ene es eee ace e il Schenectady :
Annandale: Wnion Collere .2- 2st cc sees cean. bere 3
St. Stephen’s College..-.....-.........---- 1 Syracuse:
Auburn: Central Eibrary:-.co-s-ee-s-)) seasceseee 1
Agricultural and Mechanics’ College... --| LS MWmiverstty- sos ee kee ese beee aes es 1
Bath: Troy:
iibrary, Association’ ..csesesccoeeseeecere | 1WiisMomaleySemimanyio-e-tecscesiee ane eee eaeet 1
Brooklyn: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute---..-... 1
Baker Collegiate Institute.....--...-.-.-- 1 || Young Men’s Association ..........-.-.- 1
Brooklyn duibrarys ve ses ses eescseeesee see 2 est Point:
Entomological Society 1 || United States Military Academy..-..-.-. 6
“ea Island Historical Society ...---..--- 2 —— =
uffalo : 797
Buffalo Practical School .-.-.------------ 3 SSS
Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. .--.-- 75 NORTH CAROLINA.
Grosvenor Free Library .-..-.:-2.-.------ 1
North American Entomologist.....---.---| 1 Lenoir:
WoungiMen'sibrary-sseee seen eee eee 1 || Davenport Female College..--..-.---.--. 1
Canton: Raleigh :
Saint Lawrence University ........--...-- Va State laibrary. -c\sc tes eeieeee oan eee tH
Clinton: Trinity :
Hamilton Colleges: sso-s5sses- eee eso eee Tp io rainiivs COG lGn seca a senna ae 1
Litchfield Observatory......-.......------ 6 Warrenton:
Corning: Female Collegiate Institute. .....-..----- 1
Cormingslibrary) 2-02. sscnsss see sessien ee 1
lmira : 4
Young Men’s Christian Association ....-. 1 | ===
Fordham : |
St. Johnis'Colleves. os. << --ocinesacesese oe 1 OHIO.
Geneva: Ashtabula:
Hobart: Collegesass- sere’ a-s ase eee ee 1 || Anthropological Society.---...----.----- 2
Hamilton: Athens:
Madison University..........--..- re a 1 | Ohio! University; 2. ..0.6- sevice ieee a =m it
REPORT ON
THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES.
69
List of consignees—Continued.
Pack-
Recipients. ages.
onio—Continued.
Cincinnati:
Cincinnati University.........-.-.---s0--
CincinnatiivVolksblatt..----. 5-22 --scescen=
Cincinnati Volkszeitung..-..------.------
Mercantile Librar
Mussey Medical
Observatory
TED VO) bea on easie ceca sCeae So aonceon
Society of Natural History.-...-...--..-..
Cleveland:
Oasenlbibratyessceeiee =e — ---eeee eine
Kirtland Society of Natural Sciences.-..-
Public School Library.---.-..-.---.---..--
Columbus:
Geological Survey of Ohio. -....-----------
State Board of Agriculture
State Horticultural Society..........-----
State Library
tate UmiVversiby-— 1. -—- ase nanbel omsemcls
Dayton:
Public Library Ls Ee eee mE ane
Delaware:
Wesleyan University ........-...-.-------
Fremont:
Barchard pha braryie a - setae
Gambier :
en yon@ollep rere se. onsenbona -kanniarselate
ranville:
Denison University---+..-....-----..-..-
Hiram :
Param iG Get Geena a cee aeeneacielcae nese
Hudson:
Western Reserve College. .-.--.----------
Lebanon:
Mechanics Anstitate.-<2<...5 56 -seee note
Marietta:
Marietta College.-......--.-.-1.-.--------
‘ Oberlin:
Oberlin Collegelesessens-ens-saeseae= coals
Painesville:
Lake Erie Female Seminary...-.-..-.---.----
Springfield
Te biel bi) ira ees omec sae oeeoencccHa rece .
Tiffin:
Heidelberg College.-.......-.---.-..--.---
Toledo:
LED UE Op Mia ep aeoeeonec se Coon eOSO One
Urbana:
Central Ohio Scientific Association....-...
Urbana University
Westerville:
Otterbein University......----.......-.---
Wooster:
Wooster University
Yellow Springs:
Antioch College
eee eee ee ee
w
a
=r
Be ee ee gp RR HHH RO ORR
Le a a oe cn ee
ry
Bee eS ee Oe
OREGON.
Forest Grove:
PACiiC UNVErAalby..2-<scceeeesscnee esses
Portland :
iibrary-A ssocistion..2-..--2.-S-c5sess<0
Salem :
State Library...... Sesheoeoe seasons ssce
PENNSYLVANIA.
Allegheny :
Observatory
Easton:
Institute of Mining Engineers-............
Lafayette College..-.-.....--.-------.----
ae Pack
R i
ecipients ages
PENNSYLVANIA—Continued.
Gettysburg:
Pennsylvania. College ... il
Theological Seminary 1
Harrisburg :
Geological Survey.-----.--.---------- 6
State ‘Library eas bclaviacsie wien eemeciats 3
Haverford :
Havertord Collecer-5------e-see= es p= 1
Lewisburg :
University of Lewisburg.----------.---- 1
Manstield :
State Normal School .:....-.-...----.--- 1
Meadville:
Theological Seminary-.--...------------ 1
Media :
Delaware County Institute of Science... 1
New Wilmington:
Westminister College......------------- 1
Philadelphia :
Academy of Natural Sciences..---..---. 299
American Entomological Society----.--- 46
‘American Journal of Conchology. -.--.- 5
AMOerICAN NaAtUTAIA tee. = 2 nee ase e ena 13
American Pharmaceutical Association. . 14
American Philosophical Satay ae erearte 195
Apprentices Wibrany) ----=-c-se. saa 1
PACH en cements see nama Be ice tein = en eae te 1
Board of Public Education.-.....-.------ 4
Board of Public Healthecs sess... o-e se 1
BOAO sOL Lad Os ens eel eaislsemese eons 3
Central Bich Schooli esas. ose seee =e 4
College of Pharmacy-_----.-.2<2...-.2.: 1
Corporation of the City.--..--.-.------- 1
Hwenin co bulletingseses-cs-+ esas ii
ramklinvlois big bess eie= ee eae ea crare aie 44
Geological Survey----- +22. -2-..=4=s-—= 2
German) Society c) secne ote sec ae 1
Historical Society of Pennsylvania. .--. 9
Library Association of Friends --------. 2
Eabrary, Company. --css-= = sa ecendecaae 4
Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory
of Girard College . --.-...-..--.--..-.- 5
IMediGalMDimes: cones eee sc eee oa tence 15
Mercantile Library Company.---..-.----- 2
Naturalists’ Leisure Hour.e--.-..--.---- 1
Numismatic and Archeological Society -- 1
Philadelphia Hospital..........-.-...... 2
Presbyterian Board of Publication... .. 1
University of Pennsylvania..-....-..--. 2
Wagner Free Institute.........--..--.- f 11
Zoolomcall Society. s2-e--=-4-se=neeeia= es 20
Pittsburg :
Mercantile Library.........-........-..- 1
Strathmore:
SbLssHMOre COMeres--- eee ne sesaneeas 1
- South Bethlehem : °
Bebreh WMiversityosssses- sess se wee 1
West Grove:
East Pennsylvania Experimental Farm. 1
/ 747
RHODE ISLAND. —=—
Newport:
Redirect IGT ET aySbocea Ba saceeega ne See 1
Providence:
PAN OMS MM nase ost. a elsiel wea ataatetent 2
IBIOW NU DLVOrsuyeso. ope len she ae oe 10
A StOniCal SOCIObY oe ae n-ne cave eeitaln = 3
INOrMaAlSChOOlessesa ssn csc,.2ne e< sone ene 1
PniplicOibrary ee. ete ance Casale a Sole | 1
Register of Births, etc.........-..--.---. 1
~ Woonsocket :
Harris Institute Library.--............- | 1
21
/
70 REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES.
List of consignees—Continued.
Recipients.
SOUTH CAROLINA.
Charleston:
Elliot Society
Library Society
State Medical College
Columbia:
State Library. ..
State University
Due West:
Erskine College
Greenwich:
ene wee eee wee e ee eee econ:
Furman University.......---- ee teen
TENNESSEE.
Columbia:
Athenzum ...--
Hiawassee:
Hiawassee College. ..-....-.-...--..--.---
Jackson:
Southern Baptist University..-.--.--.----
Maryville:
Maryville Colleg
Memphis:
Opin ata fa ele mimi n allie calm lm (ele ele
Christian Brothers’ College-..---.--..--.-
Nashville :
School for the blind 32 eee eee eseier eco
University of Nashville..-...-..--....---
Vanderbilt University-...-....--.-....---
Austin :
Public Library -
Chapel Hill:
Soulé University 252-2925. 2-s522-- sees
UTAH.
Salt Lake City:
Umiversity of Deserebis-n..sssee--seteee
VERMONT.
Castleton :
Orleans County Society of Natural Sciences
Burlington:
Fletcher Free Public Library.........--.
University of Vermont..-.......--.------
Derby :
Society of
Montpelier:
Natural Sciences. ........------
Historical Society of Vermont.....--...--
State Library... -
Saint Johnsbury :
AST NENOU MN Soph eae oe as cone ea
VIRGINIA.
Blacksburg :
Agricultural and Mechanical College. .--..
Charlottesville:
WMiversit yiotpVanoinis s2sse6 sccm acteeses
Lexington:
Virginia Military Institute............-..
Washington and Lee University-.-...--.
New Market
Polytechnic Institute): 2-20-55 22s- see
Richmond:
Salem :
Roanoke College
Pack-
ages.
=
40
ae ee ee eS |
=
fo7]
Recipients.
WASHINGTON TERRITORY.
Seattle:
Territorial University........-.-:-------
WEST VIRGINIA:
Flemington :
West Virginia College. .............---..
Shepherdstown :
Shepherd College -22 aot se een aaene soneee
heeling : é
Natural History Society.....-..-...----.
WISCONSIN:
Appleton:
Lawrence University...---........------
Beloit: t
Geological Survey of Wisconsin.......-.
Janesville:
Wisconsin Institute for Educating the
Ring Boeseneceaecces oes eceeseeees
Madison :
Historical Society of Wisconsin..-.....-.
State Agricultural Society of Wisconsin
Washburn Observatory .........--------
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences..--..--.
Milwaukee:
Milwaukee Seebote ...--... seekseace spat
Naturhistorischer Verein.......-...---..
Public’ Library-2-- s-s2-< scsocsecedeeeecs
Racine:
Racine Collesesnmecicnsaacice as saeco
BRITISH AMERICA.
Chicoutini, Canada:
Canadian Naturalist2s2--.5-<<<e2---2-
Coburg, Canada:
Victoria University. .-....-.--.-.<. ..-..-
Guelph, Canada:
Ontario School of A griculture.........-.
Halifax, Nova Scotia:
Dalhousie! College sys sosss.. sense saree
Department of Mines-.......-..--.....--
Lepislative Dabraryeoo-cs- soe eee sone
Nova Scotia Institute of Natural Sciences)
Hamilton, Canada:
Scientific Association......----..-2.--2--
Kingston, Canada:
Botanical Society of Canada...-.-----.--.
Queen’s College.--- ......... Bee tenes
Montreal, Canada:
Canadian Medical and Surgical Journal.
Canadian Medical Record.-....-.-.--.---.---
Department of Public Instruction.....--.
Geological Survey of Canada..-.....-----
Historical (Societys =+-so----emenesseee as
L’Union Medical de Canada.........-.---
McGill’ Colleve: 2-2 22 fe sec et azecsieeaeis
Medical Association of Canada.-.-..--.-.-.
Natural History Society....-.------.----
Société d’Aipriculture. =~ =-).-s-c20..c2-eee
Société d’ Histoire Naturelle........-....
Ottawa, Canada:
Academy of Natural Sciences .--....--.--
Department of Agriculture. -.....---.--.
Geological Survey of Canada......------
legislative Library... -ccaseh=seme= eee
“ol ON Ot
i
co
RO Qe Hoe eco bd et ie a)
REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES. 71
List of consignees.—Continued.
ane Pack- ae Pack-
Recipients. Aa Recipients. a a8 a
BRITISH AMERICA—Continued. BRITISH AMERICA—Continued.
Quebec, Canada: Library of the House of the Assembly. -- 1
Geographical Society .-........-----.---.-- 2 || Literary and Historical Society.--.--.--. 1
Historical and Natural History Society-. 4 || Magnetic Observatory-....-..-...------- a
WAV al NWONIVEISiby =~ sis ---c m= ee ceils ee ise 2) || Meteorolopical OMmcels =n... sce cie ns - a= 7
Le Naturalist Canadien. .......:.......... 2 Sone, HnistitOLe sess aeeeces eee eae 1
Literary and Historical Society. ---.-..... Sy eo DiGi nays ce a caieie se atlselsi==lninlomintci == 5
Literary and Philosophical Society.-.--.-- 1 || School of Practical Science. --.----.------ il
Parliamentary Library. --...-.-..-...--.-- PAP RorontowGlobGseeeoss cee = ec eae shee 1
Royal Avademy of Sciences.-..-......-.-. 10 ||) Fb aba y CMG eke no cesrone gee ssoscascss 1
Fredericton, New Brunswick: LORI CHT Ay 46 Soman aonh ceagessces= Pee 1
University of New Brunswick. --.....--..- 4 || University College Library..-...--.--.--- 7
St. Johns, New Brunswick: Windsor, Nova Scotia:
Legislative Library. --......-..--....----- 6 || University of King’s College....-.- foodies 1
St. Johns, Newfoundland : Winnipeg, Manitoba:
Geological Survey of Newfoundland...-.. 1 Sts chOhnis|Coleees t=. --ecc- n= cece en === 1
Toronto, Canada Wolfville, Nova Scotia:
Canadian Institute........-.-...--.....2. 41) || AcadiayCollege: - 2... 3c. -ecnn==nckmemn= 1
Canadian Journal of Medicine...--....-..- 1
Educational Department..-....--..-..--- 1 235
Entomological Society...-.....-...-....-- 4
General recapitulation.
RECEIPTS.
Boxes. | Parcels. | Books.
1, LOU Re Carer THI O) oc cde, po Gaps OUNOe o BECO ObEUo ce sEcne CHO lboouose aoc Tt GY Pe SSeS coe
HE SNOr domestic TRANSMISSION Ee eee sec sase scion cncicice + 2/5 eseo we -iyicls 111 15890) |b sac = set
I. For government exchanges--.-.-.. Be eee oe Sv cbs csicscenscemses ess oapaes cinelosce seas, ne 15, 550
EMotal ees tes eciacee eA Pens woh s aE eat oe = tee a ae iit) |) 23/051 15, 550
TRANSMISSIONS.
Te Rovestabhishments| abroad <= -eeoce seme meter emcee escce seen ce ne
Il. To home institutions and individuals 8, 433
IIL. To foreign governments.-....-...-.---
SUN eam ee at oN SI ey Lear ee Rt ee a ee Nore Pet Aa 407 8, a 15, 550
3.—EXCHANGE OF GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS.
In 1868 Congress passed a resolution establishing a system of gov-
ernment exchanges under the charge of the Librarian of Congress, who
invited the co-operation of the Smithsonian Institution by placing the
management of this system in the hands of the Secretary.
- A large quantity of public documents having accumulated at the In-
stitution, it became necessary, in October, 1574, to address a circular to
a number of governments, explaining the object of such a system of
exchanges and inviting their co-operation.
The governments to whom this proposition was made were those of:
Argentine Republic, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Brazil, Chili, Den-
mark, France, German Empire, Great Britain, Guatemala, Hawaii,Italy,
Hayti, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, Peru, Portugal, Russia, Salvador,
Spain, Sweden and Norway, Turkey, United States of Colombia, and
Venezuela.
Ta ’ REPORT
ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES.
In accordance with the instructions received by the Institution in
response, the following distribution of documents was made in 1875:
Portugal
Sweden
Brazil
Cases, Cases.
snosesaceseosas 6) Argentine Republics. oe oe. eceenmecees 6
Sebs an Sus ceee 6 | Belpinm : 2452542 Se sae oeace wae sersen 6
vet anaen ease Gi) Chile secs bos bas Re ee Geasemiles sees 6
See Soe. & G))|) Mexicojcs et ee sea get eee ees dee 6
Boleta tana stometele 6
These governments have successively been supplied with the continua-
tions, and at present, full sets of fifteen boxes have been delivered to the
following named governments or their official agents, as specified in
the following table:
Governments in exchange with the United States Government.
Governments.
Establishments designated for the reception of government exchanges.
Argentine Confederation. -
Bavarias-c2s-se-es-
Belgium.
Brazile. ese
Buenos Aires --
Canadarsates, 2 oninneee teers
France
Germanvrssee- tee cee nee
Great Britaimetoo.-seseeeee
New South Wales.........
New yZealand 25.22. -cccn 5
INOT Ways crt-se n= tee eeeeo een
Rontupale =. asaeo-c aon ae
IPTHSSIAveoe cheer cee eee
Queensland--...
WRussia-= =. =
HaXONiyi- sb seecsesccke cen
South ATISTPM Bese sees ae
eee te come eee ccwccce
UTR OY Ses. aaso cece seco ek
IWene7znelaese ee Me a
Minister of Foreign Affairs, Buenos Aires.
K6nigliche Bibliothek, Munich.
Bibliothéque Royal, Brussels.
Government, Rio Janeiro.
Government of Buenos Aires.
Parliamentary Library, Ottawa.
Legislative Library, Toronto.
Museo Nacional, Santiago.
Koninklicke Bibliotheket, Copenhagen.
Government and departments, Paris.
Reichstag Bibliothek, Berlin.
British Museum, London.
Bibliothéque Nationale, Athens.
Sécrétaire d’Etat des Rélations Extérieures, Port-au-Prince.
Bibliotheque Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele, Rome.
Minister of Foreign Affairs, Tokio.
Government, Mexico.
Library of the States General, The Hague.
Parliamentary Library, Sydney.
Parliamentary Library, Wellington.
Foreign Oftice, Christiania.
Government, Lisbon.
KG6nigliche Bibliothek, Berlin.
Government, Brisbane.
Government, St. Petersburg.
Konigliche Bibliothek, Dresden.
Government, Adelaide.
Government, Madrid,
Government, Stockholm.
Government, Berne.
Parliamentary Library, Hobarton.
Government, Constantinople.
University Library, Caracas.
Public Library. Melbourne.
Kénigliche Bibliothek, Stuttgart.
REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES. 13
Shipping agents of government exchange.
Country.
Agent.
Argentine Confederation..| Carlos Carranza, consul general, New York.
IBGVANIB Soave ses oseace eos e wn
ISTE Rec dee hO sO Soe aC One
North German Lloyd, A. Schumacher & Co., Baltimore.
White Cross Line, Funch, Edye & Co., and Red Star Line, P. Wright &
Sons, New York.
Charles Mackall, vice-consul, Baltimore.
Carlos Carranza, consul-general New York.
Baltimore and Ohio Express Company.
Baltimore and Ohio Express Company.
C. DeCastro, consul-general, New York.
Henrick Braem, consul-general, New York.
Compagnie Générale Transatlantique, L. de Bébian, New York.
North German Lloyd, A. Schumacher & Co., Baltimore.
North German Lloyd, A. Schumacher & Co., Baltimore.
D. W. Botassi, consul-general, New York.
Atlas piraenty Company, Pim, Forwood & Co., New York.
M. Raffo, consul-general, New York.
Samro Takaki, consnl-general, New York.
Juan N. Navarro, consul-general, New York.
Netherlands ..---...- R. C. Burlage, consul-general, New York.
New South Wales R. W. Cameron & Co., New York.
New Zealand .............- R. W. Cameron & Co., New York.
INOEWSY~<-~---52- ee ae Christian Bors, consul-general, New York.
JEON See gee sseenaene Gustav Amsink, consul-general, New York.
IPRiBsidie cee ose tee ee acne ae North German Lloyd, A. Schumacher & Co., Baltimore.
Queensland ...-.-.---.----- North German Lloyd, A. Schumacher & Co., Baltimore.
SSI oe eons ono Hamburg-American Packet Company, Kunhardt & Co., New York.
Sixonyroscsee ees ev eea see North German Lloyd, A. Schumacher & Co., Baltimore. :
South Australia ........... R. W. Cameron & Co., New York.
Ginn Se aSe See sae mee Hipolito de Uriarte, consul-general, New York.
SWEOGNYscsce sec eeeciee ee Christian Bors, consul-general, New York.
Switzerland. --2.-.-.-....-. North German Lloyd, A. Schumacher & Co., Baltimore.
JSS See cegonecseges North German Lloyd, A. Schumacher & Co., Baltimore.
RUT ECV een eee eee ee Turkish Legation, Washington, D.C.
VIENOZUCIA «suite ones enc lSe. G. de Garmendia, consul-general, New York.
RAGIN en Ree peeserAeee ae R. W. Cameron & Co., New York.
Wiirtemberg.....- Math aa tem North German Lloyd, A. Schumacher & Co., Baltimore.
74 REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES. .
LIST OF GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS AND OTHER OFFICIAL PUBLICA-
TIONS DISTRIBUTED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION TO FOREIGN
GOVERNMENTS DURING THE YEAR 1881.
Agricultural Department.
Apportionment under the Tenth Census. 8vo. Paper.
Special reports for 1880, Nos. 24-27, 29, 30. 8vo. Paper.
Special reports for 1881, Nos. 31-33, 35-39. 8vo. Paper.
Board of Health.
Bulletin, vol. 2. Nos. 1-52 and index. 4vo. Paper.
Supplements, Nos. 5-14. 4vo. Paper.
Bulletin, vol. 3. Nos. 1-15. 4vo. Paper.
Centennial exhibition.
Report of the commission, 9 vols. 8vo. Cloth.
United States Congress.
Executive documents :
Third session Forty-fifth Congress. 8vo. Sheep.
First session Forty-sixth Congress. Nos. 1-11. 8vo. Sheep.
Second session Forty-sixth Congress, vols. 3, 9, 16, 17, 23, 25, 26.
8vo. Sheep.
Congressional Record:
Second session Forty-sixth Congress, vol. 10 and index. 4vo. Half
Russia.
Third session Forty-sixth Congress. 4vo. Half Russia.
Congressional Directory :
Third session Forty-sixth Congress, first and second editions. 8vo.
Paper.
First session Forty-seventh Congress. 8vo. Paper.
Memorial addresses :
Zachariah Chandler. 8vo. Cloth.
Beverly B. Douglass. 8vo. Cloth.
Julian Hartridge. 8vo. Cloth.
Gustave Schleicher. 8vo. Cloth.
Alpheus 8. Williams. 8vo. Cloth.
Alfred M. Lay. 8vo. Cloth.
Rush Clark. 8vo. Cloth.
-~l
Or
REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES,
House of Representatives :
Constitutional Manual, second session Forty-sixth Congress. 8vo.
Half Russia.
House documents, third session Forty-fifth Congress, vol. x. 8vo.
Sheep.
House miscellaneous :
Third session Forty-fifth Congress, vol.3. S8vo. Sheep.
First session Forty-sixth Congress, vols. 2-5. pe Sheep.
Second session Forty-sixth Congress, vols.1,2,5,5. Svo. Sheep.
House journals, second session Forty-sixth Gates Svo. Sheep.
House reports:
Third session Forty-fifth Congress, eit 1. 8vo. Sheep.
Second session Forty-sixth Congress, vol. 6. Svo. Sheep.
United States Senate:
A compilation of questions of order and decisions thereon. 8vo.
Paper.
Constitution of the United States with the amendments thereto.
S8vo. Paper.
Senate documents:
Third session Forty-fifth Congress, vol. 4. 8vo. Sheep.
First session Forty-sixth Congress, No. 37. 8vo. Sheep.
Second session Forty-sixth Congress, vols. 2,4. 8vo. Sheep.
Senate journal:
Second session Forty-sixth Congress. 8vo. Sheep.
Third session Forty-sixth Congress. 8vo. Sheep.
Senate miscellaneous :
Second session Forty-fifth Congress. 8vo. Sheep.
Third session Forty-fifth Congress. 8vo. Sheep.
Senate reports:
Third session Forty-fifth Congress. 8vo. Sheep.
First and second sessions Forty-sixth Congress. 8vo. Sheep.
Court of Claims.
Cases decided in the Court of Claims at the December term, 1879, vol.
15. 8vo. Paper.
Department of the Interior.
Catalogue of the library of the Interior Department. 4to. Paper.
tegister of the department, August, 1880. Svo. Paper.
Supplement to the catalogue of the library, November 8, 1879. 8vo.
Paper.
Bureau of Education:
Circulars of information. 8vo. Paper:
Instruction in chemistry and physics.
The spelling reform.
76 REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES.
Bureau of Education—Continued.
Relation of education to industry.
Proceedings National Education Association.
Education and crime.
Library aids.
The discipline of the school.
Education in China and Siam.
Educational tours in France.
Industrial education in Europe.
General Land Office :
Survey of public lands and private land claims. 8vo. Paper.
Instructions to Surveyors General. 8vo. Paper.
Circulars :
“‘ How to obtain title to public lands.” 8vo. Paper.
*¢ Deposits on account of surveys.” S8vo. Paper.
Rules of practice, approved December 20, 1880. 8vo. Paper.
Board of Indian Commissioners :
Twelfth annual report for the year 1880. S8vo. Paper.
Office of Indian Affairs:
Instruction to Indian agents, revised October 1, 1880. 8vo. Paper.
United States Geological Survey of the Territories :
Bulletin, vol. vi, Nos. 1 and 2. S8vo. Paper.
Bulletin, vol. v, No. 4. 8vo. Paper.
Miscellaneous publication, No. 12, North American Pinnipeds. 8vo.
Paper.
United States Entomological Commission :
Bulletin No. 6. 8vo. Paper.
Second report on the Rocky Mountain locust. S8vo. Paper.
United States Patent Office:
Decisions of the Commissioner for 1879. 8vo. Paper.
Decisions of the Commissioner for 1880. 8vo. Paper.
Statutes and rules relating to the registration of trade-marks and
labels. 8vo. Paper.
Patent laws, February, 1881, 8vo. Paper.
Rules of practice, revised September 1, 1880. 8vo. Paper.
United States National Museum:
Proceedings of the National Museum, vol. 3. S8vo. Paper.
Bulletins Nos. 17 and 21. 8vo. Paper.
United States Pension Office:
General Instructions to Special Examiners. S8vo. Paper.
United States Surveys of the Rocky Mountain Regions:
Geology of the Black Hills of Dakota, 4 vols., and atlas.
Geology of the High Plateau of Utah, 4 vols., and atlas.
Yellowstone National Park:
Annual report of the superintendent for 1880. 8vo. Paper.
REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES. (|
Department of Justice.
Attorney-General :
Official Opinions of the Attorney-General of the United States,
vols. xv and xvi. S8vo. Paper and sheep.
Navy Department.
Register of the Officers of the Navy, Marine Corps, ete. :
June 1, 1880. Svo. Paper.
January, 1881.
July, 1881.
Circular No. 13. 4to. Paper. E
Bureau of Constraction and Repair:
Allowances established under the bureau, 1881. 4to. Paper.
Bureau of Equipment:
Allowances established under the bureau, 1880. 4to. Paper.
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery :
Information and Guidanee, Jeanette Expedition. 8vo. Paper.
Report on Yellow Fever in the U. 8.8. Plymouth. 8vo. Paper.
Naval Academy : ‘
Annual Register, 1880-81. 8vo. Paper.
Catalogue of Specimens added to the Cabinet. Svo. Paper.
Bureau of Navigation, Hydrographic Office :
American Practical Navigator. 8vo. Sheep.
Arctic Azimuth Tables. 8vo. Paper.
Charts and Plans published and withdrawn, March 31, 1881. 8vo.
Paper.
Charts and Plans published and withdrawn, June 30, 1581. 8vo.
Paper.
Hydrographic Notices for 1880 and 1881, and Index for 1831. Svo.
Paper.
Lists of Lights:
Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific Coasts of the United States. 8vo.
Paper.
Coast of Africa. 8vo. Paper.
East and West Coasts of North and South America. Svo. Paper.
South Coasts ef Asia and Africa. 8vo. Paper.
New Lights, United States and South America. 8vo. Paper.
Notices to Mariners for 1880 and 1881. 8vo. Paper.
Sailing Directions for Kattegat Sound, ete. 8vo. Paper.
Nautical Almanae Office :
Astronomical papers prepared for the use of Nautical Almanac.
4to. Paper.
American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac:
1882. 8vo. Paper.
1883. 8vo. Paper.
1884. 8vo. Paper.
Gauss’ method of computing secular perturbations, etc. 8vo. Paper.
78 REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES.
Bureau of Steam Engineering:
Experiments on relative merits of screw propellers. S8vo. Paper.
Report on the Herreshof system of Motive Machinery. 8vo. Paper.
Report on the Machinery of the “‘ Anthracite.” 8vo. Paper.
Report on the Standard Gauge for Bolts, Nuts, and Screw-threads.
8vo. Paper.
Post-Office Department.
List of Post-offices of the United States, February 1, 1881.
Bulletin, City Post-Office, Washington, D. C., 1881. 8vo. Paper.
Smithsonian Institution.
Bureau of Ethnology :
Collection of Gesture Signs. 4to. Paper.
Study of Mortuary Customs. 4to. Paper.
Department of State.
Commercial Relations of the United States :
No. 2, November, 1880. 8vo. Paper.
No. 3, January, 1881. 8vo. Paper.
No. 4, February, 1881. 8vo. Paper.
No. 5, March, 1881. 8vo. Paper.
No. 6, April, 1881. 8vo. Paper.
No. 7, May, 1881. 8vo. Paper.
No. 8, June, 1881, and index. 8vo. Paper.
No. 9, July, 1881. S8vo. Paper.
No. 10, August, 1881. 8vo. Paper.
Register of the Department of State, December, 1880. S8vo. Paper.
Result of Investigation ‘‘ American Pork.” S8vo. Paper.
Regulations for the use of the Consular Service. 8vo. Paper.
Treasury Department.
United States Coast Survey :
Atlantic Coast Pilot, Boston to New York. 8vo. Paper.
Deep-sea Soundings and Dredgings on Board the United States
Coast Survey Steamer Blake. 4to. Paper.
Methods and Results; general properties of the equations of steady
motion. 4to. Paper.
Tide Tables :
For the Atlantic Coast, 1881. S8vo. Paper.
For the Atlantic Coast, 1882. 8vo. Paper.
For the Pacific Coast, 1881. Svo. Paper.
For the Pacific Coast, 1882. 8vo. Paper.
Light-House Board:
Annual report for the year 1880. 8vo. Paper.
Laws and regulations relating to the Light-House Establishment
of the United States. 8vo. Paper.
REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES, 19
Bureau of Statistics :
Merchant Vessels of the United States. 8vo. Paper.
Classification of imports entered for consumption in the United
States, July 1, 1881. 8vo. Paper.
Quarterly reports relative to the imports, exports, immigration,
and navigation of the United States, Nos.2and 3. Svo. Paper.
Summary statements of the imports and exports of the United
States, Nos. 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12, for 1880-’81, and No. 1, for 1881-82.
| 4to. Paper.
Life-Saving Service:
Annual report for the year ending June 30,1880. 8vo. Paper.
Bureau of the Mint:
General instructions and regulations in relation to the transaction
of business at the mints and assay offices of the United States.
8vo. Paper.
Internal Revenue Office :
Internal Revenue Laws. 8vyo. Paper.
Inspector-General of Steam Vessels:
Annual report to the Secretary of the Treasury for the year ending
June 30, 1880. 8vo. Paper.
Marine Hospital Service:
Annual report of the Supervising Surgeon-General for the fiscal
year 1880. 8vo. Paper. ’ .
Board of Supervising Inspectors of Steam Vessels:
Proceedings of special meeting of the board, May, 1880. 8vo.
Paper.
Proceedings of the twenty-ninth annual meeting of the board,
January, 1881. 8vo. Paper.
War Department.
Official Army Register, January, 1881. 8vo. Paper.
Notes illustrating the military geography of the United States.
8vo. Paper.
Articles of War governing the armies of the United States. S8vo.
Paper.
The War of the Rebellion: A compilation of the official records
of the Union and Confederate armies. Series 1, vols. 1 and 2.
8vo. Cloth and paper.
Adjutant-General’s Office :
General orders for the year 1880 (in part). Svo. Paper.
General orders for the year 1881 (in part). Svo. Paper.
Orders (general courts-martial) for the year 1880 (in part). S8vo.
Paper.
Orders (general courts-martial) for the year 1881 (in part). 8vo.
Paper.
80 REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF EXCHANGES.
Engineer Bureau :
Catalogue of the library of the Engineer Department. 8vo. Paper.
Decrease of water. Translation of a lecture. 8vo. Paper.
Geological exploration of the forty-fifth parallel. (C. King), vol.
vii. Odontothornites. 4to. Cloth.
Improvement of the Danube at Vienna. Translation of lectures.
8vo. Paper.
Lists of reports and maps of the United States geographical sur-
veys west of the one hundredth meridian. (Capt. George M._
Wheeler in charge.) 8vo. Paper.
List of maps etc., sent to the Geographical Congress at Venice.
8vo. Paper.
Notes on the Pointe de Grave, Gironde River, France. 8vo. Paper.
The water jet as an aid to engineering. 8vo. Paper. :
Judge-Advocate-General :
Digest of Opinions with notes. 8yvo. Paper.
United States Military Academy :
Annual Report for the year 1880. '8vo. Paper.
Blasting or military mining. 8vo. Paper.
Military Railroads:
Orders issued during the years 1861-1866. S8vo. Paper.
Quartermaster-General :
Transportation of troops over the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé
Railroads in 187576. 8vo. Paper.
United States Signal Office :
Daily bulletin of the weather reports:
July 18,1877. 4to. Paper.
August, 1877. 4to. Paper.
September, 1877. 4to. Paper.
Rains and dry winds. 8vo. Paper.
Surgeon-General’s Office:
Index catalogue of the library of the Surgeon-General’s Office, vols.
land 2. 4to. Cloth.
REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF THE UNITED
STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM, FOR THE YEAR 1881.
Prof. SPENCER F’. BArRpD,
Director United States National Museum:
Str: In compliance with your instructions, I submit a report upon
the present condition of the National Museum, and upon the work ac-
complished in its various departments during the year 1881.
On the Ist of July, letters of appointment were issued by you to all
the officers and employees of the Museum, and at this time I was assigned.
to duty as executive officer of the Museum and curator of the depart-
ment of arts and industries. The new building was not, however, ready
for occupation until October, and the work of the year must be regarded.
as having been almost entirely of a preliminary nature. Owing to the
fact that the work of reorganization was begun so late in the year, and.
that the curators of several departments did not enter upon their duties
until autumn, it has been found impossible to present a special report
from each department. It is respectfully suggested that in future the
report of the assistant director shall relate to the work of the adminis-
trative department and other matters directly under his supervision,
and that the operations of the departments be reported by the several
directors in charge.
Very respectfully,
G. BRowN GOODE,
Assistant Director.
March 1, 1882.
Periods in the history of the Museum.—The history of the National Mu-
seum may be divided into three periods: First, that from the foundation
of the Smithsonian Institution to 1857, during which time specimens
were collected purely and solely to serve as materials for research, no
special efforts being made to exhibit them to the public or to utilize
them except as a foundation for scientific description and theory. See-
ond, the period from 1857, when the Institution assumed the custody of
the “ National Cabinet of Curiosities,” to 1876. During this period the
Museum became a place of deposit for scientifie material, which had
already been studied, this material, so far as convenient, being exhib-
ited to the public, and, so far as practicable, made to serve an educa-
tional purpose. Third, the present peried, beginning in the year 1876,
in which interval the Museum has entered upon a career of active work,
in gathering collections and exhibiting them on account of their educa-
tional value.
In the first period, the main object of the Museum was scientific re-
S. Mis. 109 —6 -
82 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM
search; in the second, the establishment became a museum of record
as well as of research; while in the third period is growing up the
idea of public education. As soon as the material already within the
walls of the Museum ean be displayed in accordance with the plan
already perfected, the National Museum of the United States will have
commenced to fulfill all the demands which are likely ever to be made
upon it.
Museums for Record, for Research, and for Education.—These three,
co-operative and mutually helpful as they are, are essential to the de-
velopment of any comprehensive and philosophically organized museum.
Materials are gathered together that they may serve as a basis for
scientific thought. Objects, which have served as a foundation for sci-
entific study, or which, from their historical significance, are treasured
up and preserved from destruction that they may serve purposes ‘of
record, permanent land-marks of the progress of the world in thought,
in culture, or in industrial achievement; not only are they records of
what has been done in the past, but they constitute the most valuable
of all materials for future study. The museum of record, then, is not
only an accessory to the museum of research, but an adjunct which
accomplishes similar and fully equal results in the same direction.
The contents of the museum of research and the museum of record,
if no other objects are sought but those already mentioned, might with-
out impropriety be stored away in vaults and cabinets, inaccessible to
any except the specialist. To give them their highest value, however,
they should be arranged in such a manner that hundreds of thousands
of people should profit by their examination instead of a very limited
number, and that they should afford a means of culture and instruction
to every person, young or old, who may have opportunity to visit the
place in which they are preserved.
The Museum of Record is, in part, a necessary result of the museum
of research, but its ultimate origin can without doubt be recognized at
a very much earlier period in the treasure-houses of monarchs, such as
are found recorded in the histories of very early days. The treasure-
house of King Ahasuerus was one of the earliest museums, and the pal-
ace of Ptolemy at Alexandria was a prototype of the modern museum
of art and industry. With the growth of republican ideas, treasures of
this description have became national museums—as in the case of the
museums of Saxony, Bavaria, Italy, France, and other European na-
tions—which are in the main made up of materials which in former
days were kept within the walls of palaces and were inaccessible to the
public. Ecclesiastical edifices, too, have always been depositories for
works of art and curious manufacture. The temples of Athens, Ephesus,
and Delphi were art-museums, and so are many European churches of
to-day. Withthe growth of liberal government, more liberal and compre-
hensive ideas as to the use and value of such materials have sprung
up, and they are now recognized to be the property of the people of the
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 83
nation. Private individuals have often devoted themselves to the ac-
cumulation of collections which, either by design or in obedience to a
natural law recognized and sometimes expedited by museum ofiicers,
have found a resting-place in public halls. The Ashmolean Museum
at Oxford was the result of Sir John Tradescant’s life-long toil.
The Museum of Research seems to have originated within the last three
or four centuries, and, perhaps, to have been one of the results of the
promulgation of the inductive philosophy. The collections gathered by
Linneus, those of Sir Hans Sloane, which formed the nucleus of the
British Museum, and of Buffon, Cuvier, and their collaborators, as a
beginning of the Natural History Museum of Paris, were among the
earliest of this class.
The Educational Museum is of much more recent origin, and may be
considered as one of the outgrowths of the modern industrial exhibition.
The World’s Fair of London in 1851, the first of a long series of inter-
national exhibitions, was utilized by the Government of Great Britain as
a starting-point for a number of national and educational museums, the
most perfect which have as yet been organized, and the subsequent
World’s Fairs have been utilized in a similar manner, so that nearly
every civilized country now has museums of this description.
The systematic exhibition of the products of the earth and the achieve-
ments of human industry for the instruction of visitors, the improve-
ment of the public taste, and the fostering of arts of design had not
been attempted, probably scarcely thought of, thirty-two years ago.
The gradual deterioration of industrial exhibitions and World’s Fairs,
the predominance of purely commercial features in those which have
been attempted of late years, the growing difficulty in securing the at-
tendance of exhibitors would seem to indicate that their period of
greatest usefulness is in the past.
The present demand is for something better, more systematic, more
definitely instructive in its aims—something which shall afford the same
long vistas into the palaces of nature and art, and at the same time pro-
vide guide-marks to explain their meaning.
Effects of the Centennial Exhibition of 1876.—One of the results of the
Philadelphia Exhibition of 1876 is that it made plain to the people of
the United States the educational importance of a great industrial
museum. It suggested to the observant the thought that if so much
that is inspiring and instructive could be imparted by a collection of
objects gathered together chiefly with commercial ends in view on the
part of the exhibitors, necessarily somewhat unsystematically arranged,
and with little effort toward labeling in an instructive manner, an im-
mense field was open for educating the public by gathering together a
selected series of similar objects, which could be so classified and ex-
plained by means of labels and guide-books that they should impart a
consistent and systematic idea of the resources of the world and of
human achievement.
84 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
The United States has, as yet, no comprehensive educational museum,
although there are several museums of limited scope, which have suc-
cessfully carried out the educational idea in the arrangement of their
materials; for instance, the Boston Museum of Art, the Metropolitan
Museum of Artin New York, the Pennsylvania Museum of Industrial Art,
the Peabody Museumof Archeology in Cambridge, the Peabody Museum
of Yale College, and the Boston Society of Natural History.
The same remark applies with equal force to the museums of Europe.
There are certain institutions, like the Museum of Practical Geology,
the museums of the Royal College of Surgeons, the museums at Bethnal
Green and South Kensington, in London, the Museum of Industrial Art
at Berlin, the Ethnological Museum at Leipsic, the National Museum
of Germany at Nuremburg, the Bavarian National Museum at Munich,
and others, which have admirably carried out a single idea, or a limited
number of ideas, and which are marvelously rich in material and ar-
ranged in a manner full of suggestiveness. It may safely be said, how-
ever, that all the museums of anthropology, economy, and industrial art
now in existence are, either by design or chance, limited in their scope.
The museum is yet to be organized which shall show, arranged ac-
cording to one consistent plan, the resources of the earth and the results
of human activity in every direction. This has not yet been done, even
tor a single country.
There can be little question that the National Museum of the United
States can be made, in the course of a few years, the most comprehen-
sive and instructive museum in the world. While it may not be pos-
sible to gather together such treasures of art and industry as are in the
possession of the government museums of Europe, it is not unreasonable
to hope that examples of every kind of object known to man may be
acquired, and that this museum may be able, by means of a thorough
classification, and as a result of the absence of the enormous masses of
duplicates, which are sure to incumber any old museum, to illustrate
the history of human culture better than has ever before been done.
The educational museum being, as has been already remarked, of com-
paratively recent origin, and the efforts of thoughtful men in times past
having been chiefly directed toward the building up of museums of re-
search, it is not at all strange that natural-history museums should be so
common, while museums illustrating the history of mankind are so
rare. The importance of the natural history museum from the stand-
points of science and industry can scarcely be overrated. A museum
of culture must, however, be admitted to possess equal importance to
the philosopher and to be of greater value for the education of the pub-
lic at large.
The majority of visitors to any museum go thither in search of amuse-
ment, or from a mere idle curiosity. Many have no desire to gain in-
struction, and most of those, if actuated by such a desire, fail to accom-
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 85
plish their object by avisit to the ordinary museum. This is due, in part,
to the fact that so much duplicate material is exhibited that the really
instructive objects are lost to view; in part, to the fact that the objects
in but few museums are labeled in a really instructive manner, and prin-
cipally to the fact that the objects exhibited are not of the kind best
adapted to the needs of the museum-visiting public. The visitors carry
away only a general impression of rooms full of glass cases containing
animals, minerals, or ‘‘ curiosities,” gathered by travelers among unciy-
ilized races. Professor Huxley has defined a museum as “a consulta-
tive library of objects”; and this definition, true enough in itself as a
description of the best ideal museums, unfortunately is too true a de-
scription of all. Most museums are as useless and little instructive as
are our libraries of consultation to the great masses of our people, who
know not how to use them. The educational museum should be more
like a popular encyclopedia than like a library full of learned tomes.
The museum of research, since it is intended chiefly for investigators,
should be the consultative library.
To obviate these difficulties many steps must be taken which are not
usual in museums. By far the most important of these is in the direc-
tion of thorough labelling.
An efficient educational museum, from one point of view, may be
described as a collection of instructive labels, each illustrated by a well-
selected specimen.
There is a certain peril in the attempt to build up a museum upon this
basis. Museums which exhibit only such objects as are in themselves
beautiful or marvellous cannot fail to be attractive, no matter how poorly
the objects are arranged and labelled.
When, however, the objects depend for their interest upon the ex-
planations or the labels, and upon the manner in which they are placed,
relatively to each other, a responsibility a hundred-fold greater is en-
tailed upon the curators. The materials of such a museum may be com-
pared to piles of brick, stone, lumber, and architectural ornaments, which
by themselves possess little apparent interest, but which may by thought
and labor be combined into an imposing and useful edifice.
Principles to be followed.—Certain cardinal principles may be an-
nounced which should be considered in the arrangement of every pub-
lic museum: (I) every article exhibited should illustrate an idea, and
no two objects should be shown which ilustrate the same idea in a
similar manner; (II) the idea which any object is intended to illustrate
should be explained upon its label in such a manner that any intelli-
gent visitor, without previous special knowledge of the subject, may be
able to learn (a4) why the object is shown, and (b) what lesson it is in-
tended to teach; (IIL) the objects should be so carefully classified that
their relations to each other may be recognized by the visitor, so that,
taken together, they suggest certain general conclusions; in the forma-
tion of these conclusions he should be aided by certain general or col
86 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
lective labels which relate to and describe groups of objects in a manner
similar to that in which the individual labels describe separate articles;
(1V) the labels individual and collective, should be supplemented by
guide-books and manuals for special departments, which shall contain
all the information given upon the labels arranged systematically, and
which shall be illustrated by engravings of the more important objects.
Industrial museums, as a rule, exhibit only those articles which are
designed and constructed in the most sumptuous manner—the armor of
kings and knights, the furniture of palaces, the most artistic of metal
work, stone work, and wood work. The ethnological museums, on the
other hand, admit only the implements and costumes of savage and
partially civilized races. Between the two there is a great chasm to be
filled. Is it not as important to preserve in museums the more humble
and simple objects which illustrate the domestic economy and customs
of the masses of the people of civilized nations, as to search for similar
objects in distant lands, or to treasure up only the objects which, on
account of their cost, are seen and used only by the most wealthy and
luxurious classes in the civilized community? A museum which at-
tempts to show the evolution of civilization, should preserve the simplest
products, the every-day costumes, together with the tools and appliances
which have been in common use by civilized man in the present and
past centuries.
Such objects have at least as much claim to careful preservation as
similar objects gathered in distant lands; for, although the latter are
at present more interesting on account of their strangeness, a century
hence they will be far less interesting than the objects which are in
common use in our own country at the present day.
It has long been one of the standard instructions given to persons
charged with collecting specimens for the Smithsonian Institution, that,
in whatever locality they may be, they shall collect the more diligently
those things which are most common, paying but very little attention
to objects which may there be very rare, since these same objects are
sure to be common in some other locality, where they can be obtained
with greater ease. A similar practice should be followed in gathering
objects for an industrial museum. American ethnologists have done
well in devoting their energy to gathering the manufactures of the
North American Indian, for the products of their race would otherwise
have been, for the most part, lost to mankind. At the same time, much
that is of equal or greater importance belonging to our own ancestors
has been allowed to go to destruction; and we have but few illustrations
of the costumes and customs of the two preceding centuries of Ameri-
can history, except such as are preserved in books and pictures.
To supply the place of objects too large to be placed in a musuem, too
evanescent to have been preserved, or which, on account of their rarity
or neglect in preserving them at the time when they could have been
obtained, are necessarily lacking in the collections, it is essential that
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 87
museums should assume the administration of great quantities of mate-
rial such as is usually consigned to the library or to the picture-gallery.
Otherwise, deficiencies in groups of objects, which should illustrate by
their collective meaning a general idea, will much impair their value.
Pictures and diagrams should be freely used as temporary or permanent
substitutes for specimens which may be lacking, and also to supplement
and explain the descriptive labels. Im many sections it may be impossi-
ble to exhibit anything but pictures. It is needless to point out the
difference in the influence of a series of plates, like those, for instance,
in Audsley and Bowes, ‘‘ Keramic Art in Japan,” the publications of the
Arundel Society, or in Watson’s work on “The People of India,” dis-
played in a public museum, where they are seen daily by thousands of
visitors, or hidden except from the initiated few in a library, where they
are accessible practically to students only with abundance of time and
training in the use of books.
Much of the material usually shown in art galleries and art museums,
such as is ordinarily used to illustrate the history of art, or is preserved
on account of its artistic suggestions, may be displayed in a much more
instructive manner in amusuem without in the least lessening its value
to the artist or designer. Portraits, pictures of buildings, of costumes,
of geological features in scenery, of ceremonies, and of social customs
may be arranged and administered just as if they were specimens. It
is even desirable to exhibit in the cases with the specimens books re-
lating to their history; for it is useful to familiarize the public with the
appearance of their bindings and types. For instance, a collection of
the standard works on numismaties, shown in a case adjoining a collec-
tion of coins, would have a decided educational value, giving to the
public information which they would otherwise have to seek from the
curators, if indeed it would appear to them worth while to take the
trouble to seek such information, or they should succeed in overcoming
the natural hesitation to become questioners. In addition, much might
be accomplished by having standard works, relating to the special
departments of the museum, placed in convenient places in the exhibition
halls, and, if necessary, fastened to desks in such a manner that they
could not be removed, while easily accessible to any person who might
wish to become informed upon special topics relating to objects being
examined.
The International Exhibition of 1876 was the beginning of a new pe-
riod of activity for the National Museum. Before 1876 no money had
been expended in the increase of the collections. In 1875, however,
Congress voted certain sums, to be expended under the direction of the
Smithsonian Institution, for the illustration of the animal and mineral
resources of the United States; under the direction of the Fish Commis-
sion, for the display of the fishery resources of the country; and under
88 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
the direction of the Indian Bureau and the Smithsonian, for the illustra-
tion of the ethnology of the aborigines of North America. At this timea
great quantity of valuable material was obtained which, in connection with
material borrowed from the National Museum, served to carry out very
thoroughly the desire of Congress in making the appropriation. At the
same time the Museum became possessed of a large portion of the indus-
trial exhibits of some thirty foreign governments which participated in
the exhibition of 1876, and since that time very important additions and
contributions have been received from private exhibitors, American and
foreign, of materials shown by them in the same exhibition, and in the
so-called permanent exhibition, which was its temporary successor.
The new building, which was put up expressly for the reception of
these collections, has proved to be so well adapted for the reception of
a great industrial Museum, that many manufacturers and commercial
houses have been induced to contribute materials for its expansion, and
there is every prospect that the Museum will develop into one of the
most perfect and comprehensive of its class.
This Museum being by law the only legal depository for all objects
of art, and of all objects of natural history, and of all geological and
ethnological specimens belonging, or hereafter to belong, to the United
States, or gathered by any branch of the public service, and being by
law and by inheritance the successor of the National Cabinet of Curiosities
and of the National Institution, the only similar establishments which
have ever existed in the United States, and having, after a quarter of a
century, been sustained by annual appropriations from Congress, would
seem to be entitled to the hearty support of the government in its efforts
to gain an honorable place among the National Museums of the world,
and, if possible, to surpass them in completeness and attractiveness.
It is hoped that in the future the public spirit of many citizens of the
United States will lead to the deposit in the National Museum of many
of the extensive private collections now so rapidly increasing through-
out the country in number and extent.
It should be the aim of the officers of the Museum to encourage such
deposits, by using the most thorough and painstaking methods in in-
stalling and caring for the specimens under their charge.
Mr. Barnet Phillips, discussing in the New York Times. the future
prospects of the Museum, writes:
“Tt does not, of course, behoove a great national enterprise of the
character I have tried to describe to play the part of a solicitor, nor can
it go from collector to collector and beg for contributions for its cases.
Still, without directly asking such an enlightened mass of people as our
own, it counts a great deal on private support. It believes that there
are many people in this country—men of means, of intelligence—who,
if they understood what is the aim of this Museum—that of national
education—would gladly send to it their collections; or, knowing what
particular class of objects the iustitution was desirous of securing, would
come forward spontaneously and give it their aid.”
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 89
Plan of organization.—The chief requisite to success in the develop-
ment of a great museum is a perfect plan of organization and a philo-
sophical system of classification. Much thought has been devoted to
these subjects by the officers of the Museum, especially during the past
two years. Many of the principal museums of Europe have been
studied by me, personal visits having been made, their catalogues and
publications minutely compared, and correspondence carried on with
their officers. It is hoped that the plans which have been developed as
the result of thése labors, may include the best features of similar plans
hitherto proposed.
The general idea of the new classification is that the collections
should form a museum of anthropology, the word “anthropology” being
applied in it most comprehensive sense. It should exhibit the physical
characteristics, the history, the manners, past and present, of all peoples,
civilized and savage, and should illustrate human culture and industry
in all their phases; the earth, its physical structure and its products, is
to be exhibited with special reference to its adaptation for use by man
and its resources for his future needs. The so-called natural history
collections—that is to say, the collections in pure zoology, geology, and
botany,—should be grouped in separate series, which, though arranged
on another plan, shall illustrate and supplement the collections in indus-
trial and economic natural history.
The classification proposed should provide a pines for every object in
existence which it is possible to describe, or which may be designated
by aname. When the object itself cannot be obtained, its place should
be supplied by a model, picture, or diagram.
The following plan of classification is proposed for provisional use;
the experience of future years will doubtless make it wise to introduce
into it numerous changes. Whatever may be its faults, it is believed
that any object which may come into the possession of the Museum
may by its means be at once assigned to a place in which it may con-
sistently remain.
Only the principal divisions of the classification are now presented,
a more detailed exposition being reserved for the next report.
OUTLINE OF A SCHEME OF MUSEUM CLASSIFICATION.
Divisions. Classes.
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it) Dhe Barth as Man's: A bodey...25 2.52520 Se oa Skee 4-10
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Vi. .Uliimate Produets.and their Utilization .< .. 3). <1. 6sse0c.< 39-AT
Wille BaRial ReMtiONDS Or MaNKINGd Wine Voctess6scsccce. scene 48-54
VILL Intellectual Occupations of Mankind................---- 55-64
90 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
ANALYSIS.
I.—Mankind.—( Anthropology.)
1. Man as a zoological unit........Somatology and psychology.
2, Man, grouped in peoples or races .(a) Races of men, physical char-
acters; (b) linguistic characters; (c) art and industrial charac-
ters; (d) ethnogeny; (e) geographical distribution of races;
(f) history, prehistoric and recent, &c.
3. Man, in individual manifestations. ...Representative men: Bi-
ography.
Ii.— The earth as man’s abode.—(Hexiology.)
4. The earth, in the solar SYSLEML pi Sls Cosmology.
The earth’s Structure, ..-226+-.5206 Geology.
The features of the earth’s surface... Physiography.
The atmosphere and its phenomena. Meteorology.
Effects of man upon the earth’s sur- Man and nature.
face, and of climate, physical
features, &c., on man.
9. Apportionment and nomenclature Geography.
of the earth’s surface.
10. Exploration of the earth ........... Voyages and travels.
Mars or
I11.—Natural resources.—( Force and matter.)
11. Force in its manifestations ......... Physics, mechanics, and
physiology.
12. The elements and their combina- Chemical collections.
tions.
io.) Inorganic mabber cose <5i4 1 lke seas Mineralogical collections.
14. The vegetable kingdom 2.......--.-- Botanical collections.
15. The animakkingdom.............-. Zoological collections.
IV.—The exploitative industries.—(Exploitative technology.)
Primary.
16. Exploitation of inorganic materials.. Mining and quarrying.
17. Exploitation of vegetable products Lumbering and field-glean-
of spontaneous growth. ing.
18. Capture of animals................ Hunting, fishing, &e.
Secondary.
19. Culture of plants........ vies iplseyetcte Agriculture, horticulture,
and forestry.
20. Culture of animals: domestic ani- Pecudiculture.
mals and their uses.
V.—The elaborative industries.—(Elaborative technology.)
21. Preparation of food-stuffs, narcotics, &c.
22. Distillation, manufacture of perfumeries, &c.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. SB |
V.—The elaborative industries—Continued.
23. Oils, fats, soaps, and waxes; their preparation and use.
24, Guins, resins, glues, and cements.
25. Pigments and dyes; painting, staining, polishing, bleaching, &c.
26. The chemical manufactures and their products.
27. Feathers, hair, bristles, and their use.
28. Furs and leathers; tanning and currying.
29. Fibers, cordage, textile fabrics, needlework, basket-work.
30. Paper and its manufacture; book-making; stationery.
31. Hard and flexible organic tissues and their use.
32. Woods, and their wood-working industries.
33. Stones, and the stone-working industries; masonry.
34. Metals, metallurgy, and the metal industries.
35. Glass and enamel and their fabrication.
36. Pottery, and the ceramic industry.
37. Tools, machinery, and motors, their manufacture and use.
38. Construction, architecture, and civil engineering.
VI.— Ultimate products and their utilization.
39. Foods and drinks: preparation, cookery, &c.
40. Narcotics and masticatories; pipes, &c.
41. Dress, and personal adornment.
42. Buildings, villages, and cities.
43. Furniture, house interiors, domestic economy, &c.
44, Heating and illumination.
45. Medicine, surgery, pharmacology, hygiene, &c.
46. Public comfort, recreation, protection, and rescue.
47. Transportation by land and water: appliances and accessories.
VII —Social relations of mankind.—(Sociology and its accessories.)
48. The vocations of men.
49. Communication of ideas and their record: writing and printing,
telegraphy, signals, &e.
0. Trade and commerce.
1. Societies and federations, social, beneficial, religious, and polit-
ical.
Government and law.
. War (including armor and weapons).
4. Festivals, ceremonies, usages, memorials, &ce.
a OU
te
St Or Or
oo
VIII.— Intellectual occupations of mankind.—( Art, science, and philosophy.)
55. Games and amusements.
56. Music and musical instruments.
57. The drama and the stage.
58. The pictorial, plastic, and decorative arts.
59. Literature (from the intellectual standpoint only).
60. Folk lore, traditions, and superstitions.
92 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
VIII.—Intellectual occupations—Continued.
61. Science: (Research and record.) Scientific instruments.
2. Philosophy, religious, metaphysical, and cosmical.
63. Education and reform; schools, museums, libraries, &e.
64, Climaxes of human achievement.
L Man.—In the first division man is exhibited as the central idea
of the whole system; (1) in a general way: his anatomical structure
and physiological functions are graphically shown; (2) as divided into
races; the physical, the linguistic, and industrial characteristics of
each race and their geographical distribution and history are taken
up; and, thirdly, man is shown in his individual manifestation by an
exhibition of portraits and statues of the representative men of all
countries and ages. }
Il. The Harth.—In the second an exhibition is made of the earth
considered as man’s abode. Viewing the earth as a member of the
solar system, the principles of astronomy are illustrated; then are shown
the structure of the earth, its geological history, its climate, and other
features by means of which it is especially adapted for human occupa-
tion; and finally the changes which have been produced on the earth’s
surface by the agency of man and the whole subject of geography.
II. Natural resources.—In the third section are to be shown the re-
sources of the earth in the form of minerals, plants, and animals, and
its laws and manner of utilization.
IV. Hxploitative industry—In the fourth section are to be shown the
methods and results of the industries of exploitation; such as quarry-
ing, mining, hunting, fishing, agriculture, and the rearing of domesti-
cated animals.
V. The Hlaborative industries.—In the fifth section are to be included
the constructive industries and arts and their products: the prepara-
tion and working of stone, brick, pottery, tiles, metal, glass, wood,
textile fabrics, leathers, furs, paper, glues and cements, paints, dyes and
varnishes, chemical materials, tools and utensils, food products, the
graphic arts, architecture, engineering, &c.; and the final products of
these arts and industries in their primary condition and prepared for
final utilization, as in the case of costume, edifices, furniture and domestic
economy, vehicles of transportation, &c.
VI. Physical condition of man.—In the sixth section are to be illus-
trated those subjects which relate especially to the physical condition
of man: heating and illumination, furniture, home customs, domestic —
economy, buildings, villages and cities, foods, dress, medicine, surgery,
pharmacology, sanitary science and public health, gymnastics and
physical culture, hospitals, and remedial asylums.
VIJ.—Social relations.—In the seventh section are to be shown the ap-
pliances and methods made use of by wan in his social relations; the com-
munication of ideas by writing, telegraphic signal, mails, &c., domestic
and social customs and observations, societies and representative organ-
izations, trade and commerce, government and law, ceremonial and war.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 93
VIII.—Jntellectual occupation of man.—In the eighth section are to
be shown objects illustrating the intellectual and moral condition of
man: superstitions, crime and error, benevolent enterprises and reforma-
tory institutions, religious organizations and systems, museums, sports,
the pictorial and plastic arts, music and musical instruments, the drama,
folk-lore, literature, science, philosophy, education and educational insti-
tutions, and the most perfect results of human achievement in every
direction of activity.
Possibilities of expanding the above plan.— The above statement of
the plan of classification, on account of its brevity, fails to give a very
definite idea of the comprehensiveness of the scheme. In each division
of the subject, plans have been devised for showing not only the
present condition of the achievement, but the steps by which man has
arrived at the present condition in every direction in which human
activity has been exerted—a graphic history of the development of
human culture and civilization.
EH g., Expansion of culture of animals.—As an illustration of the
manner in which each section of this classification may be expanded,
reference may be made to two or three divisions. Under the head of
culture of domestic animals, for instance, would be shown the methods
employed in the culture of sponges, of oysters, of leeches, of bees, of the
cochineal insect, of silkworms, of maggots for bird food, of crawfish, crabs
and lobsters; of fish, of poultry, of singing and ornamental birds, of
fleece-bearing animals, of meat and milk producing animals, of beasts of
burden, hunting animals, of pets, and the subjects of aquaria, menag-
eries, and zoological gardens. In connection with these would be ex-
hibited a collection of all the animals which have been domesticated by
man in any part of the world, some eighty or ninety species altogether,
and in the case of the more prominent species—for instance, the dog—
characteristic illustrations of each breed or race.
EB. g., Expansion of transportation.—In the division of transportation
would be shown all that related to modes of movement, roads, tramways,
canals, railroads, lines of ocean and river navigation, with the acces-
sories of tunnels, bridges, toll-gates, sign-posts, buoys, light-houses, &c.,
and vehicles of transportation, from the skate, stilt, snow-shoe, veloci-
pede, and sledge, to the railroad-car, the steamer, and the balloon.
Ei. g., Expansion of graphic arts.—Under the head of the graphic
arts would be shown, in addition to illustrations of all the various
methods of engraving upon stone, wood, and metal, of painting and
photography, a collection illustratjng the art of writing and printing
from its inception—from the stilus and papyrus—through the pen and
pencil to the type-writer, electric pen, the hektograph, and the whole
subject of book-making, printing with engraved types and blocks, with
movable types, wood-cuts, metal plates, and lithographic stone, the
details of book-making, proof-reading, and book-sizes of books, &e.
E. g., Hxpansion of ceremonies—Under the head of ceremonies, the
94 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
exercises of religious rites, and social ceremonies, would be shown
ecclesiastical utensils, &c., monuments of all kinds, badges of office,
flags and banners, heraldic emblems, and regalia, medals, &e.
Each of the sixty-four principal sections provided for in the classifica-
tion is expanded in an equally comprehensive manner.
Experiments in methods of arrangement.—Much has been done during
the year in studying and experimenting, for the purpose of ascertaining
how to present to the public in the most effective manner the specimens
to be shown in the Museum; the main objects in view being, (1) to
enable the visitors to make their examinations with the least possible
fatigue of eye and limb; (2) to label the objects in the most concise and
instructive manner, and (3) to make the Museum as a whole as beautiful
and attractive as possible.
The new building more than meets all expectations. The illumination
is perfect, the amount of space available for exhibition purposes is un-
doubtedly the maximum for a building of the size, and the disposition
of the exhibition halls in a single level directly upon the surface of the
earth, proves to be of great importance both to visitors and to those
who have in hand the work of arranging the collections. Over two
hundred exhibition cases have been constructed, many of which embody
ideas which have never before been used in museum administration;
these, however, must be seen to be appreciated. The cases are all of
mahogany, finished in the natural color, and have been constructed in
accordance with artistic plans furnished by Mr. W. Bruce Gray. Their
chief recommendations are the following: (1) the building consisting
practically of a single large hall; the cases are so constructed as to form
partitions dividing the hall into seventeen halls of lesser extent; (2) the
cases are all of one length, 8 feet 8 inches, which is the architectural
unit of the Museum building, or are of such lengths that, combined
together, they always conform to this unit, so that they are interchange-
able; (3) the construction is such that, with very slight expenditure of
labor, any one of them full of specimens can be transported from one
part of the building to another, thus allowing great freedom in the
matter of rearranging the museum; (4) all the smaller specimens are
mounted in groups upon small tablets or in glass-covered boxes of uni-
form size, which can be handled with great facility and which afford
great security to the specimens, and diminish immensely the labor of
properly caring for them; (5) the objects are displayed against back-
grounds which at the same time afford the greatest ease to the eye
of the visitor and the greatest relief and effectiveness to the object dis-
played; (6) the objects being shown singly against a suitable background,
and at the same time brought as close as possible to the glass front of
the case, the sense of confusion, so often experienced in museums, is
entirely avoided; (7) the labels are printed in large, heavy-face type and
upon paper of soft tints, which are much less wearisome to the eye
than the ordinary labels in black and white.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 95
Aid from other Museums.—Many important suggestions have been re-
ceived from the management of the South Kensington Museum, undoubt-
edly the most perfect and artistically arranged museum in the world,
the director of which has with great courtesy furnished a complete set
of samples of mounting materials and labels and plans of all the exhi-
bition cases.
Similar aid has been furnished by Dr. Giinther, keeper of the zoologi-
eal department of the British Museum, and by architectural counselor
Tiede, who has supplied plans of the Zoological Museum at Berlin, of
which he is the architect, as well as of other museums in Europe. Ex-
periments have been made with the idea of building the exhibition cases
of iron, and of finishing the wooden cases in ebony color, but the cases
of mahogany, polished in the natural color of the wood with a “rubbed
hard-oil finish,” seem to be at once the most beautiful and the most con-
venient.
Only a limited number of cases of each pattern have been constructed,
and the work has been given to nine different manufacturing firms in
Washington, Baltimore, and Philadelphia. The experience which has
been gained by the experiments of the past year will enable the officers
of the Museum to proceed understandingly and rapidly with the work
of completing the installation of the new building with cases. There
are now on hand in the two buildings about 600 exhibition cases. Many
of these will, however, require to be replaced in the future.
One of the exhibition halls in the old Smithsonian building has been
refitted with cases, and has been experimentally decorated from a de-
sign gratuitously furnished by W. B. Gray, the work being done by the
well-known firm of John Gibson & Co., of Philadelphia, at exceptionally
low rates.
Museum Library.—The increased activity in investigation, as well as
the needs of the curators in their work of recording the history of the
collections under their charge, has made it necessary to establish a
working library in connection with the Museum, it being found impos-
sible to depend upon the old method of drawing books from the Con-
gressional Library. A small number of works has been reclaimed from
the Smithsonian deposit in the Congressional Library, but the Museum
Library is, for the most part, made up of a very valuable collection of
standard zoological and industrial works and bound pamphlets, com-
posing the private library of Professor Baird, which he has given to the
Museum.
In response to a special circular, many of the museums and scientific
societies of Europe and America have contributed sets of their publica-
tions. The library now contains 5,450 volumes and 4,750 pamphlets,
bound and unbound, in all a number of 10,200.*
Books of reference, periodicals, and works of general interest are kept
_
* Estimate based on running count.
$6 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
in the general library in the northwest corner of the Museum building,
while those works relating to special departments are, for the conven-
ience of workers, placed in sectional libraries in the apartments of the
several curators. The library system has beenunder the charge of Mr.
Frederick W. True, who has already completed a card catalogue of
the books.
Work of the Preparators.—The work of the various preparators con-
nected with the Museum has increased in efficiency during the year,
Mr. Palmer, the chief modeller, has developed several new features in
his work, one of the most important of which is the making in plaster
the casts of animals, such as, on account of the shortness of their hair,
cannot be successfully set up by the taxidermist. Experiments on dogs
of different breeds and a leopard have been successful. A cast of a
high-bred pointer is especially remarkable, on account of the faithful
manner in which all of the marks of its hereditary perfections are shown,
and on account of the life-like manner in which it is represented in the
act of pointing. The largest animal cast, which has yet been made, is
that of a fin-back whale, over 30 feet in length, one side of which ex- .
hibits the whale in the attitude of swimming, while upon the other, in
the concavity of the inner outline of the half cast, is to be placed the
articulated skeleton of the animal.
The artists, Messrs. Shindler and Hendley, have made many improve-
ments in painting the casts of reptiles, fish, and stone implements, it
being now possible to produce counterfeits of implements which cannot
be distinguished from the originals, except bythe test of the knife. In
February of this year Mr. John H. Richard, the veteran zoological
draughtsman, for several years in the employ of the Museum, died, at an
advanced age. Among many important works illustrated wholly or in
part by him were Holbrook’s ‘Ichthyology of South Carolina,” and
‘North American Herpetology.”
Mr. Marshall, who has been employed entirely in mounting birds,
manifests increased skill.
A number of mammals and skeletons have been mounted at the estab-
lishment of H. A. Ward, in Rochester, N. Y., usually with very satisfac-
tory results.
The photographic gallery in the new building has been fitted up with
the purpose of making it one of the most complete establishments for
scientific photography.
A temporary force of stone cutters and polishers has been employed
in dressing the collection of building-stones gathered in connection with
the tenth census by Dr. Hawes, and 1,322 cubes have been finished.
Mr. George P. Merrill has been engaged in lapidary work in the same .
connection, and the microscopic slides of building-stones which he has
prepared are considered to be as good as the best.
Detailed statements are on file showing the work accomplished by the
several preparators.
oe — —————EeEeEEEeEEeEeEeEeee
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 97
Details of administration—Much thought has been devoted during
the year to the reorganization of the force of experts and workmen em-
ployed in the Museum, and with the beginning of the present fiscal year
several of the principal assistants of the Museum were commissioned
as curators, and were formally assigned to the charge of special depart-
ments.
A schedule has been drawn up by which the employés of the Museum
are classified in a number of groups, each grade having certain responsi-
bilities and a fixed salary attached to it. Hereafter, changes of salary
can only be effected by a change of grade; and one source of dissatis-
faction among the employés of the Museum in the past will by this
arrangement be avoided. In several instances specialists have volun-
teered to perform the duty of curators without pay, for the sake of the
opportunities of study which they would thus acquire, and have been
appointed honorary curators.
Another task which has been accomplished is the formulation of the
usages and unwritten laws of the establishment in systematic form. So
long as the number of employés was small, this was, perhaps, unneces-
sary; but it has been of late found essential to have printed in acces-
sible form a “plan of organization,” which should define the duties of
officers and employés in each grade, and should explain for their benefit
the many forms of administration routine, the observance of which is
so necessary for the efficiency of the Museum work.
One of the results of this new “plan of organization” has been the
complete rearrangement of the offices and workrooms, in which specimens
are received, unpacked, and from which they are distributed to the
different departments, and of the storage-rooms and preparators’ work-
shops.
Another result has been the establishment of the office of registrar,
this officer being responsible for all matters relating to the reception and
sending out of packages, the management of the storage-rooms, and the
record and acknowledgment of accessions, the packing and unpacking
of boxes.
The force of mechanics, watchmen, engineers and firemen, laborers,
messengers, and cleaners has been reorganized, and is under the imme-
diate direction of Mr. Henry Horan, superintendent of the building,
under whose efficient management a high degree of efficiency and dis-
cipline has been attained.
Employés in this division have been required to assume a uniform
cap of blue cloth, with the words “U.S. National Museum,” and, in
the case of the superintendent and master-mechanies, with the names
of their offices in gold letters upon the front. This plan has proved prac-
tically a success, being a convenience to visitors and insuring better disci-
pline. Complete reports of work accomplished in the departments of la-
bor and service, in the engineers’ and electricians’ divisions are on file.
The electric service of the Museum has been much extended and im-
S. Mis. 109
7
98 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
proved. The telephones, now in every department, afford opportunities
of communication through the central office, which is in operation night
and day. Wires have been carried from the central office to the resi-
dences of the Director and some of his principal assistants.
The public-comfort rooms for ladies and men, in the southeast pavil-
ion of the new building, have been open since the time of the inaugura- '
tion ball in March, 1881.
The visitors’ book for 1880 shows 24,000 entries. These are believed
to represent at least 150,000 visitors, it being a matter of observation
that only about 10 per cent. of the visitors enter their names. <A regis-
tering-machine is now in use, by which a careful record of the number
of visitors is kept.
Plans for the better arrangement and preservation of the archives of
the Museum have been perfected; and a large room in the northwest
pavilion has been set apart as an archive-room. Here it is intended to
concentrate all the papers illustrating the history of the Museum. In
adjoining rooms will be stored the duplicate printed labels and samples
of apparatus and other materials used in the Museum.
A job printing press, with an assortment of type, for printing labels
and circulars, has been purchased during the year, with the view of sav-
ing time and affording opportunities for experimenting in the prepara-
tion of exhibition labels, which has hitherto been impracticable. All
considerable jobs of printing are, however, as heretofore, done at the
Government Printing Office.
Publications.—There has been much activity during the year in the
direction of scientific investigation, and a considerable number of books
and papers have been published by the officers, a list of which publica-
tions will be found in the bibliographical appendix, together with a list
of papers, relating to the government collections, published by others
than officers of the Museum. A number of important memoirs are in
preparation—some of them already in the press—which cannot be in-
cluded in the bibliography of 1881, but are referred to in a second sup-
plement containing announcements of works in preparation.
In accordance with a rule of the Museum recently announced, officers
of the Museum, or others, intending to use Museum material in the
preparation of memoirs are required to file with the Director of the
Museum a statement of their intention. This step has been found
necessary in order to avoid collisions of interests.
It is intended at an early date to complete the Bibliographical His-
tory of the Museum—a work commenced some years ago by the present
Director. This will form an exhaustive index to all that has been
written concerning the government collection.
A bibliography of the publications of Prof. 8. F. Baird, now in press,
will serve as a first installment to this work, and in this connection is
particularly appropriate, since he was really the first to begin the proper
utilization of the material of the Museum.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. ae
The Biological Society of Washington has since October 1 held its
monthly meetings in the archive room of the Museum. The average
attendance at these meetings has been about 40; and many papers of
importance have been presented, a considerable manon of which related
to collections in the Museum.
It is intended to fit up one of the smaller ranges in the new building
with chairs, in order that it may be used for meetings of this and sim-
ilar societies, and for use as a lecture-room at such times in the future
as it may be found desirable to have public lectures given in connection
with the work of the Museum.
A table, prepared by Dr. Bean, showing the number of entries in the
record books for the years 1880 and 1881 is presented below, and Appen-
dix D a detailed alphabetical list of contributors to the Museum.
Table showing the number of entries in the record books of the United States National
Museum at the close of the years 1880 and 1881, respectively.
Increase
Class. 1880. 1881. 1881.
CUES EOS Cee es Se Sea ee a 13,264 | 13, 360 97
ed see ee a ee ree ee ALE OS eee ee ee een. 81,329 | 85,673 4, 345
Rentles! and amphipians es cemccmste seal ae oelea ceeianee ee nia leisee em 10, 517 12, 490 1, 974
SHIN Oar ae tees ceaciotte see amine seecineetalsiclsncis'as meateinietassisicnee/s ors seta nae: 26, 947 29, 586 2, 639
Becletans ANG SUM Bp seas ee see eS eeisee cote eaiitigestelecsasge.s 16. 367 16, 610 244
tea ate ne reiiota acetates minieleeimiaisimicvatelniseise eyes bieie tate mis lesisiarciel a eraia 18, 189 18, 417 229
Grits eee ce eee etismeiss a seman le sle divas cm sceatels nein cielo ahieeneat's 2, 514 3, 678 1, 165
PAN GMOS tee caienaes sete oasis ote cs otlae ocnicie islsisloele cies zcisicinecegcc can ae 100 100) |cecoesse
IMIGIIIR Seer sees ean sire arias ee cn ais Dee aclasseicsuins RO CCC oer sb se se CEA ene 33, 169 33, 281 113
DREGINOIGS 23 oa ots RBS RO BOSSE SEC Sep Oee GOST OB LB eC coon OS neo bee Beneaer 3, 345 4, 703 1, 359
DHS Ces ANG LOL ZOAIS = ser nemesis ee es lense enn eew a eieeeemeiseemctas nen thea nee 700 700
Taroebehrate donnie erst esa be pea ee eee eg 9, 750 11, 478 | 1, 729
[Alaris tals en yee Mn Nene nl cee LN Ok har lunie tbe mtney Meier kN 20,450 | 21, 552 1, 103
NOT O-SCONEGS tee as en cca Solel senile nn tes moana s chaise Saeceduowecc nce set |soabescaae 2, 932 2, 932
HUN OEpICal SPOCMMONSs= sacs us-cmewecetlsceens wos- cee cee see canasiccns ae 45, 570 51, 410 5, 841
Total increase, so far as entered in catalogue, 1881, 24,470.
The principal operations in the Museum during the year may perhaps
best be described by a reference to what has been accomplished in pos
special department of work.
ART AND INDUSTRY.
In the department of art and industry there has been considerable ac-
tivity, although the want of suitable exhibition cases has rendered it
impossible to show many of its results to the public. The great mass of
material acquired at the close of the Philadelphia Exhibition (which ma-
terial has since been stored in the Armory building) has now been brought
to the Museum and stored in two of the central courts. The collections
of naval models and musical instruments and a portion of the Chinese
collection have been put in order and are ready for exhibition.
Materia Medica.—The materia medica collections have been assorted
and catalogued by Dr. J. M. Flint, surgeon, U. 8. N., who has been
detailed by the Surgeon-General of the Navy to superintend the work ~
of building up this department of the Museum. During the year most
of the drugs and medicines have been arranged, and the catalogue
100 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
/
shows 1,574 entries. Many of these are specimens of Chinese medi-
cines and the remainder are the first installment of the gift of Messrs.
W. H. Schieffelin & Co., of New York City, who have volunteered to
furnish to the Museum a complete collection of the drugs now in use in
the United States and Europe.
A very complete collection of the official pharmacopeeias of all na-
tions has been gathered, and Dr. Flint has undertaken the work of
compiling from these, for use in the arrangement of the collections, a
list of all the articles of the materia medica of the world and the author-
ized preparations of each.
Foods.—A considerable amount of work has been done upon the col-
lection of foods by Prof. J. Howard Gore, who reports that there are now
in the Museum 951 specimens belonging to this department, 225 from
China, 516 from the Indians of North America, and 210 preparations of
marine foods, gathered in connection with the fisheries exhibit.
Messrs. H. K. & F. B. Thurber & Co., of New York City, have under-
taken to prepare for the Museum, without charge, a full exhibition of
the food-substances handled in the grocery trade of the United States,
which will form an excellent nucleus for this department. There have
been received from the various manufactories of canned fishery prod-
ucts sample cans showing all the brands of canned fish put up in the
United States during the census year—an important addition to the
fishery collection. .
It would be premature to attempt to state the extent and nature of
the collections in this department. Through the exertions of Mr. Thomas
Donaldson, a large number of the most important of the exhibits which
were retained at the close of the Philadelphia Exhibition in the so-called
Permanent Exhibition of Philadelphia have been given to the National
Museum and are now stored in Philadelphia, there to be retained until
the Museum is ready for their reception. An enumeration of these arti-
cles will be more appropriate in the report for the year 1882.
Aid of Manufacturing and Commercial Firms.—Important contribu-
tions have been promised by several manufacturing and commercial
houses, prominent among which are a full exhibition of paints, varnishes,
and pigments, by Messrs. F. W. Devoe & Co., of New York; of chemical
products, by Powers, Weightman & Co., of Philadelphia; of perfumes
and essential oils, by Young, Ladd & Coffin, of New York City; of the
appliances and operations of dentistry, by the S. S. White Manufac-
turing Company, of Philadelphia, and others of less extent but of equal
interest.
Accessions of the year—Among the important contributions received
during the year may be mentioned a large series of cotton fabrics, illus-
trating the condition of that branch of the textile industry of the United
States during the census year, sent by the various mills at the request of
Mr. Edward Atkinson, special agent of the Tenth Census; a collection of
the ornamental woods of Japan, a hundred in number, consisting of
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 101
panels of polished wood, upon which are painted accurate delineations
of the leaves, flower, and fruit of the trees from which they are derived,
and framed in sections of the bark of the same tree, given by the Uni-
versity of Tokio; a collection illustrating fully the ice industry, given by
the Knickerbocker Ice Company; a whale-boat with all its apparatus,
given by J. H. Bartlett & Sons, of New Bedford, Mass.; a collection of
30 working models of schooners, illustrating the history of the fishing
schooner of New England from the beginning of the present century,
obtained by Mr. A. Howard Clark from the ship-builders of Cape Ann,
Mass.; an exhibit illustrating the process of making kid gloves, show-
ing each stage from the natural skin to the completed glove, the gift of
Eugene Krebbs, Regensburg,Germany; aseries of samplesof the native
cottons of Japan, from the Japanese Government; an illustration of
the process of overlaying and wood-cut printing, given by Mr. Theodore L.
De Vinne, of New York ; and a collective exhibit of brushes, showing all
the applications of hair and bristles manufactured, from Miles Bros. &
Co., of New York.
ARCH ZOOLOGY: CHARLES RAU.
The installation of the collections in the archeological department,
under the direction of Dr. Charles Kau, is further advanced than in any
other department of the Museum. The bulk of specimens is now so
great that there is not room for their proper exhibition in the apartment
assigned to them, and the removal to the new building of the ethno-
graphic and industrial materials now exhibited in the archeological hall
will afford opportunity for a much better presentation of the relies of
prehistoric man. Dr. Rau reports 1,432 entries in his record books
during the last half of the year,* and all important objects have been
mounted and placed in the exhibition cases. It is estimated that there
are now 20,536 specimens mounted, labeled, and arranged in the exhi-
bition series.
Among the most important accessions to this department are twelve
boxes, containing 195 specimens, obtained by Hon. J. G. Henderson in
the mounds near Naples, Ill.; a fine series of 130 specimens of Dan-
jsh stone implements, the gift of the Royal Museum of Copenhagen,
Denmark; 52 specimens, the result of mound explorationin Sauk County,
Wisconsin, by Mr. Stephen Bowers; 161 specimens of stone implements
from Carroll County, Tennessee, by Mr. James M. Null; 99 specimens
of Indian remains and implements, collected by Mr. 8. T. Walker on the
southern shore of Choctawhatchee Bay, Florida; 154 specimens of imple-
ments from Mrs. 8. 8S. Haldeman, Pennsylvania; collections made by
Dr. Edw. Palmer in Tennessee and adjoining States, and two drilled
*The archeological specimens prior to July 1, 1881, were entered in the general
ethnological catalogues, and the entries for the entire year are included in the 5,841
entries given for ethnology in general.
102 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
ceremonial objects of great value, acquired by purchase from Mr. D.
W. Harris, of Louisiana.
ETHNOGRAPHY.
Dr. Edward Foreman has been constantly employed since June 1 in
cataloguing the ethnographic material. The most important accession
of the year consists of forty-four boxes obtained by Col. James Steven-
son from the Pueblo Indians of the Southwest, the contents of Which
have been placed on exhibition in temporary cases in the northeast range.
of the new building.
Among other important collections are those made by Messrs. Lucien
M. Turner and E. W. Nelson, Signal-Service observers in Alaska; a con-
siderable collection of objects obtained by Commander L. A. Beardslee,
U.S. N., the most of which were devices made by the Shamans of the
Northwest coast, including a series of curiously carved and painted
rattles, a wand similarly decorated, a wooden spoon, &c., all of them
bearing superstitious figures and employed by the medicine men in the
use of witchcraft and in expelling disease; a few Indian implements
obtained by C. J. Hering from Surinam, and a collection of 34 masks
from Japan, used by the actors in the medieval lyric drama of that
country, known as “No,” and obtained through the eS Manufactur-
ing and Trading Company of Tokio.
During the year, General Horace Capron deposited a valuable collec-
tion of Japanese materials, obtained by him while in the service of that
government.
MAMMALS: FREDERICK W. TRUE.
In the department of mammals there have been fifty-five accession
lots and 97 entries in the catalogue. Little has been done with the
exhibition series during the year, an early removal of the collections to
the new building being contemplated. Cases for their reception are now
in progress of construction. Mr. True, acting curator of the department,
reports the following census of mounted mammals:
Monkeys and lemurs. ..-..-.-.- Ae ADS Kee et ares eer) ere 8
OTS iran ae dears SS sake ean ee FO IMEOTOS ts 2 EIS SERS coer rete Jeg)
Dogs and hyenas........-..-.. 31 | ROGENES 22 i). ees ee ee 300
Weasels, otters, &c....-....- 125) Ridentates:.:.o 5s A ae 30
Bears, raccoons, &c.. - - - ..--- 9 | Marsupials and monotremes.. 56
PAMUIMLID OCS) oi ora a esas hehe 30 | Casts: Monkeys. 2.022.222 3 2
Oxentand Sheep. 2. 325. ssls =< 14 Seals) a2 keaaeuacecnees 2
dB 3) 3 GR ie ee es OY Mae yeh aa 9 IVs 7 ake ch oe ounces 1
PT OO eee iano ecteree cyto 4 POrpomses 2-01 2a abe 10
FUHINOCELOS NS 2: cite eels iccs apenas iL —
PAapirs evo Jeee acer atte 2 Totalksics vate eee eae 695
a ee
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 108
Among the most important additions have been a collection of skins
of Arctic mammals, sent by Mr. R. McFarlane, of Hudson’s Bay Com-
pany, from Athabasca; a collection of mammals from Surinam, sent by
Mr. C. J. Hering, of Paramaribo; skins of antelope and deer, sent by
Mr. Charles Ruby, of the United States Army, at Fort Laramie, Wyo. ;
skins of polar bear, white whale, and three species of seal, including
one male and two young of the very rare saddle-back seal, Histriophoca
equestris, brought by E. W. Nelson, Signal-Service observer at Saint
Michael’s, Alaska; a specimen of manitee, in the flesh, from the Amazon
River, by E. G. Blackford, of New York, and a mounted skeleton of the
celebrated race-horse Henry Clay, the progenitor of the American race
of trotting horses, given by Hon. Erastus Corning, of Albany, and Mr.
Henry O. Jewett, of Buffalo. Mr. P. T. Barnum has sent a specimen in
the flesh of a leopard, which has been cast; and, in response to special
request for specimens of thorough-bred dogs, to be used in forming a
collection of casts of the races of domestic dogs, Dr. T. Berwick Legaré,
of Camden, 8. C., has given a pointer dog of the best blood; and Miss
Anna W. Kelly, of Havre de Grace, Md., an Italian greyhound. From
the United States Fish Commission and its correspondents have been
obtained seven specimens of porpoises in the flesh, all of which have
been cast, and which afford extremely valuable material for settling
certain undecided questions concerning the cetacea of the Atlantic. The
progress of the work upon the cast of the fin-back whale has been
alluded to in connection with the work of.the preparators. ,
BIRDS: ROBERT RIDGWAY.
In the department of birds there have been seventy-four accession
lots. Under the direction of Mr. Robert Ridgway there bas been much
activity in this department in reorganizing the exhibition series of speci-
mens and in eliminating duplicates from the storage series. There have .-
been 4,345 entries in the catalogue. The removal of the mammals and
skeletons to the new building will give an opportunity for a much more
satisfactory exhibition of the ornithological collections.
The most important addition has been Mr. Ridgway’s private collection
of American birds, containing 2,302 specimens of 778 species, especially
important because the specimens have been selected in the field to illus-
trate variations of color and form due to age, sex, and geographical
location.
In addition to numerous small collections, others of special interest
have been received of the birds of Mexico and Yucatan, from A. Bou-
eard, of Paris; of Surinam, from C. J. Hering, of Paramaribo; of Gre-
nada, from J. G. Wells, of Saint Andrews; of Guatemala, from L. Guesde;
of Dominica, from Dr. H. A. Nichols; of Costa Rica, from J. CO. Zeledon;
of Japan, from Dr. .F C. Dale, U.S. N.; of Florida, from Messrs. J. Bell ~
and S. T. Walker; of Wyoming, from Charles Ruby; of Indiana, from
Mr. Ridgway; and of Illinois, from Mr. L. M. Turner.
104 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Mr. Ridgway gives the following census of the bird collection:
Reserve series :
Mounted specimens .-...-.--.---. +. shat a)lt\a: 2) tM abe halt tenia et 7, 000
MENTS Gre ciel Oia says Datacenter pict etc eee 40, 000
MO talPOSCEVE Hh 5 oe ol ole tes iare sD wre! oat gee ne ee ete 47, 000
DUCA tes oso Se ney es ste ate oe 2 on oy Ole nee ete eet 8, 000
POG als ose Bae ele ele teeters = Sl oes thee ete eee ee 55, 000
REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS: HENRY C. YARROW.
The department of herpetology, under the direction of Dr. H. C. Yar-
row, has received much attention, and the work of separating the reserve
series, for exhibition and study, from the duplicates has been nearly
completed. The collection has been put in excellent order, in fresh al-
cohol, and provided throughout with tags of block-tin. The large col-
lections of exotic and domestic reptiles which have for many years been
under the custody of Prof. E. D. Cope, of Philadelphia, have been
reclaimed and properly distributed. There have been, during the
year, seventy-five accession lots received, and 1,974 entries upon the
catalogues. Messrs. Walker, Bell, and Wittfield have collected exten-
sively in Florida; Mr. Ridgway, in Indiana; Mr. 8S. W. Marnark, in
Texas; and.Mr. Henry L. Barker, in South Carolina. The exotic rep-
tiles have been received from C. J. Hering; Professor Dugés, of Mex-
ico; Mr. L. Guesde, of Guadaloupe; Dr. Wilford Nelson, British con-
sul at Panama; Prof. Felipe Poey, of Havanna, Cuba; and Mr. Fig-
yelmesy, United States consul at Demerara. <A considerable percent-
age of the reptiles has been received alive, and there has been oppor-
tunity to add largely to the collection of casts. The collection of tur-
tles has been overhauled, and has been arranged by Messrs. Frederick
W. True and Newton P. ecnaden
A census of the collections of reptiles gives the following result:
Number of species North America reptiles represented* .-.... 361
Number of specimens (lots) in reserve ....------.--.-+ +--+ ++: 3, 340
Number of exotic specimens (lots) ......-....-- sn Sone oe pe Pe 115)
Number of species added to reserve in 1881 ........ ......----. 67
Number of specimens added to reserve in 1881 .............-.-.- 239
Numiberof lots .overhauled:in 18S. o703)5, 4. ey Bas tere aeihage 3, 653
Number of living specimens received .. .......-....--..---- fg ae, een
Number of living specimens on hand ......-. woh gage Nee WA cee 3
The collection of casts numbers 82, 61 being of snakes, 11 of lizards,
3 of crocodiles, and 7 of batrachians.
* Forty-three species lacking.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 105
Many of the turtles have been sent to the carp ponds of the Fish
Commission, where a large proportion of all species of American tes-
tudinates may now be seen living. The reserve collection of turtles,
according to Messrs. F. W. True and N. P. Scudder, who have had it
in charge, now includes 568 specimens, of which 490 are in alcohol, 38
are casts, and 40 are skeletons.
FISHES: TARLETON H. BEAN.
In the department of ichthyology, under the direction of Dr. T. H.
Bean, there has been much activity, but, owing to the immense bulk of
the collections, the limited storage-space, and the entire absence of ac-
commodation for the exhibition of the reserve series, the work has
been much retarded. The fitting up of the west range of the Smith-
sonian building for the reception of alcoholic vertebrates—a work now
nearly completed—will enable the curator of this department to revolu-
tionize its arrangement during the coming year. It is impossible at
present to make any estimate whatever of the extent of these collec-
tions. There have been during the year 125 accession lots and 2,639
entries on the catalogues. The most important additions to the collec-
tions resulted from the labor of the United States Fish Commission,
whose recent explorations in the deeper waters along the coast have
resulted in the discovery of numerous important forms of deep-sea fish.
The collections made by Prof. D. S. Jordan on the coast of California,
and by Dr. T. H. Bean in Alaska, are also very extensive and full of in-
terest. The former were overhauled by Prof. D. 8. Jordan and his
assistant, Mr. Charles L. McKay, during a visit to the Museum in Feb-
ruary; and, after the reserve series had been taken out, 70 sets of du-
plicates, containing in all about 15,000 specimens, were made up. These
have since been distributed to the principal museums of the world,
giving to the National Museum large credits upon which to draw in
future for duplicate natural-history material in the possession of those
establishments.
Important collections were also received from Mr. C. H. Gilbert, who
during the winter of 1881 made extensive explorations on the Pacific
coast of Central America and the Isthmus of Panama.
Important lots have also been received from Mr. James G. Swan.
collected by him in the vicinity of Puget Sound; from Lieut. H. E.
Nichols, in Alaska; from Mr. ©. ©. Leslie, in Charleston, 8. C0.; from
Capt. Charles Bendire, U.S. A., in Washington Territory ; from Josiah
Skinner, in the vicinity of Wetumpka, Ala; from Vinal N. Edwards,
Wood’s Holl, Mass.; from Col. Marshall McDonald, in the Chesapeake
Bay; from Mr. E.G. Blackford, of Fulton Market, New York City;
from Prof. S. A. Forbes, in the waters of Illinois; from Miss Rosa Smith,
in San Diego, Cal.; from Andrea Larco, of Santa Barbara; from Dr.J.W.
Velie, of the Chicago Academy of Sciences; from S. T. Walker and Silas
Stearns, in Florida; from Livingston Stone, in California; from Walter
106 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Hayden, at Moose Factory, Hudson’s Bay territory; and from Dr. O. P.
Hay, in the Mississippi River. Exotic fishes have been received from F.
Busse, of Giestemiinde, Germany; from Dr. H. A. Nichols, of Dominica;
from the Public Museum of Kingston, Jamaica; from the Auckland Mu-
seum of New Zealand; from Prof. Alfred Dugés, of Guanajuato, Mexico;
and from Frederick M. Wallem, of Bergen. Charles Seribner’s Sons, of
New York, have presented a copy of the sumptuous work published by
them on the ‘Game Fishes of North America:”—the text by G. Brown
Goode, the plates by J. A. Kilbourne.
INSECTS: CHARLES VY. RILEY.
The department of entomology is one which has, for excellent reasons,
been very little cultivated in the National Museum, although in previ-
ous years the Smithsonian published many extensive works on insects,
and paid much attention to gathering material for investigation.
The subject of entomology is divided by students into so many
branches, each of which is occupied by a small number of specialists, and
it being deemed of first importance to have the materials which are col-
lected carefully studied and reported upon, the collections, as received,
have been distributed in lots to the eight or ten entomologists who
have been serving as collaborators of the Museum, and the material
not thus disposed of has been turned over to the entomologists of the
Department of Agriculture. The necessity of a department of system-
atic and economic entomology has, however, been always recognized,
and on the occasion of the present reorganization steps have been taken
to establish such a department. Prof. OC. V. Riley, the entomologist
of the Department of Agriculture, has been appointed honorary curator,
and has deposited his own private collection of insects, with the idea of
using it as a nucleus for the development of a collection fitting the
dignity af a national’ museum.
The collection deposited by Professor Riley, as stated in the circular,
comprises some 30,000 species and upward of 150,000 specimens of all
orders, and is contained in some 300 double-folding boxes, in large book
form, and in two cabinets containing 80 glass drawers, the specimens
being all in admirable condition and classified, so far as determined.
The collection is especially valuable for the large amount of material it
contains, representing and illustrating the life-habits of insects and
everything relating to their transformation and economy.
In addition to the collection proper, Professor Riley has also furnished
a large amount of miscroscopic material mounted on slides, and illus-
trative of more minute forms of insect life and their structure, together
with much paraphernalia, such as drying and relaxing boxes, spreading-
boards, collecting-materials, &c., which will prove most useful in the
work of the department. Finally, he has also added that portion of
his pamphlet-case library relating to the subject of entomology, and
consisting of 134 cases and upward of 1,000 pamphlets.
¢
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 107
Three large walnut cases, containing entomological material, both
dry and in alchohol, have been transferred, with the consent of Com-
missioner Loring, from the Department of Agriculture. This material
represents the accumulation of many years from different government
exploring expeditions, though most of it has passed through the hands
of specialists and is not in very good condition.
Specialists in entomology will be encouraged to deposit their types
by the promise of painstaking custody, and particular attention will be
paid in the future to the development of this department. There have
been received during the year fifty-three accession lots, the most inter-
esting of which, perhaps, were collections of butterflies from Africa and
Brazil, presented by Paymaster Albert W. Bacon, U.S. N., and a series
of plaster casts of the dwellings of Texas ants, obtained from the Acad-
emy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.
CONCHOLOGY: WILLIAM H. DALL.
The department of conchology, under the care of Mr. W. H. Dall,
honorary curator, has been in a quiescent state during the year, owing
to the fact that the officer in charge has been occupied in other duties.
The removal of the invertebrate fossils to the other building will, by
affording more room in the conchological laboratory, give better oppor-
tunities for work in the future. Highteen accession lots have been
received in the Museum, chief among which are a collection from the
Pacific coast by Mr. Henry Hemphill, of San Diego, Cal.; and a collec-
tion from Italy, received from Rev. Eugene Vetromile, of Machias, Me.
Extensive additions have been made to this department in the course
of the dredging operations of the United States Fish Commission. This
material, with that of previous years, is still in the hands of Prof. A. E.
Verrill, at New Haven, where it is being worked up under his direc-
tion.
Among other important collections, which will be made available to
students as soon as cases can be provided, is that recently deposited
by Mr. W. G. Binney, containing the types of his voluminous writings
upon the land and fresh-water shells of North America; and the collec-
tion of North American Unionidea, labeled for the Museum by Dr. James
Lewis, of Mohawk, N. Y.
MARINE INVERTEBRATES: RICHARD RATHBUN.
The department of marine invertebrates, under the direction of Mr.
Richard Rathbun, has been enriched by thirty-one accession lots. As
in the case of the conchological department, the principal additions have
been made by the United States Fish Commission, which have not yet
been forwarded from New Haven. There has been great activity in this
department, as is indicated by the report of its curator.
Three thousand three hundred and thirty-four entries have been made
108 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
in the record books; 1,358 radiates; 1,164 crustaceans; 700 sponges and
protazoa; and 112 mollusks.
All the materials in storage have been examined and have received
what* care was necessary. Much work has been accomplished in the
way of duplicate material for distribution, it being estimated that over
a million specimens, representing one hundred and fifty species, are now
ready to be distributed in this manner.
“One of the most important achievements made in this department
in 1881,” reports the curator, ‘‘ has been the proper mounting for museum
display of nearly all the reserve specimens of corals and sponges now
possessed by the Museum.” This work has been performed by Mr. E.
H. Hawley in the most perfect manner, and he has also just finished
mounting a series of the larger and more prominent New England echi-
noderms; the larger share of the stony corals mounted and some of the
Gorgonian corals are types colfected by the United States Exploring
Expedition, labeled by Prof. J. D. Dana, and some recently examined
and relabeled by Prof. A. E. Verrill.
The coral collection is one of great value and beauty, and represents
many faunal regions. All of the species of corals known from the fish-
ing-banks of eastern North America are represented in it.
The mounted collection of sponges contains specimens of all the
species and of most of the varieties of commercial sponges from Florida,
the Bahamas, and the Mediterranean, labeled by Prof. A. Hyatt of the
Boston Society of Natural History. In addition are many specimens
collected by the United States Exploring Expedition, and from other
sources.
The total number of specimens mounted is 1,031; 700 of which are
corals; 225, sponges; and 106, echinoderms.
The corals which have been thus mounted are believed to be more
artistically and tastefully exhibited than any similar collection in any
other museum in the world.
The west hall of the Smithsonian Building is now being fitted up for
the reception of this collection; the minerals and ceramic specimens,
hitherto there displayed, being in process of removal to the new build-
ing. The special collection of the cephalopod crustaceans made by Mr.
Rathbun, as material for a special investigation now in progress in his
laboratory, is one of the finest in the world, filling over seven hundred
bottles. Among the most interesting accessions, in addition to those
gathered by the Fish Commission, are a number of small lots obtained
by the Gloucester fishermen on the off-shore banks, a fine collection of
invertebrates from the vicinity of Cherrystone, Virginia, gathered by
Col. Marshall McDonald of the Fish Commission; a choice suit of corals
from Hayti, the gift of Prof. J. M. Langston, consul-general, at Port au
Prince; collections of marine invertebrates gathered by Messrs. Nelson
and Turner, and from Japan by Dr. F. C. Dale, U. S. N., and Mr. P.
L. Jouy, attached to the U. S. steamer Palos.
EE ee ee
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 109
There have been fifty-seven accessions of paleontological specimens.
Except in the department of invertebrate paleontology, under the di-
rection of Dr. C. A. White, curator, there has been little attention paid
during the year to work upon the collections of fossils.
FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES: C. A. WHITE.
The collections in invertebrate paleontology have received consider-
able attention from Dr. White, who has, however, been absent for a
great part of the year, occupied in work for the Geological Survey and
as a member of the artesian wells commission, under the direction of
the Commissioner of Agriculture. Material progress has, however,
been made in the final arrangement of the tertiary and cretaceous fossils,
valuable from having been so thoroughly reported upon by the late
Prof. F. B. Meek. Among the most important accessions to this collec-
tion have been the first series of duplicates from the Hall collection of
fossils, the gift of the American Museum of Natural History, of New
York City, a collection of cretaceous and Laramie fossils, gathered in
Colorado by Dr. White, and a large collection of European tertiary
and cretaceous fossils from M. J. J. M. De Morgan, of Paris.
FOSSIL BOTANY: LESTER F. WARD.
Prof. L. F. Ward, fossil botanist of the Geological Survey, has been
appointed honorary curator of the department of fossil botany; but,
at the beginning of the present calendar year, he had not entered upon
active duties. The extensive collection of fossil-plants gathered in
past years by the government exploring expeditions and geological
surveys, and which has for many years been in the custody of Prof. Leo
Lesquereux, of Columbus, Ohio, one of the finest collections of fossil-
plants in the world, having been re-arranged and labeled by Professor
Lesquereux, has been placed in the final custody of the museum. Cases
have been prepared for its reception, and during the present year it
will be arranged for the use of students. The collection of fossil verte-
brates, filling hundreds of boxes, is still in the storage-rooms. No steps
have yet been taken to provide for their rearrangement.
PLANTS: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
In accordance with an arrangement made many years ago with the
Department of Agriculture, all botanical specimens received by the
National Museum are placed in the custody of the botanist of that es-
tablishment, and the very extensive herbaria of the Museum are on de-
posit in the Agricultural Buildings, under the charge of Dr. Geo. A.
Vasey.
Fourteen accession lots of plants have been received during the year.
110 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
A portion of these are living water plants, and have been assigned to
the superintendent of the government carp-ponds, under whose charge
the Fish Commission has developed an extensive plantation of water-
lilies and other interesting aquatic species.
MINERALOGY AND ECONOMIC GEOLOGY: GEORGE W. HAWES. |
In the department of mineralogy, under the direction of Dr. G. W.
Hawes, there has been great activity during the year. The mineralog-
ical and metallurgical materials, collected in all parts of the country for
the Centennial Exhibition, and presented by foreign governments at its
close, and which for five years past have occupied the two lower stories
of the armory building, have all been unpacked and assorted, and the
greater portion of them removed to the new building. Many of the most
bulky and interesting blocks of minerals and ores have been placed on
exhibition on a concrete pavement outside of and along the west main
hall of the new building. Dr. Hawes, in connection with an investiga-
tion upon the building-stones of the United States, which he is carrying
on in behalf of the Tenth Census, has gathered specimens of stone from
every quarry in the United States; and a force of fifteen men, in part
detailed from the Census Office, has been occupied all the year in pre-
paring them for study and exhibition. The blocks, which are, for the
most part, received by mail in a rough condition, have been dressed and
polished in four-inch cubes. These cubes, when finished, show upon
different sides the appearance of the stone when polished, ax-ham-
mered, bush-hammered, rough-faced, drafted, and rough.
Up to the 1st of January, 1881, there have been forwarded by special
agents of the census, or by other persons upon their solicitations, 3,030
specimens of building-stones, representing nearly every quarry of im-
portance in the United States. Of this number 1,277 have been dressed
in the manner just referred to. The Museum had already in its posses-
sion 535 dressed specimens, many of them in blocks a foot square, or
larger,.and beautifully polished, showing the products of many of the
principal American quarries, and those of several foreign countries.
Numerous analyses of building-stones by the chemical and specific
gravity methods have been made by Messrs. ¥. P. Dewey and I. W.
Taylor.
Since the 1st of June, Mr. Geo. P. Merrill has prepared 1,550 micro-
scopic slides of building-stones, to be used in connection with the inves-
tigation.
In addition to the building-stones received, there have also been fifty-
seven accession lots, among the most important of which are a mag-
nificient collection of stalactites and stalagmites from the Luray Caverns,
the gift of the Shenandoah Valley Railroad Company, and an extensive
series of minerals from the Yellowstone National Park, including the
top of a geyser with seventeen openings, obtained by Col. P. W. Norris,.
superintendent of the park.
-
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 111]
APPENDIX A.—LIST OF OFFICERS, JANUARY 1, 1882.*
.
SPENCER F. BAIRD......... Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and Director.
G. BROWN GOODE......... Assistant Director ; Curator, Dep’t of Art and Industry.
WEIS EAMG DAT Ties oecct= Honorary Curator, Department of Conchology.
ROBBERS RIDGWAY soo o5. Curator, Department of Ornithology.
CHARTS MRA a: «ci. <ccinciate Curator, Department of Archeology.
TARLETON H. BEAN -...--- Curator, Dep’t Ichthyology, and Editor of Proceedings.
IEURINIR YS: CYA ROW: <2 a as0- Honorary Curator, Department of Herpetology.
CHARLES A. WHITE..-.--.- Curator, Department of Inverlebrate Paleontology.
GEORGE W. HAWES..--..-.. Curator, Depariment of Geology. ;
JAMES (MPL EIN TSS. 2 cue. se Honorary Curator, Department of Materia Medica.
RICHARD RATHBUN...---.. Assistant Curator, in charge Dep’t of Marine Invertebrates.
EDWARD FOREMAN ....... Assistant, Department of Ethnography.
FREDERICK W. TRUE..... Tibrarian ; acting Curator, Department of Mammals.
FREDERICK W. TAYLOR -. Chemist.
GEORGE P. MERRILL...--. Aid, Department of Mineralogy.
WILLIAM 8S. YEATES....... Aid, Department of Mineralogy.
APPENDIX B.—BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MUSEUM WORK FOR
1881. ;
I.—PAPERS BY OFFICERS OF THE MUSEUM.
BEAN, TARLETON H. Descriptions of new species of fishes (Uranidea
marginata, Potamocottus Bendiret) and of Myctophum crenulareJ.& G.
(Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1881, iv, pp. 26-29.)
Notes on some fishes from Hudson’s Bay.
(Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., iv, pp. 127-129.)
Descriptions of new fishes from Alaska and Siberia.
(Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., iv, pp. 144-159.)
——- Identifications of McCloud River, California, fishes, referred
to in a paper based on a letter of J. B. Campbell.
(Bull. U. S. Fish Com., 1881, i, p. 46.)
Directions for collecting and preserving fish.
(Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., iv, pp. 235-238.)
A: preliminary catalogue of the fishes of Alaska and adjacent
waters.
(Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., iv, pp. 239-272.)
* The names in each grade are arranged in the order of seniority.
112 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
BEAN, TARLETON H. Movements of young alewives Lanenon Sp.)in
Colorado River, Texas.
(Bull. U.S) EF. C., 1881, 1, pp. 69; 70.)
—-_—— Notes ona aninieent by the United States Fish Commission of
California salmon (Oncorhynchus chouicha) to Tanner’s Creek, Indi-
ana, in 1876.
(Bull. U.S. F. C., 1, pp. 204, 205.)
Account of a shipment by the United States Fish Commission
of California salmon-fry (Oncorhynchus chouicha) to Southern Lou-
isiana, wHh a note on some collections made at Tickfaw.
(Bull. U. 8. F. C., 1, pp. 205, 206.)
— A contribution to the biography of the commercial cod of Alaska.
(Forest and Stream, April 28, 1881, pp. 250-252; also in Trans. Amer. Fish
Cult. Association, 1881, pp. 16-34.)
List of deep-water fishes, etc. See under VERRILL, Notice of
the remarkable Marine Fauna of New England.
(Am. Jour. Sci, Oct., 1881, vol. xxii, pp. 295-297.)
See also under GOODE and BEAN.
DALL, WILLIAM H. The Chukchis and their neighbors in the north-
eastern extremity of Siberia.
(Proc. Royal Geogr. Soc. London, iii, pp. 568-570.)
— Hydrologie des Bering-meeres und der benachbarten Gewisser.
(Petermann’s Geogr., Mittheilungen, 1881, pp. 361-380.)
Table of currents in Northern Pacific and map of Bering Strait
and vicinity.
Hydrologie des Bering-Meeres und der benachbarten Gewasser
(Petermann’s Geogr., Mittheilungen, 1881, pp. 443-448.)
American work in the department of recent Mollusca during
the year 1880.
(Amer. Naturalist, September, 1881, xv, pp. 704-718. Separate; without
cover or title page.)
— Ontheso-called Chukchi and Namollo people of Eastern Siberia.
(Amer. Naturalist, November, 1881, xv, pp. 857-868. Separate; notrepaged
without cover.)
Intelligence in a snail.
(Amer. Naturalist, December, 1881, xv, pp. 976-977. Separate; without
cover. )
— Some recent observations on Molluscs.
(Bull. Phil. Soc., Washington, 1880, vol. iii, pp. 75, 76.)
Ex. report, Coast Survey.
(Amer. Jour. Sci. February, 1881, xxi, pp. 104-111.) Separate, with follow-
ing title:
From the American Journal of Science, vol. xxi, February, 1881.
Notes on Alaska and the vicinity of Bering Strait. By W. H.
Dall, assistant in charge of schooner Yukon, employed on the
coast of Alaska; with amap. Extract from a report to C. P. Patter-
son, Superintendent Coast and Geodetic Survey.
(8vo., pp. 104-111.)
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 113
Datu, W. H. Brief account of cruise in the Arctic, with account of
land ice in Kotzebue Sound, and abstract of current observations
in Bering Strait.
Alaska forschungen im Sommer, 1880.
(Petermann’s Geogr. Mittheilungen, 1881, Heft., ii, pp. 46=47.)
Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoélogy, at Harvard
College, vol. ix, No. 2. Reports on the results of dredging under
the supervision of Alexander Agassiz, in the Gulf of Mexico and in
the Carribbean Sea, 187779, by the United States Coast Survey
steamer Blake,” Lieutenant-Commander C. D. Sigsbee, U. S. N.,
and Commander J. R. Bartlett, U. S. N., commanding.
Preliminary report on the Molluséa. By W. H. Dall. (Pub-
lished by permission of Carlile P. Patterson, Supterintendent United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey.) Cambridge: Printed for the
Museum. July-December, 1881. 8 vo., pp. 33-144.
Published in signatures, from July to December, 1881, pp. 33-48, July 12;
pp. 49-64, August 12; pp. 65-80, August 25; pp. 81-96, September 26; pp. 97-
112, October 31; pp. 113-128, November 26; pp. 128-144, Deeember 5.
GooDE, G. BRowNn. (1879~81.)—Game Fishes of the United States, by
S. A. Kilbourne; text by G. Brown Goode. New York. Published
by Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1879. Folio, pp. [46]. 20 plates and
map. Published in ten parts, each with two plates, lithographed in
color, and four pages folio of text.
Part 1.—The Atlantic salmon. [Plate.] The Eastern red-speckled
trout. [Plate.] |December, 1878.]
Part 11.—The large-mouthed black bass. [Plate and two cuts.] The
Spanish mackerel. [Plate and three cuts. |
Part 11.—The striped bass or rockfish. [Plate and two cuts.] The
red snapper. [Plate.]
Part 1v.—The bluefish. [Plate.] The yellow perch. [Plate.]
Part v.—The mackerel. [Plate and one cut.] The squeteague, or
weakfish. [Plate and one cut.]
Part vi1.—The sea bass, or Southern blackfish. [Plate.] The pom-
panose. [Plate and three cuts.]
Part vit.—The sheepshead. [Plate.] The king-fish. [Plate.]
Part vi1.—The lake or salmon trout. [Plate.} The bonito. [Plate
and cut. |
Part 1x.—The grayling. [Plate and cut.] The red fish, or Southern
bass. [Plate.]
Part x.—The quinnat, or California salmon. [Plate.] The muskel-
lunge. [Plate.] List of game fishes. Map showing geographical dis-
tribution of game fishes.
S. Mis. 109-8
114 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
GooDE, G. Brown. Descriptions of seven new species of fishes* from
deep soundings on the Southern New England coast, with diag-
noses of two undescribed genera of Flounders, and a genus related
to Merlucius.
(Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1880, iii, pp. 337-351.)
Enumerates 16 species never before seen south of Cape Cod.
Fishes from the deep water on the south coast of New England,
obtained by the United States Fish Commission in the summer of
1880.
(Proc. U. 8. N. M., 1880, iii, pp. 467-485. )
Enumerates 51 species known to occur outside of the hundred fathom curve
along the southern coast of New England.
The frigate Mackerel, Auxis Rochei, on the New England Coast.
(Proc. U. S.N.M., 1880, iii, pp. 532-5.)
Notacanthus phasganorus, a new species of Notacanthidz from
the Grand Banks of Newfoundland.
(Proc. U. §. N. M., 1880, iii, pp. 535-537.)
Epochs in the history of fish culture. [A paper read before the
American Fish Cultural Association. ]
(Forest and Stream, xvi, pp. 311, 332, and°353.
(Trans. Amer. Fish Cultural Association, 1881.)
——— Preliminary statistical report on the fisheries of California,
Oregon, Washington, and Alaska.
(Census Bulletin, No. 176, pp. 6. Washington, Government Printing Office.
June, 1881.)
— —— The Saibling or Bavarian char.
(Forest and Stream, February 17, 1881).
—— Note on article by Capt. E.T. Deblois on the origin of the Men-
haden industry.
(Bull. U.S. F. C., i, p. 46.)
Fishermen of America.
(New York Daily Tribune, June 28, 1881.)
Notes on the life-history of the eel, chiefly derived from a study
of recent European authorities.
(Bull., U. S. F. C., i, pp. 71-124. Proc. American Fish Cultural Associa-
tion, 1881, pp. 81-123.)
The carangoid fishes of the United States, pompanoes, crevallés,
amber-fish, &c.
(Bull. U. S. F. C., 1881, i, pp. 30-43.)
GooDE, G. BRowN, and TARLETON H. BEAN.—Description of a new
species of fish, Apogon pandionis, from the deep water off the mouth
of Chesapeake Bay.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., 1881, iv, pp. 160-161.)
* The following are the new genera: Monolene, p. 338; Thyris, p. 344; Hypsicometes,
p. 347. The following are the new species: Monolene sessilicauda, p. 338; Citharichthys
arctifrons, p. 341; Crtharichthys wnicornis, p. 342; Thyris pellucidus, p. 344; Macrurus~
carminatus, p. 346; Hypsicometes gobioides, p. 348: Peristedium miniatum, p. 349.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 115
HAWES, GEORGE W.—The Albany granite, New Hampshire, and its
contact phenomena.
(Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, Jan., 1881, xxi, p. 21.)
On liquid carbon dioxide in smoky quartz.
(Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts, March, 1882, xxi, pp. 203-9, 13 figs.)
On the mineralogical composition of the normal mesozoic dia-
base upon the Atlantic border.
(Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus., iv, pp. 129-137.)
On the determination of feldspar in thin sections of rocks.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., iv, pp. 134-6.)
JOUY, PIERRE Lovutis.—Description of a new species of Squalius (Squalus
alicie), from Utah Lake.
CBrOC Weis. Ne Me tvey Ds Lon)
See also below, under D. S. JORDAN.
RAv, CHARLES.—A boriginal stone drilling.
(Amer. Naturalist, July, 1881, xv, pp. 536-542. Illustrated.)
Relating to the method employed in drilling stone by the American aborig-
ines,
Department of the Interior. U.S. Geographical and Geological
Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, J. W. Powell in charge.
Observations on Cup-shaped and other Lapidarian Seulptures in
the Old World and in America, by Charles Rau. [From ‘Con-
tributions to North American Ethnology,” vol. v.| Washington:
Government Printing Office. 1881. 4to, pp. 102, 61 illustrations
on 35 plates.
RIDGWAY, ROBERT.—Nomenclature of North American Birds, chiefly
contained in the United States National Museum.
(Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 21. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1881. 8vo., pp. 94.)
The great need of a new catalogue of North American birds, which prompted
the publication of this list, is explained in the opening paragraph of the in-
troduction, as follows:
Since the publication, in 1859, of the last Smithsonian catalogue of North
American birds, so many important changes have been made in the nomen-
clature of the species, and so numerous have been the additions to the fauna,
that the wants of ornithologists require a new list which shall bring the sub-
ject up to date.
—— Swainson’s Warbler (Helonwa siwainsoni) in Texas.
(Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, Jan., 1881, vol. vi, p. 54.)
The range of this species was previously confined to Northern Florida and
the adjacent portions of Georgia, Alabama, and South Carolina, with some-
what doubtful records in Cubaand Southwestern Indiana. Its occurrence in
Navarro County, Texas, was communicated to the author by Mr. J. Douglas
Ogilby, a correspondent of the National Museum.
—— Ona Duck new to the North American Fauna.
(Proc. U. 8. N. M., 1881, iv, pp. 22-24.)
Based upon a specimen of Fuligula rufina (Pall.) (No. 61957) in the U. S.
National Museum, obtained in Fulton Market, New York, and presumably shot
on Long Island Sound.
116 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM,
RmGway, ROBERT.—On Amazilia yucatanensis (Cabot) and A. cervin-
wentris, Gould.
(Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1881, iv, pp. 25, 26.)
A recent authority on the Humming-birds having united the above-named
species, and the editors of ‘‘The Ibis” having suggested that an actual com-
parison of the two ‘‘ would be satisfactory,” the type specimen of the former
was borrowed for the purpose from its collector and owner, Dr. Samuel Cabot,
jr., of Boston. From this actual comparison of the two, the author was en-
abled to establish their distinctness from each another.
A Hawk new to the United States.
(Forest and Stream, Apr. 14, 1881, vol. xvi, p. 206.)
Announcement of the capture of Buteo fuliginosus, Scl., in Florida.
Southern Range of the Raven on the Atlantic Coast of the United
States.
(Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, April, 1881, vi, p. 118.)
The southern limit of the Raven along the Atlantic sea-board, as previously
recorded, was the coast of New Jersey; but the known range of the species
was considerably extended by the observations of the author, who, while en-
gaged in an exploration under the auspices of the National Museum, found it
. to be not uncommen on the islands near Cape Charles, Virginia.
An unaccountable migration of the Red-headed Woodpecker.
(Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, April, 1881, vi, pp. 120-122.)
In the autumn of 1879, this species (Melanerpes erythrocephalus), which
is ordinarily, and especially in winter, the most abundant of the Wood-
peckers in Southern Illinois, made a general migration, and did not reappear
until the following spring. The cause of this disappearance was not apparent,
since every other species of the family (six in number) were normally abund-
ant.
The Caspian Tern in California.
(Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, April, 1881, vi, 124.)
A notice of two specimens of Sterna (or Sylochelidon) caspia from California,
in the collection of the National Museum, being the first record of this species
' from the Pacific coast of America.
A Revised Catalogue of the Birds Ascertained to Occur in
Illinois.
(Bull. Illinois State Laboratory of Nat. Hist., May, 1881, No. 4, pp. 163-208.)
This catalogue (of 341 species) is based very largely upon collections made
by the author at Mt. Carmel and in the vicinity of Olney, Illinois, and de-
posited in the U. 8. National Museum.
A critical Review of the Genus Centurus, Swainson.
(Proc. U.S. N. M., iv, pp. 93-119.)
On a Tropical American Hawk to be added to the North Ameri-
can Fauna:
(Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, Oct. 1881, vi, pp. 207-214.)
Based upon two specimens, in the collection of the National Museum, of
Buteo brachyurus Vieill. from Palatka, Florida (G, A. Bordman), and B. fuligi-
nogus Scl. from Oyster Bay, Florida (W. S. Crawford).
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 117
Ripeway, R.—List of Species of Middle and South American Birds not
contained in the United States National Museum. [Corrected to
July, 1881.}
(Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., vol. iv, pp. 165-203.)
A list of all the known species of tropical American birds not represented
in the national collection, with authorities and habitats, prepared for dis-
tribution to public museums and collectors.
List of Special Desiderata among North American Birds.
(Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. iv, pp. 207-223.)
Prepared for the use of correspondents of the National Museum and those
wishing to make exchanges. The list includes all deficiencies in the way of
desirable species, special plumages, &c., wanted to render the national col-
lection more complete.
RILEY, CHARLES V.—* Silk-culture in the United States. Condensed
account of the silkworm and how to inaugurate a new source of
wealth.
(Western Farmers’ Almanac, 1881, pp. 35-39, Fig. 14.)
Larval habits of bee-flies (Bombyliide).
(Amer. Naturalist, Feb., 1881, xv, pp. 143-145, Fig. 1-3.)
Systechus oreas parasitic on Caloptenus spretus, Bombylius major (of Europe)
on Andrena labialis. Lar¥z and pup of the two species compared; larva,
pupa, and imago of S. oreas figured.
Safe Remedies for Cabbage Worms and Potato Beetles. Ex-
periments with Pyrethrum.
(Amer. Naturalist, Feb. 1881, xv, pp. 145-147.)
Details of numerous expeg#fients, made under direction of the author, by
A. J. Cook and W. R. Hubbert, proving the efficacy of pyrethrum powder in
the destruction of those and other insects.
The food of fishes.
(Amer. Naturalist, Feb. 1881, v. xv, pp. 147-148.)
Notice of 8. A. Forbes’s ‘‘ The food of fishes,” and ‘‘On the food of young
fishes.”
Insect enemies of the rice plant.
(Amer. Naturalist, Feb. 1881, xv, pp. 148-149.)
Identifies Chalepus trachypygus feeding on roots of the rice plant, and.con-
jectures that other mentioned enemies of rice may be Spalacopsis suffusa and
Centrinus concinnus. Rice plant in India injured by Cecidomyia oryza.
The ‘‘ Yellow-Fever Fly.”
(Amer. Naturalist, Feb. 1881, xv, p. 150.)
Rev. of H. A. Hagen’s The ‘‘ Yellow-Fever Fly” (Psyche, Sep., 1880,) records
occurrence of swarms of Sciara in the imago state.
The United States Entomological Commission [C. V. Riley, A.
8. Packard, jr., Cyrus Thomas], (Department of the Interior). Second
report for the year 1878 and 1879 relating to the Rocky Mountain
locust and the western cricket, and treating of the best means of
subduing the locust in its permanent breeding grounds, with a view
of preventing its migrations into the more fertile portions of the
trans-Mississippi country, in pursuance of appropriations made by
Congress for this purpose ;—with maps and illustrations. Wash.,
* This list has been kindly prepared by Mr. B. Pickman Mann.
118 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
RILEY, CHARLES V.—Continued.
1880 [March, 1881], 18 + 522 + 80, p.17 pl., each plate with one leaf
explanation, map 1, in 6 pts., map 2-4, 9 fig.
Extract from chap. 13, by Riley, entitled ‘‘ Larval habits of bee-flies.”
(Amer. Naturalist, June, 1881, v. xv, pp. 438-447, pl.6.) Germ. br. of part of p.
260, entitled ‘‘ Lpicauta vittata aus Kiern zuerziehen”, (Entom. Nachr., Aug.
1881.)
Separate of chap. 13, author’s ed., by Riley, with half t. p. cover and half
t.p., entitled *‘The Rocky Mountain locust.” Further facts about the nat-
ural enemies of locusts [Wash.], 1880. -+ p. 259-271, pl. 16, with one leaf expl.
of pl.
Separte of chap. 14, author’s ed., by Riley, with half t. p. cover and half t.
p., entitled “The Rocky Monntain locust. Permanent courses for the gov-
erdment to adopt to lessen or avert locustinjury.” [Wash.] 1880. + p. 271-
322; map 1, in 6 parts.
Notes on the grape Phylloxera and on laws to prevent its intro-
duction.
(Amer. Naturalist, March, 1881, xv, pp. 238-241.)
Summary of life history of Phylloxera vastatrix. Proper precautions to be
adopted against the introduction of the pest into uninfected countries.
Hibernation of the Cotton Worm moth; ease with which
mistakes are made.
(Amer. Naturalist, March, 1881, xv, pp.-244-245, Figs. 1-3.)
Imago of Leucania unipuncta mistaken for that of Aletia argillacea, in Texas;
distinctive characteristics of the two species; figures imagos of both species
and ovipositor of the former.
—— General Index and supplement to the nine Reports on the
insects of Missouri.
(U. S. Entomological Commission, Bulletin No. 6, Wash., 24 March, 1881,
t. p. cover, pp. 1-178.)
Introduction, pp. 5-7. Tables of contents of the reports, pp. 9-45. Cor-
rections of errata, pp. 46-51. Notes and additions of the most important
facts ascertained about insects treated in the reports [with later or more cor-
rect nomenclature], pp. 52-63. Descriptions of new species and varieties [re-
printed from the reports with notes and corrections], pp. 64-90. List of de-
scriptions of adolescent states [referring to previously published descriptions
of the same when any exist], pp. 91-95. List of descriptions of adolescent
states [referring to previously published descriptions of the same when any
exist], pp. 91-95. List of descriptions, mostly amplified, of species not new,
pp. 96-97. List of illustrations [arranged in serial order, designating those
not original], pp. 98-118. Classified list of illustrations [in systematic order],
pp. 119-123. General index, pp. 125-166. Index to plants and food-plants,
pp. 167-177. Errata [in this work], p. 178.
Notes on North American Microgasters, with description of new
species.
(Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, iv, No. 2, pp. 295-315; il.)
Separate [St. Louis], 6 April, 1881, 4 t. p. cover + 20 p., 23 x 16, il. Habits
and characteristics of the group; three genera distinguished; formations of
cocoons (il.); describes two new species of Microplitis and ten of Apanteles ;
also several forms of Apanteles congregatus and larva of A. aletiw; figures
imago of A. aletia and several cocoon masses; habits of the species; reference
list of the (23) described N. A. species.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 119
RILEY, CHARLES V.—On some interactions of organisms.
(Amer. Naturalist, April 1881, xv, p. 323, 324.)
Abstract of and comments on §. A. Forbes’s ‘‘ On some interactions of or-
ganisms” (Bull. Ill. State laboratory of Nat. History, No. 3).
— Legislation to control insects injurious to vegetation.
(Farmers’ Review, Jan. 20,1881. Reprint Amer. Naturalist, April, 1881, xv,
pp. 322-323. Indiana Farmer, April 15, 1881.)
Agricultural advancement in the United States. Reprint,
entitled ‘Agricultural advancement in the United States.” Ad-
dress at the organization of the American Agricultural Association,
December, 1879.
(Journ. Amer. Agric. Assoc., April, 1881, i, pp. 47-54.)
Account of the measures adopted by the governments of England, Ger-
many, and France for the promotion of agriculture ; criticism of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture and suggestions for its reorganization; how the
present association can do its work best.
The Periodical Cicada, alias ‘“‘ Seventeen-year Locust.”
(Amer. Naturalist, June, 1881, xv, pp., 479-482, Fig. 1.)
A new species of oak Coccid, mistaken for a gall.
(Amer. Naturalist, June, 1881, xv, p. 482.)
Description of Kermes galliformis, n. sp., occurring on Quercus palustris in
the southern and central U. 8.; the Coccid often infested by a parasitic Lep-
idopter, Euclemensia bassettella.
——_ The “ Water-weevil” of the rice plant.
(Amer. Naturalist, June, 1881, xv, pp. 482-483.)
Reasons for presuming that the “‘ maggot ” of rice-fields is the larva of Lis-
sorhoptrus simplex ; habits and seasons of appearance.
The impregnated egg of Phylloxera vastatrixz.
(Amer. Naturalist, June, 1881, xv, pp. 483-484.)
Establishment of the author’s prediction, made in 1875, that the impreg-
nated egg of Phylloxera vastatric would be found to hatch in the same season
in which it was laid.
Works on North American Micro-lepidoptera.
(Amer. Naturalist, June, 1881, xv, pp. 484-486.)
Review of Lord Walsingham’s [T. de Grey’s] ‘‘Illustrations of typical
specimens of Lepidoptera heterocera . . . pt. 4,” and of his ‘‘Pterophoride
of California and Oregon ;” discussion of the new genera erected therein.
Moths mistaken for Aletia.
(Amer. Naturalist, June, 1881, xv, pp. 486-487.)
Seale insect on raspberry.
(Amer. Naturalist, June, 1881, xv, p. 487.)
Specific value of Apartura alicia, Edw.
(Amer. Naturalist, June, 1881, xv, p. 487.)
—— The caterpillar nuisance. How to suppress it.
(Evening Star [Washington, D. C.], 24th June, 1881. Amer. Naturalist,
Sept., 1881, xv, pp. 747-748, fig.)
120 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
RILEY, CHARLES V.—Plant-feeding habits of predaceous beetles.
(Amer. Naturalist, April, 1881, xv, pp. 325-327.)
Brings together various testimonies to prove that certain Carabide and Coc-
cinellide feed upon vegetal matter, referring to published articles on the sub-
ject.
Notes on Papilio philenor.
(Amer. Naturalist, April 1881, xv, pp. 327-329, Fig. 1-3.)
Describes egg and newly-hatched larva; figures imago, larva, and pupa;
notes on distribution and food-plant (Aristolochia.)
Larval habits of Bee-flies.
(Amer. Naturalist, June, 1881, xv, pp. 438-447, pl. 6.)
Extract from chap. 13 of 2drept. U. 8S. Entom. Commission. Parasitism of
larvie of Triodites mus and Systoechus oreas oneggsof Camnula pellucida ; review
of previous knowledge of the larval history of Bombyliida, with references to the
several accounts of observations; description of larve and pup of T. mus
and S. oreas, and figures of these and of the imagos,
Additional notes on the Army worm, Leucania wnipuncta.
(Proc. Amer. Assoc., Advane. Sci. for 1881, xxix, p. 640.)
Revision of views set forth in op. cit. for 1876, 1877, v. 25, pt. 2, p.279: num-
ber of annual generations two to several, according to latitude; both larva
and imago hibernate, probably pupa also; the insects may occur in destruc-
tive numbers from natural increase or from immigration ; they breed natur-
ally in all old, neglected fields; dry seasons favorable to the increase of the
insects in the following year.
Some recent practical results of the cotton worm inquiry by
the U. S. Entomological Commission.
(Prog. Amer. Assoc, Advance. Sci., 1881, xxix, p. 642.)
Statement of principles established in the natural history of Aletia argilla-
cea, which have a practical bearing ;. the best poisons for the insects are Paris
green, London purple, pyrethrum, and oils; methods of applying these poi-
sons.
The hitherto unknown life-habits of two genera of bee-flies,
bombyliide.
(Proc. Amer. Assoc. Advance. Sci., 1881, xxix, pt. 2, p. 649.)
Lepidopterological notes.
(Papilio, July, 1881, i, pp. 106-110.)
From advance sheets of Bulletin 6, U.S. Entom. Commission. Synonymical
and biological notes, with references to literature concerning Plusia brassicae,
Gorlyna nitela, Anomis xylina, Pempelia grossularia, Penthina vitivorana, Er-
demis botrana, Euryptychia saligneana, Hedya scudderiana, Anchylopera fragarie,
Tortrix cinderella and T. malivorana and T. vacciniivorana, Teras oxycoccana,
Oeta compta and Tinea pustulella and Deiopeia aurea-Oeta punctella; describes
eges of Teras oxycoccana and Octa punctella.
The Periodical Cicada, alias “‘Seventeen-year Locust.”
(Farmers’ Beview, June 16, 1881.)
Statement of localities in which Cicada septemdecim Linn will occur in 1881,
and also of those in a thirteen-year race (tredecim Riley) will appear.
RERORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 121
RILEY, CHARLES V.—Locusts and Locusts. A letter from Professor C.
V. Riley. The head of the United States Entomological Commis-
sion explains the difference between the periodical Cicada and the
true Locust: thirteen- and seventeen-year broods: no especial cause
for alarm this year.
(New York Tribune, June 22, 1881.)
Popular confusion of insects having very different habits under the term
“locust.” Comparative account of Cicada septemdecim with Caloptenus spretus.
No cause for the alarm as to true locust depredations. Recommendation of a
system of observations and warnings by the Government.
The Rocky Mountain Locust, alias Western Grasshopper.
(American Agriculturist, July, 1881, vol. xl, p. 283, 284, fig. 1-6.)
Popular condensed statement of habits and remedies for Caloptenus spretus.
A remarkable case of retarded development.
(Scientific American, Aug. 20, 1881.)
Preservation of eggs of Caloptenus spretus unhatched for more than four
years by their burial in a cool, moist and almost air-tight place, at Manhat-
tan, Kansas, 1876-1581; influence of temperature on acceleration and retar-
dation of development.
The Rocky Mountain Locust, alias Western Grasshopper.
(Amer. Agriculturist, July, 1881, Fig. 1-6.)
Dimorphism in Cynipide.
(Amer. Naturalist, July, 1881, xv, p. 566.)
Claim of priority in proof of dimorphism in Cynipide in N. A. ; reference to
previous views of Walsh and Bassett; extract from H. Adler’s “ Uber den
Generationswechsel der Eichen-Gallwespen” (Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zool., Feb.,
1881, Bd. 35, p. 151 —), comprising a list of the’19 specimens in which the
occurrence of dimorphic forms has been proven.
Blepharoceride.
(Amer. Naturalist, July, 1881, xv, p. 567-568. )
Account of various investigations into the natural history of Blepharoceride ;
description of the larvae and pupx.
The cultivation of Pyrethrum and manufacture of the pow-
der.
(Amer. Naturalist, July, Sept., and Oct., 1881, pp. 569-572; pp. 744-746; and
pp. 817-819.)
Covering of egg-puncture mistaken for Dorthesia.
(Amer. Naturalist, July, 1881, xv, p. 574.)
In the collection of Asa Fitch the white and ribbed waxy material cover-
ing the egg-punctures of Enchophyllum binotatum are labeled as Dorithesia
viburni and D. celastri. It is doubtful whether any such species were de-
seribed by Fitch.
Supposed Army-worm in New York and other Eastern States.
(Amer. Naturalist, July, 1881, xv, pp. 574-577.)
Ravages of Nephelodes violans and Crambus vulgivagellus, in New Jersey,
Long Island, and Northern New York—natural history, vernacular name, and
detailed description of larva of the former species.
122 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM,
RILEY, CHARLES V.—Classification of the mites.
(Amer. Naturalist, July, 1881, xv, pp. 577-578.)
Abstract of letter from Dr. G. Haller, in which he states that Acarina
have three pairs of maxillz, a true labium with palpi, two pairs of abdomi-
nal and [two pairs of] cephalothoracic legs; he does not consider that they
belong to the Arachnida, but believes they are much more nearly allied to
the Crustacea, and must form a fifth class of Arthropoda, equivalent to Crus-
tacea, Myriapoda, Arachnida, and Hexapoda.
Further notes on the pollination of Yucca and on Pronuba and
Prodoxus.
(Proc. Amer. Assoc. Advane. Sci., 1881, xxix, pt. 2, pp. 617-639, Fig. 1-16.)
Separate. (Further notes [etc.])
[Salem, July, 1881, ] pp. 1-28, Fig. 1-16.)
Recapitulation of observed facts concerning Pronuba yuccasella and its con-
nection with the pollination of Yucca; describes and figures the generic and
specific characters of Pronuba, P. yuccasella, P. maculata n. sp., Prodoxus, P.
decipiens, P. intermedius n. sp., P. marginatus n. sp., P. cinereus n. sp., P. wnes-
cens n. sp., Hyponomeuta, H. malinella, H. multipunctella; establishes and char-
acterizes the new family Prodoxide (Tineina) for Pronuba and Prodoxus; dis-
cusses the structure of the ovipositor in lepidoptera, and the habits and func-
tions of Pronuba yuccasella and Prodoxus decipiens; proposes to restrict the
prior trivial name quinquepunctella [proposed for a Yponomeuta] to that form
of Prodoxus decipiens which it proves to be, and cites the trivial name para-
doxica [used without description] as a synonym of P. decipiens.
The periodical Cicada.
(Amer. Agriculturist, Aug., 1881, Fig. 1-5.)
—— Blepharoceride.
(Amer. Naturalist, Sept., 1881, xv, p. 748.)
Records the discovery, by J. Q. Adams, of pups and imagos of Blepharo-
ceride at Watertown, N. Y.
Remarkable case of retarded development.
(Amer. Naturalist, Sept., 1881, xv, pp. 748-749.)
Eggs of Caloptenus spretus, buried about 25 em. under ground, remained un-
hatched and alive for four and one-half years, at Manhattan, Kansas, and
hatched upon being exhumed.
The Hessian fly.
(Amer. Naturalist, Sept., 1881, xv, p. 750.)
Report of extensive damage done by Cecidomyia destructor in Illinois and
Missouri; abundance of this insect in the Western [prairie] States.
The genuine Army-worm in the West.
(Amer. Naturalist, Sept., 1881, xv, p. 750.)
A new imported enemy to clover.
(Amer. Naturalist, Sept., 1881, xv, pp. 750-751.)
Trifolium injured by Phytonomus punctatus at Barrington, N. Y., in July, 1881.
Another enemy of the rice plant.
(Amer. Naturalist, Sept., 1881, xv, p. 751.)
Oryza ezativa greatly injured in Georgia, in the summer of 1881, by the larva
of Laphygma frugiperda.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 123
RILEY, CHARLES V.—Lepidopterological notes.
(Amer. Naturalist, Sept., 1881, xv, pp. 751-752.)
Notes on Ageria acerni, Hyphantria textor, Callimorpha fulvicosta, Samia co-
lumbia, Callosamia angulifera, Celana renigera and Prodenia autumnalis.
Notes on Hydrophilus triangularis.
(Amer. Naturalist, Oct., 1881, xv, pp, 814-817, Fig. 1-2.)
Notes on the life-history of H. triangularis: figures eggs, egg-cases, larva,
pupa, and imago.
Migration of plant-lice from one plant to another.
(Amer. Naturalist, Oct., 1881, xv, pp. 819-820.)
Review and indorsement of Lichtenstein’s views.
The Chinch Bug.
(Amer. Naturalist, Oct., 1881, xv, pp. 820-821.)
Notice of Thomas’s predictions, and of the occurrence of Blissus leucopterus
on rice and ‘‘sand oats.”
— —— The Permanent Subsection of Entomology at the recent meet-
ing of the A. A. A.S.
(Amer. Naturalist, Nov. and Dec., 1881: xv, pp. 909-912; and pp. 1008-1011.)
— — ‘The new imported clover enemy.
Habits of Phytonomus punctatus, and of other species of the genus.
(Amer. Naturalist, Nov., 1881, xv, pp. 912-914.)
Crambus vulgivagellus. (Description of its eggs.)
(Amer. Naturalist, Noy., 1881, xv, pp. 914-915.)
[Address delivered 4 Nov., 1881, at the cotton convention held
in Atlanta, Ga., 2 Nov., 1881.] (U.S. Department of Agriculture.)
Address of Hon. Geo. B. Loring, Commissioner of Agriculture, and
other proceedings of the cotton convention [ete.], Wash., 1881, pp.
19-35.
Beneficial and injurious influence of insects; methods of counteracting in-
jurious insects; ravages and natural history of and search for means against
Aletia argillacea; improved methods and contrivances for the application of
poisons to plants; discussion on the address.
Larval habits of Sphenophori that attack corn.
(Amer. Naturalist, Nov., 1881, xv, pp. 915-916.)
Mentions several species of Sphenophorus injurious to maize plants in dif-
ferent parts of the United States; habits and ravages of S. robustus.
Effect of drought on the Hessian fly.
(Amer. Naturalist, Nov., 1881, xv, p. 916.)
Hot and dry weather dries up and kills Cecidomyia destructor and its parasites.
Retarded Development in Insects.
(Amer. Naturalist, Dec., 1881, xv, pp. 1007-1008. )
Eggs of Caloptenus spretus rethined their vitality four and one-half years
under abnormal environment, and then hatched on exposure to normal en-
vironment; speculations on the cause of the phenomena of retardation of
development.
124 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
RimLEY CHARLES V.—Another herbivorous Ground-beetle.
(Amer. Naturalist, Dec., 1881, xv, p. 1011.)
Anisodactylus confusus injuring strawberry plants in California.
A disastrous sheep parasite.
(Amer. Naturalist, Dec., 1881, xv, p. 1011.)
Trichodectes ovis doing great injury to flocks of sheep in Illinois.
Resistance of grape-vines to Phylloxera in sandy soil.
(Amer. Naturalist, Dee., 1881, xv, pp. 1012-1013.)
Locusts in the West in 1881.
(Amer. Naturalist, Dec., 1881, xv, p. 1013.)
The Chinch Bug.
(Amer. Agriculturist, November, 1881, vol. xl, p. 476, fig. 1-3; ibid., Decem-
ber, 1881, vol. xl, p. 515, fig. 1-4.)
Destructive powers, food-plants, characters, habits, natural history, meteor-
ological conditions affecting, natural enemies of, and means of coping with
Blissus leucopterus, Say. Describes as enemies Anthocoris insidiosus, Harpactor
cinctus, and Nysius destructor; also some false or bogus chinch bugs. Lays
stress on value of irrigation.
Peach Tree Bark-borer. Important note from Professor C. V.
Riley.
(Rural New Yorker, Dec. 24, 1881.)
Account of injuries to peach trees of a beetle, Phloiotribus liminaris, Harr.
SHUFELDT, kh. W., M. D.—The Claw on the Index Finger of the Ca-
thartide.
(Amer. Naturalist, November, 1881, xv, pp. 906-908. )
An important osteological paper based upon material in the collection of
the National Museum.
On the Ossicle of the Antibranchium as found in some of the
North American Faleonide.
(Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club., Oct., 1881, vol. vi, pp. 197-203.)
An important osteological paper based chiefly on material contained in
the Mational Museum collection.
WARD, LESTER I*.—Evolution of the Chemical Elements.
(Popular Science Monthly, February, 1880, pp. 526-539.) |
A discussion of the theory of development as applied to the elements and |
|
consideration of the facts recently revealed by spectrum analysis seeming to
favor the theory.
Previously read before the Philosophical Society of Washington.
Incomplete Adaptation as illustrated by the History of Sex in |
Plants.
(Amer. Naturalist, February, 1881, pp. 89-95.)
Read before the Biological Section of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science at Boston August 27, 1880.
The paper shows that there exist, in nearly all departments of the vege- |
table kingdom, successive degrees to which the process of sexual differentia-
tion has attained, and that in many cases there are obvious indications that
this process is still going on.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 125
WARD, LESTER F'.—Pre-Social Man.
(Abstract of Transactions of the Anthropological Society of mraclington:
for the years ending January 20, 1880, and January 18, 1881, pp. 68-71, being
the abstract of a paper read before the Society April 20, 1880.)
The anatomical characters distinguishing the human form from that of the
most highly developed anthropoids are enumerated, and the several physical
causes considered which seem to have been most potent in securing their de-
velopment.
Savage and Civilized Orthoépy.
(Loe. cit., pp. 106-111 being the abstract of a paper read before the Society
December 21, 1880.)
This paper consisted, principally, of remarks and strictures on the first
chapter of the Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages, by J. W. Powell,
| Ph. D., Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, which treats of the pronuncia-
tion of Indian and other languages.
Politico-Social Functions.
(Penn. Monthly, May, pp. 321-336. Read before the Anthropological So-
ciety of Washington March 15, 1881.)
The right, power, and duty of society to regulate its own operations are
argued, and the progress which has taken place toward this end in various
countries is reviewed.
Field and Closet Notes on the Flora of Washington and
Vicinity.
(Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington, 1881, vol. iv, pp. 64-
119. Read before the Society January 22, 1881.)
The paper embraces, among other sub-titles, a Comparison of Flora of 1830,
with that of 1880; a description of the Localities of Special Interest to the Bot-
anist ; a consideration of the Flowering-time of Plants ; a Statistical View of the
Flora as compared with other floras; an enumeration of the most Abundant
Species; a statement of the most approved Classification Adopted by botanists;
remarks on Common Names, and a Summary by Orders and larger groups of the
number of genera and species found growing in the vicinity of Washington.
WHITE, CHARLES A., on certain Cretaceous fossils from Arkansas and
Colorado.
(Proc. U. 8. N. M., iv, p. 136-139. 1 pl.)
II.—PAPERS BY INVESTIGATORS NOT OFFICERS OF THE MUSEUM.
BENDIRE, CAPT. CHARLES, U. S. A.—Notes on Salmonide of the Up-
per Columbia.
(Proc. U.S. N. M., iv, pp. 81-87.)
BREWSTER, WILLIAM.—Notes on some Birds from Arizona and New
Mexico, with a description of a supposed new Whip-poor-will.
(Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, April, 1881, vol. vi, pp. 65-73.)
Antrostomus vociferus arizone, var. nov. (p. 69), is based partly on the ex-
amination of specimens contained in the collection of the National Mr seum.
126 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
BREWSTER, WILLIAM.—Critical notes ona Petrelnew to North America.
(Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, April, 1881, vol. vi, pp. 91-97.)
A specimen of an @strelata captured alive in a plowed field at Mount Mor-
ris, Livingston County, New York, was identified by Mr. Brewster by com-
parison with the type specimen in the National Museum, as @. gularis
(Peale). .
On the affinities of certain Polioptila, with a description of a
new species.
(Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, April, 1881, vol. vi, pp. 101-107.)
Based largely on specimens in the collection of the National Museum,
among which are the types of P. californica Brewst., sp. noy. (p. 103).
CoLuins, Capt. J. W.—Gill-nets in the cod fishery: A description of
the Norwegian cod nets, with directions for their use, and a history
of their introduction into the United States.
(Bull. U. S. F. C., 1881, vol. i, pp. 1-17, 12 pl.)
ENDLICcH, F'. M.—An analysis of water destructive to fishin the Gulf of
Mexico.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., iv, p. 124.)
FARLOW, W. G.—Report on the contents of two bottles of water from
the Gulf of Mexico; forwarded by the Smithsonian Institution.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., iv, p. 234.)
GARMAN, SAMUEL.—Synopsis and descriptions of the American Rhino-
batide.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., 1880, iii, pp. 516-523.)
GILL, THEODORE.—Note on the Latiloid genera.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., 1881, iv, pp. 162-164.)
GLAZIER, W. C. W., ASSISTANT SURGEON, M. H. S.—On the destrue-
tion of fish by polluted waters in the Gulf of Mexico.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., iv, pp. 126-127.)
GURNEY, JOHN HENRY.—Note on Onychotes grueberi, Ridgway.
(The Ibis (London), July, 1881, 4th ser., vol. v, pp. 396-398, pl. xii.)
This article and the fine plate accompanying it is based on the two type
specimens in the U. 8. National Museum collection, the only examples of the
species known to exist.
HARGER, OSCAR.—Report on the Marine Isopoda, of New England,
and adjacent waters.
(Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish and Fisheries, part vi, pp. 297-462, plates i-xiii).
“The following paper includes the species of Isopoda at present known to
inhabit the coast of New England and the adjacent region, as far as Nova
Scotia on the north and New Jersey on the south.” This is a very complete
account of all the New England Isopods known up to the date of publication,
full descriptions being given of all the families, genera, and species, and de-
tailed figures of all the species. Fourteen families, 34 genera, and 46 species
are described ; of these one genus and one species (Syscenus infelix) are new.
An account of the geographical distribution of the species described is given,
followed by a table illustrating their geographical and balthymetrical range
in detail, and a list of the authorities quoted.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 127
Hay, O. P.—On a collection of fishes from eastern Mississippi.
(Proc. U.S. N.M., 1880, iii, pp. 488-515.)
The following new species are described: Ammocrypta gelida, Hadropterus
spillmani, Nanostoma elegans, Pecilichthys artesie, P. saxatilis, Vaillantia chloro-
soma, Microperca preliaris, Alburnops taurocephalus, Alburnops longirostris, Hem-
itremia maculata, Luxilus chickasavensis, Opsopwodus (n. g.) emilie, Minnilus
punctulatus, Minnilus rubripinnis, Minnilus bellus.
HENSHAW, H. W.—On Podiceps occidentalis and P. clarkii.
(Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, Oct., 1881, vi, pp. 214-218).
A critical comparison of the above-named forms, based chiefly on speci-
mens in the collection of the National Museum.
INGERSOLL, ERNEST.—On the fish mortality in the Gulf of Mexico.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., iv, pp. 74-80.)
JOHNSON, S. H.—Notes on the mortality among fishes of the Gulf of
Mexico.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., iv, p. 205.)
JORDAN, DAvip S.—Description of a new species of Caranx (Caranx
Beani), from Beaufort, North Carolina.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., 1880, iii, pp. 486-488. )
JORDAN, DAVID S., and CHARLES H. GILBERT.—Description of a new
species of Nemichthys (Nemichthys avocetta), from Puget Sound.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., 1880, iii, pp. 409-410.)
Description of a new species of Paralepis (Paralepis coruscans),
from the Straits of Juan de Fuca.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., 1880, iii, pp. 411-413.)
—_ List of the fishes of the Pacific coast of the United States, with a
table showing the distribution of the species.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., 1880, iii, pp. 452-458. )
On the generic relations of Belone ewxilis Girard.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., 1880, iii, p. 459.)
Notes on a collection of fishes from Utah Lake.
(Proc. U.S. N. M., 1880, iii, pp. 459-465.
Description of a new species of “Rock Fish” (Sebastichthys
chrysomelas) from the coast of California.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., 1880, iii, pp. 465-466. )
— Notes on the fishes of the Pacific coast of the United States.
(Proc. U.S. N. M., iv, pp. 29-70, Apr. 13-30, 1881.)
Description of Sebastichthys mystinus.
(Proc. U.S. N. M., iv, pp. 70-72.)
Description of a new species of Ptychochilus (Ptychochilus Har-
fordi) from Sacramento River.
(Proc. U. S. N.M., iv, pp. 72-73.)
Note on Raia inornata.
(Proc. U. 8. N. M., iv, pp. 73-74.)
128 . REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
JORDAN, Davip S8., and PreRRE L. Jovy. Check list of duplicates
of fishes from the Pacific coast of North America, distributed by
the Smithsonian Institution in behalf the United States National
Museum, 1881.
(Proc. U.S. N. M., iv., pp. 1-18.)
LAWRENCE, GEORGE N.—Description of a new subspecies of Loxigilla
from the island of St. Christopher, West Indies.
(Proc. U.S. N. M., iv, p. 204.)
Loxigilla portoricensis var. grandis, types in collection of the National Mu-
seum,
LockiIneTon, W. N.—Description of a new species of (Prionotus ste-
phanophrys) from the coast of California.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., 1880, iii, pp. 529-532.)
— — Description of a new genus and species of Cottide.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., iv, pp. 141-144.)—( Chitonotus megacephalus. )
McKay, CHARLES L.—A review of the genera of the family Centrar-
chide, with a description of one new species.
(Proc. U. 8. N. M., iv, pp. 87-93.)
Moore, M. A.—Fish mortality in the Gulf of Mexico.
(Proc. U. 8. N. M., iv, pp. 125-126.)
PORTER, JOSEPH Y., ASSISTANT SURGEON, U.S. A.—On the destruc-
tion of fish by poisonous water in the Gulf of Mexico.
(Proc. U. 8. N. M., iv., pp. 121-123.)
RyDER, J. A.—Preliminary notice of the more important scientific re-
sults obtained from a study of the embryology of fishes.
(Bull. U. 8. F. G., i, pp. 22-23.)
Notes on the development, spinning habits, and structure of the
four-spined stickleback.
(Bull. U. 8. F.‘C., i, pp. 24-29.)
— Development of the Spanish mackerel (Cybiuwm maculatum).
(Bull. U.S. F. C., i, pp. 185-178, 4 pl.)
On the retardation of the development of the ova of the shad,
(Alosa sapidissima), with observations on the egg-fungus and bac-
teria. *
(Bull. U.S. F. C., i, pp. 177-190.)
A contribution to the development and morphology of the Lo-
phobranchiates—(Hippocampus antiquorum, the sea horse).
(Bull. U. S. F. C., i, pp. 191-199, 1 pl.)
ScLaTER, P. L.—Remarks on the recently described parrots of the
genus Chrysotis.
(The Ibis [London], July, 1881, 4th ser., v, pp. 411-414.)
Based in part upon National Museum Specimens.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. *° 129
SHOEMAKER, GrEoRGE.—Abundance of the Hermit Thrush in Winter
near Washington, D. C.
(Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, April, 1881, vol. vi, pp. 113, 114.)
A specimen of the above-named species was obtained January 1, the mer-
cury registering — 14°, and isnow inthe National Museum collection. The
species was quite common during the coldest weather of the severe winter of
1880-81.
SmitH, Rosa.—Description of a new gobioid fish (Othonops eos), from
San Diego, California.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., iv, pp. 19-21.)
Synonym of Typhlogobius californiensis Steind.—See Proc., iv, 140.
Description of a new species of Gobiesox (Gobiesox rhessodon),
from San Diego, California.
(Proc. U. 8. N. M., iv, pp. 140-141.)
SmituH, S. .—Preliminary notice of the crustacea dredged, in 64 to
325 fathoms, off the”south coast of New England by the United
States Fish Commission in 1880.
(Proc. U.S. N. M., 1880, iii, pp. 413-452.)
An enumeration of the principal crustacea obtained by the United States
Fish Commission, in 1880, from the inner edge of the Gulf Stream slope,
south of Newport, R. I., with notes on the previously-known species and de-
scriptions of one new genus and fourteen new species. - Four additional
species are mentioned as new without descriptions. The total number of
species recorded is 50. The paper closes with a table showing the geo-
graphical and bathymetrical range of the species.
Stone, Livinegston.—Mortality of McCloud River Salmon in 1881.
(BalieWSok. ©. ps 134.)
VERRILL, A. E.—The Cephalopods of the Northeastern Coast of America.
Part u. The Smaller Cephalopods, including the “ Squids” and
Octopi, with other allied forms.
(Trans. Conn. Acad. Arts and Sci., 1881, vol. v, pp. 259-424, plates 26-56. )
This “is a monographic revision, with descriptions and figures of all the
species. A considerable anount of anatomical work is also introduced,
Most of the species had previously been noticed in different articles in the
American Journal of Science. Among those not previously described are
Chiroteuthis lacertosa, Brachioteuthis Beanii, gen. et. sp. nov., Iossia megapiera.
A new genus (Stoloteuthis) has also been established for Sepiola leucop-
tera V.” : 2 tae
New England Annelida. Parti. Historical sketch, with an-
notated lists of the species hitherto recorded.
(Trans. Conn. Acad., 1881, vol. iv, pp. 285-324.)
‘Tn connection with the annotation, a considerable number of changes in
nomenclature are introduced, and a few new genera are established.”
Recent papers on the marine invertebrata of the Atlantic coast
of North America:
(Am. Journ. Sci., Nov., 1881, vol. xxii.) A list with brief notes.
S. Mis. 109 9
130 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM
VERRILL, A. E.—Notice of Recent Additions to the Marine Inverte-
brata of the northeastern coast of America, with descriptions of
. new genera and species and critical remarks on others. Part
11.—Mollusea, with notes on Annelida, Echinodermata, ete., col
lected by the United States Fish Commission.
(Proc. U. S. N. M., 1880, iii, pp. 356-405. )
Part 111.—Catalogue of Mollusca recently added to the Fauna
of Southern New England.
(Proce. U. S. N. M., 1880, ili, pp. 405-409. )
Part 1 of this report begins with an account of the dredgings made by the
U. S. Fish Commission, south of Newport, R. I. in 1880, and a list of the
deep-water stations one hundred and forty species of Mollusca are recorded,
of which one genus and 22 species are new; 96 additional species are stated
to be new additions to the North American marine fauna, including 25 species
recently described from the collections of 1880. Two new species of annelids
are also described. Part 111 is a table illustrating the geographical and ba-
thymetrical distribution of 130 species of M~llusca, recently added to the
fauna of Southern New England, mainly through the dredgings of the U.S.
Fish Commission of 1880.
Notice of the remarkable Marine Fauna occupying the outer
banks off the Southern coast of New England.
Brief Contributions to Zoology from the museum of Yale College. No.
xlviii. )
(Am. Journ. Sci., Oct., 1881, vol. xxii, pp. 282-303.)
A general account of the dredging operations of the U. S. Fish Commis-
sion, during the summerof 1881. A list of the deep-water stations south of
Martha’s Vineyard, with temperature observations, is given, and also a list
of the deep-water fishes, so far as determined up to date of publication, by
Dr. T. H. Bean. A list of the Cephalopods obtained from deep water. is in-
eluded, and five new species of Gasteropods and Lamellibranchs are de-
scribed.
Reports on the Results of Dredging, under the supervision of
Alexander Agassiz, by the United States Coast Survey steamer
‘“ Blake.” Report on the Cephalopods, and on some additional
species dredged by the United States ,Fish Commission steamer
“ Fish Hawk,” during the season of 1880.
(Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoology, 1881, viii. pp. 99-166. 8 plates.)
WILson, EpMUND B.—Report on the Pycnogonida of New England
and ‘Adjacent Waters.
(Rep’t U. S. Comm. Fish and Fisheries, part vi, pp. 463-506, plates i-vii.)
“Anaccount of our present knowledge of the species of Pyenogonida, known
to occur upon the coasts of New England and Nova Scotia, comprising de-
scriptions and figures of all the forms, and an account of their geographical
and bathymetrical distribution.” A synopsis of the genera is given. Nine
genera and fifteen species are described, two species (Achelia scabra and
Nymphon macrum) being new.
we
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 131
APPENDIX C.—LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO THE MUSEUM
IN 1881.
Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pa. (See Philadelphia.)
Adams, J. C. A water-worn pebble of Trenton limestone, containing
the fossil Receptaculites occidentalis ; from Wisconsin. (For examina-
tion.)
Adams, J. Q. Living salamander (Amblystoma punctatum) and eggs
of horned toad (Phrynosoma ?) ; from New York.
Allen, Charles. Seventy-six specimens of Pennsylvania building stones
and slates.
Albert, J. C., Paoli, Ind. Eleven specimens of Indiana building
stones.
Allen, Charles A. Box of birds’ skins (Colaptes, Zonotrichia, ete.) ; from
California.
Allen, Rev. J. Stone pipe, tube, and ring; from New York. (Lent for
casting.)
Alice Gold and Silver Mining Company, Montana. Specimens of gold
and silver bearing Galena and Rhodochrosite, ete.
Allcock, S. & Co., Redditch, England. Three snoods with patent covers
for protection of hooks.
Allison, Hon. W. Specimen of coal; from Iowa. (Sent for examina-
tion.)
American Encaustic Tiling Company, New York. Fourteen samples of
floor tiles.
American Museum of Natural History, New York. (See New York.)
Anderson, Capt. Charles, schooner Alice G. Wonson. Two bottles of al-
coholic specimens of fishes.
Anglo-American Packing Company, Astoria, Oregon. Two samples of
cans and labels used in the packing of salmon.
Anthropological Society, Washington, D.C. (See Washington, D. C.)
Ash, Charles Ei. (through Samuel Albro). Forty-five pearls taken from
a single oyster found in Providence Bay. ie
Ashburner, Charles. Twenty-one specimens of Pennsylvania building
stones.
Aspinwall & Son, New York. Samples of floor tiling.
Astoria Packing Company, Astoria, Oregon. Samples of cans and labels
used in the packing of salmon.
Atkins, Hon. J. D. C. Specimens of coal and ore; from Tennessee.
(Sent for examination.)
Atkinson, Hon. Edward. <A large number of samples of manufactured
cotton from yarious mills in the United States.
‘
132 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Atwood, H. E. Five microscopic slides of the water of Hemlock Lake,
New York.
Auckland, (N. Z.\ Museum. A keg of alcoholic specimens of New Zealand
fishes (IKathetostoma, Acanthoclinus, Latris, Zeus, Pagrus, Khombosolea,
etc.)
Austin Flagstone Company, Warren, Ohio. Twospecimens of Ohio build-
ing-stones
Australian Museum (Sydney, New South Wales). <A collection of Aus-
tralian mammals (fifteen species), fishes (sixty-seven species), reptiles
(twelve species), and echinoderms (five species).
Babbitt, F. HE. Specimens of chipped quartz; from Minnesota.
Babcock, Master C. EB: Starfish and shell of king-crab; from Cape
Henry, Va.
Babcock, Dr. S. E. A small collection of Indian relics—pipes, arrow-
heads, axes, ete. ; from South Carolina.
Bacon, A. W., Paymaster, U. S. Navy. <A collection of butterflies from
Central and Western Africa and Brazil.
Badollet G Co., Astoria, Oregon. Samples of cans and labels used in
packing salmon. -
Bahne, William. Specimens of lamprey eels from the Susquehanna
River, and foot of mink taken from trap; from Pennsylvania.
Bailey, George K. Two specimens of Maryland building:stones.
Baird. Prof. S. F. Cake of ‘Turtle Oil” soap, R. Low & Son, makers,
London, England.
Baker, G. C. Specimens of fossils, minerals, and arrow-heads; from
Missouri.
Baker, Marcus, Assistant, United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. Skull
of walrus with tusks ; from Plover Bay, Eastern Siberia.
Baker, Thomas E. Specimen of Tuckahoe; from Arkansas.
Baker, W. OC. Specimen of Melanura; from Michigan.
Baldwin, Miles C. (through John B. Wiggins). A collection of fossil,
shells; from Tioga County, New York.
Bangs, Ff. D. A specimen of fresh-water sheepshead (Haploidonotus
grunniens) sold as ‘German carp” in markets of Waterbury, Conn.
Barker, Henry L.. Specimens of living snakes, terrapins, mud-eels,
amphiumas, ete.; from South Carolina.
Barker, Wiliam P. Wuman skull and jaw-bones and fragments of pot-
tery ; from mound in Alabama.
Barkley, W. F. Samples of coke and coal; from Connellsville, Pa.
Barney, George and R. J., Swanton, Vt. Five samples of marble floor-
tiling.
Barnun, Hon. P. T. A specimen of leopard, in flesh.
Bartlett, J. H.,and Sons, New Bedford, Mass. A whaleboat and fittings
as ready for service at sea. (Purchased ?)
Baumeister, H., Portland, Me. Samples of cans and labels used in pack-
ing herring, ete.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 133
Beach, H. Arrow-point; from Wisconsin. Also eight copper imple-
ments lent for casting.
Bean, George. Two flax-hackles, one pair andirons, sickles, and one
lard-oil lamp; from Pennsylvania.
Bean, Dr. T. H. Spear-heads and Venetian bead; from Pennsylvania ;
and a polishing stone from Santa Clara, N. Mex.
‘Beardslee, Lester A., Captain U. S. Navy. <A collection of Indian imple-
ments and ornaments, specimens of shell (Chiton) used as food, anda
bird skin (Colaptes hybridus); from Alaska.
Beebe, William S. Indian stone figure-pipe. (Lent for casting.)
Belding, L. Hight packages of collections of pirds’ skins, nests, and
eggs, mammal skins, invertebrates, and Indian implements; from Cali-
fornia.
Belding Brothers, New York, N. Y. A series of manufactured spool silks
and twist, being exhibit made at Centennial Exhibition of 1876.
Bell, Hon. James. Fifteen packages of Indian implements, pottery, and
mound remains, birds’ skins and eggs, living snakes, plants, etc. ; from
Florida.
Bell, Dr. Robert, Geological Survey of Canada. A specimen of Darter
(Cottus) ; from Lake Superior, and specimens of frogs and fishes, from
York, Hudson’s Bay Territory.
Belt, Dr. A. M. Two specimens of Maryland building-stones.
Bence, John A. Photograph of fossil tooth weighing 13$ pounds;
found in Putnam County, Indiana.
Bendire, Charles, Captain, U. S. Army. Seventeen boxes of fossils and
general natural history collections (mammals, birds, fishes, reptiles,
etc.) ; from Washington Territory.
Bessels, Dr. Emil. A Lapland pipe and case, a box of European Jand
shells, skeleton of bat ( Vespertilio murinus) and seven Egyptian fiint
knives, and a skeleton of bat ( Vespertilio murinus).
betz, A. L. Two specimens of Missouri building-stones.
Bickley, Dr. B. F. (through Dr. DeHaas). A supposed syphilitic skull,
obtained from mound at Alexandersville, Ohio.
Blackford, Eugene G., New York. A large number of specimens of fishes
(Alosa, Carpiodes, Salmo, Ocyurus, Decapterus, Tautoga, ete.), lobsters,
from various parts of the United States, a specimen of Manatee from
the Amazon River, and a box of living lizards and frogs from Liver-
pool, England.
Boardman, George A. Specimen of flounder (Lophopsetta maculata) and
birds’ skins (Buteo, Tringoides); from Florida.
Boehmer, George H. Specimens of owl (Scops), moles (Scalops), and of
living snakes; from Maryland.
Boucard, A. <A collection of Mexican and Yucatan birds.
Bowers, Rev. Stephen. A box of mound relies; from Wisconsin.
Boyd, CO. H., Assistant, United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.—Scale
from supposed fossil walrus-tusk found at Addison Point, Me.
134 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Bradford, Gershon (through Capt. C. P. Patterson, Superintendent, United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey). A box and barrel of oysters and
specimens of bottom of Chesapeake Bay.
Bradley, William, Washington, D. C. Samples of marble floor-tiles.
Bradolet & Co., Astoria, Oreg. Samples of cans and labels used in the
packing of elaaam
Brady, Edward. Specimens of annals (Ornithorhynchus) and a bird-
skin; from New South Wales.
Bransford. John F., Passed Assistant Surgeon, U. S. Navy. Two bricks
taken from the ‘‘ Great Wall of China.”
Briand, Capt. Augusté (through E. H. Hawley). A box of stone imple-
ments ; from France.
Briggs Dean. Two specimens of Ohio building stones.
Broadhead, Prof. G. C. Specimens of galena and sphalerite; from the
Einstein mine, Madison County, Missouri.
Broadhead, Prof. G. C. A large collection of building stones from the
States of Arkansas, Kansas, and Missouri.
Brooks, W. B., Chief Engineer, U. 8. Navy. Swords, bullet-pouch,
powder-charge, and wooden canteen, taken from the Coreans in 1871
by United States forces under Admiral John Rodgers, U. 8S. Navy.
Brooks, Dr. W.K., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Alcoholic speci-
mens of Renilla; from Beaufort, N. ©.
Brown, D. A. Specimens of minerals. (For examination).
Brown, Dr. J.J. Five species of land shells; from the Gonave Islands.
Brudon, Jacob. A small box of shells; from Michigan.
Brussels, Belgium, Royal Museum of Natural History. Four boxes of
general natural history specimens.
Bryan, Rev. C. B. Specimens of insects, shells, ete.; from Virginia.
Bryce, T. T., Hampton, Va. Samples of cans used for pickling oysters
and crabs.
Bucklin, W. E. (through E.G. Blackford). A dried specimen of fish,
(Boleosoma Olmstedi).
Burdick, T. W. A specimen of fossil conglomerate ; from Towa.
Burehan and Morrill, Portland, Me. Samples of cans and labels used
for packing fish, ete.
Biisse, F. Specimens of fishes (Trigla, Solea, Trachurops, Tylosurus,
Scomber, etc.); from Germany.
Butler, Hon. A. P. Specimen of rock-fish (Roceus lineatus); from the
Congares River, South Carolina.
Bynum, J. G. Specimen of flexible sandstone ; from North Carolina.
Bye, E. Mortimer. Hight specimens of Maryland building-stones.
Calder, D. B. Two specimens of Ohio building-stones.
California State Mining Bureau, San Francisco,Cal. Casts of Indian stone
pestles and image; from California and Arizona.
Calvin, 8S. Box of paleozoic fossils (sixty-three species); from Iowa.
.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 135
Cambria Iron Company, Philadelphia, Pa. Photograph of Cambria Iron
Works.
Camp, W. B. Box of Indian relics; from New York. (lor casting.)
Campbell, Charles D. Natural formation of stone; from Ohio.
Carll, John F. Two specimens of Pennsylvania building-stones.
Carson, N. Rk. Specimens of infusorial earth; from California. (For ex-
amination.)
Carson, Dr. W. B. Indian stone ax; from Ohio.
Carvar, Joseph H. Specimens of salt herring; from Havre de Grace,
Md.
Case, Thomas S. (through Prof. O. T. Mason). Fragment of cement;
from an old aqueduct at Pecos, N. Mex. ;
Catell, Dr. B. Specimen of black sand; from Washington Territory.
(For examination.)
Catlin Collection. A largé buffalo skin, tent and poles, and skull of
Flathead Indian.
Caton, Judge J. D. Bones of deer (C. acapulcensis) and skull of seven-
teen-months-old deer showing no horn-cores.
Chambers, Alexander, [ieutenant-Colonel, U. S. Army. Tooth of fossil
elephant (Hlephas primigenius); from Indian Territory.
Chase, A. W. Two boxes of fragmentary pottery taken from Aztec
houses four feet below the surface, near Contention City, Ariz. *
Chase, C. H. Two casts of stone implements; from Indiana.
Chase, Walter G. Specimen of massive quartz; from Massachusetts.
Cheshire, William W. Three arrow-heads; from Indiana; and cast of
‘paint cup”; from Wisconsin.
Chester, H. C. Box of crabs (Callinectes hastatus); from St. Jerome’s
Creek, Md.
Cilley, C. W. Two specimens of Vermont building-stones.
City Drug Store, Nevada, Ohio. Specimen of mole cricket (@ryllotalpa
borealis), (For examination.)
Clapp, A. F. A living specimen of “ map tortoise” (Malacoclemmys ge-
ographicus); from Pennsylvania. -
Clark, A. Howard. Specimen of bat. Also specimen of embryo por-
poise ; from George’s Banks.
Clark, Edward, Architect U. S. Capitol. A series of dressed blocks of
stone used in the construction of the Capitol and other public build-
ings in Washington, D. C.
Clark, Ellis, jr. Specimens of fossil shells (Bulimus, Unio, ete.); from
Texas.
Clark, Frank N. Specimens of white-fish eggs and living mud-dogs,
(Menobranchus lateralis) ; from Michigan.
Clark, M. A large stone pipe taken from an Indian cemetery in De-
catur County, Tennessee.
Clark, O. Specimen of slag. (For examination.)
Clarke, Samuel F. Specimens of Amphioxus ; from Virginia.
136 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Clements, Luther M. Specimens of quartz and chalcedony; from New
Mexico.
Coale, H. K. Seven specimens, five species of birds.
Cocheco Manufacturing Company, Dover, N. H. Samples of printed
cottons.
Cocke, Thomas & Co. A specimen of soap-stone; from North Car-
olina.
Coe, Cornelius B. Rat taken from under floor of Treasury Department
while making repairs.
Coke, Hon. Richard. Specimenof bronze; from Texas. (For examina-
tion.)
Cole, P. L. 'Two specimens of Ohio building-stones.
Coleman, FE. C. Specimen of mineral; from Wisconsin. (lor examina-
tion.)
Collier, David C. Botanical specimens; from Colorado. (For examina-
tion.)
Collins, J. W. Model of mackerel-pocket used by Gloucester fisher-
men, a bottle of fishes and crustaceans from the Grand Banks, and
as encysted fish-hook taken from flesh of halibut.
Collins, W. H. Specimens of birds’ (Ardea, etc.) skins and eggs; from
Michigan.
Colton, H. H. Yorty-five specimens of building-stones; from the States
of Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina and Tennessee.
Commagere, A. Y. Various relics of the Polaris expedition.
Conway, John W. (through J. Stevenson.) Five boxes of Indian orna-
ments, implements, ete.; from New Mexico.
Conover, A. D., Chicago, Illinois. A large collection of building-stones
from the States of Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. |
Cook, Prof. George H. A large collection of building-stones and slates;
from the States of New York and New Jersey.
Copenhagen, Denmark, Royal Museum of Northern Antiquities. Twoboxes
of antiquities from Denmark.
Corning, Erastus, and H. A. Jewett. Mounted skeleton of ‘‘Old Henry
Clay,” the progenitor of the Clay stock of racing horses.
Corson, Rk. KR. Fourteen boxes of specimens (stalactites, ete.); from
Luray Cave, Va.
Cory, C. B. Five specimens of birds; from Massachusetts.
Cotell, Dr. B. Specimen of magnetic sand; from Washington Territory.
Coues, Llliott, Surgeon, U. S. Army. A small box of bones of small mam-
mals and fragments of pottery; from Cliff House on Beaver Creek,
Arizona.
Cowdrey & Co., Boston, Mass. Samples of cans and labels used in the
packing of fish, ete.
Corley, S. W. Ninespecimens of arrow and spear heads; from Connec-
ticut and Ohio.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 137
Cox, Two large specimens of East Indian shells, said to be from
Chincha Islands.
Craig, W. H. Specimens of silver ore; from Silver Cliff, Colo. (I*or
examination.)
Crandall, W. R. Stem of fossil, crinoid; from Collinsville, Il.
Crawford, A. W. Specimen of insects ; from California.
Crawford, C. Specimen of granite; from Dakota Territory.
Crittenden, A. Rk. Three trawl-rollers used by the Gloucester fishermen.
Croppie, Henry. Two living turtles (Chelopus insculptus); from New
York.
Cushing, Frank H. A Zuni “sacred blanket; ” from Fort Wingate,
iN; Mex.
Cutting Packing Company, San Francisco, Cal. Samples of cans and
labels used in packing fish, ete.
Dale, F. C., Passed Assistant Surgeon, U. 8S. Navy. Two boxes of birds’
skins and one box of alcoholic collections ; from Japan.
Dall, W. H., Assistant United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. Tusk of
mammoth; from ice cliffs in Kotzebue Sound, 150 miles eastward
from Bering Straits.
Dalrymple, Dr. H. A. Specimens of Tuckahoe.
Daniel & Boyd, St. Johns, N. B. Specimen of New Brunswick build-
ing-stone.
Davenport, George G. Two small living alligators (A. mississippiensis) ;
from Florida.
Davis, Henry. Specimens of wasp and hornets’ nests and four arrow-
* points; from Iowa. _
Davis, Hon. H. G. A large number of specimens of minerals; from
West Virginia. (For examination.)
Davis, Jabez. A large specimen of quahog clam; from Massachusetts.
Dawkins, W. Boyd. Remains of bear and man taken from the hyena
dens of Creswell crags and sink in the limestone at Windy Knoll,
Derbyshire, England.
Dempsey, Thomas. Specimens of shad; from St. John’s River, Florida.
DInvellier, E. V. Eighteen specimens of Pennsylvania building-stones.
Denham, W. H. H. Specimens of minerals ; from Missouri.
Dennett, John, Lieutenant Revenue Marine Service. Insect from wood
taken on board vessel at Mobile, Ala.
Derby, Orville A. (See Rio Janeiro, Brazil.)
De Vinne, Theodore L., New York. Duplicate set of cards illustrative of
the process of overlaying in wood-cut printing.
Devlin & Co., Astoria, Oreg. Samples of cans and labels used in pack-
ing “‘ Columbia River fresh salmon.”
Dexter, Newton. Specimen of very small lobster; from Newport, R. I.
Dibble, Henry, Chicago, Ill. Samples of encaustic floor tiling.
Dilk, Fred. M. Bird skin; from Colorado.
Dobbyn, John F. A living albino rat; from Washington, D.C.
338 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Dodge, R. I., Colonel, U. S. A. Bead work cradles, bow, quiver and
arrow, glass water-jar, double-headed tom-tom used by the Ute and
south Cheyenne Indians.
Dodge, W. W., & Co., San Francisco, Cal. A kit of Alaskan codfish and
half barrel of salmon bellies.
Doron, Thomas S. Specimens of owls; from Alabama.
Dorsey, Rev. J. O. (through Dr. W. J. Hoffman). Trappings of saddle
belonging to “ Big Bear,” a chief of the Ponca Indians.
Douglass, A. HE. Eight ceremonial weapons found in a mound in Volu-
sia County, Florida, and three flat flint drills. (Lent for casting.)
Dover, Thomas. Specimen of cloth taken from amound in Butler County,
Ohio, and a stone pipe from Miami County, Ohio. (Lent for casting.)
Dow, John M., Captain Pacific Mail Steamship Company. Specimens of
living plants, and a collection of fossils, stone cilts, and 3 strings of
green stone beads, ete. ; from Central America.
Dowell, John H. Specimen of eel and flat-fish; from the Potomac
River.
Downey, Hon. S. W. Samples of sulphate of soda and water; from
Wyoming. (Sent for examination.)
Downman, Rk. H. Alcoholic specimen of deformed chick-turkey, from
Warrenton, Va.
Dufief, Lewis B. A small living alligator ; from Florida.
Dugés, Dr. Don Alfredo. Various contributions of shells (Unio, Arion,
Mytilus, etc.); mammals (Dasypus, Geomys, Cariacus); fishes (Clinos-
toma, Hudsonius, Carangus, etc.) ; reptiles (Crocodilus), etc.; from vari-
ous parts of Mexico.
Dumont, W. B. Two specimens of New York building stones.
Dunbar’s Sons, G. W., New Orleans, La. Samples of cans and labels used
for packing fish, ete.; also alcoholic specimens of shrimps, crabs, and
crawfish; from the Mississippi River.
Eagle Preserved Fish Company, Portland, Me. Samples of cans and
labels used in packing fish, ete.
Eagle and Phenix Manufacturing Company, Columbus, Ga. Samples of
manufactured cotton.
Eagleson and De Veau, New York, N. Y. Samples of Vermont marble
tiling.
Eastport Packing Company, Eastport, Me. Samples of cans and labels
used in the packing of fish, ete. 4
Ebaugh, Daniel. Specimens of quartzite and chlorite schist; from Mary-
land. (lor examination.)
Eddy, Irving L. Picture-frame made from lava; from Tamarack Lake.
Edwards, Frank A., Lieutenant U. S. A. Buckskin ‘ official” coat of
the Columbia River (Washington Territory) Indians.
Edwards, Thomas W. Two specimens of Virginia building stones.
Edwards, Vinal N. Eight boxes of alcoholic specimens of fishes and
marine invertebrates taken in Vineyard Sound and vicinity.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 139
Bisen, Gustave. Box of fossils and alcoholic specimens of natural his-
tory; from California. ¥
Emerson, J. H. Six pens made from quills of Hyalinecia artifer taken
off Martha’s Vineyard, Mass.
Evans, Gideon I. Fragments of stone relics; from Iowa.
Everman, B. W. Four mortars and five pestles of stone; from Santa
Saula, Cal.
Fagan, Daniel. Specimen of stalagmite marble; from Virginia.
Fannee, Conrad. Fresh specimen of black bass (Micropterus salmoides) ;
from Four Mile Run, Va.
Febiger, G. L., U. 8S. A. Two ecatlinite pipes from Dakota, and a pipe
from mound near Springfield, Ohio.
Ferguson, T. B. Specimen of shark (Lamma cornubica) ; from off New-
port, R. I., and a green turtle from Chesapeake Bay.
Fifth Avenue Hotel, New York. Core of artesian well.
Figyelmesy, Philip, United States Consul at Demerara. A box of Indian
relics and two specimens of iguana (J. tuberculata); from Demerara.
Fillette, St. Julien. A collection of Indian relics from North and South
Carolinas, and minerals from Utah, California, and New York.
Finch, C. Two specimens of building stones ; from Ohio.
Fisher, A. F. Human skull occupied by birds’ nest; from New York.
‘Fisher, A. L. & Co., New York. Sample specimen of museum jars.
Fisher, W. J. Can of alcoholic specimens of natural history ; from
Alaska.
Fletcher, J. A. A “Fletcher” whale rocket gun and bomb. (Pur-
chased. )
Forbes, Dr. S. A. (through S. T. Walker). Indian stone images ; from
mounds in Florida.
“ Forestand Stream” Publishing Company, New York. A series of photo-
engravings of noted sporting dogs.
Forney, A.J., jr. Young red fox ( Vulpes fulvus); from Charles County,
Maryland. .
Foster, J. B. Stone pipe made from soapstone found at Chula, Va.
Foster, William. <A large collection of building stones; from the States
of California, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming.
Fraser, Charles A. Tank of alcoholic specimens collected by the late
Professor Gabb, in the West Indies.
Frierson, J. W. S. Six specimens of Tennessee building stones.
Fritsch, E., New York. Samples of marble and slate tiles.
Fuller, Andrew. Specimens of rocks (Calcite, Lemonite, ect). (For ex-
amination. )
Galvar Bros., New York. Samples of ferruginous clay. .
Gannon & Flannery, Washington, D. C. Samples of floor-tiling.
Garetson, O. L. Vial of water which fell during storm at Salem, Iowa,
supposed to contain living animals.
Garnier, Dr. John H. Specimen of Amblystoma ; from Ontario.
140 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Gatschet, Albert S. Box of Indian stone implements ;. from South Caro-
lina. :
Gattinger, A. Forty-eight specimens of Tennessee slates and building
stones.
Gecke, August. Large stone maul and fragments of crania; from In-
dian grave in Dakota. .
Gesner, William. Box of fresh-water shells; from the Catawba River,
Alabama.
Gibvoney, William. Box of stalactites ; from cave in Wythe County, Vir-
ginia.
Gibbs, George J. Eggs of lizard, box of bird’s eggs, and deposit from
salt pond; from Turk’s Island, British West Indies.
Gilbert, Charles H. Eleven boxes of fishes, fish products, ete; from
California and Mazatlan.
Glasgow, Mo., Museum of Pritchett Institute. Three casts of Indian
relics; from Missouri.
Glazawell, Dr. Giles L. Specimens of minerals and rocks; from South
Carolina.
Gooding, Dr. W. W. Specimen of snowy owl; from the Arctic Ocean;
and a specimen of eagle (Aquila canadensis).
Goode, F. C. Specimens of katydid’s eggs; from Florida.
Goodman, Mrs. LE. T. Mineral dust; from Virginia. (For examination.)
Goodrich, H. Mineral substance which fell during thunder shower at -
McLeansboro, Ul., on April 11, 1881.
Goodwin, W. H. Specimens of kaolinite; from Nelson County, Vir-
ginia.
Gordon, Thomas H., (through A. K. Worthen.) Specimen of iron pyrites;
from Virginia.
Gorringe, H. H., Lieutenant Commander U. 8. Navy. Three specimens
of building stones (granite, limestone, and syenite), taken from the
Egyptian obelisk.
Gregg, A. Six specimens of Texas building stones.
Grant, Charles C. Small box of fossil plants.
Greene, G. C. Box of Indian implements ; from Oregon.
Grifin, Ff. N. Two arrow-heads ; from Sussex County, Virginia.
Grigsby, C. 8S. Spear and arrow-heads, leaf-shaped implements, celts,
etc.; from Tennessee.
Grosvenor, Dale Company, Providence, R. I. A collection of samples manu-
factured cotton goods.
Guesde, L. A collection of alcoholic specimens of reptiles, (Liophis
Dromicus, Anolis, Platydactylus, Iguana, ete.), and four birds’ skins
(Ceryle, Gallinula, Fielica); from Guadeloupe, West Indies.
Habersham, W. Hugh. Scales of fish (Promicrops guasa); from Bruns-
wick, Ga.
Haldeman, Mrs. S. S.. Two boxes of Indian relics, duplicates from the
collection of the late Prof. Haldeman.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSETM. 141
Hall, 2. 8. Specimen of black bass, weighing five pounds, taken at the
Great Falls, Potomac River.
Hall, William E. Three specimens of Montana building stones.
Hamlin, William. Two specimens of the diver (Colymbus torquatus).
Hamlin, Dr. A. O. Specimens of tin ore, etc.; from Maine.
Hanks, Henry G. Two casts of stone implements; from California.
Hare, Dr. D. H. Beech knot, 18 inches in diameter; from Highland
County, Ohio. .
Harris, D. M. Two stone relics; from Louisiana.
Harrison, Dr. George B. Specimen of chicken-hawk (Accipiter Cooperi.)
Haskins, C. H. Two specimens of fish (Hyodon) ; from Wisconsin.
Hatch, General, U. S. Army. Three specimens of ore (Galena and
Chrysocolla and Chalcocite) ; from New Mexico. (For examination.)
Havre Museum, Havre,-France. A paleolithic flint hatchet; from
France.
Hawes, Dr. George W. Specimen of granite (core of diamond drill) ;:
from New York; a specimen of soapstone from North Carolina, and
five specimens of marble (Verte Campon, Leptanto, Lisbon, Mosaic,
Egyptian).
Hawley, E. H. <A living grass snake (Cyclophis vernalis) ; from Arling-
ton, Va.
Hawley, G. A. Bronze ornament; from Gautemala.
Hay, Dr. O. P. Can of alcoholic specimens of fishes; from the Missis-
sippi River.
Hayden, Walton. Jar of alcoholic: specimens of fishes (Uranidea, Stizo-
stedium, Percopsis, Acipenser), mole (Condylura), and mussel (Unio);
from Hudson’s Bay Territory.
Hayes, W. I. Wiving salamander (Amblystoma) and specimens of in-
sects; from North Carolina.
Hegman, S. Box of minerals; from Tennessee. (For examination.)
Hemphill, Henry. A fine collection of Pacific coast mollusca.
Hemphill, J.C. Branch of oak, showing deposit of locusts’ eggs.
Henderson, Hon. J. G. Twelve boxes of Indian relies taken from mounds
near Naples, Illinois.
Hendricks, G. Dix. Box of Indian relies; from Preble County, Ohio.
Henkle, Ambrose L. Indian stone pipe and copper beads; from Fairfax
County, Virginia.
Henkle, Dr. S. P. C. Cylindrical stone tube; from mound in Rocking-
ham County, Virginia; also pipe of chlorite, from Shenandoah County,
Virginia.
_ Henshaw, H.W. Specimen of albino squirrel. (Purchased in Washing-
ton market.)
Hereford, Dr. T. P. Arrow-point; from Missouri.
Hering, Dr. O. J. Nine packages of specimens of mammals, birds,
Shells, and insects, also fan used for blowing fire, and press for press-
ing the cassava roots for making into bread; from Surinam, South
America.
142 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Hessel, Rudolph. Specimen of pied-bill grebe (Podilymbus podiceps) and
of young California salmon. ;
Hetton, Bryant A. Specimens of minerals ; from Virginia.
Hicks, George H. Stone celt; from Michigan.
Hill, James G., Supervising Architect United States Treasury Depart-
ment. Specimens of building-stones; from New Brunswick, Canada,
and the States of Maine, Maryland, Nebraska, New Jersey, Rhode
Island, and Texas.
Hinckley, Isaac. Four specimens of swans (Olor columbianus); from
North Carolina.
Hitchcock, C. H. A large collection of building-stones and slates; from
the States of Massachusetts, New York, New Hampshire, and Ver-
mont.
Hodges, H. C., Lieutenant-Colonel, U. S. Army. Walking-stick made of
wood from Washington Territory and with handle of deer horn.
‘Holmes, W. H. Three pieces of jasper from Yellowstone National
Rae and arrow-heads, stone axes, ete., from the District of Colum-
ia.
Holub, Dr. Emil. Box of minerals and fossils; from Africa.
Hooper, C. L., Captain U. S. Revenue Marine Steamer “ Corwin.” Box of
Indian implements, skull of polar bear, human crania, etc.; from the
Alaska Islands.
Hopkins, L. H. Three oyster knives.
Horan, Henry. Living ring-necked snake (Diadophis punctatus); from
the District of Columbia.
Houghton, J. H. Samples of minerals; from Georgia. (For examina-
tion.)
Howard, J. W. Alcoholic specimen of alligator (A. mississppiensis).
Howell, J. C., Rear-Admiral, U. 8S. Navy. A carved marble tombstone ;
from plains of ancient Troy.
Hufschmidt, R. Two specimens of building-stones ; from Iowa.
Hughlett, Thomas. Specimen of mud minnow (Umbra pygmea); from
Easton, Md.
Huddleston, D. G. Specimens of minerals ; from West Virginia.
Huddleston, George. Samples of manufactured soap-stone and jar of
powder; from Bethesda, Md.
Hume, George W., Astoria, Oreg. Samples of cans and labels used in
packing fish.
Hume, Thomas I. Two specimens of mole (Condylura cristata) and an
embryo calf (?) (hairy placenta 2).
Hunt, Dr. J. G. Microscopic slide of cloth.
Huntington, D. L., U. 8. Army. Two specimens of spiders; from Da-
kota Territory.
Huntington, J. H. A collection of building stones and slates ; from the
States of Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia.
Huysman, Theodore. Ax of Lydian stone; from United States of Oo-
lombia.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 143
Illinois State Library of Natural History, Normal, Itl. Eighty-six spe-
cies of Illinois fishes (in alcohol).
Illinois State Historical Library (through A. K. Worthen). Specimens of
coal measure fosils ; from Illinois.
Ingersoll, Ernest. Eight boxes of shells, Spanish and Indian pottery ;
from Florida; and samples of oyster-knives and hammer.
Ipswich Mills, Ipswich, Mass. Samples of hosiery.
Irgans, Jorgen. Box of Norwegian fishing tackle.
Jackson, EH. EH. Bottle of larve of insect ; from South Carolina.
Jackson, W. W. Small box of quartz crystals, from Herkimer County,
New York.
Jaffords, L. G@. Specimens of land and fresh-water shells; from Min-
nesota.
Japan, Government of (through Japanese Legation, Washington). A
series of samples of cotton, from the raw product to ‘the manufact-
ured goods. .
Javens, G. Specimen of malformed catfish ; (Amiurus albidus); from
the Potomac River.
Jeffords, EH. A. Two boxes of alligator and turtle eggs, birds eggs,
etc.; from Florida.
- Jernigan, Silas. Indian stone celt; from Florida.
Jesuits’ College, New Orleans, La. Box of rocks, minerals, and fossils;
from Louisiana.
Jewett, James C. Specimen of phosphate of iron and black sand.
Johnson, Dr. H. N. Small box of ‘ Lucky stones” and petrified grain;
from Wisconsin.
Johnston, F. B. Catlenite carving of human skull; from Campbell
-» County, Kentucky.
Johnston, George. Specimens of potato bugs with parasites; from Elk-
ton, Md.
Johnston & Young. Specimens of lobster shells, crabs, starfish, ete.
Jones, Elliott. Stone chippings aud fragmentary pottery ; from Ari-
zona.
Jones, R. L. & Co., Delta. Pa. Twelve specimens of Maryland slate.
Jones, Winslow. Cans.
Jordan, Prof. D. S. A large collection of fishes from Utah and Cali-
fornia, many of them new to science; also two tooth-picks, one ear-
spoon and brush made by the California Chinese from seal bristles
and silver.
Jouy, P. L. Specimens of mole and squirrel, from Virginia; and liv-
ing specimens of Amblystoma, frogs, etc., from Oakland, Cal.
Julien, Dr. A. A. Specimen of building-stone ; from France.
Kane, Dennis. Specimen of hematite; from New York.
Kane, John J., Assistant Surgeon, U. 8S. Army. Specimens of galena;
from New Mexico.
144 RNPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Keep, Captain (through Hon. James Bell). Stone mortar and pestle; from
a mound near Orange Lake, Florida.
Kelly, Miss Anna W. (through Frank L. Donnelly). Specimen of Italian
greyhound (in flesh).
Kelly, F. C. Specimens of insects (Diplax rubicunda); from Dakota
Territory.
Kelly, I. I. Three specimens of building-stones; from Iowa.
Kelly, Thomas. A collection of building-stones ; from Ohio, Pennsyl.
vania, and West Virginia.
Kelly, W. W. Two specimens of building-stones; from Vermont.
Kendall, J. R. Specimen of barnacle goose; from Jamaica Bay, Long
Island.
Keyley, W. S. Specimen of iron pyrites ; from Missouri.
Kinney, Hon. O. P. (through John B. Wiggins). Indian stone pipe; from
New York.
Kite, J. Allan, steamer “ Fish Hawk.” Tank of alcoholic marine speci-
mens and a living specimen of loon (Colymbus glacialis), also two
eagles; from Avoca, N. C.; also a tank and 11 bottles of alcoholic
specimens of fishes, taken by the steamer “ Fish Hawk.”
Knickerbocker Ice Company, Philadelphia, Pa. A wagon and models of
all apparatus used in handling ice.
Knickerbocker Millis. Bulbous plant, and teeth of shark, and phosphate
rock; from Florida.
Knowles, G. A. Two specimens of building-stones; from Iowa.
Korte, Hon. Henry L. Specimen of fish; from Ohio.
Krebs, F. Eugene, Regensburg, Germany. Framed exhibit showing the
various processes in the manufacture of kid gloves, from the natural
skin to the complete glove.
Kresken, H. Acosta. Alcoholic specimen of bird; from Ohio.
Laidlow, James, & Co., Portland, Oreg. Samples of cans and labels
used in the packing of salmon.
Lambert, N. Four specimens of building-stones; from Washington
Territory and Oregon.
Lamborn, Robert H. Three Indian relics; from near the sacred city of
Testihuacan, Mexico.
Lancaster Mills, Clinten, Mass. Samples of manufactured cotton goods.
Laney, Henry. Alcoholic specimen of jumping mouse (Zapus hud-
sonius); from Maryland.
Langhorne, Maurice. Specimens of bat guano and of bark; from San
Domingo, West Indies.
Langston, Prof. J. M., United States Consul-General at Hayti. Two boxes
of fine corals, shells, ete.; from Hayti.
Lanmian, Charles, Japanese Legation. Specimen of Japanese cuttle-fish.
Larco, Andrea, (through Prof. D. S.Jordan). Tank of alcoholic speci-
mens of fishes of California.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 145
Latham, M. R. Specimens of minerals; from Virginia.
Latkin, Joseph. Three boxes of Tadian relics, fossils, minerals, ete.;
from Georgia.
Lawrence & Co., Boston, Mass. Samples of printed cotton shirting;
from Cocheco Mills.
Teach, J. P. Specimen of duck; from Illinois.
Deakin, George A. Six specimens of Maryland building- stones.
Le Baron, J. Francis. One barrel two boxes of fossils, shells, ete.;
from Florida.
_ Lee, Joseph. Two specimens of Texas building-stones.
Leeper, W. H. Four specimens of Oregon building-stones.
Legare, J. Berwick. Living dog, pointer.
Legare, W. W. Specimen of locust; from South Carolina.
Lehman, A. E. 'Two specimens of Peele building-stones.
Leppelman, L. Two pierced stone tablets, clay pipe, and flint; from
Ohio.
Leshe, C. C. Tank of alcoholic specimens of fishes ; from Charleston,
8. C., markets.
Leslie, James C. Living garter snake (Hutenia sirtalis); from Penn-
sylvania.
Lewis, Prof. H. C. Specimen of mineral (Philadelphiaite).
Lewis, Mrs. P. M. Two boxes of fossils, birds’ skins, and plants; from
Missouri.
Lindsley, H. W. Eighty specimens of building-stones ; from Connecti-
eut and New York.
Livingston, Dr. I. A. Specimens of shale and bituminous schists;
from Arkansas.
Long, Dr. O. M. Walrus tusk and skull, from the Arctic Ocean; and
jaw of shark, bill of sawfish, and can of alcoholic specimens of
marine life; from Panama Bay.
Lord, H. & G. W., Boston, Mass. Sample of cod gill-net.
Lord, W. Blair. .Six large specimens of native garnets and Indian
iron spear-head and halibut hook; from Alaska.
Love, W. L. Specimen of insect; from North Carolina.
Incas, J. D. Skull, Indian shell carvings, ete.;, from mound in Fair-
fax County, Virginia.
Luther, S. M. Specimens of minerals and fragments of Indian pottery;
from Ohio.
Lyon, John. Skin of deer (Cervus virginianus); from West Virginia.
McAdams, William, jr. Five casts of Indian pipe, one copper imple-
ment, and specimens of shells and minerals; from mounds in Illinois.
McBride,-R. W. Box of Indian relics; from Indiana. (Lent for cast-
ing.)
McBurney, George, and Son. Living alligator. (A. Mississippiensis.)
McCurdy, Alexander. Five fishing knives, and galvanized iron swivel,
used on trawl buoys by Gloucester fishermen.
S. Mis. 109———10
‘
146 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
McDaniel, Joseph. Specimen of mineral; from Tennessee.
McDonald, Marshall. Six boxes of specimens of fishes, reptiles, marine
invertebrates, insects, ete.; from the Potomac River and Chesapeake
Bay; also an Indian stone ax; from Virginia.
McElwain, Robert. One box of fossils and one box of fresh-water shells;
from Pennsylvania.
McHwin, J. B. Limbs of oak tree, with deposit of locusts’ eggs; from
Tennessee.
Macey & Co., Nashville, Tenn. Eureka minnow trap.
McFarlane, R. Skins of Arctic hare, marmot, mink, beaver, etc.; from
Fort Athabasca, Hudson’s Bay Territory.
Macfeely, &., Commissary-General of Subsistence, U. S. Army. Speci-
mens of insects taken from bacon, at Whipple Barracks, Arizona.
Maine Red Granite Company, Calais, Me. Two specimens of Maine build-
ing-stones.
McGee, W. J. A large collection of lowa building-stones.
MeGrahan, John T. A button of metallic iron and piece of slag.
Mackey, George W. Two specimens of Pennsylvania slate.
Mackney, C. FE. A specimen of decomposed mica schist and one of
hornblende; from New York. (For examination.)
MeLean, John J. Three boxes of Indian implements, ornaments, carv-
ings, etc.; from Alaska.
McMenamin & Co., Hampton, Va. Samples of cans and labels used in
packing fish, oysters, ete.
McNeil, James. Box of Indian relics ; from Tennessee.
Madsen, Peter (through Prof. D. S. Jordan). Two cans of alcoholic
specimens of fishes (Catostomus fecundus) ; from Utah.
Maine Red Granite Company, Calais, Me. Specimens of granite; from |
Red Beach, Me.
Mallett, Dr. J. W. Two boxes of minerals (Microlite, graphite, barcen-
ite, etc.) ; from Virginia, Nevada, Mexico, and India.
Maltby, C. S., Baltimore, Md. Five samples of cans.used in the pack-
ing of oysters.
Manderson, A. Nine specimens of Pennsylvania building-stones.
Manderson, A. Specimen of sandstone; from New Jersey.
Mandeville, W. Specimens of quartz; from Pennsylvania.
Mangum, C. W. Indian stone relic; from Fannin County, Georgia.
Mann, C. HE. Two birds’ skins (Perissoglossa tigrina and Dendreca black-
burnic); from Illinois.
Mansfield, I. HE. Hight barrels of fossil coal plants; from Beaver County,
Pennsylvania.
Marnock, G. W. Specimens of reptiles (Humeces, Eutaenia, and Lytho-
dytes); from Texas.
Marsh, Prof. O. C. Cast of bones of fossil bird (Hesperornis regalis,
Marsh).
Marsh, Philip. Box of arrow and spear heads and a box of birds’ eggs;
from Illinois.
¥
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 147
Marshall, Edward. Specimen of mineral dust; from North Carolina.
(For examination.)
Marsilliot, M. G., United States Revenue Steamer Corwin. Specimen of
ores; from Alaska.
Martin, H. L. Specimen of bug; from Illinois.
Martin, S.J. Two boxes of alcoholic specimens of fishes, crabs, ete.,
obtained by fishing vessels sailing from Gloucester, Mass.
Mason, Prof. Otis T. Specimen of quartz geode; from near Keokuk, Iowa.
Massachusetts Cotton Mill, Lowell, Mass. Samples of cotton cloth.
Mather, Fred. Alcoholic specimen of fish; from the Saint Lawrence
River; also, living box-tortoise, marked “Yankee, 1862”; from
Virginia.
Mathews, W., Assistant Surgeon, U. 8. Army. Box of mineral substance .
used by Navajo Indians for bleaching silver and as a mordant in
dyeing.
Mathews, Wiliam H. C. Samples of saline soda; from Mono Lake, Cal-
ifornia.
Mationi, C. Six glass tubes for watering plants.
Mayo, I. C., Gloucester, Mass. Five samples of “Champion” row-locks.
Medler, Lyman G. (through John B. Wiggins). Fragments of fossil tusk
of mastodon; from Tioga County, New York.
Meigs, General M. C. Specimens of Minnesota granite used by the
Union Pacific Railroad in the construction of the railroad bridge at
Bismarck, Dakota. Samples of building-stones; from the quarries on
the military reservation at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas; specimen of
pine wood, showing strength of the timber when rested at ends and
weight placed in the center; also, specimen of Indian oolite; from
the Ute Indian reseryation. .
Merchant, Capt. George W. “Purse” ring, suchas were used on seines
in 1854.
Merrill, Dr. J. C., U. 8. A. Eggs of snow bunting (Junco annectens);
from Montana.
_ Meyers, P. H. Specimens of mica schist and pyrite; from Maryland.
_ Michigan Wire Shovel Co., Niles, Mich. Wire scoop, for removing fish
from nets.
_ Miles Brothers & Oo., New York. Series of manufactured bristles, etc.,
| exhibited at International Exhibition of 1876, Philadelphia.
Miller, L. M. Two fresh specimens of fish (Amia calva); from Geneva,
_ New York.
Miller, M. A. Box of minerals and Indian arrow-heads; from Vir-
ginia.
Miller & Coates, New York. Samples of floor tiling.
Miller, Joseph. Specimens of minerals; from Arizona,
Mills, A. Two specimens of building-stones from Scotland and ane
from Germany.
148 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Miltimore, Capt. A. E., U. S. A. Specimen of petrified mesquite wood
and fossil tooth; from Texas.
Missouri Fish Commission, Saint Louis, Mo. Specimens of skip-jack
(Clupea chrysochloris) ; from Lexington, Mo.
Moore, Thomas (through C. F. Sawyer). Shark’s jaw ; from Loggerhead
Key, Florida.
Moore, Dr. (through Hon. 8. B. Maxey). Samples of water; from Eureka
Springs, Arkansas.
Moran, George H., Surgeon, U. S. A. Four boxes of Indian stone imple-
ments, etc. (arrow-heads, shell ornaments, olias with burial remains,
etc.); from Fort Thomas, Ariz., and North Carolina.
Morgan, B. Box of Indian relics; from Iowa. (Lent for casting.)
Morgan, Edward. Indian stone ax; from “Soapstone Hill”, District
Columbia.
Morgan, Jaques J. M. de. Collection of about a thousand specimens
of European Tertiary and Cretaceous fossils.
Morgan, Joseph (through Senator W. BL. Allison). Specimen of mineral;
from Iowa. (lor examination.)
Morgan, Leonard. Specimen of fossil; from Washington, D.C.
Morgan, Thomas. Two small boxes of shells; from New Jersey.
Morris, L. S.,& Son, Warsaw, N. Y. Twospecimens of building stones;
from New York.
Morton, Rush K. Specimen of tree-toad (iyla versicolor) ; from Ches-
ter County, Pennsylvania.
Mott, F. J. Specimen of siderite; from Colorado.
Munroe, Prof. Charles E., U. S. Naval Academy. Seventeen specimens
of Maryland building-stones.
Muth & Eckardt. Two living fishes (Alacropodus sp.); from Ohio.
Myers, P. H. Specimens of minerals; from Maryland. (or examina-
tion.)
Myers, John. Specimen of mineral; from Tennessee.
Needham, George F. Three hawks and one owl; from Maryland and
District of Columbia. . 3
Nehrling, H. Three specimens of birds’ nests (Milvulus, Chondestes,
Cyanospiza); from Texas.
Nelson, E. W., U.S. Signal Service. Thirty-six boxes and three barrels
of specimens of general natural history, two lidaokas, two sleighs,
and models of canoes and paddles; from Alaska.
Nelson, Dr. Wilfred, British Consul, Panama. Alcoholic specimen of
snake; from forest in Ecuador.
New Britain Knitting Company, New Britain, Conn. Samples of knitted
goods, underwear, ete. :
New Orleans, La., Jesuit’s College. Box of rocks, minerals, and fossils ;
from Louisiana.
Newsome, David. Samples of caleareous tufa; from Pierce County, |
Washington Territory.
—
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 149
New York, N. Y., American Museum of Natural History. Seventeen boxes
of the duplicate fossils of the James Hall collection. (First series.)
Vichols, Dr. H. A. A. Tank of alcoholic specimens of fishes and a small
box of birds’ skins, from Dominica; also one fish-pot, from Antigua.
Nichols, Henry E., Lieutenant-Commander, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey steamer Hassler. A collection in alcohol of specimens of fishes,
from Alaska; and a bottle of sea soundings, from Menzie’s Bay, Dis-
covery Passage, British Columbia.
Nixon, J. S. Worm cell with worm ; from Pennsylvania.
Noon, Luke. Two specimens of New York building-stones.
Norris, P. W., Superintendent of Yellowstone National Park. Crate of
mammal skins (Ursus, Cariacus, Cervus, and Ovis) and forty-seven
boxes of minerals, rocks, natural formations, etc.; from the Yellow-
stone National Park.
Norton, Ei. H. (through Senator F. M. Cockrell). Bottle of water; from
Missouri. (For examination).
O’ Beirne, Col. James R. Specimen of fish (Trichiurus lepturus); from
Long Island.
Ober, F. A. Two copper axes; from Mexico, and two boxes of general
natural history collections, from Kit’s Island, ete., New Mexico.
Oliver, John. Three specimens of Missouri building stones.
Oliver, John A, Living snake (Tropidonotus); from the Potomac River,
Washington, D. C.
Oram, F. F. Sample of Titaniferous sand from the gold region of Ran-
dolph County, Alabama.
Orcutt, Frank P. Nest of Canada jay (Perisoreus canadensis); from
Maine.
Oregon State Commission, Permanent Exhibition Building, Philadelphia,
Pa. Exhibit made at Philadelphia, consisting of mounted specimens
of birds and mammals, and agricultural products.
Orton, Edward. <A large collection of building-stones; from Indiana,
Kentucky, and Ohio.
Orvis, Charles F., Manchester, Vt. Six artificial flies for fishing.
Owens, Charles S. A collection of old books, coins, badges, ete., also
specimens of arrow-heads.
Owsley, Dr. J. B. Indian stone pick and cone; from Ohio. (Lent for
casting.)
Packard, kh. L. Box of fossiliferous rocks; from the Indian Territory.
Page, Peter. Specimen of red-throated diver (Colymbus septentrionalis);
from West Virginia.
Page, W. F. Living water-snake (Zropidonotus sipedon); from Gun-
ston’s, Va.
Palmer, Dr. FE. Two boxes of mound relics; from Arkansas; and two
boxes of general ethnologica ; from Tennessee.
Palmer, Miss Z. Two specimens of building-stones; from Ohio.
Palner, William. Specimen of snakes (Tropidonotus); from Virginia.
150 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM,
Paris, France. Museum of Natural History. Box of alcoholic speci-
mens of natural history.
Patrick, Jason. Two specimens of building-stones; from Tennessee.
Philadelphia, Pa., Academy of Natwral Sciences. Plaster casts of ants’
nests. (Purchased).
Phillips, Barnet. Box of samples of the ‘ Ogeeche lime.”
Peelor, David. Fossil coal-print; from Pennsylvania.
Pierson, A. R. Specimen of bird ; from New Jersey.
Pilling, George P., Philadelphia, Pa. Four silver-plated “ Patent Cow-
Milkers.”
Pinkham, Joseph. Two specimens of minerals; from Virginia.
Platt & Co., Baltimore, Md. Two samples of cans used in packing oys-
ters.
Pocasset Manufacturing Company, Fall River, Mass. Samples of manu-
factured cottons.
Poey, Prof. Felipe. Wiving boa-constrictor and box of insects; from
Cuba.
Polleys, Hon. W. H., United States Consul, Barbados, West Indies. Spe- |
cimens of shell celts and infusorial earths ; from Barbados.
Pollock, John 8. Indian arrow-head; from Hamilton County, Ohio.
Porter, William H. Specimen of butterfly.
Portland Packing Company, Portland, Me. Samples of eans used in pack-
ing fish, ete. "
Powell, Hon. Samuel. Tank of alcoholic specimens of fishes, ete. ; from
Newport, R. I.
Powell, S. W. Specimens of worms infesting meadows at Madison,
PENS
Power, A. H. <A large, fresh specimen of salmon; from the Merrimac
River, N. H.
Powers & Weightman, manufacturing chemists, Philadelphia, Pa. Seven
boxes of chemical products and manufactures.
Prentiss, J. C. Specimen of “bog ore”; from near Ravenna, Ohio.
Price, James. Two specimens of building-stones from Tennessee.
Prince, David. Specimen of mineral; from New Jersey.
Prince, 8. F., & Co., South Dorset, Vt. Two specimens of Vermont build- |
ing-stones.
Printz, Lorenzo. Copper plates and disks; found in Fairfax County,
Virginia.
Pullen, Clarence. Sixteen specimens of Kansas building-stones.
Pybas, B. Fossil; from Alabama.
Quick, Hdgar R. Specimens of young moles (Blarina brevicauda); from |
Indiana.
Quinn, James, Portland, Oreg. Three samples of cans used in the pack-
ing of Columbia River salmon.
Ramsey, N. A. Specimens of plants; from North Carolina. (lor identi-
fication).
+)
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 151
Ranchfuss, C. H., Jr. Small box of pentramites; from Illinois.
Rares, R. W. (through Mr. Eckhardt). Eggs of carp (dead) and speci-
mens of male eels; from Germany. :
Rau, Dr. Charles. An Indian nut-stone and an animal-shaped clay
figure (modern); made by the Tesuque Indians, of New Mexico.
Rea, G.N. Tin-type pictures of ball (weighing ten pounds) taken from
stomach of cow; from Indiana.
Rees, Richard. Nineteen specimens of slate; from Maryland.
Reid, George W. Specimens of soapstone vessels, grooved axes, ete. ;
from Virginia; and a carved human face in chloride; from Pennsyl-
vania.
Ridgway, Audubon W. Two specimens of bats; from Washington,
D.C.
Ridgway, Robert. A large collection of skins of American birds (nearly
_ 800 species and 2,500 specimens) and six boxes of specimens of snakes,
turtles, and other reptiles, and a box of Indian relics (arrow-heads,
pesiles, mortars, etc.); from Indiana.
Riggs, Thomas D. Specimens of rocks; from Montgomery County, Md.
(For examination.)
Riley, T. H., U. 8. A. A small collection of plants; from Idaho.
Rio Janeiro, Brazil, Museo Nacionale (through Prof. Orville A. Derby).
Two boxes of fossils; from Brazil.
Roberts, W. F. A living specimen of Phrynosoma; from New Mexico.
Robinson, C., Jr. Two specimens of snakes (Diadophis punctatus); from
Washington, D. C.
Rogan, James W. A specimen each of ant (Mulilla coccinea) and fossil;
from Tennessee.
Rogan, k. M. Specimen of bug; from Tennessee. (lor examination.)
Rogers, D. M. (through Hon. J. C. Clements). Specimen of ore; from
Georgia. (For examination.)
Roose, W. 8S. Specimen, in flesh, of peacock.
fioss, George W. Twospecimens of Tennessee building-stones.
Roulet, F. Stone knife and bird and boat-shaped implements; from
New York. (Lent for casting.)
Rowe, H. C., & Co., Fairhaven, Conn. An oyster hammer, knife and
opener. .
Ruby, Charles, U. S. A. Skins and skulls of wild cat, swift, antelopes,
deer, coyotes; antlers, lower jaw, and skin of elk; three specimens
of ambeystomas, a box of birds’ skins, nests, and eggs, and bottle
of micaceous sand; from Wyoming.
Runyan, J. C. Specimens of minerals; from Washington Territory.
Rusby, Henry H.- Twelve boxes of plants, box of fragmentary pottery,
bones, etc., and pair of sandals from cave, stone ax, an Indian carved
stick, and specimens of birds’ skins ; from New Mexico.
Ruth, John A. Box of Indian stone implements; from Bucks County,
Pennsylvania.
152 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Salsbury, H. S. Six specimens of fossils (casts) ; from Wisconsin.
Sampson, I. A. Fifty-four specimens of cretaceous fossils ; from Texas.
(For identification.) :
San Francisco Cal., State, Mining Bureau. Cast of Indian stone hook;
from California.
Sankey, R. A. Specimens of pyrrhotite; from Colorado. (For exami-
nation.) é
Schieffelin, W. H. & Co., New York. A large collection of native and
manufactured chemical products.
Schneck, Dr. J. Four living specimens. of turtles: (Aspidonectes and
Malacoclemmys) ; from Mlinois.
Scatchler & Gibbs, San Francisco, Cal. Samples of cans and labels used
in the packing of Columbia River salmon.
Schooner Northern Eagle (through S. J. Martin). Fresh specimen of
sturgeon; from Ipswich Bay, Massachusetts.
Scott, Dr. J. M. Specimen of bat (Atalapha cinereus) ; from Virginia.
Scribner’s, Charles, Sons, New York. The “Game Fishes of North
America,” by G. Brown Goode and 8. A. Kilbourne. (Illustrated
with colored plates.)
Selkirk, J. H. Specimens of menhaden (Lrevoortia patronus); from
Texas.
Serrent, Samuel S. Box of minerals; from Virginia.
Seve, Edward, consul of Beigium, Philadelphia, Pa. Specimen of green
coffee; from Yungas Valley, Bolivia.
Severance, W. N. Section of larch (Tamarack) with fire-scar; 26 feet
below surface, at Olivia, Minn.
Shaler, Prof. N. S. A large collection of building stones and slates;
from Maine, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island.
Shaw, James. Human skeleton taken from mound near Savanna, Ili-
nois.
Sheldon, Prof. D. S. Specimens of parasites taken from the gills and
intestines of sturgeon, and two living serpents; from Iowa.
Shenandoah Valley Railroad Company, Luray, Va. Four specimens of
marble; from Luray, Va.
Shepard, Prof. Charles U. Ten specimens of minerals; from various
localities.
Shepard, Prof. C. U. Specimen of pagodite; from Georgia.
Shepard, N. B. Specimen of hematite ore; from Buckingham County,
Virginia.
Sherman, General W. T. Shield, flag, and crape used to drape the
catafalque of President Garfield, at Cleveland, Ohio, September 26,
1881.
Sherwood, G. P. Three specimens of New Brunswick, Canada, build-
ing stones.
Shields, George O. (through Dr. J. W. Velié). Three small herring (Ar-
gyrosomus) taken from stomach of pike caught in Long Lake, Wis-
consin.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 153
Shindler, A. Zeno. Alcoholic specimen of horned toad (Phrynosoma
cornutum).
Shoemaker, George. Four living snakes (Tropidonotus sipedon); a bottle
of alcoholic specimens of reptiles, and a collection of birds’ nests and
eggs; from the District of Columbia.
Shufeldt, Dr. R. W., U. S. A. Box of insects from Fort Laramie, Wyo-
ming; alcoholic specimen of serpent, from the Isthmus of Darien;
four eggs of tortoise (Cistudo clausa) from Connecticut, and a col-
lection of 34 species of bird’s eggs.
Silver Lake Company, Wellington Bros. & Co., agents, Boston, Mass.
Twenty-nine samples of cordage.
Simmons, Dr. C. A. Five specimens of building stones; from Florida,
Simpson, Friench. Box of fossil bones; from Colorado County, Texas.
Sisson, H. & Son, Baltimore, Md. Specimen of building stones; from
France.
Skinner, Josiah. Four jars of aleoholic specimens of fishes (Dorysoma,
Stizostedium, Hyodon, Clupea, Catostomus,-&c.); from Alabama.
Small, GW. Specimen of flesh of porpoise; from Provincetown,
Mass.
Smith, A. W. A living specimen of milk snake (Ophibolus doliatus) ;
from Maryland.
Smith, Courtland A. Four specimens of rocks; from Prince William
County, Virginia.
Smith, George P. Cocoon of moth.
Smith, Prof. Hamilton L. Box of microscopic slides of infusoria.
Smith, Horace J. Samples of dried abolone meat; from Santa Bar-
bara, Cal. aie
Smith, John P. Box of stone implements, &c.; from Maryland.
Smith, Miss Rosa. A collection of fishes; from San Diego, Cal.
Smith, S. W. Box of minerals; from Pennsylvania. (For examina-
tion.)
Smock, J. C. Ninety specimens of building stones from New York and
New Jersey.
Smythe, George. Two boxes of coal; from the coal measures of Illi-
nois.
Snow, A. LZ. Specimen of clay impregnated with calcite; from Ten-
nessee. (For examination.)
Snowden, Fred. Two specimens of flying squirrels (Sciuropterus volu-
cella); from Virginia.
Snyder, E. S. Thirteen specimens of building stones; from West Vir-
ginia.
Sperr, F. W. Fifty specimens of building stones ; from Massachusetts,
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, and one from France.
Sperry, BE. A. Specimen of orthoclase, actinolite, &e.; from Colorado.
(for examination.)
Spray, S.J. Specimen each of skunk and bird; from Colorado.
154 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Spring, H. C. Three specimens of ores; from Virginia. (lor examina-
tion.)
Springfield Soapstone Company, Springfield, Mlass. Two specimens of
soapstone; from Vermont.
Stanley, Henry O. A specimen of young land-locked salmon; from the
Androscoggin River, Maine.
Stearns, Silas. Three specimens of apparatus’ used in the Red Snapper
fishery, of Florida, and a bottle of colored sea water; from Pensacola
Bay.
Steele, J. G. Specimens of polished stone; from Lexington, Va.
Stevenson, James. Five specimens of building stones; from New Mex-
ico. See, also, Washington, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of
Ethnology.
Stewart, J. T.- Stone ax; from
Stewart, C. A. Specimen of bat; from Washington, D. C.
Stewart, M., & Co., Milwaukee, Wis. (through LE. G. Blackford). Speci-
men of white-fish, (Coregonus clupeiformis), weighing, when dressed,
114 Ibs.; from Lake Michigan.
Stilwell, G. MI. Specimen of salmon ; from the Penobscot River, Maine.
Stone, Livingston. Three boxes of alcoholic specimens of fishes, from
the McCloud river, Cal.; specimens of snakes and lizards, box of ge-
ological specimens, box of birds’ nests and eggs, three boxes of fossils,
skin of young bear, and teeth and bones from Bear Cave 6; all from
California.
Stufilebeam, J. G. Specimens of pyrites ; from Madison County, Arkan-
sas. (For examination.)
Stuart, W. H. Specimens e young shad (Olupea sapidissima) ; from the
Potomac River.
Sturtevant & Cole., Bethel, Vt. Twospecimens of building stones ; from
Vermont.
Swan, Judge J. G. Two boxes of alcoholic specimens of fishes (Oncor-
hynchus, Sebastichthys, Hippoglossus, Salmo, ete.) ; from Washington
Territory, and specimens of salted fish (‘‘Beshowe”); from Victoria.
Taylor, H. L. Specimen of hybrid fowl; from Virginia.
Taylor, Thomas. Three fossils; Maryland and North Carolina.
Taylor, William J. Six living terrapins and a box of mound remains;
from Georgia.
Tennessee Cotton Factory, Nashville, Tenn. Samples of cotton cloth.
Tennessee River Marble Company, Knoxville, Tenn. Two specimens of
building stones; from Tennessee.
Texas, Legislature of, Austin, Tex. Thirty specimens of building stones;
from Texas. ;
Thews, William. Two specimens of building stones ; from Idaho.
Thomas, A. D. Indian stone image (broken); from Hancock County,
Illinois.
/
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 155
Thompson, Professor. Silicified lower jaw of bison; from Veta Pass, Col-
orado.
Thompson, Capt. William (through J. W. Collins). Piece of sword-fish
snout, broken off in fishing schooner ; from Gloucester, Mass.
Thomson, John H. Specimens of ore; from New Mexico. (lor examin-
ation.)
Thomson, W. J. R. Specimens of embryonic centipede; from Texas.
Thurber, H. K. & F. B., & Co., New York, N. Y. Samples of labels and
cans used in packing fish, oysters, ete.
Tichkematse (Indian). Indian head-dress and shield of the Cheyenne
Indians.
Todd, Prof. J. E. Collection of Carboniferous fossils ; from Iowa and
Nebraska.
Tokio, Japan, University of (through Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass:)
Box of fragmentary Japanese pottery.
Toner, Dr. J. M. Piece of roofing and tiling taken from excavated
Roman villa at Morton, near Brading, Isle of Wight.
Tongue, George H. Small box of birds’ eggs; from Warrenton, Va.
Town, Matthew, Great Inagua, W. I. Three eggs of Flamingo.
Townsend, T. B. Specimen of Ohio building stone.
Trowbridge, S. H. Box of Indian implements (lent for inspection) and
box of fossils ; from Missouri.
Trumbull, Ei. Specimens of rocks; from Huron County, Ohio. (For
examination.)
Truzevant, George 8S. Specimens of fossils from the phosphate beds of
South Carolina.
Tufts, James W. Specimen each of Italian and New York marble.
Turner, Lucien M., Signal Service, U.S. A. Six boxes of general, natural
history and ethnologieal specimens, from Alaska; and two boxes of
birds’ skins, and a tank of alcoholic specimens of fishes, ete.; from
Illinois.
Underwood, William, & Co., Boston, Mass. Samples of cans, packages,
and labels used in the packing of fish, ete.
United States Stamping Company, New York. Box of samplesof stamped
tin-ware.
Valentine, G. Box of minerals; from Great Bend, Pa.
Vannoy, J. C. Specimen of minerals (Smithsonite, Limonite, Siliceous
sinter, etc.); from Virginia. (lor examination.)
Vanoy, Elijah. Specimen of ore; from Tennessee. (For examination.)
Velié, Dr. J. W. Collection of fishes, in alcohol; from Florida.
Vermillion, John. Specimenof malformed sweet potato; from Virginia.
Very, Samuel W., Lieutenant, U. S. N. A cassock or water-proof coat,
made of the skin of the hair-seal at Nain, Labrador, a mission station
of the Moravian Brotherhood.
Vetromite, Rev. Eugene. Specimens of Icalian shells.
Wachmuth, Charles. Nine specimens of building stones ; from Iowa.
156 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Wade, Lieut. E. C., U. S. Revenue Marine Steamer Moccasin. Two fossil
shark’s teeth and pieces of fossil vertebra.
Wagner, Henry. Specimen of moth; from Washington, D. C.
Walke, E. H. Specimen of shad, weighing seven pounds, and specimens
of lamprey eels (Petromyzon marinus) ; from Albemarle Sound.
Walker, S. T. Twelve packages, containing specimens of general nat-
ural history (reptiles, mammals, fishes, birds, insects, etc.), Indian
implements, mound remains, etc.; from Florida. ,
Wallace, John. A mounted specimen of rail (Porzana carolina).
Wallem, Frederick M. ° 'Two alcoholic specimens of trout, with parasites;
from Norway.
Ware, James. Four Indian stone relies; from Indiana.
Warner, J. S. Box of fossils and Indian implements ; from Tennessee.
Warner, W. R.,& Co., Philadelphia, Pa. Bottle containing specimens of
Irglervin.
Washington, D. C.:
Anthropological Society. Box of arrow-heads, spear-points, ete.
Department of State. (See under names of United States Consuls,
Philip Figyelmesy and W. H. Polleys.)
Treasury Department :
Revenue Marine Division. (See under names of Capt. C. L. Hooper,
Lieut. John Dennett, M. G. Marsilliot, and EL. C. Wade.)
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, Prof. J. HE. Hilgard, Super-
intendent. (See under names of Lieut. Commander Henry H.
Nichols, Marcus Baker, C. H. Boyd, Gershon Bradford, and W. H.
Dall.)
War Department:
Medical Department. (See under names of Doctors Elliott Coues, G.
W. Matthews, R. W. Shufeldt, H. C. Yarrow, and Timothy E. Wil-
cox, and Hospital Steward Charles Ruby.)
Pay Department. (See under name of Col. George L. Febiger.)
Quartermaster’s Department. (Seeundername of General M. C. Meigs.)
Signal Service, U. 8S. A. A collection of alcoholic specimens of.
fishes, crabs, star-fishes, etc.; from Greenland. (Sent by Dr.
Pavy to Capt. H. W. Howgate.) Also skin of bear; from Arctic
America. (See also under names of Sergeants LE. W. Nelson and
DL. M. Turner.
Subsistence Department. (See under name of General Robert Mac-
Seely.)
United States Army. (See under namesof Generals W. T. Sherman,
and Hatch, Colonels Dodge and Hodges, Captains Charles Bend-
ire, A. H. Miltimore, D. L. Huntington.
Navy Department :
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery. (See under names of Doctors John
FI. Bransford, F. C. Dale.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 157
Navy Department—Continued.
Bureau of Navigation (Commodore W. D. Whiting, Chief of Bu-
reau). Specimens of ocean bottom taken by U. 8.8. Ranger, Com-
mander J. W. Phillips, commanding, between San Diego, Cal.,
and latitude 34° N., longitude 137° W.
Bureau of Provisions and Clothing. (See under names of Paymaster
A. W. Bacon, U. 8. N. Seeundernamesof Capt. L.A. Beardslee,
Commander H. IT. Gorringe, Lieut. Commander Henry EF. Nichols
LTieut. Samuel W. Very, and Master A. EH. Babcock.)
Bureau of Steam Engineering. (See under name of Chief Engineer
W. B. Brooks).
United States Naval Academy. (See under name of Prof. Charles E.
Munroe.) }
United States Naval Observatory. Manuscript of Capt. Charles F.
Hall relating to his voyages and explorations in Arctic America. °
Interior Department :
Bureau of Ethnology (J. W. Powell, Director). Fifty-five packages
of general collections of ethnology from Pueblo villages in New
Mexico, collected by James Stevenson, F. H. Cushing, H. J. Bid-
dle, and others. (See also under names of Rt. L. Packard and
James Stevenson.) °
United States Fish Commission. (Prof. Spencer F. Baird, Commis-
sioner.) Ninety-two boxes of general marine and other collections
obtained by the steamers Fish Hawk and Lookout and assistants
along the Atlantic sea-board. (See also under names of Z. C.
Chester, A. H. Clark, J. W. Collins, T. H. Bean, George G. Daven-
port, V. N. Edwards, Charles H. Gilbert, Ernest Ingersoll, D. 8.
Jordan, J. A. Kite, M. McDonald, S. J. Martin, W. I. Page, L.
Stone, Thomas Taylor, E. H. Walke, and W. A. Wilcox.)
United States Geological Survey (J. W. Povreell, Director). Twenty-
seven boxes of fossils collected by Prof. L. F. Ward in Colorado.
Waters, Pierre. Two bones from drum-fish (Haploidonotus grunniens) ;
from Washington.
Weaver & Corderoy. Box of clay, slate, and stone pipe; from In-
diana.
Wellington Brothers & Co., Boston, Mass. Box of samples of cordage.
Wells, J. H. Specimen of insect (Gryllotalpa borealis) ; from Ohio. (For
examination.)
Wells, J. G. Three boxes of birds’ skins; from Grenada, West Indies.
West, John, Westport, Oreg. Samples of cans and labels used in pack-
ing Columbia River salmon.
West, John. Weapon of bill-fish taken from the bottom of the brig
“‘ Meteor” of Alexandria, while on a voyage to Brazil in 1876.
Wharton, Joseph. Specimen of pure tin; from Corneto, State of Du-
rango, Mexico.
158 REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Wheeler, Charles Le Roy. Specimen of oolitice flint, and a fresh speci-
men of gravid porpoise (Phocena lineata) found on beach at Cape
May, N. J.
White, Dr. C. A. Block of Indian pipe-clay, from S. W. Minnesota; a
box of fossils, from Colorado; the type of Zygorobus Whitet ; a small
box of arrow-points, and a specimen of Triassic sandstone (core of
diamond drill); from Colorado.
White, C. W. A string of beads from 48 burial ground of the Waco
(Texas) Indians.
White, G. W. (through Hon. H. D. Money.) pean of ore from Missis-
sippi. (For examination.)
White, Dr. J. A. About 500 arrow points from ne (Purchased.)
Whitfield, k. P. Box of fossils; from the Black Hills, Dakota.
Wiggins, John B. Eight boxes of Indian stone relics, mound remains,
&e., from New York and Virginia, and specimens of an insect (Tremex
columbe), destructive to maple trees, at Waverly, N. Y.
Wilcox, Joseph. Four specimens of Seabank from Hernando
County, Florida.
Wilcox, Dr. Timothy E., U.S. A. Specimens of unios from Boise River,
Idaho, and a skin of (Lanius borealis); from Idaho.
Wileox, W. A. Three specimens of cusk (Lrosmius brosme), from
Boston markets, and a tumor taken from a salted cod-fish.
Wilkesbarre, Pa., Natural History and Geological Society of. Speci-
mens of black muck.
Wilkinson, H., Jr. A collection of marine shells; from Lower Cali-
fornia. (For examination).
Williams, J. F. A small quartz crystal; from mountains, Pennsyl-
vania.
Williams, J. M. Deformed lobster claw; from Ellsworth, Me.
Williamson, W. A. four vials, containing specimens of young sponges,
fishes, insects, and ee and two boxes of insects and shells; from
Canada.
Willson, W. L., Philadelphia, Pa. Samples of encaustic floor tiles.
Willson, J. H. Two specimens of minerals; from Virginia. (For ex-
amination.)
Wingate, J. D. Living-horned toad (Phrynosoma); from Pennsyl-
vania.
Winchell, N. H. A large collection of specimens of building stones
and slates; from Dakota and Minnesota.
Winthrop, I. A. Pharyngeal bone of fresh-water drum (Haploidonotus
grunniens) ; from Minnesota.
Wittfield, Wiliam. <A box, containing alcoholic specimens of reptiles,
fishes, insects, and shells ; from Florida.
Wolff, J. H. <A large collection of specimens of building stones ‘from
Maine, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island.
REPORT OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 159
.
Woodman, Dr. H. T. Indian figure (frog) pipe (purchased) and a pipe
of black stone and a partially drilled banner stone; from Indiana.
Wooster, A. F. Box of birds’ eggs; from Connecticut.
Worth, S. G. Four specimens of land-locked salmon ; from North Caro-
lina.
Wright, Abel C. Five specimens of fishes ; from Georgia.
Wright, B. H. Box of fossils; from New York.
Wright, James. Two specimens of building stones ; from Tennessee.
Wright, L. A. <A living centipede and horned-frog; from Texas.
Wynn, Rev. L. B. Small box of minerals; from Virginia. (lor exami-
nation.)
Yarrow, Dr. H. C. Seven alcoholic specimens of reptiles.(Opheosaurus,
Cyclophis, Alligator, etc.) ; from Fort Macon, N. C.
Yarrow, John. Two bottles of alcoholic specimens of insects.
Yeates, W. S. Specimens of fossil sharks’ teeth ; from North Carolina.
Zeledon, José C. A small collection of birds’ skins; from Costa Rica.
Unknown. Box of building stones; specimen of haddock ; specimen of
fish; from Canada. Box of minerals; from New Hampshire. Liv-
ing snake (Diadophis punctatus); from the District of Columbia.
Specimen of butterfly ; samples of ‘ dried” cider and milk.
~
ds
REPORT OF THE CHEMIST.
FRED. W. TAYLOR.
The chemist was occupied during the first part of the year in making
a partial catalogue and in overhauling that part of the collection of
minerals and rocks at that time stored in the Smithsonian building, and
in making some partial disposal of the duplicates, packing them in sets
for distribution and arranging them so that they could be found.
Preparations for the removal to new quarters and plans for a new lab-
oratory soon however consumed all the available time, and later he was
engaged in the removal of the laboratory from the Smithsonian build-
ing to that of the National Museum. Unfortunately, this occurred about
the middle of February, when every one was busily occupied in making
preparatious for the coming inauguration and the festivities which fol-
lowed this event. Much time was lost, and it was not until April fol-
lowing that the laboratory was ready for work. Perhaps a brief descrip-
tion of tis present quarters, with their location and equipment, would
not be out of place.
The new laboratory is located in the soutliwest corner of the new
Museum building, in what is called the Southwest Pavilion, and occupies
the entire second floor of the same. The rooms on the second floor are
four innumber—the laboratory proper, 25 feet square ; the balance room,
12 by 16 feet, and the office, a small room, similar in size to the balance
room; the fourth room is in what is called the annex, on the same floor,
and has been fitted up as an assay room.
The laboratory, A, is a large well-lighted room, and, as already stated,
25 feet square. It is fitted with two wall desks, a and b, placed against
the south and west halls. These desks are of white pine throughout, 3
feet high and 2 feet wide, divided below into drawers and lockers.
Above is placed the usual rack for re-agents, and above that a case fill-
ing the space above to the ceiling. The north wall is occupied by a
long wall case, ¢c, divided into three compartments, and used for chem-
loals and apparatus ; the east wall is occupied by a similar case, d, and
the acid or fume chamber, e. j
_ The south wall desk has two large sinks, ss, oneat each end; and in the
southwest corner are placed two Bunsen pumps. These are connected
with the desks, and so arranged that each desk has three points of con-
nection. East of the laboratory we have the balance room, B; this
room has been very handsomely fitted up with wall cases of black wal-
nut, occupying the west and north walls. These cases fill the entire
space from floor to ceiling, the lower part being divided into drawers.
All choice apparatus, platinum, graduated glassware, and extra glass-
ware is kept m this room.
The balances are five in number—a large analytical, carrying one kilo-
gramme; one medium size analytical, to carry two hundred grammes ;
S. Mis. 109—11 a
REPORT OF THE CHEMIST.
162
x _. F. W. TAYLOR, Chemist, 1882.
YY f= J =_Y ez
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CHEMICAL LABORATORY
NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Scale, 10 ft. = 1 inch. Y
REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 163
one of Becker’s small prescription balances, to carry one hundred
grammes and turn with one milligramme (this balance is exceedingly
handy for proximate weighings, fluxes, &e.); one pulp scale, for ‘veigh-
ing out assay charges, with a set of Chandler’s assay ton weights; and
one assay balance for buttons, showing one one-hundreth of a milli-
gramme. All of the balances are Becker & Son’s make. In addition
to the above, the laboratory also possesses one Jolly’s balance, for
specific gravity determination.
North of the laboratory, and separated from it by a hall-way, is the
assay room, D. The permanent fittings here are, first, one small Hibb’s
furnace, a, with a4 by 10 inch muffle; a large Battersea mufile furnace,
b, with a 6 by 14 inch muffle, and a crucible furnace, c.
In addition to the assay furnace, the room also contains the apparatus
for furnishing distilled water and a large sand bath, d. It is the desire
of the chemist and the intention of the Director of the Museum to add
to the equipment some form of crusher, probably one of Blake’s excel-
lent laboratory crushers, and if possible some kind of a grinding ma-
chine; these will if possible be driven by steam power, supplied from
the engine-room.
On the third floor is a large room the full size of the pavilion, as it
is called, about 37 feet square, at present used only as a storage room.
It is the intention of the Director to fit up this room as a qualitative
laboratory. The work of the Institution consists at present largely in
the qualitative examination and determination of minerals and ores,
received from almost every part of the United States, and often wrongly
named, if named at all, by the collectors. It is often very inconvenient
to carry on work of that kind in a room where quantitative work is in
progress, and this room, when fitted up, might also be used as a labor-
atory for special research.
It will be seen that with one or two exceptions the laboratory is pretty
well fitted up and equipped for two chemists; the supply of glass and
porcelain ware is amply suflicient; one of the exceptions is in the plati-
num ware and another in the lack of another analytical balance. There
are however two reasons for this defect ; one the lack of any definite
appropriation for fitting up a laboratory, and, second, the fact that the
Superintendent of the Tenth Census has signified his intention to de-
posit the platinum ware and balances of the Newport laboratory in the
Museum, to be used in any work connected with the Census, as the only
work done besides the routine work of the Institution is done in connec-
tion with the Census of the building stones of the United States. This
‘seems eminently proper, and this addition will supply all the existing
deficiencies, giving the laboratory an especially large and valuable sup-
ply of platinum ware. The only fault that can be found with the pres-
ent quarters is the insufficiency of means for proper ventilation; the
fume chamber is not large enough, and the flue used is hardly large
enough to exhaust itproperly. Unfortunately, this is a case that is hard
164 REPORT OF THE CHEMIST.
to remedy. The ceiling is perhaps a little low, but if the ventilation was
better that would matter but little.
In regard to the work done little can be said; it is of so varied a nature
that hardly any two analyses can be connected to draw any conclusions
from or establish any facts.
When'the collections of the Museum are fully identified and arranged
there will be time for scientific work and investigation: subjects are
abundant, and as a repository for the Geological Survey, the Depart-
mentof the Interior, &c., the Museum must some day possess the largest
and most complete collection of the minerals, ores, and rocks of America,
and of the world, that has ever been collected together in any one
museum.
The work done for the Institution by the chemist has been the identi-
fication of numerous specimens sent in from different localities, analyses
and assays of various ores, iron, gold, silver, &c., which have been under-
taken whenever it was thought they might aid in developing the min-
eral resources of the country. The chemist has received specimens of
cold and silver ores for examination, some showing the precious metals,
«thers devoid of even a trace; one interesting specimen was received,
said to be from New Mexico; the specimen was arsenical pyrite; the piece
was completely filled with small nuggets of gold from the size of a pin
point up to the size of an ordinary pin head; the nuggets were not pure
gold, but alloyed with a little silver; the assay gave a value of nearly
thirty thousand dollars to the ton.
In iron ores the same variation has been found, some few being of
value, while others have been worthless ; copper ores, most as carbonate,
with some little native copper, have not beenwanting. Lead,inthe form
of galena, has also been received, generally as silver ore, though most
of it has proved of little value except as a source of lead. Tin ore has
also been received, though unfortunately the specimens contained no
tin; one interesting specimen of this kind presented to the chemist with
the assurance that it contained eight per cent. of tin consisted of a mass
of small crystals of tourmaline.
Among the analyses made may be mentioned one of a sample of water
from the Eureka Springs, Arkansas. The sample was shipped and re-
ceived during very warm weather, and was entirely devoid of any con-
tained gases. The analysis shows only the comparatively small quantity
of solid constituents contained in the water—8.81 grains to the gallon of
231 cubic inches.
Among the few specimens of interest received may be mentioned three
small samples from the excavation for a new court-house at Scranton,
Pa., one of the peat, one of the black muck, and another of the jelly
‘like substance so well described by Professor Lewis, of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, under the title of ‘A jelly-like sub-
stance resembling Dopplerite.” The samples received by the chemist
contained 87 per cent. of water, 6.86 of volatile matter, 3.52 of fixed car-
bon, and 2.47 ash.
REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 165
The chemist is now engaged in making analyses of a number of sam-
ples of the galvanized iron wire used by the Signal Bureau of the War
Department. It is impossible to say anything in regard to these analy-
ses without going into details that would be of little interest in this part
of the report. The object is believed to be to aid an attempt to establish
some relation between the chemical composition of the wire and its
power of conduction.
The laboratory work done by the chemist has been in answer to letters
referred to him by the Secretary, as follows: Twenty-six assays, involv-
jng twenty-nine determinations; thirty-one’ quantitative analyses, in-
volving one hundred and seventy-four determinations, and thirty-two
qualitative reports, identifying seventy-nine specimens; also a report on
the specific gravity of a number of specimens of Jadeite from South
America; he has also prepared answers to numerous letters received by
the Institution in reference to chemical subjects.
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF
REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR
1881.
_ The Executive Committee of the Board of Regents of the Smithso-
nian Institution respectfully submit the following report in relation to
the funds of the Institution, the appropriations by Congress for the
National Museum and other purposes, the receipts and expenditures
for both the Institution and the Museum for 1881, and the estimates for
the year 1882:
Condition of the funds January 1, 1882.
The amount originally received as the bequest of James
Smithson, deposited in the Treasury of the United
States in accordance with the act of Congress of August
EL AO y sce eA tA Y or FG ties 2 ale, Neen Me cists ieibic, Spore as aye $515, 169 00
Residuary legacy of Smithson added to the fund by act
Pe CONE TESS PE GUEBATY Oo (hOOG..0 oan taste os) =). eS 26, 210 63
Additions to the fund, from savings, &c., by act of Con-
PRESS MOULHALY O; MOON eo cis ots oe as Colas eee cet 108, 620 37
Bequest of James Hamilton, of Pennsylvania, 1874....... 1, 000 00
Bequest of Dr. Simeon Habel, of New York, 1880....... 500 00
Proceeds of sale of Virginia bonds, 1881...............- 51, 500 00
‘Total permanent Smithson fund in the Treasury of the
United States, bearing interestat 6 per cent.per annum. $703, 000 00
Statement of the receipts and expenditures for the year 1881.
RECEIPTS.
Interest for the year 1881,from the United
BREEN sete elon ann See et sitet aie ine riots ere $41, 735 54
Sale of Virginia bondsand deferred certificates 50,514 98
Sale of Virginia coupons due January 1, 1881. 1, 632 26
Balance cash on hand January 1, 1881 ..... 20, 934 52
Total receipts: 22.6 ecwie cise s ae 114, 817 30
167
168 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.
EXPENDITURES.
For building:
tepairs and improvements....... $538 63
Furniture:and fixtures.......2.... 572 O07
ree $1,110 70
General expenses :
Meetings of the board .-........ $257 00
Lighting the building ...-........ 55 40
Heating the building...........- 996 75
Postage and telegraph..........- 43 01
iahlOnery so). 2a. se eee ee 962 86
Incidentals, freight, nadling, 1€e;
blanks SG ..20 7. ayo © ae meres LOLTEOT
Books oa periodicals: 22). 2 1,979 26
salaries and labor -22. 322-622 5: 13, 266 50
— — 18,568 75
Publications and researches:
Smithsonian contributions. ...... 4,577 44
Miscellaneous collections ........ 3,170 03
ANNUAL PEPOLiS:.*.jecioeee eens 2,223 59
P=plorahlOMsyys ose cee se ae eels 943 43
—— 10, 914 49
Literary and scientific exchanges. 7,467 84
38, 061 78
Cash deposited with the Treasurer of the United
States to the credit of the Smithson fund,
being proceeds of sale of the Virginia bonds
($50,514.98) and part of coupons ($985.02), by
virtue of act of Congress, approved February
SHISC C2 55.8 FACE ee eee On eared ata tain ae Een 51, 500: 00
Total expended so onesies ase — 89,561 78
.Leaving balance on hand January 1, 1882 .....-... 25, 255 52
VIRGINIA BONDS.
At the meeting of the Board of Regents, 19th of January, 1881, the
Executive Committee was authorized to dispose of the Virginia securi-
ties owned by the Institution,and to deposit the proceeds in the Treas-
ury of the United States as an addition to the permanent fund.
The committee having duly considered the subject, decided to make
the sale, which was effected through the agency of Messrs. Riggs & Co.,
bankers, with the following result:
$58, 700 00 par value, of Virginia consolidated bonds (sold
-at an average of about 79 per cent.) .....-.-- $46, 417 87
29,375 O07 par value of Virginia deferred certificates, sold
at about Iss per cent: cic 04 e eee caret eee 4,039 08 —
50.13 par value of Virginia scrip, at 1153........-... 58 03 |
88, 125 20 Pokal’ ook Micali ctv Nal as nolan 50, 514 98
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 169
It is gratifying to state that the amount realized by the sale of the
Virginia securities was $3,514.98 more than their estimated value in our
last annual report.
The coupons due on the Virginia bonds January 1, 1881, were sold
by Messrs. Riggs & Co. January 31, 1881, as follows:
$1, 461 Virginia coupons, at 934, less one-half per cent.... $1,353 26
300 Virginia coupons, at 933, less one-half per cent ..- . 279 00
i 761 DES 7 Mea 5 USES RE cD a Oe aN 1, 632 26
Of this the committee used $985.02 to add to the proceeds of the sale
of the Virginia bonds, to make the even sum of $51,500, to increase the
permanent fund, as before stated, leaving the balance of $647.24 for
current expenses.
ESTIMATES FOR 1882.
The following are the estimates of receipts by the Institution proper
for the year 1882, and of the expenditures required for carrying on its
operations during the same period.
RECEIPTS.
Interest on the permanent Smithson fund, receivable July
HelSS2. ani sanuary 1) 1883 eo. be 3 See aicle $42, 180 00
EXPENDITURES.
Hor building and repairs). ...-...-.--.652.- $1,500 00
For general expenses, heating, lighting, &c.,
mclnding: SALATICS ws. Sa -\o slo H.fs lee wee ake 19, 000 00
Yor publications and researches..........-- 12,000 00
RST MMA TICES icf .y wpe! ats a/b, a bos olere are eiapainye st 7,000 00
Peter COMI SCNCIOS 2) 25.2 5.0 oa c's! eine cloeie sales 2,680 00
dp DRO eee rN as PLUS Ra lel SOLE Mc te RI SS ES SR $42,180 00
NATIONAL MUSEUM AND OTHER OBJECTS COMMITTED BY CONGRESS TO
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
The following appropriations were made by Congress in 1881, for dis-
bursement under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution :
PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS.
“For preservation and care of the collections of the sur-
veying and exploring expeditions of the government and
for expense of heating, lighting, telephonic, and elec-
trical service for the new Museum building.” (Act March
TACT) Ne yates ORR Oat diel Se eA 8 A ee CO $61,000 00
170 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.
“Tor transfer to, and arrangement in, the new National
Museum building, of the collections of the United States
surveying and exploring expeditions, and of the speci-
mens presented to the United States at the International
Exhibition of 1876.” (Deficiency act, March 3,1881) . .. $10,000 00
(otal amount appropriated. ccs) se.0. 2660. 5- aoa 71, 000 00
Expended as per vouchers audited -2 2... -2:<.2.(/-22- = 38, 117 81
Balance available’ January 1, 1882)... sci. eee eee else 32, 882 19
ARMORY BUILDING.
‘‘ For watching, care, and storage of duplicate government col-
lections, and of property of the United States Fish Com-
mission.” ) (Act March 3, 1881): 2.02. -252.-- =. 072s _-.-. $2,500 00
Eixpended. as per vouchers ‘audited... .... 022.25. -i5---+--2 1,441 87
Balance available’ January 1, 1882. je or2 oc Se ene mete ant 1, 058 13.
FUBNITURE AND FIXTURES.
‘For cases, furniture, and fixtures required for the exhibi-
tion of the collections of geology, mineralogy, natural his-
tory, ethnology, and technology belonging to the United
States.” (Ace Marche3, 1881) 2.2 si ob ieee serene $60, 000 00:
Expended as per vouchers audited...-.... rer eee ane kos 34, 380 94
Balance available January 1, 1882...............-.-.----- 25, 619. 06:
FIRE-PROOF BUILDING, NATIONAL MUSEUM.
‘¢ For flooring of marble and encaustic tiles in the large halls
of the National Museum Building.” (Act February 9, 1881) .$26,000 00:
‘For additional amount required for running the relieving
sewer of the National Museum building into the north B
street sewer instead of into the Seventh street sewer.” (Act
NPATCH StI SSI oe oo sir2 4s ce en eee ee eC 900 00
Total amount appropriated <. Fis. urls sro e eel etee een 26, 900 00:
Expended as per vouchers audited...........-..---------- 21, 582 35
Balance available January 1, 1882...........------------: 5, 317 65:
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 171
NORTH AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.
“For continuing ethnological researches among the North
American Indians, under the direction of the secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution, $25,000, of which$5,000 are to
be expended in continuing archeological investigations
relating to mound-builders and prehistoric mounds.” (Act
EERO S.L)) cosa Se epeer ae alta atts eels are Coe ha yeahitee $25, 000 00
ixpended as per vouchers audited ...........:5 0.20, 000.- 16,459 10
Balance available January 1, 1882. ..........--.-....,--- 8, 540 90
INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.
“For the expense of exchanging literary and scientific pro-
ductions with all nations by the Smithsonian Institution.”
Act March 3, 1881) AES Sede fo SG WE Nie EL ta, ONE eng ed $3, 000 00
Expended as per vouchers audited ............--.... oaiaenye hale OU ON
Balance available January 1, 1882-........22...-22..--2--- 1, 500 00
POLARIS REPORT.
Balance available January 1, 1881............-........... $6,183 66
PGT OG: siete abi ckiey: cha eye elaicHertn image bes Lista pean Sela 2,585 91
Balance available January 1, 1882.................00..00- 3, 597 75
CONCLUSION.
The Executive Committee has examined 730 vouchers for payments
made from the Smithson income during the year 1881, and 1,976
vouchers for payments made from appropriations by Congress for the
National Museum, making a total of 2,706 vouchers. All these bear
the approval of the Secretary of the Institution and a certificate that
the materials and services charged were applied to the purposes of the
Institution or of the Museum.
The Committee has examined the account books of the National Mu-
seum, and find the balances unexpended as before stated, viz: Preser-
vation of collections, $32,882.19 ; armory building, $1,058.13; furniture
and fixtures, $25,619.06 ; international exchanges, $1,500, to correspond
with the certificates of the disbursing clerk of the Department of the
Interior; and the balances for fire-proof building, National Museum,
$5,317.65; Polaris report, $3,597.75, to correspond with the certificates
of the disbursing clerk of the Treasury Department.
The quarterly accounts-current, bank-book, check-book, and journals
have likewise been examined and found to be correct.
ie, REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.
The balance to the credit of the Institution proper, on the Ist of
January, 1882, in the hands of the Treasurer of the United States,
available for the current operations of the Institution, is $25,255.52.
Respectfully submitted.
PETER PARKER,
JOHN MACLEAN,
W. T. SHERMAN,
Executive Committee.
WASHINGTON, D. C., January 16, 1882.
Dr. Maclean’s examination of the expenditures and vouchers was
limited to those of the Smithsonian Institution proper.
;
|
REPORT OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM BUILDING COMMISSION
FOR 1881.
OFFICE OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, D. C., January 2, 1882.
To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution:
GENTLEMEN: By resolution of the Board of Regents of January 17,
1879, the Executive Committee of the Board and the Secretary of the
Institution was authorized to “act for and in the name’of the Board of
Regents in carrying into effect the provision of any act of Congress that
might be passed providing for the erection of a building for the National
Museum,” the care and administration of which establishment is en-
trusted to the Smithsonian Institution.
The anticipated provision having been made on the 3d of March, 1879,
by a Congressional appropriation of $250,000 “ for a fire-proof building
for the use of the National Museum, to be erected under the direction of
the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution,” in pursuance of authority
vested in them by your Board, the Executive Committee and the Secre-
tary, after organizing on the 7th of March, 1879, under the title of Na-
tional Museum Building Commission, proceeded to adopt such measures
as in their opinion appeared best calculated to realize, with the least
possible delay, the intention of Congress.
At the session of the Board in January, 1880, the Commission had the
honor to present to you a report of the operations connected with the
construction of the new building from their inauguration to the close of
1879; and again, early in January, 1881, a similar report of progress
during 1880 was submitted. These documents were respectively accom-
panied by reports of the superintending architects, which, while giving
a technical and descriptive record of the plan, design, and construction
of the building, presented accurately detailed exhibits of expenditures:
Having thus laid before you a record of operations of construction to
the close of 1880, it only remains for the Commission to call the atten-
tion of the Board to those of the year just closed.
At the beginning of this period the balance to the credit of the appro-
priation was $5,050.33, of which, however, $1,000 was a specific appro-
priation for the construction of a sewer to relieve the building from water,
which, on account of the inadequacy of the Seventh street sewer during
extraordinary rains, would flood the cellars. It being ascertained sub-
sequently, however, that this amount was insufficient, an additional $900
was voted by Congress to be applied to sewer purposes. With the appro-
. 173
174 REPORT OF THE BUILDING COMMISSION.
priation thus increased, the work was promptly begun and successfully
carried to completion under the direction of the engineer of the District
of Columbia, Lieutenant Hoxie, who is entitled to the thanks of the
Board for this service.
Early in the year an appropriation of $26,000 was granted to defray
the expense of a tile floor for the naves and rotunda, and on its becom-
ing available, plans for the work were prepared by the architects, from
which a selection was made by the Commission and copies sent to various
parties, with a request for proposals for executing the same. A number
of proposals were received and opened on the 16th of April, the succes-
ful bidders being Mr. Emil Fritsch, of New York, for the marble tiles,
and the United States Encaustic Tile Company, of Indianapolis, for the
encaustic tiles for the rotunda. Both these parties have faithfully ful-
filled their contracts ; and with wood flooring on the halls that remained
unfinished at the close of 1880, the two and a quarter acres of interior
ground space of the building now presents a smooth and durable walk-
ing surface. In addition, the north front platform has been floored in
a neat pattern of marble tiles, the inner vestibules of the four main
entrances in encaustic tiles, and the outer vestibules laid in cement.
Owing to its insecure condition, the plaster covering was, during the
summer, removed from all ceilings of the low, flat roofs. These, it will
be remembered, consist of gratings of wood fastened between the iron —
girders and filled with mortar composed of plaster of Paris and ashes,
a form of ceiling suggested by the consulting engineer, General
Meigs. The surface exposed by removal of the plaster has been calci-
mined in subdued tints. In one of the outer halls thus treated a sup-
plementary corrugated iron ceiling has been put in place, which, with
the ceiling of gratings above, incloses an air space, serving to prevent
the scape of heat in winter and renders the building cooler than formerly
in summer.
In this connection it may be proper to state that the patentee of an —
apparatus for moistening air by means of a system of aspirators, where-
by it is claimed that in hot weather a reduction of temperature of eight
or ten degrees can be accomplished, and that the air is rendered more
wholesome at all times, has offered to apply his invention to the new
building for $7,000. This apparatus is in use in certain cotton mills in
New England for the purpose of improving the facilities of cotton spin-
ning; but the question of its employment for the Museum is, of course,
one for determination in the future.
An octagonal fountain basin, of twenty feet diameter, composed of |
arim of molded polished granite and cement floor, has been erected in
the rotunda. This, while a pleasing feature in an esthetic point of
view, materially lessened the expense for encaustic tiling by reducing the
space to be floored.
The radiators remaining unfinished at the close of last year are now
all bronzed and the steam-pipes covered with asbestos. The heating
REPORT OF THE BUILDING COMMISSION. ha fea
apparatus continues to operate satisfactorily, both as regards the work-
ing of the various parts of the machinery and in an economical con-
sumption of fuel. The severe winter of 1880-81 subjected the ap-
paratus to a test more trying than will be likely to occur again in many
years.
For fuller information, however, in regard to operations of construc-
tion, as well as for details of expenditures, the Board is respectfully re-
ferred, as in previous reports of the Commission, to an appended state-
ment of the superintending architects.
Although not directly connected with operations of construction, it
is deemed not out of place to mention here that the use of the new build-
ing was granted for the reception ceremonies attending the inaugura-
tion of President Garfield on the evening of the 4th of March last, in
view of the event being of a national character, and of the fact that the
President-elect had been a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution for
many years. No expense was incurred by the Museum in connection
with this occupation.
Since the last meeting of the Board, the United States Geological Sur-
vey and the Bureau of Ethnology have been accommodated with quar-
ters in the northeast pavilion, while space has also been freely provided
for a large clerical force detailed by General Walker in connection with
working up the fisheries statistics for the census report.
During the year the Commission has met as often as was deemed neces-
sary. General M. C. Meigs, the consulting engineer, besides attending
these meetings, has continued his visits to the building and given close
and critical attention to the many features of its construction. For
these and other valuable services he has rendered the Commission it is
respectfully suggested that suitable acknowledgment be made by the
Board of Regents.
It is very gratifying to the Commission to be able to state that the
conscientious attention paid by the architects to the work they have
had in hand in connection with the construction of the new edifice is
in keeping with their professional reputation; also, that the attachés
of the Commission generally have faithfully discharged every duty im-
posed upon them; and that while more than eight hundred vouchers,
in duplicate, have been presented to the United States Treasury for
payment, not a single one has been returned or otherwise questioned
by the accounting officers.
In closing this its third annual report, the National Museum Build-
ing Commission congratulates the Regents that the new building for
the National Museum is so far completed as to be ready for occupancy ;
and in now asking the Board to take charge of the edifice, the Commis-
sion begs to refer to the important fact that, while a building is pre-
sented equal in every respect to what was anticipated in case provision
should be made for additional quarters for the national collections in-
trusted to the care of the Smithsonian Institution, instead of incurring
176 REPORT OF THE BUILDING COMMISSION.
a deficiency, the fund has been so managed as to have to its credit at
the present moment an available balance of some thousands of dollars.
Having fulfilled the duties with which it was charged by your resolu-
tion of January 17, 1879, the Commission would respectfully ask to be
discharged, and to be authorized to turn over to the Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution the building itself, and to the United States
Treasury whatever balance of money may remain after liquidating the
last liability on account of the construction of the edifice.
Respectfully submitted.
W. T. SHERMAN,
PETER PARKER,
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
National Museum Building Commission.
REPORT OF THE ARCHITECTS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM
BUILDING FOR 1881.
WASHINGTON, D. C., January 1, 1882.
To General W. T. SHERMAN,
Chairman National Museum Building Commission :
Sir: We have the honor to submit a report on the completion of vari-
ous improvements in the National Museum Building, under the appro-
priations available for the purpose since January 1, 1881, the date of
our last report.
To facilitate the carrying of steam to the great distances required for
heating the offices at the four corners of the building, the steam mains
were covered with thick layers of hair felt, protected by asbestos, as far
as the funds would permit, and a favorable result was obtained.
The main halls were floored with white-veined, red, black, and gray
marble tiles, laid in chaste patterns. The marble tiling was surrounded
by a frieze of dark-blue Pennsylvania slate of sufficient thickness tm
bridge the ducts containing the steam-pipes, wires, &c.; and around
the frieze a border of parti-colored Portland cement pavement was ex-
tended.
This tiling covers about half an acre, and was obtained after public
advertisement from the lowest bidder, Mr. E. Fritsch, of New York, who
completed it satisfactorily about the middle of September.
An octagonal fountain, with sides of molded and polished granite,
and floor of Portland cement, was constructed and finished in the early
part of August. The floor of the rotunda around the fountain was laid
with encaustic tile, according to our designs.
Proposals for these tiles were invited from all the manufacturers in
this line in the country, as well as from the leading importers. The
United States Encaustic Tile Company, of Indianapolis, Ind., was
awarded the work as the lowest bidder, and completed it quite satis-
factorily about the 1st of October. It is a creditable specimen of a.
branch of industry now being successfully introduced in the country.
The four square halls were floored with best Georgia yellow pine,.
laid upon a concrete base, since this material was preferred for special:
reasons.
S. Mis. 109: 12 177
rl
On
178 REPORT OF THE ARCHITECTS.
Tbe spacious platform in front of the northern main entrance was laiil
with a floor of ornamental marble tile.
A sewer has been constructed through the Smithsonian grounds, di-
rectly to the main sewer along North B street, and the building is now
disconnected from the overcharged branch sewers of the city.
All the plumbing fixtures necessary or proper to be introduced in the
building for safety, for the accommodation of visitors, as well as officials,
such as fire-plugs, sinks, wash-basins, water-closets, and urinals, were
provided for and constructed during the season in strict accordance with
the present requirements of sanitary science.
A large number (thirty-two) of the sash-windows in the lanterns of
the main and square halls have been made movable in sections by sim-
ple mechanism worked from the floors of the halls. This improvement
has proved to be a valuable agent for summer ventilation during the hot
spells peculiar to our climate.
Several partitions of fire-proof concrete material have been con-
structed in the two eastern corner pavilions for the better accommoda-
tion of the service.
An important improvement has been introduced in one of the outside
halls by the construction and hanging of a comely iron ceiling under-
neath, and parted by an air space, from the roof. The double ceiling
has added materially to the sanitary advantages of the building, and it
. is highly desirable to have it extended over the whole building.
The slates of the roofs are hung to iron purlines, and are plastered
on their under side with a heavy coat of mortar. During rapid changes
of the temperature, moisture arising from the process of condensation of
aerial vapor appears occasionally on this plastered surface which forms
the ceiling of the principal halls ; this will be obviated by the hung iron
ceiling with air space between it and the plastered slates.
The roofs and ceilings of the lower halls are formed by sheet metal
laid upon fire-proofed gratings, which are again plastered on the under
side. The adherence of the plasterer’s mortar to the greasy fire-proof
composition has proved to be insufficient, and it fell in a number of
patches. The whole surface so covered, aggregating about 3,600 square —
yards, and costing about $720, was hence removed, and the proposed
iron ceilings will incidentally serve to hide the unsightly surface of the
exposed gratings.
The action of the rapid changes of the temperature during our sum-
mer months, in causing expansion and contraction of building material
disposed in great lengths throughout this extensive structure, has occa-
sionally baffled the provided safeguards. It has been carefully watched,
and small imperfections have been remedied wherever and as soon as
they appeared. With comparatively little more attention they will be
completely under control.
|
!
REPORT OF THE ARCHITECTS. 179
FINANCIAL STATEMENT.
The available funds were :
Balance from former appropriations in hands of the dis-
bursing agent on January 1, 1881 . ................ $5, 050 33
Appropropriation by Congress for tile-floors, &c....... 26,000 00
Additional appropriation for sewer to North B street... 900 00
31,950 33
SCHEDULE ACCOUNT OF EXPENDITURES TO JANUARY lip 1882.
Heating apparatus :
For steam-fitters’ work and material........ $3, 418 18
For non-conducting lining around steam
POMPE Sees ceicreh ler ss ene iste o's bees BAO IOe d 732 85
—— $4,151 03
Floors :
A.—Marble-slate tiling of four main halls:
icgandilabor of laying? ss. 2 Woh oes ee 8, 756 63
RPPIREITG Rts a5. t cy eyes SSS atte wae en 1,257 45
SPL 22 ie Re ee eh eee aE ee 152 25
Miscellancousiabor 22): 2s. aches eke 53 33
Wall borders of ornamental cement work.... 1,014 05
B.—F loor of rotunda :
POMONA Ae ee es tl, TDA, A Sen) ood Uh dR 957 12
Encaustic tiling (outstanding, $1,934.29).
C.—Tiled platform in front of main entrance... 595 10
D.—Floors of four square halls..........:...-. 2,081 53
E.—Cement pavements outside of building. nar 268 77
15, 136 23
Fire-proof partitions :
Construction ........ Bite ea eaiaiiereis sae crock 280 40
AEA GOUAMEEE crn oe ale Minin cys a ec siote's. sino = B/S Ga = ays 59 00
339 40
Ventilation :
Movable sash in lanterns of main and square halls... .. 531 20
Iron ceilings:
One iron ceiling over southwest outer hall.............. 962 10
Sewer:
| Cost of main sewer through Smithsonian grounds..... 1,437 17
Miscellaneous :
WECOTALIONS w2sso oy un cecccielae POP eee aire! BLE f 80 00
AGGNTON AL StS P-PAUIMES Goes 2 o.u)b i464 Saisie s sewers widow's 662 18
Improvements to roofs, down-spouts, galvanized-i ‘iron
work, finishings of plastering............ ee Ria. 949 51
180 REPORT OF THE ARCHITECTS.
Miscellaneous— Continued.
Printing, advertising, and photographing............. $213 86
Clerk hire and notary fees .-.... DRESS Sloat iste eee re a 345 00
Construction and superintendence.......-.-..---.---- 1, 750 00
Balance in hands of disbursing agent on December 31,
Bree O6 oS o Ao ta ee ae ee eee eta ee deface: 5, 392 65
31, 950 33
The balance in hand will suffice to pay up all outstanding liabilities.
We have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servants,
CLUSS & SCHULZE,
Supervising Architects.
ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS RELATIVE TO THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION AND NATIONAL MUSEUM.
In continuation from previous reports.
Cap. 179, An act extending the privilege of the Library of Congress to the Regents
of the Smithsonian Institution.
Be it enacted, &c., That the Joint Committee of both Houses of Con-
gress on the Library, be authorized to extend the use of the books inthe
Library of Congress to the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, resi-
dent in Washington, on the same conditions and restrictions as mem-
bers of Congress are allowed to use the Library.
Approved March 3, 1875.
(Stat., vol. 18, sec. 512; Revised Statutes, supplement, vol. 1, page 195.)
CuapP. 103. An act establishing post-roads, and for other purposes.
Be it enacted, &e. :
Sc. 5. That it shall be lawful to transmit through the mail, free of
postage, any letters, packages, or other matters relating exclusively to
the business of the Government of the United States : Provided, That
every such letter or package, to entitle it to pass free, shall bear over
the words “ Official business” an endorsement showing also the name
of the department, and, if from a bureau or office, the names of the de
partment and bureau or office, as the case may be, whence transmitted.
And if any person shall make use of any such official envelope to avoid
the payment of postage on his private letter, package, or other matter
in the mail, the person so offending shall be deemed guilty of a misde-
meanor, and subject toa fine of three hundred dollars, to be prosecuted
in any court of competent jurisdiction.
Suc. 6. That for the purpose of carrying this act into effect, it shall
be the duty of each of the executive departments of the United States
to provide for itself and its subordinate offices, the necessary envelopes ;
and,in addition to the endorsement designating the department in which
they are to be used, the penalty tor the unlawful use of these envelopes
shall be stated thereon.
Approved March 3, 1877.
(Revised Statutes, supplement, vol. 1, page 288.)
[Extended to the Smithsonian Institution by act of March 3, 1879, as
follows:]
181
182 ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF UO.NGRESS.
Cuap. 180. An act making appropriations for the service of the Post-Office Depart-
ment for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880, and for other purposes.
Be it enacted, dc., . . . the provisions of said fifth and sixth
sections are hereby likewise extended and made applicable to all official
mail matter sent from the Smithsonian Institution.
Approved March 3, 1879.
(Revised Statutes, supplement, vol. 1, page 458.)
JOINT RESOLUTION [No. 22] providing for the distribution and sale of the new editiop
of the Revised Statutes of the United States.
Resolved, &c., That the . . . copies of the new edition of the first
volume of the Revised Statutes of the United States . . . be dis-
posed of by the Secretary of State as follows: . . . tothe Smith.
sonian Institution, two copies.
Approved May 22, 1878.
(Revised Statutes, supplement, vol 1, page 387.)
Cuap. 182. An act making appropriations for sundry civil expenses of the govern-
ment for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880, and for other purposes.
Sect. 1, Par. 12. That all the archives, records, and materials relating
to the Indians of North America, collected by the Geographical and Geo-
logical Survey of the Rocky Mountain region, shall be turned over to the
Smithsonian Institution, that the work may be completed and prepared
for publication under its direction: Provided, That it shall meet the ap-
proval of the Secretary of the Interior and of the Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution.
Approved March 3, 1879.
(Revised Statutes, supplement, vol. 1, page 461.,
JornT RESOLUTION [No. 11] concerning an international fishery exhibition to be held
in Berlin, Germany, in Apriy, eighteen hundred and eighty.
Whereas all civilized nations take part in the International Fisher>
Exhibition to be held in the city of Berlin, Germany, in April, eighteen
hundred and eighty, it is deemed both right and expedient that the
prominent and effective action of the United States in the line of the
artificial propagation of fish and the stocking of depleted fishing waters
should be conspicuously and well exhibited on the occasion: Therefore,
Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States
of America in Congress assembled, That to enable the United States Com-
missioner of Fish and Fisheries to exhibit in Berlin, in April, eighteen
hundred and eighty, a fair and full collection of the different specimens —
of American food fishes, casts thereof, models of, and implements, and
so forth, used in the prosecution of American fisheries, the sum of twenty
thousand dollars is hereby appropriated out of any moneys not other-
wise appropriated in the Treasury of the United States, or so much
. =a
ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. 183
thereof as may be necessary for the purpose, to be immediately availa-
ble on the passage of this resolution, to be expended under the direction
of the Secretary of State.
Sec. 2. That the United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries
be, and is hereby, authorized to represent the United States, either in
person or by a deputy to be appointed by the President of the United
States; and that, at his discretion, he may use any portion of the col-
lections at present forming part of the National Museum in making up
the proposed exhibition by the United States.
Sec. 3. That the United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries
be, and is hereby, instructed to present to Congress, through the De-
partment of State, a report upon the Berlin exhibition, showing the
recent progress and present condition of the fisheries and of fish-eulture
in foreign countries.
Approved February 16, 1880.
(Statutes, vol. 21, page 301).
Cuap. 73. An act making appropriations for the naval service for the fiscal year end-
ing June thirtieth, eighteen hundred and eighty-one, and for other purposes.
Naval Observatory.—For payment to the Smithsonian Institution for
freight on Observatory publications for eighteen hundred and eighty, to
be shipped in eighteen hundred and eighty, two hundred and thirty-six
dollars and twenty-five cents.
Approved May 3, 1880.
(Statutes, vol. 21, page 84.)
For payment to the Smithsonian Institution for freight on Observa-
tory publications for eighteen hundred and eighty-one, to be shipped to
foreign countries in eighteen hundred and eighty-one, two hundred and
thirty-six dollars and twenty-five cents.
Approved May 3, 1880.
(Statutes, vol. 21, page 84.)
Cuap. 42. An act making an appropriation for the flooring of the National Museum.
Be it enacted, &c., That the sum of twenty-six thousand dollars, or so
much thereof as may be necessary, be, and the same hereby is, appro-
priated out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated,
to place a flooring of marble and encaustic tiles in the large halls of the
National Museum building, to be expended according to plans and under
the direction of the building commission of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution under whose supervision the museum has been
constructed.
Approved February 9, 1881.
(Statutes, vol. 21, page 324.)
184 ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS.
- JOINT RESOLUTION [No. 12] authorizing the Public Printer to print reports of the
United States Fish Commissioner upon new discoveries in regard to fish culture.
Resolved, &c., That the Public Printer be, and he hereby is, instructed
to print and stereotype, from time to time, the regular number of nine-
teen hundred copies of any matter furnished him by the United States
Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries relative to new observations, discov
eries, and applications connected with fish culture and the fisheries, to
be capable of being distributed in parts, and the whole to form an annual
volume or bulletin not exceeding five hundred pages. The edition of
‘said annual work shall consist of five thousand copies, of which two
thousand five hundred shall be for the use of the House of Representa-
‘tives, one thousand for the use of the Senate, and one thousand five
-hundred for the use of the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries.
Approved February 14, 1881.
(Revised Statutes, supplement, vol. 1, page 617.)
Cuar. 65. An act to provide for remitting the duties on the object of art awarded
by the Berlin International Fishery Commission to Professor Spencer F. Baird.
Be it enacted, That the Secretary of the Treasury be, and he hereby
is, directed to remit the customs duties chargeable upon the object of
art given by His Majesty the German Emperor and King of Prussia to
the Berlin International Fishery Exhibition, and by it awarded as the
first grand prize of honor to Professor Spencer F. Baird, at the exhibition
held in the city of Berlin, Prussia, in the month of June, eighteen hun-
dred and eighty.
Approved February 21, 18$1.
(Statutes, vol. 21, page 608.)
Cua, 73. An act making appropriations for the naval service for the fiscal year end-
ing June 30, 1881, and for other purposes.
Nawal Observatory.—For payment to the Smithsonian Institution for
freight on Observatory publications to be shipped to foreign countries
during the fiscal year eighteen hundred and eighty-two, three hundred
and thirty-six dollars and twenty-five cents.
Approved February 23, 1881.
(Statutes, vol. 21, page 333.)
Cap. 132. Anact making appropriations to supply deficiencies in the appropriations
for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1881, and for prior years, and for those certified
as due by the accounting officers of the Treasury in accordance with section four
of the act of June 14, 1878, and heretofore paid from permanent appropriations,
-and for other purposes.
For additional amount required for running the relieving sewer of
the National Museum building into the North B street sewer instead
of into the Seventh street sewer, nine hundred dollars.
Approved March 3, 1881.
(Statutes, vol. 21, page 418.)
ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. 185
(Same act.)
For expense of transfer to and arrangement in the new National
Museum building of the collections of the United States surveying and
exploring expeditions, and of the specimens presented to the United
States at the international exhibition of eighteen hundred and seventy-
six, ten thousand dollars, being for the service of the current fiscal year.
Approved March 3, 1881.
(Statutes, vol. 21, page 418.)
Cuap. 133. An act making appropriations for sundry civil expenses of the govern-
ment for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1882, and for other purposes.
For the expense of exchanging literary and scientific productions
with all nations by the Smithsonian Institution, three thousand dollars.
Preservation of collections, Smithsonian Institution—For preservation
and care of the collections of the surveying and exploring expeditions
of the government, fifty-five thousand dollars.
Preservation of collections, Smithsonian Institution, Armory building.—
For expense of watching, care, and storage of duplicate government
collections, and of property of the United States Fish Commission, two
thousand five hundred dollars.
Approved March 3, 1881.
(Statutes, vol 21, page 452.)
(Same act.)
North American ethnology, Smithsonian Institution.—For the purpose
of continuing ethnological researches among the North American In-
dians, under the direction of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, twenty-five thousand dollars; five thousand dollars of which
shall be expended in continuing archeological investigations relating to
mound-builders and prehistoric mounds, and be available immediately.
Approved March 3, 1881.
(Statutes, vol. 21, page 443.)
(Same act.)
Furniture and fixtures, National Museum.—For cases, furniture, and
fixtures required for the exhibition of the collections of geology, min-
-eralogy, natural history, ethnology, and technology, belonging to the
United States, sixty thousand dollars.
Heating and lighting National Museum.—For expense of heating, light-
ing, telephonic and electrical service for the new museum building, six
thousand dollars.
Approved March 3, 1881.
(Statutes, vol. 21, page 449.)
186 ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS.
(Same act.)
Buildings and Grounds in and around Washington and the Executive
Mansion.—For asphaltum footwalks through Smithsonian grounds from
Seventh to Twelfth streets, one thousand five hundred dollars.
Approved March 3, 1881.
(Statutes, vol. 21, page 444.)
(Same act.)
Miscellaneous objects under War Department.—For transportation of
reports and maps to foreign countries through the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, five hundred dollars.
Approved March 3, 1881.
(Statutes, vol. 21, page 447.)
JOINT RESOLUTION [No. 26] authorizing the Secretary of the Treasury to furnish
States, for the use of agricultural colleges, one set of standard weights and meas-
ures, and for other purposes.
Resolved, &c., That the Secretary of the Treasury be, and he is hereby,
directed to cause a complete set of all the weights and measures adopted
as standards to be delivered to the governor of each State in the Union,
for the use of agricultural colleges in the States, respectively, which
have received a grant of lands from the United States, and also one set
of the same for the use of the Smithsonian Institution: Provided, That
the cost of each set shall not exceed two hundred dollars, and a sum
sufficient to carry out the provisions of this resolution is hereby appro- —
priated out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated.
Approved March 3, 1881.
(Statutes, vol. 21, page 521.)
GENERAL APPENDIX
LO) EE
SMITHSONTAN REPORT FOR 1881.
ADVERTISEMENT.
The object of the GENERAL APPENDIX is to furnish summaries of
scientific discovery in particular directions; occasional reports of the
investigations made by collaborators of the Institution; memoirs of a
general character or on special topics, whether original and prepared
expressly for the purpose, or selected from foreign journals and proceed-
ings; and briefly to present (as fully as space will permit) such papers
not published in the “ Smithsonian Contributions” or in the “ Miscella-
neous Collections” as may be supposed to be of interest or value to the
numerous correspondents of the Institution.
188
RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS FOR 1881.
INTRODUCTION.
While it has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution from a very early date in its history to enrich
the annual report required of them by law, with scientific memoirs illus-
trating the more remarkable and important developments in physical
and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of
the operations of the Institution, this purpose had not been carried out
on any very systematic plan. Believing however that an annual report
or summary of the recent advances made in the leading departments
of scientific inquiry would supply a want very generally felt, and would
be favorably received by all those interested in the diffusion of knowl-
edge, the Secretary had prepared for the report of 1880, by competent
collaborators, a series of abstracts showing concisely the prominent
features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, physics,
chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zodlogy, and anthropology.
The subjects of terrestrial physics and meteorology (which should prop-
erly have succeeded the survey of geology) were unfortunately omitted, in
consequence of the inability of the writer selected for these departments
to obtain sufficient leisure from other pressing duties to prepare a suit-
able abstract in time. This omission has been partially supplied in the
record for the present year by including a meteorological retrospect for
the years 1879 and 1880.
The subjects of geology and mineralogy, which were referred to Mr.
George W. Hawes, of the National Museum (who had acceptably pre-
pared this summary for the record of 1880), have been delayed this year
by the prolonged and much-regretted illness of Mr. Hawes; and it has
been found impossible to obtain in time a substitute in this department.
With every effort to secure prompt attention to all the more impor-
tant details of such a work, various unexpected delays frequently render
it impracticable to obtain all the desired reports in each department
within the time prescribed. In such cases it is designed, if possible, to
bring up such deficiencies and supply them in subsequent reports.
The value of this annual record of progress would be much enhanced
by an enlargement of its scope, and the inclusion, not only of such
branches as geography, microscopy, &e., but also of the more practical
topics of agricultural and horticultural economy, engineering, and tech-
189
190 RECORD OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS FOR 1881.
nology in general; but the space required for such larger digest seems
scarcely available in the present channel. The scientific résumé, which
in 1880 occupied 260 pages, has this year extended to 330 pages. An
efficient condensation of this matter seems scarcely practicable.
It is hardly necessary to remark that in a summary of the annual pro-
gress of scientific discovery so condensed as the present, the wants of the
specialist in any branch can be but imperfectly supplied ; and very many
items and details of great value to him must be entirely omitted. While
the student in a special field of knowledge may occasionally receive hints
that will be found of interest, he will naturally be led to consult for
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fuller information the original journals and special periodicals from —
which these brief notices or abstracts have been compiled.
The contemplated plan of devoting some 250 pages of the annual
report to such a compilation is not designed to preclude the introduc-
tion into the ‘General Appendix,” as heretofore, of special monographs
or discussions that may prove interesting to the scientific student.
SPENCER F. BAIRD.
ASTRONOMY.
By Pror. EDWARD 8S. HOLDEN,
Director of the Washburn Observatory, Wisconsin.
INTRODUCTION.
The record of astronomical progress for 1881 must necessarily be a
very condensed summary. It is to be remembered that this review is
not primarily intended for astronomers, but is specialy addressed to
the correspondents of the Smithsonian Institution. For bibliographic
information the reader is referred to DARBOUX et HOUEL’S Bulletin
des Sciences Mathématiques et Astronomiques (monthly, Paris), to Nature
(weekly, London), to Science (weekly, New York), to Copernicus,
(monthly, Dublin), to the Observatory, (monthly, London), and to other
standard journals. Free use has been made of reviews by writers in
these and other periodicals.
NEBULA AND CLUSTERS.
Photographs of nebule.—M. J. Janssen calls attention to the effect of
short and long exposures upon the negatives which are obtained. Pho-
tographs of the same nebula will not agree unless the same conditions
of exposure are narrowly observed. In proof of this the photographs
of the solar corona taken at Siam in the eclipse of 1875 are referred to:
The nebulosity, so to speak, of the corona gave different impressions
upon sensitive plates which were exposed during times expressed by
the numbers 1, 2, 4, 8; and it must be inferred that the changes in the
height of the corona are to be attributed to the times of exposure, in-
stead of to actual variations in the extent of the phenomena. M. Jans-
sen proposes to take the photograph of the image of a star, or nebula,
a little out of focus. In this case the photograph is a little circle of
sensibly uniform opacity, and one can compare the opacity of the pho.
tographs of different stars, and connect the degrees of opacity with the
photometric power.—Comptes Rendus.
_ The Publications of the Washburn Observatory No. 1 contain a list
of 23 new nebule, mostly faint.
Cluster measurements.—H. C. Russell, director of the observatory of
Sydney, has made a micrometric examination of the cluster h. 3276=
G. C. 2144, which gives the positions (and magnitudes) of 144 stars.
One of these is an interesting red star. The paper is accompanied by a
map of the cluster made by Mr. Russell, himself, by a process whick he
describes as extremely easy for any one to execute. ei
192 ASTRONOMY.
FIXED STARS.
Catalogue of stars.—‘Catalogue of 12,441 stars for the epoch 1880,
from observations made at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope,
during the years 1871 to 1879. Edward James Stone, M. A., F. R.S.,
etc. (London, 1881, XX XIT, and 565, 4to).” This catalogue, published
by the Admiralty, is founded on observations made at the Cape Obser-
vatory between January, 1871, and April, 1879. The observatory dur-
ing the whole period was steadily directed to the object in view, the
formation of a catalogue of well-distributed stellar zero-points for those
portions of the heavens which are beyond the reach of northern obser-
vatories. But a considerable number of stars, north of 25° Decl., were
also observed at the Cape, and the results have been included in the
present catalogue as a check upon the existence of any systematic ©
errors in the work. Lacaille’s well-distributed 9,766 stars were adapted
as the basis of the working list, but as some stars of the sixth and
many of the seventh magnitude, in Brisbane’s Catalogue of 7,385 stars,
had not been observed by Lacaille, the greater part of these were also
included in the working list. A large stereographic projection of the
southern hemisphere was also prepared, on which were projected the
places of all the stars previously observed, and whenever lacune ap-
peared within the limits of N. P. D. 115° to 180°, efforts were made to
fill them up by observing stars of rather a lower magnitude than the
seventh of Lacaille’s scale. A reduced copy of this projection accom-
panies the catalogue. Generally each star was observed three times.
The right ascensions of the stars observed for the determination of
the errors of the Transit-clock have been taken from the Greenwich
Standard Lists for the different years. The Right Ascensions of Polar
Stars were taken from Mr. Stone’s paper on ‘The mean places of eight
close Southern Polar Stars, 1860 to 1900.” The refractions used are
those of the Tabule Regiomontanz diminished in the proportion of
0.9988: 1, but the use of Bessel’s tables unaltered would not change the
results of the Catalogue by 0.2. As a proof of the satisfactory charac-
ter of the adopted refractions, a comparison is given between the results
of the Catalogue and the places of the Nautical Almanac for 1880. As
might be expected from the use of the same fundamental system, there
is a close agreement between the Greenwich and Cape Right Ascensions,
but the perfectly independent determinations of N. P. D. are also in very —
good accordance. Arranging the corrections required by the Nautcial ,
Almanac N. P. D.’s in groups of 6 hours of R. A. and applying the gen-
eral mean correction—0.81 to them all, the following corrections re-
main:
Ob — 62 6b — 12 125 — 182 18h — 24"
— 0.24 — 0.11 + 0.39 +0/.06
The changes in these corrections are systematic, and it appears that
the complete reversal of the seasons at the northern and southern observ-
atories is not quite accurately allowed for in the refraction tables. In
ASTRONOMY. 193
notes at the end of the catalogue are given the larger proper motions
resulting from a comparison of the Catalogue for 1880 with the ‘ Cape
Catalogue for 1840,” and Taylor’s “‘ Subsidiary Catalogue for 1850.” In
the catalogue the mean time of observation is given for all the stars,
but in forming the mean positions the proper motion has only been
applied in the comparatively few cases where the proper motion is
given in the body of the catalogue. The latter contains, in separate
columns, references to Piazzi, Brisbane, Fallows, Johnson, Henderson,
Taylor, Cape 1840, Cape 1860, and Melbourne 1870, and in foot-notes
other references, as also corrections to previous catalogues, and remarks
-about duplicity, false positions, etc. Lacaille’s numbers are given in the
second column next to the current number of the catalogue. The con-
stellations occupy the third column; Lacaille’s system of nomenclature
is used with the modifications proposed by Sir J. Herschel. The im-
portance of this great work can hardly be overestimated. Valuable as
the two previously published Cape Catalogues and Melbourne Catalogue
for 1870 are, they cannot compare with it either as regards extent or
completeness, and when it is remembered how uncertain the foundation
is on which Lacaille’s zones rest, and how poor and unreliable the Bris-
bane Catalogue is, it will be conceded by everybody that Mr. Stone’s
Catalogue will be an inestimable treasure for future generations, the
value of which will continue to increase. As remarked by its author,
the catalogue may also render good assistance in investigations on
special stars occurring in Lacaille’s and Brisbane’s Catalogues, or even
in completely new re-reductions of the observations on which these cata-
logues are founded.
“Catalogue of 1098 Standard Clock and Zodiacal Stars, prepared
under the direction of Simon Newcomb” (papers prepared for the use of
the American Ephemeris, No. 4, 162 pp., 4to). This catalogue was pre-
pared for the purpose of obtaining standard positions of reference stars for
use in the lunar and planetary theories, especially in the reduction of the
older occultations. It contains all the standard stars of the Ephemeris
(except most of those added for field work), and allstars to the sixth mag-
nitude inclusive, which can be occulted by the moon, together with stars
below the sixth magnitude observed by Bradley. The author was able to
use Auwers’ reduction of Bradley. The declinations of the catalogue are
reduced to Mr. Boss’ system, which was only modified so far as to sub-
stitute Auwers’ reduction of Bradley for that of Bessel. In the ease of
stars within 80° of the pole, the right ascensions were not independently
investigated, but were taken from Dr. Gould’s Catalogue (second edition),
while the declinations. are those of Mr. Boss. The catalogue gives, in
the case of the stars observed by Bradley, the positions and other data
for the two epochs 1755 and 1850, while in the case of fundamental time-
stars the positions are also given for 1,900. Stars between 10° and 30°
from the pole have data-given for the epochs 1755, 1800, 1850, and 1900,
and stars still nearer the pole also for 1825 and 1875. The precessions
S. Mis. 109 ——13
194 ASTRONOMY.
-and secular variations for each epoch are independently computed.
Formule for finding the place of a star for any epoch between 1750 and —
1900 from the data in the catalogue by Taylor’s theorem add to the gen-
eral usefulness of Professor Newcomb’s work, which will no doubt be
extensively employed by astronomers who have to reduce lunar or plan-
etary observations made during the last and the present century.
Dr. Gould has printed his second volume (Cordoba observations of
1872), except the introduction. It contains the places of 400 stars for
the catalogue, and also 128 zones of the zone observations, comprising
over 13,000 stars. All the observations made at Cordoba are now fully
reduced and they make a grand showing:
121, 000 observations for the catalogue of 35,000 stars.
14, 000 observations of fundamental stars.
105, 000 observations for the zones.
240,000 observations in all.
Of these about half (including all the zones) were made by Dr. Gould
personally. The total number of stars will be somewhere in the neigh-
borhood of 80,000 in the zones, and 30,000 to 35,000 stars in the cata-
logue.
The work is all ready for the printer up to the end of 1875, but much
remains to be done to put it in final shape from 1875 to 1880. The print-
ing is an extremely slow process in Buenos Ayres, and the meteorolog-
ical volumes (2 of which have appeared) are sources of delay.
Among recent catalogues of stars may be cited that published by
Professor Respighi in vol. VIII of the Atti della R. Accademia dei Lincet.
Jt contains the mean declinations for 1875 of 1,463 stars between the
parallels of 20° and 64° north, deduced from observations with the me-
ridian circle of the Royal Observatory of-Campidoglio in the years 1875,
1876, and 1877.
The separate publication of the Berlin list of 539 stars will cease
with 1881, and a selection from this list will appear in the Berliner
Jahrbuch.
A catalogue of 195 stars is printed in No.1 of the Publications of the
Washburn Observatory. The observations were made at Ann Arbor
by Mr. Schaeberle, the reductions at Madison by Mr. Comstock, under
the direction of Professor Watson.
Each star was observed three times on the average, and the probable
errors in R. A. and Dee. of the concluded positions are:
+ 0s. 040 sec 6 and
+0”, 55 respectively. ‘
The zones of the Astronomische Gesellschaft from 80° to —2° are now
nearly finished. Kasan (80-75), Dorpat (75-70), Christiania (70-65),
Gotha (65-55), Harvard College (55-50), Bonn (50-40), have all finished
the observations, and the reductions are nearly done. Lund (40-35)
will finish observing in 1881. Leyden (35-30) will soon publish the
ASTRONOMY. 195
final results. Cambridge, England (30-25), is well advanced in redue-
tion. Berlin has two zones; 25-20 is in progress, 20-15 is finished.
Leipzig also has two zones; 15-10 is finished, and 10-5 is in progress,
Albany (5-1) is far advanced. Nicolajeff (1 to —2) is well under way.
Parallax of stars.—Professor Ball, Royal Astronomer for Ireland,
found for the parallax of 61 Cygni, as deduced from measures of 61 A
Cygni and a small star n. f.,
+0. 4654 +0.” 0497.
A second series has been completed in which 61 B Cygni and the
small star n. f. were used. Differences of declinations were measured
in both eases. The last result is—
+0.” 4676 +0.” 0321.
That is, the agreement is exact, and Struve’s value for the parallax of
this system is confirmed rather than Bessel’s.
The search for objects having curious spectra, which has been ear-
ried on for some months at the Harvard College Observatory, has led
to the discovery of another singular star by Prof. E..C. Pickering. The
spectrum consists principally of bright bands, one in the blue being
eSpecially marked. Only four objects of this kind have heretofore been
known, one of these having been discovered likewise at Cambridge,
Mass., last August. This same method of search, which originated
last summer at the Harvard College Observatory, has been adopted at
the observatory of the Earl of Crawford and Balcarres, and Dr. Cope-
land has already shown that a curious double nebula is gaseous. It
will also be introduced in the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good
Hope, and there applied to extreme southern objects.
Variable Stars.—“ Photometric Measurements of the Variable Stars
& Persei and DM. 81° 25. By Edward C. Pickering, Arthur Searle,
and O. C. Wendell,” (Proc. Amer. Acad., Vol. XVI, 28 pp.). The pho-
_ tometer used at Harvard College Observatory for the observation of
_ these two variables consists of a double-image prism placed between
the object glass and the eye-piece of a small telescope, which has a
Nicol prism in front of the eye-piece. By this instrument two ad-
_ jacent stars may be compared with great accuracy, as the two images
_ of each will be formed by the double-image prism, and their relative
brightness may be varied by turning the Nicol. Each image in turn
will disappear when the Nicol is turned 90°, and there will consequently
always be four positions in which the brighter image of the fainter
star will be precisely equal to the fainter image of the brighter star.
# Persei was compared with the fifth magnitude star w Persei 90/ dis-.
tant. The two images were formed by two Rochon prisms which pro-
duced a separation of about 100’, so that they had to be placed very
near the object glass of the telescope in order that the images of the two
196 ASTRONOMY.
stars should be near together. The focal length of the telescope is
about seventeen feet, and its available aperture is limited by the size
of the prisms to about an inch. Observations were made on thirteen
nights, from September 29, 1880, to January 1,1881. Three settings of
each of the four positions of the Nicol constituted a set; the total num-
ber of sets was 230. Seven minima were observed, and the probable
‘error of a single minimum is 3.8 minutes, while Schmidt gives the
probable error of a minimum observed by Argelander equal to 6 min-
utes, and of those of Schénfeld 4.6 minutes. A comparison is made
between the light curves found by Schénfeld, and at Harvard College ~
Observatory, and the photometric and naked-eye methods are found to
agree closely. For the observation of Ceraski’s variable star +819
No. 25, the photometer was attached to the 15 inch refractor, on account
of the faintness of the star. Two hundred and seventy-three sets of
measures were made, and five minima were observed. The average
probable error of a minimum is 1.3 minute, or about one-third of that
of ? Persei, which was to be expected since the rate of variation of the
stars is about as three to one. Some interesting theoretical conclusions
are drawn from the, resulting light curve. For about an hour and a half
the light remains sensibly constant at 0.110, or about one-ninth of its full
intensity. This interval is over one-third of that during which the light
is increasing or diminishing. If the variation in light is admitted to
be-due to a dark eclipsing satellite, the diameter of the latter must be
v¥1—0.110 = 0.943 of that of the star, in order to sufficiently reduce
the light. A somewhat smaller diameter is possible, if we admit that
the star, like our Sun, is darker near the edges than in the center. But
the difference Gannot be great, or it would show itself in other ways.
The longest period of uniform minimum light would occur if the satel-
lite produced a central annular eclipse. In this case if the motion was
uniform, the duration of the minimum light would equal only one-ninth
of that of increase or decrease. The effect of curvature or ellipticity
of the path would not greatly affect this conelusion. <A very great ellip-
ticity is not admissible, or at the periastron the satellite would strike
the star. We are, therefore, obliged to admit that the star is entirely
covered by the satellite, and that the light during the minimum is either
due to some proper light of the satellite, or is to be explained by admit-
ting that the satellite consists of a cloud of meteors so scattered that
about one-ninth of the light of the star can pass through the central
portions.
On September 13, 1881, a red star was noticed at the Harvard College
Observatory in R. A. 16 31".5, Dec. + 72° 32’. From the similarity
of its spectrum to that of several known variable stars, it was presumed.
‘to be variable; and the suspicion was confirmed, both by its absence
from the catalogues and by subsequent observation, which showed that
its brightness was increasing.
ASTRONOMY. 197
Star charts, ete.—The series of ecliptic charts, by Dr. Peters, was
begun about 1860, and has been continued and enlarged up to the pres.
ent time, and this work is still going on. It is intended to make a
series of charts, each of which shall include all the stars visible with
the 13-inch refractor of the Litchfield Observatory, in a certain region,
with their positions for 1860.0. As these charts are now about to be
published by Dr. Peters, some account of them may not be unwelcome.
Instruments and methods employed.i—The observations are all made
with the 13-inch refractor (made by Spencer). In the focus of this eye-
piece is a mica scale, divided into 100 parts, 50 on each side of Zero.
Each part is about 9/.8, and for the more important stars half parts (or
decimals of a part) are read, so that their positions are known within
5’, a quantity which corresponds on the seale of the charts to less than
inch 0.004, and hence to about the smallest quantity that can be conve-
niently plotted.
On paper sheets about 17 x 14 inches are the lithographed blank
forms. Each map contains 20™ in Right Ascension, and 5° in Declina-
tion ; 1™ additional in R. A. is added on each side (to preserve the star
configurations) as well as 10/ in Dee. on each side.
Each map thus contains 22™ in R. A. and 5° 20/ in Dee., 2™ and 20/
of which are in common with four other contiguous maps.
One degree on these is 2.336 inches or
1° = 2.336 inches.
1’ = 0.039 inches.
1’ = 0.0007 inches.
The process of constructing such a chart is briefly as follows:
1. Having decided on the limits of the chart, all available catalogues
are consulted, and all stars within the limits of the proposed chart are
reduced to 1860.0, and entered in the chart in pencil and afterwards in
ink, keeping to Argelander’s scale of magnitudes.
2. Zones are then observed with the chronograph and mica scale.
The transits are observed over only one wire.
These zones are about 15’ wide in declination and as long in R. A. as
convenient, say 20™. Sometimes a zone 60™ long is observed in order
to obtain enough standard or determining stars. The right ascensions
are read to 0°.1, the declinations to 4 parts (4/’.9).
3. These observations are then reduced accurately to 1860.0, and the
stars are pricked in with a needle-point through a ruled piece of oiled
paper.
4. With the telescope (dark field) these star-positions are examined
and a memorandum of the magnitude of each star is made. On the
next morning these zone stars are marked in ink according to the pencil
mnemoranda. As the catalogue stars are practically in Argelander’s
Scale of magnitudes, the whole of the catalogue and zone Stars are
given on one scale.
do. Many examinations and revisions with the telescope (dark field)
198 ASTRONOMY.
are made, and faint stars are put in by their configurations with the
other stars. In the course of these revisions asteroids are frequently
found, as although the charts are not primarily intended for this pur-
pose they are eminently suited to it.
This is shown by the fact that Dr. Peters has HTB discovered
no less than 40 asteroids ‘before any other observer, and several more
have been independently discovered by him.
The charts already finished comprise the space as given below:
TABLE A.
RIGHT ASCENSION. DECLINATION.
hs ms: hav m: Ont °
From 0 20 to 0 40 From + 9 to +10
Proms; 0) top I-20 From +10 to +15
From: / 4:20:t0 «41):20 From + 5 to — 1
From 1 20 to 1 40 From +12 to +15
From 1 20 to 1 40 From + 0 to 4+ 5
From 2 20 to 2 40 From +17 to +18
From. 3 0to 3 20 From +15 to +20
From 9 40 to 10 0 From + 9 to +10
“ From 10 0 to 10 20 From +10 to +15
From 10 20 to 10 40 From +12 to +15
From 10 40 to 11 0 From +10 to +15
From 11 0 to 11 20 From 0 to — 5
From 11 20 to 11 40 From 0 to — 5
From 11 40 to 12 0 From — 2 to — 5
From 11 40 to 12 0 From + 4 to +10
From 12 0 to 12 20 From — 5 to +10
From 13 20 to 13 40 From — 5 to — 7
From 13 40 to 14 0 From —10 to —15
From 14 0 to 14 10 From —10 to —15
From 15 20 to 16 0 From —20 to —22
From 19 0 to 19 20 From —22 to —23
From 19 0 to 19 20 From —25 to —27
From 20 40 to 21 0 From —25 to —28
From 21 0 to 21 20 From —20 to —25
From 21 20 to 22 0 From —10 to —20
From 22 0 to 22 20 From —15 to — 5
From 22 20 to 22 40 From — 5 to —10
From 23 0 to 23 40 From 0to+ 3
From 22 40 to 24 0 From’ — 4 to — 6
Quite as many more charts are either “ begun” (with the catalogue stars
laid down) or have the zones completed, needing only comparison with
the sky.
Some idea of the amount of this work may be had from the fact that
ASTRONOMY. 199
already about 64,000 zone stars have been observed and mapped.
Quite as many more of the fainter stars are needed to complete the
maps, and perhaps half of these are now mapped. We possess several
series of ecliptic charts, more or less complete. These are:
1st. Charts by Hind, on which the smallest star is about 11 mag.
2d. Charts by Chacornac, minimum visibile, 13 mag.
3d. Charts published by the Paris Observatory, in continuation of
CHACORNAC’S, minimum visibile, 13 mag.
The smallest stars laid down on Dr. Peters’ charts are 14.8 mag.
The charts of Chacornac and those of the Paris Observatory are
extremely useful, but by no means so complete as those of Dr. Peters;
and, in general, they do not cover the same place in the heavens. No.
31 of the Paris charts, however, occupies the same ground as one of
Dr. Peters’ charts. On May 17, 1878, I compared the Paris chart
No. 31 with the sky, and at the same time I compared Dr. Peters
chart of the same region; and on the following day the two maps
were compared together.
The Paris chart No. 31 contains 1,554 stars, and extends from 10 0™
to 10" 217 R. A., and from + 8° 45’ to + 14° 0/ 6; the Hamilton Col-
lege chart, covering nearly the same ground, extends from 10" 0™ to
10" 20" R. A., and from + 10° to 15° in 6. The number of stars laid
down on the space common to both (from 10° 0™ to 105 16, and from
+ 10° to + 14°) is, according to the Paris chart, 1,010 stars; according
to Dr. Peters’ chart, 1,511 stars; or almost exactly one-half more in the
latter.
I found more than thirty cases where the stars of the Paris chart
were either much too large or too small, or where they occupied places
where no stars now are. In all these cases the Hamilton College chart
was correct. :
Errors in position I naturally could not verify in the time at my dis-
posal, but by considering the allineations of the stars as seen in the sky
and by comparing these with the data of the Paris chart, I found the
latter frequently incorrect, not always by small amounts.
The configurations of the group of smaller stars are quite wrong in
very many cases, even where all the stars are given; and very many
stars are missing of a magnitude superior to the smallest included on the
chart.
In particular, the following stars laid down on the Paris chart do not
exist in the heavens:
Beas 105 3™ 528; d+ 13° 17.5
10 40; 13 39
17 518" 13 30.5
LS) 7RE 12 59
5 40; 12 4.0
Bots fis Ba meek double; only one of
which exists.
10 12 39; +11 16.0
200 ASTRONOMY.
The following stars (among others) are too small in the Paris chart:
R.A. 10", 16™ . 08; 64-129 10/.0
Bic Mili RON SME
10, 2Bice > AeA
ss oa ees UBER
18 25; 12. 56.5
FE Re aa Oa 3
1018, 89 2 44902. r5082
The following stars (among many others) are too large in the Paris
chart: :
R. A. 108.10" 138; +. 1389 «27.5. Paris 6™, really 9"
10 2 380; +11 24.0. Paris 8", really 9-10",
and many others.
The configurations of the Paris chart are often quite wrong; perhaps
the worst cases are at
R. A. 10% 4™ 30*-60%; 64100 15/-25/.
10 14 Sa BOA.
In every one of these cases the Hamilton College chart was correct;
and after a careful examination of nearly every star on this latter chart
I found only one case in which the chart seemed to me in the least
erroneous. One faint star seemed to me about 1™ too bright.
This chart was not only an accurate map of the stars, it was also a
picture of them, and a configuration of stars in the sky would at once
catch the eye on the map, and vice versa. It need hardly be said that
this is not true of any other series of charts existing, not even of the maps
of Argelander’s Durchmusterung.
The explanation is not far to seek, and lies in the perpetual revision to
which the Hamilton College charts have been subjected. It is only
fair to say that this excellence would appear somewhat less striking if
the charts were used in connection with a telescope different from that
by means of which they were constructed.. They would, in any case,
remain the most admirable series now existing ; and they would be of
great value and would save much time and labor. For instance, in
the observation of asteroids with the transit-circle of the Naval Observa-
tory, much time is now wasted in finding the asteroid with the 9-inch
equatorial. This amounts, in some cases, almost to a new discovery. If
these maps were available at the Naval Observatory, this labor would be
materially lightened. Astronomers are to be congratulated that Dr.
Peters has decided to publish these beautiful charts.
Schoenfeld’s Durchmusterung of all stars to the tenth magnitude, in-
clusive, from —2° to — 23° of declination, is very nearly finished ;
396,000 observations have been made, and the map of Hour XIII has
been finished. It contains 4,233 stars. It is probable that the whole
work will be finished by 1883.
For the convenience of those who are using star charts, the following
ASTRONOMY. 201
index to Chacornac’s charts (including the later Paris charts) is pre-
sented :
No. RAN Declination. No. FRAC Declination.
h.m. h.m. Ora ony h.m. h.m. OF ct On
1 0 0 to 0 20 +1 0to—415 32 10 20 to 10 40 + 645 to +12 0
la 0 0 0 20 +1 0 4- 6 15 | 34 al 11 20 + 2 45 +8 0
2 0 20 0 40 —145 + 3 30) 35 11 20 11 40 + 0 30 + 5 45
2 bis 0 20 0 40 + 3 30 + 8 45 | 36 11 40 12 0 — 130 + 3 45
3 0 40 0 60 + 615 + 5 30 | 39 13 0 13: 20 —10 36 —515
3a 0 40 10 + 6 30 +10 45 | 41 13 20 13 40 —12 0 — 6 45
4 0 1 20 + 4 45 +10 0 43a 14 0 14 20 —10 30 — 515
D 1 20 1 40 +70 +12 15 46 affsy 4) 15 20 —20 30 —15 15
6 1 40 200 +9 0 +1415 |} 49 16 0 16 20 —23 45 —18 30
7 2.0 2 20 | +10 80 +15 45 50 16 20 16 40 —24 30 —19 15
9 2 40 3 (0 +14 0 +19 15 51 16 40 720 —25 0 —19 45
13 4 0 4 20 | +18 45 +24 0 | o2 ays MU) 17 20 —25 30 —20 15
15 4 40 5 0 +20 0 +25 15 60 19 40 20 0 —23 45 —18 30
22 fom 7 20 +20 0 +25 15 61 20 0 20 20 —22 45 —17 30
26 8 20 8 40 +16 15 +21 30 62 20 20 20 40 —21 30 —16 15
27 8 40 9 0 +15 0 +20 15 63 20 40 21 0 —20 15 —15 0
28 9 0 9 20 +13 45 +19 0)| 64 21 0 21 20 —22 0 —16 45
29 9 20 9 40 +12 15 +17 20 64a PALE) 21 20 —16 45 —11 30
29a 9 20 9 40 +7 0 +12 15 70 PAS 23 20 —s 0 — 2-45
30 9 40 10 0 +10 30 +15 45 71 23 20 23 40 — § 45 — 030
31 10 0 10 20 + 8 45 +14 0 72 23 40 24 0 — 3 45 + 130
DOUBLE STARS.
The long series of measures of double stars, made at Washington from
1875 to 1880, by Professor Hall, has been published separately. Pro-
fessor Hall has made a complete series of observations of a selected list of
doubles, selected by Dr. Struve and himself for comparison, and besides
has investigated the angles and sides of a triangle and a quadrilateral
of stars as measured and computed. The results of these measures are
excellent. The double stars measured are very numerous, and are nearly
all of interesting stars. A discussion of a two years’ series of measures
on the trapezium of Orion is given separately, adjusted by least squares.
The star ¢ Cancri is triple and has been well observed. Dr. Seeliger,
of Leipzig, has investigated the orbits of the three stars, A, B, C, in a
memoir, of which he has given a synopsis in the Sitzwngsberichte of the
Vienna Academy for May, 1881. Without giving details, we may state
his principal results. He first finds an orbit for B about A, and this
orbit satisfies the observations very well without taking into account
the star © at all. This may arise from one of twothings: either the in-
fluence of C is veritably small, or the perturbations by C oceur in such
a way as to compensate in their effects on the elements of the orbit of
Band A. Dr. Seeliger has shown that the latter is the case. For the
mass of C we can (arbitrarily) assume large values without destreying
the agreement between observation and computation, and further, he
has shown that a large value must be assigned to the mass of ©. This
has been shown in different and independent ways. The mass of C is
larger than 2.4 times the sum of the masses of A and B.
The orbit of C is next investigated, and a suggestion of Dr. Otto
Struve’s that C moves round a dark body near it, is found to be highly
probable. The final result of his discussion of this question is that it is
202 ASTRONOMY.
probable that C moves round a star which belongs to this system, but
which is not one of the three known, A, B, C.
During the first part of 1881, Mr. S. W. Burnham was resident at the
Washburn Observatory at Madison, by the invitation of Governor Wash-
burn. During the period April 23 to September 30, 1881, he discovered 88
new double stars, several of great difficulty, and measured no less than
162 double stars (each on three nights) selected from his MS. Catalogue
of Double Stars. In the zone observations at this observatory during ~
the same period, 60 more double stars were found. Mr. Jedrzejewicz,
of Plonsk, has published during the year a continuation of his double
star measures, which appear to be remarkably consistent among them-
selves. He has measured a great many of the neglected pairs of
Struve, each star on three or more nights.
The observations are given in the Astronomische Nachrichten, Nos.
2324-2407. .
Companion of Sirius :—An orbit of the companion of Sirius, based on
measures, has been computed by Professor Colbert, of Chicago.
The elements give the period as 49.6 years. The position for 1881.2
is p=45°.6, s=9/.9; for 1882.2, p= 439.1, s=9".5.. For 1890.2 the
position is p= 322°.2,5=2/.2, and at that date Sirius will be about
the most difficult known double. This is about the minimum, accord-
ing to Professor Colbert.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
By far the most important papers which have appeared during the
year are those of Mr. George Darwin on tidal friction in connection
with the history of the solar system.* This paper forms one of a series
on the subject of tidal friction, which has been read from time to time
before the Royal Society. An abstract of one of these was given in this
report for 1880. The first part of this paper contains the investigation
of the changes produced by tidal friction in the system formed by a
planet with any number of satellites revolving about it in circular orbits.
As the results cannot be conveniently stated without the aid of mathe-
inatical notation, they are here passed over.
The previous papers treated of the effects which tidal friction must
have had on the motions of the earth and moon, on the supposition that
time enough has elapsed for this cause to have its full effect. It then
appeared that we are thus able to co-ordinate together the various ele-
ments of the motions of these two bodies in a manner too remarkable
to be the product of chance.
The second part of the paper contains a discussion of the part which
the same agency may have played in the evolution of the solar system
as a whole and of its several parts.
* An account of a paper entitled ‘On the tidal friction of a planet attended by sev-
eral satellites, and on the evolution of the solar system, by G. H. Darwin, F. R. S.,
read before the Royal Society on January 20, 1881.”
ASTRONOMY. 203
It is first proposed that the rate of expansion of the planetary orbits,
due to the reaction of the frictional tides raised by the planets in the
sun, must be very slow compared with that due to the reaction of the
tides raised by the sun in the planets. Thus it would be much more
nearly correct to treat the sun as a rigid body, and to suppose the
planets alone to be subject to frictional tides than the converse. It did
not, however, seem expedient to attempt to give any numerical solution
of the problem thus suggested, which should apply to the solar system
-as awhole. The’ effect of tidal friction is to convert the rotational
momentum of the tidally-disturbed body into orbital momentum of the
tide-raising body. Hence, a numerical evaluation of the angular mo-
mentum of the various parts of the solar system will afford the means
of forming some idea of the amount of change in the orbits of the sev-
eral planets and satellites which have been produced by tidal friction.
Such an evaluation is accordingly made in this paper, with as much
accuracy as the data permit.
From the numerical values so found, it is concluded that the orbits
of the planets round the sun can hardly have undergone a sensible
enlargement from the effects of tidal friction, since those bodies first
attained a separate existence.
Turning to the several subsystems it appears that although it is pos-
sible that the orbits of the satellites of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn about
their planets may have been considerably enlarged, yet it is certainly
not possible to trace the satellites back to an origin almost in contact
with the present surfaces of their planets, in the same manner as was
done for the case of the moon in the previous papers.
The numerical values above referred to exhibit so marked a contrast
between the case of the earth with the moon, and that of the other
planets with their satellites, that it might, a priori, be concluded as prob-
able that the modes of evolution have differed considerably. The con-
clusion above stated concerning the satellites of the other planets can-
not therefore be regarded as unfavorable to the acceptance of the views
maintained in the previous papers. It must, however, be supposed that
some important cause of change, other than tidal friction, has been con-
ceived in the evolution of the solar system and the planetary subsys-
tems. According to the nebular hypothesis of Laplace, that cause has
been the condensation of the heavenly bodies. Accepting that hypoth-
esis the author then proceeds to consider the manner in which contrac
tion and tidal friction are likely to have worked together.
A numerical comparison shows that notwithstanding the greater age
which the nebular theory assigns to the exterior planets, yet the effects
of solar tidal friction in reducing planetary rotation must, in all proba-
bility, be considerably less for the remote than for the nearer planets.
It is, however, remarkable that the number expressive of the rate of
retardation of the Martian rotation by solar tidal friction is nearly the
Same as the similar number for the earth, notwithstanding the greater
204 ASTRONOMY.
distance of Mars from the sun. This result is worthy of notice in con-
nection with the fact that the inner satellite of Mars revolves with a
periodic time much shorter than that of the planets’ rotation; for (as
suggested in a previous paper) solar tidal friction will have been com-
petent to reduce the planetary rotation without directly affecting the
satellites’ orbital motion.
It is, then, shown to be probable that solar tidal friction was a more
important cause of change when the planets were less condensed than
it is at present. Thus we are not to accept the present rate of action of
solar tidal friction as indicating that which has been held true in all
past time.
It is.also shown that if a planetary mass generates a large satellite,
the planetary rotation is reduced after the change more rapidly than
before; nevertheless the genesis of such a satellite is preservative of the
moment of momentum, which is internal to the planetary subsystem.
This conclusion is illustrated by the comparatively slow rotation of the
earth, and by the large amount of angular momentum residing in the
system of moon and earth.
An examination of the manner in which the difference of distances,
of the various planets from the sun will have affected the action of tidal
friction, leads to a cause for the observed distribution of satellites in the
solar system.
According to the nebular hypothesis a planetary mass contracts, and
rotates quicker as it contracts. The rapidity of its revolution causes
its form to become unstable, or perhaps, as seems more probable, an
equatorial belt gradually detaches itself; it is immaterial which of these
really takes place. In either case the separation of that part of the
mass which before the change had the greatest angular momentum per-
mits the central portion to resume a planetary shape. The contraction
and increase of rotation proceed continually until another portion is de-
tached, and so on. There thus recur at intervals a series of epochs of
instability or abnormal change. Now, tidal friction must diminish the
rate of increase of rotation due to contraction, and therefore if tidal fric-
tion and contraction are at work together the epochs of instability must
recur more rarely than if contraction acted alone. If the tidal retarda-
tion is sufficiently great, the increase of rotation due to contraction will ©
be so far counteracted as never to permit an epoch of instability to occur.
The rate of solar tidal friction decreases rapidly as we recede from the
sun, and therefore these considerations accord with what we observe
in the solar system. For Mercury and Venus have no satellites, and
there is a progressive increase in the number of satellites as we recede
from the sun.
Whether this be the true cause of the observed distribution of satel-
lites amongst the planets or not, it is remarkable that the same cause
also affords an explanation of that difference between the tellurian sys-
tem and the other planets with their satellites which has permitted tidal
ASTRONOMY. 205
friction to be the principal agent of change with the former, but not
with the latter. |
In the case of the contracting terrestrial mass we may suppose that
there was for a long time nearly a balance between the retardation due
to solar tidal friction and the acceleration due to contraction, and that
it was not until the planetary mass had contracted to nearly its present
dimensions that an epoch of instability could occur. If the contraction
of the planetary mass be almost completed before the genesis of the
satellite, tidal friction, due jointly to the satellite and the sun, will there-
after be the great cause of change in the system, and thus the hypothe-
sis that it is the sole cause of change will give an approximately ac-
curate explanation-of the motion of the planet and satellite at any sub-
sequent time. It is shown in the previous papers of this series that
this condition is fulfilled with the earth and moon.
The paper ends with a short recapitulation of those facts in the solar
system which are susceptible of explanation by the theory of the ac-
tivity of tidal friction. This series of investigations affords no grounds
for the rejection of the nebular hypothesis, but while it presents evi-
dence in favor of the main outlines of that theory it introduces modifi-
cations of considerable importance.
Tidal friction is a cause of change of which Laplace’s theory took no
account, and althongh the. activity of that cause is to be regarded as
mainly belonging to a later period than the events predicated by the
nebular hypothesis, yet its influence has been of great and in one in-
stance of even paramount importance in determining the present con-
dition of the planets and their satellites.
THE SUN.
The publication of Professor Young’s book on the sun (International
Scientific Series), in 1831, is important, as it is undoubtedly the au-
thority on the subject, and supplements the work of Secchi, and pre-
sents, beside, more philosophical and extended views.
The first chapters deal with the dimensions and distance of the sun,
with the means and apparatus for studying its surface, with the phe-
nomena of sun spots, their periodicity, ete.; with the phenomena of
solar eclipses, the corona, etc. Perhaps the two most important chap-
ters are those relating to the sun’s light and heat, and the different
theories relating to the constitution of the sun. The theory of Dr.
Hastings, spoken of in the last report of the Smithsonian Institution,
receives a discussion to which we must refer, In an appendix, Pro-
fessor Langley gives an account of his observations with the bolometer,
and the conclusions he has derived from them. To test these conclu-
Sions still further, Professor Langley undertook an expedition to the
western part of the United States, which is anticipated by Gibbon, in
chapter 43 of the “Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,” in the follow-
ing words: ‘“ Their calculations may perhaps be verified by the astron-
omers of some future capital in the Siberian or American wilderness.”
206 ASTRONOMY.
Professor Langley’s expedition started in July, 1881, and took up a ;
;
ws
}
“
t
‘ station on Mount Whitney, in the Sierras, where observations were
made to determine the amount of solar heat received by the earth. —
This was the main object of the expedition. Several minor researches —
of interest were also prosecuted; among others, an attempt was made
to see the sun’s corona and Vulcan. It is too soon as yet to speak of
the results of the expedition, which have not been published.
Statistics of the sun.—The following statistics of the sun, comprising —
facts which can be stated in numbers, are selected from Professor —
Young’s work, “The Sun”:
Solar eal (equatorial horizontal), 8.80’ + 0.02”.
Mean distance of the sun from the earth, 92,885,000 miles, 149,480,000 _
kilometres.
Variation of the distance of the sun from the earth between January —
and June, 3,100,000 miles, 4,950,000 kilometres.
Linear value of 1” on the sun’s surface, 450.3 miles, 724.7 kilometres.
Mean angular semi-diameter of the sun, 16’ 02.0’ + 1.0”.
Sun’s linear diameter, 866,400 miles, 1,394,300 kilometres. (This may, —
perhaps, be variable to the extent of several hundred miles.)
Ratio of the sun’s diameter to the earth’s, 109.3.
Surface of the sun compared with the earth, 11,940.
Volume, or cubic contents, of the sun compared with the earth,
1,305,000.
Mass, or quantity of matter, of the sun compared with the earth,
330,000 + 3,000.
Mea jee of the sun compared with the earth, 0.253.
Mean density of the sun compared with water, 1. 406.
Force of gravity on the sun’s surface compared with that on the
earth, 27.6.
Distance a body would fall in one second, 444.4 feet, 135.5 meters.
Inclination of the sun’s axis to the ecliptic, 7° 15’.
Longitude of its ascending node, 74°. °
Date when the sun is at node, June 4-5. ,
Mean time of the sun’s rotation (Carrington), 25.38 days.
Time of rotation of the sun’s equator, 25 days.
Time of rotation at latitude, 20°, 25.75 days.
Time of rotation at latitude, 30°, 26.5 days.
Time of rotation at latitude, 45°, 27.5 days.
(These last four numbers are somewhat doubtful, the formule of va-
rious authorities giving results differing by several hours in some cases.)
Linear velocity of the sun’s rotation at his equator, 2.261 miles per
second, 2.028 kilometers per second.
Total quantity of sunlight, 6,300,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 can-
dles.
Intensity of the sunlight at the surface of the sun, 190,000 times that
of a candle flame, 5,300 times that of a metal in a Bessemer converter,
146 times that of a calcium light, 3.4 times that of an electric are.
ASTRONOMY. 207
Brightness of a point on the sun’s limb compared with that of a point
near the center of the disk, 25 per cent.
Heat received per minute from the sun upon a square metre, per-
pendicularly exposed to the solar radiation at the upper surface of the
earth’s atmosphere (the solar constant), 25 calories.
Heat radiation at the surface of the sun, per square metre per minute,
1,117,000 calories.
Thickness of a shell of ice which would be melted from the surface of
the sun per minute, 484 feet, or 143 meters.
Mechanical equivalent of the solar radiation at the sun’s surface, con-
tinuously acting, 109,000 horse-power per square metre; 10,000 (nearly)
per square foot.
Effective temperature of the solar surface (according to Rosetti), about
10,000° Cent., or 18,0009 Fahr.
SOLAR PARALLAX.
Mr. David Gill, Her Majesty’s astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope,
has just issued, as a reprint from the forty-sixth volume of the “‘ Memoirs
of the Royal Astronomical Society,” his definitive paper on the deter-
mination of the solar parallax from observations of Mars at Ascension
in 1877. We think it no exaggeration to style it the most important
separate determination of this constant which has ever been made.
In Mrs. Gill’s charming little book, “Six Months in Ascension: An Un-
scientific Account of a Scientific pe pedwaeal the incidents and details
of a somewhat arduous undertaking, now become historic, were fully
described. The expenses of the expedition were defrayed by vote of
the Conncil of the Royal Astronomical Society in the first instance,
and later from the Government Grant Fund of the Royal Society. The
observations at Ascension were made with the heliometer owned by
Lord Lindsay (now the Earl of Crawford and Balcarres), in accordance
with what astronomers call “the method of the diurnal parallax,” or
“‘east-and-west method.” While much of the detail of reduction of the
work is presented in Mr, Gill’s admirable volume, a vast deal has been
omitted in the printing—in full accord with the more advanced and
advancing notions on this subject. The original note-books and manu-
| scripts are deposited with the society, where they may, and should, be
referred to, if the re-examination of the work is ever tndertaken, or
any doubtful point arises. The final-result of Mr. Gill’s oivesheation
is 8.78, with a probable error of 0/’.012—which gives, for the mean
distance of the earth from the sun, 93,080,000 miles. Most astronomers
will have little doubt that this value of the solar parallax is too small;
nevertheless, the more important of the recent researches on this sub-
ject show this value to be a close approximation to the truth.
M. Fave has just communicated to the French Academy a paper on
the actual state of our knowledge of the sun’s parallax.
He considers that there is no other scientific constant, the determina-
208
ASTRONOMY.
tion of which depends on an equal number of results completely inde-
pendent of one another, and obtained by methods so totally different,
and subdivides the various values assigned for the sun’s mean parallax
as follows:
Geometrical methods, 8/’.82:
8.85 by Mars (Cassini’s method), Newcomb.
3°.79 by Venus, 1769 (Halley’s method), Powalky.,;
87.81 by Venus, 1874 (Halley’s method), Tupman.
8.87 by Flora (Galle’s method), Galle.
8.79 by Juno (Galle’s method), Lindsay.
Mechanical methods, 8/’.83:
8.81 by the lunar inequality (Laplace’s method), Newcomb.
8/’.85 by the monthly equation of the earth, Leverrier.
8/’.83 by the perturbations of Venus and Mars, Leverrier.
Physical methods, 8.81: _
8’’.799 velocity of light (Fizeaw’s method), Cornu.
8/.813 velocity of light (Foucault’s method), Michelson.
After explaining the value of the different results, M. Faye gives his
preference to the physical result, and arrives at these conclusions:
1. That the method of the physicists is superior to all others, and
ought to be substituted.
2. That the value of solar parallax, 8’’.813 (by physical methods), is
now determined to about +}, of a second.
3. That the seven astronomical methods of procedure converge more
and more toward that value, and tend to confirm it without equalling
it in precision.
In other words, M. Faye believes that the true distance of the sun is |
that found acon by Mr. Michelson.
Professor Eastman has published “A Value of the Solar Parallax from |
Meridian Observations of Mars at the Opposition in 1877.” In 1876 a
circular letter was prepared at the Naval Observatory and distributed
to astronomers, asking their codperation in making meridian observa-
tions of Mars in 1877.
Professor Eastman, based on that suggested by Dr. Winnecke in 1862,
and alist of comparison stars wasselected. The programme was strictly
followed at Washington, at Sydney, and partly at Leyden. At Mel-
bourne, the Cape of Good Hope, and Cambridge, Mass., the programme
was not followed ; and from San Fernando and Kremsmunster observa-
tions were received either unreduced or unexplained. Professor East-
man has not reduced the San Fernando observations and makes no use
of those at Kremsmunster. The observations of Mars when less than
jour comparison stars were used on any night, are also rejected. Upon
the remainder, the discussion is made.
The probable error of a single declination of Mars was found to be— |
At Washington.... ..
At Melbourne: -... <4
At Leyden
A programme of observing was proposed by-
SSS aa, © ea bhate Ete aaah 18 at Mtr ok Wee es aman + 0.452
See ade eatatape ala! ereial waka hale) Ghemiar enna tej okete + 0.552
:
ASTRONOMY. 209
The probable error of a single declination of a comparison star was
found to be—
HEN eI ei cna ewe ee cia eae es ees oles eas + 0.302
A, BMI Oca COTT RTT asgeapeaea I ea ee alee i peta iat ce aie A -— 0! 349
IC Ie. es ee aan en cee sae ene nee ees + 0.255
It may be said in passing that the precision of the Leyden results is
undoubtedly due to the method of observation (two observers taking
part in it), and also to the thorough way in which the constants of the
Leyden circle were investigated by Kayser. The reduced observations
are compared two and two for determinations of the parallax :
Washington and Melbourne; z = 8.97 + 0/.03.
Washington and Sydney; z = 8.88 + 0/’.05.
Washington and Cape of Good Hope; =z = 8/.90 + 0/07.
Melbourne and Leyden; = = 8.97 + 0/.03-
Melbourne and Cambridge; = = 9//.14 -+ 0/.05.
In all, these include 70 determinations, and give for the value of =,
8.980 + 0.017. Professor Eastman rejects the Cambridge observations
and also certain separate observations; the result from 60 determinations
is z = 8.953 + 0.019, which is adopted.
Professor Eastman says “the method of determining the solar par-
allax from meridian observations of Mars, has never had a fair trial.
The principal obstacle to be overcome is the desire of each observatory
to co-operate in its own way, if at all, thereby wasting its own work
and rendering good observations at other stations useless,” and he
urges “that at the next favorable opposition of Mars, astronomers may
rise above all jealousies and prejudices, and unite upon some plan to
give this method one fair trial before it is condemned.” The results of
Professor Eastman’s discussion, and of that of Dr. Winnecke, in 1862,
are in so good agreement that the method certainly deserves, and un-
doubtedly will obtain, another trial.
The next favorable opposition will occur in 1892, and this interval
will give all ‘‘jealousies” a chance to cool. Mr. Gill has suggested a
reason why the results from Mars observations differ systematically
from those by other methods, which is considered by Professor Eastman,
on p. 43 of his memoir, and it certainly seems that the experiments of
Professor Eastman (which are still in progress) invalidate the proposed
explanation. This is a point upon which further light is much needed.
Transit of Venus, 1874.—The United States Transit of Venus Commis-
‘sion published a volume containing the chief results of measurements
of the photographs of the transit of Venus parties sent out by the
United States in 1874. No definitive result for the parallax was given, as
Some elements for the determination of the final value were still wanting.
Professor Todd, director of the Amherst College Observatory, has dis-
cussed these observations as they stand, and has obtained values for
the solar parallax which are probably very near the final values. From
S. Mis. 109-———14
210 ASTRONOMY.
the photographs at the following northern stations, Wladiwastok (13),
Nagasaki (45), Peking (26), and from those at southern stations, Ker-
guelen (8), Hobartown (37), Campbelltown (82), Queenstown (45),
Chatham Island (7), Mr. Todd finds the solar parallax from measured an-
gles of position on the photographs of the Sun and Venus, z= 8.873 +
0/’.060; from measured distances, z= 8/’.888 + 0/.040; and finally, hay-
ing regard to the weights, z= 8.8834 0.034.
Velocity of light—An experimental determination of the velocity of
white and colored light formed the subject of a memoir, the joint pro-
duction of Dr. J. Young and Prof. G. Forbes, read before the Royal
Society, London, lately. The official summary states that the method
employed was that of Fizeau, but instead of using one distant reflector
and observing the total eclipse of the reflected ray by a toothed revolv-
ing wheel, two reflectors nearly in the same line with the observing tel-
escope and one a quarter of a mile behind the other were used, and the
rays were viewed when brought to equal brightness by means of the
adjustment ef the speed of the wheel. The general result was that the
‘velocity of the light of an electric lamp is 187,200 miles per second.
Cornu found that of the ight of a petroleum lamp to be 186,700 miles
‘per second, and Michelson that of the sun to be 186,500 miles per sec-
ond. The higher number of Young and Forbes is possibly due to the
bluer light of electricity, for further experiments made with colored
lights and the spectrum tended to prove that the blue light probably
travels faster by 1 per cent. than the red light. The experiments were
made at Wemyss Bay, Scotland.
The results of Forbes and Young have, we believe, not been accepted
as yet by physicists. From theoretical considerations, Lord Rayleigh
and Mr. Michelson, among others, have shown the improbability of
these figures for the velocity of light of different colors.
Transit of Venus December 6, 1882.—In view of the fact that many of
the readers of this report will have an opportunity to observe the next
transit of Venus we present the instructions issued by the International
Conference for the observation of the transit of Venus of 1862.
“Article 1, It is desirable, from a theoretical stand-point, that the
telescope used should be of as large aperture as possible. In practice,
the difficulty of transportation on the one hand, and the necessity of
observers at different stations having similar instruments, limits the
apertures to from 0.12 meter to 0.15 meter (about 44 to 6 inches.)
In all cases the objectives should be as perfect as possible. Observ-
ers should give an exact description of the quality and defects of the
objective, as also the eye-piece employed. Towards this end they should
determine:
1. The form of the image of a star in focus, as also the image of the
sane star at a point before and after coming into focus.
2. The separating power of the objective for double stars.
ASTRONOMY. 211
It will be useful to know, also, if the telescope is able to show the solar
granulations on any favorable opportunity, and also the degree of
visibility of these granulations during the transit.
Art. 2. It will be well to employ a reflecting prism, or a polariscopic
eye-piece, to diminish the heat and consequent danger to the observer's
eyes.
If it be decided to use a silvered objective, a method which offers the
great advantage of eliminating all the obscure heat rays and doing
away with errors from distortion arising from heating of the interior of
the tube, the excess of light may be absorbed by a neutral tint glass
composed of two glasses of similar thickness, one being colored and the
other colorless. :
Art. 3. The eye-pieces should be positive, achromatic, and of a power
of 150. The observations of contacts should be made in a field sufti-
ciently clear to show, plainly projected on the solar disc, two wires sep-
arated by a distance of 1”.
Means should be employed to remove as far as possible the effects of
atmospheric dispersion.
The setting-point of the reticule should be previously ascertained on
the stars, or by means of a collimator focused to stars.
In cases of observation by projection, corresponding means should be
employed.
Art. 4. The times corresponding to internal contacts may be defined
as follows:
Ingress: The moment when an evident and, at the same time, per-
sistent discontinuity in the illumination of the apparent limb of the sun
jointng the point of contact with Venus disappears.
Egress: The moment of the first appearance of an evident and, at
the same time, persistent discontinuity in the illumination of the solar
limb joining the point of contact.
If the limb of two stars coming into geometrical contact, without ob-
scuration or deformation of the interposed thread of light, the instant
previously defined is that of contact.
If there bé produced a black drop or ligament, well defined and as
dark as the body of the planet, the precedingly defimed instants are:
for ingress, that of definite rupture; and for egress, that of the first ap-
parition of the ligament.
Between these two extreme cases, other appearances may be pro-
duced when the instants of contact may be noted as follows:
If, the limbs remaining without deformation, there is produced an ob-
scuration of the luminous thread, without the shadow, however, being
as dark as the body of the planet, the observer notes the instant of
geometrical contact. The moment of the formation or disappearance
of this shadow should also be noted.
If the shadow is almost or becomes quite as dark as the planet, the
21 ASTRONOMY.
precedingly defined instant is that when this equality ceases or is es-
tablished.
The observer should also note whether there is produced on the
iuminous thread any fringes or any other distinct phenomena, and
should note the moment of their appearance and disappearance.
It is generally desirable to note the time of occurrence of any distinet
phenomena about the time of contact. Nevertheless it is a grave mis-
take, and one that should be guarded against, to multiply the noting of
times near the occurrence of a contact.
The time of appearance of phenomena of a distinct character should
be mentioned only in such a manner as to be readily separated from
other phenomena observed about contact.
It will be useful in all cases that the observer should illustrate his
notes with a drawing made immediately after each complete observa-
tion of contact, in order to show more clearly the interpretation which
he attaches to his description of the phenomena.
Art. 5. As the limb of Venus falls internally on the solar dise during
internal contact, as has been noted in Article 4, the observer should
indicate as closely as possible whether the moment when the limbs
of Venus and the sun, apparently coinciding, seem to be lengthened
out.
This observation, though rough, is still desirable as a check to the
principal noted phase.
Art 6. Notwithstanding the fact that observations of external con-
tacts are subject to considerable uncertainty, the conference recom-
mends that they be observed either by direct vision or by means of the
spectroscope, and that the point on the solar disc, where the first con-
tact takes place, be determined in an appropriate manner.” Comptes
Rendus, October, 1881.
The Austrian Government will be petitioned to grant a subvention
towards equipping an expedition to take part in the observation of the
next transit of Venus, on 6th of December, 1882, as the next opportu-
nity of thus measuring the distance of the earth from the sun will not
occur till the year 2004. The Bermudas are recommended as the most
suitable observation station.
Transit of Mercury, November 7, 1881.—A noteworthy fact in relation
to this transit is the expedition of Mr. C. H. Rockwell to the Sandwich
Islands for the purpose of observing it. Only two contacts could be
seen in the United States, and so Mr. Rockwell left his observatory at
Tarrytown and arrived at Honolulu on November 4. On November 7
he observed all four contacts and a number of differences of R. A. of the
sun and Mercury, and on the 8th sailed for the United States.
The only other American observation of which we know was made at
the new Lick observatory by Prof. E. S. Holden and Mr. 8. W. Burn-
ham, who observed the first and second contacts.
The transit was well observed in Australia.
ASTRONOMY. 215
COMETS.
The following is a list of the comets of the year 1851 in the order of
their discovery:
CLT ES 01 ee eee et ee Rochester, N. Y.
Pet oo. DADDUCL oo. Sis eo hpee a cjn- nimies einai South Africa.
OUIC i aes OC MACDELIC |<, aicha)s shi a on ale, pao ani Ann Arbor, Mich.
Comet D....Encke’s ..... sie eM ec! Lu (Periodic and expected.)
POMeiph yee AMMAard - 6 2\c0, sess eee aah ao NOSRVULe.. "Denn.
MCU Het STOOKS, | (faye 2h: bela: bey ardbaynle abet ieee Phelps. Wexy.
RRR TA aera VV UE Gi on ah care i gee By oh cal oft ys Rochester, N. Y.
Comet A was found May 1 in Andromeda. It was a faint object,
and, moving rapidly southeast, was soon lost in the morning twilight,
and was not seen in the southern hemisphere.
Comet B was the brightest since the memorable one of 1861. Its
path was nearly due north, and by its proximity to the sun was soon
rendered invisible from any part of the world. It passed the sun at
noon on June 19, and was first seen in the northern hemisphere on the
morning of June 22, its tail only then being visible. The next morning
it became an object of general observation. Its subsequent career is
too well remembered to need a description here. Its orbit is probably
elliptical, having a period of about 3,000 years. From a similarity of
elements it was at first thought to be the comet of 1807.
Comet C was first seen on the morning of July 18, somewhat singu-
larly, in almost the same place where comet B had so suddenly ap-
peared after having been lost sight of in the southern hemisphere.
Like B it had two tails. Its elements are unlike those of any comet
heretofore observed.
Comet D (Encke’s), which has a period of only about 3% years, has
just paid us the twenty-ninth visit since it was first detected in 1786.
Comet E was discovered on August 18 by Mr. E. E. Barnard. It
moves in a parabolic orbit.
Comet F was first detected on the morning of October 4 by Mr. W. R.
Brooks, and on the next morning by Mr. W. F. Denning, of Bristol,
England, who immediately announced it, which Mr. Brooks for two
days failed to do, as clouds prevented him from determining whether
it were a comet or a nebula. It is, notwithstanding that it was visible
only through the telescope, by far the most important one of the year.
It is a periodic comet of the short period of eight years. It is, there-
fore, and probably for years has been, a permanent member of our
system.
Comet G, discovered by Swift on the evening of November 16, is of
fair size, though faint, and, like A, E, and F, without a tail. Its ele-
ments are somewhat like those of comet A, 1792.
Comet B was successfully photographed by several astronomers—
notably by Prof. Henry Draper and Dr. Huggins—a feat never before
214 ASTRONOMY.
accomplished. Several small stars were shown on the negative, shining
through the tail, though their light passed through probably 100,000
miles of cometic matter. This shows the exceeding transparency of
these bodies.
Comet B, 1881.—An important note on the photographic spectrum of
comet B, 1881, has been sent to the Royal Society, London, by Dr.
Huggins. After subjecting the plate to an exposure of one hour with
the nucleus of the comet acting through one-half of the slit of the
apparatus (see for process “Philosophical Transactions of 1880,” page
769), the open half was closed, the shutter withdrawn from the other
half and the instrument then directed to Arcturus for 15 minutes. The
result was a very distinct spectrum of the comet, together with the
spectrum of the star. The spectrum of the comet consists of a pair of
bright lines in the ultra-violet region and a continuous spectrum which
can be traced from about F to some distance beyond H. The obvious
inference he makes from the position and measurement, in wave lengths,
of the lines is that part of the light of comets emanates from them-
selves, and that part of their light is simply reflected sunlight. Further,
the spectrum would go to prove the presence of carbon in the substance
of comets, possibly in combination with hydrogen. Another photo-
graph was taken on June 25, when the plate was exposed for an hour
and a half, but it was so faint that the Fraunhofer lines could not be
seen in the continuous spectrum, although they were clearly observ-
able in the former photograph. But the two bright lines were very
distinct. Subsequently, on July 9, he found the wave lengths of the
two bright lines to be 3,883 and 3,870, and discovered that the less re-
frangible threw a faint luminosity beyond the second line. He saw,
too, the groups of lines between G and h usually associated with the
carbon compounds. His wave length for the less refrangible end of
the spectrum is 4,230. Nitrogen would seem, also, to be present in the
comet, besides carbon and hydrogen. Dr. Huggins concludes: “It is
of importance to mention the strong intensity in the photograph of the
lines 3,883 and 3,870, as compared with the continuous spectrum, and
the faint, bright group beginning at 4,230. Atthis part of the spectrum,
therefore, the light emitted by the cometary matter exceeded by many
times the reflected solar light.
This bright comet was also successfully photographed by Dr. Henry
Draper in New York. The tail is 8° long on the picture, the exposure of
the negative plate having been three hours. Spectroscopic observa-
tions of the nucleus showed a continuous spectrum, with no absorption
lines (due to the coma) visible. The tail, also, gave a continuous spec-
trum without lines. The coma gave a banded spectrum, showing it to
be gaseous.
This object has yielded unparalleled opportunity for research on the
physical constitution of comets. It has been abundantly photographed
by Draper and Common, and a series of drawings has been made by
ASTRONOMY. 215
Holden. A thorough optical examination of the comet’s spectrum has
been made by Young, Harkness, and Pickering. The spectrum has
been photographed by Draper and Huggins. The light of different
parts of the comet has been photometrically determined by Pickering,
the results being expressed in stellar magnitudes on Pogson’s logarith-
mic scale, showing the comet to be of the seventh magnitude very near
the nucleus, and the tail, at 4° from the nucleus, to be of the 11.6
magnitude. And, lastly, the polarization of the comet’s light has been
observed by Wright, establishing the fact that the light emitted by the
tail is polarized rather strongly in a plane passing through the sun’s
place, the percentages indicating that reflected sunlight constitutes the
greater part of the light of the tail.
Professor Stone and his assistant, of the observatory at Cincinnati,
saw this comet ‘separate before their eyes, forming a double comet.”
It is well known that Biela’s comet did separate, but no observer actu-
ally saw the process, which, it is safe to say, must have been very
gradual.
The observations of Professor Stone were doubted by Mr. Rock at
the Naval Observatory at Washington, who was observing the comet
at the same time, and the question was unsettled for the time.
It has since appeared that Mr. Wendell, of Harvard College Ob-
servatory, saw the nucleus double on one occasion, and at the Wash-
burn Observatory the nucleus was seen double on several nights, by
Professor Holden and Mr. Burnham, and on one night a perfectly satis-
factory measure of the two parts was made by Mr. Burnham.
From a note furnished to the Harvard College Library Bulletin, by
the observatory, the following is extracted:
“Much attention has been paid to cometary astronomy during the
past summer at the observatory by Messrs. S. C. Chandler, jr., and O.
C. Wendell. Orbits and ephemerides for four of the comets of the year
have been computed within a few days of their discovery in the north-
ern hemisphere, and circulated among astronomers by means of the
telegraphic cipher devised by Messrs. Chandler and Ritchie. These
results were largely derived from the observations of position made at
the observatory. Professor Pickering has made many photometric
observations of the brighter comets of the year.
“The spectrum of Comet B (the great comet which appeared towards
the end of June) was shown by European observations to contain five
bands, three of which are familiar in cometary spectra, while the other
two seemed new. It appears probable that these two are identical with
two of the three bands found last winter, at the observatory, in the
peculiar spectrum of a star in Canis Major, Ll. 13,412, the third band
being apparently due to hydrogen. An interesting analogy between
the spectra of comets and stars is greatly strengthened by this observa-
tion, since the three familiar bands of cometary spectra were previously
taken to agree with the bands seen in the spectra of a small class of
stars, designated by Secchi as stars of the fourth type.”
216 ASTRONOMY.
Comet of 1861.—The orbit of the great comet of 1861 has been thor-
oughly investigated by Herr Kreutz of Bonn, from 1,150 observations,
which extend over nearly a year. During this per.od the comet trav-
ersed an are of 155° of its orbit. Dr. Seeling had previously published
an orbit (an ellipse of four hundred and nineteen years), with which
the observations were compared. Thirty-one normal places (1861, May
28; 1862, April 23) were formed. Planetary perturbations were com-
puted for the whole interval, and the effects of Venus, Earth, Jupiter,
and Saturn were alone sensible. The perihelion passage was, 1861,
June, 11.54 Berlin mean time, and the period comes out 409.40 + 0.37
years.
The small probable error of the period is noteworthy. Herr Kreutz
is continuing his researches on this comet.
Fayeés Periodic Comet.—The British Royal Astronomical Society, at
its recent annual meeting, presented its gold medal to Prof. Axel
Moller, director of the Observatory at Lund, in Sweden, for his investi-
gations on the motion of Faye’s comet. Professor Moller’s researches
commenced in 1860, soon after attention had been directed to this
comet by the offer of a prize for the accurate determination of its orbit
by the Society of Natural Sciences of Dantzic, and they have been con-
tinued to the present time, the comet’s track at each of the three subse-
quent returns in 1865~66, 1873, and 1880-’81 having been predicted
with a precision which has excited in no small degree the admiration of
astronomers; indeed, at the reappearance in 1873, M. Stephan’s first
observation at the Observatory of Marseilles showed that the error of
predicted place was less than six seconds of arc, and after the last
revolution, when the perturbations from the action of the planets were
greater than in any previous revolution since the comet was first
detected by M. Faye, in 1843, the agreement between observation and
calculation was still very close. One important result of these investi-
gations has been a striking confirmation, from the motion of Faye’s
comet, of the value for the mass of Jupiter deduced, by Bessel, from the
elongations of the satellites, the two values according within the limits
of their probable errors.
In January, 1881, Mr. H. H. Warner, of Rochester, N. Y., founder of
the Warner Observatory, announced a prize of $200 in gold to any
American or Canadian who, during the year, should discover a telescopic
unexpected comet. When comet B, or the great comet, was discovered,
effort was made to ascertain who first saw it, and had a conclusion been
possible among the thousands of claimants, a special prize would have
been given. As none could be reached, Mr. Warner determined to give
a special prize of $200 for the best essay on “Comets, their Composi-
tion, Purpose, and Effect on the Earth.” One hundred and twenty-five
essays were sent in to Director Swift, of the Warner Observatory, and
after a careful review, the judges—Prof. Elias Colbert of Chicago, IIL,
Prof. H. A. Newton of Yale College, New Haven, Conn., and Prof. H.
ASTRONOMY. ZAG
M. Parkhurst of New York City—unanimously awarded the prize to the
essay signed ‘“Hipparchus III,” by Prof. Lewis Boss, director of the
Dudley Observatory, of Albany, N. Y. The text of this essay has been
published by the Rochester Astronomical Society.
Although the following extract is nét of direct scientific interest, it is
not without value as showing the official view of comets in China. It
is dated July 4, 1881, at Peking:
“(1) A decree. For several days past a comet has been visible in the
northwest, which We reverently take to be a warning indication from
Heaven and accept with feelings of the deepest and most respectful awe.
At the present time there are difficulties of many kinds to contend against,
and the people are not atease. It only remains for Ourselves and Our
Ministers mutually to aid each other in the maintenance of an attitude
of reverential watchfulness, cultivating a spirit of virtue, and examin-
ing Our shortcomings in the hope of invoking blessings and harmonious
influences from Heaven, and securing comfort to the black-haired race.
Do all ye Ministers at Our Court then, each and all strive to be diligent
in the exercise of your respective functions, and with all your might put
away from you the habits of perfunctoriness so long indulged in, assist-
ing Us with true sincerity of heart, and uniting in a common effort to
rescue your country from her difficulties. All provincial high authori-
ties must positively attempt to compass this object by genuine endeavour,
and set to work in earnest to bring about reforms, seeking out the
afflicted and the sorrowful in the villages and hamlets, and ministering
to their comfort with their whole heart. Then it may be that as each
day goes by perfection may be more nearly attained. Let them thus en-
deavour to second Our earnest feeling of reverential awe and Our wish,
by the cultivation of virtue and habits of introspection, to acknowledge
this sign from Heaven by deeds and not mere empty words.”
The August shooting-stars.—Over a hundred systems of meteors, which
are so disturbed by the passage of the earth near them on its way around
the sun that ‘“shooting-stars” are drawn from them into the earth’s at-
mosphere, where they are heated to visibility, are now known to astron-
omers. Most of these systems are unimportant because of their small
size or comparatively great distance; and of the rest, only those which
send us the August and November meteors are of particular interest,
although those of the latter part of April, the early part of December,
and the middle of July have been pointed out as noteworthy. It is a
common theory of ‘“‘shooting-stars” that they are the broken remnants
of comets whose orbits once crossed or came near to that of the earth,
but it is perhaps a mistake to hold that they are such débris, since all
that is known of them touching this matter is that they often follow in
the trains of comets as attendants. This is true of some well-known
systems, but it has never been shown that every system of meteors thus
follows in the wake of comets or that every comet is attended by shoot-
ing-stars, Of these bodies two interesting theories were proposed in
218 ASTRONOMY.
1879—one by Dr. Ball, the astronomer royal for Ireland, and the other
by M. Stanislas Meunier, of whom a commission of the Paris Academy
said that he was justified in concluding ‘“‘that all these masses once be-
longed to a considerable globe like the earth, having true geological
epochs, and that later it was decomposed into separate fragments under
the action of causes difficult to define exactly, but which we have more
than once seen in operation in the heavens themselves.” Dr. Ball’s the-
ory is founded on the arguments which induced Tschermak to believe
that he had proved meteorites to have no connection with shooting-stars,
but to have their origin in volcanic eruptions in other planets so small
that projectiles from them would not be driven back by the force of
gravity. On the smallness of such planets Dr. Ball lays no stress, and
indeed he first considered whether or not our meteorites may not come
from the sun, rejecting this theory, however, on the ground that such
solid rock masses as occasionally fall could hardly exist in such a body
as the central source of heat. The sun failing, Dr. Ball turns to the
moon, which also he rejects as a possible source, since, although it once
might have thrown out meteoric masses, they would either fall at once
to the earth or back upon the moon, or missing the earth would continue
to travel round it, and probably in the course of centuries return to their
original source. We must then assume that in her present cold state
our satellite is continually throwing out bodies from active voleanoes—
a supposition which no selenographer will entertain for amoment. For
very good physical reasons Dr. Ball rejects also the different planets as
sources of aerolites, and‘holds that they have had their origin on the
earth itself, which, though in its present geological state it has no power
to expel bodies with so great a velocity as his theory requires, yet was
certainly once possessed of voleanoes which might have performed the
work of throwing out matter with velocity enough to carry them beyond
terrestrial influence and send them in orbits ef their own around the
sun, crossing at each revolution the point at which they were shot from
the earth’s orbit. If this be true, showers of meteors should occur when-
ever the earth chanced to reach a point where a meteoric track crossed
hers, and the aerolites would come back to their source.
At about the same time when Dr. Ball was elaborating this theory
astronomers were following the researches of Daubrée, which seemed to
indicate a likeness in physical characteristics between meteorites and
the lower rock strata of the earth. M. Meunier, who was a pupil of
Daubrée, found that this analogy had not to do alone with mineralogi-
cal constitution, but “extended to the relation which these cosmical
materials disseminated in space present when compared among them-
selves aS we compare the constituent rocks of our globe.” His conelu-
sion, aS given above, was that the meteorites, therefore, came from a
‘““considerable globe like the earth,” having geological epochs analogous
to ours, but now broken up and disseminated through space, as at some
time our own globe may be. Notwithstanding the way in which this
ASTRONOMY. 219
latter theory was received by the Academy, it seems to be inadmissible
when the dynamics of the present solar system and the doctrine of
probabilities are called into play. On the other hand, if in the place of
the “considerable globe like the earth” we substitute, with Dr. Ball,
the earth itself, with its past certainties of enormous volcanic energy,
then the theory may have some plausibility.
PLANETS.
VULCAN (?}—Dr. Swift, of Rochester, has announced his intention
of going to Africa to observe the total eclipse of the sun on May 16,
1882. His special object is to look for the two intramercurial planets
which appeared in the field of his telescope at Denver during the eclipse
of 1879.
THE EARTH, geodesy, etc—In the volume of the Comptes Rendus for
1880 of the International Geodetic Association for the measures of de-
grees in Europe, there is a remarkable map which shows at one glance
the triangulation of Europe. To be fully appreciated, the origina
work must be consulted.
The origin of the English mile—At a recent meeting of the French
Academy of Science, a paper on a question of ancient metrology and
the origin of the English mile was read by M. Faye. He inquires into
the cause of the error, long current, of supposing the mile equivalent
in length to a terrestrial are of one minute. The mile has been prob-
ably deduced from Ptolemy’s measure, and the error of one-sixth seems
to arise from the English geographers having supposed that Ptolemy
used the Greek foot, which Eratosthenes used 400 years before, whereas
he used the Phileterian foot, which is about 0.36", the earlier one being
0.27". Eratosthenes counted 700 stadia to a degree; Ptolemy only
about 500.
The evaluation of Ptolemy, M. Faye concludes, is merely a sort ot
conversion of the excellent measure of Eratosthenes into units of
another epoch and different length. It must have lost, thus, a little
of its first precision; but, as presented by Ptolemy, the English geog-
raphers had good reason to take it as base of an evalution of the are
of one degree, and to offer it to nautical men of their country. Only,
and here is the mistake, they believed that the great Greek astronomer
used the Greek foot. This is one hundredth and a half more than the
English foot. If the English geographers of the sixteenth century
forced this evalution but a little and carried it to five hundredths, they
would have found 630 English feet to the stadium, which they believed
to have 600 Greek feet, and these 630 feet, or these 210 yards, multi-
plied by 500, would have given them 105,000 yards for the degree, and
exactly 1,760 yards to the mile. The English mile then has probably
been deduced from the measure of Ptolemy; its error of one-sixth is
due simply to confounding the Greek foot with the Phileterian foot.
Hence the mile of 1,609 meters long passed as equivalent in length
220 ASTRONOMY.
to a terrestrial arc of one minute—the degree containing sixty of these
miles—when in reality it contains 69.5, the error being about one-sixth.
This error delayed for many years the discovery of universal attraction.
The first time the idea that the attraction of the earth retaining the
moon in its orbit is the same thing as gravity, presented itself to New-
ton, he failed in the verification, because he then employed the mile in
calculating the earth’s radius. He thought he must renounce the idea,
and he only returned to it when he became acquainted much later with
the measurement of a degree executed by Picard, of France.
The Moon.—M. Janssen has succeeded in photographing the lwmiére
cendrée or “earthshine” on the moon when three days old. In the
photograph the “continents” were to be distinguished clearly from the
“seas.” ;
ASTEROIDS.—From the Berliner Jahrbuch for 1883 the following is
extracted:
Column I contains the numbers of the minor planets in the order of
discovery. Column II contains the mean magnitudes of the corre-
sponding planets, and column III contains the means of the magni-
tudes of these planets at the times of their discovery. This table is a
summary of a more extended one where these quantities are given for
each asteroid separately.
1 fA 30 Ii. | iT: | 10 PEE
| | |
| ‘
1-4 7.65 7.32 | 101-110 | 11.35 10. 73
5-10 | 8. 47 8.52 |; 111-120} 11.05 11.12
11-20 | 9. 50 9, 34 121-130 10. 95 11. 00
21-30 10. 09 9. 74 | 131-140 11. 26 i Baty
31440 10. 96 10. 31 | 141-150 | 11. 66 gh Bal
| 41-50 10. 68 10. 27 151-160 12. 42 12.17
| 51-60 |; 10.93 10.52 || 161-170; 11.83 11. 44
A
171-180 | 11. 67 isis
71-80 11.21 10.72 || 181-190} 11.59 11. 26
| 81-90 11. 38 10.64 || 191-200; 11.31 11. 30
| 91-100] 11.58 TAS a) |
From this table it follows that the discoveries have, on the average,
taken place in those parts of the orbits nearer the perihelion than the
aphelion, and moreover that the later discovered planets are not spe-
cially fainter than those since No. 100.
List of asteroids discovered in 1881.
. | i ,
Number. Name. aaa oe: | Discovered by— Discov EEE ‘
PE WE Sor Sone on coo soSEeaadesee Feb. 23, 1881. . Palisa. <2. s6reenc pounce eee 29
This is possibly 108 Hecuba.
JUPITER.—The annual report of the Chicago Astronomical Society, for
188081, makes an interesting and vaiuable exhibit of Professor Hough’s
work for the year past. He has reached the conclusion which it would
ASTRONOMY. 221
seem natural for science to reach, namely, that drawings are only valu-
able when made by strict micrometrical measurements, and, indeed, that
drawings on any other basis are misleading. He overlooks the fact how-
ever that a single centrel transit of the spot over a wire is several times
more accurate than a micrometer measurement taken when the spot is
not central. Jupiter presents such a variety of phenomena on his disk
at different times that it has been the fashion to suppose that his sur-
face is subject to sudden and rapid changes. The observations of the
professor do not confirm this belief. ‘On the contrary,” he says, ‘all
minor changes in the markings or spots have been slow and gradual,
such as might be produced by measurable mechanical forces. In fact,
the principal features have been permanent, no material change being
detected by micrometer measurement.”
From 1,379 micrometer measurements on the great red spot, on the
equatorial belt, the equatorial white spots, and the polar spots, a variety
of interesting data are presented. Computed from observation of the
red spot in 1879 the rotation period of Jupiter is 95. 55™. 34%, or 8 sec-
onds greater than the previously accepted value. In 1880 this value
was 9», 55™, 35.28. Computed by the polar spots the rotation period
is 95, 55™. 35.18. The computation from the equatorial white spots
shows that these spots are in motion on the surface of the planet, the
drift being about 270 miles per hour in the direction of the planet’s
rotation, or, in other words, that they made a complete revolution around
the planet in about forty-two days.
Professor Hough regards the red spot as fixed. The equatorial belts
he also seems to regard as fixed. The generally-accepted theory is that
this planet is enveloped in a dense atmosphere; that the belts are a solid
portion of the planet, and that the minor spots are clouds floating in
the atmosphere. Professor Hough suggests an hypothesis, namely :
that “the surface of the planet is covered with a liquid semi-incandes-
cent mass; that the belts, the great red spot, and other markings are
composed of matter at a lower temperature. The egg-shaped polar
white spots are openings in the semi-fluid crust.” This hypothesis, he
thinks, would account for the slow and gradual changes, which do not
seem reasonable on the simple atmospheric theory.
The great red spot on Jupiter’s disk has for two or three years been
attracting the attention of astronomers, and has been the subject of
almost endless observations. Dr. Jedrzejewicz has published some in-
ferences from his observations for ascertaining the time of rotation of
the eastern extremity of the spot, made at his private observatory at
Plonsk, during the winter of 1880-81. The instrument employed is a
refractor, six-inches aperture, with powers 225 to 300. In December
he measured the length of the spot 9/’.8, and considers that his own
observations, compared with those of Professor Schmidt at Athens,
indicate that the length of the spot remained unchanged during the
winter. On this assumption he finds for the time of rotation 9". 55™.
29? ASTRONOMY.
34.4148, by 174 rotations between November 25, 1880, and February
5, 1881. Professor Schmidt, from 1,021 rotations between July 23,
1879, and September 17, 1880, obtained the value 9%, 55™, 34.4228. for
the middle of the spot. In 1862, by observations on a spot which he says
was much darker, and with a more favorable object for the purpose
than the spots observed by Airy and Madler in 1834~35, and which was
not much larger than the shadow of the third satellite, he had found
for the time of rotation 9%. 55™, 25.6845.
From seven years’ observation of the surface of Jupiter, Herr Bre-
dichin concludes that the inequalities in the angular velocity of the
different figures seen on the planet may possibly be explained by as-
suming (1) that in the neighborhood of the equator there is a solid, ele-
vated zone, which, however, does not rise beyond the limits of the
atmosphere, and (2) that the crust of the southern hemisphere trans-
mits more internal heat into the atmosphere than that of the northern,
and this affeets the direction of currents of gases and vapors passing
from one hemisphere .to the other. The phenomena observed in that
part of the crust which appears through the vaporous layer as a red
spot prove, he says, the considerably deeper position of this spot as
compared with the equatorial zone, and the preponderating heat devel-
opment on the southern part of Jupiter. Herr Bredichin gives the dis-
tances of the southern and northern borders of the elevated equatorial
zone from the equator, for the years 1874 to 1880, and he finds that the
equatorial zone must be steeper to the south, while it has a more gentle
fall to the north, so that here it is varying, and covered more or less
with clouds and vapors. The highest strip of this zone seems to be 2”
from the equator, on the north.
The French Academy of Sciences, on the 14th of March, again pro-
posed the Damoiscau prize of 10,000 francs fora memoir deemed most
competent ‘to review the theory of the satellites of Jupiter, to discuss
the observations, and to deduce the constants which it contains, and par-
ticularly that which furnishes a direct determination of the velocity of
light; and, lastly, to construct special tables for each satellite.” Strange
to say, in this age of keen astronomical research, this prize, when pro-
posed in 1869, 1872, 1876, 1877, and 1879, met with no response.
SATURN.—Dr. W. Meyer, of Geneva, has employed the new Geneva
(10-inch) equatorial in measures on the system of Saturn, which are to
be continued. His first year’s results show that the ball of Saturn is
eccentrically situated as regards the boundary of the outer ring. He
makes the diameter of the whole ring system 40.47; width of ring A
(the outer ring), 3’; width of rings A and B together, on the west
side, 7/’.18—on the east, 6.97; width of ring C (dusky ring), west side,
2/,24—east side, 2/.91; equatorial diameter, 17.42; polar diameter,
16.20; compression, 1+-14.5. These results are reduced to the dis-
tance 9.5389. While it seems to require further proof that the ring
system is eccentrically situated with respect to the ball, there is a cer-
.
bo
ASTRONOMY, 23
tain amount of evidence in its favor in past observations, as those of
W. Struve and others. The writer has made a series of such obser-
vations for three years on the width of the dusky rings, and finds ring
© wider on the east side than on the west side by about 0/7.3. Mr.
Mayer’s result is 0/.5. Otto Struve found (1856) 0/2. While there is
a strong probability that such minute differences as these result from
real errors in the measures themselves, there is enough probability of a
ditference to make the measures worth a complete discussion.
OBSERVATORIES.
The Imperial University of St. Petersburg has founded an observa-
tory and placed it under the charge of Dr. Glasenapp. The equipment
consists of two refractors, by Merz, of 6 and 4 inches aperture respect-
ively, of portable and field instruments, and of an astronomical clock
by Wirén. The director asks for an exchange of publications with
other observatories.
A popular observatory has been established at the Palace of the Tro-
cadero, Paris. Founded by M. Leon Jaubert, it has just been opened
to the people, and many hundred free tickets have been applied for and
received. Each ticket admits its owner to the observatory between 1
and 4 o’clock in the afternoon, and from 8.30 to 11 o’clock at night. It
allows him to attend the practical school of astronomy, the demonstra-
tions on instruments, the literary, the scientific conferences, and the
popular laboratories of general pbysics.
A new observatory is being built by Columbia College, New York
City. It is to be used in connection with the scientific department to
instruct engineering students in the use of the portable instruments
and equatorial. It is placed in charge of Prof. J. K. Rees, a graduate
of the college. Proposals are being considered for building a 20-foot
dome. According to the Annuaire of Brussels Observatory, for 1881,
there are at present 118 public astronomical observatories in full ac-
tivity, viz, 84 in Europe, 2 in Asia, 2 in Africa, 3 in Oceanica, and 27
in the two Americas. The United States alone have 19, Mexico has 2,
Brazil, Chili, Columbia, Ecuador, the Argentine Republic, and New
Britain 1 each. In Europe, Prussia is. the state which has most public
observatories; it has 29; next come England and Russia, which have,
respectively, 14 and 12; then Italy, which has 9, Austria 8, France 6,
Switzerland 4, Sweden 3, Holland, Norway, Spain, and Portugal, 2 each;
lastly, Belgium, Greece, and Denmark. The oldest observatory in oper-
ation at present is that of Leyden, founded in 1632. In America, since
1870, six observatories of the best construction and most perfect equip-
ment have been established.
An observatory is to be erected at Hong Kong, at a cost of about
$34,000, for the purpose of dropping a time-ball for the shipping and for
carrying on magnetic and meteorological observations. From. the offi-
_cial papers we notice that a decided impulse to this motion has been
224 ASTRONOMY.
given by the presence at Hong Kong of the United States surveying
ship Palos, with Commanders Green and Davis, U. S. N., who are
determining longitudes by telegraph throughout the China seas.
The Etna Observatory.—The building is partially completed, and sur-
mounted by its revolving dome for the protection of the great Merz
equatorial of 35 centimeters aperture. The observatory will not be
ready to be opened until 1882. Great difficulties have to be surmounted
in the building; all the materials have to be conveyed 3,000 meters above
the level of the sea, and the season when work is possible is only three
months out of the year. The mounting of the equatorial is finished,
and the construction of the meteorological apparatus is going on.
Tabor College, in Southwestern Iowa, has just received a fine telescope,
the joint gift of the Rev. Mark Hopkins, D. D., ex-president of Williams
College, and the Rey. C. V. Spear, principal of Maplewood Seminary,
Pittsfield, Mass.
Prof. C. A. Young has lately determined the position of the observa-
tory of the scientific school of Princeton College. The longitude was
determined by telegraphicexchange with Washington. Itis 9™34°.538 +
0°.021 (7 nights). The latitude observations were in 5 series. The re-
sults were:
I. + 40° 20/ 57/".791 + 0.148
5
sue 7.76340 116
re: o7 81540 .067
V2 57,..17L 4-0 173
¥. Diet O ee) 088
Series I is 82 observations on nine nights of 28 stars, with a transit
by Kahler used as a zenith telescope. This telescope has a broken tube.
IT is 59 observations of 49 pairs on two nights, with same instrument.
IL is 114 observations of 49 pairs on three nights.
IV is 33 observations of 29 pairs on two nights, with a Fauth transit
used as a zenith telescope.
V is a series of 37 prime vertical observations from 11 stars.
The final value of the latitude has a probable error of + 0.044,
something less than 4 feet on the surface of the earth. These numbers
are worth quoting, as showing the accordant results which careful ob-
servers can obtain with small instruments.
INSTRUMENTS.
A refractor of 27 inches.—A short time ago the largest refractor in
the world was successfully completed by Mr. Grubb, of Dublin, who has
just had conferred upon him by the university of that city the honorary
degree of master of engineering. This instrument has a steel tube 34
feet in diameter at the center, tapering toward each end, of course. In
length this tube is 33.5 feet, and the aperture is 27 inches. At first it
was thought that the disks could be finished in a year by M. Feil, of |
ASTRONOMY. 225
Paris, but it took him four years to produce perfect ones, anc. the diffi-
culty he experienced was the main cause of the delay of the work.
Although the entire moving parts weigh seven tons, through counter-
poises and other expedients they can be operated at will by one man very
easily. The circles are carefully and minutely divided, and the observer,
while sitting in his chair, can read any of them by means of a little tel-
escope attached to the side of the tube of the main telescope. <A single
gas lamp, hung by gimbals at the end of the declination axis, serves to
light up each vernier and circle that may be required to be read. The
castings of which the frame is formed are about ten tons in weight. The
clock-work is controlled by Mr. Grubb’s frictional governor and his new
electric control apparatus. There are two right ascension circles, each
2 feet in diameter, one of which can be read from the eye end of the
telescope and the other from the ground floor. The declination circle is
5 feet in diameter, and is read from the eye end of the telescope. This
fine refractor is already placed in the magnificent observatory of Vienna.
Mr. Grubb has reprinted from HLngineering his interesting papers on
the manufacture of this telescope. We shall look with interest for an
account of its actual performance,
The observatory of Williams College has mounted its new 5-inch
Repsold meridian circle, and Professor Safford intends, we believe, to
prosecute his zone observations which were unfortunately interrupted
by his leaving Chicago.
This instrument is similar to those of Bonn, Brussels, and Strassburg
in design, and is of the same size as those made or ordered for the ob-
servatories of Tokio, Wilhelmshafen, and Madison.
Mr. Burnham has lately invented a lamp for illuminating, the webs
of a filar micrometer through the end of the box, which is perfectly sat-
isfactory in all respects. The first apparatus was made at the Wash-
burn Observatory in Madison, and is described in its Publications No. I.
The second was made by Alvan Clark & Sons for the new 12-inch tele-
scope of the Lick Observatory. They are prepared to supply them to fit
any micrometer.
The practical importance of this device is very great as it saves time
and trouble, and by a steady and satisfactory illumination of the
threads conduces to accurate bisections.. Either oil or gas can be used
in these lamps.
A refractor of 30 inches.—The flint glass for the 30-inch refractor for
Russia has been finished by Alvan Clark & Sons within the year 1881,
and we learn that the crown disk has been received from Feil and is
found to be satisfactory so far as can now be known. Two attempts
were made before the final successful casting. M. Feil will now pro-
ceed to the 36-inch disks for the Lick Observatory.
The Washington refractor of 26 inches—An investigation of the ob-
jective and of two filar micrometers of the 26-inch Clark telescope of the
Naval Observatory forms Appendix I of the Washington Observations
S. Mis. 109——15
226 ASTRONOMY.
for 1877. The work was done by Professor Holden during 1876 and 1877.
The exact dimensions of the objective were measured and the radii of
curvature computed so that they are known within 735 of aninch. The
indices of refraction could not be determined as the makers did not pre-
serve any fragments of the glass. The focal length was measured and
computed with assumed indices, and these agree to about 0.05 inch.
The periodic and progressive errors of the screws were determined by
means of a dividing engine and found to be practically zero. The two
screws were made by the Messrs. Clark. The lengths of 1 revolution
are—Screw I, 0.018775 + 0.000002 inch; screw II, 0.018763 + 0.000001
inch, at 32° I’.
The values of these revolutions in are have been determined in five
different ways.
A refractor of 36 inches for the Lick Observatory.—The trustees of the
Lick Observatory have finally closed the contract for the optical part of
their great telescope. There has been considerable doubt whether a
refractor or an enormous reflector would be selected, but the decision
is in favor of the former. The object glass is to be 3 feet in diameter,
and the Clarks of Cambridge, Mass., are to make it for $50,000. The
mounting for the instrument is not yet provided for. It will probably
be about three years before the telescope is finished. If the instrament
proves successful, it will be the most efficient ever pointed at the heav-
ens. Its power will exceed that of the Pulkova glass by 44 per cent.,
and it will be almost twice as powerful as the great telescope at Wash-
ington, which at present is the best of its kind.—San Francisco Scien-
tific Press.
A novel way of comparing clocks, distant from the standard clock,
has been introduced at the Washburn Observatory, where it has been
applied to a tower-clock, some 2,000 feet distant.
A single telegraph wire was led on poles from the observatory to the
clock, with a ground connection at each end. In the circuit at the clock
an ordinary microphone (Blake-transmitter) was put through a four-
pointed switch at the observatory; the telephone can be thrown into
the clock circuit, and a battery (usually of one or two standard Daniell’s
cells) is also brought into circuit.
When this is done the beats of the clock (every 2 seconds) can be dis-
tinctly heard. If the means of identifying the beginning of each min-
ute are at hand, accurate comparisons between the tower-clock (error
and rate unknown) and any of the observatory clocks can be made.
This has been accomplished in a very simple way as follows: On the
wheel which moves the second hand (which revolves in one minute), @
brass disk about 2 inches in diameter, which revolves with it, has been
put. Near the outer edge of this disk is a steel pin. Six seconds before
the beginning of each minute this pin picks up the short end of a lever,
some 5 inches long, and raises the hammer end during 6 seconds.
Exactly at 60 seconds the pin releases the hammer, which falls through
ASTRONOMY. Fayed
about one-half of an inch upon a small bell. This sound is distinctly
heard through the telephone, and fixes the beginning of each minute.
The minute is never doubtful, and consequently we have all the elements
for rating this clock.
UNIFORM STANDARD TIME.
For some time past the American Meteorological Society has been
engaged in the consideration of a uniform standard time, a matter of
some moment from a popular and from a scientific standpoint.
A circular has lately been published by the society, which calls public
attention to the great advantage of a more thorough uniformity of accu-
rate time to the business community, as well as to the scientific world.
As at present arranged there is great uncertainty and confusion. Lo-
cal time, in the astronomical meaning of the term, varies with every
change of meridian. This cannot be conveniently retained by the trav-
eling public or by railroad and telegraph companies. The result is
that the most convenient meridian is adopted by each such transpor-
tation company.
Consequently over seventy such standard meridians are now in use
by railroad and other companies throughout the United*States and Can-
ada. The larger towns and cities frequently adopt their own special
local times, and the smaller ones adopt the railroad times most conven-
ient to them. There are thus now inordinary use at least one hundred
local times or meridians, many of them differing but a few minutes from
each other.
It is suggested, therefore, that the community at large unite upon a
division of this continent into a few sections, and that throughout each
such division all transportation and telegraph companies, all town
clocks and clock-makers shall be kept in agreement with one standard
meridian. Five such different standards would be established for the
whole continent; a central meridian would be adopted in the Mis-
sissippi Valley, exactly ninety degrees or six hours west of Greenwich,
and proceed to the east or west by steps of one hour each, as shown in
the schedule given below. The meridian of five hours would be called
“Atlantic time,” that of six hours ‘“ Valley time,” and the meridian of
seven hours would be the standard “ Mountain time” for the entire
region of the Rocky Mountains, while “ Pacific time,” eight hours slower
than that of Greenwich, would govern the time-keepers of the Pacific
States.
228 ASTRONOMY.
Proposed schedule of standard times.
+ Oy og
wo
= -| 8a.
2 2 oie = 8 D tion of
o's aS A esignation
Geographical seotion. TE Fi eae z Siandacd: tae alone oe than proposed
oe ° SE ® : standard time.
qa0 | gad
a n
° h.m.8
Newfoundland........--- 29 minutes slower than St. Johns, N. F-
New Brunswick ..-....-- ; 60 4 00%| 24 minutes faster than St. Johns, N. B-| > Eastern time.
Nova Scotia .......----.. 14 minutes faster than Halifax, N.S...
18 minutes faster than Toronto -..-.---
16 minutes slower than Boston -..--.--
3 minutes sioner than New York.....
8 minutes faster than Washington --. Ae oe
19 minutes faster than Charleston --.. Atlantio time.
45 minutes faster than Montgomery .-
14 minutes faster than Buffalo .-....--
30 minutes faster than Detroit -----.-.-
38 minutes faster than Cincinnati-.--.. J
0 minutes faster than New Orleans ...
1 minute faster than Saint oes Shae
12 minutes faster than Saint Paul.....
18 minutes faster than Kansas City. -- Valley time.
19 minutes faster than Galveston -.-...
10 zotontes Sewer phan. ( bicaee soacice
: * 0 minutes faster than Denver. .-.....---
Rocky Mountain region -..) 105 T010 28 minutes faster than Salt Lake City. :
12 minutes slower than San Diego ....
800 10 minutes faster than San Francisco - Paciio tine:
Maine to Florida ....---.. 75 500
Ohio to Alabama ....-..-..
Lower Lakes .......-.... |
Mississippi Valley. ----.-
Missouri Valley pocceaas
Upper Lakes ...........-
PLOXAS es aeooe see tee
Canada ..........-.------ | 15 minutes Slower than Quebec —------
Pacific States............ } 120
British Columbia ---.. ee 11 minutes faster than Olympia.....--
12 minutes faster than Victoria......-
The evils spoken of undoubtedly exist, and eventually the number of
local times in use on railroads and elsewhere must be reduced in the
interest of every person who uses accurate time. This is not the place
to discuss what changes would be best suited to meet the wants in the
case, and the editor cannot here set forth in full his reasons for believ-
ing that this plaf of the American Metrological Society will not be
adopted by the people of the United States in general, who in the end
will have what is most convenient to themselves. Nor can the grounds
of selection of different standards of time (for in a country so large as
the United States, there must be more than one standard time) be set
forth here. It may suffice to quote the recent action of the State of
Connecticut, which has adopted by law the time of the meridian of the
City Hall in New York as its standard, and which obliges railways,
etc., to conform to it. In the same way it seems to be wise for the West-
ern States of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Illinois, to unite upon Chicago
time as their standard, instead of taking the time of 6 hours from
Greenwich. In this way every user of time will be supplied’ with the
time he requires most often, and the growth of local standard times
will be on a solid basis of use, and not a forced one of an artificial sys-
tem.
The following note with regard to time-balls in the United States is
of interest in connection with the subject of standard time.
The first time-ball established m the United States was dropped from
the dome of the National Observatory at Washington, D. C., in 1855.
ASTRONOMY. 229
It is still dropped in Washington near noon, and has long furnished the
standard time for the city and the departments of the Government.
In New York City a time-ball was established in 1877, dropped by an
electric signal sent from the Naval Observatory at Washington. It
was erected on the plans of Prof. E. 8. Holden, and is maintained by
the Western Union Telegraph Company, and is dropped from a staff on
the tower of their building on Broadway.
At 11.55 the ball is hoisted half way up the staff on the tower. At
11.58 it is hoisted to its highest point, when it is about 250 feet above
the street, and can be seen by the shipping at the New York and Brook-
lyn docks, and vessels in the bay, and from suitable positions is visible
to a large portion of the citizens of New York, Brooklyn, Hoboken and
Jersey City.
A time-ball at Boston, Mass., is dropped at noon of the latitude of
that city by means of the noon signal from the standard clock of the
Harvard College Observatory. It is placed in the large building of the
Equitable Life Assurance Company, and was put up and maintained
by that company at a cost of some $1,200. The ball itself in this case
is of copper and ‘weighs 250 pounds.
A time-ball has lately been established from the plans of Dr. L. Waldo
at Hartford, Conn., dropped by the Winchester Observatory of Yale
College.
At St. Louis, Mo., another has been recently established.
At Kansas City another is dropped as a part of the time service of
the Morrison Observatory under the direction of Professor Pritchett, at
the expense of the city, and is highly commended. When raised the
ball is lifted about 140 feet above the street, and is generally visible to
the citizens of all parts of the city.
The ball itself is about three feet in diameter, made of a wire skeleton
frame, covered with canvas, and painted black. To give it weight so as
to drop with the needed celerity it is loaded inside with lead. It has a
drop of about twenty-five feet and falls on a set of steel springs.
The manner of dropping these balls is extremely simple, and consists
of withdrawing a steel pin by means of a magnet touched at the exact
moment desired by the operator, whereupon the ball falls instantly.
ASTRONOMICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.
The admirable Catalogue générale of Messrs. Houzeau and Lancaster is
being issued in parts, and it is certain to prove of great use.
The second part of the Catalogus Librorum of the Pulkova Observa-
tory has been received in America (printed in 1880). It is edited by
Lindemann. This volume is on the same excellent plan as its prede-
cessor, and its arrangement renders it priceless to the student of the
history of astronomy. The growth of this unrivalled library may be
exhibited by the following figures:
In 1845 there were 4,150 volumes, 60 maps, 3,109 dissertations.
230 . ASTRONOMY.
In 1858 there were 7,625 volumes, 143 maps, 14,634 dissertations.
In 1880 there were 11,077 volumes, 168 maps, 23,208 dissertations.
A comparison of this collection with the bibliography of Lalande
(using the resources of Paris) is given below. Column 1 shows the
date of publication of the books; 2 shows the number of volumes at
Pulkova not known to Lalande, and 3 shows the number of volumes
mentioned by Lalande which are not at Pulkova:
il aT:
1472-1000 seem cse= 30 109 |
1501-1550...-....---. 126 216
1551-1600....-- sescgs 203 433
1601-1650..........-- 191 538
NGoT— 170 On jetesetste = i= 561 444
The Astronomische Nachrichten, the copyright of which is involved in
the Schleswig-Holstein question, has been remodelled and will in future
be published under the editorship of Dr. Krueger, the director of the
observatory at Kiel, in co-operation with the president of the German
Astronomical Society, of which association it will be a recognized organ.
The new arrangement can produce nothing but good results, some of
which are already evident.
A copy of the treatise of Copernicus, ‘De Hypothesibus Motuum
Ceelestium,” in a more perfect shape than any hitherto known, has been
discovered at Stockholm Observatory, stitched into a copy of his ‘‘De
Revolutionibus Orbium Celestium” which originally belonged to He-
velius.
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
By CLEVELAND ABBE.
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
The compilation of this record for 1879-1881 having been undertaken
at a late date, the time available for its preparation has been too short
to allow of consulting the original scattered memoirs; it will therefore
be found that the following pages consist almost exclusively of abstracts
from those invaluable periodicals, the “Zeitschrift fiir Meteorologie,”
edited by Hann, at Vienna, and ‘ Nature,” edited by Lockyer, at Lon-
don. It is hoped that but little of importance has been omitted, and
that this record will bring to the notice of the American reader much
that might otherwise have been overlooked.
I.—INSTITUTIONS AND INDIVIDUALS.
Prof. H. W. Dove died on the 4th of April, 1879, at Berlin, and in
him meteorology lost its most distinguished representative. Dove was
born, October 6, 1803, at Liegnitz, and was made professor extraordi-
nary at the University of Berlin in 1828 and became a member of the
Academy of Sciences in 1845. Optics, electricity, and metéorology, but
especially the latter, have alike profited by his activity. In 1846 the
Prussian meteorological system was established through his efforts.
He was not only an investigator, but a teacher of rare talent, and a
lecturer who possessed in a high degree a talent of rivetting the atten-
tion of his audience. His public lectures at the university and his
addresses before the Berlin Polytechnic Association were attended by
hundreds of admirers. In whatever relates to the grand generaliza-
tions that may be deduced from meteorological observations, Dove has
very properly been styled the “father of meteorology.” (Z. O. G. M.,*
p. 193, XIV.)
Proisasor Dr. Johann von Tanna director of the observatory at
Munich, died on the 6th of August, 1879. He was born September 13,
1805, oe the extreme north of sUp ean) Removed to Regensburg, Gos
many, in 1817, and in 1827 to Munich. In 1828 he became assistant at
the Royal Observatory at Bogenhausen, and, in 1833, on the death of
Soldner, became the director. His numerous observations and investi-
*The initials Z. O. G. M., constantly used, designate the Zeitschrift Oesterreichischen
Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie.
231
AAD METECROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
gations in the field of astronomy, terrestrial magnetism, and meteor-
ology have made him one of the most prominent scientists of Germany.
In terrestrial magnetism his name stands beside Gauss. (Z. 0. G. M.,
XIV, p. 374.)
Karl Fritsch, vice-director of the Austrian K. K. Central Institute
for Meteorology and Terrestrial Magnetism, died 1880, December 26, in
his sixty-eighth year. He was essentially the founder of the Austrian
Meteorological Association. From an excellent autobiographical sketch
we quote the following items:
Born in Prague August 16, 1812, he states “‘that even in my youth
I felt an irresistible tendency towards independenée in all my conclu-
sions. Neither the severity of my father nor the love of my mother
was able to conquer my youthful willfulness.”
His first definite impetus in the direction of the study of nature dated
from the year 1827, as he began to interest himself in the meteor-
ological observations made at the observatory of the University at
Prague, and published daily in the “ Prager Zeitung,” and which were
preserved by him. ‘From that time (November 18, 1827) was I body
and soul a meteorologist.” In the years 1831 and 1832 he began to make
independent meteorological observations, and in part constructed the
necessary instruments. Gradually every spare moment was given to
this work and every other occupation “driven to the rear.”
The contest between his love for astronomy, “‘ the queen of all sciences,”
and meteorology, ‘the youngest of her sisters,” was decided, as all the
world knows, in favor of the latter.
In 1859 he became an assistant to K. Kreil in the new Magnetic and
Meteorological Observatory at Prague, and the eleven years following,
1840 to 1850, show the extent and intensity of activity with which he
devoted himself to that work. His first independent publication was
presented at the end of the year of 1841 to the Bohemian Scientific
Association, and bore the title ‘“On the Simultaneity of Meteor Showers,
especially the November Showers, with the Low Barometric Pressures.”
The remaining forty years of his life afford a real illustration of suc-
cessful devotion to the advancement of. a favorite science, and in every
application of meteorology to the practical affairs of life his skillful
hand has been seen and the influence of his earnest life has been felt.
After a tedious illness, on the 26th 6f December, 1879, he departed this
life, “but for many years his memory will not be forgotten.” (Z. 0. G.
M., XV, 1880, p. 105-119.)
On the 29th of February, 1880, at Emden, Prof. Dr, M. A. F. Prestel
died suddenly of heart disease. He was born at G6ttingen in 1809,
October 27, and his extensive series of observations and independent
studies upon the climate of Emden have made his name everywhere
familiar. t
Ludwig Lose, one of the most industrious meteorological observers,
died suddenly on November 6, 1880, in Créfeld. A record of twenty-one
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. Zao
years of observation, nine times a day, testifies to his perseverance ;
during this time he and others have published numerous generalizations
based upon these observations. He was born November 26, 1811, in
Hanover. (Z. 0. G. M., Vol, XV, 1880, p. 100.)
Karl Weyprecht, born in Hesse-Darmstadt, 1838, died March 29, 1881.
Having entered the Austrian navy, he, in the summer of 1872, undertook
the conduct of the Austro-Hungarian Polar expedition, and since 1875
devoted himself to the establishment of the scientific and meteorological
and magnetic investigation of the circum-polar regions which is now be-
ing executed by the International Polar Commission. His early death
unfortunately prevented his realizing the success of the work he had so
well planned and promoted.
Prof. E. H. Sainte Claire de Ville, born March 11, 1818, at Saint
Thomas, in the West Indies, died July 1, 1881, at Paris. He filled the
chair of Professor of Chemistry at the Ecole Normale of Paris since
1851, and has, during this long interval, distinguished himself in all
branches of chemistry. He held an important position in connection
with the reorganization of French meteorology after the death of Le-
verrier.
' Prof. J. C. Maxwell, of Cambridge, England, born June 13, 1831, died
November 5, 1879. Although known especially by his contributions to
molecular physics, yet meteorologists have reason to remember his
“Treatise on heat,” and especially the last paper published by him on
the “Theory of the wet-bulb thermometer.”
Dr. ©. C. Bruhns, born November 22, 1830, at Holstein, died July
25, 1881, at Leipzic, where he was the director of observatory of the
university. Although devoted to astronomy, like several other astrono-
mers, and perhaps especially through his interest in the subject of
atmospheric refraction, he felt.the necessity of a better understanding
of the subject of meteorology, and accordingly Germany owes to him
the organization of its first system of official uniform meteorological
observations, namely, that of the state of Saxony, whose activity began
- in 1863. To him is also due the suggestion and calling of the interna-
tional conference at Leipzic, 1872. The amiability and benevolence of
his character endeared him to all with whom he had todo. (Z. O. G.
M., X V1, 1881, p. 489.)
The second International Congress of Meteorologists was held at
Rome, April 14 to 22, 1879. All European States, including France
and Greece, were therein represented ; the United States representative,
the late General A. J. Myer, unfortunately arrived too late. A perma-
nent international committee was appointed who should continue in
power until the next congress, which will probably meet in 1883 or 1884.
The Permanent International Committee of Meteorologists, estab-
lished in accordance with the decision of the congress at Rome, held
its first annual meeting on the 9th of May, 1880, at Berne, Switzerland.
1t will be the province of the committee by correspondence to execute
234 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
the various works authorized by the congress and to stimulate every
movement that looks toward greater uniformity in instruments, reports,
reductions, &c.
The International Polar Conference held its sittings in St. Petersburg
August 1, 1881, and definitely settled upon a programme to be adopted
in the international scheme for the exploration of the magnetic and me-
teorological phenomena of the Polar regions. The general schedule rec-
ommended at Berne was confirmed at St. Petersburg and the important
details definitely agreed upon. Observations will begin in the autumn
of 1882, and the following stations are assured: (1) Point Barrow, (2)
Lady Franklin Bay, will be occupied by the United States. (3) A place
on.the west coast of Greenland will be occupied by Denmark, either
Upernavik or Godthaab. (4) Jan Mayen, or the island of Grimsey near
Iceland, to be occupied by Austria. (5) The stations of Bosekop, near
Alten, Norway, will be occupied by the Norwegian Government. (6)
Mossel Bay, on Spitzbergen, will be occupied by the Swedish Govern-
ment. (7) Tbe mouth of the Lena and Nova Zembla will be occupied
at one or more points by the Russian Government. (8) Canada will
probably oceupy Fort Simpson. France will occupy some island off Cape
Horn, and Germany will occupy the island of South Georgia.
The observations will begin at all these stations at least as early as
the first of August, 1882, and will be continued for at least one whole
year. The stations Sects by the United States were, however, al-
already occupied in the summer of 1881, and will continue for three
years. Itis hoped that most of the others will also be continued at least
as long as this. The observations will refer principally to magnetism and
meteorology, all other matters being considered secondary. The regular
observations will be made hourly according to such system of time as
may be desirable; but the magnetic observations that are made on term
days, which days will always be the first and fifteenth of each month,
shall be conducted according to Gottingen time.
The meteorological observations are to be conducted as nearly as pos-
sible on a uniform system and with instruments of uniform accuracy,
the minutest details for which are given in the regulations of the con-
ference.
The magnetic work will Cone of both absolute and differential
observations. The absolute measures will give the declination and incli-
nation within one minute of arc, and are to be accompanied by special
magnetic study of the neighborhood, for the purpose of detecting local
irregularities.
The differential observations will also refer to all three elements of
terrestrial magnetism, and it is desirable that each station should have
two complete sets of instruments. The variation instruments will be
furnished with the smallest possible needles. Observations will be made
hourly, except on term days, when they will be made every five minutes;
on such term days, moreover, during one hour complete observations will
be made every twenty seconds.
-
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 235
Especial attention will be given to observations of the aurora, which
will be recorded hourly. The astronomical observations will be confined
entirely to the determination of the latitude and longitude and local
time.
Among the subjects suggested by the commission are hydrographic
investigations, the altitude of auroras, atmospheric electricity, the twi-
light, the collection of samples of air for chemical analysis.
The observations will all be reduced and published on a uniform plan.
All observatories throughout the world, especially those where mag-
netic observations are made, are earnestly invited to continue their
work during the next two years, and the electricians of telegraph com-
panies are urged to consider the great importance of accurately observ-
ing the earth currents on telegraph lines.
The methods of computation and reduction of the meteorological ob-
servations will be adopted in conformity with the meteorological con-
gresses held at Vienna and Rome. Summaries of the observations will
be sent as soon as possible after the return of each expedition to the
President of the International Polar Commission, through whom they
will be rapidly published. The collected observations will also be pub-
lished in full after they have been properly reduced, to which purpose
the Polar Commission will, after the return of the expeditions, meet
together for a further consideration of the subject. In this publication
the metric system and centigrade temperature will be adopted. The
commission recommends the publication of an occasional report or jour-
nal of proceedings. .
The present membership of the Polar Commission is as follows: For
Denmark, Captain Hoffmeyer; for Russia, Professors Lenz and Wild,
and Lieutenant Jiirgens; for France, Professor Mascart; for Norway,
Professor Mohn; for Holland, Dr. Snellen; for Sweden, Dr. Wykander ;
for Austria, Count Wilezek and Lieutenant Wohlgemuth; for the
United States, General Hazen and Professor Hilgard; for Canada, Prof.
Charles Carpmael; for Germany, Dr. Neumayer; for England, Mr. R.
H. Scott; for Finland, Professors Nordenskiold and Lemstrom.
The first annual volume of the observations of the meteorological
observations in Bavaria, under the conduct of Bezold and Lang, was
published in 1880. It gives convenient tables for the reduction of obser-
vations to sea-level, and a study of the thunder storms in Bavaria, dur-
ing 1879. Owing to the great number of thunder-storm observers it
has become possible to demonstrate a feature that has frequently been
suspected elsewhere, viz, that such storms occasionally break out simul-
taneously over a long expanse of country. The details of observation
for forty-nine years at Beyrout are also published. (Z. 0. @. M., vol.
XV, 1880, p. 334.)
The Meteorological Commission of the Natural History Society of
Switzerland, which is represented by R. Wolf and R. Billwiller, an-
nounces tiat if possible a meteorological station will be maintained at
236 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
the summit of Santas—Gipfel, at an altitude of about 10,000 feet. (Z.
O. G. M., Vol. XV, 1880, p. 329.)
The central committee of the Germano-Austrian Alpine Association,
animated by the desire to farther the study of Alpine meteorology, has
established a self-registering aneroid barometer, as constructed by Gold-
schmidt (to whom Hottinger now succeeds), upon the summit of Schaff-
berg. This establishment was personally attended to by Kostlivy;
and the observations are supervised by Grémmer, the proprietor of the
Schaffberg hotel. The publication of the first two months’ hourly
records at this point has given Hann occasion to collect together what
little is known upon the whole subject of barometric pressure at high
stations. The need of further observations in Europe and America is
strongly urged by him. He says there can be no doubt that*the modi-
fications that we see entering into the diurnal variation of pressure, as
we ascend higher and higher on isolated mountain peaks, is produced,
in the first place, by the diurnal change of the mean temperature of the
column of air between the top of the mountain and the base; and, in
the second place, also, by the change from ascending day-winds to
descending night-winds, such as we observe everywhere in mountain
regions. Both these causes have a tendency to raise the pressure at
high stations up to the moment of the maximum temperature, and to
lower it at the time of minimum temperature. Herein lies the reason for
the lateness of the morning maximum, the enfeebling of the afternoon
minimum, and the development of the morning minimum until it has
become the principal minimum of the day. But the magnitude of this
influence is, at least in our latitude, as variable as is the temperature
of the air and the prevailing wind. A formula for the diminution of
daily range with the altitude is therefore a somewhat fruitless labor.
(ZSO2G 0M. SOL epoch iae)
The organization of a special meteorological service for the Kingdom
of Bavaria has been accomplished by the establishment of a central
station, fifteen or more second-class, and nineteen or more third-class
stations, all of which are under the general supervision of Prof. W.
Von Bezold. The observers are generally the professors of mathe-
matics and sciences at the schools and universities of the kingdom. A
general commission of members of the Royal Academy of Sciences acts
as the adviser of the Bavarian Government in these matters. (% 0.
GoM OXI, pil i3:)
The first conference of the International Meteorological Committee,
as appointed at Rome, was held at Berne in August, 1880; the follow-
ing is an abstract of the results: It was recommended that a careful
comparison be made between the normal instruments of each land and
those to be used by other neighboring nations. The moment of inter-
national simultaneous observations was changed in accordance with the
request of the chief signal officer. The international polar observations
were emphatically approved of. C. Képpen’s proposed improvement in
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. ZO
the method of recording rainfall was agreed ypon, and will be submitted
to the national weather bureaus. The committee expressed the hope
that telegraphic connection with the islands of the Atlantic Ocean would
soon become practicable on account of its great importance for the
weather service in Europe.
Captain Hoffmeyer’s proposal that all central meteorological institutes
_ should regularly publish the mean values of the more important climatic
elements was urged upon the general attention. Dr. Hellman’s propo-
sition to compile a catalogue of works on meteorology was referred to a
committee, with power to act in case others would co-operate.
The subject of international tables for the reduction of observations
was referred to Messrs. Mascart and Wild to prepare a plan for the com-
putation and arrangement of the tables. (Z. O. G. M., Vol. XV, 1880,
p. 398.)
According to the conclusion of the First Italian Meteorological Con-
gress at Turin, September, 1880, the earlier Alp and Appenine meteor-
ological correspondence and the Italian Meteorological Association unite
together in a new general association under the presidency of the King
of Italy, and the meteorological journal carried on by Ragona at Modena
is now merged with that of the Italian Association. (Z. 0. G. M., Vol.
XVI, 1881, p. 90.)
The first two volumes of the Archives of the Deutsche Seewarte have
_ been published in the years 1880, 1881, respectively, and give for the
first time a connected view of the extensive field covered by the ener-
getic operations of that institution, which in the number of its stations
ranks next tothe United States Signal Office, in its scientifie work vies
with the Central Physical Observatory at St. Petersburg, and in its
marine work surpasses the meteorological office at London. Beside the
complete description of the Seewarte and details as to the work carried
on in the separate divisions, these volumes also contain valuable memoirs
by Sprung, KOppen, Rumker, ete.
Attention is paid equally to observations and predictions of the
weather on land, observations and generalizations relative to ocean
meteorology, physical, and mathematical studies, terrestrial magnet-
ism, the investigation of the errors of sextants, chronometers, and
other instruments used by navigators, and bibliography of meteorology.
The assistants in charge of the separate divisions, namely, Messrs.
Koppen, Sprung, Van Bebber, and Rumker, are already well known
by the original works they have published. (Z. 0. G. M., XVI, 1881,
p. 111.)
In Italy considerable progress has been made toward unification of
interests on the one hand by the concentration of government work in
one bureau, having its headquarters at the Observatory of the Collegio
Romano, under Prof. P. Tacchini, and on the other hand by the union
of the independent individual organizations into one Italian Meteoro-
logical Association, having its secretary and business center in Turin
238 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
(13 Via La Grange), but its scientific president (Prof. P. F. Denza) at
the Carl Albert Observatory, Moncalieri.
The publications of the previous government bureau and of the ear-
lier association have also been combined in some respects, and those of
the central office now appear in magnificent royal folios, of which the
first volume is that for 1879. (Annali dell’ ufficio centrale di Meteoro-
logia Italiana, Serie II, Vol. I, 1879, Roma, 1880.) The office has 69 first-
class stations, aml maintains a daily bulletin of telegraphic reports, and
a ten-day summary of data of interest to agriculture. The annals con-
tain numerous memoirs by Chistoni, Cantoxi, Tacchini, &c., the detailed
observations at 49 stations, and the astronomical work done at the Ob-
servatory Collegio Romano by Tacchini and Millesovich.
In France the Bureau Centrale de Météorologie has assumed the pub-
lication of observations made at all the French stations; a similar step
was taken in the United States when the Army Signal Office, in 1874,
assumed charge of the voluntary as well as the enlisted observers.
Therefore the annuaire of the Meteorological Society of France, begin-
ning with its twenty-eighth year, 1880, appears in a somewhat modified
form, containing only monthly summaries of its eleven stations, and
devoting much more space to original memoirs and to reviews of other .
publications relating to meteorology.
At the suggestion of H. C. Russell, an Intercolonial Meteorological
Conference was held at the Sydney Observatory, N. S. W., November
11 to 14, 1879, to consider propositions for improving the system of
weather signals, and securing more united action in regard to weather
telegrams. At this conference numerous propositions, seventy-four in
all, were adopted relative to all the colonies of Australasia, as well
as to the subject of different stations, uniform methods, apparatus, and
times, mountain stations, priority of weather reports, telegraph cipher
codes, &c.
The second Inter-colonial Congress was held at the Melbourne Obser-
vatory April 21 to 27, 1881. The various colonial government meteor-
ologists reported upon the many points in which progress had been
made during the previous eighteen months. Dr. Hector stated that in
New Zealand, in 1867, he had urged the importance of this work, and
that the unscientific work of the weather-forecasting department, which
had been carried on since 1874 by Captain Edwin, had now, since June,
1881, been superseded by the weather charts and daily predictions for
each of five districts by the government meteorologists. His outly-
ing stations had been extended to the Feejee Islands and to Chat-
ham. Messrs. Russell, of Sydney, and Todd, of Adelaide, and Ellery, of
Melbourne, reported upon improvements in the daily maps and bulletins,
on new high stations, and other improvements. The discussion then
turned on methods of exposing thermonieters, the measure of evapora-
tion, the reliability of anemometers, (Ellery has established one of
Hagemann’s vacuum anemometers, and Russell has used a portable
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. ~200
hand form of Robinson’s anemometers) black bulb or radiation thermom
eters. The adoption of isobaric curves was agreed on, as also the stand-
ard base maps on Mervator’s projection, as also a system by means of
which to effect the reduction of all the instruments to uniform systems
of standards. It is thus seen that the southern hemisphere, by means
of the extensive system of weather observations in Cape Colony, Aus-
tralasia, Argentine Confederation, and Chili, is, relatively speaking, as
well provided for on the land as the northern hemisphere was a few
years ago; and the principal extension now needed is the securing of
observations from the smaller islands and the increase of observations
on ships.
The Central Meteorological Institute in Zurich, that has for years
been supported by the general Swiss association of scientists, was, by
decree of December, 1880, constituted a permanent official national
institute, and will bear the title “Central Swiss Meteorological Insti-
tution.” It is intrusted with all official meteorological work, including
observations, investigations, predictions, &c., and is governed by a
commission organized under the department of the interior, and of
which the principal members are Profs. R. Wolf, of Zurich; E. Plan-
tamour, of Geneva; 8. A. Forel, of Morges; E. Forster, of Berne; E.
Hagenbach, of Basel; H. Weber, of Zurich; and Coaz, chief forester
at Berne. Prof. R. Billweller is confirmed as director of the institute.
(Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 248.)
The death of Brig. Gen. Albert J. Myer, which occurred at Buffalo
on August 24, 1880, and the subsequent appointment of Maj. Gen. Wil-
liam b. Hazen as Chief Signal Officer, has been a most important event
in the history of meteorology in the United States. The Signal Corps
of the Army owes its inception and establishment to General Myer, and
since the meteorological duties were imposed upon it, in 1870, “‘ has had
its growth in the generous support of the American people, and year
by year an increased confidence has been shown in the usefulness of its
work.” The spirit that has been infused into the service by the acces-
sion of General Hazen is shown by the following quotation from his
first annual report: ‘The weather service of the United States has
been without a rival in the practical advantages derived from its labors,
but the day has now come when it should take its stand among the fore-
most in the scientific study and investigation of the higher branches
of theoretical meteorology, and it is upon such investigations intelli-
gently pursued that the hoped-for greater benefits must mainly rest.
Ihave endeavored to bring this service into active sympathy and co-ope-
ration with the ablest scientific intellects of the country.”
Among the numerous novelties briefly enumerated by General Hazen
in his report for the year ending June 30, 1881, are: raising the standard
of the personnel of the corps; the weather forecasts for several days;
the organization of special service for the benefit of the cotton interests
and the fruit interests; the preparation of new instructions, tables, instru-
240 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
ments, &c.; the executing of studies in atmospheric absorption by Lang-
ley on Mount Whitney; the offering of prizes for essays on meteorology ;
the establishment of stations for investigating meteorology in Arctic
America, &e.
The attempt to render weather maps and meteorological observations
useful to the agricultural community has been fairly made in Saxony
by the erection of the special meteorological station in Magdeburg.
This is a massive tower 34 meters high, at the intersection of two streets.
In the basement is a room where the temperature changes are slight,
and here are kept the normal barometer, the barograph, &c. The ther-
mometer and anemometers are on the topmost story, and the working
rooms of the corps on the intermediate floors. Near by, onan appropriate
grass lawn, are the standard thermometers for air and earth tempera-
ture, and the evaporimeter, rain-gauge, &c. All of this is the property
of the Magdeburg Zeitung, and is in charge of Dr. Assmann.
The daily bulletins and predictions are made up at noon, and an
edition of 500 copies sent out at 1 p.m. These are also republished ©
in the evening edition of the Zeitung. Numerous special reports for
local stations are made up at 12.30 p. m., and also a telegraph bulletin 0:
predictions thatis distributed. gratuitously and daily by the eee
railroad to all its stations, and.a bulletin for public use. (Z. O. G. JL.,
XVI, 1881, p. 381.)
In Italy, much interest is expressed in the establishment of physical
and astronomical observatories at high altitudes. Tacchini has inter-
ested himself in the establishment of a very complete observatory at
Casa Degli Inglesi on Mount Etna. At the close of 1881 the building
had been completed, but the apparatus and observers not yet secured.
A less extensive observatory is in the course of construction on Monte
Cimone (altitude 2,233”), and the erection of one on Gran Sasso d'Italia
is contemplated. (Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, 469.)
The Annual Report of the London Meteorological Council for the
year ending March, 1880, shows the Pe ae of reporting stations to be
as foilows: Class I, 9; I, Bs YEW es
The number of pen tcacens of aa aca is stated as follows:
Verified. Failed.
SlOrnl WALHIMES SS os. + cc eee te nome cea a Bit peg eye tS 00 21
General weather predictions =. 5... -2o1-.-----+ ---teeees 28 5
Special hay-harvest predictions. .-...........--..--.---: 48 9
Among the special investigations and reports now on hand are the
following: (a) A third volume of the Meteorology of Arctic Regions;
(b) Observations at Kew on the influence of altitude on the thermometer ;
(c) The observations of Cambell’s sunshine recorder: (d) Studies and
comparisons of various hygrometers; (e) Photography of clouds; (/)
Observations in balloons; (gy) The sluggishness of the marine barometer;
(h) The application of Thompson’s harmonic analysis to the computa tion.
of periodical series. (Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 493.)
*
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. ~ 241
T. C. Mendenhall (now of Columbus, Ohio) has prepared a memoir
upon the meteorology of Tokio for the year 1877, which has been pub-
lished by the University of Tokio. It would seem meteorological obser-
vations are also made and published by the Sapporo Agricultural
College under the supervision of William Wheeler, professor of math-
ematics, and also made at the Imperial College of Engineering, where
they have been in charge of Professors Ayrton, Perry, and Dyer, suc-
cessively. Besides all these the Japanese meteorological office pub-
lishes an official series. The admirable work of Professor Mendenhall
will probably be continued by his successor, Prof. H. M. Paul (formerly
of the Naval Observatory, Washington), and it is hoped may serve
as a model for the numerous other meteorologists and observers of
Japan.
It seems specially desirable that some observing stations should be
established in the northern portion of the Japanese Empire. (Later in-
formation is at hand to the effect that a Japanese storm signal office
has been established hy the government in charge of the well-known
German observer, Dr. E. Knipping.)
Il.—GENERAL TREATISES, BIBLIOGRAPHY, ETC.
A second edition of Mohn, Grundziige der Meteorologie, was published in
Berlin, 1879. Besides numerous improvements in the charts and tables,
this work is especially distinguished by the incorporation therein of
the recent progress in dynamical meteorology.
Dr. A. Ritter has published (Hanover, 1879) a work embracing the
results of studies hitherto published in Poggendoff’s Annalen, and
dealing with many problems relative to the atmosphere of the earth,
the sun, and other planets. The full title is, Anwendungen der mechan-
ischen Warmetheorie auf kosmologische Probleme. Sechs Abhandlungen
uiber die Constitution gasformiger Weltkirper, Hanover, 1879. (Z. 0. G.
M., XV, 1880, p. 150.)
The subject of a bibliography for meteorology was reported on in the
congress at Rome by Dr. G. Hellmann, who interests himself exceedingly
in this subject, and who certainly expresses the views of all in saying
that the necessity for such a work is felt on all sides, and that its pybliea-
tion would truly be an important step in the progress of science. Some
preparation had already been made towards realizing this idea, especially
by Reuss, Poggendorff, Struve and others. The propositions made by
Hellmann to the Meteorological Congress were commended to the favor-
able action of the international committee, whose action, however, has
been delayed by the want of funds. General Hazen has secured for
the United States Army Signal Office the extensive card-catalogues
compiled by Symons, of London, and Abbe, in Washington, and proposes
soon to publish these as a small but welcome contribution toward the
exhaustive bibliography which is so much desired. Meanwhile the
S. Mis. 109 16
242 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
second volume of the catalogue of the observatory at Poulkova, and the
admirable bibliography of astronomy by Lancaster, have been published,
and contain much meteorology. A third volume of Poggendortfi’s great
work and a catalogue of Dove’s library are also in course of prepara-
tion. (Z. O. G. M., XIV, 1879, p. 97.)
Rubenson has published a Swedish “handbook of nautical meteor-
ology,” which contains also data and. considerations that are novel and
of interest to meteorologists, although the work is generally intended
for use in the Swedish navy and merchant marine. (Z. 0. G. M., XVI,
1881, p. 455.)
J.C. Houzean and A. Lancaster have published a general treatise on
meteorology (324 pages octavo) that fairly represents the elements of
this science so far as they can be understood without the help of
mathematical symbols. The special chapter on weather charts and
weather and storm predictions and the utilization of meteorological ob-
servations will attract attention.
Among the new periodicals devoted to meteorology, we note ‘Ciel et
Terre,” published bimonthly, beginning March, 1880, under the editorial
direction of an active corps at Brussels, among whom we notice Lan-
caster, Houzeau, Hooreman, von Rysselberghe.
Blanford’s annual report on the meteorology of India for 1878 and
1879 (Calcutta, 1880 and 1881, respectively) has been received. The
temperature tables are given for about 125 stations, the rainfall for
about 400. The Madras Presidency continues to sustain an independ-
ent meteorological office, while the other provinces have come into union
with the central office at Calcutta, an arrangement that promises many
advantages so long as the latter is under the present able management.
The Royal Meteorological Institute of Prussia, under the direction of
Dr. G. Hellmann as successor of Dove, has published in the ‘‘ Ergebnisse”
for 1880 the result of observations at 130 stations. Special details are
given for the high stations, viz: Schneekoppe 1,599, Brocken 1,142™, and
the corresponding base stations at altitudes 348™ and 222™, respectively.
The summaries for each station are given in the form recommended by
the International Congress of Meteorologists. (2. 0. G. M., XVI, 1881,
p. 528.)
The Central Meteorological Bureau of France has published its An-
nales for 1878 and 1879 in magnificent quarto volumes, four of which,
it would seem, are expected to appear each year. For 1878 we have as
follows: '
I.—Study of thunder storms in France by Fron, followed by Ed. Bec-
querel’s observations of earth temperatures, Angot’s tables of reduction
to sea-level, and some minor memoirs by Hildebrandsen and Rollin.
Vol. II contains the daily observations at French and Algerian sta-
tions ; these are arranged on a scheme adopted by the International Me-
teorological Commission. This is followed by avaluable review by Angot,
month by month, of the climatology of 1878.
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED. SUBJECTS. 243
IiI.—This volume is entirely devoted to the rainfall in France, and
gives the results of daily observations of 1,069 stations in France, to-
gether with summaries by seasons and the year.
IV.—This volume contains two memoirs on general meteorology by
Leon Teisserence de Bort, on the distribution of temperature and pres-
sure during January and July.
For 1879 we have as follows: I.—Studies upon the thunder storms of
France for 1878 by Fron, in continuation of the series of memoirs on
this subject which he has published annually for many years past. This
is followed by shorter memoirs by Edward and Henry Becquerel and
Raulan (results of rainfall observations at 200 stationsin France). The
method of reducing barometric observations to sea-level used at the
French stations is explained with tables by A. Angot, to whom itis due.
Angot assumes the temperature of the bottom of the air column to be
that of the observed or upper station, plus one degree Centigrade for
each 180 meters of altitude. The volume concludes witha biographical
notice of Le Verrier.
The Annals for 1879, Part IV, ‘‘Météorologie Générale,” contains
(1) M. de Taste’s general theory of atmospheric circulation; (2) Teisser-
ence de Bort’s study upon the atmospheric circulation on the continents.
(Z. O. G. M., XVI, p. 485-488.)
The Annuaire of the Meteorological Society of France, Vol. XX VIII,
for 1880, contains among memoirs the following of general interest:
C. Ritter, Provisional Theory of Aqueous Meteors, accompanied by ex-
cellent representations of various forms of clouds; Renou, Compensa-
tion of Aneroid Barometers; Angot, New Tables for Barometric Hypsom-
etry; Louvet and Carré, Rainfall in the Department of ’Orient. (Z. 0.
G. M., XVI, p. 494 and 526.)
The London Meteorological Office has published part 2, Contribution
to the Meteorology of the Arctic Regions. This volume contains the
original journal of observations of ten vessels that have visited the
region in Arctic North. America between 45° and 120° west longi-
tude and 60° to 80° north latitude. These are in detail as follows:
Sir John Ross, October, 1829, to May, 1832; Sir G. Back, August, 1836,
to July, 1837; Sir T. Austin, September, 1850, to August, 1851; Capt.
W. Penny, September, 1850, to August, 1851; Sir Edward Belcher, Sep-
tember, 1852, to August, 1854; Sir F.C. McClintock, 1857, to July, 1859.
Special attention has been given by Strachan to the careful investi-
gation into accuracy of thermometers, and the working up of the records
of temperature, pressure, and wind. (Z. 0. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 483.)
Hirth has collected all that is known relative to the etymology and
history of the word “typhoon.” Among his references is given a trans-
lation from the Chinese annals of the island of Formosa, which was
first published in 1694. According to this work “typhoon” is equiva-
lent to “t’ai-fung”; ‘“fung” is old Chinese for wind; “t’ai?? is a word
from the language of the earlier inhabitants of Formosa.
244 | METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
The old chronicle says ‘the winds that blow on the Sea of Fermosa are
very different from those of other seas. A very strong wind is called
‘ku’; such a wind of greater violence is called t’ai. The ‘ku’ rises
and falls suddenly, while the t’ai blows continually day and night.
- Storms that blow from February to May are ‘ku’; those that blow
from June to September are called ‘tai’ In October the north wind
begins.
‘¢ When one speaks of a wind that blows from every direction of the
compass it is called ‘tai’ We know no ‘t’ai,”’ no matter how severe,
that does not follow the rule of blowing from all directions. . If, for
example, it blows from the north, then from the north it will turn to the
east, and from east to south, and from south to west.” (2. 0. G. M., XVI,
1881, p. 431.)
Hildebrandsson has published a summary of the observations made
on the coast of Siberia by Nordenskiold during the Vega expedition
from North Cape to Yokohama. The following table gives some of his
results:
Tempera- Prevailing | Cloudi-
Months. ture. Pressure. | “winds. | ness.
° 0. mm.
Shay Maa oe SR SR eet osat Gene a cd odoosceepaeoos —25. 06 752. 79 orth. 6.0
ODE te ames e nicie atm arenas ae ele tlalel=fsi-/s sla) s't e)> = oiolmlsiniel!= —25. 09 767.99 | N. NW 5.6
We Neasn62 GH 55 lesaesoaor soocosduecouedon sod setae he —21..65 759. 28 4 aa
PAC PIM estes ss elaiels ane we wlelaiaie ome etelain eine =\='=ia nee aaa —18. 93 756. 72 N. NW 6.4
Fe BoBt SOS Se SOpGne nS eopeEse ce sesoscd sosScrces boise a5 — 6.79 759.74 | N. NW 8.5
UNG ee eaae oo or amoae atime t eens asckis cemgtoun seco ener — 0.60 756. 37 |. N. NW 7.0
Df bse seebeca assent OSU C Tt Qc Eade Usp SeSHce sd soOSss0noo loss OB estat = Sa S.SW. dao
INTRO IB e 5 nono Geenbo Oa so ea Seoou sancusnedSsson sol) Sachs ecass|lbSsoszqssccslbccseorcocse|) sossess
PSL8) SUGSEN YS 5536 Sea Son uQo ps occoch som seSecoo sen ocaneSrsseeaso| Secosaapeass| Sons se scceis| o> Lo seae SSS ee She ee
October......- Bee step mine oe be Sot eee a sane se aee core ere — 5.20 757.83 | N. NW. 8.6
INOVOMDER:s-caceseseceacce seis aviewcn accent wets eon acces —16. 58 753.81 | N.NW. 8.4
DeCember)2 foascee swat ances Seas sone ete ae coer eae Sasser —22. 80 760.87 | N. 7.0
As opposed to the prevailing NW. wind the observations of clouds
show that a steady SE. current prevailed overhead. (Z. O. G. M., XV,
pp. 369-378.)
IIIL—METHODS, APPARATUS, &C.
Sohneke has made an investigation into the gradual change in the
correction for instrumental error of barometers, especially those of the
meteorological stations in the principality of Baden. These station
barometers are all mercurial-cistern barometers, manufactured by Her-
mann & Pfister, and were all originally compared with the central barom-
eter at Carlsruhe by means of a portable barometer made by Fortin. In
1874, a new tube, apparently in perfect condition, was introduced into
the barometer at Carlsruhe, on account of an accident to the original
tube, which had preserved its condition satisfactorily during the pre-
ceding six years.
The new barometer tube, in the course of the first three years after its
introduction, experienced a large change, as is shown by two entirely
independent methods: namely, first, by the direct comparison with the
portable barometer, and second, by its comparison with all the station
’
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 245
barometers in Baden. The following table gives the difference (Carls-
ruhe minus portable) as the result of comparisons with the portable
barometer : 5
. Date. Difference. Date. Difference.
mm. mm.
Maret Sideceda acniamseencciciteaswcnias OHA ag | PWLATCI TSAO sac aainets cacluialsiataciela cide axe —0. 00
Patri ard Weer. 212 UN SHOUGOA MNES y AIST) canes ease eee nota api:
PAROS ELS fA emeisocinem iain) ceiacsiaieice ee +0.40 || August, 1876............--.......--- —0. 30
ENDL OeO eens cewecien ian sre ma = sacse ene OS 00) ||P MArCH Bi iasesescces cece tenon mccmes —0. 20
Mar G Tete see Sarno Cae oes ei TBO U AEN frail: (ee aes St EN eC ay —0.10
PANE ABH Oi Rh ema mama bine alaicinine niet eel eM LY GEL Sia iatm cintete seine cials)=i=ipreleternicioeeeie= —0. 20
It follows from the above figures that the difference between the two
- barometers had in the course of three years changed by 0.74"™, and
several considerations go to show that this change has been of the na-
ture of a gradual sinking of the mercury within the new tube of the
Carlsruhe. During the years 1870 to 1876, a number of inspecting
tours had afforded an opportunity of comparing the Carlsruhe barome-
ter with the barometers at the other stations. These comparisons show
that the Carlsruhe barometer changed but little in respect to the others
until 1874, after which date there was a general change in the same
direction in their relative standings, the amount of which agrees closely
with that previously determined. Sohncke very properly concludes that
minute quantities of air and vapor must have escaped upwards into the
vacuum chamber of the Carlsruhe barometer, and as this instrument
is apparently not in any way inferior to the standards generally used
in Europe, it was reasonable to conclude that similar defects occur in
other barometers. (Z. O. G. M., 1879, Vol. XIV, p. 141.)
Schreiber has elaborated the ideas contained in the so-called balance
barometer, and has constructed a self-registering apparatus for both
pressure and temperature, which, after many months’ testing, has been
purchased for the use of the German Seewarte, at Hamburg. The in-
strument consists of three parts: 1. The barometer on whose theory and
corrections the elaborate investigations by Schreiber, in 1876, are already
well known. 2. The thermometer for the temperature of the instru-
ment, which is constructed like the barometer. 3. The thermometer for
the temperature of the air, which consists of a copper vessel, holding
5 liters, which is placed outside the apparatus, and is connected with
the self-registering portion by means of a small lead tube, which latter
enters into a balance manometer within the case with the barometer.
The movements of the manometer are recorded in a manner precisely
simultaneous with the other two instruments. (Z. O. G. M., Vol. XIV;
1879, p. 486.) |
Schreiber has also devised methods by which the balance manometer
can be applied to the registration of a variety of phenomena; and even
‘to the integration of the registered curves. (Z. 0. G. M., Vol. XIV,
1879, p. 487.)
246 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
Hellmann having stated that in his opinion “the attempt recently
made to establish an international meteorology must be regarded as a
failure, since the prime and most elementary condition of uniformity as
regards hours of observation has been neglected,” Hann very jtistly
replies that the only object one can imagine likely to be attained by
uniformity in the hours of observation on local time is either directly
comparable mean values for the various meteorological elements, or else
a convenience in tracing the differences in the diurnal changes of these
elements for various localities. But the study of actual observations
will speedily convince one that three daily observations will not give the
necessary data for comparing the peculiarities of climate in various
latitudes and altitudes, and continents and coasts. According as we
lay greater stress upon the pressure, the temperature, clouds, moisture,
winds, &¢., we must choose different hours of observation. And it is
therefore necessary that in every land hourly observations should be
made, if we hope to attain the objects that Hellmann seems to have in
view. We are of the opinion that the present system of international
observations in Europe is a very useful one, and marks a great progress
in comparison with the condition of things before the Vienna Congress
of 1873. One can imagine better things still, but we “must not allow
the better to be the enemy of the good.” (Z. 0. G. M., Vol. XIV, p. 263.)
Dr. Galle, director of the observatory at Breslau, in deducing the an-
nual temperature curve for that observatory, from daily means based
on eighty-five years of obseryation, has adopted the following method,
which is shorter and more rational than that of Bloxam. If for a series
of consecutive days .... n—2, n—1,n, n+1, and n+ 2, we have
the mean observed temperatures t,_2, ta_1, th, &¢., and we desire’ more
accurate determination of the temperature t, of the middle one of these
days; then it is plain thatif the mean daily temperatures are uniformly
increasing or decreasing, the true temperature ¢, will be given by the
formula:
4(ta_it tn 11) == is 4 (fn_2 + ty +2) = Mh), &e.
and a value ¢, comparatively free from small errors of observation by tak-
ing the mean of five such values. But if the observed daily mean tem-
peratures should not have uniform weights in forming the desired mean,
because the temperature during these days has not changed uniformly,
then the observations must be combined according to the methods de-
fined by the law of probabilities, and this method is particulariy con-
venient of application when we attempt to combine together seven
consecutive daily means. Thusif for brevity a=t,_3, b=t_, 9=tiis,
we then have either one of the following formule:
1. thy (Be +4d+ 3e)
2. t= (b+3ce+4+4d+4 3e +f)
3. =A (4+4049¢e412d49e4+4f+4+ 9)
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 247
The computation, however, may be more simply arranged if for each
day we make the combination:
2 4, 5 (b+2c4+4d+ 2e+/f)
and call the new means thus found foreach successive day a, b,, ¢,, &e.
We have then to combine these new means according to the following
formula:
5. tr=4 (44+ 2d,4+ &)
The ¢, thus computed will be the same as given by equation No. 3,
and the whole process is reduced to a simple system of summing and
halving. (Z. 0. G. M., XIV., p. 380.)
Pernet, who is now in charge of the International Bureau of Weights
and Measures, at Sevres, in a memoir on the determination of the fiducial
points of the mercurial normal thermometers, and the determination of
temperatures to the hundredth of a degree centigrade, says: Carefully
calibrated thermometers, handled in various manners, do not agree with
each other even in the interval between freezing and boiling point of
water. The differences, under some circumstances, amount to several
tenths of a degree, and are therefore much greater than the errors of ob-
servation. They depend in part upon the irregular expansion of glass, but
still more upon the fact that the bulb of the thermometer after being
warmed does not immediately return to its original volume, although it
may do so in the course of time, and in consequence of this a temporary
lowering of the freezing point is produced. Since this depression of the
freezing point appears thus far to be subject to no law, we are pre-
vented from attempting to make different thermometers agree among
themselves.
Thisis very much to be lamented, for if it were possible for us to deduce
from the observations of various thermometers according to a general
method of computation temperatures agreeing with each other, then
would every doubt as to the correctness of the measurements of temper-
atures be removed. He gives the following methods for determining
the fiducial points and for the computations of the corrections depend-
ing thereon.
First. Determination of the freezing point: Fresh fallen snow is the
best material; the snow must be thawing throughout its whole mass,
must be clean and pure. The next best substitute is fine shavings of
natural ice; artificial can only rarely be used. The thermometer and
scale must be covered up to above the freezing point with snow or ice.
The determination must take place in a cool room, and the ice must not
press upon the thin glass of the bulb, else otherwise a sensible error
will be produced. In general, the ice point is lower in the vertical posi-
tion of the thermometer than in the horizonal position; it is therefore
well to determine both ice points.
Second. The determination of the boiling point: This requires the use
248 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
of pure distilled water, in the absence of which melted siow or rain-
water may be used; the thermometer is to be placed in a receptacle, so
arranged that the reading of thermometers may be taken when the
whole is surrounded by an atmosphere of steam; and the tension of the
vapor thus surrounding must be very accurately known; for thermome-
ters whose ice point shows a strong depression after heating, the boiling
point also shows a small depression up to one-tenth of a degree. In
order to be sure, it is necessary that the boiling-point determinations
should be repeated from time to time with the freezing-point determina-
tion between, until the maximum depression of the ice point has become
constant, when the boiling point will also become constant. In case the
place of observation is changed, it is necessary to introduce a cerrection
for the variation of gravity. The International Committee of Weights
and Measures have recently determined to adopt as the unit of pressure
that of a weight of a column of mercury of normal density, temperature
0°, and height of 760 standard millimeters at the latitude of 45°, and at
the level of the sea.
Pernet proposes, in connection with this, to call the temperature of
boiling water corresponding to this normal pressure, 100° ©. (equal
212° I*.), and thus also to obtain a uniform unit for the measurements of
temperature, instead of accepting as the unit of absolute pressure two
different mercurial columns in the laboratories at Kew, London, and
Paris. Every warming of the thermometer brings a new change in the
freezing and boiling points. The maximum depression which is attained
after many years of quiet and many days in ice can be expressed by the
following formula:
Dx?
1007 |
where d is the maximum depression for given temperature (¢), D the
maximum depression for 100° C., both computed for thermometers that
have remained a long time in the ice. In general the thermometers
made of French glass show smaller depression than those made of Bo-
hemian glass. (Z. O. G. M., XIV, 1879, p. 134.)
Thiesen remarks that the method of calibration of thermometers
taught by Professor Neumann has considerable advantages over that
of Bessel. Let 0,1, 2....m be points equally distant from each
other on the thermometer scale whose corrections are to be directly
determined, (the so-called principal points,) and let Ao, Ai,. . . Oy be
the corrections for,these points. Let the corrections of the intervals
between the principal points, the so-called principal intervals, be +,
Jy... . #, 80 that in general 3; = A; — A;,. The mercurial threads
to be used for calibration should now be so chosen that they as ac-
curately as possible include a whole number of principal intervals. If
now the upper end of such a thread be in neighborhood of a principal
point 7, then will the lower end be opposite a principal point k The
volume of such a thread can be expressed by f,.,3 its apparent length in
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 249
the given location—that is to say, the difference in the readings of the
upper and lower ends—can be indicated by (i, k). If, now, we neglect
the corrections of the short intervals that lie between the ends of the
thread and the principal points between 7, k, then we have the rela-
tion fix equals Ai — A k4 (it, k). If we now shove the thread so
that its ends come in the neighborhood of other principal points, then
we have new equations in which the left-hand side is the same, but on
the right-hand side in place of i k we have suecessively i—1, k—1; i—2,
k—2. If, now, we subtract each equation from the ones following it, then
we have a new series of equations that may be represented by 9;—, =
(t—1, kK—1.)—(t, k). The sum of all the left-hand side of this equation
must disappear. (Z. O. G. M., XIV, p. 426.)
Pernet has investigated a method of computing the variations of freez-
ing points of thermometers. He says that the case often occurs that no
ice is conveniently at hand for the determination of the freezing point
before and after the measurement has been made of some high tem-
perature; but even then one can determine the variation of the freezing
point with a degree of accuracy that is generally sufficient, provided
that we know the freezing point as affected by the change from zero to
100° centigrade, and the temporary freezing point—that is to say, the
freezing point corrected for the depression depending on the time—
that is to say, on the exposure of the thermometer for a long time to the
temperature of the room, and which depression is usually proportional
to the time. This last condition is generally fulfilled for thermometers
that are more than six months old, or even in a shorter time if the ther-
mometer has been slowly cooled down after its determination of the
boiling point. Let be the reading of the thermometer corrected for
the caliber and the value of the degrees; let ¢ be the temporary de-
pression of the freezing point and 7 be the maximum depression of the
freezing point for the range from zero to 100° C.; then, after a long
warming at the temperature z, we have the true temperature given by
the following formula:
T=r—ce+ (eay)e2
100?
If, now, we pass directly from these comparisons to such as are made at
steadily increasing temperatures 7, t, without allowing the thermome-
ter to cool down in the mean time, then this formula holds good for the
higher temperatures, and we simply substitute 7,, 72, &c., for z. But this
formula does not hold good if between two series of observations the ther-
mometer has ever been exposed tolow temperatures. In this case a new
temporary freezing point ¢,; must be used as the starting point. (Z. 0.
G. M., Vol. XIV, p. 206.)
Winstanley has given his radiograph a form convenient for continu-
ous self records. The instrument consists essentially of an air ther-
mometer, having its bulbs bright and black, respectively. The tube
connecting these is bent around a brass circle, so that the bulbs or res-
250 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
ervoirs are quite near together and exposed to the radiation of the sun
and sky. The counterpoise is so attached to the brass circle that the
latter comes to rest in an initial position, and any disturbance from this
position is shown by the motion of an index. The lower half of the cir-
cular glass tube is filled with mercury, and the differential expansion of
the air in the two bulbs, by altering the position of this mercurial col-
umn, causes the entire apparatus to rotate around the axis of the circle.
(Z. O. G. M., Vol. XV, 1880, p. 493.)
Pictet and Celérier have constructed.a form of thermo-dynamometer
which can be used as a very sensitive self-recording thermometer. The
thermometric substance adopted in this instrument consists of a saturated
vapor of some volatile liquid, which substance varies according to the
temperature that is to be measured. Thus, for a range of —40 C. to
+25 C., pure anhydrous-sulphurie acid; for the range +25 C. to +90 C.,
sulphuric ether; for therange +90 C.to +200C., distilled water. These
fluids are introduced into an inclosed space, L; the vapors press upon
the mercury in the manometer at M; and the tension of the vapor is
shown by the height of the mercurial column MM. The tension of the
vapor depends upon the temperature of the mixture of fluid and vapor,
as shown by the following equation:
pied BD) att lee (i/--t) 431 x 1.293 6274 (t/—1#)
yetae 1¢ = 10333 (2744-1) (27444)
In this equation P and P’ are the vapor tensions corresponding to the
two temperatures ¢ and ¢’, of which ¢ is the temperature to be measured
and ¢/ an arbitrary constant temperature; c is the specific heat of the
fluid, and k& the specific heat of its vapor; 6 is the variable density of
the vapor; s+; is the coeflicient of the expansion of gases; 10333 is the
pressure on a square meter of a column of mercury 760 millimeters high ;
431 is the most probable value of the mechanical equivalent of feet as
deduced by Pictet from Regnault’s data.
In the apparatus constructed by these authors for the observatory of
the city of Geneva, the ordinary range of temperature, —20 C. to +40
C., is represented by a motion of the mercurial column of more than 4
meters, which is represented upon the graphic paper record by the mo-
tion of about one-half a meter. (Z. O. G. M., XIV, p. 248.)
The hygrometer designed by Edelmann, and constructed at his phys-
ical mechanical institute at Munich, depends upon the principle that
when a given space is filled with moist air, and the vapor is absorbed
therefrom without altering the volume, then the pressure diminishes by
quantity equal to the tension of the vapor contained in the air. The
principal portion of Edelmann’s apparatus consists of a horizontal cylin-
der, closed at both ends with corks, through which pass tubes for the
entrance of the air outside, and which also connect with the manometer.
The method of making a measurement is as follows:
First, make the entire apparatus clean and dry; second, place the
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 251
air-box in its metallic case and insert within it the two glass tubes con-
nected with the drying apparatus and the manometer, respectively. By
suction the air within the chamber is withdrawn and replaced by fresh
air from the place of observation. After reading the barometer, the air
within the chamber is dried by sulphuric acid, after which the baromet-
ric pressure within the chamber is again determined. The results of
this simple and convenient apparatus are absolutely correct and reli-
able, as has been shown by many series of experiments, and as also
appears from the entire arrangement of the apparatus and the principle
adopted init. This apparatus serves for independent, accurate hygro-
metric observations, and the verification of the results given by psy-
chrometers and other less reliable instruments. (Z. O. G. M., XIV,
1879, p. 56.)
The patent hygrometer by Professor Klinkerfues has been studied by
Dr. Miittrich. This instrument consists of two hygroscopic threads, or
hairs, a thermometer to determine the temperature of the air, and a
disk for determining the dew-point. Miittrich finds that large errors
in the relative humidity occur during various portions of the same day,
and the instrument does not correspond to the requirements of meteor-
ology. (ZO. G. M., Vol. XV, 1880, p. 170.)
Rudortf has made a Cnipematee study of the methods of determining
the aqueous vapor present in the atmosphere. The Schwackhofer ap-
paratus, on account of its high price and complication, seems to be less
desirable than that devised by Edelmann, in which from a given quan-
tity of air the aqueous vapor is absorbed by sulphuric acid, and the
diminution of atmospheric pressure is measured by means of amanometer.
But a still simpler apparatus is that devised by Rudorff himself. In
this a given quantity of air is inclosed in a given chamber; the aqueous
vapor is then absorbed from the air, and consequently the pressure in
the chamber is diminished. This change in pressure can now be coun-
teracted by the gradual addition of sulphuric acid until the original
pressure is reproduced, and the absorbed aqueous vapor is thus re-
placed by an equal amount of sulphuric acid, which volume can, of
course, be easily measured. The apparatus allows of the determination
of the volume of weight of the aqueous vapor to within 1 per cent. (Z.
O. G. M., Vol. XV, 1880, p. 168.)
Dines has studied the experimental investigation of the rainfall as
observed on various corners of a square tower. Gauges were placed at
the NE., SW., NW.,and SE.corners. He concludes that the ratio of total
rainfalls on the tower and on the earth depends on the direction and
strength of the wind. In calms the differences are scarcely sensible. For
a given wind direction the rainfall varies with each position on the tower.
The locations which lie on the side next to the wind receive less rain,
those on the opposite side receive more rain than if on the surface of the
earth. The excess of one side balances the deficit of the ocher, but
whether the mean of both is equal to the true rainfall is not decided,
(Z. 0. G. M., XIV, p. 450.)
252 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
Riegler,in a discourse before the Austrian Meteorological Association,
has urged the wider introduction of Piche’s evaporimeter. The neces-
sity of some form of this instrument has been widely felt, but none of
the many devices have given satisfaction, or have been considered as
much better than local-experiments. The comparison and study of these
instruments (especially that of Piche) have been especially undertaken
by Dr. Lorenz. The apparatus is made by Baudin and Tonnelot, in
Paris, and its prominent feature is a long glass tube, about one cen-
timeter in diameter, which is closed above, and hangs from a hook,
while the lower end is open and ground off to a plane surface. On this
glass tube a scale is etched. The tube being filled with water, and the
lower end closed by a thin piece of filter paper, in which, if necessary,
fine needle holes have been pricked, the instrument is hung up in an
exposed place, and the amount of the continual evaporation of water
from the paper surface is easily determined by reading from the scale
etched on the tube.
The inventor originally assumed that the evaporation from the wet-
paper surface is the same as from the free surface of water. But this
is not strictly true; and the relation between the indications of any
Piche instrument and a normal evaporimeter must be determined by
comparative readings; especially does the small size of the tube allow
the water therein to become easily heated, so that these instruments in
general have a much larger evaporation than the normal or standard,
which consists of a large cylinder of water established in a shady spot,
and so sunk within a still larger mass of water that the inner vessel
retains a uniform temperature.
Riegler states that his experiments have shown the necessity, on the
one hand, of accurate observation of the temperature of the surface of
large areas of water; and further, that we must relinquish our attempt to
keep the water in our evaporimeter exposed under so-called natural
conditions, for we cannot possibly define what those conditions are.
Not only is the Piche evaporator affected too easily by an excess of
temperature, but it is also liable to be troubled by atmospheric electric-
ity, and is, of course, utterly useless when the temperature falls below
freezing. ‘hese disadvantages partially counteract the great advantage
of simplicity of construction, and accuracy of its readings; and it is to
be hoped that, at least during the warmer portion of the year, this cheap
and simple instrument may be widely introduced.—(Z. O. G. M., XIV,
p- 370.)
The brief description given in 1878 of Nipher’s modification of the
rain-gauge has been supplemented by the publication in full of his orig-
inal paper read before the American Association for the Advancement
of Science. Already in 1861 Jevons had clearly explained that any re-
sistance experienced by a current of air forces the latter to flow over the
sides and surface of the obstacle with increased velocity; consequently
the drops of rain that in the absence of this disturbance would have
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 253
fallen into the rain-gauge are diverted from their paths, and some of
them fall to the leeward. Jevons concluded that measurements of rain-
fall made with gauges that are high above the ground, and exposed to
the wind, are entirely useless. The observations made by the rainfall
committee of the British Association, as communicated in their report
in 1870, confirmed Jevons’s explanation. They found that the greatest
rainfall was measured in gauges that were so sunken within pits in the
earth that the mouth of the receiver was on alevel with the earth’s sur-
face, and entirely protected from violent wind currents, and their recom-
mendation of the so-called pit-gauge has generally been considered our
best knowledge on the subject. But another form for the gauge was
suggested by Jevons in 1861, in which the mouth of the receiver is sur-
_ rounded by a large horizontal metallic disk. This form has been modi-
fied by Messrs. Nipher and Woodward, by the introduction of cells, and
finally simplified into a simple upright tube, surrounded by a protecting
screen in the general shape of a filter, whose broad lip protects the
mouth of the receiver from gusts of yind. Two rain-gauges, one with-
out and the other with the protecting lips, were exposed side by side
during a summer and spring, and the unprotected gauge collected 3 per
cent. less than the protected one. In the experiments of the British
Association an unprotected gauge, in a similar position, collected five
per cent. less than the pit-gauge. Again, sixteen gauges with protect-
ing lips were placed in various locations on the roof of the university
building in Saint Louis, a hundred feet above the earth.
The result of these experiments is to show that the so-called correction,
for the altitude of the rain-gauge reduces to nothing when the gange is
properly protected against the wind, and that under this condition the
rain-gauge may be safely established at any altitude whatever. (Z. O.
GoM. XIV, p..250.)
K6ppen has attempted to apply the results of Dohrandt’s investiga-
tions into the accuracy of the Robinson anemometer to the reduction of
the observations made at the stations of the German Marine Observa-
tory. According to Dohrandt the true velocity (w) of the wind can be
derived from the velocity (a) of the centers of the hemispherical cups
of the Robinson anemometer by the formula w=K-+B a, where K and
B are constants peculiar to each instrument. In the absence of any
special determination, K may be assumed equal to 1.0 meter per second,
which is the mean of the values determined by Dohrandt for the ane-
mometers and anemographs investigated by him.
The constant B, which, according to Robinson, should be- equal to 3.0,
can be more accurately computed by Dohrandt’s empirical formula
a6 Qn h 2
B=3.0133 —53.7367 = + 1053.81
R*
a
where R is the radius of the hemispherical cups and r the distance of
the centers of the cups from the axis of rotation, both expressed in
254 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
meters. For the anemographs furnished to the German stations the
computed value of B is 2.396, whence their formula for computation of
true wind velocity is w=1.0+2.396xa. This formula has been abun-
dantly verified by comparison between the anemometer at the Seewarte
and the small normal anemometer in the possession of Professor Reck-
nagel. We can, therefore, assume that the wind velocities (w), com-
puted for the German stations under the ordinary assumption that B=3,
must be reduced to true wind velocities (20!) by the formula 1w!=1.0+ 0.8 w.
This relation may also be expressed by the following table:
Velocity Corrected
by German anemometers. true wind velocity.
0.5 1.4
1.0 1.8
2.0 2.6
3.0 3.4
4.0 4.2
50 6 5.0
10.0 9.0
15.0 13.0
20.0 17.0
25.0 21.0
30.0 25.0
The comparison between the estimates of force made by the German
observers and the anemometric velocity recorded at the same stations
has been made by Dr. Sprung for about a thousand observations at
each of four stations, and the anemometric velocities can be converted
into true velocities by the preceding formula, as in the second and third
columns of the following table; and if we treat in a similar way the ob-
servations that were made in England and discussed by R. H. Scott, we
have the values given in the fourth and fifth columns of the table:
Four German stations. Three English stations.
Estimated Anemometric Corrected Anemometric Corrected
Beaufort scale. velocity. velocity. velocity. velocity.
0 1.10 19 2.2 2.1
1 2. 12 207 3.3 \ 2.9
2 3. 72 4.0 4.9 4.2
3 5. 48 5.4 6.4 5.3
4 7.25 6.8 8.2 6.9
5 9. 01 8.2 10.5 8.7
6 10. 99 9.8 13. 0 10.7
Fh 12. 15 10.7 15. 5 12.7
8 14. 28 12.4 17.7 14.5
9 17. 42 14.9 19.3 15.7
: |
The mean of the English and German observations is represented
with considerable accuracy by the following formula, where m indi-
cates the scale number of the Beaufort scale:
w=1.66 + 1.12 x n+ 0.045 x n?
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 255
The observers at Russian stations rarely estimate the wind velocity,
but observe the angles of deviation of Wild’s tablet anemometer, which
are converted into the Beaufort scale before being telegraphed. They
may therefore be converted into true velocities by means of Dohrandt’s
investigation of the normal tablet anemometer at St. Petersburg, and
the scale of velocities adopted by R. H. Scott, as shown in the following
table:
Meters persecond | Scale number | Corresponding cor-
by Wild’stablet | of the Russian| rected Beaufort’s
anemometer. telegrams. scale number.
1.5 0 0
3.5 a 1.5
6.0 2 3.5
8.0 3 5.0
10.0 » 4 6.0
12.5 5 7.5
15.0 6 9.0
18. 0 a q
2155 8 q
25.0 9 g
(Z. O. G. M., XIV, p. 304.)
The construction of lightning-rods, and the statistics of injury by
lightning, have been discussed by Richard Anderson, who states that in
England one-half or two-thirds of public buildings are without light-
ning rods, and that of private buildings, not five in a hundred are pro-
vided with them. The injury annually done by lightning is very great,
as also the number of lives lost through its means. We are within
bounds when we estimate that in England and Wales there are on the
average aS many deaths from lightning as there are in Prussia, for
which we have accurate data, and the sum total for all three countries
amounts to one hundred and fifty persons. The reason of this loss of
life lies not only in the omission to erect lightning-rods, but from the
poor character of those which are often put up, and also in the neglect to
carry out a system of inspection in order to insure that the rod continues
to be still in good working order. Thus it seems incredible, but it is a
fact, that the royal castle at Windsor is almost entirely without light-
ning-rods, and in some portions is provided with those too small to be of
any use. Many come to the erroneous conclusion that lightning-rods
are of no use, but this is due to their improper construction and insufti-
ciency of numbers. As regards their inspection, it would seem remark-
able that every part of a large building is annually repaired, painted,
&e., while a lightning-rod, when once established, is never looked after,
and yet its efficiency can be injured at any moment to such an extent
that it may become a source of danger rather than a safeguard to the
building. (Z. O. G. M., XIV, p. 65, 1879.)
Dr. Paul Schreiber, whose improvements in the self-recording balance
barometer are above noticed, states that he has been able in the instru-
ment established at the Deutsche Seewarte to reduce the uncertainty
of the record (due principally to frictional resistances) to 0.2™™; but,
256 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
desirous of making the instrument fully respond to the demands of the
present state of barometry, he proposes a new form which will, he
thinks, be more entirely free from errors depending on time and cir-
cumstances. He proposes to substitute some form of hydrostatic flota-
tion for the balance beam, having found that a remarkable constancy
attends the measurements of bodies floating in mercury, while the fric-
tion is reduced to an inappreciable quantity.
The device for registration (namely, a pencil or point pressed against
a sheet of paper continuously, or at regular intervals, by clockwork)
offers still some difficulty, which, however, can, we suggest, probably
be removed by introducing the features of Thompson’s electric pen, as
used with the Atlantic cable. Schreiber suggests photography, and
also glass plates covered with lamp-black, as a means of recording the
observations. He gives a complete mathematical exposition of the
theory of the corrections to this new form of instrument and shows that
all constants and all sources of error.can be determined in the instru-
ment itself, thus making it an independent standard and not an interpo-
lation barometer. Where the influence of temperature is large, it can
easily be computed. (Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 497.)e
Kohlrausch has suggested some improvement in his method of mak-
ing absolute measures of the intensity of terrestrial magnetism by
the galvanic method; in its latest form he overcomes the difficulties
due to the large dimensions of the instrument, the necessity of knowing
the curvature of the surface of the coil of wire, the determination of its
moment of inertia, and the accurate determination of the time. The full
description of his methods will be found in the ‘“ Nachrichten” of the
Scientific Association of Géttingen, June, 1881. His method, commends
itself especially in that observations of magnetic variation and the du-
ration of the vibrations are unnecessary; it will probably be adopted
by several of the observers on the international stations for Polar re-
search. (Z. 0. G. M., XVI, p. 473, 1881.)
Sworikin has made an excellent study as to the reliability of the psy-
chrometer constant (A) and the effect of the velocity of the wind. He
has used the Alluard dew-point apparatus and the Schwack hofer
volumetric hygrometer as his standards of comparison. Belli, Reg-
nault, and Chistoni had all shown that a regular gentle current of air is
essential to accuracy. Sworiken concludes: (1.) That the best value of
the constants give the following formula:
x = f’— 0.000725 (t-t’) B.
(2.) That the same formula applies for ¢’ below as‘well as above freez-
ing, contrary to the theories of: August and Regnault. (3.) For wind
velocities of 1.5 to 2.0" per second (3 to 4 miles per hour) the best results
are obtained (4) that the computed tensions of vapor are accurate to
within 0.1™™, (Z. 0. G. M., XVI, 1881, 434.)
Dr. M. Thiesen has published, among the metronomical contributions
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. PASY |
of the imperial German commission on standards of measure, an exhaust-
ive memoir on the comparison of mercurial thermometers. In his last
chapter he gives a collection of his results that may well form the basis
of a reformation in every meteorological service that has not already
attended to this important subject. He gives formule for computing the
changes in zero point of a thermometer depending on time and on the
exposure to high or low temperatures. The requirements of a good ther-
mometer are given by him in great detail; among them we note an item
frequently overlooked, namely, the importance of selecting the proper
kind of glass; it having been shown that thermometers of the same glass
behave similarly in respect to the reduction to absolute temperatures or
the air-thermometer, and also similarly in respect to the changes with
time and temperature. Especially happy would it be if there could be
introduced glass such as that used in the construction of one thermome-
ter investigated by Dr. Thiesen, which during the past fifty years has
experienced no sensible change in its fiducial points, and whose tempo-
rary variations with temperature are but one-fourth of those experienced
by other thermometers, and whose corrections to reduce to the air-ther-
mometer are remarkably small. The effect of changes in external pres-
sure (as in a liquid bath, or with a varying barometer) is appreciable and
is therefore not to be neglected. Dr. Thiesen for the first time separates
the error of graduation of the scale from the error due to the lack of uni-
formity of the tube as found by calibration.
He adopts as the temperature of 100° C. that which is now coming to
be recognized by the meteorologists and physicists—namely, the tem-
perature of saturate pure aqueous vapor under a pressure of a column of
mercury 760™" high at zero C., in latitude 45°, and at the sea level;
thereby relinquishing the objectionable adoption by meteorologists of
Regnault’s laboratory as the normal locality. (Z. 0. G. I, XVI, 1881,
p. 290.)
T. H. Stevenson has observed the effects on the velocity of the wind
of nearness to the earth’s surface, by establishing an anemometer on a
staff fifty feet high. He finds the increase with altitude very regular
between 15 and 50 or more feet and represents the velocity by the or-
dinates of a parabolic curve, the abscissas of which are the heights
reckoned from an horizontal axis 72 feet below the surface of the earth.
It follows that all anemometers ought to be at a uniform height and not
less than 20 feet above the ground.
From the known velocity (v.) at a known height (h.) we can approxi-
mately compute the velocity (V.) at any other height (H.) by the formule,
where, however, i. must be more than 15 feet and H not much more
than 50 feet. (Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 310.)
Voller, in the proceedings of the Scientific Society of Hamburg-Al-
S. Mis. 109 17
258 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
tona, describes an improvement upon Edelmann’s absorption hygrome-
ter and gives the formula for computation of the tension of vapor, as
well as observations showing the accuracy of the apparatus. (Z. O.
G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 319.)
M. de Lepinay has made a further study of the effect of wind velocity
upon the whirling psychrometers (thermométre a froude). He finds that
for pressure of 758"™™, and temperature from 7° to 20° C., the formula
f' —f=0.525 (t—e¢)
very closely represents the vapor tensions observed with the dew-point
apparatus. (Z. 0. G. M., XVI, 1881, 217.)
Héttinger & Co., of Zurich, have adapted a self-register to a Weile-
mann or Goldschmid aneroid, and the apparatus has now been tried
with great success at a number of European stations. An automatic
compensation for its own temperature is introduced and the whole
mechanism is of the simplest possible construction; it goes for ten days
without attention. In comparison with other forms of registering bar-
ometer, it will be found that the present one is more easily transported
and established in its place. The wooden base is replaced with a metal
one with adjusting foot-screws; the five vacuum-boxes are, as before,
supported vertically one above the other, but they are now held in this
position by a strong spring that prevents accidental changes due to the
slight shocks received in transportation. The scientific value of the rec-
ords of three of Héttinger’s barographs has been studied by A. Wolfer,
assistant at the observatory in Zurich, who subjected them to large
changes in temperature and pressure, and upon comparing their records
with simultaneous readings (b,) of the mercurial barometer found the
following results, where ¢ is the temperature and & the are through which
the pencil moves and whose versed sine is the quantity measured on the
record sheet.
f(x.) is the computed reduction for the curvature of the are, and is
nearly the same for all instruments, and may be taken from a table,
such as the following.
x Sf (2)
— 20 —0.15™™
0 0
+ 20 0,45
The formula for barometer No. 11 is ), = 0.00" — 0.995 x + 0.1 (4+ —
60° F.)4+ f(x). The probable error of one reading of the mercurial
barometer was + 0.1™; and that of the corrected barograph reading.
was no greater.
For barometer No. 12 the corresponding formula was almost identi-
cally the same, and the probable error of a single reading was - 0.15™™.
No. 13 was studied most minutely and the values of the constants de-
termined for all pressures and temperatures, thus providing for its being
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 259
used at elevated stations; the co-efficient of 2 varied from —1.199 at
780™" to —0.920 at 400™™. (Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 273.)
Pernter has given excellent rules as to the use of the aneroid, and
urges that observers be not misled by these elaborate inquiries into con-
sidering the aneroid as an independent instrument, but that it must re-
tain its place as a means of interpolation only and that the mercurial
must be used daily as a check; the instrument is always received after
the degrees of low or high pressure have been marked upon it. (Z. O.
G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 273.)
Héttinger & Co. have also constructed a self-recording thermometer
and hygrometer that, as well as their barometer, commend themselves
on account of their simplicity, accuracy, and convenience. There are
three examples of the apparatus being investigated at the Zurich Ob-
servatory; through a small range of temperature and moisture it gave
the following results:
One degree of temperature is represented in the records by 2.38™™,
3.2™™, 1.67, respectively.
The mean discordance of the corrected records was + 0.129, + 0.149,
+ 0.18° C., respectively.
For the hygrograph the mean errors for the percentages of relative
humidity were + 1.2, + 1.7, + 1.6, respectively. (2.0. G. ML, XVI, 1881
p- 283.)
Colding has endeavored to ascertain the true velocity of the wind by
careful observation of the paths of definite masses of smoke issuing
from tall chimneys. For Copenhagen during 1878 and 1879, he finds
the average velocity 5.5™ per second; the anemometer records at neigh-
boring coast stations of the Deutsche Seewarte give 5.1™ and 5.5™,
Observers in favorable localities would do well to supplement their
own records by this class of observations, it being well known that the
wind force and direction at a few hundred feet altitude is very different
from that at the ordinary level of observers and anemometers. (Z. O. G.
M., XVI, 1881, p. 270.)
Maxwell has published in the article “ Diffusion” in the ninth edition
of the “ Encyclopedia Britannica” an original demonstration of a for-
mula for the wet-bulb thermometer based on the assumption that the
surrounding air is quiet and that the dissipation of heat and vapor
takes place wholly by processes of radiation, conduction and diffusion ;
whereas, August and Regnault based their formule on the assumption
that the principal agency is convection due to air-currents. Maxwell
is led to the following formula:
TS; K AR Virocia
P= — Tg t DtaxcasD J (> 4)
where py is the desired tension of vapor in an atmosphere whose tem-
perature is 4, and p; is the tension corresponding to the temperature 4,
of the wet-bulb. P is the prevailing barometric pressure, and the other
260 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
symbols are constants relating to the thermometers, the specific heat, &e.
In its general form, therefore, this formula agrees nearly with that of
Apjohn which was based upon an imperfect convection theory. Max-
well’s theory gives us a clear view of the significance of the numerical
co-efficients. In reproducing Maxwell’s theory above mentioned, Hann
takes occasion to publish the views of Prof. J. Stefan, as partially
given by the latter in 1873, in his “ Versuche uber die Verdampfung,”
and now more fully communicated by him. Stefan’s theory is similar
to that of Maxwell, but his numerical constants are more carefully
determined especially by means of his own extensive researches into
the laws of conduction, radiation, evaporation, and diffusion. He finds
the : or x in the above equation to be equal to 1; R varies from
0.000087 @ for glass, to 0.000097 @ for water. (Z. O. G. IL, XVI, page
77, 1881.)
Chistoni has published two memoirs upon the modifications of Reg-
nault’s formula for wet-bulb thermometer that have been proposed by
Belli and others. The form at first examined by Belli himself is as
follows:
fad eA rae) ee
tJ’ C—dt
but the formule and constants of Regnault and August equally with
this fail to perfectly represent the exact amount of aqueous vapor; and
finally, in his second dissertation, Chistoni concludes that the following
modification of the formule of Belli
_f'—m(t—V) (B—f')
147 (t—1' )(B-f’)
gives it quite as accurate as can be desired. (Z. O. G. U., 1881, XVI,
p. 82.)
Jordan has described a new glycerine barometer, which is therefore
sensitive in proportion to the difference between the densities of glyce-
rine and aniline. One such barometer is now in the observatory at Kew,
another is established in the museum for practical geology at Jermyn
Street, a third is in South Kensington, and a fourth is in the office of
the London Times. (Z. 0. G. M., Vol. XVI, 1881, p. 26:)
Sprung has described and elaborated a theory of a self-recording bal-
ance barometer, in which a weight supported by a chain replaces the
bent-lever arm of Wilds’s and other forms of this apparatus. Ordinarily
the barometer tube or its cistern moves up and down in order to register
the variations of its pressure, but in the present instrument this move-
ment is replaced by that of an auxiliary mechanical arrangement entirely
independent of the physical apparatus. As manufactured by Fuess, this
barometer of Dr, Sprung is said to give excellent results. (Z. 0. G. ML,
Vol. XVI, 1881, p. 1.)
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 261
Dr. Wagener has devised an apparatus for recording certain features
of earthquake shocks, namely: The time, the greatest horizontal motion,
both amount and direction. During the first three months of its work-
ing, it recorded eleven earthquakes at Tokio, Japan, and this expe-
rience would seem to demonstrate the practical value of the appayatus.
The horizontal movement of a point on the earth’s surface is about
0™™.05 (;1, inch) in the case of earthquakes that are scarcely per-
ceptible; but is 0™™.8 (,5 inch) for earthquakes of moderate intensity.
(BOy G2 M., p- 102; Vol. XV-) rs
IV.—CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE.
Jolly has investigated the variability of the chemical constitution of
the atmosphere by two methods, both by the balance and eudiometer.
His published measures were made from 1875 to 1877, and give the fol-
lowing results: The percentage of oxygen computed for the extreme
cases was 20.965 at the maximum, and 20.477 for the minimum, or a
variability of - of one per cent. The polar current, if it continues for
a season, brings a higher percentage of oxygen, and the equatorial cur-
rent a lower percentage. The eudiometric method was used as a check
upon these results, and gave a maximum of 21.01 per cent. and a mini-
mum of 20.53 per cent. The proposition as to the constancy of the con-
stitution of the air is therefore untenable; and Regnault suspected
rightly when he declared it deceptive to so accept the air as a unit for
the specific gravity of gases. .
The important question now arises, What are the variations in the con-
stitution of the air,and what their causes? Jolly believes that the smaller
percentage of oxygen in the equatorial current arises from the fact that
in the tropics and subtropics, in spite of the greater vegetation, the ox-
idation exceeds the reduction, while in the Polar regions the contrary
is the case. (Z. O. G. M., XIV, 1879, p. 228.)
Soret has communicated some preliminary results from an incomplete
investigation into the law of radiation at high temperatures, which inves-
tigation had as its object to show how far in such cases the Dulong-Petit
law deviates from the truth. A platinum wire, measuring 0.31 mil-
limeters in diameter and 385 millimeters long, is, by means of an electro-
dynamic machine, heated to the melting point. This machine is driven
by a hydraulic motor whose normal strength is 4 horse-power, or a work-
ing force of 18,000 kilogrammeters. This work is equivalent to an in-
crease of temperature of 42.3 calories. If, now, we assume that the whole
work in the electrie current is converted into heat which is applied to
the heating of the platinum wire, «hen the latter can in one minute
receive not more than 42.3 calories.
But on the trial the platinum wire melted in a few seconds and broke
into pieces—the study of which showed that the wire was melted through-
out its whole length. Therefore the wire had attained the temperature
of melting platinum in every part, which temperature must have been
262 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
at least 1,700° C. The superficial area of the wire at this temperature
must have been 385 square millimeters, for which we will use 300 in
order to take account of the cooling at both its ends. If, now, we com-
pute the quantity of heat in calories radiated from this surface at this
temperature, according to the law of Dulong-Petit, assuming the radi-
ating power of polished platinum to be 0.092 according to La Provostaye
and Desains, then we find for the whole surface 145.623 calories, whereas,
according to the computation of the electro-motive force, it was im-
possible that more than 42.3 calories could have been delivered. The
difference is enormous and is equally so in other cases. (Z. O. G. MM,
XIV, p. 229.)
Soret has investigated the absorption of heat by the sutyes atmos-
phere, and the following review of his measures is given by Pictet.
The apparatus used by Soret is very similar to that subsequently used
by Violle in his investigations upon similar subjects. Moreover,
Violle selected the dynamic method and Soret the static method of ob-
servation. Soret finds that the variable absorption that our atmosphere
exerts upon the solar rays appears to be a consequence of the variation
in the quantity of aqueous vapor, as well as the variable quantity of
dust, smoke, &c. All observations show plainly the influence of aqueous
vapor upon the absorption of the rays of heat, and other things being
equal the absorption is greater in proportion as the quantity of aqueous
vapor is greater. Thus:
(a) In winter, when the air is drier, the radiation is notably more in-
tense than in summer for an equal altitude of the sun. [Violle diliers
from Soret in this item, but Secchi agrees with the item.]
(b) If we group the observations made with equal altitudes of the
sun, according to the degrees of humidity at the time of observation,
we find the intensity of radiation greater the drier the air is.
(c) Frequently a greater intensity of radiation is shown with dry air
than when with moister air the atmosphere is undeniably much purer
and more transparent.
(d) The maxima of the intensities of the radiation correspond ordina-
rily, especially in summer, to exceptionally cold and dry days—tor in-
stance, during or immediately after prevailing strong north winds.
The absorbing influence of suspended solid particles of organic and
inorganic matter is undoubted. This influence is felt over all the rays,
especially, however, over the most refractive.
The absorbing power of the aqueous vapor is felt especially by the less
refractive rays. The annual maxima occur most frequently early in
spring, for in this time of year all the more favorable circumstances are
united—a considerable solar altitude, dry air, and a small quantity of
dust particles.
The radiation is more intense for considerable altitudes than near
the horizon. The maximum of the day occurs a little before midday for
the high altitudes, while for lower altitudes it occurs somewhat after
midday.
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 263
For equal thicknesses of the atmosphere penetrated by the rays the
radiation on high mpuntains is more intense than on the plains, con-
trary to what Forbes had deduced by his own observations; hence, it
follows that the lower stratum of air acts with greater absorbing power
than the upper stratum, as is also explained by the greater mass of
aqueous vapors, as well as by the greater accumulation of dust in the
lower portions of the atmosphere. (Z. 0. G. IL, XIV, p. 312.)
Reiset, as the mean of a number of observations during the years
1872~79, comes to the conclusion that the air of the free atmosphere
contains on the average 0.02942 of one per cent. of volume of carbonic
acid gas. The extreme variations of his measures do not exceed 0.03.
(BiO.G.M XLV, p. 452.)
Hasselbarth and Fittbogen, from observations in 1874 and 1875, con-
clude the following to be the volume of carbonic acid gas in the air:
RUCATED ATV ae at opera te ale) 0 eye's <i 3: ZO" PULYtL Ctmrcee tas cece se nc eees 3. 31
PG DEMARY se asce acces sini e's Daa) AUPUs bose a2 ees noeoas Sereeee 3. 40
INTE yes So a ea ea SRO lune SEP LCM DElsc cette cies eleteatet 3. 41
PMP eeetanic a oocs cc Selnes Jeary OCUODER 2: ce alee cise a eels 3. 34
1 ET ar stool ea ae ga On 0 |NOVEMDEE case cine Seclse tute ot 3. 43
J WOR SAAS eo erie Olt = DCCCNIDEr sone cas ce see oe 3. 25,
The largest variations in the quantity of carbonic acid are apparently
due to the variations of the wind. An increase in the wind is followed
by a diminution of the carbonic acid. Rain usually causes a depression,
but after thunder storm an increase in the quantity is usually noticed.
(Z. O. G. M., XIV, p. 452.
Schultze has observed the same property in Rostack, and the follow-
ing table shows the means of his observations:
MANUARY, sete ws ooo Sess eset LOU Oye eee? eet eee 2. 90
WEDCUARY oases oarcck sae oe 2H90),) AUeash.s SF ou. TR CASS
MUTED Wek ote cos aa sie oats 2.99 4} ISOPLEL WEL. aid eitciacnry ste MeO
PAG oe tre ee ws ht eee Ok 1 OCtO Der’ 2. eee EY J Stitt: 2POm
MARV ese eit ete seca Nae ec Od NGVEMDEL = ish ose a ae ok 2 212, OG
MNEs Sees ce eee ee de oe 2. 02 17 Decem DEP. oak wae cela ek te eee LT Oe
pryV Mam ads prese Mise Sal teers) sais ke eed ela ee aeeccde wer OL
(ZONE. My XT ip: 453.)
J. L. Schénn states that, having obtained a very perfect prism from
Hilger, in London, he examined water and other substances with refer-
ence to their transmission of heat. The proportion in which the ultra-
violet solar rays are absorbed by the vapor of water in the atmosphere
cannot be preliminarily stated, because the ratio of the intensity of the
sun’s light of that special kind to the light of the electric spark is un-
known, but it is still plain that the absorption of the ultra-violet is
caused by the aqueous vapor. The behavior of ice is entirely different
from that of fluid water; with the thickest blocks of ice (six or eight
264 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
inches) the extremest ultra-violet cadmium line is still visible. (Z. 0.
G. M:, Vol. XV, 1880, p. 57.)
Marié-Davy nas published a study upon the calonied acid gas con-
tained in the atmosphere as observed at Montsouris, 1876 to 1879. The
annual means are as follows:
| ey |
r | Carbonic acid | Clearness of
Years. gas. the sky.
TG eee owes ae Seeeoeeerse seer 25.9 0. 63
MR pase mee com ash ecsee Gonoe rac. 27.6 0. 58
DRESS er ana Ree eoeraL SESeOuee 31.6 0. 55
Tele hea SSSA Serig se Genoec Bea soc 35. 4 0. 50
It is evident from this that of all the meteorological elements the
clearness of the sky is one that has a direct connection with the quan-
tity of CO,, and that the ratio is such that the greater quantity of CO,
coincides with the least clearness.
Again, by comparison with the winds, it is found that the southwest
bring a greater, but the northerly a smaller, quantity of CO,. Since
now the clearness cannot be directly influenced by the presence of
CO,, and since CO, is perfectly diaphanous, like dry air, therefore
Marié-Davy concludes that from the quantity of CO, we have a means
of predicting the clearness—that is to say, the weather—for a long time
ahead. (Z. O. G. M., XV, 1881, p. 135.)
Cornu has shown, from his investigation into the limit of the ultra-
violet portion of the spectrum at different altitudes (h) above the horizon,
that the limit of visibility of the photographie spectrum, as defined by
the length (2) of the last wave on the photographic plate, is connected
with the altitude of the sun by the formula
log sinh=mi+n
where m and n are two constants. For a station whose altitude above
sea-level is z this formula becomes
log sin h==m (4 +3) +n
where q is a constant whose value is approximately 868.2. If, now, the
absorbing power of the atmosphere is due to any substance distributed
in the atmosphere according to an unknown function of the altitude,
then Cornu shows that theoretically the law of absorption must be a
logarithmic function of the form: m= =logIl—loge. If, now, we sub-
stitute in this formula the value of m — — 0.048882, and q== 868.21, we
obtain z=17761 x log e — logl. Now the hypsometric formulais: 2=
18336 log b)—log b, whence it follows that the mass of the absorbing sub-
stanceis atany given altitude proportioned to the height of the barometer,
and therefore has a constant ratio to the mass of the atmosphere itself.
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 265
This result points directly to the aqueous vapor as the principal ab-
sorbing substance, for the diminution of temperature of aqueous vapor
with the altitude is expressed by Hann’s formula:
2z—6500 (log f,—log f)
We can ioe conclude that the aqueous vapor is not the principal
absorbing substance for the ultra-violet rays, for, if we compute approxi-
mately from the co-efficients above given, we find the value of q for the
absorption of the air g= 896.3, a value which coincides so closely with
that derived from observations (868.2), that it proves the air to be the
absorbing substance and not the vapor of water. (Z. 0. G. JL., Vol. XV,
1880, p. 444.)
Mr. E. Z. Moss has examined the air of the arctic regions microscopi-
eally, and shows that although its dust contains organic cells, yet there
is every probability that these are not such as can give rise to mold,
putrefaction, and disease. He finds the amount of carbonic-acid gas
in the atmosphere of the arctic regions for three chemical determina-
tions to be 0.0642, 0.0483, and 0.0536, the average being 0.0553, which
is decidedly greater than in the lower latitudes. The amount of moist-
ure in the air was also determined by him by weighing. He found, for
instance, for a temperature—54.8° I’. and a pressure of 29.75 inches, 118.2
liters of air contained only 0.053 grams of water. (Z. 0. G. J, Vol. XV,
1880, p. 492.)
Puisseux has found the following relative numbers for the actinometric
effect of solar rays as observed at different altitudes in the Alps with
the Arago-Davy conjugate thermometers:
Altitude. Actinie effect.
Q meter. 1.00
830 1.09
2110 TELS
2828 ° ue
3251 1.76
3380 1.78
(Z. 0. G. U., XVI, 1881, p. 536.)
Munter and Aubin have devised a new method of determining the
quantity of carbonic-acid gas in the air, and have made a series of reg-
ular observations in Paris and its neighborhood. They find the volume
to be from 2.88 to 4.22 parts of gas in 10,000 of air. The maxima occur
with cloudy sky and quiet weather; the minima occur with clear sky
and windy weather; the absolute maxima occurred durin® heavy snows
and dense fogs. (ZO. G. AL, XVI, 1881, p. 54.)
Armstrong has investigated the diurnal variations and the quantity
of carbonic-acid gas contained in the atmosphere from 27 mid-day and
29 mid-night observations, he finds during the day 2.9603 volumes of
carbonic-acid gas, but during the night 3.299 volumes in 10,000 volumes
266 METEOROLOGY AND, ALLIED SUBJECTS.
of air, or an excess of 0.34 volumes during the night. This result agrees
with the observations of Trouchot, Schulze and others, and is accredited
to the influence of vegetation which absorbs carbonic-acid gas during
the day time. (Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1831, p. 154.)
Schlésing has investigated the action of the ocean water as an ab-
sorber and regulator of the carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere. He
shows that pure water in contact with the mineral carbonates, and an at-
mosphere containing CO, dissolves a certain quantity of bicarbonate
which increases with the tension of the COQ, in the atmosphere accord-
ing to a mathematical law. The same is true of sea-water in which
neutral alkalies and salt are contained; but a condition of equilibrium
as to this chemical action is never attained, owing to the movement of
currents and winds—only a tendency towards such is going on. When
the air contains only a little of CO, the sea gives up some and it de-
posits neutral carbonates; when the air contains too much of CO, the
sea absorbs and forms bicarbonates. Thus the ocean acts as a regulator,
and so much the better, inasmuch as a slight calculation shows that it
contains about ten times as much CQ, as the entire atmosphere, which
latter may be said to be controlled by it. (7 O. G. M., XVI, 1881,
p. 155.)
Lecher and Pernter have contributed somewhat to the question of
the absorption of dark-heat rays by gases and vapors. Since the first
investigations of Tyndall, who maintained that aqueous vapor exerted a
powerful absorbing influence upon rays of heat, the tendency has been
to diminish the estimated amount of this absorption. Thus, for in-
stance, the results of the observations by Violle on Mont Blanc give
16 per cent. as the sum total by air and moisture combined when a beam
of sunlight passes through 2,428 meters of air of uniform temperature
and pressure, or an absorption of 0.007 of 1 per cent. for a thickness of
one meter of air. But Tyndall’s measure gave for pure dry air a greater
absorption than this, so that nothing could be left to be attributed to
the action of aqueous vapor. If, however, we assume that pure air has
no absorption, and that all that was observed in the atmosphere is the
result of aqueous vapor alone, even then the figure given by Tyndall—
namely, from 4 to 6 per cent. for a thickness of something more than
one meter—must be considered as extraordinarily great. The experi-
ments of Tyndall were made with heat rays of a temperature of 270° C.
The researches of Stefan and Jacques show that Tyndall’s figures must
be multiplied by one-sixth in order to make them applicable to radia-
tion from the sun, for one meter of atmosphere should absorb 0.102 of
1 per cent. ofthe heat rays studied by Tyndall, instead of the 4 or 6 per
cent. actually observed by him. The explanation of this great differ-
ence as now usually accepted is that first given by Magnus—namely,
that condensing vapor adhered to the sides of the apparatus. The in-
vestigations of Lecher and Pernter entirely agree with this explanation
and seem to establish the fact that aqueous vapor proper has no more
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 267
effect in absorbing rays of heat than has pure dry air. (Z. 0. G. IL,
Vol. XVI, 1881, p. 37.)
The question of ‘the absorption of the solar heat by atmospheric aque-
ous vapor has been further supplemented by the studies of Lecher into
the absorption of carbonic-acid gas; he finds that a column 1.05™ long
at ordinary pressures and temperatures absorbs 13 per cent. of the heat
that reaches the earth’s surface when the sun is at its maximum height.
(For Vienna this is about 70° above the sun’s horizon.) Th's absorp-
tion of the solar rays diminishes very rapidly as the sun sinks toward
the horizon, whence it follows that the CO,. in the atmosphere itself
absorbs the radiation in proportion to the length of the path of the ray,
and that the total CO,. in the atmosphere (which is equivalent to a layer
2.4™ thick at ordinary pressures and temperatures), is sufficient to ex-
plain the whole absorption of solar heat, which is about 26 per cent. as
shown by Pouillet, or 40 per cent. according to Forbes. (Z. 0. G. JL.,
POV AC IOSD. tls)
V.—SOLAR RADIATION AND TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURE.
In some remarks on the theory of the general atmospheric circula-
tion Hann says the area of the earth’s surface between the equator and
30° latitude is as great as the entire remaining portion of the hemi-
sphere up to the pole (2,308 thousand square miles against 2,523 thou-
sand). The surface of the zone between the tropics and the 45th parallel
is still considerably greater than that of the entire area from 45° to the
pole (1,427 thousand square miles against 1,364 thousand). The area
of the zone from 30 to 40 degrees alone is greater than the entire cir-
cumpolar region from the pole to 60° latitude (661 thousand square
miles against 625 thousand). That is to say, that when, for instance,
the region from 30° to the equator receives in one year an excess of heat
of several degrees, this will bring about the outflow overhead of a mass
of air that is sufficient to uniformly cover the region from 30° to the
pole.
If the air in the zone from the tropies to the 45th parallel is abnormally
warmed, then this can have an influence upon the temperature and the
weather of the entire portion of the hemisphere lying north thereof up to
the Pole, for the upper currents have only this way to flow off, because the
gradient in the upper regions prescribes this path. If, therefore, we ob-
serve an uncommonly high barometric pressure over Europe and the con-
tiguous portions of the Atlantic Ocean for a long time continuously, then
the cause thereof is probably to be found in a previous excess of heat
communicated in lower latitudes far beyond the limits of the synoptic
chart. Observations of atmospheric pressure at high altitudes of the
subtropic and tropical zones will probably give us important conclu-
sions as to the causeof the variable intensity of the upper currents. It
is justas important to know the distribution of atmospherice pressure in
the upper regions of the air as to know the distribution on the surface of
268 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
the earth; indeed still more important, since the latter is generally con-
ditioned upon the former. My present object will be attained if it gives
occasion to the more careful study of the changes in the weather and
the anomalies in our zone as compared with the temperature conditions
of the lower latitudes. (Z. 0. G. MfL., XIV., 1879, p. 40.)
The total intensity of daylight has been investigated by Stelling, who
has applied Roscoe’s photo-chemical method of observation, depending
on the Jaw that the darkening upon chloride of silver paper is in pro-
portion to the product of the intensity of the light and the duration of the
exposure. We take the following abstract from a review of his work
by Pernter. Stelling’s method of determining a scale for measuring
the amount of the discoloration consisted in simply exposing various
pieces of prepared paper to the influence of the action of daylight during
periods of time whose duration was very accurately determined.
The comparison of his own results with those of Bunsen and Roscoe
was accomplished by means of a sheet of normad black that Stelling
received from Roscoe himself. The coincidence of the normal black with
the scale adopted by Stelling was at the point 158, and this point was
determined weekly during the entire series of observations in order to
allow tor any change that might take place in the position of the nor-
mal point. In this work freshly prepared slips of paper were always
employed, in view of the fact that Roscoe had shown that in nearly all
cases an irregular bleaching of the prepared papers took place during
six or eight weeks, but that after this time the black tint remained un-
changed for many months. Stelling finds that the dryness and the age
have little influence, but the method of silvering is important, and that
the silvering must be done immediately after the filtration. Stelling’s
practical application of his results to meteorology relate especially to the
question, ** What influence has the cloudiness upon the total intensity
of daylight?” To this end he first determines the intensity upon clear
days, or those on which the cloudiness does not exceed 5 per cent. The
observed normal intensity is indicated by the following tabie of obser-
vations at St. Petersburg:
1874. Intensity. 1875. Intensity.
November.d- goo So csc Soca 5 O04)" MarchnlG ae. neces Se 0. 160
NovemberylS 3.022% o0 0.2 (ON OSS") Anorih Ay tice ee eis ere ee 0. 201
December abisce sec.2 2s 655 O. O20); Mayas 8 sas age ees deere 0. 264
Mia V9 22 srasrs saree eee 0. 359
1875. Jie: | 2 irc ere etree 0. 446
January 2Ere. oes: N54 3050384| June: 2h te kes wees 0. 352
Kebruaryds acctke 42 eae 0.082.) duly 1G: alesis ees 0. 306
Marehivonsn (sent ae ere Os 19 4) J ulys2O Ue Sale ee 0. 257
The condition of the sky is divided by him into three portions, namely:
first, as partially cloudy; second, sufficiently cloudy to hide the sun;
third, completely covered, uniform gray sky.
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 269
In the first condition, for a cloudiness of from .1 to .7, Stelling con-
cludes that such partial cloudiness exercises no perceptible influence
upon the intensity. For the second condition, the sky .9 cloudy or
less, he finds that the obscuration of the sun always brings a lowering
of the intensity, which on the average amounts to 350 per cent.
For the third condition, the heavens completely covered with the
uniform gray tint, he finds that this condition lowers the intensity of
the sunlight, on the average, to less than one-half. In general, all these
measures of the effect of cloudiness depend on an unknown factor,
namely, the thickness and density of the clouds themselves. In gen-
eral, the minima occur when fog or rain is associated with the horizontal
stratus clouds. :
The following table shows the monthly maxima and minima:
Monthly maxima. Monthly minima.
Observed Normal Observed | Normal
Date. intensity. | intensity. Date. intensity. | intensity.
Nov. 28, 1874 0. 035 Nov. 2, 1874 0. 072 0. 040
Dec. 3, 1874 0. 033 Dec. 15, 1874 0. 034 0. 030
Jan. 5, 1875 0. 029 Jan. 31,1875 0. 060 0, 060
Feb. 2, 1875 0. 060 Feb. 28, 1875 0. 136 0. 102
Mar. 28, 1875 0. 182 Mar. 19, 1875 0.189 0. 160
Apr. 13, 1875 0. 220 Apr. 28, 1875 0. 254 0. 153
May 28, 1875 0. 390 May 22,1875 0. 427 0. 355
dune 15, 1875 0. 375 June 1, 1875 0. 446 0.412
July 30,1875 0. 260 July 24, 1875 0.315 0. 275
ae ee
This table of maxima shows that only in two months did the maxi-
mum occur on days with perfectly clear sky; in all other cases the sky
was more or less cloudy and in December completely covered. In the
cloudy season Stelling frequently observed similar cases in which high
intensities occurred during cloudy weather, a phenomenon which still
awaits future explanation. The following table shows the mean
intensity of the light tor each month at St. Petersburg, so far as the
observations extend :
1874. Monthly mean. 1875. Monthly mean.
Wowember ..2).< 5-7. 5-% Hotes ON0RO.| IMarehe jes. Se Pata ies Ree 0.120
USES DMDOT oc orf aspera we ach OR OE Anpril'?. eopcts oak ve AGS
1875. Many iis sale fe oye ON 0.277
BEATA Yio Si cyenimvatiae) aio eee Oo020 i Sane attoue ses ses Sitecre Ohee
LUO He, Fit ee ee ee ROG ellyieat Oi Beye oh bo ihe client 0. 227
It is evident that the photochemical and the photometric methods
must be combined with the thermometric in order to attain a complete
determination of the absorption in the earth’s atmosphere. (Z. 0. G.
MOS TS, XSTV, pi 4s.)
The memoir of Wiener on the distribution of the solar radiation over
the earth’s surface, which was published by him in 1876 in Carlsruhe,
270 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
has been republished, with some modifications, in the Zeitschrift of the
Austrian Meteorological Society.* In some respects the author has
carried his computations further than was done by Meech in his well-
known essay on the relative intensity of the heat and light of the sun.
The following table gives the ratio of Me or the relative intensity of
solar radiation at the outer surface of the atmosphere for the entire
year.
Relative Relative
Latitude. intensity. | Latitude. intensity.
OMe aise eats, ic obese a cieiere OF 309327 7) BOY ents ae bias. fevase rit iane ace 4 29 ete OSI
Nes etal tg ore aval et atere Ser neTE oO GW oh OL ontaane eae ate . 17368
Oke s/geinl = siesta atic te eOOOSul Temasek he ae tees . 14464
UN ac ee sae eis ee eee Oe GRO) aa tae crates Se Mn ee cee te . 13096
BE. kaos et Se reteare a ares AIO Oc tee ae . 12672
The relative intensity of the solar radiation is the same for corre-
sponding seasons in the north and south hemisphere; it is a maximum
for the whole year at the equator and a minimum at the pole; it is a
maximum for the summer season at latitude + 24°; it is a maximum in
the spring and autumn at the equator; during the summer season it is
greater at the poles than at any other point on the earth’s surface. (Z.
O. G. M., XIV, 1879, pp. 113 to 130.)
Wild has published a general review of our knowledge of the subject
of earth temperature in connection with his publication of the observa-
tions at St. Petersburg and Nukuss. He detects some of the errors
and fallacies that have hitherto been persistently diffused in the text-
books on meteorology and physical geography. The observations of
earth temperatures made at Nukuss by Dohrandt were for depths of
4.0, 2.8, 1.6, 0.8, 0.4 meters, and the readings were made daily at 7 a.
m.,land9 p.m. Besides these a series of hourly readings was made at
depths 0.00, 0.05, 0.10, and 0.20 meters under the surface of the earth.
This latter series is the only complete one that we possess at the present
time for the determination of the diurnal period in the temperature of
the earth.
Observations of the temperature of the air were taken at the same
time. With regard to the daily period at Nukuss, it is found that the .
mean daily maximum of earth temperature at the surface is nearly al-
ways equal to that of the atmosphere ; but the maxima are much greater
in the earth than in the atmosphere, so that the daily amplitude is 24
times greater at the earth’s surface than in the air. During the three
summer months the mean temperature of the earth’s surface was 55°.2
C. The time of occurrence of the minimum’of the surface tempera-
ture coincides nearly always with sunrise. Warm and dry soil is a
worse conductor of heat than the cold damp soil. The influence of tem-
perature and humidity upon the conducting power of the earth was
shown in several ways, and is one of the remarkable results attained by
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. Aig
Professor Wild. He also shows that both observations and theory con-
cur in proving that the ordinary law
log Ap=A—Bxp
(where A p expresses amplitude of any periodical oscillation at the
depth p under the surface and A and B are two constants) has no appli-
cation to the upper surface of the earth or to the daily oscillations, but
is an approximate altitude formula only for greater depths. He gives the
most accurate combinations of hours for observations of temperature at
the earth’s surface and the corrections for the ordinary hours of observa-
tion, 7a.m.and 2 and9p.m. After a thorough discussion of the obser-
vations made elsewhere through the globe, Wild shows the incorrectness
of Boussingault’s conelusion that in the neighborhood of the Equator,
under a protecting roof, the annual and the daily variations in temper-
ature within the earth disappear at a depth of less than 0.5 meter.
Even with an annual change in temperature of only 19.5 C, and
with the largest value of B at Nukuss, the depth p at which the oscil-
lation of temperature is only 0.1 of a degree is about five meters; at
Trevandrum the depth is 9.6 meters. ;
In general we may say that the stratum of earth whose temperature
sensibly varies in the course of the year is in various places rarely less
than 6 meters and rarely greater than 33 meters. In general, Wild
concludes that the condition of the outer surface of the earth with re-
spect to temperature can be well presented by means of the well-known
sine formula of Bessel. If, now, the periodical changes in the tempera-
ture at the surface penetrate to the lower depths, then, according to the
theory of Poisson, there should be a gradual diminution in the ampli-
tude and change of phase of the movement of all the periodical terms;
but the attempt to represent observations by the strict theory of Pois-
son is so unsatisfactory as to render the theory but of little use when
it is applied to changes of short period, such as a day or a year, while
the longer periods such as 13 or 18 years are fairly represented.
The second thermal constant of the earth, namely, its conductibility,
can at present not be satisfactorily determined, but the constant ratio
between conductibility and capacity for heat is determined with con-
siderable accuracy. (Z. O. G. M., XIV, p. 272.
Pernter gives a comparison of the methods of measuring the chem-
ical intensity of the light. These methods, so far as they have yet been
proposed, are as follows: :
First. Bunsen and Roscoe’s chlorine and hydrogen photometer.
Second. Bunsen and Roscoe’s photographic actinometer, which meas-
ures the chemical intensity by the blackening of chloride of silver paper.
Third. Marchand’s photantitypimeter. (This awkward name is given
by Marchand himself, based on the Greek ayvrrcuzra.) The principle of
his apparatus consists in the determination of the quantity of carbonic
acid eliminated from a mixture of chloride of iron and oxalic acid
exposed to the influence of light.
22 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED: SUBJECTS.
Fourth. Vogel’s chemical photometer. This was especially designed
for the use of the photographer, and requires ccnsiderable further study
before it can be used for accurate scientific purposes. The measure-
ments are based essentially upon the action of light upon sensitive
chrome paper. .
Fifth. Draper’s tithonometer. This was the first attempt to measure
the chemical intensity of light, and its principle is similar to that of
Bunsen and Roscoe’s chlorhydrogen, but it could not yield accurate
results.
Sixth. Becquerel’s electro-chemical actinometer. This consists of a
jar of water, in which two silver plates are immersed, which are cov-
ered with equally thick layers of violet silver chloride. A conducting
wire connects them, and a delicate electric galvanometer is introduced
into the current. If these plates are exposed to the light the needle of
the galvanometer shows the existence of an electric current. After a
careful discussion of the relative merits of these methods Pernter shows
that the total chemical intensity can, in no case, be measured absolutely,
so long as the apparatus takes account of only one portion of the spec-
trum, since it is now known that all the rays of the spectrum have chem-
ical effects, provided they fall upon the proper substances. Keeping this
in view, as well as on account of its convenience, Pernter maintains that
the photographie actinometer is the least objectionable instrument, and
has, in fact, a great advantage over the others, in that no absorbing
glass or other substance intervenes between the source of light and the
sensitive paper. He earnestly recommends, therefore, that for future
observations in meteorology, when the object is to determine the rela-
tive intensity of the sunlight at given moments, the photographic
actinometer be employed, as the chemical preparations are easy to ake,
the manipulations are soon acquired, the observations require but a very
short time, and the apparatus is so portable as to be available on
scientific expeditions. On the other hand, if the object is to determine
the sum total of the action of sunlight during the day or other interval,
then the photantitypimeter of Marchand has the advantage, in case the
preparation of chloride of iron is intrusted to skillful hands. (Z. O. G.
M., XIV, p. 254.)
Having given this general review of the methods adopted by investi-
gators, Pernter details the results attained hitherto in the photo-chemical
measurement of sunlight. Bunsen and Roscoe, with their chlorhydro-
gen photometer, found that the chemical intensity of diffuse daylight
(H) is represented by the following formula:
H = 2.776 + 80.849 cos ¢ — 45.996 cos 29
But for the chemical intensity (J) of the direct sunlight falling per-
pendicularly upon the sensitive plate, they found an exponential form-
ula which, multiplied by cos g, gives the intensity (S) upon a horizontal
area at the surface of the earth, and which is approximately as follows:
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 273
S = 31.99 cos *9 + 417.6 cos *y — 248.7 cos *¢
In this formula ¢ is the zenith distance of the sun, and the constants
themselves refer to a unit of light, of which each corresponds to the
development of 0.111 units of hydrochloric acid per minute per square
centimeter.
The sum total H+S represents the chemical intensity of all the day-
light which falls upon a horizontal element of the earth’s surface, and
this, according to Radaun, can be fairly well represented by the formula:
H+S=3.1 4+ 0.635 x h + 0.05775 h? — 0.00048 h?
where h represents the altitude of the sun, or 90°—g. These results
of Bunsen and Roscoe may be compared with measures made by means
of photantitypimeter of Marchand, which instrument is especially
designed to give the normal changes of the chemical intensity of the
total daylight. Unfortunately the observations made by Marchand at
Fécamp, on the coast of France, 49° 45’ north latitude, suffered from
‘the frequency of cloud and haze. But they show that the maximum at
Fécamp occurred decidedly after midday, and that between 10 a.m,
and noon the chemical intensity experienced a decided diminution, while
the symmetry of the morning and afternoon observations is such that
the chemical intensity is decidedly greater in the afternoon than the
morning. In all these respects, therefore, Marchand’s results are op-
posed to those given by Bunsen and Roscoe. But the differences may
be due, among other things, to the local peculiarities of stations. If
now we compare Bunsen and Roscoe’s results with those obtained by
means of the photographic actinometer, we find (1) that the latter show
the normal chemical intensity of total daylight to be a function of the
altitude of the sun, and represented by the equation J, =J,+ ah.
(2) The maximum occurs at midday and the same intensity prevails
for the same altitude before and after noon. (3) The constants in the
equation just given change for every locality and for the same locality
every day. These constants are functions of atmospheric moisture and
whatever affects the clearness of the air.
These are now to be compared with those deduced from observations
made by Roscoe and Thorpe, in August, 1865, near Lisbon, Portugal.
During fifteen days of normal clearness their observations show that
the normal intensity at Lisbon during the course of the day can be fairly
represented by an equation whose form is J, =J,-+ ah, but the after-
noon shows a sensible diminution of the chemical intensity at about 2
p- m.; were it not for this break at 2 p. m. it would be of the same form
as for the morning, having, however, very different constants.
Observations were also made by Roscoe, in December, 1870, at Cat-
ania in Spain, but embraced only three complete days. From these it
results that the maximum of chemical intensity occurs at about 11 a. m.
S. Mis. 109——18
274 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
At noon and during the afternoon notable diminutions of the chemical
intensities occur; so for equal solar altitudes the intensity before noon
is greater than in the afternoon.
From all these observations it follows that the diurnal change in
chemical intensity is as complicated a function of the solar altitude as
is the change in atmospheric moisture, transparency, &c.
It is almost certain that the intensity is directly and principally de-
pendent upon the variation of the hygrometric condition.
Knowing the normal daily curve of chemical intensity we easily com-
pute the annual curve, and the variation with latitude. In this respect
Pernter compares the observations of Bunsen and Roscoe, Marchand,
who observed daily for four years, and those at Kew and Greenwich,
and Southern Europe, and finally Para, in Brazil. The following table
gives a series of relative numbers as observed by Marchand:
1869. 1870. | 1871. | 1972. | Mean.
1.17 2. 37 1.71 | 2.11 1.84
2. 36 3. 86 4.19| 5.52 3.98
1.67 4.21 10.10! 9.76 6. 44
7. 82 19.01 14.19| 15.36 14. 09
12. 27 20. 90 21. 42 17. 85 18.11
21.51 22. 33 17.05| 23.27 21. 04
21. 43 19. 42 21. 67 23. 23 21. 49
iatppaiat EXECS eee oN gall ae Rasa eC : Ee LEE 17.75 19. 83 20.74 17. 41 18. 93
Septeniberc est elise sald Sa ates SEUE eS Ea 13. 82 16. 82 11.75 12.21 13. 60
OG HOWE Rohl eee asad EE PPAR NS SE OE 6. 46 7. 88 6.29| 17.19 6. 90
NOWeIL bere eter cote Cane ea ieee DR 2.35 3.35 3.13 2.78 2. 90
SEY yr SP oie gan CE A PE Pt 1.69 1.70 1.58 1.99 1.74
Agmnal mean oc) 3hi2 pete aes ee) ee | 9.19 11.79 11.15 11.56 10. 92
We now come to the question of the ratio of the intensities of the diffuse
daylight and the direct sunlight. The results of observation by Bunsen
and Roscoe on the separate values of these intensities are expressed in
the equations for H and S above given, and according to which the
following table is computed :
Altitude. He S.
0 3.1 0.0
10 15.1 0.5
20 27.7 9. 5
80 31.7 80.1
40 86.1 66. 0
60 88.1 82.2
60 89.1 105. €
70 39.6 123.3
80 39.7 134.6
90 39. 7 138. 4
From this table we see in a striking manner that up to an altitude of |
10° the chemical intensity of direct sunlight is inappreciable, a result
that is abundantly confirmed by more recent observations, and yet |
direct photometric measures of the ratio betweén the intensities H and |
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 275
S show that even at zero degrees altitude the optical intensity of
direct sunlight is much greater than the optical intensity of diffuse
light. It does not follow from this that the chemical intensities have
no relation to the optical, for the chemically active rays are almost en-
tirely absorbed in the atmosphere when the sun is low; and we must
conclude that the optical and chemical intensities of the sunlight vary
differently with the solar altitude. Again, this table shows us that up
to a considerable altitude, say 319, the chemical intensity of diffuse day-
light is greater than that of direct sunlight. This result is confirmed
by the observations of the photographic actinometer. We here per-
ceive another beneficial influence of our atmosphere similar to that
experienced in the case of heat and light.
In northern regions where the altitude of the sun never exceeds about
30°, the chemical intensity of the direct sunlight will have too feeble an
effect; and the effect of diffused light compensates for this. Thus at St.
Petersburg at the time of equinoxes the chemical intensity of diffuse
daylight is twice as great as that of direct sunlight, and at Melville
Island it is ten times as great.
The preceding data give us the means of computing approximately
the total amount of absorption that must take place in the atmosphere
of the earth, and it results that an intensity of 35.3 units at the outer
surface of the atmosphere becomes 20.0 at the earth’s surface. This im-
mense absorption is surprising and is unequally divided between the
various portions of the spectrum. The chemical end loses about one-
third; and the warm rays of the spectrum lose about three-fourths of
their original intensity.
The influence of the cloudiness is in every respect the most disturb-
ing. This has been studied by Stelling, who concludes that the influence
of a partial cloudiness is now to raise and then to lower the absorption.
Second, the influence of partial cloudiness, if the sun is behind clouds, is
almost always without exception a depression, and on the average about
30 per cent. Third, the influence of a completely covered uniform gray
sky is still more depressing; it lowers the normal intensity on the
average by more than one-half. (Z. O. G. M., XIV, pp. 401 to 426.)
In an essay on the ripening of fruits, ea investigates the manner
in which the insolation affects the development of the plants. It is evi-
dent that we must not only from agricultural reasons, but also in the
general interest of the science in the future, lay more stress on the inso-
lation observations; but whether the Arago-Davy instrument is to be
adopted as sufficiently safe cannot be decided here. It must be decided
first of all what rays of the solar spectrum produce these chemical effects,
and in case these are not the brightest, then this actinometer does not.
measure the heat they send; but it does serve excellently as a photo-
chemical method. (Z. 0. G. M., Vol. XV, 1880, p. 30.)
Whipple has discussed the measurements of relative durations of sun-
276 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
shine as recorded by means of the Campbell sunshine recorder at Green-
wich and Kew. Inasmuch as Kew is west while Greenwich is south-
east of the principal portion of London, the records show especially the
local influence of the smoke and dust of the city. Thus the mean daily .
duration of sunshine for each direction of the wind is shown by the fol-
lowing table:
| Wind. Greenwich. Kev.
ENifetcote ete craters 2.5 sao
ING iets = 2.9 3.3
Be see seccces 6.7 4.6
SE eee sesseas 3.6 a5
Sea 2.6 2.8
SiWwiieeteces 3.8 4.1
Wises ciccie aie 3.8 4.8
UNIVE c= cts 2.0 3.9
Variable.... 3.0 3. 0
|
(Z. O. G. M., XV, 1880, p. 101.)
Roth, in a study upon the distribution of solar radiation and the
possibility of a difference in the temperature of the northern and south-
ern hemispheres in consequence of the position of the earth in space,
has from the elements of the planetary systems deduced the absolute
values of the quantities of heat received by the whole planetary sphere
"or by a given portion of surface, while the planet moves about the sun
according to Kepler’s laws. The angle of incidence from the sun
remaining invariable while the radius of the orbit describes a certain
angle. Let W be the quantity of heat; S the quantity of heat which
the same surface would receive in the same time from the sun at the
the unit’s distance; A the attractive force of the sun at the unit’s dis-
tance; p the perimeter of the orbit; qp and g), the first and last value of
the true anomaly; then we have
_ 3 (Po— Pr)
W707
Loner
(Z. O. G. M., Vol. XV, 1880, p. 322.)
Supan has sought to introduce a new distribution of the earth’s surface
according to the relative temperatures. In order to define these tem-
peratures with all definiteness, he seeks a new construction of the
isotherms based on the temperature determinations at present available.
His new annual isotherms are a valuable contribution. (4. O. G. IL,
Vol. XV, 1880, p. 324.)
Prof. C. Martins, of Montpellier, who was appointed director of the |
botanical gardens of that place in 1851, immediately began a new series
of meteorological observations in continuation of those that have been
made there ever since 1705. The botanical garden is about 8* from the
ocean, and about 58™ above the sea, in latitude 43° 37’. The following —
table gives the temperature of the air as observed at an altitude of 13™
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 277
above the soil, and 29" above the sea, and also the temperature of the
spring water:
Mean tem-
Mean tem-
perature | Perature
ofair of spring
> water.
Degrees O. | Degrees O.
5.0 12.8
December .-..-..--.
January -.-..-.-..- 4.9 11.5
Rebruaryjescanesicia- 5.9 11.2
March's. sriecteess os 8.8 11.4
APT eee cieeciancicces 13.1 11.8
Misia. eee nie cts setae ies 16.7 12.12
GM Goan acconooces 20.3 12.8
July 23.0 13.7
Augustecs-sc<cscees 22.0 14.0
September.......... 18.8 14.0
Octoher we saseseecce 14.1 ley il
November ...-.-.... 8.5 13.5
ANDOU. n.s25c.0ssc0s 13.4 12.8
For the temperature of the earth we must refer to the original memoir
published by the Academy of Sciences, Montpellier, Vol. IX. In winter
and spring the plateaus of the Avennes, which rise to an altitude of
2,500 feet, are covered with snow, and the northwest mistral precipi-
tates itself with great force from these down upon the warm lowlands
to the southward. At this time the atmosphere at Montpellier is very
dry, and of wonderful clearness. This favors the radiation at night, and
the insolation by daytime thereby increasing the magnitude of the daily
variations of temperature. The mistral occurs most frequently in the
spring-time, and these beautiful days are known as the “cavalier.” In
the summer-time the plateaus are greatly warmed up, and the mistral
loses its force and frequency. In the autumn the temperature is most
uniform, and the mistral least frequent. The intensity ofthe mistral has
a well-marked diurnal period; it increases as the sun approaches the
meridian in proportion as the sea-shore is warmed up. It ceases during
the night-time to begin again about 9 a.m. (Z. 0. G. M., Vol. XV,
1880, p. 455.)
Mahlen has studied the observations of temperature of 118 years at
St. Petersburg, being nearly the whole of the interval 1743 to 187-.
Among his results we find the following: The coldest day of the normal
year was January 24; temperature, — 9.79; the warmest day was July
23, +70.9°9; the mean temperature of the year is +3.72°, which is the
same as the mean temperature of April 23 and October 21. The vari-
ability of the daily temperature is such that in winter 2,300 years, but
in August 380 years, of observation would be required to obtain daily
means, whose probable error is + 0.19 C. The mean departure of daily
means from the annual average is greatest for January 20 (6.23° C); the
least is for August 28 (2.139 C). The greatest absolute variation for
any one day is from +5.2° on January 4, 1771, to —37.4° January 4,
1814, The coldest January occurred in 1814, and the warmest in 1866.
The coldest July occurred in 1878, and the warmest in 1757. The coldest
278 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
year (1.15°) was 1819; the warmest (6.259) was 1826. (Z. 0. G. IL, XVI,
1881, p. 492.)
Dr. F. M. Stapff, geologist of the St. Gothard railroad, has discussed |
the observations of the temperature of the earth made by Forman in the
Comstock lode, Nevada. He finds that below 1,600 feet the rate of in-
crease of temperature begins to diminish, and that, as we cannot safely
extrapolate, therefore no conclusion can be drawn as to temperatures at |
greater depths in the earth than about 2,000 feet. As the result of year,
of experience in measuring temperatures of stone, Stapff estimates that |
it would be impossible by direct observation to decide the question |
whether or no temperatures increase in the interior of the earth.
The delicacy of the temperature changes, the unavoidable disturbances |
from the drill, and the irregularities due to streams of water are only
to be overcome by persistent study of the various sources of error.
In the second communication Stapff gives a new formula, and shows
that the computed temperatures of the air at the surface, as observed |
for twelve years, agrees with that computed from the observed tem- |
peratures within the mines. (Z. 0. G. M., XVI, 1881, pp. 414 and 518.) |
Buys Ballot has published (Archives Neulandaises, Tome XV) an |
exhaustive memoir on the annual periodicity and variability of temper-
ature of Europe. By combining three days into one triad and three
such triads into a series of nine days’ means, he studies the perturba-
tions in the regular annual temperature curves. By subtracting the
means of two triads ten days apart and dividing by 10 he obtains the
average rate of change of temperature for all portions of the year, and
the average of these ten-day changes at seventeen places, for which long |
series of observations are available, gives him an expression for the |
normal average periodicity of temperature in Europe, independent of |
local disturbances, which latter can then be determined. In reference |
to the variability of temperature, Buys Ballot attempts to properly rep-
resent, first, the daily variation; second, the uncertainty of the temper- |
ature of any day of the month or year; third, the magnitude of inequal- |
ities of long periods. Very interesting are his tables showing the ten-
dency of the weather to repeat itself in successive months; thus, if the |
tendency to repetition is a mere matter of chance, then the chance that |
out of 374 months six successive months should have the same charac- |
ter, namely, warmer or colder, then the average would be ;7;, as given
in the second column of the following table, whereas the observed
number.of such months is 36, as given in the third column:
Successive months. Probability. Observed.
2 187 21:
3 *94 12
4 47 81
5 23 52
6 12 36
7 6 25
8 3 awe
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 279
Successive months. Probability. Observed.
9 ; 2 11
10 Q 1 9
1d 0 7
12 0 5
13 0 3
14 0 2
“15 0 a
(Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 404.)
A. Miittrich has published and discussed the observations of earth
temperatures at the Prussian forest stations. The bi-hourly observa-
tions for fourteen days at the central station give a means of reducing
regular observations at 8 a.m., 1 and 2 p.m. to normal means. , The
following table shows the temperatures in the open fields and in shady
forests in (C.) degrees:
Fields.
Location.
Min. | Max
°c, oC.
TANT Sel ccaseseasss 12.40 | 22.68
Depth, 0.02™....| 15.08] 22.60
Depth, 0.15 ..-.| 17.20 22. 98
Depth, 0.30 .---| 16.55] 18.15
Depth, 0. 60 15.75 | 15.92
(Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 268.)
Wild has completed the great work on temperature in Russia, of
which the first volume in 1878. He has corrected and discussed all im-
portant temperature records relating to the Russian Empire, and the
magnificent charts showing monthly isotherms and isoabnormals for
Europe and Asia make a profound impression upon thereader. In the
construction of these charts the various series are reduced to a nearly
uniform series of normal years. Reductions to sea-level are also intro-
duced, based upon the following table, which is derived especially from
observations in the Caucasus :
Rate of temperature diminution for each 100 meters of ascent.
Month. Rate. Month. Rate.
December ........ te sci Oe 2b Onli inbyt 2 sorte erme mete he Les 0.59 C.
TELE ty ig et a 0. 36 ATIPMAGE. Ab fan 8 ocicle 50200260
MOEN o\ramen oa wicisi ne = 0. 43 Septeuieer (ata .cintd wicle.aiat 0. 53
Ie CRS Eo eee 0. 48 Ocho hers sch hes. co. 4 5-18 0. 46
RMR GT Ee Pens Beas cralad ofwaig 0. 56 NOVEMBER Ss ances wane Ss 0. 21
BU eens) olin ere wo \acoct Siete 0. 58 Wier ree 5 coh Mates, Sim wini'e 0. 47
TTS RS ee a 0. 61
(Z. 0. G. M., XVI, p. 217.)
280 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
Dr. Augustin has published an elaborate study upon the self-recorded
temperatures at Prague during the interval 1840 to 1877. The follow
ing extract shows the direct influence of insolation and of cloudiness:
846 wholly clear days. 2,279 cloudy days. |
Month. | £% Bs 8 oa Be Es og os
+s us! aq P 2 +3 Sry ag a
gH | Bil Baily SA oh ge (SE ha seiloweg
se | Ae ae Eg 2 | ea Bd 25
= A AA Ag be A 5) Aa
° S h.™. h.m. ° S h.m. h.m.
DEC... .-3- — 6.7 5.2] 710a.m.| 2 30 p.m.) + 0.3 1.2) 7 Oa.m.| 2 Op.m.
Jan ...... — 8.5 5.6] 7 20 2 40 —1.1 1.4} 6 30 2 0
MED Eeese= — 5.4 To ?3 |) ach PAL 2 50 + 0.6 2.3) 6 5 215
Mar. ...-| + 2.7 9.5] 6 10 2 57 3. 2 3.0) 6 5 2 15 :
ADreeces 9.4 12.5} 6 0 3 15 7.5 4.0) 5 50 2 20
May .. 15. 8 12.3 | 5 50 3.9 11.9 4.1) 5 40 2 40
June...-.. 19.6 115 94||'5).0: 315 15. 0 4.0} 4 40 2 30
duly ...-- 22.0 1L9}| 530 3 35 16.5 4.4| 4 50 2 50
Aug ...-- 21.5 12.2 | 5 50 3 20 16.9 3.7 | 5 40 2 40
Sept -...- 16.6 12.0] 610 3.5 13. 2 aii) 1620 2 30
Octesesse 9.2 10.8 | 6 25 2 40 8.9 8.1] 5 50 2 10
INOVite ee 0. 0 Dusit 20) 2 30 3.5 1.9 6 23 2 30
Wear ecce 8.1 9.5} 6 25 2 59 8.0 3.1) 5 53 2 23
(Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 168.)
O. Jesse, of Steglitz, has investigated the diurnal variations of tem-
perature on clear days at Hamburg. His results are based upon the s |
records of the self-registering thermometer for three years at the Deutsch
Seewarte. He selected only very clear days and those on which the
temperature at the end of a twenty-four hour period agreed within one
degree centigrade of that of the beginning, hoping thereby to deduce a
simple relation between temperature and the altitude of the sun. The
months October, November, and December were too cloudy to afford
any proper data. His resulting equation gives the departure (WwW) for
any hour (x) from the mean temperature of any day of the year on which
the sun’s altitude above the horizon at noon is h, and it reads as follows:
Aw=(5°. 4 sin h) sin X—(1°.83) cos X.
* + (0°.70 sin h — 0.49 cos h) sin 2X.
+ (19.28 sin h — 1.61 cos h) cos 2X.
The departure of the computed from the observed values shows traces
of periodicity that are as yet unexplained. (Z. O. G. W., 1881, XVI,
Pp: v0.)
Billwiller, of Zurich, has studied the vertical distribution of tempera-
ture in the atmosphere within areas of high barometer and relatively
clear weather. He shows that the so-called anomaly, by reason of which |
the air sometimes grows warmer as we ascend, or, more properly, the
layers of cold air lie quietly below the warm air, is due to terrestrial
radiation, and is a characteristic of areas of high pressure; also, that
this condition occurs in summer as well as winter, and tends to main-
tain the permanence of “high areas” in proportion to the increasing
length of the night-time relative to the day-time; also, that the areas
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 281
of barometric maxima are reinforced when over the land as compared
with the sea. He traces the nightly flow of cool air down mountain
slopes and its accumulation in valleys, its warming by compression and
by formation of dew, its cooling by radiation, and its. contraction by
cooling, and deduces the resulting influence of all this upon the diurnal
fluctuations of barometric pressure. (Z. O. G. M., Vol. XVI, 1881, p. 94.)
Supan, in anextensive memoir on the annual variations of heat on the
earth’s surface, says: In general the annual variation increases from the
equator towards the poles, and from the coast line towards the interior.
If we determine the mean annual variability for the different latitudes,
we find the following values: :
Latitude. Annual variability.
70° N. 35.6
60° N. 31.1 ;
50 N. 25.4
40’ N. 19.2
30 N. 12.4
20 N. 8.4
1.0 3.7
0 1.3
10° S. 2.9
20° S. 6.0
30° 8.1
40° 8.8
(Z. O. G. M., Vol. XVI, 1881, p. 38.)
Pernter has studied the distribution of sunshine as recorded since
April, 1880, by means of the sunshine-recorder invented by Campbell,
and consisting of a glass lens, by means of which the concentrated sun’s
rays fall upon and burn into a paper strip. On account of the import-
ance of a better knowledge of the duration of sunshine, it is to be hoped
that similar cheap and simple registers shall be kept at numerous sta-
tions throughout the world. The following table shows the diurnal
variability:
Months. Morning. | Afternoon. | Daily mean.
Aprilies*.- 2.14 2.74 4.88
May acs. <3 2. 41 2.51 4.92
Pune see. 3. 69 3.75 7.41
Taby.sdi22 5.29 5.11 10. 40
Augie 4-4. 3. 53 3. 64 Y ay /
Sept ...... 2. 88 3.16 6. 04
(2.10. GoM, V ol. XVA,: 1881, p. 9.)
VI.—MOISTURE, CLOUDS, RAIN, ETC.
The connection between rainfalls and solar spots has been further
elucidated by Meldrum, who has computed new values of the averages
in order to meet the objections that have been raised against this pre-
282 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
vious work. The following table gives his figures for the rainfall at
Madras. The first column gives the year of the solar-spot cycle. The
second column gives Wolf’s relative numbers for the spots averaged
for the same years as the rainfall. The third column gives the mean
observed rainfall for several corresponding years of sun-spot cycles.
The fourth column gives the same means, after combining three of
these values in one, in order to diminish the irregularities :
Wolf's Rainfall,
Year of solar relative aum-| Madras, i811
spot cycle. bers. to 1877.
Her Se amon adeno’ 30s 8) pease
2 — 34 51.4 45.3
3 — 23 43.4 48.3
4 0 55.3 51.3
5 + 28 51.2 -51.2
6 + 43 47.3 48.2
% + 34 46.9 48.7
8 +17 GREY EP Hilhe
9 0 47.3 51.5
10 — 14 58.0 50.7
11 — 24 39.5 45.2
12 — 26 44.6 42.1
VS Fe eal elesresctae wetele TUL eee
There seem to be two maxima and minima in the rainfall at Madras,
the minima coinciding with the minima and maxima of the sun spots.
The result to which Meldrum has arrived at Madras shows how much
depends upon the method according to which the years are grouped.
Like Dr. Hunter, he himself had previously found a decided maximum
of rainfall at the time of the maximum of spots. Meldrum shows fur-
ther that in the case of Edinburgh we obtain very different results when
we group the years as Dr. Hunter has done—that in fact we obtain a
minimum of rainfall in the fifth or maximum year of sun spots.
If in general the rainfall is above the mean in the years of sun-spot
‘Inaxima, and below the mean in the years of minima, then we must
have the following equation: pea where large S is the mean
value of sun-spot frequency for the whole period under investigation,
small s is the mean for the period during which the sun-spot frequency
is below the mean; small s’ is the value for the period where the sun-
spot frequency is above the mean; R, 7, 7’ the corresponding annual
rainfalls for those years for which §, s, s’ hold good. That the frequency
of sun spots has a simple ratio to the rainfall is now evident from the
fact that the above equation apparently holds good approximately for
fifty-four stations in Great Britain, and thirty-four in America for the
interval 1824 to 1867. During this interval the rainfall was in excess
when the spots were in excess, and deficient when the spots were de-
ficient. The excess was .90 of an inch in England and 1.13 inches in
America; and the deficiencies were .75 inches in England and .94 in
America. (Z. O. G. M., 1879, Vol. XIV. p. 22.)
S. A. Hill has published the result of a short discussion as to the
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 283
position and physical cause of the existence of a zone of maximum rain-
fall in the Northwestern Himalayas.
The existence of such a zone was already known to General Strachey
in 1849, but with the help of a large number of observations Hill is able
to show that the relative quantity of rain (R) falling at the high and
low stations is very closely represented by the formula
* R=1+41.92, —0.40,?+ 0.022
in which h is the relative altitude of the upper stations above the plain.
The differential of this formula gives the equation for the determination
of the value of A corresponding to the maximum relative rainfall, which
position is easily found to be h = 3,160 feet relative to the lower stations
or 4,160 feet above the sea-level. As regards the cause of this excessive
rainfall at a definite and moderate altitude, Hill adopts the explanation
suggested by General Strachey. The variation in the tension of vapor
(p), up to an altitude of 1,200 feet, is closely represented by the formula
p=po(l—ach+ fh’)
in which a and £ are certain constants that must be determined from
observations.
Dr. Hann has shown that the tension of vapor can be closely repre-
sented by the barometric formula ’
log p = log po — :
where the constant c has about a value of 6,500. According to each of
the formule the measure of the diminution of tension of vapor is greater
in proportion as the altitude is less. If once the temperature sinks to
the dew-point the quotient — is a measure of the quantity of the pre-
dh
cipitation, and we must therefore expect that the rain is heaviest in that
zone where on the average a mass of air ascending from the lower
plains reaches the point of saturation with aqueous vapor. This zone
can be determined with sufficient accuracy for the region studied by
Mr. Hill, if we seek the altitude at which the temperature during the
rainy season is equal to that of the dew-point at Roorkee. A computa-
tion of this kind is made by Mr. Hillfor three months, with the following
results:
« Tempera- .
Month. Dew-point. ture. | Altitude.
| ° ° Feet.
Ra yee eee i lace woah hee fy Semi Ly celal ba BES oc 75.2 85.3 3, 141
PUSH Uneaten con cccse cecto crt teaseasre rece cesecencreE eb envecesas 15.7 84.5 2,710
PHPLGM DER sadcet cs ono cc or wet ace moa ean cette Uaube suse us nGues SRE. 73.1 83.0 3, 099
The mean altitude at which the rainfall may be expected to be great.
est lies, according to this theory, about 3,000 feet above the lower plain-
284 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
The complete agreement between this result and that computed by the
empirical formula above given is a good proof of the accuracy of the
latter up to altitudes of ten or eleven thousand feet, and it will be inter-
esting to make a similar study for the Alps and other mountainous
countries. (Z. 0. G. M., XIV, p. 165.)
Jamin has sales cree to elucidate the formation of dew, and to re-
move the difficulty experienced by some in acknowledging that it is pos-
sible to have a cooling of the leaves of plants down to 8 or 10 degrees
below the temperature of the surrounding air. In the formation of dew,
radiation and evaporation are the two factors to be considered. For
the radiation we have the law of Dulong and Petit, for bodies which
are surrounded by air, which is as follows:
% = mat? — ma? + mp°t}-233
Since the surrounding inclosure is the celestial space itself, whose
power of emission is certainly very near zero, therefore the term ma? is
negligible.
In consequence of the radiation of bodies, which is represented by
mat+®, the temperature lowers; the lost heat is replaced by that of the
air coming in contact with the surface, as is expressed by the term
npct!*3, The air becomes cooler, falls to the earth, and in consequence
of the radiation is continually being cooled still lower. Gradually the
lower cold stratum of air abstracts heat from the upper stratum, which
is still warm, 60 that the cooling process takes place from below and
upwards.
The above describes the effect of radiation only as it occurs when the
sky is perfectly free from clouds; when the heavens are beclouded this
constitutes an enveloping surface, that can be considered as being of
the same temperature with that of the radiating surface of the earth.
In this case the first two terms of the above equation disappear, and a
thermometer cannot then indicate anything but the temperature of the
air.
The evaporation co-operates with radiation, and is always active on
the moist surface of plants; this effect is represented by the same law
as that which expresses the action of the psychrometer.
Every moist body, in consequence of evaporation, assumes a lower
temperature; the process in general is analogous to that of radiation.
The body cools down and absorbs heat from the surrounding air so long
as the evaporation continues. But while the process of radiation has
almost no limit, the process of evaporation has one which is attained
when the surrounding cooled air has reached the limit of saturation;
from this point on the cooling through evaporation ceases. Any forma-
tion of dew, due to a further cooling, occurs in consequence of the radi-
ation, so that the evaporation contributes thereto only as preparatory,
by stimulating the cooling process which the radiation itself brings
about; the formation of dew itself then is only a farther consequence of
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 285
the radiation. As soon as dew begins to form this condensation now
acts in a direction contrary to that of the previous evaporation; by this
condensation the latent heat of the aqueous vapor is set free, and so
delays the further process of cooling through radiation.
This superposition of the two processes can be best investigated if
we endeavor to observe them separately. Take three thermometers—
the first having a metallic polished spherical bulb, the second a dry
blackened spherical bulb, the third a wet or moistened blackened spher-
ical bulb. Then the first thermometer, if it is protected from the heat
radiated from the earth, and also protected by a roof, will give simply
the temperature of the air, since the radiating power of its own surface
can be taken as zero; the second thermometer, if allowed to radiate
freely into the sky, will give simply the effect of radiation; the third
thermometer, also radiating freely to the sky, will give the total effect
of radiation and evaporation together. Such investigations, according
to, Jamin, show that the cooling due to evaporation is almost always
equal to that due to radiation, and sometimes exceeds it; therefore, in
the explanation of the forming of dew it is certainly not to be neglected.
The following example of observed temperatures, before and after the
formation of dew, sets the whole process forth more clearly:
| ap Eorenses
Time. oor rare r three
; Eee
h. m. | Degrees O.
3 13 MIS OOR TC lees acai ee ce
sets: 9. 60 1. 40
3- 19 8.55 1.05
3 22 7.65 0.90
3 25 7.30 *0.35
3 28 7.00 0.30
3 31 6. 68 0. 32
* Dew point, 7.05.
(Z. O. G. M., XIV, p. 324.)
In a short article on the climate of central equatorial parts of the
Pacific Ocean, Woeikof collects together a few notes relative to obser-
vations made on small guano islands near the equator. He especially
calls attention to the small rainfall recorded for these islands, and
suggests that durable rain gauges be constructed of such pattern that
they can be permanently left on such small uninhabited islands, and
from time to time be visited in order to keep the record of the rainfall.
He expresses the hope that navigators of the Navy or merchant marine
may find opportunity to carry out his suggestion. (Z. 0. @.lM., XV, 1880,
p. 120.)
In a note on crystallized forms of hail, Merrian states that among the
various views that have been expressed as to the origin of these forms,
it seems to him probable that repeated melting and freezing of layers
of water plays an important part. We can assume that at first a kernel
/
286 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
is formed from a collection of radiating snow crystals, and that then
on falling through a cloud, which is itself constructed of watery vesi-
cles, at a temperature below freezing, the kernel is concentrically cov-
ered with ice, which at first is crystallized, and by its further growth
assumes its regular crystalline forms. <A rotation of the hail storm
about any one axis will give it a symmetrical form. (Z. 0. G. I, XV,
1880, p. 133.)
Dr. Hildebrandsson has endeavored to introduce further intelligent
conformity among the observers of clouds, and to better illustrate the
classification adopted by himself at Upsala has published a volume of
photographs of clouds in which seven plates are devoted to cirro-
stratus and nimbus, and five are devoted to cirro-cumulus and strato-
eumulus, and four to the cumulus and cumulo-stratus. The photo-
graphs are by Osti. In general Hildebrandsson adheres to Howard’s
terminology. (Z. O. G. M., Vol. XV, p. 242.)
Hann has investigated the annual period of rainfall in Austria-
Hungary, making use of all observations available up to the year 1878.
These observations refer to 181 stations, of which 146 furnished series
of ten years or more in length. The principal question and most im-
portant one to be investigated was, how far the annual distribution of
‘rain at the neighboring stations agreed or differed among themselves.
To this end each monthly rainfall was converted into a percentage of the
annual rainfall, and the results arranged into thirty-four groups, repre-
senting as many localities. Among the generalizations thus brought to
light is the fact that on either side of the Donau there exists a decided
tendency to a double maximum of the rainfall in June and August
respectively, while in other portions of the empire the maximum oc-
curs either in June or October. (Z. O. G. M., Vol. XV, 1880, p. 249.)
Mr. Dines has made some observations in regard to the size of the
water particles or drops in dense fogs. The magnitude of these particles
is not uniform even in the same fog, but varies between 0.00062 inch and
0.005 inch; but these larger particles are only observed in very dense
fog and at a time when the rain itself is falling. (Z. 0. G. M., Vol. XV,
1880, p. 375.) ;
Koppen and Sprung have investigated the distribution of rain over
the Atlantic Ocean, as it results from the observations made on the ves-
sels of the German marine during the years 1868 to 1872, and recorded
in 178 journals selected from a large mass of records. They state that
at all seasons of the year we find on the Atlantic Ocean three large
regions especially rich in rainfall, viz, the equatorial and the two extra-
tropical, and between these lie two regions of scanty rainfall, which are
the two zones of trade winds, but in these latter the deficiency of rain
is only a relative quantity, and it is only in special regions, especially
in the eastern half of the ocean, that these become regions of no rain-
fall. In general, even in the trade-wind regions, from 20 to 30 per cent.
of the days have showers of rain, and the frequency of the rain is, there-
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 287
fore, not less than it is in Southern Europe during the rainiest half of
the year, and is, therefore, not at all to be compared with the drought of
the great continental deserts. These regions of small and great rainfall
vary their position and their extent in the course of the year. During
our northern summers the equatorial rainy region and the two adjacent
regions of light rainfall have a position ten or fifteen degrees more to the
north, and the northern extra-tropical rain-belt has a much smaller exten-
sion than during our winter season. The equatorial rain-belt coincides
with the belt of calms, and corresponding to this it lies during March
between 4° north and 4° south latitude; but during July it lies between
6° north and 12° north. The position at which the rain-belt is found at
the close of our winter is occupied in midsummer by the belt of least
rainfall in the region of southeast trades. The position of the calm-belt
in summer is occupied in the beginning of spring by the belt of least
rain lying in the region of the northeast trades. The region beyond
the northern limits of the Tropic of Capricorn, where rain falls on more
than half the days of the year, is confined in the summer time to a small
space in the center of the ocean between 42° and 60° north, while in
winter time it extends from the neighborhood of the Tropic of Capri-
corn to beyond Iceland. The southern limit of the extra-tropical re-
gion of slight rainfall, on the other hand, experiences smaller annual
variations, and extends in general in the spring time and autumn
farthest towards the equator, while, on the other hand, in the southern
hemisphere it retreats the farthest southward. By these variations in
location and extent of the rain region a very different distribution of the
rain with respect to the seasons of the year is brought about in the
various portions of the ocean. (Z. O. G. I, Vol. XV, 1880, p. 475.)
Hann has investigated the rainfall of Austro-Hungary and attempted
the solution of several questions hitherto slightly touched upon, bas-
ing his studies upon monthly means for twenty years or more at ten
stations. Some of his results may be expressed as follows: The mean
departure of the rainfall for any month from the average rainfall for the
whole period is called the mean variability ; it increases with the mag-
nitude of the rainfall itself, so that in general places of greatest rainfall
have the greatest variability. From the mean variability of four stations
he computes the probable error of the mean of ten years as + of 2 milli-
meters, whence it would require 840 years to reduce the probable error
to one millimeter, whence we see the absurdity of giving the monthly
sums of rainfall to tenths of milimeters. If we express the mean de-
partures in percentages of the total rainfall, we find the average varia-
bility for Austro-Hungary to be 40 or 50 per cent. of the total value,
and it requires from sixty to seventy years of observations to obtain a
monthly mean of rainfall whose probable error is 5 per cent. of its whole
value. The above demonstrates clearly how uncertain are the rainfalls
deduced from observations for ten years or less, and how easily erron-
288 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
eous conclusions may be deduced from such short periods. By ex-
pressing the annual rainfall for each station as a percentage of the
average of a long series, Hann studies the simultaneous distribution ef
relative rainfalls and the probability of wet or dry years. (Z. 0. G. ML,
XVI, p. 339.)
Wojeikof has collated the records of heights of water recorded on
gauges in American fresh-water lakes, the Great Salt Lake, the Sea of
Ladoga, the Caspian Sea, &c. He finds that in all cases the epoch of
maximum water was in the beginning of the decennium 1860-1870, but
the minimum of 1872~73, is not so uniform; the Caspian Sea he denom-
inates the greatest rain gauge and evaporimeter of the globe. (Z. 0.
Gi... X Vi, 1881, p: 288.)
Max Miller, of Flensburg, communicates the results of careful obser-
vations of the cirrus-clouds. He finds that when a barometric minimum
is moving from west to east, the well developed cirri on the eastern edge
of the cloud-bank have a principal striation from west to east and a
combing-out—namely, a cross-striation toward the north; while in the
rear of the cloud-bank with a clearing sky the principal striation runs
from north to south and the comb-teeth point to the east. Such de-
pressions throw out towards the west only a plume of cirri whose north-
ern edge is bounded by a region of high barometric pressure, and in
such cases the area of low pressure shows only a slight tendency to
change of location. The absolute motion of the cirri is directed by the
upper winds there prevailing, the striation on the other hand is con-
trolled by the motion of the various strata of air relative to each other.
The variable angle between the direction of the upper wind and the
strie of the cirri will probably give some conclusions as to the course
of the isobars in the upper strata of air. (Z. 0. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 246.)
Professor Winkelmann has attempted a solution of the question how
large a geographical district should be included in a given special pre-
diction as to the occurrence of rain. He considers the question from a
purely statistical view, and proposes to determine for any given region
how often rain occurs at one station without occurring generally. at all
stations, and how far we may go from one station without coming to
those whose rainy weather does generally not occur simultaneously with
that at the starting point. On applying his formule and methods to
ten years of record at ten stations in Wurtemberg, he finds that on the
average for any one of these stations the weather is the same as that pre-
vailing at the other stations on eighty-five days out of one hundred, the
extreme values being .87 in 1871 and .82 in 1867. Thus one prediction
for the whole region will, on the average, suffice to secure 85 per cent.
of verifications; the division into two smaller districts will raise this
percentage to 87 percent. (Z. 0. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 236.)
Blanford has published the meteorological observations made by Dr.
J. Scully in Western Thibet, in 1876, during ‘““Shaw’s Mission.” .These
observations afford an excellent check upon the applicability of Hann’s
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 289
formula (Zeitschrift Bd. TX, 1874, page 198,) for the distribution of
moisture, and its excellent argument is shown by the following table:
Altitude. Vapor tension.
Observed. Computed.
Meters. Millimeters.
1340 hil —
1770 7.2 8.3
2630 6.5 6.1
3420 4.9 4.7
4900 2.8 2.8
(Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 170.)
Stelling has published an elaborate memoir on the annual periodicity
of evaporation at Russian stations. The observations forming the basis
of his work have been uniformly made with Wild’s ‘‘ Weighing Evapori-
meter,” and the installation of these instruments at the various stations
have been carried out with great uniformity; moreover, the stations
represent a very great variety of climates and the records extend through
periods of three to seven years, beginning with 1872. Among the gen-
eral results we notice that the annual minimum everywhere occurs with
the minimum temperature of January ; the maximum depends, however,
upon the Continental location, with its resulting winds, as well as upon
temperature. Therelation between evaporation and rainfall is perhaps
best seen by comparison between observations at St. Petersburg and
Taschkent, while the variations due to slight variations in the immedi-
ate surroundings can be seen by comparing Pavlosk with St. Peters-
burg. twelve miles distant, or the stations at the observatory and in
the city of Taschkent, as shown in the following table:
|
. Evapora- | Mean tem-| Mean relative | Mean | Total
Station. Years. tion. perature. humidity. wind. | rain.
Per cent
LEGS he? Bnoe saeco eeCostienoce 1878-79 280 49,4 4.9 603
LET dG BARRA eae Apeaeodeeoe 1878-79 188 3°.8 : 86 3.6 654
Taschkent observatory. ---....-.- 1878 1, 416 149.8 54 2.5 | 409
Paschkent City...-............... 1878 667 > 1891 65 0.7 | 393
(Z. O. G. M., 1881, p. 119.)
Rénou has made some important studies upon the cloudiness in
Europe. By combining his own observations with those of others, he
finds the daily curve of cloudiness.for Paris; then from a general sur-
vey of diurnal periodicity he finds a minimum at 10 or 11 p. m., and
@ maximum at 1 or 2 p. m. in Paris, with a second maximum in the early
morning hours, this latter being particularly well marked in the United
States. The annual curve for Paris shows a maximum in December,
and two minima in April and September, respectively; but this curve
S. Mis. 109—19
290 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
for Pekin is directly opposed to that for Western Europe; similarly
the annual curve for Sitka is directly opposed to that for Norway. A
chart of the world, showing lines of equal annual cloudiness (isonephelic)
is given by Rénan, and although only a first approximation to the truth,
yet it seems to justify the statement that for the whole earth the
average cloudiness is not much above 50 per cent., possibly as high as
55 per cent. (Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 102.)
Schiaparelli has computed the annual diurnal period of moisture from
observations made during thirty years at the observatory at Milan.
He finds the variation of relative humidity is, as in nearly every other
place, the converse of that of the temperature, as is shown by the follow-
ing table:
eS ‘
3 rd
£4 a c ae
2 4 ue Relative humidity.
3 i
Month. Se & 2
o
: i E Range. | Mean.
Wecembense cesses sec ewe case sec stes see aie alee alee letelal= (aint olelatat +0.7 4.8 Tat 87.5
DAMUATY .-- 22+ oe cece ne conan eee nn nee e eee e er ceenencnn ene ncccs —0.5 4.4 7.4 86.7
February .--..-.---------- +--+ 2-22 eee eee e eee e cece cence eee: +0. 6 4.8 15.7 80.4
March ......--- 222-2 e ee ence een eee cece cee cce nescence 3.1 3.7 20.8 72.7
ADL Laos witeicisccinclelsio cee elclanidiea\=ln\miwinie(n’e elwins\nieimuinie sim in\ale(nialnsim 6.7 7.3 23.9 68. 8
BY -- 2-22 eee cee e ew nee cee w ee come n cen cen eee cee cenece cence 10.6 9.5 25.1 67.9
UNO! ears re cicicniss cate winaeiele sielaleiseleislsle[n\einicie'w nelle inieiminleiaininic 13. 8 11.8 25. 6 65. 3
DULY - - -- oo ee we een ewe en ween e semen een e cn wenn se enne 15.7 13.3 26.1 62.4
AUGUBE <2 ~~~ 2 occ n en wee wce cece cranes conwccncess-=sen=ssenn== 15.6 13.2 26. 0 65. 0
September .- .........5-.-2---02.-----2----- + SpoobosSacectesaoc 13.4 11.5 25. 2 72.7
OCtODel senate = selene eie sine elel= wana aisesseriviecisininisaimnliviasainas 9.3 8.8 18.7 79.9
INGVOIN DER fas] cele seein oem mle seat ata aie ele ~inim icles =~ ee 4.4 6.3 13.5 84. 6
VAGUE ds Sho dec oco econ Ja DUCCado DOBBS neo SaSneebeSareanaseAccese 7.8 Sito) eemeeetrtrs 74.5
(Z. 0. G. M., Vol. XV, 1880, p. 417.)
VIIL.—MOVEMENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE, WINDS, ETC.
Woeikof, the author of the concluding chapter of Professor Coffin’s
‘Winds of the Globe,” has given a review of his results with some
modifications, from which we extract the following table relative to winds
in Greenland:
_—
Prevailing winds.
Stations.
Summer. Winter.
Polaris By) EH OUSC tenn eae estore se aee een eie ee ae ele emai t NE. and SW....-.-- | NE. and E.
IPOrt Moule see toca ee score wis occa cms sivieinama is disenie ey seiniem aleleis eae NE. and SW...--- NE.
Wyn meh ale Sa pga nccdonoodS a sos Ce SO Se So ceceercosscsancccorcdcchsbscht IN and S)Wise se cererers N. and E.
Godthgab-acopnaveniesm cee caeese som clesatae teres aie steels emai stele sree Eeand SiWioness-i- KE.
Sabinevishand ss eocecessseme neces eecciatc ce eusse ema eeecekemisa ct einers NevandiSeececseeee | N.
He concludes that we can assume with great probability that in win-
ter a very strong current of air from Northern Greenland blows along
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 291
the east coast of the island towards the cyclone in the neighborhood of
Iceland. The following similar tables relate to the middle latitudes of
North America:
Prevailing winds.
Stations.
Summer. Winter.
SHing Pats piAne CAIASKS -coc ces cca tenaa dan plecitadal lan aleistatee wai <)aistar=i—niainicteta Ss;
DBOUGHORNVAVASKS ere rae sie o-oo onewtelsnemeenccewenins SE. to SW. N. to E.
Washington Territory .-..-.22.... 52-22. 0. sence cnenne SW.to NW. E. and SE.
TOON Mee a ae ae a ate siclcicia's s'cicies nine sminaianineiinticets SW.to NW. SE. and SW.
(SAUTE oe 55 ee coos sennaseonopoLsoouScoonpcsdsac S. and W. S. and SE.
Arizona....... WS Ee an 1s Aa aaa stare e/alaiacinmne eetoicialctees SE. and S. N.
INE WRI ORICON ee seis cote Kiet olainsinnic sn oeeeleiaieeetae ae wiatal S. W.and NE.
Nitah Wee ae doce ccs aes ee SEE BORER OnCerOOOTeroECS S. and W. SW. and W.and N.
Eastern Rocky Mountain slope ...-..--.---.--.------- SE. and 8S. N. and NW.
LUG RG pet Se aes ae See es ee eee ance cer SE. and SW. NW., N., and NE.
SNA ARM ae ae ok se ee nclame te Bia clin ated a wcrs.sic ccic dale wicieiels E. and SE. N. and NE.
PIG AIT ae ee ink ha elec cseatesster cence nsemae SE. NW. and N.
MIRSISSIPPL, LOWISIANE «oo. ci cloes oss wachiancine cs once SE. to SW. N., NE., and W.
As showing how little the trade winds control throughout the year,
we have but to study the mean annual wind direction with their re-
sultants; thus even in the Northern Bahamas, where the ratio is most
nearly such as would belong to the trade wind, we find that the resultant
wind for the year is north 87° east, while at Florida Keys it is north-
76° east. (Z. O. G. M., XIV., 1879, pp. 1 to 18.)
Hann summarizes the results of observations by Kersten, Seward,
and others, in regard to the climate of Zanzibar. He says atmos
pherie currents in Zanzibar deserve a special consideration, since the
seasonal change in the winds is here the basis of all weather phenomena.
The northeast monsoon (that in 1864 began to be perceptible some
weeks after the passage of the sun southward through the equator, but
attained its full force after the middle of December, when the sun had
reached its extreme southern position) brings higher temperature,
lower pressure, and higher moisture.
The opposite features characterize the southwest monsoon, which
commences shortly after the second passage of the sun through the zenith,
and at first is accompanied by calms, but from the end of March onward
for three months continues almost uninterruptedly to blow as a fresh
breeze. In July and August, however, the southwest wind fails again
for some weeks, diminishing to a light breeze, and even occasionally for
a few hours shifts again to a weak northerly wind; in October the
southwest again blows with less strength, interrupted by many calms,
which by November always get the upper hand, and by the end of the
month give way to the northeast monsoon. Thus the southwest mon-
soon prevails for seven months; two months are changeable, namely,
March and November, and only three months from the middle of Decem-
ber to the middle of March belong to the northeast monsoon. (Z. 0. G.
M., 1879, XIV, pp. 22 to 24.)
-
292 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
The results of the observations of the wind made on the last arctic ex-
pedition of Captain Hall have been discussed by Weihrauch. These data
are very valuable to the meteorologist on account of the high latitude
the large number of hourly observations, and the actual measurement of
the wind velocity instead of the ordinary estimates of wind force. The
distressing misfortune that befell Dr. Bessels in the employment of a
chief computer who proved to be wholly untrustworthy is already
known to meteorologists, and rendered it necessary that Weihrauch
should undertake the labor of an entire repetition of the computations,
some of the results of which are given in the following table:
Anemometric means for Polaris Bay.
Mean resulting :
Number © | Mean resulting
Month. | of days. pans direction.
ie} J
Sept Sikeore ceo = 1.01 S. 49 31 W.
Oct elSTli rear 8. 75 f N. 33 21 E.
Ons 1871 se 6. 78 a 54 18 =
ec., 1871 29 3. 90 . 6413 E.
Jan., 1872 30 5. 47 N. 58 48 KE.
Feb., 1872 29 7.37 N. 51 30 E.
Mar., 1872 26 8.71 N. 51 4K.
Apr., 1872 30 2. 09 N. 70 54 E.
aay 1872 31 3. 65 a 49 13 a
une, 1872 27 0. 66 SOR lH
July, 1872 23 1. 53 New oes
. Aug., 1872 31 0. 62 S. 71 21 W.
Anemometric means for Polaris House.
Noyv., 1872 30 6. 03 N. 36 38 E.
Dec., 1872 31 12. 15 N. 43 37 E.
Jan., 1873 31 2. 32 N. 74 56 E.
Feb., 1873 28 8.61 N. 47 13 E.
Mar., 1873 31 3. 20 N. 56 24 E.
Apr., 1873 30 3.72 N. 67 53 E.
May, 1873 31 3.50 N. 51 19 E.
The existence of a diurnal period in the velocity is very plainly
shown by the observations at Polaris Bay, but less plainly by the ob-
servations at Polaris House, and Weihrauch remarks that there is a
great similarity between the diurnal period at Polaris Bay and at
Dorpat, Russia. The diurnal period in the wind direction is not plainly
shown for either of Captain Hall’s two stations, which result is explained
by the fact that the observations are only recorded to the nearest eight
principal directions. (Z. 0. G. M., Vol. XIV, p. 170.)
Koéppen has reviewed the important memoir published by Hann in
1879 on the diurnal periodicity of the wind as to velocity and direction.
With regard to the force of the wind, it is shown that whatever may be
the direction there is a diurnal periodicity in the force, such that—for
example, at Vienna—the times of maximum and minimum are as shown
in the following table:
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 293
Maximum and minimum wind velocity at Vienna.
Maxima. Minima.
Wind direction. Velocity in Velocity in
Time. kilometers Time. kilometers
per hour. per hour.
scorned An Séesbod sce boSeosasbosaece 1 to 2 p.m. 19.8 5 to 6 a.m. 12.1
ISIN once neekticbosesacdaddases sebee ase ae 5 to 6 p.m. 12.5 5 to 6 a.m. 6.1
(Ne so so sass soc ccsesosossessanebeses 1 to 2 p.m. 10.3 5 to 6 a.m. 4.9
SIM cco seoescssseto socecssarssssscccnas 1lto2p.m. 15. 6 5 to 6 a.m. 8.2
aoSodS cesSooosde SoS se 54 donne geébcde 3 to 4 p.m. 18.6 5 to 6 a.m. 7.5
Piece cece clint cc se caiencsiocte seit 11 a. m. to noon 15.8 3 to 4 a.m. 7.0
\W Wi dana Ssc8ceeeneSdesoinssaa5 GocOoO eee 1lto2p.m. 35. 2 7 to8 p.m. 27.8
II ee bs sasceGuee be Coon enpESoEreSaerse 1to2p.m. 27.4 1 to 2 a.m. 21.5
|
This increase in wind velocity up to a maximum in the warmest part
of the day is apparently confined to the lowest stratum of air and is to be
attributed to the descent of rapidly-moving upper currents of air replac-
ing that which is continually ascending from the heated surface of the
earth. Theonly other plausible hypothesis would seem to be that the
upper currents have a variable influence upon the lower strata, depend-
ing upon the variation of what is known as the internal friction of gases.
The coefficient of this friction increases with the temperature, whence it
might seem that stronger winds would be experienced at midday at sea-
level than during the night-time, but coefficient (7) of friction, for the
temperature ¢ is, according to O. E. Meyer, equal to (1+0.0025¢)7,,
where 7, is the coefficient at 0° C.
It is, however, believed that the diurnal variation of the temperature
of the air at considerable altitudes is too slight to sensibly effect this
coefficient. K6ppen, therefore, considers that the greater part of the
diurnal variation and wind force must be attributed to the descent of
rapidly moving upper currents of air. This result is confirmed by the
study of the relation of wind pressure and barometric gradient, and also
by the study of the daily and annual variation in humidity. K6éppen says,
since the atmospheric pressure is influenced by the warming of the lower
Strata of air in the same direction as by the humidity, we can say that
the greater the difference of air temperatures in a vertical direction the
less is the difference in absolute humidity, barometric pressure, and
total horizontal movement, so that in the early afternoon hours, as far
as these elements are concerned, the inhabitants of the low plains
may be said to, in a certain sense, be transferred into an atmosphere
that belongs to a higher level, while the dwellers on the mountain tops
are on the other hand transferred to a lower level. The reason why the
trade-winds, dnd probably all winds, show on the open sea nothing or a
very little of the midday maximum is explained by considering that
the vertical circulation of air, as well as the increase of wind velocity
with the altitude, is much less than over the land. (Z. 0. G. M., XIX,
p. 348.)
Hann has, in a few words, set clearly forth the slight differences of
294 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
opinion that at present exist relative to the use of the term ascending
current. Saussure first employed the term ‘“ cowrant ascendant,” which
Hann would restrict to the column of air ascending from mountains at
midday, and he doubts whether a similar general ascending current
ever developed itself over extensive horizontal areas of warm earth.
That many meteorologists have described the daily ascent of the lower
strata of air as going on continuously and not as a local interchange be-
tween ascending currents on the one side and descending on the other, is
evident to all, especially when we consider how many have fruitlessly
endeavored to explain the afternoon barometric minimum as the result
of the ascending current.
Hann finds a strong argument against the invariable existence of an
afternoon ascending current in the fact that frequently at Vienna, as
elsewhere, absolutely cloudless afternoons occur, even when the dew-
point at the earth’s surface is so high that an ascent of a few thousand
feet must produce cumulus clouds. The cumulus clouds that frequently
occur at very great altitudes are seldom due to currents ascending from
the immediate neighborhood of the observer, but to a rising and falling
or wave-like movement in the upper current itself. At these altitudes
the air is very near its dew-point, wherefore a very slight ascent would |
give rise to formation of clouds. The direct interchange of air between
the upper and lower strata of the atmosphere seems not to extend to
very great altitudes in the atmosphere. (Z. O. G. M., XIV, p. 352.)
K6ppen has published an extensive essay on béen, or wind gusts and .
thunder storms, which is reprinted with additions in the Journal of the
Austrian Meteorological Association. He concludes by inclining to the
belief that the gusts of wind preceding showers of rain are brought
down by the friction and resistance of the falling drops. In this view,
however, we believe that he was long since anticipated by Prof. Joseph
Henry. In regard to the gusts accompanying the béen when no rain
falls, he thinks that this consists of air brought down from the upper
regions by its greater density, but still retaining the great horizontal
velocity that prevails aloft.
The indications of the self-recording barometer show that every gust
of wind is accompanied by a corresponding disturbance of the barome-
tric pressure, and the table quoted by him furnishes many illustrations
of this. These disturbances are additional to those caused by the
action of the wind on the doors and chimneys of the room in which the ~
barometer is placed, and relate to the motion and density of the air in |
the neighborhood of the observer. (Z. O. G. M., XIV, pp. 457 to 478.)
Sprung remarks that the law according to Which bodies moving hori-
zontally are deviated to the right or to the left by the influence of the
rotation of the earth, notwithstanding its importance for meteorology,
appears to be still very little known. ‘In the course of my investiga-
tions it appeared clear to me that the reason why the theory of Hadley
and Dove as to the influence of the earth’s rotation on the wind is at the
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 295
present time applied to the explanation of the cyclonic movement of
the air consists especially in its great perspicuity, but also equally in
the difficulty of making a true law of deviation generally evident to read-
ers slightly acquainted with mathematics. It appears to me, however,
as though this difficulty could be overcome, and as though the correct
expression for the deviating force of rotation could be deduced in a
simple manner intelligible to all.” Sprung then proceeds to consider the
case of a plain disk rotating with an angular velocity , which is a
case precisely parallel to the condition of affairs on the earth’s surface
in the neighborhood of the North Pole. If the relative or absolute orbit
of any body passes through the center of rotation of the disk, then, in
the absence of all exterior forces, the body moves relatively to the earth
in an Archimedean spiral, in such a manner that its relative angular
velocity is equal to that of the disk itself, and perpetually moving
further and further from the center.
This, therefore, is the inertia curve projected upon a rotating plane
disk. It isnow evident that every relative movement on the disk that
differs from that of the inertia curve isalso a departure from the absolute
rectilinear movement, and can therefore not take place except under the
influence of some exterior force. If, now, such exterior force be decom-
posed into components that are perpendicular and parallel to its orbit,
the study of the combined effects of these components and the cen-
trifugal force shows that on a parabolic surface rotating with the angular
velocity » the inertia curve is a circle whose radius is p =— os de-
scribed with a constant relative velocity (v) which is entirely inde-
pendent of the distance from the center of rotation of the surface.
For movements upon the actual surface of the earth we have p =
v
- Qosing’
motion which, in absolute space, are the only ones that can exist in con-
sequence of the inertia, requires, on the rotating surface of the earth, the
action of an outer pressure from right to left capable of producing an ac-
celeration at the equator, whose value is expressed by 2 v @ sin ¢.
Sprung; by geometrical construction, makes it evident that under
otherwise similar circumstances in regard to the geographical latitude,
the velocity and friction, Ist, the cyclonal curvature of the wind orbit is
accompanied by a stronger gradient and greater angular deviation ¢
than is the anti-cyclonal curvature. 2d. For the same curvature of the
wind orbit and for equal velocity and increasing coefficient of friction
increases the gradient, but diminishes the angular deviation g. 3d. For
equal curvature of the wind orbit, and equal coefficient of friction, and
equal velocity, both gradient and angle of deviation increase with the
approach to the equator, as was shown by Guldberg and Mohn. (2. 0.
_G. M., Vol. XV, 1880, pp. 1 to 21.)
The uniform motion in a straight line, or those forms of
~
296 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
Woeikof gives a summary of our knowledge of the winds on the
Atlantic Ocean, in which, among other things, he gives the following
table showing the mean limits of the northern border of the region of
the northeast trade winds. Thus on 45th meridian west, from April to
June, the average latitude of the northern limit of the northeast trade
winds is 279,
Meridian.
Season. : : : :
=A (eda Vi = cana Pal ie f= irl ah gl eel | -tocl)t
N. N. N. N. N. N. N. N. N. N N.
January-March ........--..--. 263° | 25° | 2340 | 230 | 9440 | 260 | 2640 | 254° | 2530 | 2840 | B00
A nril= Sune Assos esas seen 280 | 2440 | 930 | 950 | 970 | dgo | 280 | 280 | 2ga0 | 32° | 330
July-September .........-.---- 279 | 279 | 2620 | 260 | 263° | 274° | 2740 | 284° | 319 | 314° | 324°
October-December ..-..-.--..--- 26° 24° 22%° | 22° 224° | 244° | 254° | 254° | 264° | 290 31°
(Z. O. G. M., Vol. XV, 1880, p. 124.)
In reference to the winds of the valley of the Upper Engadin in
Switzerland, Professor Billwiller, in a review of the recently crowned
essay of Dr. Ludwig, says, ‘After I had made an accurate review of the
continuous records of the meteorological stations, and, by direct ques-
tionings of reliable persons, had found the fact confirmed that really on
warm, clear summer and autumn days, about midday, there regularly
prevailed a local wind flowing downwards in the direction of theriver from
Maloja Pass to beyond the Scaufs, which attained its greatest intensity
in the warmer hours of afternoon, and toward evening again died away,
I attempted to find an explanation for this phenomenon, which ap-
parently stands in contradiction to the theory of the mountain and val-
ley winds.” The explanation of this phenomenon depends essentially
upon the topographical peculiarities. The meteorological conditions of
the Ober-Engadin are entirely the same as those of an inclosed valley.
The temperature variations are much greater than those of the lower
land beneath it, by reason of the dry, pure, thin air. The insolation in
summer produces an ascent of the air on the flanks of the valley that
is followed by a diminution in the pressure and density of the air im-
mediately above the lowest portions of the long, narrow valley of the
Inn, and which demands a compensation. Since now active ascending
currents are moving along the southern base of the Alps, nothing is
more natural than to assume that the deficiency in density in the base
of the valley of the Ober-Engadin shouid find its compensation by
drawing upon the cooler and somewhat denser air on the other side
but at the same level in the valley of the Maloja—(Z. 0. G. M., Vol.
XV, 1880, p. 297.)
O. T. Sherman has published the resuit of observations made by him-
self, in balloons, on the height and strength of land and sea breezes.
The observations were made at Coney Island, near New York, at the
expense of Capt. H. W. Howgate, and at the request of Professor Abbe,
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 997
who also furnished most of the instructions. These observations were
taken every five minutes with barometer, thermometer, anemometer,
&e. It is demonstrated, by means of these observations, that the re-
turn current of air is comparatively thin and feeble, and also that the
sea wind, like the land wind, has only a feeble power. (Z. 0. G. M., XV,
p. 448.)
Professor Airy has published the results of the reduction of the pho-
tographic records of pressure and temperature at Gfeenwich since 1849.
The annual wind ‘‘roses” for these two elements are as follows:
{Direction of wind. Pressure. Temperature.
0.9 Ate
3.8 8.3
2.5 9.1
0.9 | 10. 2
} —3.3 11.1
—2.2 112
—1.1 10.4
—0.4 | 8.6
The monthly means, including those of earth temperatures, are shown
in the following table. The air temperatures refer to the years 1849 to
1868, for the first part of the table; but for the sake of comparison with
the earth temperatures they have, in the second part of the table, been
recomputed for the years 1847 to 1873, and are given in degrees cent.:
Temperatures for 1849-68.) Temperatures for 1847-'73.
Month.
Dew-point.
Perfectly clear
days
arth at 6 feet
Karth at 24 feet.
Air.
E
Air.
MORCOIGDOR cscasclasecces cerca dace sc coessece cecal
ARRANGE cease cise bone ccmeins iaecceccwsecas
HOMURENV ase wen ce nes cmeccce ce ances cleo es
NRT CD eee sere ewe eae cbios co cineice = cbieisising ee a’
AN) eee seSshcds c6asenoanacoo sor osc easeareAaor
M
HHH
Sei
10.
+11 |
SNSPNNNNNON WY
NACHALKPANR POW
i771
PPRDONNONP NEE oO
edd ond
DONS IP SN OTE 90 OT CO
MOANACHAMWW-10
“IR WOU OR AW OOO
fed et et
$0 SUS SP So E+ 90 Ov CO fm
NOWSCKHODAKWWO-1
SPV SUSUe Boo COR N's
OW AHR WWOM HE ~1D9
)
WNSCAH APRA OOD
| oul coer ell ape peal well aed
“fall
|
(Z. O. G. M., Vol. XV., 1880, p. 405.)
Professor Finger, of Vienna, has published a second memoir on the in-
fluence of the earth’s rotation upon the winds. As several of his funda-
mental assumptions differ from those introduced by Ferrel, his results
differ correspondingly. He concludes that the gradient in the hori-
zontal direction perpendicular to the respective wind direction is entirely
independent of the friction and other resistances to the motion of the air;
and, again, that the influence of the ascending vertical movement is to
depress the barometric pressure for south winds and raise it for north
298 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
winds. [This influence seems to relate to matters of minor importance as
compared with those to which Professor Ferrel has confined his atten-
tion.] (Z. 0. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 532.)
Dr. A. Sprung gives an elucidation of the theoretical considerations
explanatory of his conclusion that the daily period in wind force is a
necessary consequence of a daily period in wind direction and velocity.
He finds for a period of cloudless weather in Magdeburg the following
mean velocities recorded by the meteorograph of Dr. Assmann.
Magdeburg records. Hamburg records.
|
|
Wind Wind Wind Wind
Hour. direction. velocity. Hour. direction. velocity.
° Meters per sec. ° Meters per sec.
8-9) a. mse ss--- 5-2 N. 80.6 E 5.1 O=)2 1am reese eeaee= N. 63.2 E 4.6
CEI GSMS Saeeescee 86. 0 5.8 Jee RaW ot cic lalate erat 59. 7 4.3
D0=lasmecssseeccse's 85. 8 6.2 AGA Me ences tee ece 66.5 4.2
1 Zim eee teat ae 87.2 6.3 CES WVESIO ps seecradone 78.9 4.8
IPS als iReesogaaccade 87.5 6.3 S10 AIM secs ances 80. 8 5.6
Jey 2epim\ see eee ce 90. 8 6.5 LO=12 imeem eens 78.8 6.7
Pos A yes goss 54! 87.1 6.6 IPP aT Ue Ce sea6.so5ade 80. 8 6.8
S—14 pe meeeneeoeeian 87.3 6.3 2 AUp Wee hoes sees 76. 2 6.8
AOS DEM esas 85. 7 6.4 Ce ae esocncecase 66. 2 6.3
B= iGipemice jac ssoes 82.7 5.5 (SG Diikcmeeeogecaas 70.9 5.1
6a prMe seen ence 82.3 4.8 8-10 phim feces eos 62.9 5.0
(Es ibikechocoosace 75. 6 4.6 10 midnight. 62. 4 5.0
8= 9) Damien sees coos 72.5 4.9
S=10 sp. mises steele ee etal 70.7 5. 1
These show a wind force increasing as the wind veers toward the
east in the morning, and diminishing in the afternoon as the wind backs
to NE. A general summary, based on records from 18 stations in Europe
and Asia, shows that the number of plus or minus revolutions of the
wind-vane is as follows:
Morning, + 4185 — 2617
Afternoon, + 2885 — 3267
whence the Dove law of winds is not confirmed for the afternoon inter-
val 1 p.m. to9 p. m., but is perfectly so inthemorning hours. The “ Espy-
K6éppen” theory of the diurnal variation of the strength of the wind re-
quires that no such period should exist at considerable altitudes above
the earth, and this is confirmed by the observations taken on Schaffberg
and Pic-du-Midi. (Z. 0. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 424.)
Sprung has continued his theoretical investigations on the wind by
adding a few empirical results as to the relation between the force of
the wind, the gradient, and their diurnal periodicity. Expressing the
wind force (S) on the Beaufort (0 to 12) scale, and the gradient in milli-
meters of the barometer for 111 kilometers (or millimeters for degree
of latitude), he finds in general :
Gradient = 0.5 + 0.212 S + 0.019 S?.
For the same gradient the wind force is greater for north and east
winds than for south and west winds, also greater in summer than in
winter. The diurnal variation in wind force during clear days is much
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 299
greater than during cloudy days. The range for the former 1s, in the
summer season, twice that for the latter. For clear days the range of
wind force is remarkably great, while the gradient remains unchanged,
a condition that requires the introduction of an explanation in the
manner suggested by Képpen (Z. 0. G. M., XIV, pp. 333-349.) At sea
the diurnal range, as deduced for marine records, shows nothing of all
this remarkable increase of wind force at 2 p.m. Finally, Sprung com-
pares the anemometer records at 4 stations with the corresponding esti-
mates on the Beaufort scale, and deduces the following formula:
Velocity in meters per second = 0.360 + 1.691 x Beaufort scale of force.
(Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 356.)
The above work by Sprung has been followed by a similar study by
Rey. W. Clement Ley, who has discussed the observations at Stony-
hurst and Kew, and who concludes that if we could have isobars for the
level of the cirrus clouds, we would there find above the deepest cyclone
only a slight secondary depression circulating around a portion of the
great polar depression. He submits the question “Cannot the fact that
a given gradient for east winds obtains only in the lower atmosphere,
while a similar gradient for west winds holds good for the whole atmos-
phere, be brought into connection through known laws of mechanics with
the fact of the greater force of the east over the west winds at the earth’s
surface?” (Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 535.)
Supan, professor of geography in the University of Czernowitz, has
published a valuable work, entitled ‘Statistik der unteren Luftstré-
mungen,” in which he has utilized the great collection of data published
in Coftin’s ‘*Winds of the Globe” (Washington, 1876), and almost as
much more collated by himself. Supan has, in fact, endeavored to util-
ize only the longer series of observations, and he confines himself to
annual percentages of the frequency of the winds, omitting the calms,
which are not given with sufficient accuracy and uniformity by the vari-
ous observers. Only about thirty pages of the whole volume are occu-
pied with general analysis and conclusions.
In elucidating the mutual relations of wind and pressure, Supan cal-
culates the pressure for January over the N. Atlantic Ocean at various
altitudes and degrees of latitude. Adopting observed pressures at sea-
level and Glaishers’ rate of diminution of temperature with altitude,
Supan obtains the pressures in the following table:
|
Pressures. Differences of pressure.
Lat. Altitudes in meters. | Altitudes in meters.
|
|
0. 2, 000 4,000 | 6,000 | 8,000} 0. | 2, 000 | 4,000 | 6,000 | 8, 000
° } |
|
BO: 755 ebteg 428.) 316% | 932 4)" 8 | 98 | — 49 | — 40 | . —50
60 | 744] 576 | 441 | 334 | 251 | —14| —24| ~—28] —31| —31
BO 51)4 768) GOL rl 407,41 S805 ) 0275) | 428i) d |) — 84 pa Bie 7
0 | 758] 600 | 469 | 365 | 282 | 0|
300 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
Whence it appears that at 3000™ a uniform downward gradient pre-
_vails from the equator to the pole, and that this gradient is stronger the
higher we ascend above that level. (Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 402.)
A. Richter has studied the relations of the upper cirrus cloud move-
ment to the distribution of pressure and temperature at the earth’s sur-
face, basing his studies upon the cloud observations of the years 1878-
1880 at Ebersdorf, and the daily weather charts of the Deutsche See-
warte. He finds for the average of the three years that the upper clouds
move towards the azimuth 8. 85° W.; the angle by which the movement
of the cirrus differs from the barometric gradient averages 88°, and that
by which it differs from the corresponding temperature gradient is 759.
The changes in these average results depending upon the seasons the
direction of the wind, excessive gradients, &c., are also investigated
somewhat. (Z. 0. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 376.)
L. Teisserenc de Bort, in a study upon atmospheric circulation in the
Iberian peninsula, says: ‘¢‘The simultaneous observations, day by day,
assume greater importance, but this new mode of research cannot wholly
replace studies by the method of averages in many of the problems that
meteorology offers us. Averages are, in fact, a powerful means of
bringing out the dominant character of phenomena, and they are aplica-
ble to the discussion of daily charts as well as to the so-called statisti-
cal researches. These latter do not show the accidental variations, but
they put in relief certain influences that play an important part because
of their continuous action, and that are too feeble to clearly stand forth
in the portrayal of the general condition that obtains at any moment.
(Z. (0. G. M., XNVT, 1881, p. 265.)
I’. Chambers has discussed with much ability the record for 1873,’ 74,
°75 of the anemograph, at Kurrachee, in a memoir of some length. (2.
ONG NM. XNG. ASSL pe laa
Ragona has published a memoir on the diurnal and annual variations
jn the direction of the winds, basing his studies upon the hourly read-
ings from the self-register of the observatory at Modena. He finds four
daily maxima and four minima in the velocity of the wind during Jan-
uary, February, October, and December, three maxima and minima
during March, June, July, and August, September, and November, and
two maxima and minima during April and May. The connection be-
tween diurnal periodicity in velocity and direction is so close that he
then finds almost a perfect parallelism in these two data. As to the an-
nual periodicity he finds for each wind direction two maxima and two
minima of frequency; he also finds Dove’s law of rotation of the winds
confirmed for Modena. (Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 125.)
VIII.—_ BAROMETRIC PRESSURE.
IX.—STORMS.
K6ppen, in a review of the extensive work of Toynbee on the “* Meteor-
ology of the North Atlantic during August 1873,” gives a study of the
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 301
relation between isobars and winds during the great hurricane that
marked this month. The angle between the wind and isobar in each
quadrant of the hurricane is as follows, on the average of three maps:
| Number of
Quadrant.| Angle. | observa-
tions.
Sooheiac 48° 25
SEeie econ 64° 11
SWee2:e2 70° 41
INIWicconss 60° 31
Total.. 61° 108
At different distances from the storm-center the angle varied as fol-
lows:
Distance Number of
in nautical | Angle yw. observa-
miles. tions.
100 47° 7
200 57° 17
300 62° 18
400 58° 32
500 65° 12
600 66° 7
700 75° 12
800 75° 3
Since these relate to the region beyond the maximum of wind force
they can, according to Guldberg and Mohn, be considered as approxi-
mations to the normals values of the angle of deviation, and in their
notation the average values for the three maps are as follows:
| Number
Date. wv of observa-
tions.
°
August 24,108 p.m.......... 61 37
26,169 ao mos.o..-5.c0. 59 40
25, 08 48" p.m....... 64 31
This angle is, therefore, nearly the same on the Atlantic Ocean, and
in latitude 42°, as it is in Denmark and Great Britain. By the formula
given by Guldberg and Mohn we can now compute the coefficient of
friction and derive the value k=0.00005409. With this we may compare
the value k = 0.00007265, computed by Hoffmyer, for Denmark, latitude
56°, from the deviation angle 259°, and we find it higher than would
have been expected from the ocean (Guldberg and Mohn assume for the
open sea k = 0.00004). The value k = 0.00002582, computed by Clement
Ley for y = 77° for five British coast stations is apparently much too
small. (Z. 0. G. M., XV, 1880, p. 201.)
Friesenhof concludes from the study of the paths of storm centers
that the most important factor in determining both the velocity and
direction of the progression is the unequal evaporation in the different
302 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
quadrants—the greater the inequality the faster the movement. In the
North Atlantic Ocean this evaporation is largely dependent upon the
presence of open water or a covering of ice, whence he is led to con-
clude that the storm paths of this region may be classified in two
periods. The first is that of the frozen East Polar Sea, with floating
ice in the West Polar Sea, which period is marked by great frequency of
depressions over the Atlantic and their movement southward into the
interior of Russia. The second period is that of the frozen West Polar
Sea, with less ice in the East Polar Sea, which period is marked by
fewer Atlantic cyclones, which all pass from the Gulf Stream into the
East Polar Sea. There is no regularity in the duration of these periods,
although there is some appearance as if the first belonged to the winter
and the second to the summer season. (Z. O. G. M., XV, 1880, p. 217.)
J. Elliott has published an elaborate report of the Madras cyclone,
May, 1877, in which he contributes much to the knowledge of the cireum-
stances attending the inception of the cyclones of the Bay of Beugal.
He says that it is doubtful whether there is in all cases a single calm
center which continues unbroken during the continuance of the cyclonic
disturbance in its more intense form and the path of which marks the
line of advance of the cyclone. It is quite probable that, with the inter-
mittent actions of the winds, one of the commonest features of cyclones
being rapid variations in theirintensity, which give rise to the well known
phenomena of squalls, there may be a continuous disappearance of one
storm center and the formation of another in its neighborhood.
The only entirely new and adequate factor in the meteorological con-
ditions present during the origin and existence of this cyclone was rain-
fall; the cyclone gradually developed after the rainfall, and its intensity,
bears the most direct and marked relation to the intensity of the rainfall.
It followed the line of heavy rainfall throughout its existence.
The energy of the latent heat given out produces an ascensional or
expansional movement in the atmospheric condensing region, and this
disturbance is followed by an attempt towards equilibrium, which in
this case is the converging motion of the lower atmospheric strata to
the area of rainfall. (27.0. G M., Vol. XV, 1880, p. 308.)
Ragona has published a work on the general movement of the at-
mosphere, and the prediction of the weather in especial reference to
Italy. Hestates that the barometric depressions approaching Italy from
the northwest and south pass around the peninsula rather than over it.
About the same number of depressions approach from all directions.
(4. 0. G. M.,. XVI, 1881, p. 452.)
Dr. Van Bebber has studied the daily and monthly course of the
barometric minima in Europe, 1876-1880, and endeavored to contribate
toward bridging over the gap between climatological studies based on
monthly and annual means, and those based on daily weather maps.
In studying the statistical distribution of minima, he constructs a map,
showing the average number of minima passing through each square of
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 303
5° latitude and 10° longitude. [In the statistical atlas published by the
Unites States Census Office in 1876 may be found a similar chart for
each one degree square for the United States. ]
Van Bebber finds, however, that the irregularities in contiguous
years are such as to show that five years is by far not enough to estab-
lish the normal distribution of storm-centers.
The following table shows the annual means for each zone, corrected
so as to reduce to a uniform area with the zone of 50° latitude:
Latitude. Annual number. Means. |
|
|
: |
40-445 N. 18.0 18.0
45-50N. | LL 6 11.6
arine 18. 8 continental.
50-56 N.- ; 13. 0 oceanic. : 15.9
19. 8 continental.
55-60 N. s LO See ntine } 21.1
60-70 N. 20.0 20. 0
In reference to the paths pursued by the minima, Van Bebber finds
the routes most frequented to be as follows:
(A) Passing through Northwestern Ireland; then along the coast of
Norway into the Arctic Circle; thence dividing and passing on either (1)
northward until swallowed up in the ocean, or (2) to the White Sea, or
(3) southeast to the interior of Russia. .
(B) Passing near Great Britain; thence either directly over the North
Sea, Southern Scandinavia, central and southern Baltic Sea to Finland
and the Baltie provinces of Russia.
(C) Passing southwest of Great Britain, southeastward over France
to the Mediterranean.
In general, the minima seem to prefer the coast; mountains do not
apparently attract them. (Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 418.)
Riniker has studied the mass of data collected by the forestry com-
mission of Aargau, Switzerland, relative to the occurrence of hail. He
finds an intimate connection between the frequency and severity of hail
storms and the distribution of forests, cleared land, &c.; the more forests,
so much the less hail. (Z. 0. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 525.)
Lancaster, of Brussels, has discussed the observations of thunder
storms in Belgium during 1878. He finds the trend of the paths of the
43 storms distributed as follows: Toward the SW., 25; 8., 8; SE., 4;
W., 4; NW.,1; NE., 1. The hourly velocity of progress averages 5 kil.
On the average of 45 years, 1833 to 1878, the annual distribution of
days with thunder is as follows:
Number of storms. Number of storms.
wamdary 3. Soe eis Ute ee evelyn ees re lnled bang aitetss 5 158
OBEUALY wacessc aot eda 10 August......... tee Wiel. Seale
BAEC Vote te, Slats. Sate 28K Hit SEpseInOers.£ ue ys jawed 68
2 LET ANOLE AR MOC ner Mishel y Boe sock 21
ier yoseiee use UCL Eat est 108i) *Nowenibler! ticteceven Desivnud 6
Lot afakice Sater s Se ke A PCCEMVOL = oa ous cckerc os. casie owe 4
304 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
The diurnal periodicity is as follows:
Interval. No. of storms.
MENT ONG O ee. Ts data tena ole te ale enetetere te tenia al ote el meee eer US ee
DPMS CO) Eee De creleie ds mists ee yet tele ete e pt oh oy ale inthe et etmte atest ae 26
A aT.” DO! CO: dey AN eel sieielctaieje em eycte aan e etal eteetal miete etalet estate teat ener 15
CAE MO one Ral eo Born aos OboB Sa mab ooddonion cootces 3 16
Ste Fea 0 ila ip IR: A ees eb Oem Grsinrm Goma Gono roa coad Soc 18
LOA, “CO MOON -yo.cccreiereetaiee © mtelaiate Salevia een eraiay ate atte eens 57
Noon: Go: (2) pe) Mes ee foc aimae paler eine enolate tclct = areata nee ee 115
BS ie SARI Say Oe 1s Ohio con ibSs Soe enrins BAUM Ae Om aa eae Amcor! 143
AP De Ta. CO? WO Pei We esi oie= ain ie ste tnyatatenmiersielalale wre tetctoa ele mien te letatol fate 173
Go PMs) tO 48 Pa Me sual ero mah es ele ore ere ee ete iagmn at ecient ein ees 141
S mas to RO, nga ee Ne rae ie mr eeare epee 75
LO ap: my sto: MGM GWG see san om rere rm lee re lay te ot
(
(Z. O. G. M., Vol. XVI, pp. 369-372.)
Schiaparelli and Frisiani have prepared a study of the observations
of thunder storms made in Upper Italy during 1877. The latter finds
that the greater part of the storms occur when a barometric maximum
is present on the Atlantic coasts of France and England, and pressure
is high on the north side of the Alps; a smaller proportion of the storms
occur when the maximum barometer is over Northern Africa; very few
occur when the maximum is over Upper Italy, and only when clear
warm days prevail. None occur when the weather is perfectly clear,
with uniform high pressure, or when the minimum pressure is due west
or the temperature too low. No encouragement is found as to the proba-
bility of our being able to predict local thunder storms. (4. O. G. M.,
XVI, 1881, p. 360.)
The distribution of thunder storms in Ziirich during the past ninety
years has been studied by the scientific society in that city, the summary
of which is given by Hann. The daily records for this period show 1,734
thunder storms with thunder and lightning, 217 lightning without
thunder, and 368 hail storms, of which 116 are included in the above
1,734. The annual distribution of these storms by ten-day periods show
two maxima of 155 each, viz, the 11th to 20th of June, and 10th to 19th
of August. (Z. 0. G. M., Vol. XVI, p. 349.)
X.—ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AURORAS, ETC.
H. Fritz has published a very complete summary of the present state
of our knowledge of the aurora (Das Polarlicht, Leipzig, 1881). We
quote the following:
(1) The region of greatest frequency is in the neighborhood of the
Arctic Circles, touching North Cape and Point Barrow, and at its
southernmost passing through Northern Labrador. This generalization
was first published by him in 1867, but in the present work is revised
by the help of his great catalogue of auroras, published in 1873,
The relative frequency of auroras for stations nearest the zone of
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 305
maximum frequency is shown in the following table, where the fourth
column (B) contains the total number of auroras observed at the given
stations during the years for which we have the record, the fifth column
(E) gives the number of auroras recorded in Fritz’s catalogue as having
been observed in Central Europe during the same years, and the last
column (M) gives the mean relative frequency of visibility of the aurora
for the respective places for the interval from 1700 to 1872, as computed
by the formula
B
M=28
E
: | Lati- | Longi-
Station. fadelaatade: B. E. M.
| |
ee oe A =| ae zs
° o |
PM aCOPR Olan sels ie cecee sone acer ean el ese sea smenms | 56N.} 3H. 184 197 | 28
ONS B ie tere aos cae oe eee acbin cnt Ge es bas es clist Speueeee SON ie 2 238 166 | 41
MLNRISMANIG Lea. = to bem eee cee one pote cmos ce ata chin oaneenwine | 60N.| 115. 965 | 1,149] 23
RNB er Sam ere cco ceisler ec nneee ne ace sas scans sina cochoeine 60 N.| 18K. 1, 150 1, 359 23
ARG eee ees. eer cee ane sncdat tebe canta coe fad ceccoaccstee 69 N.| 24E. 358 469 | 25
PTI GEMAGHS ee een is rca nc(aacciee st Chisels emi cASaccie noon aul eth | 638N.| 225. 537 712, 21
manu waGlke Manse iH. shies. ecavaccias swe sise cwiseeneecebesooue des 59 N. 3 E. 405 292)| 31
MOLOUMNOW certs cases las sanctesce de ded Sacees voce seasekowed 63 N. 11k: | 85 13 | 105
ROUTAN 2 cect ns Sb5 Sn bbong oo csegean DoD OO sn eno Se EE BaoUaSaeee 70N.| 23 E. 23 6 | 107
BC OTU Cs reece coat ais cone cence nee tan oe noe rae reeioce en | 70NNe| (O46 111 20 | 155
Walang aes ce ease cemcene sus Selaa aecwoc ee cc cede oecetinad sewemcee 69 N.| 33.E. | 53 35 | 42
INOVaRAEIND Ae eee eee esesiets ston ce sete meron useceeeesce ee TUN. |) v54.eaa 51 61} 33
Lb) oosc senadce gos eben cee JoMbecdoaaee acadne eore sere aee 73N.| 53H. | _ 16 10| 45
WiexschenesKOlyMBKo nso csscncseesctocises de does sess cectee acd 66 N.} 151 E. | 30 41] 20
ISBN OUR ATI etn es Sober aa ogo B Gane EECHIGHS SABISGH 50 CaO sosae | 69N.| 1615. | 65 5 | 364
ROGAN Gera seae ec tn wa ae sinin « seisiwete ome tee ects seesiree esecae 65 N.| 20 W. 149 81; 51
Dols. Sass ishog3s. Sth ocnadeeshod sche shbccocheesseosedbdassss 65 N.| 20 W.| 300 211 39
SSACLGHUZ ES ANC ees sea cinels same ecke cme seeker = wisiee ane cee 75 N.| 20E. 18 13} 31
SW Toya Sosa ne pecan onaocoeaocuCEtenos saab bancoussoss nee 79 UN: |.) 15H: 4 2| 56
DOR eet aise once owen beet ceonsiees oaiek cs bueaasiben sons 80 N.| 165. 100 86 | 32
rang Oset Mand musics ten sese cee ce bes ceibonen oekbeecseaeeeet 73N.| 605. 249 164 | 43
MAIN Coa MONCH ENey Licks ciceci sew cicise es ce Tete! Lectlncuemesein ae AS iNen ad iWis 308 822! 27
MOM DIOLVINE Na Voces ceceucsceese sdothesscastiosdosossccasse se: 435NU Slee eee 178 165 | 32
RTI CB ENG AVS cea oe ee ee 2h ok oss des eeceseeeecedes 43 N.| 75 W. 174 211 23
IH TK CID yieremts Baclas < mae e aac seis aiaulas clo ocala oreo concn ae claais C ENN feel Seeeso he 323 406 | 22
MorontoyCanada West: secs a2 cece cn. cba ceensedumebeceenenuee 44N.| 79W.| 1,242 949 | 37
DeopwuyilleyNe sc coc me: wieee cise lien ence steewce oes eemeac omnes 44N.| 76W. 212 479 | 34
2 Orersy it Rg 9 yeh See ea ee ee een ae 45N.| 70W. 61 40] 43
BS ee MSRM peo nie sleaae sis tee e he ois emcee ece acca eee ee eee 46N.| 74 W. 403 358 | 32
PA DIOMUMINGS SE .'Se nn cies corce ht wbcmce cc's cawocaine veekeebeeemes 46) Nie |aac cee 63 165 | 28
BUIGINE@s cosniged asec Bee COR OUESs Soe DELS USE tbenep scene ccodcacee 47 N.| TW.) 229 322 | 20
Matawagomingen .......--. SEQ COS HIRE EDS OL O: SUNMOADEOSCObnee 47N.?2|} 80W.?! 40 45 | 25
RI BNHOCGUON cece tess as cons <iton costa teanecckmons ose es cceataee 48N.| 85 W.) 79 84 | 26
MOOK PNICLOLYssecsan est esce cee eee nese ee oee tens enon emnee: 51 N.| 81W.! 294 121} 64
MB ONGAU Dan yee Seen ae ae eCn aa teoanwae seers oe Bes HESS Ga R Oe BIEN [eee ac 61 57 | 30
Martin Ae aISes scout onsets weccbessidcucds acca vauk eee vescaccee BORN loa eee 79 40} 45
MOM CLIAN OP MOUSE tesa n coe o iae Bema me on emis sn outnco wee ae 54 N.| 102 W. | 46 10 | 129
HORI GEOL EG ok wens tone Sem cene ce stead trenton eotmwecceanes 54. N.! 123 W. 57 58 | 28
OLT CHING W YAN) OcOle ass cole ns nace dk Soman tedcank cocees otewee 59 N. | 111 W. 182 35 | 146
IEBivgANG WG WIS ssss2 sensew ofc cece c rence ce nueeac cence esee GLINM eseceee 129 154 | 23
BLOUGLSIMN PSON == onset acai ce seer ae oe me ci cauecsusoesscdoeaeee. 62N.|121W.| 258 148 | 48
RPaN GSMO ES toe core ent tae eee teen re bie Bere tiaen Soom cbiees 62 N. | 129 W. 66 19} 97
OMG OP Ger aun. asscsee mon sen se sisene eens one hicnuonaromccee 63 N. | 131 WwW. 39 18} 61
PORWR ELEATICOt oe os nile seen ents coe ee oe oe oe creat Ca epnan Se 63 N. | 109 W. | 200 11 | Max.
Fort Enterprise... ....-.- -| 64.N. | 113 W. | 148 3 | Max
ROLE N OLIN AIT Cacia: <5 see oe eh Lam ed eet eee 65 N. | 125 W. 32 18 | 50
ORGAN KING = (seek ser ae cones Moen aioe coneeng ame 65 N. | 123 W. 49 11 | 125
ETH ETA Ta cee ond Pe a 8 A en RN ord 66 N. | 147 W. 24 20} 34
PROBL B ERAN GD et Var essa ee ae a epethe eta. ec a ee 67 N. | 134 W 201 238 24
more Confidencters sa sna eee sent sie enero nese este facee ee | 67 N.} 118 W. 198 | 93 | 60
SECDEZODUG SOUN Ocaten peer ae ser ey eee ek oc dew cee ee 70 N. | 163 W. 32 8 | 112
elxand Shere HaAnpolercceceec oe roe ewan ee oe eo etn one 70ON.| 92W. 25 51} 56
RO UMABAETO Wat iaee na eee ee eb eee a i athe 71N.| 156 W. 256 78 | 92
PNORUC AACR see eae eee mean oa a eae tne Somes eee BOE oes i ote Ne 5 94 We 89 28 | 39
Poancas tor Sounidiee-eaeee ee cond cate eee as coal Bo cccackleecabs 74N.) 81 W. 9 3} 94
NUTR) ela Eg Fa) ep I GK OE Mina See 2 Deals Meena eae 75 N.| 111 W. 27 10 | 76
SOUT ESY Noe tae te Ue | 22 OE a ear See ee ST ee eae ee | 64N.| 52 W. 481 133 | 101
|
Even if the periodicity of the phenomena has a partial influence upon
its magnitude and frequency, still it must, beyond all doubt, be that
S. Mis. 109 20
306 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
north of the line of greatest frequency toward the Pole the frequency
and magnitude of the aurora diminishes more rapidly than toward the
Equator, although for no place in that zone is the aurora entirely in-
visible, as is the case in lower latitudes.
(2) With regard to the direction in which auroras are seen, after dis-
cussing a large number of observations, the author finds that the lines
of greatest frequency and neutral directions are, in all probability, sub-
ject to periodical changes in frequency and extent, whereby they soon
come nearer the Pole and again depart from it, as, in fact, could have
already been suspected from the different altitudes and positions of the
observed segments, arcs, &c.
(3) As regards the distribution of auroras in space, the author con-
eludes that the great part of the auroras has no great extension, or the
phenomenon is produced by conditions which are very local in their
nature.
(4) In regard to the altitude of the aurora above the earth’s surface,
the author states he can make no advance on the conclusions previously
formulated by others. The altitudes above the earth’s surface at which
polar lights develop are very various, and the altitudes of these regions,
at least for the lower mit, diminish with the latitudes.
(5) The extent of the aurora and the duration vary within wide limits.
The greatest extent in latitude has been from 29° south up to 82°
north, and the greatest in longitude has been about 280°. The greatest
duration has, apparently, been from August 28 to September 7 [1859].
(6) With regard to diurnal period, he finds that the aurora attains
only one maximum and one minimum; the former is usually about 10
p. m., the principal exception being at Point Barrow, where the maxi-
mum would appear to be at 3 or 4 p. m.
(7) In regard to the annual period, nearly all the series of observa-
tions show two maxima and minima.
(8) In regard to the eleven year and the secular periods, it would
appear that the periodicity of the aurora can be determined more accu-
rately in proportion as we know the perodicity of the sun spots.
(9) The following table shows the comparison between apparent sun
spots and auroras, so far as both of these data can be gathered from im-
perfect records:
Dates of maxima and minima of observed number of auroras.
Maxima. Minima.
1707.2 1804.5 1712.1 1810.8
1719.7 1818.5 1723.5 1822.2
1730.5 1829.9 1734.6 1834.1
1739.8 1840.2 1744.1 1843.8
1748.8 1850.1 1755.4 1856.3
1760.9 1860.6 1766.1 1865.6
1772.8 1870.9 1775.2
1778.0 1783.4
1788.3 1799.9
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 307
(10) The mean length of the period from one maximum or minimum
to the next is as follows:
Years
Popo e MINI a likes, COMMS Cee aes ecie see cic tere wide ce ore am cree woos 10. 96
BOERS ANT TNAS LL Ol, UOMO MON mratea ies 3 cca lo'e 5 a's siarcie eins fe dale den 10. 91
Average oes 35. cS ea ehh eek it eer ee Ease 10 .94
(11) With regard to the secular period, Fritz computes as follows:
| Periods. | Duration.
EBOMMEAUS ESWC LOM CAB Ges me's onic clara ane hoes etre mee ere ane Mate aa eRe a Weak 37 55.6
Langit stigh Nad OB i a EC EE eo eS Ee tos be ee See Pes ee ae 26 55.8
Liner SUS Oye sa Dh ata Ror Ce eek eee Sanger oie Nee te eras 24 56. 0
Hiram sive we pO UOrIoce assent ae: che Saas Welle cobs Selsaiae Rape eas cee Ree ne | 19 | 54.8
PO TIeLAO Le Are NS LON GEG. eye etl ee iaicie eke Sat it Liane lai See Sec ee RLM ieee 8 55. 9
From the above he deduces the mean length of the secular period as
59.6 years, or exactly five eleven-year periods of 11.12 years each.
He suggests that in the present relation between auroras and terres-
trial magnetism a portion of the periodical variability may be due to
the displacement of the existing distribution of terrestrial magnetism,
and be therefore to a large degree apparent.
(12) In reference to the connection between auroras and the disturb-
ances of terrestrial magnetism, he concludes that auroras and magnetic
perturbations frequently occur simultaneously or follow each other
closely; that, however, the perturbations that coincide with auroras
are not observed at all magnetic stations, and that probably auroras
occur without being announced by perturbations in terrestrial mag-
netism. In most cases the aurora precedes the stronger deviations of
the needle.
(13) Again, in reference to the daily magnetic periods, he finds that
the 10 p. m. maximum of auroras entirely corresponds with daily mini-
mum of declinations, which latter, like the maximum of auroras, comes
later with increase of latitude, and that, moreover, it agrees with the
minimum of inclination or with the maximum of the intensity for any
one single place, for instance, St. Petersburg, or with the secondary
maximum of inclination of other places, such as Toronto, Hobarton, &c.,
and the maxima of auroras only agree with the secondary maxima of
the disturbarces. Herein it is established that the connection between
the changes in the terrestrial magnetism and the aurora is indirect,
and at present the appearances are that both these phenomena are in-
tluenced by a common cause, or perhaps are due to it.
(14) With reference to connection with annual periods of terrestrial
magnetism Fritz says that the relations are more intimate; thus, the
daily variation of declination, as observed at Munich, Hobarton, Floe-
berg Beach, show annual changes in their amplitude coincidine with the
changes in frequency of auroras.
308 METEOROLCGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS
(15) With reference to the relation between auroras and sun spots, the
author sums up the present state of our knowledge as follows: The
maxima of the sun spots accurately or very closely agree with the
quadratures of the planets Jupiter and Saturn. The differences are
smallest in those periods in which the spotted surface is greatest upon
the sun, when the auroras are the most frequent and most beautifully
developed, as in the years 1638, 1648, 1718, 1727, 1738, 1837, 1848. The
two longest periods (1660 to 1675 and 1789 to 1804) correspond to the
times of quadratures (1668 and 1797), for which times, according to the
previous observations, correspond no maxima. From these quadratures
of Jupiter and Saturn, Fritz computes again the greater aurora period as >
55.56 years.
(16) The eighth chapter deals with the relation between the aurora
and the electricity of the atmosphere and the earth. The electric nature
of the aurora is in general sufficiently well acknowledged, and some de-
tail of aurora phenomena can be reproduced in the electrical experiments
of our physical laboratories, but a satisfactory general theory as to the
exact explanation of the auroral phenomena has not yet been accom-
plished. No evidence of the existence of free electricity in the air was
observed in delicate experiments in the Arctic regions, made by Parry,
1819 to 1825, Fisher 1824, Franklin 1825 to 1827, McClintock 1857 to
1859, Bessels 1872, Nares 1875. But traces of electrical phenomena are
claimed to have been observed by Wyjkander at Spitzbergen, 1872 and
1873, and by Hjaltalin, in Iceland, and by Canton, in London. The
diurnal periodicity of atmospheric electricity, the annual periodicity,
and the secular periodicity have all been the subject of observation by
Schubler, Quetelet, Everett, Wisliczenus; but no definite relation be-
tween auroras and electricity can be deduced from these observations.
The relation between frequency of thunder storms and auroras has been.
maintained by some; but the result announced by Von Bezold, namely,
that the maximum of auroras occurs at the time of the minimum of
thunder storms is directly controverted by Fritz, whose studies cover a
longer period and a larger number of stations, and demonstrate that
there is no definite relation between the two phenomena. On the other
hand, the relation between thunder storms and sun spots seems to be
more definite: at least Fritz finds that the maxima and minima of
thunder storms do not correspond to the maxima and minima of sun
spots.
A further connection apparently exists between auroras and the dis-
turbances that are experienced on telegraph lines due to the so-called
earth currents. This phenomenon was first observed, 1848, by Matteuci
on the telegraph line between Pisa and Florence during the aurora of Oc-
tober 17, 1848; this phenomenon was also widely observed in Europe and
America during the great aurora that lasted from August 28 to September
2,1859; other dates of equal or greater disturbance were 1869, May 13;
1870, April 5 and October 24 and 25; 1872, February 4; the observa-
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 309
tions during this latter were among the most extensive ever taken. In
general the disturbances are the greatest on telegraph lines that inter-
sect the meridians; but decided exceptions to this rule are sometimes
recorded.
Again, in general the optical phenomena follow after the disturbances
experienced on the telegraph lines, and the latter die away rapidly after
the maximum of the optical display, but sometimes the earth currents
disappear with the first appearance of the optical phenomena. It is
probable that a thorough investigation of this subject would be advan-
tageous both for science and the telegraph companies.
As to the explanation of the origin of earth currents, Kuhn in 1861
believed that it is to be scught for in the earth and not the atmosphere.
Balfour Stewart endeavors to prove that the auroras are secondary
currents due to small, sudden changes in the terrestrial magnetism.
Henry found evidences of atmospheric electricity when snow-fall occurs
at one station while the heavens are clear at the other stations.
(17) As to the relation between the aurora and the weather, numerous
attempts have been made to deduce some connection between the aurora
and the general atmosphere. After giving the belief current among the
natives of Arctic regions as recorded by explorers during the past hun-
dred years, Fritz gives in detail some of the results of more careful study.
Thus, Dalton finds the aurora to be a precursor of clear, fine weather
in England. He also found a slight evidence in favor of the conclusion
that the barometer would rise on the day after the aurora. Hansteen,
from his long series of observations at Christiania, found that a lower
temperature almost invariably follows an aurora, at least throughout
Sweden, while throughout the north of Siberia the natives maintain
that storms of wind and rain accompany the aurora. Collecting these
and other generalizations together in tabular form one sees at a glance
that the apparent connection between the aurora and weather is a local
accident peculiar to the individual place under examination, and that
we are justified in denying the existence of any influence of the aurora
upon the weather, but upon the other hand the influence of the weather
upon the aurora is not thereby denied. The relation between the
aurora and the temperature of the air cannot be satisfactorily proven
with the observations at present available. The aurora does not occur
at the time of the lowest temperature of the day, nor does it directly
follow the annual temperature changes that, according to K6ppen, closely
correspond to the sun spots.
(18) The relation between aurora and barometric pressure seems to ad-
mit of more exact description. Thus, anexamination of twenty-three sta-
tions gives the diurnal maximum of auroras at 10 p. m., and the barometer
Inaximum at 10 hours and 20 minutesp.m. Again, the annual periods
of the barometer and aurora are so related that the minimum pressure
corresponds to the maximum of auroras. As regards the secular period-
icity of the barometer and the aurora, Hornstein, from an examination
310 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
of the records since 1763, finds the values of the annual variations of
barometric pressure at Prague, Milan, Vienna, and Munich, are satisfac-
torily presented by the assumption that the longer period in these varia-
tions agrees with the longer period of the auroras, and these phenomena
attain their maxima and minima at the same time; on the other hand,
F. Chambers, from the barometer records at Bombay, arrives at the
opposite result, namely, that the maxima of auroras correspond with the
minima of barometers ; but the discrepancy between these results may
be only apparent when once we are able to properly appreciate the facts
deduced by Forssman (Upsala, 1873), who arrived at the following re-
sults :
(a) Definite variations in barometric pressure are observed during
strong magnetic disturbances or auroras that extend beyond their
appropriate zones.
(6b) The barometer variations have opposite sigas in different portions
of Europe, and probably also America.
(c) The limit between the regions of opposite signs is determined, at
least in Europe, by a line that begins north of Scotland and passes
southeastward through the Black Sea.
(ad) During the presence of auroras and magnetic disturbances the
barometer rises, or is at its maximum, in the region northeast of this
line, and sinks, or is at a minimum, in a region southwest of this line.
(e) In the southwestern region the barometer is either rising or fall-
ing according as the magnetic horizontal component is very large or
small; the opposite is probably true in the northeastern portion.
If Forssman’s conclusions are confirmed by future investigations,
then it will appear that the relation between auroras and the weather
is far more complicated than has been hitherto assumed.
(19) The relation between aurora and polar bands has long been believed
to be quite definite. These relations show themselves not only in the fre-
quent simultaneous appearances of the two phenomena, but also in the
frequent auroral form of the clouds known as polar bands, which, indeed,
allow one to conclude the action of the polar force within them simply
by reason of their peculiar arrangement as parallel streaks and regu-
larly broken or stratified groups. There is here an undeniable relation,
either direct or indirect. Among the numerous relations recorded by
various observers quoted by Fritz, we cite the following: Humboldt ob-
served that the vanishing-point of the polar bands moves gradually from
east to west. Cramer states that the auroras change themselves into
clouds, the whole heavens being covered with clouds if the phenomena
lasts for a sufficiently long time. At Upsala, February 4, 1874, a ring
of green color was observed around the moon during a fine aurora.
From the observations at Bossekop, Bravais deduced the mean direction
of the cirro-cumuli E. 28°.3 N., while for the auroral ares it was E.
219.6 N. Stevenson, at Dunse, in Scotland, found the annual fre-
quency of cirrus clouds to run parallei with the frequency of the auro-
ras. Winnecke, from observations at Poulkova, concludes that the cirrus
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. SMe
must undoubtedly be considered as the carrier or agent of the aurora
phenomena. Weber and Klein and others give other data to show
the connection between the aurora and cirrus, such as, that the times of
greatest frequency of auroras and sun spots are also the times of great-
est frequency of the polar bands.
There is also intimate connection between halos and other optical
_ phenomena and the cirrus. Observations of this character have been
discussed by Sophus Tromholt, of Norway, who finds for Northeastern
Kurope the following results:
| Solar
| Year. | halos, &c. pen rOrAS|
raceme
1857 | 7 2
1858 15 5
1859 27 13
1860 24 7
1861 | 20 11
1862 | 16 9
1863 19 4
1864 9 7
1865 42 18
yeee 29 13
1867 | 18 17
1868 18 5
1869 | 24 Lin
1870 28 22
1871 | 47 22
1872 | 32 18
1873 | 36 15 |
The parallelism between every form of atmospheric phenomena and
the record of solar spots shows the connection to be a real one, although
the rationale of the connection is not yet made clear.
Further elaboration of this study shows that similar parallelisms
connect the sun spots with the rainfall, the heights of rivers, voleanic
eruptions, earthquakes, and numerous other phenomena.
(20) The tenth chapter deals with the influence of the moon upon the
aurora. Scarcely a single terrestrial phenomenon, but what the attempt
has been made to connect it with the moon; and this is equally true of
the auroras. Thus Cotte, in 1780, seemed to show that there was an
excess of auroras when the moon is south of the equator as compared
with the time when she was north of the equator. Dalton, in 1834,
found the time of the greatest frequency of auroras to be at the time
of the changes of the moon. Richardson and Franklin, in the northern
part of British America, observed that the auroras were distributed
less frequently in the interval between the first quarter and full moon,
as compared with the latter half of the moon’s orbit, in the ratio of 38
to 125. Broun, at Makerstoun, found the maximum frequency of
auroras to occur between the 18th and 22d day of the moon’s age.
Fritz, himself, has investigated the distribution of over two thousand
auroras occurring between 1842 and 1860; he finds the influence of the
moon on the aurora to be very slight, and that the evidence thereof is
obscured by the effect of the relative brightness of the earth as illu-
minated by the moon. Hoslen, 1784, made a nineteen-year series of
a1 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
observations that were used by Ritter, who, in 1803, announced his
conclusion that the frequency and magnitude of aurora stands in an ~
intimate connection with the eighteen-and-t wo-third year period of
nutation, and such that the maximum of auroras coincides with the
mean inelination of the ecliptic. The agreement of Ritter’s results with
observations is frequently very remarkable, but on several occasions of
maximum frequency his conclusion differs wholly from observation, and
at present we look to the sun, rather than to the moon, as the origin of
these disturbances. The great aurora period of fifty-five years is equal
to three times the nutation period, 18.6 years, whereby an apparent
further connection is made out.
(21) The optical phenomena of the aurora are described in Chapter
11. After speaking of the elementary matters known to all observers,
Fritz concludes that the general result of previous studies has been to
show that the frequency of the colors exhibited by auroras diminishes
in proportion as the color is farther removed from the brightest part of
the spectrum; the order of frequency being white, yellow, red, green,
blue, and violet. In the auroral beams the most frequent arrangements
of colors are as follows:
Uppercolores ws sim spo eoee eens ae eee Green. Green. Orange. Purple.
NTO WOT COLOT es See eee re ee rare te ree Nt ee Ore Yellow. Red. Violet. Blue.
When a beam moves horizontally, its advancing side is red. The
direction of an auroral beam seems to coincide nearly with that of the
freely suspended magnetic needle; but considerable departures from
this rule seems to be noticed; thus, in 1848, Kowalski, at Obdorsk, ob-
served the beams crossing each other and passing over the zenith with-
out forming a corona. The formation of a crown or corona is an optical
phenomenon due to perspective. The dark segments and dark beams
depend on the condition of the atmosphere, and are not entirely due to
contrast with the bright portions of the aurora.
(22) The brightness of the aurora occasionally surpasses that of the full
moon, or of the atmosphere illuminated by the moon ; but of its intrinsic
brightness as compared with moonlight, or the electric discharge in
vacuo we can know nothing until we can locate the distance of the
aurora from the observer. More important than the determinations
of the intensity of the light are the investigations in reference to the
peculiarities of the light, since from such studies we must hope to make
further progress in our knowledge of the nature of the aurora. The first
publication in reference to the spectrum of the aurora dates from 1868,
when Angstrom announced to the scientific association at Upsala his
discovery that the aurora light is monochromatic, consisting of one
bright line, whose place in the spectrum is near the calcium line, and
which has a wave length of 5567. Angstrom further announced that
spectroscopic observations of the zodiacal light had shown him that the
same line was prominent therein, and as this line is not known to be
produced by the combustion of any terrestrial substance, it seems legiti-
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. d13
mate to conclude an intimate connection between the aurora and zodiacal
light. Similar observations have been made by Otto Struve, Winlock,
Fliigel, Ellery, Lindsay, Barker, Vogel, Browning, and others, who have
been able with more perfect apparatus to increase the number of auroral
lines and bands up to fifteen or twenty, all of them, however, much fainter
than Angstrom’s line, which is usually spoken of distinctively as the
aurora line. Angstrom has suggested a theory according to which
the apparent spectrum of the aurora consists of two different spectra
superposed, one of monochromatic yellow light peculiar to the aurora;
the second, identical with the spectrum of the light at the negative pole
of a platinum electrode immersed in dry air rarefied to a pressure of
only a few millimeters. Some observations upon the spectrum of the
solar corona have led to the suggestion that the auroral light is nearly
identical with that of the corona; but observations on this point are
contradictory, and the conclusion is not generally accepted.
(23) The spectra of the November meteors, as observed by Browning,
has considerable similarity with that of the aurora, as also has the spec-
truin of the lightning, from all of which it is rational to suspect that the
atmosphere of the earth has an important part in determining the char-
acteristics of the spectrum of the aurora as well as in the formation of
the aurora itself; but all definite conclusions as to the origin and nature
of the aurora must be withheld for the present.
(24) In the twelfth.chapter Fritz exposes the present state of our
knowledge as to the much debated question of the noise accompanying
the aurora. The opposite views held by so many prominent observers
are carefully weighed by him with the following conclusion: ‘This shows
satisfactorily how great a part of the noises heard during the auroras.
depend upon self-deception; especially do the cases in which the noise
and the light ought to appear simultaneously prove how very mislead-
ing the appearances are. If such observations are not the result of
deception, then the noise should spread through the upper regions of
the atmosphere, and distribute itself in the higher latitudes.”
To substantiate his hypothesis he constructed an aurora apparatus ;
but in this at the two Poles he produced very different phenomena cor-
responding to electricity of opposite signs, so that if his apparatus cor-
responded to nature the northern and southern auroras ought to present
very different appearances, which, however, is not the case. His appa-
ratus therefore only imitates the outward appearance of the auroral
rays, Which can be made to vary in the most striking and brilliant
manner by the increase or decrease of the vacuum employed in the
apparatus, or by the introduction of various gases or vapors.
The hypothesis of George Fisher, London, 1834, has been widely
adopted, according to which the aurora is an electric discharge between
strongly electrified masses of ice or snow crystals, formed in the neigh-
borhood of extensive fields of ice or snow, where the aqueous vapor is
being most rapidly condensed; but we must still consider it an open ques-
314 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
tion whether any noise is developed in connection with the aurora. It
is remarkable that in the Southern Hemisphere no one has ever noticed
or recorded the least suspicion of noise during an exhibition of the
aurora australis.
(25) Although a definite conclusion as to the precise nature of the
aurora is not yet attainable, yet it is worth while to review the numerous
hypotheses that have been suggested. We select a few from the very
complete review given by Fritz. The hypothesis of an electric discharge
dates from the memoir by Canton, London, 1753, and is presented in a
form corresponding to our present knowledge of the electricity by De
la Rive, 1865, according to whom positive electricity flows from the
equator toward either Pole accompanying thunder storms. But a sim-
ilar difficulty seems to beset both these explanations, in that no one can
explain why the two kinds of electricity are not followed by a state of
equilibrium immediately after the discharge has taken place.
Mayer, the founder of the mechanical theory of heat, has sought to
explain the origin of atmospheric electricity as due principally to the
friction between the ocean and the trade-winds of the tropical regions,
a hypothesis that is partially supported by the observations of Secchi
and others, according to whom the north and south winds have definite
influences upon the position of the magnetic needle. Muncke and
Moser have between them elaborated a thermo-electro-magnetic hypoth-
esis, according to which, under the influence of the sun’s heat, the
rotating earth must be an electro-magnet. If the earth becomes mag-
netic then, in consequence of its perpetual rotation, the iron contained
within the earth’s crust will become permanently magnetic, and the
magnetic variations, partly periodical and partly appearing as pertur-
bations, are fairly explained. The periodical changes would be caused
by the periodical changes in the relative positions of the earth, the
moon, and the sun, and the variations in the radiation of heat from
the sun’s surface, while the extraordinary and irregular disturbances
in terrestrial magnetism would be due to the disturbances and changes
occurring on the sun’s surface, similar to the changes perpetually occur-
ring in the earth’s atmosphere. The origin of the electricity to which
the auroral light is attributable is explained by F. Mohr as due to the
friction of currents of air flowing over each other in different directions,
and the greater frequency of appearances in high latitudes depends on
the dryness of the air. This view is also sustained by Prestel. For
the great aurora of February 4, 1872, Mohr computes the total
amount of air in motion, and finds an average over the whole of Europe
of over one thousand million pounds of air in movement for each Eng-
lish mile square, so that the aurora is only an extremely small effect, of
an immense force. But if we attempt to extend the Mohr-Prestel
theory to the observations at Spitzbergen and Franz-Josef Land, then
the results appear quite different.
Balfour Stewart considers the aurora as a secondary electric current
due to small but sudden changes in the earth’s magnetism, produced
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 315
by unknown causes. In 1869 Silberman remarks, ‘ All the phenomena
appear as if the aurora of 1859 and 1869 were simply thunder storms,
that discharged themselves not in lightnings but in steady streams
towards the upper region of the atmosphere. It appears that when
the globules of aqueous vapor in the lower strata of air are strongly
charged with electricity, and are for any reason carried towards the
upper region these globules erystalize in small ascending prisms, and
that their electricity, by reason of its steady flow from these ice-needles,
becomes visible as the auroral light. In this way the apparent ascen-
sion of the auroral beams is explained.”
Many of the advocates of the electrical hypothesis seek for the origin
of the electricity either in the earth orethe ocean. But a decision there-
upon is still in the distant future. Sirks, in 1873, seems to have been
the first to attribute the electric currents upon the earth to the direct
influence of the sun, which is the source of all forces upon this earth
as well as the other planets. Baumbhauer, in 1844, suggested the
meteor-dust theory. According to this the higher regions of the
atmosphere are full of the dust particies from innumerable meteors
which become incandescent as they flow toward the magnetic poles.
Similar views are maintained by Foster, Schmidt, and others. If, now,
we compare the epochs at which the various theories and hypotheses
have arisen, we recognize at once that with every step of progress in
physics, astronomy, and chemistry, fresh impetus is given to the search
for the explanation of the phenomena. The meteorite theory could only
be developed lately, namely, since the doubt has been dissipated which
has for a long time existed as to the cosmic origin of the falling masses,
and since the meteor shower of 1833 has made us familiar with the regu-
lar recurrent November stream. Even now we have but just recognized
that planetary space is full of large and small bodies which enter into
the sphere of attraction of the earth and become visible as meteoric
stones. (Fritz, Das Polarlicht, Leipzig, 1881.)
The diurnal change in magnetic declination at Greenwich has been
deduced by Karlinski from the annual observations published by the
Greenwich Observatory, as based on the photographie registers. The
principal maximum occurs between 1 and 2 p. m., and the general diur-
nal change is shown by the following table:
Hour. Departure. Hour. Departure. Hour. Departure.
Gam. — 2/.35 2p.m. + .5/.388 10p.m. — 2!/.03
T7a.m. —2’,78 3p.m. + 4.47 llp.m. —2/.13
8a.m. —3/.03 4p.m. + 2/.78 Midnight. — 2/.08
9a.m. -— 2/,28 5p.m. + 1/.30 lam. —1’.85
10am. — 0.03 6p.m. + 0/.18 2a.m. —1’.70
Jla.m. + 2/.90 1 p.m.) ==70' D9" ae te alos
Noon. + 5/.25 8p.m. —1/.18 4a.m, —1° 73
ip.m. -+ 6'.23 Oop. mae TE 5a.m. — 2/.00
re
>
=
(Z. O. @. M., 1879, XVI,
316 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
Nahrwold has investigated the conditions under which the atmos-
phere can assume a charge of electricity. He used an apparatus con-
sisting essentially of the following: A metal cylinder in which the air
to be investigated can be entirely closed and removed from the influence
of exterior electrified bodies. Through an aperture in the upper cover
of the cylinder a filter filled with quicksilver is inserted, which is con-
nected by a wire with the quadrant electrometer. If the air in the
cylinder is electrified, and we allow the mercury to flow, the needle of
the electrometer shows a deviation. The mercury acts like Thomson’s
water-dropping apparatus. The cover of the cylinder has one other
opening through which can be successively introduced two different
arrangements for electrifying the included air: first, a needle with a
fine point that can be pushed in and out of a platinum tube; second, a
thin, short platinum wire soldered between two copper wires: in the
experiments these copper wires are connected with the battery so that
the transmitted current brings the platinum wire to incandescence.
If the cylinder is filled at the window with fresh air, the electrometer
put in position, the needle shoved forward, and we allow the scarcely
visible spark from a feebly-charged Leyden jar to jump to the wire con-
nected outside the cylinder with the needle, and then set the dropping
apparatus at work, there is observed a sensible deviation of the elee-
trometer. If the experiment is repeated with the intention of attaining
a stronger charge, we, on the contrary, observe now a feebler deviation.
This diminishes continually so long as we retain the same mass of air
in the apparatus, and not only when it is electrified but also when it is
allowed to stand quietly. We must seek the cause of this phenomenon
in ‘the behavior of the particles of dust. So long as the dust 1s cireu-
lating within the metal cylinder it rapidly carries away the electricity
collected at the point of the needle; butif the dust has settled (and this
is very much retarded by the electrification), then is the air freed of dust
not in the condition under the given circumstances to take up a charge.
If by means of a feather we stir up the dust from the sides of the eyl-
inder, then the first subsequent experiment shows again a large devia-
tion; if, on the other hand, we hold every particle of dust that touches
the sides of the cylinder firmly there, to which end Nahrwold covers the
interior of the cylinder with glycerine, then the further experiments
show that the dropping apparatus takes almost no further charge.
Instead of the needle point, the incandescent platinum wire is how
employedto give a charge to the included air. The battery that serves to
excite the electric current requires no further consideration in this case;
it, together with the conducting wire, is isolated, and the platinum wire
within the cylinder can be charged from any source of static electricity.
The air now takes up the electricity even if it is entirely free from dust.
The air heated by contact with the glowing platinum wire becomes a
good conductor of electricity; it flows away cooling down, but still re-
taining its charge, while other portions of the air within the cylinder
become heated and charged with electricity by the platinum wire.
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 317
That this process depends principally upon the temperature to which
the air is heated is evident from the fact that when the wire is of a dark
red incandescence no transfer of electricity takes place; it is with the
bright red glow that the air first begins to be charged. Nahrwold
further concludes that the charge cannot be increased indefinitely, but
approaches a maximum limit. He also observed a difference in the be-
havior of the air with respect to the two forms of electricity—it takes
a positive charge easier than a negative one.
When two crowns, composed of thirty-four knitting needles, were
placed upon the base of the apparatus by which the electricity could be
conducted to the earth, it appeared that these points hastened the dis-
charge of electricity, or the loss of the original charge only when the
air was filled with dust, which further proves that the so-called influence
of such points is largely dependent upon the dust contained in the air.
From a few experiments which gave a strong negative charge to the
air after stirring up the dust on the floor of the room, Nahrwold con-
cludes that the dust becomes electrified by friction, and he concludes
his memoir as follows: “If the electricity of the dust depends, even
only in part, upon friction, and is therefore at least in part independent
of the distribution of atmospheric electricity properly so called, then in
observations of atmospheric electricity this must be considered as in most
cases a not unimportant source of error and must necessarily be avoided.
In this condition, most difficult to fulfill, we see a new obstacle in the way
of attaining a clear idea as to the electrical processes in our atmosphere,
and we find ourseives no nearer the attainment of the object of our os
through the results of the present investigation.
“The method here employed is, however, certainly the least unsafe.
The observations heré given are in their meteorological aspects scarcely
more than preliminary trials for a far more important investigation,
which will ultimately lead us nearer to the object in view.
‘Those conditions that most probably exercise an important influence
on the electrical condition of our atmosphere must be realized on a small
scale, and I hope ere long to be in the condition to again prosecute this
work in this direction.” (Z. 0. G. M., XIV, 1879, p..72.)
Weyprecht, in the Denkschriften of the Vienna Academy (Vol.
XXXV), gives the results of his aurora observations. He classifies
the optical appearances, first, as ares; second, as streamers; third, as
rays; fourth, as corona; fifth, as haze. To these forms there is also to
be added a dark, narrow, low standing are of light, whose center coin-
cides nearly with the magnetic meridian, and which he calls the dark
segment. The movements of the auroral light are classified as follows:
first, waves; second, flashes. As to the height of the aurora Weyprecht
concludes that even in the arctic regions this is very variable, but
much lower than in our latitudes. The appearance of the aurora is as
though its light were dependent on that from some other matter. No
connection can be made out between the aurora and the subsequent
weather, neither can any noise be heard attending the aurora; a slight
318 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
cloudiness appears to favor the development of certain auroras. As to
the connection between the magnetic perturbations and the aurora, the
observations show that perturbations of the needle may take place
without the auroral display, and vice versa, the aurora without pertur-
bations of the needle. Those forms of aurora that present irregular
outlines, no rays, and no perceptible motions, are seldom accompanied
by perturbations; on the other hand those auroras that appear to have
a small altitude, and to be very near to us, having definite outlines,
rapid movements, and well-marked radial structure, set the needle in
rapid movement. (Z. 0. G. M., XIV, 1879, p. 190.)
P. F. Denza has given the following laws relating to atmospheric elec-
tricity, based on twelve years’ observations—six times daily—at Mon-
ealieri: Regular variations—He says the daily variations show them-
selves clearly in the winter and summer, having two maxima afier
sunset and sunrise. The yearly variations attain their maxima at the
end of February, the minima in September. The annual means show
no connection with sun spots or magnetic changes. Jrregular varia-
tions.—Thunder storms affect the tension very much. Rain and suow
inerease the electricity. Dense fog and haze, cloudiness, etc., increase
the intensity very slightly. The least electricity is shown during clear
or very clear sky, and especially when it is also very warm. Southerly
winds, especially southeast, increase the electricity; but during strong
winds the indications of the electrometer are uncertain. During these
twelve years, out of a hundred cases of rain and snow, fifty give nega-
tive and fifty positive electricity; the same ratio holds good for thun-
der storms and hail, whether they pass over the observer or pass by
at a distance. Negative electricity occasionally is observed before and
after a thunder storm, and-also more rarely before and after a rain or
snow. When the sky is clear or completely covered, electricity is always
positive, and negative electricity occurs only under dissimilar condi-
tions—such as distant storms, clouds, auroras, ete. An electrometer
being also placed on St. Bernard, at an altitude of 2,160 meters, the com-
parison with observations at Moncalieri‘(altitude 259 meters) shows
that under normal conditions the electric tension increases with the alti-
tude. The following table gives the mean results of observations at
Monealieri :
Hourly means. Monthly means. Annual means.
eile: eae sence oe eesee | SERGI ena Rays soctson Snoscones ies Ce (Ra Vy eee aoe encore coonce 7. 8
PO Site Bocca stiorsanccscese 16:38 | Mebruary 26s sis.------ PAO Wale ie Soe here enor Gatioe 11.0
Naonte eeerenenee eee es 19.67, |) Marek ¢o02 sa) sseceserme= aC Setar (Le. ene ree eee eaanel leary
3 Ps) <2. seco == ens ee eWay. Qiyall ssa sash ohn soe Weyer lbs Vas= Seb nena easea noes | 8.0
6 p.m ..----.-5.....----- aK PAA eh ee SO RA Sep aceioesc 12. 2 1871... Soke Bh 8.3
OP. M ...-----.c0-- nee =e THA) CUMS org ascodc. ce seese A Wipes secoe Soke doe eae ce | 19.1
——_—_——| July ._------<---.c.00-<- 13.7 1 STS eee ators aia eerie 19.4
IMe@ane eenicacm eae 15.09 | August ....... tee aie etarot prea aye abe BS eet cere sqneec eesti
Septemberees- see reeee TaD Paks Wetec cosceocesadeoe 27. 6
October ea 5-—- 44.255 SNe | SRO neem eee eer ne | 19.1
November ens «seer = =e TSN LS (desea estore eee | 120
December seeee-ssose es TMG | 1STSst serene seve ee ese joe dele
| [Mean eecesieteterc= 15. 09 Meanie eecae ere | 15. Ge
Z. GO; G. M., Vol. XIV, 1879, p. 484.)
ee ee ee ee
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 319
Mascart has published the discussion of the observations of atmos-
pheric electricity, recorded every two and a half minutes consecutively,
since February, 1879, by means of the water-dropping apparatus and
the electrometer of Sir William Thomson, as combined in the apparatus.
manufactured by Charpentier. The prevalence of the negative elec-
tricity in the rain clouds, followed by very strong positive electricity
after the rain, appear to be important facts, as prominent in Paris as
they are also known to be in England and Italy.
The average diurnal periodicity pa lieocads in arbitrary units is shown.
by the following table:
a |
Se | eal ha: :
Months. ‘a aig a | 3 E = Bethea
Pas a a & = ce a a 2
= oD © oa a an) © a =
Maroy sor £23832 S505 Aceh se 24.7 | 19.2 | 19.1 | 13.6 | 14.5 | 14.9 | 21.2) 27.1) 24.7
“A Sa Le ee Se ST aS OR a See 24.0 | 23.7 | 24.0 | 160 | 17.0 | 13.3 | 98.5] 26.0| 24.6
Marsan te: Sale riser ass OS OD esa | 2S | 9308) | B60 [90.7 (18, 85 1545| Tenan| Oa5 Nl oak
TSRILS RE Teis A TS ea, Nk RIN ee ei 26.7 | 25.5 | 25.4 | 17.6 | 14.6 | 12.0) 184 | 25.0! 26.7
Tail pat Serta ee ar hw ones Fa eu em 33.3 | 34.5 | 33.7 | 28.8 | 26.7 | 23.6 | 29.3 | 36.1] 33.3
HOLT ae Nun eee Sek AG yas 26.6 | 25.2 | 25.6 | 19.3 | 17.3 | 15.8 | 20.5] 27.7| 26.6
Mietritheateliee cee sues OA ee 26.6 | 25.2 | 24.6! 15.0/12.7| 9.8|13.2/269| 26.6
The minimum at 3 p. m., and maximum at 9 p.m., as here shown, are
quite at variance with observations of Quetelet, Denza, and Everett,
the reasons for which remain to be investigated. (Z. 0. G. M., XV,
1880, p. 136.)
Sophus Tromholt, of Norway, has published the first results of the
work undertaken by him with reference to auroras, which is nothing
less than a general formation of a system of aurora observations for
the whole of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. The material accumu-
lated in the first wimter alone is so great that valuable results may be
drawn from it. In the first place, it appears that there is scarcely an
evening that one or more stations did not report auroras, although the
observations occur during the years of auroral minimum; hence the
author concludes that the atirora is a very local phenomenon and takes.
place at a very small altitude above the earth’s surface. The table that
shows the cases in which auroras are observed at auxiliary stations,
without being observed at the central station, Bergen, affords the most
striking proof of the local character of the phenomenon. The follow-
ing table shows the relative frequency of auroras for the respective
zones of latitude:
| Zones. Frequency.
° ° |
71 to 68 lat ..| 100
68 to 65 lat... 30.6
65 to 62 lat -.! 18.2
eee 12. 6
patemen 7.6
324) METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
A further consideration confirms the conclusion that the aurora is a
very local matter, viz, that in the whole region of 71° to 55° only three
nights occur on which the aurora was observed simultaneously every-
where, and is even still doubtful in these three cases, whether the same
aurora was observed everywhere. (Z. 0. G. M., Vol. XV, 1880, p. 480.)
W. Ellis has investigated the relation between terrestrial magnetism
and solar-spot frequency, using the Greenwich observations, 1840-1847,
and the Greenwich photographic records by the Brooks apparatus,
1848-1877, and, comparing these with Wolf’s sun-spot numbers, the in-
timate relation of these phenomena is more clearly shown than ever
before. This is illustrated in the accompanying table, which gives the
dates of the epochs of maximum and minimum declination and hori-
zontal force:
a -
3 (4 :
| 3 ao te
Epoch. a Pavone 29
— ie) Se
| 5) RA om
o °o
a | x e
NUnit Bh ay oe bea ee SRC DS A POI aM ese ee pea 1844.7 | 1842.9 | 1843.5
Maximum seenacscanen oc cas coe a cnc ek apusine cee acebiottlnis oorccice dan eeeelele 1848.1 | 1849.0 1848, 1
Minimumen secs) asceee een ene ae es Bia a Ra ase me cetge eS Ss ap a an 1857.2 | 1855.1} 1856.0
MM aSIM Mee vielen sic ese bes ose ae lskeo be eae ac ee olsin as cine bree aan ole Seite ee eere 1860.6 | 1860.2 | 1860.1
Minimum eee sce seep toerecenteacineeee poe ewe caee sama e wees Ct eee eRe meaeee 1867.5 | 1867.6 | 1867.2
MES SAMNUM 2 ic Sfeieic store's e's Sela sires Sios:oe wo Win wis ele] sinis,ci'alstais)s)abe ele! slaiais wolamreic eles nisinks Soe 1870. 8 | 1870.9 1870. 6
|
On the average, the magnetic epochs follow the sun spots at an inter-
val of 0.27 a year. The durations of the four periods are neauly iden-
tical for both sun spots and magnetic phenomena.
The occasional sudden outbursts of magnetic and sun-spot energy
occur and continue nearly simultaneously. (7%. 0. G. M., XVI, 1881,
p. 489.)
Lemstrom has developed a theory as to the origin of terrestrial mag-
netism based on the electric theories of Edlund, and confirms it some-
what by actual experiments. The assumption that the earth consists
of a glowing hot interior, surrounded by a cooler layer 50 or 60 kilo-
meters thick, leads to the conclusion that the magnetic forces must re-
side entirely in this outer layer, since glowing hot bodies cannot be —
magnetized. Now, geological data show that the whole exterior shell
must contain about 2 per cent. of iron, or equivalent to a layer of mag-
netic. substance 1 kilometer thick. This layer may be considered as
constituting a hollow sphere at a distance of 30 kilometers below the
earth’s surface, and must, under the influence of a given force, exhibit ©
a magnetic moment, the same as if it were a solid sphere. Since, now,
the earth is revolving in a space full of ether, it must become maguet-
ized the same as if it were itself at rest, but the ether turning in an
opposite direction. This rotation must give rise, according to Edlund’s
theory of electricity, to an infinite number of elementary-induced cur-
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 321
rents, and Lemstrém deduces for the whole magnetic moment (M), in
the direction of the axis of the earth,
M=$7(r—h)jpJd
where » is the magnetic moment of a unit’s mass, J is the inductive
action of a unit of current, r radius of the earth, h the distance of the
magnetic stratum from the limits of the atmosphere. This explanation
agrees entirely with the formula of Gauss, and the discussion of it ex-
plains equally the average position of the magnetic action and its secu-
lar annual and daily variations. It is also in conformity with the acci-
dental phenomena of magnetic storms and auroras. (2. 0. G@. ., XVI,
1881, p. 108.)
Denza has determined the law of diurnal variations of atmospheric
electricity at Monealieri, and by means of hourly observations on 215
days, distributed through the years 1871 and 1878. The following tables
give his resulting averages (a) for the 215 days or a whole year, and (b)
for the days on which no irregular disturbances took place. The anal-
ogy between this diurnal period and that of atmospheric pressure is
similar to that pointed out by Neumayer. (Z. O. G. J., XVI, p. 88.)
1871-1878. | 1871-1878.
Hour. | Hour.
a b | a b
| |
I
Gianmeeee 20.6 Shoe Gi pei snes 19.5 7.7
7a.M...-. 20. 2 18.7 \ loose 19. 2 17.8
Siam: =. 20. 8 19. 4 Sipaleseer *19.4 18.5
P.asmiee. 20.3 19.6 Olpamiseeee Nes 2045 19.1
10 a.m. | 19.8 19.2 | 10 p.m-.-..| 19.1 18. 0
lla.m. 19.1 7A2 vy lablopemne ees 18.1 15.9
| Noon ..--.| 17.5 16.2 || Midnight.) 17.4 16.9
pam eene ja! 508 15.4 || Navmce 16.2 16.0
Aipatee Ae | 14.8 14.1 || 2a.m-..... 16. 1 14.9
3p.m..--. 14.6 14.0 || 3a m-...-- 17.3 15.7
A paiiiee sc = 15.5 14.3 |) ase 16.3 15.4
Bip amines, eenlos 15.0 } 5 QM sans 16.9 16.1
| |
Warren De La Rue and H. W. Miiller have arrived at some interesting
conclusions in reference to the altitude of the aurora. They find experi-
mentally that the least pressure under which the aurora has been seen
in their experiments, is 0.38™™, corresponding to an elevation of 37 or 38
miles. The following table collects the results of their observations:
| ., | Altitude :
Barometric Poli Radius of Je
pressure. | oa visibility. | Remarks.
ix 10—§ 24 | 1061 | No discharge observed at this degree of tennity. |
55 x 10-6 81.5 860 | The discharge was feeble and weak.
0. 879 | 37.7 585 | Maximum of brightness.
0. 800 | 34.0 555 | Feeble color.
1. 000 32.9 546 Reddish tint.
1. 500 30.9 529 Do.
38. 000 27.4 499 . | Carmine. |
20. 660 17.4 403 | Do.
62. 000 | 12.4 336 | Do.
118. 700 11.6 324 Full red and carmine.
S. Mis. 109-21
322 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
They have also adopted the opinion that the aurora may exist at the
height of only a few thousand feet. (Z. O. G. M., XV, 1880, p. 415.)
Dr. A. Wijkander, of Lund, Sweden, in a discourse at Stockholm be-
fore the Scandinavian Association of Naturalists, reviews the progress
of our knowledge during the past twenty years, in reference to the mag-
netic phenomena of the Arctic zone.
Lefroy, in 1855, showed that at Lake Athabasca and Fort Simpson,
the easterly perturbations of the needle during the morning and the
westerly perturbations of the evening are the largest, whereas the oppo-
site is the case at Toronto and southern stations; Sabine subsequently
found the same results for Point Barrow and Toronto, Canada.
Wijkander, as the result of the observations of the Swedish station at
Spitzbergen, concludes that, as a general rule, the belt where the auroras
are most frequent is the limit between the regions where the maximum
of easterly perturbations in declination in the morning and that of the
westerly perturbations in the evening occur together, and the region
where these maxima occur in the evening and morning respectively.
Concerning the annual variations of the perturbations, very little is
as yet known. It would, however, appear that the easterly perturba-
tions predominate. The perturbations of the horizontal intensity afford
little basis for general conclusion on account of their scantiness at Lake
Athabasca and Fort Simpson. Hf we compare the perturbations of
declination and horizontal intensity among themselves, we notice that
the time of their greatest number and magnitude alternate, a circum-
stance to which Wyprecht has also called attention. According to
Wijkander, there is evidence that the total intensity is subject not only
to a diurnal change, but also frequently to greater perturbations. (Z.
0. G. M., XV, 1880, p. 305.)
XI.—OPTICAL PHENOMENA.
Schmidt gives an account of a double horizontal rainbow. This was
seen on a beautiful, cloudless day, before the morning mist had entirely
disappeared, and was apparently formed near the surface of the water
in a small lake near Pilsen. The bow had the apparent form of hyper-
bola or parabola, whose axes were determined by the vertical plane
passing through the observer and the sun. The apices of these hyper-
bolas were turned toward the observer, and the apex of the inner curve
was about 12 meters from him and 4 meters below the eye, and at the
level of the water of the lake, while the apex of the outer curve was
beneath the land. The rainbow colors were all clearly seen. The
explanation of this phenomenon depends upon the observed fact that
the ordinary rainbow can be considered as a complete circle, if we as-
sume that the aqueous particles are observed from a close proximity.
In the present case, therefore, we have observed the lower part of such
a circular rainbow, which, being projected upon the horizontal water
surface, appears as a hyperbola. (Z. O. G. M., XTV, 1879, p. 20.)
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. ood
Soret has attempted an explanation of a fact frequently observed,
that the diffuse daylight is polarized even in those strata of air that
are in the shade. In the valleys of the Alps many opportunities occur
for observing this, and the maximum polarization occurs when the line
of sight is at right angles to the direction of the sun’s rays. Soret’s
explanation is about as follows:
The masses of air that lie in the shade are illuminated by the diffuse
light of the upper strata upon which the sun’s rays shine directly. It
can now be proven that the sum of the vibrations reaching a given
point from the various portions of the celestial hemisphere must pro-
duce effects equal to those produced by one ray reaching this point
directly from the sun, and a second ray at right angles to the first and
polarized in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the first. The
effect of the direct sunlight differs, therefore, from the sum of the effects
of the diffuse light only in this, that in the latter case the polarization
is not so complete. (Z. O. G. M., 1879, XIV, p. 106.)
Montigny has discussed the question of the twinkling of the stars as
measured by the number of the changes of color in a given interval of
time. The observations made by him during six hundred evenings
show that the dependence upon the rainfall is most prominent; but the
influence of other meteorological conditions is well defined; thus, when
the temperature rises the twinkling diminishes in intensity, and the colors
lose much of their clearness, especially in summer. In the winter,
however, in the cold, dry weather, the twinkling is stronger and the
colors more brilliant. The presence of moisture, &c., appears to be of
very much less importance. Next after the temperature, however, will
be placed the quantity of moisture. (Z. O. G. M., XIV, p. 219.)
Hartl has published elaborate study of the observations on terres-
trial refraction, Bodega Head, first discussed by Schott in the Coast
Survey Report in 1876. He attempts to deduce some addition to our
knowledge of the law of diminution of temperature with altitude. He
finally applies Professor Jordan’s refraction formula (Astron. Nach.,
vol. 88), which allows of clearly perceiving the effect of the assumed law
diminution of temperature; he attributes the irregularities of refraction
to the temperature changes due to radiation from the soil, and urges the
execution of numerous measures of refraction for the better determina-
tion of the rate of temperature diminution by the application of Jor-
don’s formula. (Z. 0. G. M., XV, 1881, p. 140.)
Dr. Hamberg, of Stockholm, has studied the apparent transparency
of the atmosphere in Upsala, with especial reference to the occurrence
of remarkably clear nights and days, when frosts occur injurious to
vegetation. From daily observations, from 1874 to 1877, of the visibility
of objects distant eight or ten miles in the horizon, he deduces the follow-
324 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
ing figures, showing the average visibility estimated on an arbitrary
scale, in which 0 = unusually clear, and 5 = densest fog or haze:
; Total number Total number)
Months. Sete of observed | of observed
y: Zeros. | fives.
i |
January ..-. 2.3 ' 12 32
February --- 2.4 7 19
March ...--. 2.0 } 19 20
April - Sie 1.6 | 23 | 6
ay .- 2.1 | 9 | 3
June. - 2.6 2 | 6
Cfuth pases soe 2.6 8 } 11
August ...-.. 2.2 | 8 5
September ..| 2.2 6 21
October...-. 2.2 12 26
November .. 2.6 4 29
December .- 2.9 3 25 |
On the average, Dr. Hamberg finds that the greatest clearness occurs
with winds between N. and W., and the greatest obscurity with winds
between S. and W.; these cases, of course, correspond to positions of
the barometric minima, respectively, northeast and northwest of Upsala.
A comparison of these observations with the relative humidity of the
air Shows that in general transparency diminishes with an increase of
moisture, and especially is this the case during the colder weather, A
direct dependence upon cloudiness is not evident, and the author con-
cludes that the partial condensation of the aqueous vapor in the atmos.
phere and the presence of dust or smoke are the fundamental causes of
the variations in transparency. Of the origin of the material compos-
ing the day fog notking definite is known. As a means of foretelling
rainy weather the transparency of the air is frequently appealed to.
Hamberg finds that the quantity of rainfall increases directly as the
transparency diminishes. (Z. 0. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 457.)
XII.—MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS.
(a) Periodicities.—S. A. Hill has investigated a decennial period in the
annual variation of temperature and pressure in India. He states that
the heat of the summer of 1878, especially during the first twenty-one
days of June, was so great in Northern India that nothing like it had
ever before been experienced. This excessive summer heat was pre-
ceded and followed by winters of unusual cold. He has therefore col-
lected all available observations bearing upon the question of a possible
periodicity in temperature and pressure. The temperature appears to
follow the variations in the sun spots. He finds that at Calcutta the
greatest variations in pressure occurred in the years 1845, 1857, 1866,
and 1876, and the least variations in the years 1840, 1847, 1861, 1872,
and 1874, and these dates are only slightly modified if wetake the means
of groups of three years each. The above dates agree closely with the
minima and maxima of the sun spots. An explanation of this coinci-
dence may be about as follows: The general distribution of winds on
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 325
the earth’s surface depends upon the rate of diminution of temperature
from the equator to the poles, and the distribution of pressure depends
upon the intensity of the atmospheric currents. If, therefore, the solar
radiation varies with the sun’s spots, there must be a parallel variation
in terrestrial temperatures and pressures. (Z. O. G. M., XIV, p. 302.)
Blanford has investigated the question of a compensation between
India and Russia in the variations of mean atmospheric pressure during
one sun-spot cycle. Already in 1877 Eliot had called attention to the
fact that, through the whole year, the pressure over India had been
above the average, and that this condition extended to such distant
regions aS New South Wales and Victoria, Blanford having found that
an excess of pressure also prevailed over the greater part of Asia, and
also of the Indian Ocean. By comparison of the records from 1847 to
1862, Blanford now finds that throughout the whole of the Indo-Malayan
region an oscillation of the barometric pressure existed, coinciding nearly
with the sun-spot cycle. The greatest atmospheric pressure coincides, or
immediately follows, the epoch of minimum frequency of sun spots, and
the minimum pressure corresponds with the sun-spot maximum; or,
considering the result of K6ppen’s investigation, the highest pressure
agrees closely with the epoch of greatest mean temperature of the air.
On this point he says: “In reference to the nature of the physical
causes that bring about this oscillation in the pressure of the air between
the Indo-Malayan region and the plains of Russia, and conforming to
the sun-spot evcle, our knowledge is still much too incomplete to
attempt a satisfactory analysis.” (Z. O. G. M., XV, 1880, p. 158.)
In the remarks on the above by Dr. J. Hann, he suggests that with-
out more special deduction it is still quite clear that the period of in-
creased energy in the solar radiation will also be a period of increased
energy in the general currents of the earth’s atmosphere. (Z. 0. G. M.,
XV, 1880, p. 161.)
Balfour Stewart in some remarks on long variations of rainfall, says:
The currents in the earth’s atmosphere are regulated by two considera-
tions, of which one is a constant while the other is variable. The con-
stant element is the time of rotation of the earth round its axis, while
the possibly variable one is the intensity of the solar radiation. If,
then, it is also true that we have not only a long period of variation in
the intensity but also in the distribution of terrestrial atmospheric cur-
rents, and if we consider the great influence of local peculiarities upon
rainfall it would be too much to expect that the annual irregularities
shall everywhere attain their maxima and minima at the same time. It
is perfectly possible that some places may have maximum while others
have a minimum, and still others have a double instead of a simple
period. We are, therefore, not yet in a position to determine experi-
mentally the long periods of rainfall for the whole earth, since we only
have as yet a few selected stations. The diversity of results obtained,
by Meldrum, Rawson, and others is in accordance with the above
BAG METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
views. Stewart then attempts to deduce some results from observations
in Europe by means of the method of indeterminate periods proposed
by Dr. Dodgson and himself. He finds that there is in three stations
out of four evidence of a nine-year period, and a still stronger evidence
of a twelve-year period, and makes some comparisons between the cor-
responding ten and twelve year periods in the daily amplitude of the
magnetic needle. (Z. O. G. If., XV, 1880, p. 228.)
Fritz has pursued his further studies into the variations and height of
the water of the river Nile, and kas added to his study of the records
of the Nilometer of the island of Rhodes, near Cairo, for the years 1825
to 1872, a further study of the records for the barrages for the years
1849 to 1878. The differences between the record at Cairo and the bar-
rages are quite sensible, amounting in extreme cases to 0.71 meter. The
extreme height of the river occurs on the dates shown in the following
table:
—~
Barrages. Island of Rhodes. Sun spots.
| “il
Minimum. | Maximum. | Minimum. | Maximum. | Minimum. | Maximum.
| |
Sere oetesteteiel liaise eratotos ators lemerctceracmin ate 1828 Seema ek olen leat em raats
ease bicmisen seta neicciaaas 1835 1841 We Grate ae Ne let [eles mies
oPaarat na ates 1852 1845 | 1849 SACOG 1848
1857 1861 1857 } 1861 1856 1860
1866 1872 1866 1870 1867 1871
Few rivers vary their regimen so regularly as the Nile, and the entire
periodical change reminds one forcibly of the interpretation of the
dreams, and the provisions against hunger and famine, that are attrib-
uted to Joseph, the son of Jacob. (Z. O. G. M., XV, 1880, p. 302.)
In a fourth contributlon to the subject of secular variations in the
weather, Képpen reviews a mass of data relating to the severe winters
of Europe during the past thousand years. He finds that regular laws
of periodicity, although they frequently appear to obtain for several
periods or centuries, yet eventually disappear and are replaced by
others. It is, therefore, impossible to base any predictions upon such
empirical periods, and he concludes that although he may have contrib-
buted somewhat to our knowledge of the subject, yet his best result will
be the removal of any popular illusions in reference to this subject, and
the prevention of others from wasting time and labor. (Z. O. G. I,
XVI, p. 194.)
On the subject of the connection between barometric pressure and
sun-spot phenomena several contributions have been made. F. Cham-
bers has shown (1st) that similar non-periodic variations in pressure
occur throughout India and China, the epochs of maxima and minima
of pressure correspond to the minima and maxima, respectively, of sun
spots but fall behind these latter at intervals of six to thirty months, de-
pending on the longitude of the station, the western stations occurring
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. oy |
earlier than the eastern; he also shows (2d) that extensive famines in
India accompany or directly follow a maxima of pressure.
Balfour Stewart concludes that the sun’s heat is most effective dur-
ing a maximum of sun spots. Mr. Eaton has collected barometric
records for a hundred years at London, and Archibald has shown that
these give some little evidence of the same sun spot periodicity as in
India, namely, 2 maximum of spots corresponding to a minimum of pres-
sure. The reverse holds good for St. Petersburg. -(Z. 0. @. M., XVI,
1881, p. 158.) .
K6éppen has continued his classical researches on secular perfods in
the weather, by extending his studies of annual mean temperatures to
cover all recent data, for the years 1841 to 1875, published since the
publication of his previous memoir. The resulting curves as given by
K6ppen show the mean temperature for the north temperate, the tropi-
eal, and south temperate zones, as well as the curve of sun-spot fre-
quency, and lead to the following remarks: The curve for the southern
hemisphere shows both a general agreement with the spot curve, and
also a series of special systematic discrepancies. If we were not, accord-
ing to our experience in the northern hemisphere, to entertain a decided
mistrust of generalizations based on only three sun spot periods, then
we might also detect a decided law in these discrepancies in the southern
hemisphere. We see, namely, that while the sun-spots increase the
temperature, curves in all the three zones describe the double wave
in the years 1843 to 1856, the first valley in this double wave, but in
the two following periods the second valleys, all preceding the spot
minimum by from two to four years, give in each case the absolute
minima of temperature. In the northern hemisphere the remarkable
agreement of the curves for temperature and spots from 1820 to 1840 is
gradually disturbed, and after 1852 entirely disappears, although the
temperatures from 1867 to 1869 give indications of a return of earlier
laws. The gradual rise of the temperature in the northern hemisphere
for 1875 to 1878 is again in good agreement with the simultaneous di-
minution of the number of spots, but the succeeding abnormally cold
year in Europe forces vividly upon the attention the care that must
be exercised when one would use for purposes of prediction an ap-
parent law whose rationale is as yet not understood, and to which is
subject to mysterious, and therefore wholly unexpected, disturbances.
(Z. O. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 149.)
Blanford, in some further remarks on sun-spot cycles, states that out
of the investigations of Gautier, Stone, Képpen, and others, it results
_ that the variation of temperature at tropical stations during the sun-
spot cycles is such that the highest temperatures occur nearly always
with the minimum of spots. The intensity of the solar radiation accord-
ing to the results obtained by Baxendall, and those obtained by me
from ten ‘stations in India, attains its maximum simultaneously with
the spot maximum. The variations of atmospheric pressure at stations
7
328 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
in the Indo-Malayan, region as it is now first presented to us, is such
that in those regions, where the effect of the sun is most direct, the
lowest atmospheric pressure coincides with the maximum of sun-spots.
(Z. O. G. M., XV, p. 394.)
Hildebrandson has called attention to a valuable collection of data
on the variability of climate published by Ehrenheim in 1823, which
gives the years of severe winters for the past twelve ee years,
and adds considerable to the data already collected by Képpen. (Z. O.
G. M., XV, p. 345.)
(b) Hypsometry.—The new hypsometrie formula of Dr. Guido Grassi
and its application to the reduction of barometric observations to sea
level, or to the barometric computation of altitudes, forms a memoir
published by the meteorological office at Rome.
Professor Grassi has studied those formule in which the temperature
being observed at one station some hypothesis is necessary in order to
approximate to the mean temperature of the column of air, and con-
cludes that the unsatisfactory results given by the formule are due to
errors in the hypothesis on which they are based. His new formula,
which contains not only the temperature and pressure of the upper
station, but also the moisture for both upper and lower stations, reads as
follows:
k t
"=T—8 m. bt.
) vb, (b+t)—bt—b ; +C
in which a represents the desired height above the sea, ) the baromet-
ric pressure at the station, )) the barometric pressure at sea level, ¢ the
absolute temperature at the upper station, C the correction for gravity,
k=58.6588, m=4 CG sf +1, )wherein fo and f are the force of vapor in
0
millimeters at the upper station and sea levels, and f can be computed
by Hann’s formula:
f=fxX 10
For reductions to sea level, Grassi transforms this formula in the fol-
lowing:
pee pee : a (1-3”) }o4 "R= £(a-3 im YT" bo
The comparison between this formula and those given Ruhlmann
and Saint-Robert shows that Ruhlmann’s gives results nearer the truth
if we deal with annual means; but Grassi’s formula shows somewhat
less of the annual periodicity. (Z. 0. G@. M., XIV, 1879, p. 31.)
Dr. Jordan has deduced an empirical and new barometric formula
for use with a barometer established at some intermediate station. He
first represents the temperature for an extensive net-work of stations
by a formula in which altitude and latitude oceur as linear functions,
and from which the average rate of diminution of temperature with
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 329
altitude can be determined. Thus for Southwestern Germany the mean
annual temperatures from 1869 to 1878 give a diminution for each hun-
dred meters of altitude, as shown in the following table:
a a
]
| Diminution of |
Altitude. | temperature |
| per 100 feet. |
°
Meters.
100
200
300
| 400
| 500 }
| 600 |
700
800
900
1, 000
“-ANwWOoO
escessssss
oa
moa
He then gives the constants in an empirical formula for the same
portion of Europe, and finds the following: .
h = 18517 (log 762.56 — log Bo) (1 + 0.003665)
and shows, by means of this, that the altitude may be computed with a
probable error of plus or minus 3 meters. (Z. 0. G. M., XV, 1880,
p. 166.)
H. Feld and C. A. Vogler have put into convenient form for the com-
putation of barometric altitudes at the latitude of 50°, the hypsometric
formula of Ruhlmann. By introducing a graphic process they have re-
duced the time very materially, but with slight expense of accuracy.
(2. O0G2M,, XVi1, 1881, p. 85.)
(c) Biological Relations. —Oettingen has investigated some points in
the connection between meteorology and botany that are worthy the
attention of other meteorologists. The principal previous workers in
this field have been Boussingault, De Candolle, Gasparin, and Linsser,
whose results are reviewed by Von Oettingen.
Boussingault maintained that any particular phase of development (2),
such as the time of budding, ripening, &c., should be considered as a
function of t, the mean temperature, during the interval of time, 2, that
has elapsed since an assumed starting point, and wu, v, w, &e., which
represent other climatic elements. :
De Candolle and Gasparin showed that # should be a function not of
t, but of t—s, where s represents a minimum temperature limit, below
which the development ef the plant makes no progress whatever.
Linsser showed that « is a function of my, and wu, v, w, where T Z is
a constant, having a different value for each plant and each locality.
Oettingen finally proceeds to investigate the dependence of blossom-
ing upon temperature for fifty-five plants, for which he had accurate
observation at Dorpat. The general conclusions to which the author is
led are as follows:
1. Certain values of the epochs of budding can be deduced with pre-
330 METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS.
cision for various phases of many species of plants, so that the present
method of investigation can be safely recommended.
2, Very improbable values of this epoch are recognized at once by
large limits of error; only such normal data as correspond to the small-
est probable errors have a claim upon our acceptance.
3. In the deduction of normal data the computations lead to nearly
the same value for the dates of budding for all the fifty-five plants. Dif-
ferences of two or three days occurred only when few observations were
at hand.
4, Even in the case of fragmentary but longer series of observations,
Oettingen’s method of computation can be applied, and it is immaterial
whether the phase under consideration occurs in the extreme coldest or
warmest portion of the year.
5. The computation of a mean date from a series of observations af-
fords opportunity for determining the variability in time or the probable
error of the average date.
6. The probable error of the total sums of heat, as deduced from
observations of many years, must depend upon the variability of the
weather.
7. The present method of investigating the conditions of budding can
perhaps be checked by experiments upon certain species that will de-
velop in water at different temperatures. (Z. O. G. M., XIV, p. 326.)
In a further review of Von Oettingen’s work on this subject Karl
Fritsch states that in 1857 he first compared all the formule that were
then known with the best observations available in the development of
the growth of plants and showed that the Boussingault formula has
the greatest probability although it was intended especially for annuals.
In 1861 he extended this work to a computation of the constants for
1,889 different species of plants, for which ten consecutive years of ob-
servation were available, the result of which showed that his method of
computing his thermal constants must be very near the truth. New
formule were, however, proposed by Tomaschek in 1862, and by Kabsch
in 1863, Hoffman in 1865, Ziegler in 1867.
In 1867 and 1869 Linsser attempted a further elaboration of the sub-
ject, which, however, was not brought to a satisfactory end at the time
of his death. Krassan in 1868 and Képpen in 1870 spoke against the
general principle of the temperature summations; but the important
work of Oettingen brings us back to the firm conclusion that the law of
a constant quantity of heat is necessary to a given stage of develop-
ment has a high degree of probability, and his method of determining
the base temperature from which the sums are to be counted seems to
be the best at present available. -(Z. 0. G. M., XIV, p. 376.)
Hoffmann, of Giessen, has published additional confirmation of his
method of determining ‘ thermal-constants” for plants. He sums up
the daily maxima of a thermometer exposed to the full sunlight from
January 1, the time of the minimum of plant activity up to the date of
METEOROLOGY AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. oom
the occurrence of the respective botanical phases. He finds the obser-
vations of plants that blossom in early spring very irregularly affected
by early frosts, but gives the following table for piants that flourish in
summer and autumn. Three thermometers have been used exposed
under very similar cireumstances—Nos. J and II, during 1880, No. ITI,
during the earlier period, 1866 to 1869.
The results seem very closely comparable among themselves.
| Ditech acct Thermal constant for the years.
Plant. blossom,
| ]
LEME | 1—1880. | I1.—1880. | I11.—1866~’69.
|
| te lie |
Aesculus macrostachya...-.--.2.--...-..--2s00- VIZ, 21 3, 504 | 3,191 3, 353
Catalpa syringfolia ac VII, 23 3, 557 | 3, 229 3, 318
Linosyris vulgaris.....-.. VIII, 14 | 4,091 | Shas) 4, 033
Mirabilis Jalapa..-...---- VI, 31 | 3, 776 | 3, 441 | 3, 143
Plumbago europea -..-...-.-- xe 5, 495 | 5, 054 5, 318
Pulicania dvsenteriea.(-2-50--..0-+---0 +255 os VII, 25 3, 618 | 3, 292 5, 381
Valoradia plumbaginoides .......--....---.----- rxX,2 | 4, 767 | 4, 352 5,177
Vites vinifera.._...-.-- Seah Sac ateine waco nts Wil? 2, 697 | 2, 603 2, 606
HanMCanGiduMites scene see as ca cents ance cee eee VI, 29 2, 872 | 2, 603 2,710
Aster Amellus......-- Fe kee aaees es cee ees VUL 14 4, 091 | 3, 753 | 3, 930
Hoffman finds evidence that this law also holds good for plants pro-
tected in greenhouses, and further, that the mean temperatures in the
shade cannot have such a connection with the development of the plant
as have those shown by the insolation thermometer. (Z. 0. GAL, XVI,
1881, pp. 331-334.)
(d) Meteors.—Dr. J. H. L. Flégel communicates observations by him-
self on particles of iron dust found in snow, and gives a summary ot
previous researches on this subject, beginning with Ehrenberg in 1849.
The first snowfall examined by Flégel gave in the purest melted snow
water nine forms of diatoms, conferve, spores, alive or apparently alive;
fourteen forms of pollen or other parts of animals and plants; and five
forms of mineral substances. The subsequent snowfall, however, be-
side these forms of dust, invariably gave iron, and the total amount of
the latter was in one case about zsoohoo00 Of the volume of fresh-
fallen snow.
Flégel admits that-the cosmic origin of this iron dust (and Grone-
man’s theory of the dependence of auroras upon its presence) is very
plausible, but that it still needs to be proven to be of local terrestrial
origin, and be specially confined to certain regions of the globe. The
question will probably be best settled by investigating the presence of
nickel, as, if present, it would argue irresistibly for the cosmic origin of
this iron dust. (Z. 0. G. M., XVI, 1881, p. 321.)
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PHYSICS.
By GEORGE F. BARKER,
Professor of Physics in the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
GENERAL.
The progress of physical science during the year 1881 has been marked,
especially in the department of electricity. But so intimate are the
relations which connect together the various branches of physics that
this advance has required corresponding activity in all the other de-
partments.
Stas, as rapporteur, on behalf of Broch, St. Claire Deville and him-
self, appointed by the International Committee of Weights and Measures
a sub-commission on the preparation of an X-rule in platinum-iridium,
has given a detailed account of the preparation of this rule by Matthey,
the eminent metallurgist, to whom they had confided the work. The
platinum was prepared by precipitation from the chloride, two speci-
mens, each of 35 kilograms, being obtained and analyzed simultaneously
by Deville in Paris and Stas in Brussels. Specimen A gave 99.892
platinum, 0.065 rhodium, and 0.029 iridium; specimen B 99.890 plati-
num, 0.070 rhodium, and 0.023 iridium. A previous alloy was used to
yield the iridium, special care being taken to exclude metals other than
platinum. Onanalysisit gave: iridium, 91.100; platinum, 8.480 ; rhodium,
0.122; ruthenium, 0.120, and iron 0.042. For the alloy, 18,015.65 grams
of platinum, sample A, was mixed with the iridium in such proportion
that 100,000 parts of the mixture should contain 1,025 parts of pure irid-
ium; the extra 25 parts being added to supply loss in working. The
finely-divided metals were sifted thoroughly together, the powder com-
pressed and fused in alime crucible. The cylinder thus obtained, which
was 10 centimeters in diameter and 7.5 centimeters high, was forged at
a white heat into a bar and rolled between polished rolls. it was then
cut into small pieces, kept in fused hydro-potassium sulphate in a plati-
num vessel for 3 hours, washed with boiling water and with boiling
hydrogen chloride. These operations were repeated three times. Be-
fore the final forging three samples for analysis were taken from differ-
ent parts of the ingot. The bar, which was 45 millimeters on a side,
was again put under the hammer and forged into a cylinder at one end, 42
millimeters in diameter and 128 centimeters long. This was cut off and
333
334 PHYSICS.
turned into a true cylinder 40 millimeters in diameter, and cut into three
equal parts. The rest of the bar was again drawn down under the ham-
mer till it was 25.5 millimeters on a side and 103 centimeters long, an
operation Jasting 14 hours. It was now put on a planing-machine
and planed into the form of an X in section, this labor requiring 28
days, from six in the morning to 10 at night. The bar, which before
planing had a weight of 15,500 grams, weighed only 3,584 grams after-
ward. On examining the three specimens cut from the ingot, their
specific gravities were found to be 21.530, 21.536, 21.538, at 19°, or 21.535
as a mean; that of the pieces cut from the ends of the two rectangular
rules being 21.523. The turned cylinders were then submitted, in steel
molds, to blows of a hammer, each blow equivalent to a pressure of-
110,000 kilograms. The first cylinder received 10 blows, and had aden;
sity of 21.554; the second received 20 blows, and its density was 21.5528;
the third received 30, and was 21.5531; the mean of the three being
21.553, with a probable error of + 0.002. The chips removed by the
planer were 21.538 before and 21.548 after melting. On analysis, after
purification, the chips from the planer gave Deville: iridium, 10.1560;
iron, 0.035; ruthenium, 0.017; rhodium, 0.038; platinum, 89.75. The turn-
ings gave: iridium, 10.151; iron, 0.032. In 100 parts of the alloy there
were then 10.1444 parts of iridium, or 1,018 of iridium to 9,000 of platinum ;
a value considerably within the tolerance allowed to Matthey. Collateral
experiments showed the impracticability of drawing the bar through a
templet of steel, since the quantity of iron in the alloy was thus trebled.
Finally, the possibility of making separate masses of this alloy uniform
in composition and density was satisfactorily established, the iridium
in a third specimen differing from that in the second and first by only
0.0003. The bar now goes to MM. Bruner, for the purpose of having
the meter lines transferred to it from the standard meter of the govern-
ment. (Ann. Chim. Phys., January, 1881, V, xxii, 120.)
Sire has described an apparatus, which he calls a devioscope, for
ascertaining directly the relation which exists between the angular ve-
locity of the earth and that of a horizon around the vertical of any place
whatever. In the well-known pendulum experiment of Foucault, the
apparent rotation of the plane of oscillation of the pendulum is propor-
tional to the sine of the latitude of the place of observation, in con-
sequence of the tendency of this plane to remain always parallel to
itself. The apparatus in question consists of a fixed globe supported
on a vertical steel axis carried on an iron tripod. From this support
just below the sphere a semicircular arm, articulated in the center, rises
to carry a system of three wheels, the diameter of each being exactly
the same as that of the sphere. Two of these wheels are toothed and
work into each other. One of them moves on an axis parallel, when
the semicircle is in its normal position, to the axis of the sphere. The
upper part of this axis carries a model of the plane of oscillation. The
second wheel is fastened to an axle supported on an arm always at right
PHYSICS. 335
angles to the semicircular arm, the third wheel being at the other ex-
tremity of this axle, and rolling on the sphere. <A graduated circle on
the axis, about which the semicircular arm moves, enables it to be ad-
justed for any latitude. Normally the pendulum-axis is in the prolonga-
tion of the sphere-axis. On turning the sphere the third wheel rolls
round its equator, rotating the plane of oscillation of the pendulum in
the same time as the sphere rotates, but in the inverse direction. Turn-
ing the semicircular arm 90° the axis of oscillation passes through the
equator and the wheel rests on the pole of the sphere; hence, when the
latter rotates, the plane of oscillation does not change. In intermedi-
ate positions the change of plane is proportional to the sine of the lati-
tude, and the rapidity of the change may be read off on a graduated
circle placed beneath the pendulum model. (J. Phys., September, 1581,
x, 401.)
G. H. and H. Darwin communicated to the York meeting of the
British Association, on behalf of a committee appointed for the meas-
urement of the lunar disturbance of gravity, the results of their experi-
ments thus far made. In 1879Sir William Thomson had erected at Glas-
gow an apparatus consisting of a solid lead cylinder suspended by a °
fine brass wire five feet long from the cross-beam of the stone supports
used for pendulum experiments. From the bottom of the weight a rod
projected, to which was fastened a single fiber, of silk attached to the
edge of a small mirror. <A second fiber, also attaehed to the same point
of the mirror, was fastened to a support near the rod, so that the mirror
was supported by a bifilar suspension, such that a minute motion of
the pendulum would cause considerable rotation of the mirror. A lamp
and slit were arranged for the readings. But the spot of light was
found to be in incessant movement, soirregular that the mean position
could not be fixed within 6 inches. The authors, after seeing this ar-
rangement, constructed, in 1880, at Cambridge, a modification of it. The
pendulum, suspended by the two wires, was hung in aliquid, and an ap-
paratus was attached to it for giving it a known but very minute dis-
placement. They found that it was subject to a diurnal oscillation, being
farthest north at 6 p.m. and farthest south at 6a.m. It was so sen-
sitive that it showed distinctly the slight pressure on the stone gallows
exerted by the finger. Water poured on the ground tilted the whole
structure over, and minute changes of temperature produced marked
effects. One foot of displacement of the spot corresponded to one second
of arc in the direction of the plumb-line. In 1881 a new instrument was
made, in which a copper tube formed at the same time the support for
the pendulum and the envelop for containing the liquid. The whole
was immersed in a large mass of water, and the observations were taken
from outside of the room by means of atelescope. The diurnal changes
and the slow change were observed in the present case, and also periods
of several days in which the pendulum was in a state of continual agi-
336 PHYSICS.
tation, apparently independent of any external meteorological condi-
tion. The apparatus, while quite insensible to local tremors, was ex-
traordinarily sensitive to steady forces. A person standing in the room
16 feet distant, and then 17 feet, the difference in the yielding of the
floor and the consequent tilting toward the point of pressure of the
stone basement, was plainly apparent. An alteration of the plumb-
line by 0.01 second was distinctly measurable. The authors draw from
these results some important practical conclusions. They suggest
greater precautions to protect the piers of transit instruments from
changes of temperature, and to provide for the drainage of the sod
roundtheirbases. The effect of the weight of the observer’s body should
be guarded against. (Nature, November 3, 1881, xxv, 20,)
Respighi has finished his experiments to determine the intensity of
gravity at the observatory of Campidoglio. He used a pendulum com-
posed of a ball of lead 94 kilograms in weight, supported by a steel
wire 0.6 millimeter in diameter. Five different lengths were used, vary-
ing from 7.9 to 5.16 meters. These pendulums proved independent of
the earth’s rotation, and showed Foucault’s phenomenon perfectly. At
each oscillation the point attached to the pendulum dipped in mercury,
thus making an electric contact which was recorded on a chronograph.
The data obtained have not yet been fully reduced. (Nature, May 19,
1881, xxiv, 67.)
Mendenhall has determined the value of gravity upon the summit of
Fujiyama in Japan, using a Kater’s pendulum, from which one of the
knife-edges, the ‘‘tail-pieves,” and all of the unnecessary parts were re-
moved, and an adjustable slide-piece fixed on the piece projecting above
the knife-edge. A Negus breal-circuit chronometer, a chronograph,
and a portable transit instrument were also used. After the necessary
corrections, the value of gravity on the summit of the mountain was found
to be 9.7886. In Tokio it had been previously determined as 9.7984.
From these values, taken in connection with certain data concerning
the mountain, Mendenhall has sought to calculate the mean density of
the earth. ‘The result obtained, assuming the density of the mountain
to be 2.12, gives 5.77 for the earth’s density. As this is slightly above
Baily’s value, 5.67, the author reverses his calenlation, and assuming
this value, calculates the density of the mountain, and finds it to be
only 2.08; thus suggesting deficiency in its attraction. (Am. J. Sci.,
February, 1881, xxi, 99.)
MECHANICS.
1. Of-solids.
Stevenson has presented to the Royal Society a paper on the influ-
ence of stress and strain on the action of physical forces. He finds
that (1) after a wire has suffered permanent extension the temporary
elongation produced by a load diminishes as the interval between the
PHYSICS. A Pa Rb
time of this extension and that of applying the load becomes greater;
(2) this increase of elasticity is proportionally greater for large loads;
(3) it takes place equally whether the wire be loaded or unloaded in the
interval; (4) its rate of increase varies with different metals; (5) the
elasticity can be increased by loading and unloading several times; (6)
a departure from Hooke’s law always attends recent permanent exten-
sion and; (7) this departure is diminished, notably in iron, by allowing
the wire to rest for some time either loaded or unloaded. The influence
of electricity and of magnetism on the torsional rigidity of metals was
examined, and the results showed (1) that in the case of copper and
iron the torsional rigidity is temporarily decreased by the passage of a
strong current; (2) that of iron is temporarily diminished by a high
magnetizing force; and (3) these effects are independent of temperature
changes. (Nature, May 19, 1881, xxiv, 70.)
Anderson has presented toa committee of the Institution of Mechan-
ical Engineers a reporton the hardening and tempering of steel, in which,
after discussing the theories already proposed to account for the phe-
nomena, he proposes a new one, suggested by Hdison’s experiments on
platinum wire. It is a generally accepted fact that ordinary steel con-
tains a certain quantity of occluded gases, hydrogen, nitrogen, and ear-
bonous oxide. The new theory supposes that by the application of
heat, these gases are expelled through minute fissures, which open in
the steel as the fissures opened in Edison’s platinum wire. Sudden
cooling prevents their reabsorption, and perhaps assists, too, in the
expulsion. By the loss of these gases the metal becomes harder and
denser than before. If, now, the metal be expanded by gentle heating,
the fissures open and reabsorption begins; the various changes which
the surface undergoes, as shown by the color-changes, being exponents
of the reabsorption process. Experiments are to be made by the com-
mittee to test the validity of this ingenious theory. (Natwre, May 5,
1881, xxiv, 21.)
Ewing has devised a simple form of speed-governor for continuous
motion. At the end of the vertical axis whose speed is to be controlled,
is a cross-bar carrying bell-cranks at its ends. The two vertical sides
of these carry balls united at top by a spring. The horizontal portions
carry paddles, dipping inte an annular trough of glycerin. When the
speed is increased the balls separate, and the paddles being immersed
deeper in the glycerin; the velocity is diminished. (Nature, March 17,
1881, xxiii, 473.)
Holtz has determined the modulus of elasticity of the carbon rods
made by Carré and used for the electric light. The acoustic method
was used, the rods being held in the middle and vibrated longitudinally
by rubbing with a resined cloth. On the average the modulus was
found to be about the same as that of lead; though in the thinner rods
the density is greater, and so the modulus is higher. Heat developed
by the frictien raises the tone. (Wiedemann’s Annalen, 1881, i, ———.)
S. Mis. 109 22
338 PHYSICS.
Kidder, under Cross’s direction, has determined the modulus of elas-
ticity and the mopulus of rupture of white spruce wood (abies alba).
The pieces were about 14 inches square and 4 feet long. The modu-
lus of elasticity was found to be from 1,600,000 pounds to 1,700,000
pounds, depending on the length of time the load was applied, and the
modulus of rupture 11,000 pounds. (Proc. Am. Acad., February, 1881,
285.) ;
De la Bastie has communicated to the French Academy some results
obtained by Thomasset, showing the resistance to flexure of his hard-
ened glass. Two series of results are given. The first, including 32
tests, shows (1) that the elasticity is more than doubled by hardening; (2)
that single glass hardened has 2.5 times the resistance of ordinary
double glass, and (3) that semi-double hardened glass is 3.1 times more
resistant than ordinary double glass. The second shows that (1) the
flexure of ordinary glass is inappreciable, while the hardened glass
bends under the strain; (2) that hardened glass polished, varying in
thickness from 6 millimeters to 13 millimeters, had 3.07 times the resist-
ance of ordinary plate of the same thickness, and (3) that unpolished
hardened glass resists 5.33 times better than unhardened glass. (Ann.
Chim. Phys., June, 1881, V, xxiii, 286.)
C.O. Thompson hasinvestigated the apparent lubricating action of salt
as used in wire-drawing, and reaches the conclusion that it is a physical
rather than a chemical one, a continuous, adhesive, transparent coating
of salt appearing on the wire as it emerges from the draw-plate. The
intense pressure to which the wire and the salt are subjected and the
high temperature caused by this pressure (a temperature at least as
high as the fusing point of tin, 237° C.) cause the particles of salt to run
together and to form a complete plastic coherent sheath around the wire.
This result the author compares to regelation, a theory tested and
proved by submitting salt on the end of a steel cylinder a half inch in
diameter to a pressure of 192,000 pounds. During the first experiment a
thin, transparent sheet of salt gushed from the side. After the second
a transparent, coherent wafer of salt was obtained, through which tbe
mark of a No.4 Faber pencil could be read distinctly. (Proce. Lnst.
Min. Eng., February, 1881, ix, 299.)
Spring has submitted various substances to pressures up to 10,000
atmospheres, and finds that many weld completely and become crys-
talline. Thus bismuth becomes crystalline under a pressure of 6,000
atmospheres, and zine of 5,000 at a temperature of 130°C. Octohedral
sulphur welds easily at 3,000 atmospheres, and becomes crystalline ;
prismatic and soft sulphur rapidly becoming octohedral. Manganese
dioxide, at 5,000 atmospheres, gives a black mass having the crystalline
texture of pyrolusite. Zine sulphide takes a saccharoid structure like
sphalerite, and lead sulphide, at 6,000 atmospheres, resembles galenite.
A mixture of copper filings and sulphur becomes crystallized sulphide.
PHYSICS. 339
Crystalline salts weld with remarkable facility, giving compact, trans-
parent masses. Coal at 6,000 atmospheres forms a solid brilliant block,
easily molded. Wax at 700 atmospheres flows like water. Paraffin
requires 2,000 atmospheres. Gum arabic is plastic at 5,000 atmospheres,
and sealing-wax shows this effect still more markedly. (Ann. Chim.
Phys., February, 1881, V, xxii, 170.)
2. Of liquids.
Bjerknes exhibited at the Paris Electrical Exhibition an ingenious
set of apparatus for showing the fundamental phenomena of electricity
and magnetism by the analogous ones of hydrodynamics. The fact that
a vibrating body attracts light objects near it has long been known,
and the explanation that the air is rarefied by the agitation, the press-
ure is greater at a distance, and the light stationary body is pressed
toward the vibrating one, was given in 1867 by Sir William Thomson.
By means of two small pumps pulses of compression or rarefaction may
be produced in drums or spheres of elastic material immersed in water,
or these may be caused themselves to vibrate. if two drums are used, _
and both contract and expand together, there is attraction, while if one
contracts and the other expands there is repulsion. But if two spheres
be made to oscillate so that they move in the same direction at the
same time, then there is repulsion between them. If they move in
opposite directions there is attraction. The author considers the water
in his trough as the analogue of Faraday’s medium, and the results
which he has obtained with his apparatus are very striking. (J. Phys.,
December, 1881, x, 509; Natwre, August 18, 1881, xxiv, 360.)
Volkmann has pointed out that in the determination of the specific
gravity of heavy liquids, as mercury, by means of the pycnometer, an
error is introduced by the deformation of the bottle by the pressure
within. In the case of a bottle provided with a capillary tube divided
equally, he found that on filling it with mercury the top of the column
stood at 68.1 divisions when the whole was immersed in mercury to the
same level; but on removing it the column fell to 65.4. Taking the
precaution to eliminate this source of error, a new determination of the
value of the density of mercury gave the number 13.5953+.0001. (Na-
ture, July 28, 1881, xxiv, 294.)
Plateau has communicated to the Belgian Academy some interesting
experiments with liquid films. A piece of fine iron wire is bent so as
to represent in outline a six-petaled flower; it is then dipped for a mo-
ment in nitric acid and washed, and then dipped in glyceric solution
and placed under a bell-jar, and neara window. A pretty play of bright
colors is observed, which continues for hours. To prove the contraction
of such a film when it breaks, a bubble 11 centimeters in diameter is
blown with glyceric liquid by tobacco smoke and placed on aring. If
'
340 PHYSICS.
the top be broken when it becomes blue the mass of smoke is shot ver-
tically upward and then spreads out horizontally. (Nature, October 20,
1881, xxiv, 593.)
Oberbeck has experimented to ascertain the truth of the distinction
made by Plateau between the surface viscosity and the internal vis-
cosity of liquids. He finds that with distilled water the resistance in-
creases suddenly, and to quite considerable extent, whenever the upper
edge of the plate comes into the free surface, and he does not doubt
that this is due to increased friction in the surface layer. in pure water
this increase of resistance was 60.9 per cent., and in salt solutions from
54.1 to 75.1 per cent. In alcohol there was a decrease of 11.9, in oil of
turpentine 12.6, and carbon disulphide of 26.3 per cent. ( Wiedemanns
Annalen, 1880, II, xi, 634.)
De Romilly has contrived a very effective form of centrifugal pump,
by which, even by hand, water may be raised to a height of 150 meters.
Several forms of it are figured in his paper, and an ingenious applica-
tion of the same principle is made use of to keep the pivots oiled. (J.
Phys., July, 1881, x, 303.)
; 3. Of gases.
Crookes has presented a paper to the Royal Society on the viscosity
of gases at high exhaustions. Maxwell had come to the theoretical
conelusion, in 1859, that the coefficient of friction or the viscosity of a
gas should be independent of its density ; and this conclusion he sub-
sequently found to be true experimentally for pressures between 30
inches and 0.5 inch, the coefficient of friction in air being practically
constant. Crookes has sought to extend these experiments by testing
the question at much higher exhaustions than had before been used.
His apparatus consisted of a globe with a long neck within which was
a light plate of mica suspended by a fine fiber of glass. By means of
a mirror on the fiber the oscillations of the plate could be read with the
usual lamp-stand and scale. He finds that the logarithmic decrement
of the oscillation is sensibly the same until the pressure reaches 3 milli-
meters, when there is a rapid and marked change in its value, continu-
ing to the highest exhaustion obtained, 0.02 M, or one fifty millionth of
an atmosphere. The author regards this as additional proof of the
existence of the fourth or ultra-gaseous state of matter. (Phil. Trans.,
February, 1881, Part I, p. 387.)
Sprengel has pointed out the fact that in his paper published in the
Journal of the Chemical Society in January, 1865, he distinetly de-
scribed the water-air pump. He sent a copy of this paper to Bunsen,
who, three years later, printed his paper on the washing of precipitates,
in which the water-pump was described. He alludes to the matter
thus: “T employ a water-air pump constructed of glass on the princi-
ple of Sprengel’s mercury-air pump.” From this statement the name
PHYSICS. 341
Bunsen pump has originated; erroneously as it appears to Sprengel
himself. (Nature, May 19, 1881, xxiv, 53.)
Rood has continued his investigations on the mercury pump, and has
further perfected it,so that he has now obtained vacua of y5o5d0000
of an atmosphere. The form of pump used is Sprengel’s, with consider-
able modification in its details, not intelligible without the figures which
accompany the paper. The vacua were measured with the McLeod
gauge, specially modified for the purpose. The greatest care was taken
in annealing all the glass, and during action the pump was warmed with
a Bunsen burner. The leakage was so small that in a year it would
amount to only 2.877 cubie millimeters under the normal air pressure
(Am. J. Sci., August, 1881, iii, 90.)
Angot has described a new and simple registering barometer, con-
structed by Richard freres. Six or eight holosteric barometer-boxes,
so attached that their changes are added, serve to measure the varying
air pressure. The upper box acts on the short arm of a lever, the long
arm of which makes the record on a revolving cylinder. The arms of
the lever are adjusted so that the motion of the end of the longer cor-
responds exactly to the variation of the mercurial barometer. On the
cylinder is a sheet of paper properly divided. The rotation is effected
by clock-work, so that the cylinder revolves once in seven days. A pen
containing glycerin ink, being attached to the lever-arm, inscribes the
curve on the paper. A metallic thermometer, recording similarly, has
also been constructed, and a hygrometer is projected. (J. Phys., August,
1881, x, 363.)
ACOUSTICS.
Cross has observed that under certain circumstances sound is emitted
from a Crookes tube in action. Using the tube in which a piece of pliuti-
num is heated by the impact of the molecules shot out from the con-
cave negative pole, a clear and quite musical note washeard. It was
at first supposed to be due to the circuit-breaker ; but it did not coin-
cide with this in pitch, and changes in the rapidity of vibration of the
latter did not affect the note. The effect seemed to be produced by
the vibration of the sheet platinum in its own period under the influ-
ence 6f the molecular blows. The sound resembled somewhat the pat-
tering of rain against a window-pane, but it was higher in pitch and
more musical. The reversing of the current changed entirely its char-
acter. The sound was heard also in the mean free-path tube, best
when the middle plate was positive, and ina tube containing calcium
sulphide for phosphorescence. (Proc. Am. Acad., November, 1831;
Nature, May 12, 1881, xxiv, 45.)
Cook has proposed the name sonorescence for the phenomena of the
conversion of intermittent light into sound, discovered by Graham
Bell. Obviously this was suggested by the analogy of the word with
fluorescence, given by Stokes to the change of ultra-violet rays into
342 PHYSICS.
luminous ones, and calorescence, applied by Tyndall to the conversion
of ultra-red rays into luminous ones—the term calcescence having been
previously proposed by Akin. The word sonorescence, however, to
make the analogy exact, should be taken to signify the conversion of
sound into luminous rays, and not the reverse effect, for which it is pro-
posed. (Nature, May 19, 1881, xxiv.)
Martini has determined the velocity of sound in chlorine gas by
means of a resonant column: <A glass tube 0.4 meter long and 2 centi-
meters diameter, fixed vertically, communicated below by means of a
rubber tube, with a second vertical tube adjustable in height, the bend
containing sulphuric acid. When this second tube was raised or low-
ered the length of the column of gas could be varied so as to reinforce
a certain fixed tone. The first tube being graduated, the length of the
column was easily found, and a simple calculation gave the velocity.
After verifying the method with carbon dioxide, and hyponitrous oxide,
the author found 206.4 meters as the velocity of sound in chlorine at
zero. (Nature, 67, May 19, 1881, xxiv.)
%obinson has described an experiment which he claims as proof that
a sound wave can be polarized. An L-shaped tube 1 inch in diame-
ter and 3 inches in length, made of tin, had a portion of the joint re-
moved and a piece of membrane, making equal angles with the two
branches, put in its place. This angle was obtained from the optical
principle that the tangent of the polarizing angle is equal to the ratio
of the velocities in the two media; in the present case, to the ratio
1420 : 1125, the velocities in coal gas and air respectively. <A series
of these bent tubes were connected together so that by turning them
round each other the membranes could be placed either all parallel to
each other or all perpendicular. At the two ends were membranes clos-
ing the tubes. After filling the tube with coal gas, it was found that
no effect could be obtained with sound itself. A pulse was therefore
produced by the fall of a ball suspended by a thread against the end
membrane, the reception of the pulse being recorded by the motion of
a similar ball at the other end. In one series of eighty experiments the
mean deflection when the tubes were parallel was 6.47, and when per-
pendicular 5.43, a difference of 16.1 per cent. No difference was observed
when the tube was filled with air. Conceding this result to be actual,
it would seem more probable that it is due to some mechanical pecul-
iarity of the apparatus rather than to the polarization of a longitudinal
wave. But the more sweeping conclusion of the author, that all vibra-
tions in extended media are longitudinal, and become transversal when
polarization takes place, cannot at all be conceded on the basis of the
experiments which he has made. (J. Frank. Inst., March, 1881, III,
Ixxxi, 201; Am. J. Sci., June, 1881, III, xxi, 501.)
xeuleaux has recorded a singular case of the production of sound by
natural causes, observed while hunting in the Réderbacherthal, near
PHYSICS. 343
the highest part of the Rhine province. The ground is gently undulat-
ing and densely wooded. The valley, spacious on the eastern side,
narrows rapidly at one part to a sort of pass, through which, for about
a kilometer, the Réderbach flows westward. A southwest wind was
blowing, and Reuleaux, coming along the hillside from the east,
heard what appeared to be the strokes of a fine, deep-toned bell, in
rapid succession. There was no such bell in the neighborhood, and
some other sounds heard soon afterward satisfied him that the effects
were of natural origin. Tones were heard growing in force to a maxi-
mum, then dying away; they were like those of organ-pipes at first,
‘but their “clang” came to resemble that of a harp or violin. At the
mouth of the pass, whence the sounds seemed to radiate, there was a
strange agitation in the air and mixtures of sounds, some of which
abruptly stopped. Reuleaux supposes bodies of air in vortical motion
to have been carried along from the pass, and the sound to have been
due to conflict between the outer. and the inner air at the mouth of such
trombes, producing oscillations. There was a marked difference of tem-
perature between the higher and the lower parts of the valley, and this
is regarded as an important factor in the case; the cold air above press-
ing on the warm below and closing the pass to a sort of tube. The
wind seemed to be active only in the lower parts. (Proe. Nat. Hist. Soe.
Rheinl. & Westphal; Nature, October, 1881, xxiv, 592.)
Kohlrausch has investigated the production of sounds by a limited
number of vibrations. <A strip of wood 3 meters long had one end
fastened to the ceiling, the other carrying a weight of 6 kilograms, the
whole forming a pendulum. <A metallic arc, whose center was the point
of suspension, was attached below, pierced with equidistant holes, in
which teeth are solidly fixed. Beneath this a card is fixed carried bya
piece of wood. When raised it is struck by the teeth in passing, thus
producing a series of impulses varying in time with the distance of the
teeth and the velocity of the pendulum, but in number determined by
the number of teeth. The velocity of the pendulum was measured by
a chronoscope. The pitch of the sound was fixed by a monocord, the
bridge being placed at first so that the sound of the cord was evidently
more acute, then more grave, than that of the pendulum. The inverse
ratio of the two lengths of the cord measures the characteristic interval
of height for the sound considered, 7. ¢., the difference of height which
permits two sounds near to one another to be distinguished. The au-
thor’s results approximately verify Helmholtz’s theory of audition. A
sound can be distinguished from another which makes two vibrations,
more or less, if the interval of the two sounds is not smaller than 34.
Sixteen vibrations were found to be sufficient to determine the pitch of
asound. The method, however, does not claim great delicacy. (Wied.
Ann., 1880, x, 1; J. Phys., May, 1881, x, 213.) '
Montigny has studied the effect of liquids upon the vibration of bells,
the liquids being either within or without them. He finds that (1) the
344 PHYSICS.
sound was lowered in pitch, (2) it was more decided the more dense the
liquid, (3) it was much more marked when the bell was wholly immersed
in the liquid than when the liquid was simply contained in the bell, and
(4) in both cases acute sounds were less lowered than grave ones.
The lowering of the sound was more decided with water than with al-
cohol and ether. (Nature, January 20, 1881, xxiii, 278.)
Ellis has presented a peper to the Royal Society on the influence of
temperature on the musical pitch of harmonium reeds, giving the results
of experiments on the harmonium reeds of Appunn’s treble tonometer
at South Kensington Museum, at temperatures differing by from 20° to
926° F. These experiments make it probable that the pitch of such reeds
is affected by temperature to twice the extent of tuning-forks and inthe
same direction; that is, they are flattened by heat and sharpened by
cold about one vibration in 10,000 per second for each degree Fahrenheit.
(Nature, February, 1881, xxiii, 379.)
Roig and Torres have substituted for the metallic diaphragm of the
phonograph a mica plate quite free at the border and supported at the
center by an axis of caoutchouc fixed to a small spring. Besides the
short style for indenting the tinfoil, this axis carries a piece of metal
which supports a second style perpendicular to the first, the vibrations
of which are inscribed on a smoked cylinder. By clockwork the same
angular velocity is imparted to both cylinders, so that while the short
style makes its usual marks on the tin foil the long one produces a larger
tracing on the smoked surface. In these traces the authors have suce-
ceeded in recognizing the vowels, some consonants, and even some sy}l-
lables, but they have not been able to read entire phrases. (Nature,
February, 1881, xxiii, 373.)
Koenig has studied the beats and beat-tones of harmonic intervals,
and concludes against the view of Helmholtz, that these are due to har-
monic tones of the lower primary sounding with the higher. He has
produced the phenomena by means of a “ wave siren,” consisting of a
rotating disk or cylinder, the border of which is cut so as to represent
with great accuracy the curve produced by the combination of two sim-
ple tones. When a blast of air is directed against this serrated edge
through a slit, an air motion is produced quite like that produced by
the two tones sounded together, and in which the beats and beat-tones
are heard. When the border is a simple harmonic curve and the slit at
right angles to it, a simple tone only is heard; but if this slitis slanted
alittle a “clang” is at once developed with strong overtones. On
Helmholtz’s supposition, the beat-tone obtained with two simple tones,
the slits being at right angles, should be less distinet than when the
overtones are brought out by slanting the slits; whereas in point of
fact the precise reverse of this is the case. (Wied. Ann., 1881, LI, xii,
335; Nature, April, 1881, xxiii, 616, August, 1881, xxiv, 358.)
Koenig has described a simple and very efficient lecture apparatus
PHYSICS. 345
for producing beat-tones. It consists of two glass rods or tubes of dif-
ferent lengths clamped vertically at their centers to a jointed frame.
By means of an elastic band their lower ends are pressed against the
periphery of a wheel covered with cloth and dipping into water. The
longitudinal vibration produced when the wheel is turned is strong and
the beat-tones are very distinct. (Wied. Ann., 1881, II, xii, 350.)
Maschke has devised a simple form of apparatus for showing the
nodal points in tubes. A wooden graduated scale has a groove along
its upper surface, on which is placed a glass tube. At one end a small
steel rod is supported which enters the tube and carries at its extrem-
ity a ring covered with a membrane. Against this hangs a small ball
of shellac, suspended by a silk fiber from the upper edge of the ring.
If the air within the tube be vibrated by any suitable means, as by a
tuning-fork, the ball is thrown into vibration, if placed at a loop, but
remains at rest when at a node. The effects may be projected on a
screen. (Wied. Ann., 1881, II, xiii, 204.)
Koenig has also contrived a method for exploring the interior of organ-
pipes while in action without interfering with their operation. The
pipe used has a front of plate glass, graduated, and a longitudinal slit
at the back. It is placed horizontally in a trough so that the slit and
half of the back are below the surface of the water which it contains. A
thin brass tube bent twice at right angles is supported so that one end
enters the slit to about the middle of the pipe. It can be slid along the
pipe, and is connected by a rubber tube either with the ear or a mono-
metric flame capsule. When the inner end of the tube passes a ventral
segment in the pipe a sudden weakening of the sound is noticed, and
then a sudden strengthening. In this way the position of the nodes and
segments can be exactly ascertained. The results are not in exact ac-
cord with theory. (Wied. Ann., 1881, II, xiii, 569.)
Lovering has discovered a paper communicated to the American
Academy by Nathaniel Bowditch in 1815, in which he investigates the
figures made by a double pendulum which compounded two vibrations
at right angles with one another. The text is illustrated by several
plates of figures, which prove clearly the anticipation of the figures given
by Lissajons in 1857. The ratios investigated were unison, octave,
twelfth, and the double octave. (Proc. Am. Acad., ———.)
Crova has described an apparatus for recording Lissajous’s curves
mechanically. It consists of a pendulum of wire with a heavy weight
suspended from the ceiling and carrying a brush dipped in ink. Be-
neath this is acurved table attached to the top of a second pendulum
formed of a rod, vibrating on knife-edges in a plane at right angles to
the first, and carrying an adjustable weight below. The apparatus used
by Crova has an upper pendulum 6.7 meters long vibrating in 2.6 seconds,
and the figures are inscribed in a square 0.25 meter ona side. By burn-
ing a thread which holds the upper pendulum at any particular phase,
the resultant curve is described on the paper covering the curved table.
(J. Phys., May, 1881, x, 211.)
346 _ PHYSICS.
Corva has also suggested the use of a magnet brought near to the
forks, giving Lissajous’s figures by projection, for the purpose of varying
at will the differences of phase. Heuses Mercadier’s diapasons mounted
on Duboseq’s universal support. To vary the period of one of these
he employs a supplementary electromagnet placed between the arms of
the fork, and adjustable by a screw in a plane perpendicular to that of
the branches. (J. Phys., June, 1881, x, 253.)
Koenig has devised an ingenious apparatus for determining with great
precision the vibrations of a normal fork. A clock-work movement of
great nicety so acts on a fork making 128 vibrations as to keep it in
vibration, while at the same time the fork acts as the escapement of the
clock. By comparison with a chronometer the rate of the clock, and
hence the error of the fork, is ascertained. If, for example, the error of
the clock is + 1 second per hour, then the error of the fork is + 53%, or
0.0355. One of the arms of the fork carries a microscope and the other
a steel mirror as counterweight. In this way the movement of the fork
can be compared with that of any other vibrating body, by the optical
method. The apparatus is regulated for 20° C., and the variation from 19°
to 20° causes a change of 0.0143 vibration. Within arange of 5° to 30°
the mean variation per degree centigrade is 0.059 to 0.054 vibration.
Koenig’s C3; fork makes at 20° 512.3548 vibrations, and at 26.29 512
vibrations. The normal French fork, correct at 15°, varies 0.0972 vibra-
tion per degree centigrade. The normal fork of the conservatory makes
870.9 vibrations at 15°, and is correct at 870 vibrations at 27.2°. ( Wied.
Ann, 1880, ix, 394; J. Phys., May 1881, x, 214.)
HEAT.
1. Thermometry and production of heat.
Russell has given a detailed account of the method of Neumann for
calibrating thermometers, which, he says, has very considerable advan-
tages over the methods in common use, and which combines the great-
est simplicity, elegance, and exactness. The columns measured should
be as nearly as possible equal in length to a whole number of intervals
between the points for which the corrections are required, i. e., for
every ten degrees the required columns must be about 10, 20, 30 degrees,
etc. The columns obtained are to be measured with their lower ends
near all the points for which corrections are required. The method of
detaching a suitable column and the details of the method of calibration
are given at length in Russell’s paper. (Am. J. Sci., May, 1881, IL,
xxi, 373.)
Pernet has examined thermometers to ascertain whether the distance
between the boiling point and the freezing point remains constant at
all different stages of secular alteration in volume of the bulbs. He
finds that it does remain constant, provided the freezing point is deter-
mined immediately after the boiling point. On the other hand, if the
PHYSICS. 347
boiling point be determined, and a long interval elapses before the zero
is determined, there is considerable error. If a thermometer is in any
particular molecular state, its reading will probably be in error, the
amount of which may be ascertained by placing it in ice and observing
the error of the zero reading. In order that a thermometer should
read correctly at any particular temperature, it should’ be exposed for a
considerable time to the temperature for which exact measure is desired
or else for a few minutes to a slightly higher temperature. (J. Phys.,
December, 1881, x, 520; Nature, July 28, 1881, xxiv, 294.)
Tait has made an elaborate investigation of the errors caused by
pressure in the deep-sea thermometers of the Challenger expedition.
They were all registering thermometers of the Six pattern, the large
bulb being protected by an exterior shell of glass strong enough to re-
sist the pressure of at least 5,000 fathoms of sea water, or about six tons
weight per square inch, and filled with aleohol. The correction assigned
to them by Captain Davis, of the admiralty, was half a degree Fahren-
heit for every mile of depth. The first result reached was that this
correction needed was not due directly to the pressure, but probably to
the increased temperature produced by the compression. Calculation
showed that the internal capacity of a glass tube with thick walls is re-
duced by about one-thousandth part for each ton weight of pressure.
Hence if such a tube be partly filled with mercury with an index above
it, the index should be displaced by one-thousandth of the length of the
column of mercury for each ton weight of pressure applied to the out-
side of the tube. On testing the question with a thermometer tube, the
mercury column being a meter long, the index was found to be displaced
a millimeter for each ton of pressure. The apparatus employed for pro-
ducing the pressures under which the tests were made, of 11 or 12 tons
per square inch, is described, but the final results have not yet appeared.
(Nature, November, 1881, xxv, 90.)
Waldo has examined with care three standard thermometers con-
structed for him at the Kew observatory. He concludes that between
0° and 100° C, the errors of these thermometers depending on the cali-
bration, are practically insensible. Direct examination of every degree
to detect accidental errors of graduation, requiring about 2,300 separate
micrometer readings, shows that no sensible accidental errors have been
introduced into the graduations of these standards. The corrections re-
quired at the freezing and the boiling points were found to be, as a max-
imum, +0.35 at the freezing and +0.22 at the boiling point of a Fah-
renheit degree. (Am. J. Set., iii, xxi, 57, 1881.) Waldo has also sug-
gested two slight e¢hanges in the construction of the Kew standard
thermometers. As now made the capillary space is continued above
the calibrating chamber. As this causes serious inconvenience from
the lodgment of mercury in it, which is dislodged with great difficulty,
the suggestion is that the bulb extend to the end of the cavity. Since-
it is often desirable to hang these thermometers up, it is convenient to
348 PHYSICS.
have the upper extremity of the tube turned into a ring with its plane
parallel to the enameling in the tube. It is desirable further to have
the kind of glass and the date of filling engraved on the tube. (Nature,
June, 1881, xxiv, 100.)
Marey has contrived a new continuous registering thermometer for
recording the temperature of the body. It consists of a closed brass
tube containing oil and communicating with a Bourdon manometer.
Any change of temperature by altering the internal pressure makes the
curve of the manometer increase or decrease, thus registering the change
by means of an index on a revolving cylinder. The thermometrie bulb
may be at a distance from the recording apparatus, the two being con-
nected by a tube of annealed copper. ‘Two such bulbs may be employed
and applied to different parts of the body, exterior or interior. (Nature,
July 28, 1881, xxiv, 294.)
Brown has devised a modification of the mercurial thermometer by
which temperatures may be electrically registered at a distance. It
was invented for the purpose of ascertaining the temperature of kilns
for drying malt, and works well in practice. An ordinary thermometer
9 inches long with a large bulb and wide stem has platinum wires in-
serted through the walls of the stem every three degrees from 120° to
171° I’., their outer ends being connected with binding screws. The bore
of the tube above the mercury contains glycerin. Another wire of pla-
tinum passes through the bulb and communicates with the mercury. Its
outer end is attached toa binding post by which connection is made
with one pole of a Leclanché battery of two cells, the other pole being
grounded. Near the thermometer is placed a transmitter consisting of
an ebonite ring through which platinum wires pass at equal distances,
their upper ends flush with the surface. An arm revolving by clock-
work, and started by an electro-magnet, touches each of these wires in
succession. As they are severally connected with the thermometer wires
the circuit is closed by those wires with which the mercury is in con-
tact, and a signal is sent down the line, with which the moving arm is
connected, and which may be of any length. By closing the circuit of
a second line wire, the electro-magnet starts the clock-work, and the
traversing arm completes the circuit through a bell as many times as
there are wires immersed in the mereury. This number multiplied by
three and the sum added to 120° gives the temperature. (Nature,
March, 1881, xxiii, 464.)
Langley has given the following calculation: A sunbeam one square
centimeter in section is found in the clear sky of the Allegheny Mount-
ains to bring to the earth in one minute enough heat to warm one gram
of water by 1° C. It would, therefore, if concentrated upon a film of
water one five-hundredth of a millimeter thick, one millimeter wide,
and ten millimeters long, raise it 834° in one second, provided all the
heat could be maintained. And since the specific heat of platinum is
PHYSICS. 349
only 0.0032, a strip of platinum of the same dimensions would, on a simi-
lar supposition, be warmed in one second to 2,605° C., a temperature suf-
ficient to melt it. (Proc. Am. Acad., January, 1881, xvi, 342; Nature,
July, 1881, xxiv, 294.)
Siemens, in a lecture at Glasgow, has considered the question of gas
and electricity as heating agents. The object which he set before him-
self was to prove that, for all ordinary purposes of heating and melting,
gaseous fuel should be resorted to, for the double reason of producing
the utmost economy, and of doing away with the bugbear of the pres-
ent day, the smoke nuisance; but that for the attainment of extreme de-
grees of heat the electric arc possesses advantages unrivaled by any
other source of heat. In support of the economy of gaseous fuel, he
found that under the boiler of the steam-engine only 1,282 units of heat
were obtained from one pound of coal, instead of 10,500, and in the melt-
ing of steel only 1,800 heat units are obtained from 2.5 pounds of coke,
instead of 32,625 units, the actual value. In domestic use the waste is
even greater, but it is not possible to determine it exactly. This waste
led him to devise his smokeless grate, in which a fire of coke is fed with
coal-gas. His office was perfectly warmed by the consumption of 62
cubic feet of gas, and 22 pounds of coke per day of nine hours, at a cost
of 47 pence. The use of gas for heating is greatly to be encouraged.
The electric furnace for melting steel was exhibited, and eight pounds
of files were melted and poured into an ingot before the audience. A
current of 70 amperes, produced by an expenditure of 7-horse power,
and which would give a light of 12,000 candles, sufficed to raise an 8-
inch crucible to a white heat in fifteen minutes, and in a second fifteen
minutes to fuse four pounds of steel. (Nature, February, 1881, xxiii,
327, 351.)
Terquem has studied the constitution of the Bunsen flame, and has
suggested some modifications in the form of the lamp. The ordinary
flame has a hollow cone in the center, so that its heating effect is much
reduced. If more air be admitted for the purpose of remedying this
defect, the flame becomes solid, but very unsteady, and soon strikes down
within the tube. The author has succeeded (1) in making the flame less
unsteady, (2) in mixing with the gas the maximum quantity of air that
the gas requires, without lighting below, and (3) in obtaining this re-
sult with tubes of all diameters up to 4 centimeters, whatever be the
pressure of the gas. These objects are obtained: Ist, by dividing the
opening whence the gas issues into several sectors, by two or more ver-
tical partitions fixed on the sides and passing into the tube; and, 2d, by
placing in the center of the tube asmall plate ora ball which thus makes
the orifice annular. The flame is thus made solid throughout, is very
hot, and the tube can be raised for a decimeter above the gas-jet without
having the flame strike down throughit. (J. Phys., March, 1881, x, 119.)
350 PHYSICS.
Rowland has presented a memoir to the American Academy on the
mechanical equivalent of heat, with subsidiary researches on the mercury
thermometer as compared with the air thermometer, and on the varia-
tion of the specific heat of water. By means of an apparatus contrived
for the purpose, the various mercury thermometers to be afterward
employed were compared with each other and with the air thermometer.
The nature of the glass was found to have a sensible influence on the
graduation of the mereury thermometer, and the differences between
the mercury and the air thermometers, even between 0° and 100°, are
by no means negligible, being some tenths of a degree in the vicinity
of 45°. For determining the mechanical equivalent of heat, Joule’s
method, revolving paddles in water, was employed. <A vertical axis
carrying the paddles was driven, by a petroleum motor, the vanes them-
selves moving in a water calorimeter. The work done by the friction
was measured by the thermometer; that expended by the product of
the number of rotations into the moment of the couple necessary to
prevent the freely suspended calorimeter from turning on its axis. The
number of rotations was recorded on the chronograph; and upon the
same paper an electric contact recorded the instant when the mereury
column reached a given division of the scale. After suitable reductions
and corrections, Rowland finds that the mechanical equivalent of heat
is a function of the temperature, being 429.8 at 5°, 427.4 at 15°, 426.4
at 20°, 425.6 at 30°, and 425.8 at 369. This result the author ascribes to
a diminution of the capacity of water for heat, the specific heat diminish-
ing as the temperature increases. (Proc. Am. Acad.,1879, p.75; J. Phys.,
January, 1881, x, 82.)
2. Expansion and change of state.
De Lucchi has determined the expansion-coefficient of sodium from
the density obtained in petroleum at various temperatures. Thesodium
was cast into a cylinder under naphtha, and before solidification a fine
iron wire was inserted in it, by which it was suspended to the balance.
The coefficient of expansion of the petroleum oil used having been deter-
mined with great care, that of the sodium was obtained by weighing
it first in the cold liquid and then in the same liquid at the required
temperature. rom the data thus given the relative and absolute
coeflicients were readily calculated. The mean coefficient between 0°
and 90° was found to be 0.0002367. The absolute coefficient increases
rapidly with the temperature, being 0.00014178 at 0°, 0.00016570 at 20°,
0.00019586 at 40°, 0.00025160 at 60°, and 0.00036390 at 80°. Near the
fusing point the increase is more rapid. (J. Phys., January, 1881, x, 41.)
Comstock has called attention to a variation in the length of a zinc
bar at the same temperature. The United States Lake Survey pos-
sesses ameter made by Repsold, composed of a bar of steel and one of zine
so arranged as to form a metallic thermometer. It has also a base-
measuring apparatus by the same maker, containing cast-iron tubes four
PHYSICS. 351
meters long, and having in its interior a bar of steel and one of zine,
also forming athermometer. Irregularities in the results of comparisons
of two bars in the same tube led to an examination of the question
whether a zine bar has always the same length at a given temperature.
The comparisons were made with great care, and every precaution taken
to avoid error. The results showed that the zine bar of the standard
meter, heated for 20 hours or more to a temperature of 70° I’., and then
allowed to cool to its original temperature, 36° F’., has a certain length;
that if it is then cooled for 20 hours to a temperature of —5° I’., and
afterward is allowed to return gradually to its original temperature of
36° F., it has a certain other length; and that these lengths at the
same temperature may differ by 15 microns (thousandths ofa millimeter).
The four-meter zine bar heated from 41° to 75° F., and then cooled to
43° I., was increased in length about 29 microns, or 7 microns per
meter for a change of 30° F. (Am. J. Scv., Ill, July, 1881, xxii, 26.)
Miss Walton has studied, in the Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
ogy, the phenomena of liquefaction and cold produced by the mutual
reaction of solid substances. With reference to liquefaction, the follow-
ing conclusions are drawn: (1) as a rule one of the substances should
be hydrated; (2) moistening sometimes take place when salts are mixed
with acids, or with bases, and when acids and bases are mixed, as well
as salts; (3) as with liquids, if metathesis can result, it will take place
with liquefaction; (4) if an insoluble compound is formed on mixing two
salts, a mixture of two others, like the new ones formed, will not in gen-
eral be attended with liquefaction; (5)ifno insoluble compound is formed
metathesis is partial, and it is often indifferent whether two salts be
mixed or their products of interchange; (6) the rule in liquids in regard
to weak and strong acids and bases seems to prevail with solids also;
(7) when oxidation or reduction can take place there is possibility of
liquefaction. On the production of cold the author accepts Ordway’s
view, that the liquefaction of salt by ice is due to the diffusion which
goes on between them, analogous to that between liquids. The mixtures
were made in a calorimeter, and the results showed that the minimum
temperature is not independent of the initial temperature, and that,
moreover, this minimum varies with the proportions taken. The lowest
temperature was given by mixing equivalent weights of manganous
nitrate and sodium carbonate at —2° C., the temperature falling to
—26° C. (Am. J. Sci., September, 1881, IIT, xxii, 206.)
Hagenbach has experimented on the rupturing effects of the freezing
of water. During the severe cold at Bale on the nights of the 10th and
11th December, 1879, and the 20th and 21st January, 1880, he filled
artillery shells with water and observed the phenomena which took
place. The shells were burst, and the ice, afforded free passage, showed
a filamentary structure, like suddenly congealed jets of water. The
water, suffused within theshell, was cooled to alow temperature without
352 PHYSICS.
solidifying ; so that, after rupture of the shell, the congelation took
place. The curious appearances of the jets are figured in the memoir.
(Bib. Univ., 1880, II, iii, 531; J. Phys., April, 1881, x, 181.)
The paradoxical experiment of ‘‘ hot ice” deseribed by Carnelley has
been repeated by many observers in various ways. Lodge has discussed
the matter on general principles, conceding that the ice itself may be
hot, a proposition in which he thinks there is nothing contradictory to
our present knowledge of the properties of matter. Carnelley himself
has published an additional paper, with figures, in which he says: *‘T
have had thin plates of ice attached by their edge at right angles to the
stem of a paper-scale thermometer for a considerable time without being
detached or melting, notwithstanding the temperature was so high that
the paper scale at that portion of the stem to which the ice clung was
charred. In another instance I have had a thin cirewlar piece of ice
attached to the otherwise bare bulb of the thermometer, and though this
piece was very thin, and no more than about 2 millimeters in diameter,
it took fully one minute or more to volatilize, notwithstanding the ther-
mometer indicated a mean temperature of 70° C., and the surrounding
tube was very hot. If the ice were not capable of being heated above
its melting point, a piece as small as that referred to would, I think,
under these circumstances have fused or volatilized almost instantane-
ously.” Herschel has contrived a remarkably simple apparatus for show-
ing the phenomena. <A 30-ounce flask of heavy glass was tightly closed
by arubber cork through which passed a tube three-eighths inch bore
and 2 feet long, bent into the shape of an 8, and the extremity drawn
into a nearly capillary neck. This neck was connected by a rubber
tube with with a similar flask, to which was attached an exhaust pump,
and which was immersed in cold water. Fifteen ounces of water were
then boiled in the flask thus exhausted, and when only 3 ounces re-
mained the small end of the tube was sealed. The U-part of the tube
was put in a freezing mixture tillasleeve of ice was formed eight inches
long. Then the flask was similarly treated, and the tube was heated
first in a water-bath, then by the naked flame. He says: “The whole
tube was heated violently, without for some time appearing to have the
least effect upon the white crust within, notwithstanding the tube was
too hot to be touched.” Dela Riviére and Van Hasselt have repeated
the experiments carefully, with the aid of accurate thermometers. They
find the ice itselfis generally at —7° C., though when the heating is very
strong it may rise to0°. They found that the result could easily be
obtained with naphthalene. Hannay has constructed an apparatus,
from ordinary laboratory materials, with which he has examined the phe-
nomena very critically. He performed the crucial experiment of placing
a bulb containing frozen water and open to the air, inside the mass of
ice within the exhausted tube. The ice within the bulb did not melt
even when the tube round the ice in vacuo was raised to the point of
softening. The results of McLeod, Lothar Meyer, Boutlerow, Peters-
PHYSICS. 353
son, and Young are to the same purpose. (Nature, 1881, xxiii, 264, 288,
341, 383, 504; xxiv, 4, 28, 77, 113, 167, 239; Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., April,
1881, xiv, 718.)
Chandler Roberts and Wrightson have determined the density of
melted bismuth by means of the oncosimeter, an instrument devised by
the latter gentleman. It is composed of a ball of the metal whose den-
sity in the melted state is to be studied, or of a metal less fusible. It is
suspended at the extremity of a spring and is completely immersed in
the fused metal. The difference, either positive or negative, between its
weight and the upward pressure when in the liquid is measured by the
lengthening or shortening of the spring, and is registered by a lever on
a rotating cylinder. The value of this difference at the moment of im-
mersion, before the ball has had time to heat, gives data for the calcu-
lation of the specific gravity of the liquid, that of the ball having been
determined. The authors find for the specific gravity of melted bismuth
10.055, that of solid bismuth being 9.82; for iron in fusion 6.84; in the
pasty state 6.53; and cold 6.95. (Phil. Mag., April, 1881, V. xi, 295.)
Nies and Winkelmann have investigated the volume changes of vari-
ous metals in solidifying. Of eight metals examined, six, viz, tin, zine,
bismuth, antimony, iron, and copper, were proved to undergo expansion
in passing from the liquid to the solid state. For three of the metals
approximate values for the amount of this expansion were obtained.
Tin showed an expansion of 0.7 per cent., zinc 0.2, and bismuth 3. Two
metals, lead and cadmium, gave doubtful results. The authors have
reason to believe that they also expand in solidifying. If this be so,
the rule would appear to be a general one for the metals. (Nature, April,
1881, xxiii, 616.)
Fornioni has described an evaporimeter with constant level. It con-
sists of an oblong wooden case with a brass spiral descending into it
from a micrometric screw. The spiral,carries at its lower end a small
glass vessel, which acts as feeder. A glass siphon extends outward
horizontally from the feeder and has at its outer end a small cup in
which the evaporation takes place. As the water evaporates in the cup
the feeder is lightened and rises by the action of the spiral, thus keep-
ing the level constant. A fine layer of oil in the feeder prevents evapo-
ration from its water-surface. There are guides to control the vertical
movements of the feeder, which moreover are indicated by means of a
weighted thread affecting an external index ona disk. The gradua-
ion of the instrument is expressed in millimeters of the height of water
in the evaporating vessel. (Nature, August, 1881, xxiv, 387.)
Van der Mensbrugghe has calculated that if evaporation subdivides
the liquid of seas into spherules of, say, +5355 millimeter in diameter,
each kilogram of water presents a collection of spherules whose total
potential energy is equivalent to 450 kilogram-meters, 7. e., more than
& million times that of a sphere of compact water also weighing a kilo-
S. Mis. 109-——23
354 PHYSICS.
gram. The potential energy of liquid surfaces plays thus an impor-
tant part in the great cycle-operations of nature, of which the author
gives some instances. (Nature, January, 1881, xxiii, 278.)
Wiillner and Grotrian have made observations which seem to prove
that the specific volume of vapors is independent of the size of the space
in which it is determined. They confirm Herwig’s result, that vapors
always undergo precipitation before reaching the so-called maximum
tension. Moreover, the tension at which condensation begins is found
to have a relation to the maximum tension which depends on the nature
of the liquid but is nearly independent of the temperature. Experi-
ments to find the degree to which vapors must be compressed to give the
maximum tension showed that there is no maximum tension in the sense
hitherto accepted; but that the tension of saturated vapors, even when
- in contact with an excess of liquid, is perceptibly increased by compres-
sion. (Wied. Ann., 1880, II, xi, 545; Nature, February, 1881 xxiii, 307.)
Wright has contrived a simple and convenient form of apparatus for
the distillation of mercury in vacuo, which is an improvement upon
those of Weinhold and Weber for the same purpose. A straight piece
of heavy glass tube, 5 or 6 millimeters interior diameter and rather more
than 76 centimeters long, is enlarged at one end to an oval bulb 85 mil-
limeters diameter and 120 millimeters long. ‘To the upper end of this a
tube 15 millimeters interior diameter is joined, first rising 25 millimeters,
then inclined towards the bulb 130 millimeters, then sloping from the
bulb for 300 millimeters, and finally joined to a straight vertical tube 1
millimeter in diameter and 90 centimeters long. At the junction is a
lateral tube for connecting with the air-pump. The metal to be dis-
tilled is placed in a cistern beneath the 76-centimeter tube; the appara-
tus is exhausted, by means of a Sprengel pump, until the mercury from
the cistern reaches the bulb. Then the tube to the pump is sealed and
heat applied to the bulb very gradually. The vapor soon passes the
bend at the top and condenses beyond it, running down into the 90-
centimeter tube. At the bottom this tube is bent upward, a small bulb
is blown on it, andit is then bent horizontally. As the mercury falls in
the tube it maintains the exhaustion, the tube acting like a Sprengel
pump. The distillation is rapid, from 400 to 450 grams per hour being
easily obtained pure in this manner. (Am. Jd. Sci., December, 1881, III,
xxii, 479.)
3. Conduction and radiation.
Christiansen has employed the following simple method for some ex-
periments on heat conduction which he has made: Three round copper
plates were placed one above another and separated by small pieces of
glass. Into each plate a hole was bored radially, into which a ther-
mometer was inserted. The lowest plate rested on a brass vessel,
through which cold water is conducted. On the top plate rests a brass
vessel, through which warm water circulates. Through holes in the
PHYSICS. ou
two upper plates, having copper stoppers, the intervals between the
plates may be filled with fluid. Air was first used,and the author
proved that its conductivity for heat increases with the temperature.
The ratio of the conductivity of air to that of liquids was studied, the
liquid being placed in the lower space. Experiments were also made
with dry and wet plate glass and also with marble. The author points
out the applicability of his apparatus to measure resistances, the po-
tential being measured instead of temperature. (Nature, October, 1831,
xxiv, 593.)
Crookes has made a series of experiments on the conduction of heat
in highly rarefied air. An accurate thermometer with a pretty open
scale was inclosed in a 14-inch glass globe, the bulb of the thermometer
being in the center and the stem being inclosed in the tube leading
from the globe to the pump. The globe was brought to a uniform tem-
perature in a vessel of water at 25° and was then suddenly plunged
into a large vessel of water at 65°. The number of seconds required
for the thermometer to rise from 25° to 50° was recorded. At 760 mil-
limeters pressure, 121 seconds was required; at 1 millimeter, 150 sec-
onds ; at 620 M (millionths of an atmosphere), 162 seconds; at 117 M,
183 seconds; at 59 M, 203 seconds; at 23 M, 227 seconds; at 12 M, 252
seconds; at 5 M, 322 seconds; and at 2 M,412 seconds. Hence there is
not only anotable diminution in the rate at which heat is conveyed across
the space in the bulb, but the reduction of pressure from 5 M to 2 M
produces twice as much retardation in the rate as is obtained by the
whole exhaustion from 760 millimeters to 1 millimeter. The author
thinks, therefore, that in such vacua as exist in planetary space the loss
of heat would be exceedingly slow. (Nature, January, 1881, 234, xxiii.)
Langley has devised an apparatus for the detection and measurement
of radiant heat, which is a thousand times more sensitive than the ther-
mopile, and which is capable of indicating a change in temperature of
Tove Of a degree centigrade. He calls it an actinic balance or bo-
lometer. It consists of two disks of ebonite, 30 millimeters diameter and
3 millimeters thick, each with a concentric opening in the center 8 milli-
meters square. On the face of each disk stripsof iron alittle less than
0.5 millimeter wide and about 0.004 millimeter thick cross the opening
like a grating, those on one disk coming opposite the intervals in the
other. These twenty-nine strips, of which fifteen are on one disk and
fourteen on the other, are arranged in two sets, fifteen in one and
fourteen in the other. The first set, eight on one disk and seven on the
other, are placed centrally ; the second set is divided, one-half being on
each side of the other set. The strips in each set are all connected
together in series so that an electric current would traverse them suc-
cessively. The two disks are fastened together and placed in a hollow
cylinder of ebonite, lined with copper, and provided with suitable dia-
phragms. Each of the sets of strips is made one side of a Wheatstone’s
356 PHYSICS.
bridge, and the current from one or more Daniell cells is sent through
them. When the two currents are equal the needle of the galvanometer
is unaffected. But when radiant energy falls on one of the systems
of strips and not on the other, the current passing through the first is
diminished by the increased resistance of the metal due to the rise in its
temperature. As the second remains unaltered, the needle is deflected.
Moreover, owing to the thinness of the strips, they take up and part with
their heat far more promptly than the thermopile, thus giving a much
ereater rapidity of working. Results are given showing the extreme
sensitiveness and reliability of the instrument. For the first time it
has been possible to make actual measures of the distribution of heat
in the diffraction spectrum. This was done by Langley with the bolom-
eter, using a Rutherford plate of 681 lines to the millimeter, ruled on
speculum metal. The spectrum was 20 centimeters long and 8 milli-
meters wide, so that the balance received nearly homogenous rays.
The extremely minute amount of heat received was found sufficient to
give a galvanometer deflection of some hundred divisions; and this
where thermopiles have failed to detect anything. The deflections ob-
served for different wave-lengths were: for y=.00035, a=12; y=.0004,
a=55; y=.0005, a=207; y=.0006, a=246; y=.0007, a=198 ; y=.0008,
O12 9-47 — 0009 ja— 380). 7.0010; a0) y=.0011, a=41. The max-
imum deflection for heat, then 246, corresponds to a wave-length of .0006,
that of D being .00059, giving the conclusion that the heat maximum in a
normal spectrum is not in the ultra-red, as has been supposed, but is in
orange, near D, the heat and light curves agreeing very closely. The
value of the instrument is obvious. (Am. J. Sci., March, 1881, III, xxi,
187; Proc. Am. Acad., January, 1881, xvi, 342; Nature, November, 1881,
xxv, 14.)
Puluj has devised an ingenious experiment to prove that radiant
matter consists of particles separated from the electrode by the elec-
trical action. The cathode of a vacuum tube was covered with chalk.
It exhibits phosphorescence of an orange-yellow color, while in a short
time the wall of the tube becomes covered by a very delicate layer of
chalk without losing its clearness and transparency. The deposit phos-
phoresces like chalk, and has led to the suggestion which he makes,
that the phosphorescence of a yellow color observed on metallic ca-
thodes is caused by the phosphorescence of the oxides covering the
metal. (Nature, March, 1881, xxiii, 442.)
The photophone and its results, discovered by Graham Bell and
Tainter (see report for 1880), have awakened a very general interest.
Rayleigh has given a discussion of the question whether the unelectrical
sounds produced by the simple impact of intermittent radiation upon
thin plates of various substances can be accounted for by the heat pro-
duced. He finds that if a plate of iron 6 centimeters in diameter be
exposed to an intermittent beam of sunlight at 250 vibrations per sec-
PHYSICS. oD
ond, the displacement at its center would be five-millionths of a centi-
meter. Since he found sound audible whose amplitude was less than
half this value, he concludes that at present there is no reason for dis-
carding the obvious explanation that the sounds in question are due to
the bending of the plates under unequal heating. (Nature, January,
1881, xxiii, 274.)
Jamieson has devised a simple form of selenium cell, made of a piece
of plate glass or a glass tube, an inch in diameter and 3 inches long,
upon which are wound two parallel strands of No. 25 wire. Vitreous
selenium is melted into the spaces between the wires, and then annealed
in the usual way. One of these cells had a resistance of 5,740 ohms in
the dark and 3,450 in the light.. An annular cell, placed outside the
tube of a swinging flame, transmitted its note perfectly to the tele-
pbone, and, by placing a flat cell before the gas-flame of a Koenig man-
ometric capsule, and talking into the tube on the outer sound of the
membrane, conversation could be carried on. (Nature, February, 1881,
xxiii, 354.)
S. P. Thompson has suggested to the London Physical Society the use
of a conical instead of a parabolic reflector for the photophone. From
Adams’s law, that the change in the resistance of selenium is directly as
the square root of the illuminating power, he finds that the change in
resistance of a cell will vary proportionally to its linear dimensions;
hence, selenium cells should be as large as possible, and the light should
be distributed over them uniformly. His cell was constructed of a slate
cylinder with a double screw-thread wound with wire and filled with
selenium. (Phil. Mag., April 1881, V, xi, 286; Nature, February, 1881,
Xxili, 331.)
Tomlinson has found that a stick of annealed selenium gave twice the
deflection when coated with shellac varnish that it did when in its nat-
‘ural state. (Nature, March, 1881, xxiii, 457.)
Tyndall has presented to the Royal Society a paper on the action of
an intermittent beam of radiant heat upon gaseous matter, giving the
results of the use of the photophonic method to test the absorptive ac-
tion of aqueous vapor for heat—a subject long in controversy. The ex-
periments were made by converging the intermittent beam to a focus
within a flask containing the vapor to be examined. Sulphuric ether,
formic ether, and acetic ether gave loud musical tones, while those from
chloroform and carbon disulphide were barely perceptible, corroborating
his previous experiments. The power of amylene, ethyl] and methyl
iodides, and benzene vapors to produce musical tones appeared to be
accurately expressed by their ability to absorb radiant heat. Gases
gave the same result. Turning now to water, a small quantity was
heated in a flask to a point near boiling; in the intermittent beam it
gave a powerful musical sound, even when no haze was present. Cool-
ing to 10° C. did not prevent the sound from being loud, and even ordi-
nary air cooled in a freezing mixture for a quarter of an hour gave
358 PHYSICS.
distinct sounds. In carefully dried air only the feeblest sound was
heard, but a puff of breath instantly restored its power to absorb.
Many beautiful and striking experiments are deseribed in the paper.
(Proc. Roy. Soc., January 13, 1881, xxxi, 307; Nature, February, 1881,
xxiii, 374.)
Merecadier has studied photophone phenomena with great ability,
and has given the name radiophony to the general subject. In the first
part of his memoir he describes his apparatus, and, from the results ob-
tained with it, concludes: (1) that radiophony does not appear to be an
effect produced by the mass of the receiving plate vibrating transversely
as a whole like an ordinary vibrating plate; (2) that the nature of the
molecules of the receiver and their mode of aggregation does not appear
to play a predominant part in the production of sounds; (3) that the
radiophonic phenomena seem to result principally from an action exerted
at the surface of the receiver; (4) that radiophonie sounds result from
the direct action of the radiations upon the receiver; and (5) the radio-
phonic effects are produced principally by red and ultra-red rays; that
is to say, by rays which consist of long waves.* In the second part of
his paper Mercadier gives the experimental evidence that the substance
in which the vibration is produced is the layer of air in contact with the
walls of the receivers. The receiver used is a glass tube, open or not, at
one end, and the other connected by a tube of rubber with a small
acoustic cornet. Within the tube is a semi-cylinder of some flexible
material, paper, mica, copper, zinc, platinum, aluminum, ete., smoked
on both sides. Since the sound is the same, whatever the material, the
conclusion is obvious that itis the air condensed by the lampblack
which vibrates. He says: The layer of air condensed on the walls of
the receiver, especially when they are smoked or covered with a sub-
stance highly absorbent for heat, is alternately heated and cooled by
the intermittent radiations. From this, periodicajand regular dilatations
and condensations take place and communicate a vibratory motion to
the neighboring gaseous layers, which, moreover, may themselves also
vibrate directly under the same influence. If a long tube of glass be
taken, furnished with a piston at the end of a rod, a piece of smoked
mica be placed in it, and the other end be connected with a cornet, then
whenever an intermittent beam falls on the mica a sound is heard, which
may be made a maximum by moving the piston. Further motion shows
« second and a third maximum, thus discovering the nodes in the vi-
brating air column. This apparatus the author calls a thermophone.
The tube receiver, closed at the lower end, is excellent for experiments
upon gases and vapors, in which, however, the author was anticipated
by Tyndall. In the third paper the means which Mercadier used for
the production of singing and speech are described. This was presented
to the French Academy the same day that Bell read his memoir on the
same subject to the National Academy. (J. Phys., February, April,
June, 1881, x, 53, 147, 234; Nature, February, 1881, xxiii, 360.)
PHYSICS. ' 359
Preece has made some experiments on the conversion of sonorous
vibrations into radiant energy. The conclusion to which he came was
that the disk itself did not vibrate at all, but that the effect is essen-
tially due to the expansion and contraction of the air contained in the
air space behind the disk, the sonorous effects being materially assisted
by coating the sides of the containing vessel with a highly absorbent
substance, such as the carbon deposited by burning camphor. (Proce.
Roy. Soc., March, 1881, xxxi, 506; Nature, March, 1881, xxiii, 496.)
In a second memoir, which was presented to the National Academy
of Sciences April 21, 1881, Graham Bell has given an account of the fur-
ther researches made by Tainter and himself on the production of sound
by radiant energy. While in Paris, in the fall of 1880, a new form of
the experiment occurred to Bell which would enable him to test the
question whether sonorousness under the influence of intermittent light
is not a property common to allmatter. Preliminary experiments were
made, and were so promising that they were communicated to the French
Academy on the 11th of October. On the 2d of November he wrote to
Tainter, in Washington, as follows: ‘Place the substance to be experi-
mented with ina glass test-tube; connect arubber tube with the mouth
ot the test-tube, placing the other end of the pipe to the ear; then focus
the intermittent beam on the substance in the tube.” In January, on
returning to Washington, Bell found that Tainter had made the experi-
ments on a large number of substances, and had found that cotton-
wool, worsted, silk, and fibrous materials generally produced much
louder sounds than hard, rigid bodies like crystals or than diaphragms.
Black worsted giving so good a result, he desired to try black cotton-
wool; but having none at hand he made some by mixing some lamp-
black with the cotton. |The effect was so marked that he tried lamp-
black alone, with entire success. It was the loudest. material yet used,
and was immediately utilized in the construction of an articulating
photophone in place of the selenium receiver. The transmitter as well
as the receiver had a diaphragm 5 centimeters in diameter, and the
distance between the two was 40 meters. No heliostat or condensing
mirror was used; and words spoken into the transmitter in a low tone
of voice were readily audible in the lampblacked receiver. With refer-
ence to Preece’s experiments, Bell maintains that the disks themselves
vibrate, as a loud sound is heard from a Blake transmitter when the
intermittent beam is focused on its disk. An ingenious experiment
devised by Tainter seemed toconfirm this beyond dispute. Experiments
with liquids and with gases are recorded; and two receivers where lamp-
black is used in place of selenium are described. Valuable methods and
results are given on the measurement of the sonorous effects produced
by different substances, and also upon the nature of the rays that produce
them. Bell adopts Mercadier’s name, radiophone, and has studied the
spectrum to determine the active rays. The instrument employed he
calls a spectrophone, and the results obtained with it are given in a
360 PHYSICS.
series of spectra by which the substances used can be identified, thus
forming a true acoustic spectrum analysis. (Am. J. Sci., June, 1881,
IH, xxi, 463; OC. R., xcii, 1206; Phil. Mag., June, 1881, V, xi, 510; Na-
ture, May, 1881, xxiv, 42.)
In a third paper, Graham Bell has described a modification of Wheat-
scone’s microphone, and pointed out its applicability to radiophonie re-
searches. Preece’s failure to detect the vibration of the diaphragm was
due to the fact that he used a Hughes form of the instrument, in which
the points of support are too far from the center where the maximum
vibration exists. In 1827, Wheatstone invented a microphone, consist-
ing of a metallic diaphragm, to the middle of which a stiff wire was
rigidly attached. By inclosing this in a case somewhat like that of a
telephone, the wire projecting through the end of the handle anda
tube for hearing being fitted to the opposite end, the surface of the
radiophonic diaphragm may be explored. When it rested on the center
of this diaphragm a clear musical note was heard, showing that the —
diaphragm itself vibrated. (Am. J. Sci., August, 1881, III, xxii, 87.)
Ayrton and Perry, observing the facility with which the invisible
rays which affected the selenium in Bell’s photophone passed through
ebonite, concluded that these rays would be refracted by an ebonite
prism. This conjecture they were able to confirm experimentally.
Moreover, by suitably arranging the apparatus, the prism having a re-
fracting angle of 279.5, they succeeded in measuring the index of re-
fraction for these rays, which they found to be 1.7. This result accords
with that obtained by Jellett from the polarizing angle, 1.611, and with
that obtained when the light is very intense, so that the red rays can
be faintly seen, 1.66. (Phil. Mag., Sept., 1881, V, xii, 196; Nature, 1881,
xxiii, 519; J. Phys., November, 1881, x, 507.)
4, Specific heat.
Mallet has described a simple form of calorimeter for determining
the specific heat of solids and liquids with small quantities of material.
It consists of a cylinder of vulcanite 105 millimeters long and 64 milli-
meters inside diameter, 1.5 millimeters thick, closed at the ends by
round plates of the same material screwed on. Within this is an inner
cylinder, also of vulcanite, 22 millimeters in interior diameter, passing
closely through a hole in one of the end caps and screwing into the
other. The space between the two is filled with vulcanite shavings.
Both ends of the inner tube are closed by corks, through one of which
passes the stem of a mercurial thermometer, graduated to tenths. A
diaphragm with a hole 7 millimeters in diameter in its center is fixed
in the inner tube 47 millimeters from one end, and carries three plati-
num wires so bent as to hold a small platinum cylinder firmly. This
cylinder, intended to contain the substance for experiment, is 28.5 mil-
limeters long by 12.5 millimeters diameter, weighing with its cover 6.
grams. The outer cylinder is mounted on trunnions and supported on
PHYSICS. - 361
a wooden frame. <A weighed quantity of pure mercury—generally 220
grams—is placed in the inner cylinder. By moving the whole around
on its trunnions, this mercury may be poured from one part of the
inner cylinder to the other, and the temperature thus equalized. The
substance whose specific heat is to be determined is placed in the plati-
num cylinder, which is then heated in a special apparatus to the tem-
perature of boiling water, transferred rapidly to the calorimeter, and
this moved on its trunnions until the temperature ceases to rise. The
highest point being noted, the specific heat is easily caleulated. The
various precautions necessary, and the methods for determining the
constants of the instrument, are given in the paper. (Am. Chem. J.,
February, 1881, ii, 361.)
Wiillner has examined critically the formulas in use for calculating
specific heats, especially that portion of these formulas which involve the
corrections. He finds that the inexactness of the ordinary formula arises
from the fact that it does not take account of the condition that during
cooling the calorimeter value is increased by the product of the weight
and specific heat of the substance, and that the change in the magni-
tude of the radiating surface is neglected. He has calculated the specifie
heat of water by the new formula now derived, and finds that the equa-
tion k=1+ 0.000425¢ represents this constant at ©. (Wied. Ann., 1880,
II, x, 284.)
Pfaundler has published a criticism on this paper, in which he points
out certain errors of experiment and assumption. The process of Reg-
nault, as modified by Berthelot, is the most exact known, and is free from
all objection. In this the variation of temperature during the cooling
of the body is measured at regular intervals; then the calorimeter con-
taining the substance is brought back to the initial temperature and
made to pass through all the temperatures observed in the first experi-
ment, and the loss of heat is measured. (Wied. Ann., 1880, II, xi, 237 ;
J. Phys., January, 1881, x, 43, 47. See also Berthelot, J. Phys., Febru-
ary, 1881, x, 79.)
Latschinoff has modified the lecture experiment proposed by Tyndall
for showing the inequality of the specific heats of solids. Since the den-
sities of the materials are not the same, the surfaces of various spheres
of the same weight are not equal, and an error is introduced. This the
author obviates by employing hollow spheres of the same weight and
the same diameter. In place of a plate of wax, the author places the
heated spheres on the surface of a transparent jelly of gelatin, and notes
their unequal penetration. (J. Phys.-Chim. Soc. Russe, xii, 131; J. Phys.,
September, 18381, x, 418.)
LIGHT.
1. Production and velocity.
Michelson has made a research to test the truth of Fresnel’s theory,
that the ether which is inclosed in optical media partakes of the motion
362 PHYSICS.
of these media to an extent depending upon their indices of refraction.
The principle of the experimental method is simple: If a ray of light
coming from a direction parallel with the earth’s motion in space be made
to interfere with a second ray coming from a direction 90° from this,
the former ray will have traveled 0.04 of a wave-length farther or less
far than the latter, according as the direction of its motion coincides with
or is opposed to the motion of the earth. Now, upon rotating the two
rays 90° in their own plane, the second one will now have a longer path
by 0.04 wave-length, making a total change in the position of the inter-
ference bands of 0.08 wave-length, a quality easily measurable. The
apparatus used is described and illustrated in the memoir. The results
go to show that there is no displacement of the interference bands, thus
contradicting the hypothesis of a stationary ether, and disproving the
explanation of aberration hitherto generally accepted. (Am. Jour. Sci.,
August, 1881, ILI, xxii, 120.)
J. J. Thomson has given an ingenious explanation of the green phos-
phorescence observed in Crooke’s tubes. It appears on the inner surfaces
of the exhausted glass tubes whenever they are exposed to the so-called
molecular bombardment of particles projected from the negative elec-
trode. Thomson points out, first, that as predicted by Maxwell, and
verified by Rowland, a moving electrified particle acts as a current of
electricity and possesses an (electro-magnetic) vector-potential. Now,
where such an electrified particle strikes a glass surface and rebounds,
its change of velocity is accompanied by a change of vector-potential,
and the glass against which it impinges and rebounds will be subjected
to rapid changes in electromotive force. But by Maxwell’s theory of
light this is precisely what happens when a ray of light falls on it; and,
therefore, it phosphoresces as it would under the impact of an actual ray
of light. (Nature May 19, 1881, xxiv, 66,.)
Tréve has shown the curious fact that apparently, when light from
a natural or artificial source is admitted through a slit, more light
passes when the slit is horizontal than when itis vertical. Photographs
were taken behind slits in various positions to prove that the phenom-
enon is not an illusion of the eye. (Nature, April, 1881, xxiii, 616.)
Young and Forbes have employed Fizeau’s toothed-wheel method to
determine the velocity of light. Instead of a.single reflector at a dis-
tance, two were used, one a quarter of a mile behind the other. Two
rays were also used, which were observed when equally bright, a point
reached by adjusting the speeds of the toothed wheels. The general
result reached was that the velocity of the light of an electric lamp is
187,273 miles per second in vacuo. Noticing one day that one of the
stars looked reddish, the other bluish, the former increasing in intensity
with the speed of the wheel, the latter decreasing, the authors concluded
that the blue rays must move faster than the red ones, and instituted
direct experiments to test the question. As a mean of 37 determina-
PHYSICS. 363
tions they conclude that blue travels faster than red by 1.8 per cent. of
the whole velocity. Since their result for the mean velocity is greater
than that of Cornu or Michelson, Forbes draws the conclusion that it is
because the electric light is blue, and blue travels faster than red.
(Proce. Roy. Soc., May, 1881; Nature, June, July, 1881, xxiv, 135, 303.)
Rayleigh has discussed the above results, raising the question whether
the velocity determined by the toothed wheelis really the group-velocity
or the wave-velocity as the above authors have supposed it to be, since
they give the difference between blue and red. He concludes that the
group-velocity is whatthe method determines. The accordance between
the physical and astronomical methods seems to show that there can be
no such difference in the velocities of the extreme rae as 1.8 per cent.
(Nature, August, 1881, xxiv, 382.)
Michelson has Rapiened a note in which he gives his opinion that if
the velocity of the red and blue rays differed by as much as one-tenth
of one per cent. the image of the slit in his experiments would not have
been white, but would have been spread out into aspectrum. He caleu-
lates that, as the total displacement in his experiments was 133 milli-
meters, a difference of velocity of 1.8 per cent. between the blue and
red rays would have given a spectrum 2.4 millimeters in length. No
such spectrum was observed. (Nature,September, 1881, xxiv, 460.)
Cornu has described several forms of photometric and spectrometric
apparatus, which he has used in his researches. They all are founded
upon a property of lenses discovered and utilized by Bouguer ; 7%. e., that
the focal image, as to form,-is independent of the size and shape of the
aperture of the lens, and as to intensity is proportional to the surface of
this aperture. One form of the apparatus he calls a micro-photometer
and another form a spectro-photometer. (J. Phys., May, 1881, x, 189.)
2. Reflection and refraction.
Jacob has suggested a modified form of scale for use with reflecting
instruments generally. The graduated paper scale is trimmed off along
the lower edge of the divisions, and placed on a plate of glass, finely
ground, below the paper. The reflected image is received on the back of
the glass,and the coincidence of the center wire with the seale divisions
may be observed more accurately than by the common method. The
lamp and slit are placed on one side, and the beam reflected to the
galvanometer mirror by a right-angled prism. (Nature, April, 1881,
xxiii, 527.)
Bertin has published an extended memoir upon magic mirrors. After
an introduction describing these mirrors, he gives a history of their im-
portation into Europe and of the experiments made with them; then
follows the theories proposed to account for their action, the experiments
of Govi confirming Person’s theory, the artificial production of these
mirrors by himself and Duboseq, and some exceptional effects which
have been observed. (Ann. Chim. Phys., April, 1881, V, xxii, 472.)
364 PHYSICS.
Laurent Las succeeded in producing artificially magie mirrors of sil-
vered glass. ‘Two kinds have been made; one made magic by compress-
ing air behind it or by curving it ina frame, the characters being engraved
on it; and another, of any form whatever, heated in a particular way,
by means of a metallic stamp having the characters upon it. If the
layer of silver is thin, the characters are bright if the silver is on the
side opposite to the screen, but are dark if the silvered side is toward
the screen. (J. Phys., November, 1881, x, 474.)
Klein has observed a complete change in the opticalimage of boracite
by heating it. The boundary lines of the optical fields prove variable
with temperature, and often wholly disappear, perhaps reappearing in
quite different places. He concludes that this mineral does not owe its
origin to a twin-like formation of parts of lower symmetry, but is regu-
lar, and produces simple individuals; and the optical properties, appar-
ently in sharp contradiction to this, are really due to tensions produced
in growth. These divide the crystal into parts of different tension of
which the stronger sometimes suppress the weaker for certain tempera-
tures and positions of the crystal. Analcime shows similar properties.
(Nature, June, 1881, xxiv, 112.)
Cassani has devised a neat optical illusion produced with mirrors.
An observer stands opposite a concave mirror supported at a slight
slant, at a distance greater than the radius of curvature, and receiving
no other light than that reflected from his face, which is illuminated by
a dark lantern. A small plane mirror is placed in a position nearer the
concave mirror than the observer and sloping in the opposite direction,
concealed from his view. On looking obliquely upward the observer
seems to see a plane mirror larger than the other, with his direct image
in it. The illusion is more complete if the mirror has an ornamented —
frame. (Nature, February, 1881, xxiii, 372.)
Montigny has proposed a method for measuring the index of refrac-
tion of liquids, founded upon the apparent displacement which the image
of a body immersed in a transparent liquid undergoes when the light-
rays reaching the eye issue oblique to the horizontal surface of the
liquid. (Bull. Acad. Blelege, U1, xviii, ; J. Phys., January, 1881,
x, 50.)
Hurion has suggested an apparatus for simplifying the method of
determining indices of refraction by means of Talbot’s fringes, proposed
by Mascart. Its object is to vary the level of liquid in one of two com-
partments, so as to displace the fringes by a known value. The displace-
ment and change of thickness being known, the index is easily calcu-
lated. (J. Phys., April, 1881, x, 154.)
Damien has measured the index of refraction of water when in a state
of surfusion, by the ordinary method, with the prism. The three hydro-
gen lines were measured. From the figures obtained he concludes that
PHYSICS. 365
the index of refraction of water continues to increase below zero, though
the density diminishes. (J. Phys., May, 1881, x, 198.)
- Long has determined the indices of refraction of eighteen compound
ethers of the C,H»,O, series, at various temperatures, from 18° to 25°
C. As a mean, the increase of the index for 1° C. is .00045. From the
results, he calculates the specific refractive energy Wael and the mole-
d
eular refractive energy M C+ ): Comparing together the opti-
eal constants of the butyrates and isobutyrates, it is found that they are
lower in every case in the iso-compounds than the normals. The change
in molecular refraction for CH, is found to be, as a mean, 7.69. From
this the atomic refraction of oxygen is obtained, 5.77. (Am. J. Sci.,
April, 1881, III, xxi, 279.)
Dufet has studied the variation which takes place in the indices of
refraction of gypsum with temperature, and finds that the three princi-
pal indices diminish as the temperature increases by quantities relatively
considerable, but very unequal, compared with each other. (J. Phys.,
December, 1881, x, 513.)
Gladstone has communicated to the Royal Society a paper on the re-
fraction equivalentsof carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen in organic
compounds. The refraction sare of farcent when each of its four
bonds is satisfied by some other element, does aot exceed 5; when one
bond is satisfied by carbon and the others by other elements, the value
is 5; when three bonds are satisfied by carbon, as in benzene, the value
is 6.0 or 6.1; and, finally, when all four of its bonds are satisfied by car-
bon atoms having the value 6, the carbon atom has its highest equiva-
Jent, 8.8. Hydrogen has only one refraction equivalent, 1.5. Oxygen
has two—3.4 where it is doubly united to a single atom, but 2.8 where it
joins two other atoms. Nitrogen also has two values, 4.1 in the cyan-
ides, and 5.1 in organic bases and amides. (Nature, February, 1881,
xxii, 379.)
Crova has made a study of the aberrations produced by prisms, and
of their influence upon spectroscopic observations. In the first portion
he discusses the conditions necessary to obtain a pure spectrum with a
minimum of curvature in its lines. He recommends: Ist, a short slit
and short prism; and, 2d, a collimator of small diameter and of long
focus to increase the sharpness of the lines, and a telescope also of long
focus to increase the magnification. The second part considers the cy-
lindrical aberration of prisms, and the third the influence of the elliptical
polarization introduced by reflecting prisms, and its correction. (Ann.
Chim. Phys., April, 1881, V, xxii, 513.)
Anderson has donivivedl an apparatus called a emer optometer,
the object of which is to find experimentally the amount of prismatic
power and the distance of the center of the lenses which are required
in any individual case to so bend the pencils of rays coming to the eyes
366 PHYSICS.
that they appear to diverge from a point corresponding to the new focal
distance of the eyes provided with the spectacles. (Nature, October,
1881, xxiv, 618.)
Gariel has described a lens of variable focus contrived by Dr. Cusco,
for illustrating accommodation in the eye by a variation of the curvature
of the crystalline lens. A metallic drum has its ends closed by plates of
glass uniform in thickness. A rubber tube communicates with the in-
terior at one end and has an elastic bag at the other. The whole being
filled with water, positive or negative pressure produces at will a convex
or a concave lens. (J. Phys., February, 1881, x, 76.)
Crova has suggested the use of a pair of lenses one plano-concave and
the other plano-convex, of the same focus, placed in the path of the rays
aud separable from each other by a rack-work, for the purpose of varying
the magnitude of an image on the screen, when the distance between
this and the lantern is fixed. (J. Phys., April, 1881, x, 158.)
Pickering, in a paper read before the American Academy, has sug-
gested the mounting of a large telescope horizontally, at right angles to
the meridian, with a plane reflector inclined 45° to its axis, in front of
it. He discusses the possibility of this arrangement, and points out the
large number of advantages it would have in sweeping for new objects, in
obtaining measures of position, in spectroscopy, and in photometry.
(Proc. Am. Acad., April, 1881, p. 364.)
3. Dispersion and color.
Thollon has investigated mathematically the passage of light through
a prism, and deduces from his equations the proposition that for every
prism there is an angle of minimum resolving power. Turther examina-
tion shows that for a certain incidence there will be a minimum of reso-
lution, 7. e., an incidence at which the lines are least well defined, and that
at another incidence there will be a minimum of dispersion; these two
incidences being symmetrically related to the angle of incidence corre-
sponding to minimum deviation. A means of verifying these conclu-
sions experimentally is given. (Natwre, February, 1881, xxiii, 397.)
Lippich has examined the question whether it is more advantageous
to increase the dispersion or to increase the magnifying power of the
telescopes of a spectroscope. He concludes that it is better to increase
the dispersion only when the number of prisms does not exceed four or
five. His spectroscope of two flint prisms, the light passing twice
through them, with a telescope magnifying from 50 to 70 times, excels
another instrument having 28 flint prisms, with a telescope magnifying
10 times. (Am. J. Sci., November, 1881, ILI, xxii, 397.)
Mendenhall has determined the coefficient of expansion of one of
Rutherfurd’s speculum metal gratings by means of spectrum measure- |
ments. The grating was ruled with 8648 lines to the inch, and the wave-
length of the line measured was 5913, an iron line. The range of tem-
PHYSICS. 367
perature varied from 5° to 16° C., and the result of twenty measurements
gave for the difference in the angle of deviation 5.66’+0.13. From
this the value 0.0000202 was obtained as the coefficient of expansion of
the grating. (Am. J. Sci., March, 1881, III, xxi, 230.)
Crookes has communicated a paper to the Royal Society on discon-
tinuous phosphorescent spectra in high vacua,in which he gives the
results of spectroscopic examination of the light from substances which
have been made to emit light in the highly exhausted space with-
inhis tubes. Precipitated pure alumina phosphoresces of a rich crimson,
which gives the same spectrum as that given by ruby, containing a
brilliant and sharp red line of wave-length 689. 5 millionths of a milli-
meter. The same effect is produced by sunlight. Ignited aluminum
acetate gave a green, corundum a pink, sapphire alternate red and green
bands, spinel red, spodumene golden yellow, glucina blue, zirconia pale
bluish-green, erbia, yellowish, magnesia pink, barium hydrate orange-
yellow, strontium hydrate deep-blue, lime orange-yellow, calcite straw-
yellow, diamond pale yellowish-green. Certain anomalous results ob-
tained in this way lead the author to believe that he has here to deal
with several new elements. (Nature, May, 1881, xxiv, 89.)
Liveing and Dewar have continued their researches upon the reversal
of the lines of metallic vapors, and have now given their results upon
‘Iron, titanium, chromium,andaluminum. Of iron lines 136 were reversed,
29 titanium lines, 16 chromium lines, and 2 of aluminum. Most if, not
all of the strong lines of the three metals first named may be reversed
by proper management of the atmosphere and supply of metal in the
crucible Fragments of magnesium dropped into the crucible aid the
reversal. In this way the reversal of the strong iron lines about the
solar lines L and M, four strong lines below N, the line O, all the strong
lines from 8, to U, inclusive, and two strong groups still more refrangi-
ble, was accomplished. (Nature, June, 1881, xxiv, 206.)
Huggins has photographed the spectrum of the hydrogen flame burn-
ing in air. Though so feeble, yet its spectrum shows a group of lines
in the ultra-violet, limited on the more refrangible side by a pair of
stong lines of wave-length 3062 and 3068, and on the less refrangible
two less strong lines of wave length 5080 and 3090. Beyond this the
spectrum continues by nearly equidistant pairs of lines, among which
are two of wave-length 3167 and 3171, up to wave-length 3290. This
entire group the author regards as due to the vapor of water. It is
equally observed when the flame is surrounded with oxygen or air. (Ann.
Chim. Phys., July, 1881, V, xxiii, 372; Proc. Roy. Suc., 1880, xxx, 576; J.
Phys., February, 1881, x, 84.) |
Liveing and Dewar have confirmed the above supposition of Huggins.
The spectrum is not only obtained when hydrogen and hydrocarbons
are burned in oxygen, but also when non-hydrogenous gases are burned,
if they are moist. On drying the gases carefully this spectrum disap-
pears. (Proc. Roy. Soc., xxx, 580; J. Phys., February, 1881, x, 85.)
368 PHYSICS.
The same authors have published their investigations on the spectrum
of magnesium and magnesium-hydrogen previously observed by them.
(Nature, June, 1881, xxiv, 118.)
Fievez has investigated the magnesium lines in the spectrum of the
sun, with a view to ascertain to what their variation is due. The con-
clusion is that the unequal reversal of the magnesium lines is caused by
a difference in the intensity of the lines themselves, and not by any
particular condition of the metal. (Ann. Chim. Phys., July, 1881, V,
Xxili, 366.)
Huntington has examined the spectrum of arsenic, using to produce
it a Pliicker tube, having one of its electrodes hollow and containing the
arsenic. The wave-lengths were determined from Augstrém’s scale by
comparing the lines with those of the sun, hydrogen, lithium, sodium,
thallium, and strontium spectra. Twenty-three lines were thus com-
pared, the bright and characteristic ones having wave-lengths of 6023,
6013, 5813, 5653, 5563, 5498, 5340 (the thallium line), 5103, 4623, and 4593.
(Am. J. Sci., September, 1881, V, xxii, 214.)
Hartley has published a paper on the relation between the molecular
structure of carbon compounds and their absorption spectra. The evi-
dence obtained is in favor of the view that the selective absorption ex-
hibited by aromatic compounds depends on the vibrations of the car-
bon atoms within the molecule, but that those atomic vibrations are
dependent upon the nature of the molecular vibrations themselves, and
are probably to be regarded as harmonics of these fundamental vibra-
tions. (J. Chem. Soc., April, 1881, xxxix, 153.)
J. W. Draper has obtained what he calls a phosphorograph of the
solar spectrum, and has compared it with a photograph of the same
spectrum, as illustrating the antagonistic action of rays of higher as
compared with those of lower refrangibility. A photograph taken on
silver iodide,,in presence of a weak extraneous light, shows three re-
gions: (1) a blackened one extending from the boundary of the blue
and green to a little beyond the violet; (2) a region in the other direc-
tion to the inferior theoretical limit of the spectrum where the action of
the daylight has been altogether arrested; and (3) a similar’ protected
region beyond the violet. In a phosphorograph, taken on luminous
paint, there is annexed to the shining region a region of blackness,
broken below the red by a luminous rectangle arising from the coales-
cence of the bands a, f, 7, discovered by the author in 1842. If, now,
a gelatin sensitive plate be laid on the shining blue phosphorescent
surface, it is powerfully affected, and the constituent lines of the infra-
red bright rectangle are instantly recognized in the gelatin plate. The
paper deals also with the extinction of phosphorescence by red light
and with the infra-red bands in the sun-spectrum. (Am. J. Sci., March
188i Vs x07)
Cornu has studied the effect of atmospheric absorption upon the ultra-
PHYSICS. 369
. violet spectrum by means of observations made at. different altitudes.
He coneludes that if the absorption of the ultra-violet rays was due ex-
clusively to the action of the vapor of water distributed with the altitude
according to the law which experiment indicates, the increase of visibil-
ity of the ultra-violet solar spectrum would be a unit (millionth of a
millimeter) on the scale of wave-lengths for every increase of 286.9
meters. Direct observation having given three times this value, that
is, a unit for 868.2 meters of ascent, the theory must be rejected that
vapor of water is the exclusive cause of the absorption of the ultra-violet
rays. (J. Phys., January, 1881, x, 5.)
Rayleigh has communicated to the British Association some experi-
ments which he has made on color, principally physiological. After the
construction of a new instrument for the examination of compound colors,
he discovered an interesting peculiarity of color-vision entirely distinct
from color-blindness. The red and green mixture, which to his eyes
and to those of most people matches perfectly the homogeneous yellow
of the line D, appeared to his three brothers-in-law hopelessly too red,
almost as red as sealing-wax. The proportion of red had to be greatly
diminished to suit their eyes, until to normal sight the color was a fair
green with scarcely any approach to yellow. (Nature, November, 1881,
xxv, 64.)
Dubois has suggested an experiment complementary to that of throw-
ing a green image and ared one on a screen, superposed for the purpose
of making white. He takes a piece of red glass and a similar piece
of green, pure and well-selected colors. These are placed together
in a frame so that one overlaps the other by one-half its length. There
are then four quadrants: one white, where there is nothing, one red
one green, and the fourth black, where the overlapping occurs. (J.
Phys., October, 1881, x, 448.)
Lecher, using a thermo-electric apparatus in connection with a pyr-
heliometer, has arrived at the conclusion that the amount of carbonic
acid which has been proved to exist in the air is sufficient to cause the
absorption which has generally been attributed to aqueous vapor alone.
He believes his method is preferable to the ordinary chemical ones for
determining the amount of this gas in the air. (Wied. Ann., 1881; I,
xii, 466; Am. J. Sci., May, 1881, III, xxi, 401.)
4. Interference and polarization.
Lommel has described some simple experiments in interference, which
avoid the objections made to the mirrors of Fresnel. The surface of a
plane black mirror is covered with India ink, with the exception of two
bands 6 millimeters wide, and 15 millimeters apart. If a solar beam
from aslit falls on the mirror at an incidence of 85° to 88°, the image
received on the screen is channeled with interference bands. The same
result may be obtained, of course, with two rectangular mirrors a centt-
S. Mis. 109 24
370 PHYSICS.
,
meter wide, if they are placed exactly in the same plane; but the ad-
justment is difficult. If, however, there is placed behind the narrow
black mirror a second silvered mirror perpendicular to the first one,
then the phenomena appear, the image of the first in the silver mirror
answering for a second black mirror. By covering the surface of a
black mirror with lines of India ink, the spaces being equal in width to
the lines, beautiful grating spectra are obtained by a suitable incidence.
(Carl. Rep., xvi, 454; J. Phys., March, 1881, x, 129.)
Fuchs has described anew interference photometer, in which no polar-
ization of the rays at right angles is required. It consists simply of two
similar isoceles glass prisms joined by their basal surfaces, which inclose
an air-layer variable in thickness by pressure. A diaphragm reaches
out in prolongation of the surface of junction. The observer looks
obliquely toward this surface, and sees one illuminated surface directly
through the double prism, the other by reflection at the air layer. One
source of light is fixed and the other is displaced till the interference
bands disappear. (Wied. Ann., II, xi, 465; J. Phys., March, 1881, x, 127;
Nature, Jannary, 1881, xxiii, 278.)
C.S. Peirce has communicated a note on the width of the rulings on the
closest-ruled diffraction-plates made on Mr. Rutherfurd’s engine. He
finds that these plates have a mean width of ruling varying in different
specimens from 68078 to 68082 lines to the decimeter, at 70° I’. A line
in the solar spectrum has been selected for the measurement of wave-
length whose minimum deviation with one of the above plates in the
spectrum of the second order is 45° 01/ 56’... The author suggests this
line as a standard of reference, since it is possible to deduce from the
minimum deviation of this line produced bya given plate the mean width
of the rulings on it; and consequently the wave-length of any other
line whose deviation has been measured with it. Peirce finds the wave-
length of this line to be 5624825; Angstr6ém gives it 562336. (Nature,
euly, 1881, xxiv, 262.)
Cornu has constructed a polarizing prism made of a single film of Ice-
~ Jand spar, fixed with Canada balsam between two flint-glass prisms.
The polarization is far from perfect, however, and the field is very nar-
row, so that the instrument, though of interest from a theoretical point
of view, is of little or no practical value. (Nature, September, 1851,
xxiv, 504.)
Glan has devised a new polarizing prism, in which the total reflection
takes place on air, as in the Foucault prism; but the face of the prism
is perpendicular to the incident beam and the axis of the spar is parallel
to the diagonal section between the two halves of the prism. To trans-
mit a luminous beam of section unity the length required in the new
prism is 1.141, that of the Foucault being 1.228, and that of the Nicol
3.281. Themaximum angle of the polarized bundle is 7° 56’; hence the
rays must be made parallel by a collimator. (Carl. Rep., xvi, 570; J.
Phys., April, 1881, x, 175.)
PHYSICS. STI
Lommel has described a new polarizing apparatus, in which two plates
of magnesium platinocyanide, ent perpendicularly to the optic axis, are
used as polarizer and analyzer, as in the tourmaline pincettes. In the
tourmaline, however, the ordinary ray is the one that is absorbed, while
here it is the extraordinary ray; hence the tourmaline is cut parallel to
the optic axis and the platinocyanide perpendicular to it. The new ap-
paratus transmits a blue light, which, when the angle of incidence exceeds
2°, is perfectly polarized in the plane of incidence. (Wied. Ann., 1881,
II, xiii, 347; Nature, July, 1881, xxiv, 294.)
Bertin has improved the tourmaline pincette by applying to it a part
of the lenses of a polarizing microscope. The ordinary instrument can
be used with only a limited number of crystals, by reason of the small-
ness of its field; but the new one shows well the fringes only 2 milli-
meters in diameter and 4 millimeter in thickness. All uniaxial crystals
give fringes in it, and biaxial crystals can be observed when, as in the
case of calamine, their axes are 75° 20/ apart. (J. Phys., March, 1881,
x, 116.)
Whitwell has described a simple polarization experiment. Ifa plate
of ice be broken off and held between the sky and a pool of water its
reflected image will show color. The incident rays should come from
the sky, about 90° from the sun, and reflection should take place at the
polarizing angle for water. (Nature, January, 1881, xxiii, 268.)
Sérrensen has also observed some polarization phenomena with ice
and water. The ice on a window pane had melted and the water formed.
a pool at the bottom, in which various bright and beautiful colors ap-
peared. On examination they proved to be the grotesque images of the
frost-flowers on the pane reflected in the water. The daylight itself
was strongly polarized, which was attributed to the presence of a light
mist of ice particles reflecting the sunlight. The temperature of the
external air was about 12°. (Nature, March, 1881, xxiii, 442.)
Henri Beéquerel has investigated elaborately the rotatory polariza-
tion of gases. He concludes (1) that the plane of polarization is rotated
in gases under magnetic influence; (2) that the rotation is inversely as
the square of the wave-length of the light used; (3) that the rotatory
power can be compared to liquid carbon disulphide, and so to other
liquids and gases, and (4) that oxygen shows anomalies, connected
probably with its magnetic properties. (Ann. Chim. Phys., November,
1880, V. xxi, 289; Am. J. Sci., February, 1881, III, xxi, 139.)
Becquerel has since extended the above results, and now shows that
even the earth’s magnetisin is strong enough to rotate the polarized ray.
He finds that the rays D traversing horizontally a column of carbon
disulphide one meter long undergo at the temperature 0° C., and at
Paris, a magnetic rotation of 0.8697’. (C. R., September, 1881, xciii, p.
451; Am. J. Sci., December, 1881, III, xxii, 484.)
;
379 PHYSICS.
ELECTRICITY.
1. Magnetism.
Rowland has published a series of important papers on the general
equations of electro-magnetic action with application to a new theory of
magnetic attractions, and to the theory of the magnetic rotation of the
plane of polarization of light, in which is contained the mathematical con-
sideration of that action of magnetism on electric currents recently dis-
covered by Mr. Hall, proving that if Maxwell’s theory of light be true, the
new action will explain the magnetic rotation of the plane of polarization.
The new theory of magnetism supposes the magnetic field to consist of
a perfect fluid whose velocity at any point is represented in magnitude
and direction by the magnetic vector-potential at the point. The vortex
lines in this fluid are the lines of magnetic induction, and the velocity
of angular rotation is proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic
force. As 4 times the electric current is related to magnetic induction in
the same way as magnetic induction to the vector-potential, Rowland
considers that an electric current consists, as it were, of vortices of vor-
tices; i. ¢., that certain irregular distribution of the vortices constitutes
currents. (Am. J. Math., ii, 334; ili, 89. See also Nature, June, 1881,
xxiv, 204.)
Trowbridge has made experiments to determine the effect of great
cold upon the magnetism of steel, showing that very low temperatures
exercise a far greater influence on the magnetic condition than has
hitherto been noticed. Wiedemann has stated that a steel bar magnet-
ized at 6° or 8° C., lost only 4 per cent. on being cooled to —25°; but the
author finds that a bar magnetized at 20° C. loses at —60° 66 per cent. of
its magnetism. (Am. J. Sci., April, 1881, III, xxi, 316.)
Pictet has examined a number of steels with reference to their mag-
netic power. He finds that this quality depends on the presence of car-
bon and on their state of aggregation. One of the two steels giving the
best results had { of a per cent. of carbon; while samples having 14 to
1} were inferior. German steel made for springs, though of poor quality,
made a good magnet. It had little homogenity, and consisted of an in-
timate mixture of iron and iron cemented with a small proportion of
carbon. (Nature, September, 1881, xix, 521.)
Sir William Thomson has taken advantage of the fact that the mag-
netism of steel changes with the temperature becoming weaker when
warmed and recovering its strength on cooling, to construct what he
calls a thermo-magnetic thermoscope. Two thin wires of hard steel,
each one centimeter long, arranged so as to form a nearly astatie couple,
place themselves at right angles to the magnetic meridian. Two other
magnets of twice the size, placed one on each side of the astatic couple,
act as deflectors. They are laid in a liné nearly along the meridian, with
their similar poles facing each other, and about two centimeters apart.
PHYSICS. 373
When the temperature of either of these deflectors changes, the little
astatic pair turns through an angle, which, when small, is directly
proportional to the temperature-difference. The deflections are read
by a mirror and lampstand, as usual. (Nature, February, 1881, xxiii,
372.)
2. Hlectromotors.
Thomsen has experimented to determine whether the total quantity
of heat which comes from the chemical reaction in a battery with two
liquids corresponds wholly or only in part to the total heat set free in the
circuit. The quantities of heat evolved in the chemical reactions in the
Daniell cell he had previously determined to be 50130 heat-units. He
now finds that the total quantity of heat evolved in the cireuit during
the decomposition of one equivalent of copper sulphate is 50292 units, a
difference of only 0.5 per cent. For other batteries the results were the
same whenever the surface of the negative electrode was not changed
by the electrolysis. He concludes, therefore, that the whole of the
chemical energy is employed in the production of electricity. (Wied.
Ann., II, xi, 246; J. Phys., November, 1881, x. 502; Am.dJ. Sci., January,
1881, ILI, xxi, 74.)
Kalischer has confirmed the observations of Adams and Day, that
light may in certain cases set up in selenium cells a photo-electromo-
tive force, the cell thus becoming its own battery. (Nature, October,
1881, xxiv, 593.)
Reynier has proposed a new form of battery, in which the zine is im-
mersed in a solution of sodium hydrate and the copper in a solution of
copper sulphate. The resistance of the battery is lessened: Ist, by
adding to the solutions suitable neutral salts; and, 2d, by placing the
zine with its solution in a porous cup made of parchment paper without
seams. The electromotive force of the battery varies from 1.3 to 1.5
volts, and the resistance of a cell 2 decimeters high and of a capacity
of 3 liters is 0.075 ohm. (J. Phys., April, 1881, x, 160.) |
The polarization of solids in contact with liquids has received a large
share of attention. Helmholtz has published a paper on the currents
produced by the motion of electrodes of polarized platinum. ( Wied.
Ann. xi, 737; J. Phys., July, 1881, x, 320.) Blondlot has made an ex-
perimental research on the capacity of voltaic polarization. (J. Phys.,
July, August, 1881, x, 277, 333.) Bartoli has sought to determine the
electromotive force of polarization produced by the passage of a known
current in a given electrolyte with given electrodes during a very
short time. (Il Nuovo Cimento, III, vii, 234; J. Phys., May, 1S81, x.
218.)
This phenomenon of polarization has culminated in the production of
Storage batteries, or accumulators, as they aretermed. Sir William Thom-
son has made several communications concerning one of these, devised
by C. Faure, of Paris. It is essentially a Planté battery; but in place
374 PHYSICS.
of forming the lead oxide upon the surface of the lead plates themselves,
as Planté has done, the two plates are covered with a layer of red lead
held in place by a wrapping of felt. Reynier had said that one of these
cells weighing 75 kilograms could store up sufficient energy to yield a
horse-power of work for an hour. Thomson found the box of electricity
brought to him at Glasgow from Paris by Major Seaver, occupying 72
hours in the trip, to contain in the space of one cubic foot a million foot-
pounds of energy, thus confirming Keynier’s statement. Accumulators
weighing three-quarters of a ton will work for six hours from one charge,
doing work all this time at the rate of one horse-power, with an econ-
omy of 90 per cent. (Nature, May-September, 1881, xxiv, 68, 105, 137,
156, 433, 491.)
Sutton has described a new electrical storage-battery, in which he uses
a sheet of lead amalgamated and a sheet of thin copper a little shorter.
The two sheets are perforated with a number of holes, and then rolled
in a spiral separated by rubber bands. The plates are immersed in a
solution of copper sulphate, the lead plate being made the positive elec-
trode of a suitable source of electricity. The oxygen set free on the
lead plate produces peroxide there, the hydrogen reduces the sulphate
and deposits copper on the copper plate, the liquid becoming colorless.
During the discharge of the battery these actions are reversed. <A cell 4
inches deep and 4 inches in diameter heated one inch of No. 28 iron wire
to bright redness for over two hours. (Nature, December, 1831,xxv, 198.)
Sir William Thomson read a paper at the York meeting of the Brit-
ish Association upon the proper proportions of resistance in the working
coils, the electro-magnets, and the external circuits of dynamo-electric
machines. In this paper he shows that in such a machine giving a
continuous current the equation E=4/R R/ holds ; in which His the re-
sistance of the external circuit and R R/ are the resistances of the field-
magnets and the revolving bobbins. Ifr represent the ratio of the
the formula r =1+4+2a/e results.
The dynamo considered in these calculations has its field maintained by
a shunt circuit. (Nature, September, 1881, xxiv, 526; C. k., September,
1881, p. 474; Am. J. Sci., December, 1881, xxii, 484.)
The Pacinnotti electro-magnetic machine, constructed in 1860 and de-
scribed in 1864, has become interesting since the invention by Gramme
of his ring armature. This machine was exhibited at the electrical ex-
hibition in Paris, and the article from the Italian journal, in which it first
appeared, has been republished in several of the electrical journals. (J
Nuovo Cimento, June, 1864, xix, 378; L’Hlectricien, November, 1881, ii, 127;
J. Phys., Novembez, 1881, x, 461.) Another machine with a ring arma-
ture was exhibited in the Holland section as having been made by Elias
in 1842. But beside the ring armature in six sections, and the commu-
tator in six pieces, there is no correspondence between this and the
Gramme machine, the connections being made quite differently. (/Hlec-
tricien, November, 1881, ii, 125.)
total work to the lost work, and e=
PHYSICS. 375
3. Electrical measurements.
Stoletow, in a communication to the French Physical Society, has
described an apparatus for determining the ratio of the electrostatic to
the electromagnetic unit of quantity. It consists of an absolute con-
denser, consisting of two metal disks accurately plane, the upper fur-
nished with a guard-ring. By means of three microscopes, the distance
between the plates can be accurately measured. This condenser is
charged by a battery, and the discharge current is compared with the
constant current produced by the same battery in a circuit of known
resistance. In order not to require too large a battery, a series of dis-
charges of known number per second is passed throughthe galvanom-
eter by means of a commutator, thus producing the effect of a con-
stant current and requiring only one Daniell cell. The first results with
the apparatus were satisfactory. (J. Phys., November, 1581, x, 468.)
Rayleigh and Schuster have employed the original apparatus used
by the British Association Committee, for the purpose of redetermining
the value of the ohm in absolute measure. They have obtained the value
0.9893 earth-quadrants per second, that obtained by Rowland being
0.9911. (Proc. Roy. Soc., xcii, 104,141; Am. J. Sci., December, 1881, II,
xxi, 484.)
Fleming has devised a new form of resistance coil, constructed with
a view to avoid the leakage due to condensed moisture on the paraffin
insulating the electrodes, and at the same time to facilitate equalization
of temperature. The wire is wound bare, each layer being separated
from tbe others by strips of ebonite notched to receive the turns, and
the whole is inclosed in a brass box screwed together. (Nature, June,
1881, xxiv, 183.)
Kohlrausch has simplified the apparatus required for his method of
measuring resistance, by means of alternating currents. The currents
are now produced by an induction coil; and, in place of an electro-
dynamometer, the telephone may be used. Tor liquids, large electrodes
of platinized silver are employed. (Wied. Ann., II, xi, 653; J. Phys.,
72% 0) i Oe cated ep ems Ws 9)
Fleming has described a new form of resistance balance, adapted for
comparing standard coils, and used by him for measuring coils made of
wires of differentalloys. A platinum iridium wire .3, inch diameter, 39
inches long, and of a total resistance of 0.0512 ohm, is let into the face
of a horizontal disk of ebonite, but not flush with the surface; so that
a knife-edge of the same metal carried on an arm moving about the cen-
ter of the disk may be put in contact with it. The edge of the disk is
graduated into 1,000 parts, and by a vernier on the alidade 0.1 of a
division can be measured. This apparatus is used in a Wheatstone’s
bridge, two of the other resistances being auxiliary coils of nearly the
same resistance each. The twocoils to be compared are connected, each
with one of the two poles of the battery, and each with one of the two
ends of the circular wire. The galvanometer wire connects the point of
376 PHYSICS.
union of the first two coils with the axis which carries the alidade. This
arm is so placed that the galvanometer is at zero, and the reading is
noted. The two coils are then reversed in position, and a second reading
taken. The difference is the difference in their resistance. Were it not
for changes of temperature, measurements could be made to the ayg500
ofanohm. (Phil. Mag., V, ix, 109; J. Phys., March, 1881, x, 135.)
Glazebrook has called attention to an error which results when small
resistances are measured by the Wheatstone’s bridge, due to thermo-
electric forces which have their seat at the point of contact of the cop-
per and the platinum of the apparatus. The result is that the resist-
ances found seem to depend on the resistance of the battery. They are
eliminated by reversing the battery current. (Phil. Mag., April, 1881,
V, xi, 291; J. Phys., November, 1881, x, 500.)
Minchin has given an account to the London Physical Society of his
new sine electrometer. It consists of two metal plates, in one of which
is an aperture nearly closed by a metal trap-door, suspended from the
plate by two fine platinum wires, and when the plates stand vertical,
resting against fine stops. These plates are connected to the poles of
the cell to be measured, and tilted out of the vertical till the attraction
of the whole plate on the suspended trap or shutter is just balanced by
the weight of the latter. Then the electromotive force is proportional
to the sine of the angle of displacement. (Nature, May, 1881, xxiv, 95.)
Mascart has modified the quadrant electrometer of Thomson, reducing
materially its size, and adapting it to the purpose of meteorological regis-
tration by means of photography. The quadrants are kept charged by
a few cells of water-battery, and the water-dropping collector, used to
obtain the atmospheric potential, is in communication with the needle,
the case being connected with earth. The same photographic devices
have been employed to record magnetic variations, the horizontal force
being given by a bifilar magnetometer, the vertical force by a magnetic
balance, and the declination by a declinometer, all the tracings being
obtained upon a single sheet of paper. (J. Phys. June, 1881, x, 229.)
Baille has employed the torsion balance to measure electromotive
forces, and has obtained results agreeing well with those made by other
methods. (Ann. Chim. Phys., June, 1881, V, xxiii, 269.)
Pellat has studied the discharge of a condenser by means of a tele-
phone. With reference to the current necessary to give an audible
sound in the telephone, he says: ‘Experiment has shown me that the
energy corresponding to a ealory, that is, to the amount set free by a
gram of water covled 1° C., transformed into electricity and sent through
the telephone, will produce a continuous and clearly perceptible sound
for ten thousand years!” (J. Phys., August, 1881, x, 358.)
Edison has contrived several forms of an instrument for measuring
electrical currents, which he calls a “‘webermeter.” In the form to be
=
PHYSICS. 377
used in registering the current for domestic lighting, there are two cells
through which a shunted portion of the current flows, in one several
times that in the other. In these cells are plates of copper immersed
in sulphate of copper solution. These are weighed every month, and
from the increase in weight the quantity of the current which has passed
through the cell is given. This, multiplied by the shunt, gives the
total current in the house for the time. In the second and more deli-
cate form two copper plates are suspended in an electrolytic cell con-
taining copper sulphate from the arms of a balance. The apparatus is
placed in a shunted circuit, say, of =355. By the action of the current
copper is dissolved off one plate and deposited on the other. The heavier
one falls to a certain point, then automatically reverses the current.
The other side now becomes heavier and goes down, and the current is
again reversed. The beam thus oscillates, and its oscillations are reg-
istered on a dial. By properly adjusting its parts each tip may be
made to correspond with a definite quantity of current. By combining
the delicacy of the mirror method with a delicately constructed weber-
meter, Edison has been able to measure in one minute a current so
slight thet it would deposit only ten milligrams of copper in the course
of a century. (Cat. Gen. Off., Paris Exh., 162; Nature, July, 1881, xxiv,
294.)
Brackett has described a new form of galvanometer for powerful cur-
rents, based on the tangent-galvanometer principle. Two rings of cop-
per or brass are turned so that the one passes within the other. They
are then both cut on one side, the smaller placed within the larger, one
of the ends of each united firmly by a metal plate, and pieces of vulcanite
put between the rings to make them concentric. The other ends of the
rings and the united ends are attached to three binding-screws. The
instrument may be used as an ordinary-tangent galvanometer with
either of the rings, or, by combining, them it may act differentially on
the needle, owing to the different distances of the rings. The instru-
ment works well in practice. (Am.d. Sci., May, 1881, ILI, xxi, 395.)
4, Electric spark and light.
Deprez has applied to the induction coils made by Carpentier a new
form of interrupter, designed by himself. From his study of the action
of the coil he concluded (1) that the current should be broken as soonas the
maximum magnetism is attained in the core; and (2) that it should be
re-established as soon as possible thereafter. (J. Phys., August, 1881,
x, 360.)
Bottomley has described some curious experiments with vacuum tubes.
’The tubes are exhausted very completely and sealed up without elec-
trodes. If one end of a long tube like this be applied to the prime
conductor of an ordinary frictional machine, the other end being held
in the hand, the tube becomes charged as a double Leyden jar, the end
next to the machine being positive without and negative within; while
378 PHYSICS.
the other end is positive inside and negative without. The charges are
very high and the glass is frequently perforated. Ifdischarge is effected
by alternate contact of the ends beautiful luminous effects are seen in the
tubes. (Nature, January, 1881, xxiii, 215.)
Preece has discussed the relation which exists between the length of
a lightning conductor and the space which it protects. He assumes the
data of De la Rue and Miiller, that to produce a spark one centimeter
long in air requires a difference of potential of 40,000 volts, and concludes
that a lightning-rod protects a conical space whose height is the length
of the rod whose base is a circle having its radius equal to the height
of the rod, and whose side is the side of a circle whose radius is equal to
the height of the rod. (Phil. Mag., Dec. 1880, V, x, 427; Am. J. Sci.,
February, 1881, II, xxi, 141.)
Leconte has observed that these conditions laid down by Preece are
to be regarded as minimum conditions, because the use of pointed con-
ductors would certainly increase very considerably the area protected.
(Nature, February, 1851, xxiii, 386.)
Jamin has examined the counter-electromotive force developed in the
are. This electromotive foree is equal to 20 or 25 volts; so that the prin-
cipal work of maintaining the are appears to be spent in overcoming this
opposing force, and is not occasioned by the resistance of the arc itself,
whichis small. This forms the difficulty of maintaining many arc-lights
in the same circuit with batteries, continuous current machines or ac-
cumulators; but with alternate current machines with a certain speed,
this counter-electromotive force reaches 2 minimum. It appears to be
due to the difference of temperature between the carbons, and as this
difference disappears when alternate currents are used, the inverse elec-
tro-motive force is diminished. (C. R&., May, 1881, xcii, 1021; Am. J.
Sci:, July, 1881, III, xxii, 74.)
Nipher has shown that the statement by Preece, that the quantity of
heat evolved in each of the electric lamps contained in the same circuit
varies as the inverse ratio of the square of the number of lamps, is true
only in the special case which he considers. If the lamps be arranged
in parallel circuits, each circuit containing a certain number of lamps,
the total quantity of heat produced in the lamps is independent of the
number of lamps, the quantity of heat in each lamp varying inversely
as their number. (J. Phys., February, 1881, x, 94.)
Avenarius has patented a method of subdividing the electric light,
founded on the insertion of a polarizer in a secondary circuit connected
with each electric lamp. This polarizer consists of several voltameters
connected together. The current from the machine divides at the lamp;
one part goes through it, while the other goes through the polarizer.
The intensity of the light in the lamps may be varied by inserting re-
sistance in the polarizers, and by increasing the number. The individ-
PHYSICS. 379
ual lamps are independent of each other, and lamps of different systems
may be used simultaneously. (Nature, February, 1881, xxiii, 373.)
Sir William Thomson communicated to the British Association at
York the results of measurements made by himself and by Bottomley
upon the illuminating power of incandescent vacuum lamps. The
lamps used were of the Swan pattern, and the current was furnished
by Faure secondary baiteries. The electromotive force at the termi-
nals of the lamp was determined by a galvanometer of very high resist-
ance; the current strength by one of low resistance; and the eandle-
power by comparing the shadows of a pencil cast by the lamp and by a
standard candle on a sheet of white paper. With 26 cells the electro-
motive force was 56.9 volts, the current 1.21 webers, and the candles 11.6;
thus giving 6.88 kilogram-meters per second for the work done in the
lamp, or 0.093 horse-power. This would give 125 candles per horse-
power of current. At 25 candles the economy rose to 194 candles per
horse-power; at 38 to 224 candles per horse-power; at 55 to 294 can-
dles; at 82 to 349; at 102 to 382; at 117 (another lamp) to 316; at 189
to 440. Lamp No.1 gave at 66 candles an economy of 295; No. 2, at 68
candles, one of 234; and No. 3, also at 68, one of 219 candles per horse-
power. (Nature, September, 1881, xxiv, 490.)
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CHEMISTRY.
By GEORGE F. BARKER,
Professor of Physics in the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
GENERAL AND PHYSICAL.
Williamson, in an address before the Chemical and Physical Society
of University College, London, discussed what he called an error in the
commonly received theory of chemistry. There is a division of opinion
on the question of variable equivalence; by cne class of chemists nitro-
gen in ammonium chloride being considered quinquivalent, and by
another ammonium chloride being regarded as molecular: 7. e., the
force uniting the compound together, according to the former, is atomic
or chemical; according to the latter, itis physical. The author thought
we had no grounds for assuming a difference between chemical and
physical force. Kekulé’s theory, that an atom had only one valence,
was no longer tenable; nor, in his opinion, was the view that the valence
varied within narrow limits. He knew of no limitation to atomic value.
Contrary to what is often asserted, that the valence of an element was
independent of the nature of the elements with which it is combined,
we know that the character of these atoms materially affects the result. °
Thus, gold, which alone could combine with no more than three chlorine
atoms, can take up an additional one if an atom of sodium be supplied
at the same time. The atomic value of an element depends upon the
nature of the combining atoms, and upon the temperature also. (Nature,
November, 1881, xxv, 21.)
Perkin has obtained two series of compounds in his researches on
coumarine, differing in properties, but generally convertible the one into
the other by the action of the heat. He thinks that the ordinary theory
of isomerism, according to which this phenomenon is traceable to the
occupation of different relative positions by the atoms in two molecules,
fails to explain the cases of isomerism now described by him. He favors
the view that the atoms in the molecules:of any pair of the newly-
described compounds occupy the same relative positions, but are at
different absolute distances from each other. It should be remem-
bered, however, that the present theory of isomerism is applicable only
to gaseous molecules; the molecular phenomenon of liquid and solid
bodies are too complex to find as yet any general explanation. Perkin’s
381
382 CHEMISTRY.
new compounds seem to belong to the rapidly increasing class of ‘‘phys-
ical isomers,” 7. e., liquid or solid bodies whose chemical properties are
to be traced to the binding together of molecular groups, the individual
members of which oceupy relatively different positions, the groups them-
selves acting as chemical units. The molecular volumes of metamers
do not favor the hypothesis proposed by Perkin. (J. Chem. Soc., August,
1881, xxxix, 409; Nature, October, 1881, xxiv, 542.)
The rate at which chemical changes progress has been studied by
Kayander. He used magnesium plates about 2,000 square millimeters in
surface, immersed in various acids, the solutions containing 0.01 of the
molecular weight in grams in the liter of water. As to the influence
of time, he concludes that the reaction begins at the very moment the
plate is immersed, the same action taking place when two acids are
mixed. The influence of temperature is precisely that exercised by it
on the diminution of the internal friction of the particles of the liquid
against eachother. It does notseem to influence at all the chemical prop-
erties of the reacting bodies. His figures show that the velocity of the
reaction is inversely proportional to the internal friction of the medium.
(Nature, June 1881, xxiv, 112.)
Berthelot has stated that the chemical change which ceecurs when an
acid soluble in water acts on a soluble base or salt, or vice versa, or when
two soluble salts mutually react, is completed in a time not appreciably
greater than is required for completely mixing the two solutions. (Na-
ture, February, 1881, xxiii, 373.)
Thorpe has called attention to some cases of chemical reaction taking
place between solids. Thus, when perfectly dry potassium iodide and
mercuric chloride, or lead nitrate, or silver nitrate and potassium chro-
“mate are rubbed together in a mortar, the characteristic color of the re-
action appears. (Nature, September, 1881, xxiv, 467.)
Dewar has discussed the question of the alleged decomposition of the
elements in a paper read at York. He concludes thus: ‘‘ The supposi-
tion that the different elements may be resolved into simple constituents
and even into a single substance, had long been a favorite speculation
with chemists; but however probable that hypothesis may appear a pri-
ort, it must be acknowledged that the facts derived from the most pow-
erful method of analytical investigation yet devised give it but scanty
support.” (Nature, September, 1881, xxiv, 468.)
Strecker has found that for chlorine, bromine, and iodine in the gas-
eous State, the ratio of the kinetic energy of the progressive motion
of the molecules to the total energy is different from that observed with
other diatomic gases. These bodies seem therefore to form a group by
themselves, their molecules seeming to have a different reciprocal ac-
tion. The author doubts the validity of the suppositiens of both Max-
well and Boltzmann as to the nature of the mobility of the atoms in the
gaseous molecule. (Wied. Ann., 1881, II, xiii, 202.)
Thomsen has sought to throw some light on the molecular structure
CHEMISTRY. , 383
of hydro-carbons from thermo-chemical investigations. For the fatty
series the structure generally adopted is regarded as correct. But in
the aromatic series, he concludes against the constitution as expressed
by Kekuleé’s formula, and says: ‘‘The six carbon atoms of benzene are
united to each other by ninesingle bonds; and the previous assumption
of a structure of benzene with three single and three double bonds, is
not supported by experiment. (Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., January, 1881,
xiii, 1321, 1388, 1806; Am. J. Sct. February, 1881, III, xxi, 87.)
Thomsen has endeavored to show that the molecular rotation (7. e.,
the product of the rotatory power by the molecular weight divided by
100,) is for many classes of bodies a simple multiple of a constant num-
ber. This constant for a large class of bodies is 0.95; this multiplied
by 4 gives 3.8, the constant for the family of alcohols, and by 9 gives
8.65 the amide family constant. (Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., January, 1881,
xili, 2168, 2264, 2266, 2269.) '
Briihl has advanced the hypothesis that the molecular refraction of
isomeric carbon compounds is constant only when they contain singly-
linked carbon atoms, and hence variations in this constant must be due
to variations in the manner of linking. Janowsky, however, has main-
tained that slight differences are always noticeable between the mo-
lecular refractions of isomeric compounds where the grouping of the
carbon atoms and not the linking is the cause of the isomerism. (Ber.
Berl. Chem. Ges., January, 1881, xiii, 1520, 2415; Nature, February, 1831,
xxiii, 374.)
INORGANIC.
Valente has shown the replacement of iodine by chlorine in a strik-
ing form for a lecture experiment, as follows: A jar of 500 cubic centi-
meters capacity is filled with dry hydrogen iodide gas, and another of
250 cubic centimeters capacity with dry chlorine, the larger jar being
placed above the other, with a glass plate between them. On with-
drawing the plate decomposition occurs with a flash of rose-colored
flame, and iodine is deposited. (Nature, July, 1881, xxiv, 293.)
Allary and Pellieux have proposed to evaporate to dryness the mother
liquors used for the preparation of iodine, to roast, to extract with cold
water and again evaporate, to extract the residue with alcohol, to distill
off the alcohol, to add potassium carbonate, to pass carbon dioxide gas
through the solution, and to crystallize out pure potassium iodide. (Bull.
Soc. Chim., Il, xxxiv, 627; Am. J. Sci., February, 1881, III, xxi, 136.)
Hautefeuille and Chappuis have observed that when oxygen is con-
verted into ozone by the silent discharge, a low temperature greatly
augments the yield. Thus at 760 millimeters a temperature of —23° gave
0.214 by weight of ozone, and at 180 millimeters pressure 0.181. Mixed
with four vols. of nitrogen at this temperature, the ozone was increased
to 0.216, and to 0.240 when two vols. N. were present. On cooling the
ozone by methyl]-chloride, and compressing it in a Cailletet’s apparatus,
an azure-blue color appeared in the tube, becoming indigo-blue at sev-
384 , CHEMISTRY.
eral atmospheres; cooling to 88° the color became three or four times
darker. Indeed a tube a meter long, filled with the ozonized oxygen at
the ordinary pressure, showed a sky-blue color when looked through at
a white surface. By adding carbon dioxide, and then compressing, a
blue liquid layer was obtained not differing in shade from the gas above
it. Moreover, on compressing the products of the silent discharge upon
carbon dioxide, the blue color,developed and the excess of CO, liquified
and became blue. (Bull. Soc. Chim., January, 188, 111, xxxv, 2; Am.
J. Sci., March, 1881, ILI, xxi, 233.)
Claesson has shown that when ferric chloride is added to a solution
of a sulphhydrate a deep red color is produced, varying from red-brown
to red-violet. (Ber. Berl Chem. Ges., March, 1881, xiv, 411.)
Bernthsen has examined the composition of sodium hyposulphite.
By converting it into sulphate by means of iodine, determining both the
iodine used and the sulphuric acid formed, it appeared that each sul-
phur atom in the hyposulphite required three atoms of iodine to convert
it into sulphuric acid. The state of oxidation in this acid is therefore
represented by the formula 8,03. From the estimation of the ratio
of bases present, there appeared to be one of base to one of sulphur.
While the simplest formula would be NaSO,, the author thinks the
dibasic character of the sulphur acids requires a doubling of the for-
mula, H.S,O,. (Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., March, 1881, xiv, 438.)
Johnson has observed the direct synthesis of ammonia by passing a
mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen gases over hot spongy platinum, to
the extent of 24 milligrams per hour in one experiment. But if the
nitrogen before mixing with the hydrogen be passed through a red-hot
tube, the formation of ammonia is entirely arrested. This the author
thinks is proof that nitrogen exists in an active and inactive state, the
latter produced from the former by heat. (J. Chem. Soc., March, 1881,
Xa, 128.)
Warington has confirmed a statement made by Schénbein that ni-
trite of ammonium is produced whenever water is evaporated. Since
no nitrous acid was produced when the evaporation was conducted in
close vessels, the air must be the source of the contamination. A liter
of water evaporated over a gas-jet gave 1, milligram of nitrogen, while
a second liter evaporated by steam gave only 51, milligram; hence the
combustion of the gas produced nitrous acid; but on exposing a third
liter of water to the air for the time required for the evaporation of the
second, the nitrous acid reaction was obtained. For ordinary purposes
water may then be evaporated in a steam bath, but for extremely accu-
rate work the evaporation must be done in close vessels. The test used
was the naphthylamine test proposed by Griess, which is delicate enough
to show one part of nitrogen as nitrous acid in one thousand million
parts of water. (J. Chem. Soc., May, 1881, xxxix, 229.)
Kraut has experimented to settle the question whether nitric acid will
ignite ordinary combustibles. A wooden box filled with straw, saw-
CHEMISTRY. 389
dust, hay, or shavings has 25 to 100 ¢. ec. of nitric acid of 1.5 specific
gravity placed in the center. Vapors become visible in a minute or
two, a thick white smoke appears, and then the odor of burning mate:
rial is perceptible. In five or six minutes the box is opened and is found
filled with a burning mass which bursts into flame on access of air. (Ber.
Berl. Chem. Ges., February, 1881, xiv, 301.)
Berthelot has observed that when the silent discharge acts on a mix-
ture of oxygen and nitrogen tetroxide, the gas becomes decolorized; but
that on ceasing the discharge, slow decomposition took place, reproduc-
ing the orange vapor. Since exposure to a freezing mixture produced
no crystals, it was not nitric oxide N,O;. Moreover, the spectroscope gave
characteristic absorption bands. Hence the author supposes it to be
pernitric oxide. (Ann. Chim. Phys., March, 1881, V, xxii, 431.)
Jones and Taylor have described a colorless gas with a characteristic
and extremely disagreeable odor, producing nausea and headache, which
they have obtained by the action of hydrogen-chloride upon magnesium-
boride. The gas is slightly soluble in water, burns with a splendid
green flame, producing boric oxide, deposits boron in a heated tube
through which it is passed, or on a porcelain plate held in its flame,
gives a black precipitate in a solution of silver nitrate, and gives on
analysis numbers confirming the formula BH;. It is therefore boron
hydride. (J. Chem. Soc., May, 1881, xxxix, 213.)
Chappuis has confirmed earlier suggestions that the luminosity of
phosphorus is due to ozone. In pure oxygen at 15°, under atmospheric
pressure, phosphorus is not luminous in the dark, but a bubble of ozone
admitted produces the luminosity at once, though only momentarily.
Two cylinders, one containing air the other pure oxygen, were inserted
over potassium iodide and starch solution. A fragment of phosphorus
was placed in each jar. The luminosity appeared in the first and the
liquid became blue, but neither phenomenon appeared in the second.
Whenever. the phosphorescence appeared @zone was present; when
ozone was absent there was no luminosity. Again, those bodies which
prevent the luminosity of phosphorus, such as turpentine, for example,
are precisely those which destroy ozone or are destroyed by it. The
author regards the production of the luminosity of phosphorus in oxygen
as one of the most delicate of the reactions of ozone. (Bull. Soc. Chim.,
April, 1881, Il, xxxv, 419.)
A new variety of coal, said to be the richest in carbon of any mem-
ber of the coal series yet discovered, has been found near Scheunga, on
the western shores of Lake Onega. It contains 91 per cent. of carbon,
7 to 8 per cent. of water, and 1 per cent. of ash. It is extremely hard
and dense, has an adamantine luster, is a good conductor of electricity,
and has a high specific heat, 0.1922. Though the carbon is as high as iii
the Ceylon graphite, it is not a graphite, since its behavior with potas-
sium chlorate and nitric acid is that of an amorphous coal. (Nature,
June, 1881, xxiv, 204.)
S. Mis. 109 25
386 ‘ CHEMISTRY.
The detection of small quantities of carbonous oxide may be effected
in a room, for example, by drawing the air over powdered glass mois-
tened with diluted blood, shaking the blood with a drop of ammonium
sulphite, and examining bythe spectroscope. Strips of paper moistened
with a solution of 0.2 gram palladium chloride in 100 cubic centimeters
water may be used to detect this gas. If the dried slips are hang in a
flask on a wire of platinum, the flask containing a little water, and corked,
black, shining deposit of metallic palladium appears on the paper in a
few minutes, if five parts of carbonous oxide be present. If*only one
part be present, from 2 to 4 hours are required. If only half a part,
from 12 to 24 hours. . (Nature, June, 1881, xxiv, 112.)
Hawes has examined the liquid contained in the cavities of the smoky
quartz from Branchville, Conn. This quartz is so full of cavities con-
taining condensed gas that a report like the explosion of a percussion
cap takes place when a fragment is knocked off with a small hammer.
When heated it decrepitates with such violence that bits fly whistling
through the air toa distance of twenty feet. The cavities contained
water, liquid carbon dioxide, and its gas, as was proved by the disap-
pearance of the liquid at 31° C, the critical point for CO... Moreover, the
cavities were large enough and sufficiently numerous to enable an anal-
ysis of their contents to be made by Wright, who found the gaseous
contents to consist of CO: 98.33, N 1.67, and H,S, SO., H;N, F and Cl
traces. The water present was in general 69.02 per cent. of the entire
inclosure approximately. Hawes accounts for the rapid motion observed
in some of their cavities by the alternations of evaporation and conden-
sation produced by minute changes of temperature. (Am.J. Sci., March,
1881, III, xxi, 203, 209.)
Monnier has presented to the Physical Society of Geneva an ingen-
ious apparatus, called an automatic methanometer, or fire-damp indica-
tor, designed for use in mines. The*fire-damp in presence of air in ex-
cess is decomposed in a glass vessel by an incandescent platinum wire,
and the change of volume produced acts directly on a mereury manom-
eter with platinum contacts. Every hour or half hour the air of the
mine is forced into the burner by a bellows, automatically. The result
of the test is registered, also automatically, in the central office. (Nature,
June, 1881, xxiv, 112.)
“C. W. Siemens has read a paper before the Birmingham meeting of
the British Association of gas managers on the use of gas for heating
and lighting purposes, in which he maintained the need of improved
processes in the manufacture of gas, so as to produce a gas of higher
illuminating power, and of improved burners, giving a higher temperature
of combustion, and therefore more light. He also advocated a separate
supply system of gas for heating purposes. (Nature, June. 1881, xxiv,
153.)
Remsen has shown that when a mixture of iron by hydrogen, potas-
sium-sodium ‘tartrate and metallic sodium is heated in a combustion
CHEMISTRY. 387
tube, and nitrogen passed over the mixture, a cyanide is formed, which,
treated in the usual way, gives the Prussian blue reaction. In general
he states that when iron by hydrogen and certain non-nitrogenous or-
ganic substances are heated with metallic sodium in an atmosphere of
nitrogen, a cyanide is readily formed. (Am. Chem. J., May, 1881, iii,
134.)
Allary has proposed a simple and effective mode of purifying carbon
disulphide, which consists in covering it with a layer of water, adding
concentrated solution of potassium permanganate and agitating; re-
peating the operation so long as the color is discharged. After wash-
ing, it is freed from water and filtered, distillation not being necessary.
It should be kept in the dark. (Bull. Soc. Chim., May, 1881, I], xxxyv,
491.)
Schiitzenburger and Colsen have described several new compounds of
silicon. When crystalline silicon is strongly heated in a current of
carbon dioxide the compound (SiCO), is produced. When nitrogen is
passed over a hot mixture of silicon and carbon (Si,C,.N), is formed.
These bodies the authors regard as the oxide and the nitride respect-
ively of the radical carbo-silicon (Si,C2),. Silicon nitrate (Si, N;), is also
described. (Nature, October, 1881, xxiv, 542.)
-Huntington has applied the method of Cooke in the determination of
the atomic weight of antimony to the metal cadmium. From the first
series of experiments, the atomic weight 112.51 was obtained as a mean,
and from the second 112.32. (Am. J. Sci., August, 1881, III, xxii, 148.)
Mallet has redetermined with great care the atomic weight of alu-
minum. His paper, published in full by the Royal Society, isan admirable
example of a thorough scientific research. Three methods were em-
ployed: 1st, the*ignition of pure ammonia alum ; 2d, the precipitation of
aluminum bromide by silver; and, 3d, the evolution of hydrogen by the
action of aluminum upon sodium hydrate. The greatest care was taken
in obtaining pure materials and pure reagents; all the operations were
conducted with special regard to the elimination of error, and all redue-
tions were made to vacuo. Theresults were: 1st method, series A, gave
27.040+ .0073 as a mean of 5 experiments; series B, 27.096+ .0054, also
a mean of 5. 2d method, series A, 27.034+.0049; series B, 27.023+
0052; series C, 27.018+ .0069; A and C from 3 experiments, and B from
5. 3d method, series A, 27.005+ .0033, 6 experiments; series B, 26.990
+.0046. As a mean of the whole, the atomic weight is 27.032-+.0045.
But if 1 B be excluded, al=27.019+ .0030. Of the 18 elements whose
atomic weights have been carefully determined, ten approach to whole
numbers within less than a tenth of aunit. (Phil. Trans., 1880, p. 1003;
Am. J. Sci., April, 1881, III, xxi, 321.)
Bibart has investigated the conditions under which iron becomes
passive. As a result he concludes that the passivity of iron is not due
to a layer of an insoluble subnitrate, still less to a layer of nitrogen di-
oxide, as has been supposed; but it is produced by any cause which
388 CHEMISTRY.
tends to oxidize the iron and destroyed by any cause which tends to
deoxidize it. At the outset the passivity appears to be due to the sim-
ple layer of oxygen which is condensed on its surface; but gradually a
layer of oxide forms and the passive condition is more permanent. (-/.
Phys., May, 1881, x, 204; Nature, July, 1881, xxiv, 249.)
Seubert has redetermined with great care the atomic weight of plat-
inum. The chloride prepared from the pure metal was precipitated by
the chlorides both of potassium and of ammonium, four different pro-
cesses being followed. The products were then analyzed. The results
by the platinum determinations were 194.68495, 194.03928, 194.66507,
195.03374; by chlorine estimation, 195.33013 for the ammonium salt,
and for the potassium 194.39190, 194.49368, 194.63088, or 194.62003.
After making the necessary corrections and reduction to vacuo the
value becomes 194.34050. (Lieb. Ann., February, 1881, cevii, 1.)
ORGANIC.
Lunge and Steinkauler have obtained a new hydro-carbon from the
stems and twigs of Sequoia gigantea Torr. On distilling the needles
with water, agitating the distillate with ether, removing the excess of
ether, and distilling, a solid substance was obtained, soluble in alcohol,
ether, benzine, and chloroform, less readily in naphtha, and in glacial
acetic acid only on heating. By covering its solution in this acid with
water the gradual solution of the acid caused the new body to separate
in small crystal plates, which fused at 105°, were white with a bluish
fluorescence, and possessed the penetrating odor of the Sequoia in a
high degree. It boiled between 290° and 300°, and, on analysis, it
afforded the formula ©,;H,. The authors give it the name sequoiene.
(Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., September, 1880, xiii, 1656; Am. J. Sei., Jan-
uary, 1881, III, xxi, 68.)
Michaelis and Schulte have succeeded in the preparation of a body
of analogous constitution to azo-benzene, but in which arsenic takes the
place of nitrogen. The new compound is produced by acting with re-
ducing agents, preferably phosphorous acid, upon an alcoholic solution
of phenyl-arsenous oxide, CgsH;AsO. Before the temperature has reached
the boiling-point of the alcohol, the whole liquid solidifies to a mass of
crystals, which, when drained and dried over sulphuric acid, are pure.
Its formula is C;H;As—AsC,H;, corresponding to azo- benzene CsH;N =
NO,H;, and phospho-benzene CsH;P=PO,H;. Naphthyl-arsenous oxide
treated in the same way gives an analogous arseno-naphthalene Cjj)H;As
=AsC,H;. (Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., April, 1881, xiv., 912.)
Bechamp has studied the production of chloroform by the action of
calcium hypochlorite upon alcohol in the ordinary way. From his ex-
periments he concludes that the first action of the hypochlorite is an
oxidizing one, oxidizing the alcohol to aldehyde. Then the second
action produces from the aldehyde chloral and calcium hydrate; and,
finally, under the action of the lime, the chloral breaks up into caleium
CHEMISTRY. 389
formate and chloroform. After the chloroform has all distilled off the
mixture swells up and evolves oxygen. (Ann. Chim. Phys., March, 1881,
V, xxii, 347.)
Miintz has stated, as a result of his investigations, that all natural
waters, whether rain, river, snow, or sea water, contain traces of alco-
hol. He describes his method of applying the iodoform test for alcohol,
whereby one part can be detected in a million parts of water. (Nature,
April, 1881, xxiii, 616.)
Kiliani has made an elaborate study of inulin, the starch of the
artichoke. It appears to stand in very intimate chemical relations
with levulose, probably the anhydride of it. It passes into levulose
simply by warming for some time the water in which it is contained.
It is distinguished from Jevulose by the fact that the latter reduces the
copper test and ferments, while the former does neither. Dextrose,
when oxidized, yields compounds having six atoms of carbon, while
levulose affords bodies containing less carbon. This the author ac-
counts for by supposing dextrose to be the aldehyde of mannite, and
levulose its ketone. (Lieb. Ann., ccv, 145; Am.d. Sci., February, 1881,
PEE XXi,. 138.)
Musculus, in conjunction with Meyer, has succeeded in reconverting
dextrose back into dextrin. Twenty grams pure dextrose were treated
with thirty of concentrated sulphuric acid in small portions, 800 parts
of alcohol were added, the soluiion filtered and allowed to stand 8 days.
The abundant precipitate, when washed and dried, weighed ten grams,
and was a white amorphus powder. It proved to be the alcoholate of
dextrin, and on preparing the hydrate it possessed all the physical,
chemical, and organoleptic properties of a dextrin. (Bull. Soe. Chim.,
April, 1881, I, xxxv, 368.)
Scheibler has studied the new derivative of glucose discovered by
Peligot, and called saccharin, and which has the formula C,,.H2,.0;,. It
‘was prepared by boiling the solid starch sugar of commerce with dilute
milk of lime so long as lime salts separate. The liquid is freed from
lime, filtered, evaporated to a sirup, and allowed to crystallize. It expels
CO, from CaCO; to form calcium saccharinate; but on removing the
lime, the saccharinic acid splits into saccharin and water. Saccharin
is dextro-rotatory, while its salts are levo-rotatory. (Ber. Berl. Chem.
Ges., December, 1880, xiii, 2212.)
Roscoe, in a lecture in the Royal Institution on Baeyer’s synthesis of
indigo-blue, has stated that in 1879 the value of the indigo imported
into Great Britain was two million pounds sterling, the total production
of the world being twice that sum in value. The artificial paste which
yields indigo-blue on reduction, and which contains 25 per cent. dry
acid, is furnished at 6 shillings per pound. Though the price of the
artificial cannot yet equal that of natural indigo, yet it has advantages
which more than counterbalance this difference in price. (Nature, July,
1881, xxiv, 227.)
390 CHEMISTRY.
Grimaux has succeeded in producing the alkaloid codeine, by tlfe
action of methyl iodide in presence of sodium upon an alcoholic solution
of morphine. Its properties are identical with those of the natural
codeine. If ethyliodide be used in place of the methyl compound, a new
alkaloid, a homologue of codeine is produced. The author proposes
the term codeines for the class, codomethyline, codethyline, ete., for the
individual members of it. (C. R., May, 1881, xcii, 1140, 1228.)
BOTANY.
By Pror. WILLIAM G. FARLOW.
During the year 1881 there has been great activity in the depart-
ment of vegetable physiology, arising from the appearance of Darwin’s
Power of Movement in Plants, which, although announced in 1880, was
not in reality known to the botanical public until 1881, but which has
since its appearance been the subject of numerous important communi-
cations and discussions; from the discussions on the nature and action
of chlorophyl excited by the publication of Pringsheim’s researches on
chlorophyl; and from the discussions of Schimper, Naegeli, and Meyer
on the mode of growth and formation of starch grains, of Pfeffer, Boehm,
and others on the cause of the movement of water in plants, and other
questions of primary importance in the economy of plants.
Publications on vegetable anatomy, except so far as it relates to the
structure of the vegetable cell itself, have not been very numerous. In
eryptogams there may be said to have existed a mania for the forma-
tion of systems of classification. The paper of De Bary on Saprolegniee
and Peronosporee, and the papers of Brefeld, figure among the more
important works on the development of fungi, while descriptive works
on both algze and fungi have been numerous and important. On the
higher cryptogams and phzenogams the works published have been less
numerous and of less magnitude than usual, although several notable
contributions have been made. In this country considerable activity
has been shown, and the proportion of original observations made con-
cerning cross-fertilization and other physiological and etiological ques-
tions seems fortunately to be increasing.
VEGETABLE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
Decidedly the most important work to be credited to this year, al-
though, as before said, it in reality appeared at the end of 1880, is Dar-
win’s admirable work on the Power of Movement in Plants, with regard
to which a detailed account is unnecessary in this connection, inasmuch
as the work is so generally and popularly known. Accepting the phe-
nomenon of circumnutation as a fact, nothing could apparently be more
satisfactory than the explanation given of the action of the different
parts of the embryo in germination, and of the motions of leaves and
other parts of plants. When, however, the question is asked, what is
the cause of cireumnutation, it will be noticed that all vegetable physi-
391
392 BOTANY.
ologists do not agree with Darwin. The latter regards epinasty, hypo-
nasty, geotropismus, heliotropismus as modifications of cireumnutation,
which is caused by an increase of the turgescence of the cells of one
side of an organ. In opposition to this view is an important paper by
Professor Wiesner, of Vienna, on Das Bewegungsvermogen der Pflanzen,
who concludes that “cireumnutation is not itself the cause, but a deriv-
ative; the separate forms of nutation, on the other hand, heliotropis-
mus, geotropismus, &c., are the primary phenomena. The single force
to which these forms of motion are to be referred is growth itself.”
Francis Darwin, in a paper in the Botanische Zeitung on Cirewmnutation
in a Unicellular Organ, applies the method adopted in the study of the
motions of flowering plants to a fungus, Phycomyces nitens, whose mo-
tions he thinks are in all probability to be attributed to circumnutation.
The action of gravity on the longitudinal growth of plants has been
studied by IF. Schwarz, who comes to the conclusion that gravity has
no influence on longitudinal growth when it acts in the cirecrion of the
longer axis of plant organs.
The detailed account of Pringsheim’s researches on Ellerat ei with
regard to which he made several communications to the Berlin Acad-
einy in the years 187981, and to which reference has already been made
in the Report on the Progress of Botany for 1879, was published in full
in Pringsheim’s Jahrbiicher for the present year, under the title Ueber
Lichtwirkung und Chlorophyllfunction in der Pflanze. Itis an elaborate
paper, illustrated by 16 plates, and gives a full account of the experi-
meats made with his special microscopic apparatus. The views of
Pringsheim with regard to the chlorophyl grains acting as shields of
the protoplasm against too strong light, and his view that hypochlorin
is the direct product of the transformation of chlorophy] is not accepted
by Pfeffer in his Vegetable Physiology, to which reference is made below,
nor by Wiesner, who in the main agrees with Pfeffer. In a short but
important paper, Dr. K. Brandt states that the chlorophyllaceous bodies
found in some animals, as Spongilla and Hydra, are in reality not organs
of the animals themselves, but entophytic alge, which evolve oxygen,
upon which the animals live.
In his Physiology, Pfeffer refers to Boehm’s view with regard to the
movement of water in plants, which he criticises unfavorably, and in
reply to this appeared a communication by Boehm in the Botanische
Zeitung, in which he supports his original view that the movement is
brought about by suction and not by imbibition, as believed by most phy-
siologists of the present day, nor, as was formerly supposed, by capillarity.
In the Proceedings of the Berlin Academy is a paper by Schwendener
on Climbing Plants, in which he treats of the effect of geotropism, the
grasping of the support in consequence of the formation of spirals by
nutation, &c. The Jenaische Zeitschrift contains an article by Stahl
on So-called Compass-plants. In addition to Silphiwm laciniatum, the
well-known compass-plant, he found that Lactuca scariola, and to some
BOTANY. 393
extent Lactuca saligna, Aplopappus rubiginosus, Chondrilla juncea, and
probably other plants, also place their leaves in a meridional position.
The cause of this he attributes to the unusually great sensitiveness of
the leaves of the species named to the action of light.
The subject of plant respiration has been studied by Borodin, who
maintains more strongly than ever his opinion that the energy of the
respiration in leafy shoots under constant external conditions is a func-
tion of the carbohydrous material which is present in the plant. Dr.
Th. W. Engelmann, in a paper in the Botanische Zeitung, describes a
new method for the investigation of the exhalation of oxygen by plants
and animals. He makes use of the bacteria, which commonly produce
putrefaction. Their motions cease when the supply of oxygen is shut
off, and revive when it is renewed, and by watching their motions one
ean tell whether oxygen is being evolved by plants or animals near
them. :
In the Botanische Zeitung for 1880, Schimper gave an account of the
origin of starch-grains, and this was followed in 1881 by a paper on
Growth of Starch-grains, in which the author expresses the view that
starch-grains are crystalloid substances, and he opposes strongly the
view of Naegeli that they increase by intussusception. In reply Naegeli
published an article in the same journal, upholding his original view
against Schimper. Arthur Meyer, in an article which also appeared in
the Botanische Zeitung,-on the Structure of Starch-grains, takes the
ground that Naegeli’s theory of intussusception has not been disproved
by Schimper’s observations, although he agrees that Schimper’s hypoth-
esis, that starch-grains are spherocrystalloids of a carbohydrate, affords
the simplest explanation of the formation of the layers.
‘The erystalloids found in marine alg are described in Pringsheim’s
Jahrbiicher by Klein. The paper is followed by one on the Crystalloids
én the Nuclei of Pinguicula and Utricularia. Zacharias has two papers
in the Botanische Zeitung; one on the Chemical Constitution of the
Nucleus, and the other on Spermatozoids. The main part of the nucleus
of vegetable cells consists of nuclein, which is also found in what Stras-
burger calls the nuclear plate formed during cell division. In the
second paper Zacharias states that as far as their chemical composition
is concerned the spiral bands of the spermatozoids of plants resemble
the bodies of the spermatozoa of animals, while the cilia resemble the
tails of the latter. Furthermore the spiral bands, as is shown by their
containing nuclein, originate in the nuclei of the mother cells, while the
cilia arise from the cell-plasma. Tae Untersuchungen of the Gottin-
gen laboratory contain papers by Reinke and Rodewald entitled Studien
iiber Protoplasma. The first gives detailed analyses of the protoplasm
of Athalium septicum. The other papers relate more particularly to the
assimilation. and metastasis occurring in cells. According to Prof. F.
Schmitz, in an article on Formation and Growth of the Cell-membranes of
Plants, the cell walls are formed by centripetal apposition, and not by
394 BOTANY.
intussusception, and he gives as an illustration the pollen grains of
Cobwa scandens, where the spiny outer wall is formed earlier than the
inner wall. Karl Richter shows that the cell walls of fungi are formed
of cellulose proper, rather than of what is called fungus cellulose, since
on treating with potash they give the reactions of cellulose. Vesque, in
the Annales des Sciences, gives an account of some peculiar cellulose
formations.
An important paper by Schwendener on n the Structure and Mechanism
of Stomata was published in the Proceedings of the Berlin Academy, in
which the hinge-like action of the closing cells dependent on the posi-
tion of the thickenings of their walls in certain positions was explained.
Pringsheim’s Jahrbiicher contains two elaborately illustrated anatomical
papers; one by Ambronn on the Development and Mechanical Properties of
Collenchyma, and one by Haberlandt on the Comparative Anatomy of the
Assimilating Portion of Plants ; also a paper by Westermaier on the Jn-
tensity of Growth of the Scheitel-cell and its Earliest Divisions, to which
there is areply by Goebel in the Botanische Zeitung. The Annales
des Sciences for the present year is almost wholly devoted to articles
relating to vegetable anatomy, several of which are copiously illustrated,
the principal papers being those of Olivier on Appariel tégumentaire des
racines, of Gérard on le Passage de la racine a la tige, and of Guignard on
Embryogénie végétale compareée.
The Journal of Botany contains a paper, by Vines, on the History of
the Scorpioid Cyme, and by Dickson on the Morphology of the Pitcher
of Cephalotus follicularis, in which he differs from Hooker in regarding
the pitchers as formed from the upper part of the leaves rather than as
special structures developed on the prolonged midribs. There is also
a paper, by Eichler, on the pitchers of Cephalotus follicularis in the -
Jahrbuch of the Royal Botanic Garden of Berlin.
The vegetative organs of Monotropa hypopitys have been studied by
Kamienski, who found no haustoria, and concluded that the plant is not
a parasite, but a saprophyte, and he states that a mycelium is always
found in the ground about the Monotropa roots, and that. the nourish-
ment of the roots may, perhaps, depend on the action of the mycelium on
plants around. In a paper on the Weibliche Bliithen der Coniferen,
Eichler states his belief that the ovule of Conifers, or, as it may be
called, macrosporangium, like the corresponding organ in the higher
cryptogams, is of the nature of an emergence, and may arise either
from a leaf or an axis.
An important work, by Hermann Mueller, on the relations of plants
to insects, is Abaca thre Befruchtung Dips Insekten und ihre An-
passungen an dieselben. The work is divided into four parts, of which
the second and third are especially valuable to botanists, as they con-
tain detailed, and in many cases illustrated, accounts of the arrange-
ments for cross-fertilization in a large number of species. Fertilization
in Rhexia virginica is described and figured in the Torrey Bulletin, by
BOTANY. . 395
W.H. Leggett. William Trelease has, in the same journal, two papers
on Fertilization of Scrophularia and Perforation of Flowers. Trelease has
also two papers in the American Naturalist on Fertilization of Calamintha
Nepeta and on the Fertilization of Salvia splendens by Birds. Dr. W. P.
Wilson, in the Tubingen Laboratory, has made a study of the Cause of the
Excretion of Water on the Surface of Nectaries, and finds that it is caused
by osmosis, and not by pressure from within the cells, as is shown by the
experiment of thoroughly drying the surface of nectaries with filter
paper, when the flow of nectar ceases until the surface is again touched
with some substance which favors an osmotic flow. The foliar Nectar
Glands of Populus are described and figured by Trelease, in the Botanical
Gazette for November, where he makes some suggestive remarks on the
origin of such glands and their relative frequency in living and fossil
species of poplar.
Some important text-books relating to vegetable anatomy and physi-
ology have appeared during the year. The most important is the
Pflanzenphysiologie of Professor Pfeffer, of Tubingen, of which two parts
have appeared, covering respectively 383 and 484 pages, and illustrated
by a small number of wood-cuts. The first part relates to the subject of
Stoffwechsel and the second to Kraftwechsel. The Elemente der Anatomie
und Physiologie der Pflanzen of Professor Wiesner, of Vienna, is a vol-
ume of 272 pages, with numerous good wood-cuts, and embodies the
substance of his class lectures on these subjects, and other botanical
subjects will be treated in subsequent volumes. Strasburger’s Zellbil-
dung und Zelitheilung has reached a third edition, in which is embodied
the latest results of the very numerous investigations made with regard
to the cell structure in the last few years. The German translation by
Dr. Carl Miiller from the Danish of Botanische Mikrochemie, by Dr. V.
A. Poulsen, places that convenient little book within the reach of
botanical teachers.
BACTERIA.
A very large number of papers has appeared on bacteria and their
relation to disease, most of which have treated the subject from a medical
point of view, and only an unusually small number has been devoted
to the botanical aspects of the subject. The two largest and most com-
plete publications are Aetiologie der Infectionskrankheiten, with special
reference to the fungus theory, an octavo volume of over four hundred
pages and several charts, comprising 15 papers read before the Medi-
cal Society of Munich in 1880. The other work, Mittheilungen aus dem
kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte, published in Berlin under the direction of
Dr. Struch, is a quarto volume of. 400 pages, with 14 lithographic
plates, and contains 14 articles relating to the action of pathogenic
organisms, means of disinfection, &¢. As a rule, the physicians of
Munich are adherents of Naegeli, who regards the different so-called
pathogenic forms not as distinct species, but rather as modifications of
the same species, or of a few distinct species which produce different
396 BOTANY.
changes according to the different conditions under which they are
placed, and which may, by natural or artificial means, be transformed
one into another. The Berlin school, on the other hand, deny that the
different organisms are modifications of a few common forms brought
about by changes in external conditions, but maintain that they are
permanent forms capable of perpetuating themselves indefinitely
without undergoing any change, either in their morphological structure
or their pathological action. There is no way at present of reconciling
these two widely different views, for each side accuses the other of lack
of care in conducting experiments and inoculations. In the Munich
volume Bollinger gives a historical account of the diseases caused by
fungi in lower and higher animals; Bezold, a paper on Otomykosis,
in which he expresses the view that in the case of Aspergillus and simi-
lar fungi the spores make their way into the ear, and produce an
inflammation, although in some of the cases recorded a growth of the
fungus was not noticed until oil had been applied to the ear. The
etiology of diphtheria is discussed in two papers by Oertel and Ranke,
followed by a discussion, in which several medical men took part. The
principal point at issue was whether there exists a disease with mem-
branous exudation in the throat which is not of a diphtheritic nature.
In the present connection it is only necessary to state that it seemed
to be admitted by both sides that the bacterial forms found are the
same in all cases, and not to be distinguished from those found also in
healthy persons. In the same volume are two articles by Buchner on
the Action of Bacteria in Living Bodies and on the Conditions of Diffu-
sion of Fungi in the Air. In the first-named paper he refers to the
experiments previously made by himself on the interchangeability of
Bacillus anthracis and B. subtilis, and states that the fatal result of
pathogenic organisms is not so much owing to their poisonous action
on the whole system as on special organs or parts of the body. In the
second paper he remarks that when in fluids bacteria are not readily
transported through the air, but when the substance in which they
are contained is dry it is likely to become reduced to dust or small
fragments, and in this form the bacteria are taken up by the air and
absorbed by animals. Ina paper on the Wtiology of Abdominal Typhus,
Port states that the disease is caused by emanations from the soil, and
is propagated by particles in the air, and not by drinking water.
In the Berlin Mittheilungen, Koch has a paper on the mode of study-
ing pathogenic organisms. His method isto make use of solid or semi-
solid substances rather than fluids in his cultures, as in the latter the
different kinds of bacteria which make their appearance are mixed
together in utter confusion, while when cultivated on substances like
potato or carrot, for instance, the different forms grow in masses in dis-
tinct spots which can be easily seen, and the different forms obtained
nearly or quite pure. His favorite substance for pure cultures is gela-
tine combined with various nutritive fluids, depending on the partic-
BOTANY. 397
ular species to be studied. The article is illustrated with numerous
micro-photographs. In his paper on the Atiology of Splenic Fever,
Koch attacks the views of Pasteur and other French writers, as well as
those of Buchner, with regard to the specific identity of Bacillus an-
thracis and B. subtilis, and denies that earth-worms have the influence
in spreading the disease which was attributed to them by Pasteur. He
distinguishes between splenic fever and malignant cedema, which he
thinks have been confounded by Pasteur, and maintains that the Bacilli
which produce the two diseases are distinct, and he even hints that
there are probably other diseases of a similar nature which will also be
shown to be produced by distinet forms of Bacillus. In his paper on
Progressive Virulence and Acquired Adaptability in Septicemia, Gattky
affirms the constancy of pathogenic organisms and controverts the views
of Gramitz in Virchow’s Archiv, on the Theory of protective inocula-
tion, who there states that not only bacterial forms but even harmless
molds may, by changing the temperature and in other ways, be con-
verted into dangerous organisms. With the exception of a paper by
Loffler, onthe Immunity Question, most of the remaining articles in the
Mittheilungen relate to means of disinfection, which is best accomp-
lished by the use of steam, which destroys the spores of bacteria more
quickly than hot water, sulphurous acid, or other disinfectants. In the
Medizinische Wochenschrift is a short paper by Huber, Hxperimentelle
Studien tiber Milzbrand, in which, among other facts, he states that the
Bacilli of splenic fever do not pass through the placenta of the mother
to the fetus. In the Zeitschrift fiir klinische Medizin is a paper by
Nothnagel on the lower vegetable organisms found in the intestinal dis-
charges of man, in which he mentions the occurrence of a form resem-
bling Clostridium butyricum Prazmowski, which is turned blue by iodine.
Dr. G. M. Sternberg, at the meeting of the Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., at Cin-
ciannti, read a paper on Bacterial Organisms found on exposed Mucous
Surfaces and in the Alimentary Canal of Healthy Individuals, giving the
mode of examination and the results of observations made at the Johns
Hopkins University.
The work done by French writers on bacteria has related principally
to the means of diminishing the virulence of the poison in different dis-
eases and to inoculation in splenic fever and chicken cholera. At the
International Medical Congress, in London, Pasteur delivered an ad-
dress in which he summed up the result of his researches concerning
inoculation in chicken cholera and splenic fever. The Comptes Rendus
contain numerous original communications by Pasteur, Chaveau, Cham-
berland, Raux, and others. In a communication on the duration of life
of germs, Pasteur, in connection with Chamberland and Raux, found
that guinea pigs died of splenic fever when inoculated with particles
of soil taken from fields where infected animals had been buried twelve
years previous. Furthermore, sheep which were allowed to resort to
the same fields, on which, however, as no grass was growing, they
398 BOTANY.
could not feed, also died of splenic fever. The same observers in a
paper on the attenuation of virus and its return to virulence give the
results of their researches on the means of reducing the virulence of
the microbes, more especially those of chicken cholera and splenic fever.
The microbe of the first-named disease does not produce spores when
made to grow in a decoction of chicken flesh exposed to the air, and
it was possible by successive cultures to produce a microbe which be-
came gradually less and less virulent, and at length quite inert when
injected into fowls. The nearly inert solutions when injected into fowls
enable them to resist violent attacks of chicken cholera when exposed
to the disease. The bacilli of splenic fever, however, when cultivated
in fluids exposed to the air generally produce spores which retain for
an indefinite period the virulence of the disease. When, however, the
temperature is kept as low as 16° C. or above 40° C.-the filaments of
the bacillus grow without producing spores, and by successive cultures
under these conditions Pasteur obtained an inert fluid for inoculation
in splenic fever. Ina later paper in the Comptes Rendus the results
of inoculations in splenic fever made at Pouilly le Fort, near Melun,
are given, and the results show that the animals inoculated did not
contract the fever when exposed, while non-inoculated animals did.
Chaveau, also in Comptes Rendus, gives his results with regard to in-
oculation in splenic fever, which was followed by exemption from the
disease; but his injecting fluid he obtains in a different way from Pas-
teur, making use of fluids in which only a minute number of bacilli are
found, and he believes that the virulence depends on the amount of ba-
cillus present.
In Nuovi studi sulla natura della malaria Cuboni and Marchiafava
confirm the views of Tommasi-Crudelli, that the disease is caused by a
Bacillus, and state that during the fever only free spores are found in
the blood, while during the chill there is a large mass of Bacilli to be
seen. In the Proc. Phil. Acad. is a preliminary notice by Dr. H. C.
Wood, and in the Bulletin of the National Board of Health, No. 17, is a
detailed account by Drs. Wood and Formad on the cause of diphtheria.
They find microcci in the membrane of diphtheria which are not to be
distinguished from those found in pseudo-membrancus trachitis, arising
from various causes, but on the whole are inclined to admit the
agency of the microcci, at least to a certain extent, in causing diph-
theria. In a paper by Dr. Sternberg on a Fatal Form of Septicemia,
in the rabbit, produced by the subcutaneous injection of human-saliva,
he states that he has demonstrated by repeated experiments that his
Saliva in doses of 1.25 c. ¢. to 1.75 ¢. ¢. injected into the subcutaneous
tissue of a rabbit infallibly produces death, which he thinks is owing to
the presence of a Micrococcus which closely resembles, if it is not iden-
tical with, Microcoécus septicus Cohn. The Report of the Department
of Agriculture for 1880 contains several elaborate illustrated papers on
diseases of domestic animals, with accounts and figures of the organ-
BOTANY. 399
isms found in the different organs, viz: Swine Plague and Fowl Cholera,
by Dr. D. E. Salmon; on Swine Plague, by Dr. James Law, and a sec-
ond paper on the same subject by Dr. H. J. Detmers; on Contagious
Pleuro-Pneumonia, by Dr. C. P. Lyman; and on Texas Cattle Fever, by
Dr. Detmers. The existence in man of a disease similar to that pro-
duced in cattle by the fungus known as Actinomyces bovis las recently
been made known in a paper by Ponfick, entitled Die Aktinomykose des
Menschen, and by Johne, in a paper bearing a similar title. The dis-
ease usually attacks at first the region of the mouth with secondary
internal manifestations. The fungus which occurs in man closely re-
sembles that found in cattle, but its botanical relation to other fungi
is very obscure, and cultures artificially made failed to throw any light
- on the subject.
-Under the present heading should be mentioned an account, by Dr.
Swann M. Burnett, of a fungus Otomyces purpureus found in the human
ear, published in the Archives of Otology; and an account, by Ercolani,
of a disease of horses’ hoofs, caused by a fungus Achorion keratophagus
described and figured in the Revue Mycologique.
DISEASES OF PLANTS.
Very little has been published in 1881 relating directly to diseases of
plants, although frequent reference has been made to such diseases in
papers treating of fungi and bacteria. The handbook, by Frank, Die
Krankheiten der Pflanzen, published in 188081, a semi-popular work,
gives a thorough and intelligible account of the diseases of vegetable ori-
gin, with a shorter account of some of insect origin. H. Marshall Ward,
who was sent by the British Government to Ceylon to study the coffee
disease, Hemileia vastatriz, has succeeded in finding nearly the com-
plete development.of that fungus, which he classes with the Uredinee
as he has found teleutospores which belong to that order. The agri-
cultural and smaller botanical journals are filled with descriptions, gen-
erally of a popular character, of the diseases of the vine, especially of
Peronospora viticola. Investigation with regard to the spreading and
means of checking the Peronospora have béen conducted by Prillieux
in France, and Garovaglio in Italy. The former reports the spreading
of the disease to Algiers, where it occurs with great violence early in
the summer, attacking not only the leaves but the grapes themselves,
As far as the injury done to the French vineyards is concerned, Pril-
lieux does not think that the harm is very great except in unusually
wet years, although he says that in the region of Bordeaux the Perono-
spora makes its appearance sometimes as early as the last of May or
first of June. He does not agree with Garovaglio as to the value of
the application of lime as a preventive. In a paper read at the Italian
Cryptogamic Society, Passerini described four species of fungi which
attack tobacco, Phyllosticta tabaci, Ascochyta nicotine, Epicoccum purpu-
rascens, and Macrosporium commune. In a paper called Jal nero della
400 ‘ BOTANY.
vite, Cugini figures different forms of Phoma and Spheropsis which occur
on the vine. Prillieux has a note in the Comptes Rendus on the root-
rot of the vine caused by Rosleria hypogewa, and Le Monnier gives the
result of his observations on the disease in the Bulletin of the Nat-
ural History Society of Nancy. Prillieux, who examined the disease of
hyacinths in France, which is supposed to be the same as what is called
in Germany “‘ringel kranheit,” considers that the disease is caused by
insects and not by molds, as was believed by Sorauer. In the Amer-
ican Naturalist are papers by Prof. T. J. Burrill and W. K. Higley.
The former, in his article on Bacteria as a Cause of Disease in Plants, gives
an account of his studies of the pear blight which, he thinks, is caused
by a form of bacterium and which can be transferred by inoculation to
healthy trees. The “yellows” of peaches is caused by a similar bac-
terium, as are also diseases of the Lombardy poplar and the aspen.
The paper of Mr. Higley is entitled the Microscopic and General Charac-
ters of the Peach Tree affected with the Yellows, which he attributes not to
bacteria, but to some higher form of fungus of which he found the my-
celium.
THALLOPHYTES.
The paper of De Bary, Zur Systematik der Thallophyten, published
in the Botanische Zeitung for January, makes a change in the disposi-
tion of the members of this difficult group of eryptogams, and his views
on the subject are again expressed later in the year in his Untersuchungen
iiber die Peronosporeen, &c. ‘The four principal divisions, Carposporea,
Oogame, Isogame, and Agame, correspond in general to the four divis-
ions of Sachs, but the arrangement of the orders under them is different,
and, to illustrate his views of the connection of the order, De Bary gives a
somewhat complicated table in which, under the four main divisions men-
tioned above, are several vertical columns in which the orders are arranged
so as to show their relation to one another and the higher eryptogams.
The chlorophyllaceous alge form the base which passes through the
Oedogoniece and Coleochete to the Bryophyta and Pteridophyta, while the
Floridee and Fungi on one hand, and the Pheophycee on the other, form
aberrant groups. The Botanische Zeitung for August contains another
classification of Thallophytes by Gobi. He proposes to substitute the
name Gleophyte for Thallophytes, owing to the gelatinous nature of
the cells in this group, and gives a table in which De Bary’s four main
divisions are represented as segments of concentric circles, and the
orders, taken somewhat comprehensively, to be sure, are represented by
radial lines. In the Giornale Botanico, Caruel also proposes a new
system of the vegetable kingdom in which the arrangement of the
Thallophytes is new. In this connection may be mentioned the work of
Saporta and Marion, Evolution des cryptogames, Which, although prop-
erly coming under the department of paleontology, contains a summary of
what is known of the development of living Thallophytes.
Alge—Number four of the monographs, to illustrate the flora and
BOTANY. 401
- fauna of the Bay of Naples, appeared in 1881, and includes the genus
Corallina, by Graf Solms-Laubach. It isa small folio of 64 pages, with
_ 3 lithographic plates. It begins with an enumeration of the Coral-
lineew of Naples, which is followed by an account of the development
of the fruit in the genus Corallina, and remarks on Amphiroa, Melobesia,
Lithophyllum,and Lithothamnion. In the proceedings of the Zoological
Station at Naples is a paper, by Berthold, on the Sexual Reproduction
of the Pheosporee Proper. In Ectocarpus siliculosus he found that some of
the zoospores came to rest earlier than others. These were the females,
around which the males collected in considerable numbers, until one of
the latter became fused with the female, which was then surrounded by
a cell-wall, and germinated. In the Botanische Zeitung is a paper by
Klebs, Bettrdge zur Kenntniss niederer Algenformen, in which a number
of new endophytic alge are described, including three new genera,
Endosphera, Phyllobium, and Scotinosphera. In Hedwigia, Wollny gives
an account of the alge of Helgoland. Of papers on Desmids may be
be mentioned Nordstedt’s De Algis nonnullis, pracipue Desmideis, inter
Utricularias Muset Lugduno-Batavi, in which he describes species from
Senegal, Venezuela, the Cape of Good Hope and Java, and Archer’s
New Zealand Desmids in Grevillea. The Encyklopidie der Naturwissen-
schaften contains a general account of alge by Falkenberg, entitled
Die Algen im weitesten Sinne, a paper of 143 pages, with numerous wood-
cuts.
Of publications relating to alge of the United States should be men-
tioned Farlow’s Marine Alga of New England and Adjacent Coast, which
forms a part of the Report of United States Fish Commission for 1879,
comprising an account of all the marine species known to occur in that
region, with the exception of the diatoms. The paper is accompanied
by plates showing the microscopic structure of the different genera.
The Sea Mosses, by Rev. A. B. Hervey, gives popular descriptions of the
more striking sea-weeds of the United States, with colored illustrations,
besides an introduction on the general structure of alge. The Torrey
Bulletin contains two papers by Wolle on American Fresh - Water Alga,
with a plate of new American Desmids, and a note on Laminaria by Far-
low. Mr. C. M. Vorce gives, in the Proceedings of the American Society
of Microscopists, two plates with notes representing the forms of micro-
scopic vegetable and animal life observed in the water of Lake Erie.
The fourth fasciculus of Algw Am. Bor., by Farlow, Anderson, and Eaton,
was issued in June, 1881, and contains principally species of Floridea.
The diatoms collected on oysters at Ningpo and Nimrod Sound, China,
is the subject of an illustrated paper by P. Petit in the memoirs of the
Cherbourg society. Cleve gives descriptions and plates of diatoms
from Honolulu, the Galapagos Islands, Port Jackson, and the Mediter-
ranean in a paper entitled On some new and little known Diatoms in the
proceedings of the Swedish Royal Academy. The genus Grammatophora,
in connection with plates 53 and 53 B of Van Heurck’s Synopsis of
S. Mis. 109. 26
402 BOTANY.
Belgian Diatoms, is the subject of a paper by Grunow in the Botanisches ~
Centralblatt. The subject of Fineness of Striation as a Specific Charac-
ter of Diatoms is discussed in, the Am. Monthly Micros. Journal by
Prof. H. L. Smith, in which he takes strong ground against the views
of Castracane, and regrets that so many new species are founded on the
variable distinctions of striation. In the samejournal, Dr. G. M. Stern-
berg states that he is able to confirm the views of Wallich, that the
motions of diatoms are produced by delicate filaments projecting from
the valves. Of Van Heurck’s Synopsis des Diatomées de Belgique, part
3, plates 31-53, including the Pseudo-Rhaphidew, appeared during the
year, and parts 17-18 of Schmidt’s Atlas der Diatomaceenkunde. The first
part of Habirshaw’s Catalogue of the Diatomacee also appeared this year.
Lichens.—The first part of Minks’ Symbole licheno-mycologice, which
the author styles a contribution to the knowledge of the boundaries
between lichens and fungi, appeared towards the end of 1851, and a
continuation is promised. Ie gives a catalogue of a large number of
recognized fungi, many of which are common species, in which he de-
clares that he has found microgonidia, and hence concludes that they
are not fungi, but lichens. In the introduction he advances some decid-
edly novel views on the formation of asci and spores. In the Giornale
Botanico, Mattirolo gives the results of his study of the genus Cora, of
which he recognizes two species, making anew genus, Ihipidonema of
Cora ligulata. The genus Cora, which has by some been considered to
belong to fungi and by others to lichens, has fruit resembling the Auri-
cularin, but has also gonidia, and for this reason Mattirolo creates the
new division of lichens, which he calls Hymenolichenes to include the two
genera above named.
The descriptive notices of lichens which appeared during the year were
principally continuations of periodical communications. In the Torrey
Bulletin, Willey calls attention to anew North American lichen, Ompha-
lodium Hottentottum var. Arizonicum Tuck, and he has also a note on
Similarity between the Lichen Flora of Africa and South America. Flora
contains a continuation of Nylander’s Addenda nova ad Lichenographiam
Europeam and Mueller’s Lichenologische Beitrége, the last of which includes
species from nearly all parts of the world. Mueller also describes a
number of Swiss lichens, especially from the Valais, in the Bull. Soe.
Murithienne du Valais. The Lichenologische Fragmente of Arnold have
been continued in several numbers in Flora. Contributions to British
lichens have been made by Crombie in Grevillea in two articles, Ob-
servations on Parmelia olivacea and its British Allies, aud New British
JTichens. In France the third fascicle of Roumeguére’s Lichenes Gallici
exsiccati has appeared, and in Italy there has been published Anacrise
dei lichent della Valesia by Baglietto and Carestia, and two papers by
Jatta in the Giornale Botanico, on some lichens in the herbarium of De
Notaris. In Flora, Fries has a note on the lichens of Ehrart. Contri-
butions to the lichen flora of Lapland have been made by Wainio.
BOTANY. 403
Fungi.—Two important papers by De Bary relating to Peronosporece
are Untersuchungen iiber die Peronosporeen und Saprolegnieen, and Zur
Kenntniss der Peronosporeen. The first-named paper forms the fourth
series of De Bary and Woronin’s Beitrége zur Morphologie und Physio-
logie der Pilze, and includes 145 quarto pages, with 6 lithographic
plates. It is devoted especially to the consideration of the reproductive
process in the two orders named above as illustrated by the genera
Pythium, Phytophthora, Saprolegnia, and Achlya. In the case of the
Saprolegniew, De Bary thinks that in forms where oogonia are found with-
out male pollinodia they must be considered as representing a distinct
apogamous species, and not as temporary variations of bisexual species.
At the end is a chapter on the basis of a natural classification of fungi.
The second paper of De Bary’s, which appeared in the Botanische Zeitung,
takes up more in detail than in the previously-named paper the develop-
ment of certain species of Pythium and Phytophthora, which, according to
De Bary, havea much wider diffusion and inhabit a greater variety of host
plants than has been supposed. The fourth part of Brefeld’s Botanische
Untersuchungen iiber Schimmelpilze includes 11 articles on different
mycological subjects, in the last of which, the Comparative Morphology
of Fungi, he gives his views on classification, and adopts the view which
is beginning to prevail in some quarters that the larger and, as they
have been supposed, more highly developed forms of fungi are in reality
degenerate non-sexual forms descended from sexual ancestors. The
other papers relate to the mode of making microscopic cultures the de-
velopment of different species of Mucorini, Ascomycetes, &c. In his Bei-
trag zur Biologie der Mucorineen, Wortmann shows that the bending of
the sporangial stalks and mycelium is not dependent on a force called
somatotropismus by Van Tieghem, but on the varying amounts of
moisture in the substratum. The Relationship of Zcidium Berberidis
to Puccinia Graminis is discussed by C. B. Plowright, in Grevillea,
of December, 1881, where he gives the results of a number of cult-
ures made with the object of determining whether there is a genetic
connection between the forms mentioned, and he considers that his
experiments do not show in a conclusive way that there is any such
connection. In the contributions from the Carlsberg Laboratory, Co-
penhagen, Hansen has a paper on the Physiologie et morphologie des fer-
ments alcooliques, the principal species studied being Saccharomyces api-
culatus. The fungus abounds on small fruits, as cherries, gooseberries,
&c., in summer, and falls or is washed to the ground in autumn, where
it remains through the winter enduring considerable cold without injury.
It produces alcoholic fermentation, but only to a small extent.
Descriptive works on fungi have been very numerous in 1881. Re-
lating to this country we may mention, in the Torrey Bulletin, papers
by Ellis on New Species of North American Fungi, principally from New
Jersey, and New Ascomycetous Fungi; Ellis and Harkness on Nevo Species
of American Fungi; Peck on Two New Species of Fungi, with a plate of
404 BOTANY.
Ascomycetella quercina; and Gerard on Some Fungi from New Mexico.
In the Botanical Gazette are New Species of Fungi, by Peck, and New
Species of Maryland Fungi, by Miss Banning; and in Grevillea Califor-
nian Fungi and Fungi on Lucalyptus, by Cooke and Harkness; and New
Jersey Fungi, by Cooke and Ellis. The Gymnosporangia of the United
States, by Farlow, which appeared as one of the papers in the volume
of Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Natural History Society, gives
descriptions and figures of the American species, and observations on
the genetic connection between the genera Gymnosporangium and
.Restelia, the writer not finding that Oersted’s view as to the connection
of certain species was confirmed by observations in this country. Sup-
plementary to this paper is a Note on Gymnosporangia in the Torrey
Bulletin. The sixth and seventh centuries of Ellis’s North American
Fungi appeared this year.
Species of fungi new to Great Britain were published in Grevillea by
Cooke, Plowright, and Philips, and by Berkeley and Broome, in the
Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. A new illustrated work by Cooke, called
Illustrations of British Fungi, to include plates of Hymenomycetes, has
appeared, and will be continued in parts. Oudemans has issued a Ré-
vision des champignons trouvés ... dans les Pays-Bas. Hedwigia con-
tains a number of mycological papers: Hinige neue Pyrenomyceten, in
which Niessl describes some species sent to him for examination by
Rabenhorst shortly before his death, and notes on Microthelia and Didy-
mospheria by the same author, who does not agree with Rehm in uniting
the genera; and three papers by Winter, Fungi Helvetici Novi, Pezize
Sauteriane, and notes on Discomycetes. A list of works relating to
Italian fungi is given in Michelia by Saccardo and Penzig. The Atti
della Soe. Critt. Ital. contains an addition to the Mycologia Veneta, by
Spegazzini, and the Giornale Botanico, a continuation of the Funghi Par-
mensi, by Passerini. Fungi Tridentini contains colored plates by J.
Bresadola. Fungi of Finland have been described by Karsten in
Hedwigia, and the same writer gives an enumeration of Finnish Poly-
porei, Auricularini, Hydnei, and Clavariet in the Revue Mycologique,
where he forms a considerable number of genera out of older ones.
Gillet has issued a supplement to his Champignons de la France, con-
taining plates of Hymenomycetes. The Revue Mycologique contains a
number of papers on French fungi, among them continuations of Fungi
Gallici, by Roumeguére; an account of species collected in the Vosges
by Quelet and others; and of species from the department of the Saone
and Loire, by Lucand and Gillot. The Revue also contains an account
of some Algerian species by Saccardo, under the title Fungi Algerienses
Trabutiani. The new edition of Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen Flora, of
which the fungi are written by Winter, is an important work, of which
several parts have been issued, including Schizomycetes, Saccharomycetes,
Ustilaginee Uredinee, and Tremellini. Fungi from Australia have been
described in the Journal of the Linnean Society by Berkeley, and in
BOTANY. 405
Grevillea by Cooke. Kalchbrenner has continued his account of Cape
fungi, Fungi Macowaniani, in Grevillea, and in the Memoirs of the Hun-
garian Academy he has published an illustrated monograph, Phalloidet
novi vel minus cogniti. The fungi of the late Mlle. Libert form the sub-
ject of two papers; one by Cooke and Philips in Grevillea, which in-
cludes Discomycetes, and the other by Roumeguére and Saccardo in the
Revue Mycologique, including, principally, Pyrenomycetes and Fungi
imperfecti. Several decades of dried fungi, from Buenos Ayres and
Brazil, have been issued by Spegazzini, under the name of Hongas sud-
americanos. The Mycotheca universalis and other European series of
dried fungi has been continued in several centuries.
Characew.—In the Memoirs of the University of Lund, Nordstedt de-
scribes the Characee of New Zealand collected by Dr. S. Berggren, who
found double the number of species previously known to exist in that
region. J. Mueller, in the Bull. Soc. Bot. of Geneva, describes the Char-
acee growing near that city. The occurrence of Chara obtusa Desy. in
Britain is recorded by Henry and James Groves, who also have Notes on
British Characee in the Journal of Botany. <A fascicalus of American
Charace@ has been issued by Dr. T. F. Allen, of New York.
ARCHEGONIATA.
Muscinee.—In this department of botany there have appeared a
number of descriptive works, but very few relating to development. Of
the latter the most important is Leitgeb’s Untersuchungen wber die
Lebermoose, which is continued in a fourth volume treating of the Mar-
chantiacee, with general remarks on Hepatica, illustrated with eleven
plates. He gives his observations especially ow the organs of repro-
duction and discusses the arrangement of the genera, which he places
in three tribes: Ricciew, Corsiniew, Marchantiee. THe defines four types
of sporogonium in liverworts, but recognizes only three in mosses.
Leitgeb also has a paper on the position of the fruit-sack in some of the
Jungermannice in the Proceedings of the Vienna Academy. Kleinrecords
the occurrence of buds on the inflorescence stalks of Marchantia. In
Flora, Jack gives descriptions of the European species of Radula. The
Hepatice collected in Tasmania and New Zealand by Bececari have been
described by Hampe and Geheeb in the Revue Bryologique. In the way
of exsiccatz we would notice the appearance of the eleventh and twelfth
decades of Massalongo’s Hepatice Italie Veneta.
On the subject of mosses we have to notice in Great Britain the ap-
pearance of a reprint of the London Catalogue of British Mosses and Hepa-
tice under the direction of the Botanical Record Club, also the fourth
partof Braithwaite’s British Moss Flora, comprising the Fissidentaceew. In
Germany we should mention the work of Warnstorf, Die Europaischen
Torfmoose, with critical descriptions of species, and the Sphagnotheca
Europea of the same writer, which is a collection of 50 dried speci-
mens of Spagna. In answer to Warnstorf, there was a reply by Lim-
406 BOTANY.
pricht in relation to the determination of certain species in the Bot.
Centralblatt, to which in return Warnstorf replied at some length.
Limpricht has described some mosses new to Silesia and new species of
the genus Sarcoscyphus. Die Moose Deutschlands is the title of a work by
P. Sydow, intended as an introduction to the study and determination
of German mosses. Mosses from the north of Europe have been de-
scribed by Lindberg, from the Pyrenees by Renauld, from Brazil by
Hampe, and from Reunion and Madagascar by Mueller and Geheeb in
Reliquie Rutenbergiane. Four new genera from India, Africa, and Java
have been described by Mueller in the Bot. Centralblatt.
Higher Cryptogams and Ferns.—In the second part of his Bettrdge zur
vergleichenden Entwickelungsgeschichte der Sporangien, published in the
Botanische Zeitung of this year, Goebel shows that an archespor exists
in several vascular cryptogams where its existence had not been sus-
pected. After some observations onthe Marattiacee, Ophioglossum,
and Selaginella, he compares the development of the pollen-sacks of Coni-
fere with their sporangia. In conclusion he proposes a new classifica-
tion of the higher cryptogams, including fossil as well as living repre-
sentatives. Prantl in the Botanische Zeitung gives the results of his
experiments on the nutrition of the fern prothalli and the distribution
of the sexualorgans. The same writer has a preliminary communication
on the Morphology, Anatomy, and classification of Schizeacec in Engler’s
Jahrb. In Eichler’s Jahrb. is a review of the genus Adiantum by Max
Kuhn. Additions to the fern flora of the West Indies have been made
by Jenman. A number of papers on American ferns have appeared in
the Torrey Bulletin and Botanical Gazette. In the first-named journal
are Nos. 9, 10, and 11 af Eaton’s New or Little-known Ferns of the United
States, containing critical notes on species principally from the West, and
from Florida. A new American fern, Cheilanthes Parishii, is described
and figured by G. E. Davenport, who also has a paper on Vernation in
Botrychia, and one on Onoclea sensibilis var. obtusilobata. There is also
a-note by L. M. Underwood on the last-named species. Mr. John Rob-
inson records the occurrence of Botrychium simplex near Salem, Mass.
In the Botanical Gazette are accounts of New Mexican ferns by H. H.
Rusby, of Arkansas ferns by F. L. Harvey, and of Florida ferns by
Miss M. C. Reynolds. Sets of Trinidad ferns, collected by Fendler and
determined by Eaton, have been offered for sale; also, the second series
of A. H. Curtiss’s Southern Ferns.
The development of Azolla has been made out for the first time by
Berggren, who published the results of his investigations, with illustra-
tions, in the Proceedings of the University of Lund. The species studied
by him was Azolla Caroliniana, and the development, which was nearly
completely ascertained, although the act of fertilization was not directly
seen, was found to resemble closely that of Salvinia. <A biological pecu-
liarity of Azolla Caroliniana was described by Westermaier and Am-
bronn, who found that the root-cap remains but a short time, is then
BOTANY. AQT
thrown off, and the naked apex then retains its activity. An account
of the development of the embryo of Jsoetes lacustris is given by Kienitz-
Gerloff in the Botanische Zeitung.
PHANOGAMS.
But a brief notice can be given of the numerous descriptive works on
phenogams which have appeared during the year. Relating to this
country we have to notice a List of State and Local Floras of the United
States, by Gerard and Britton, in the Torrey Bulletin; a List of New
Jersey Plants, including also cryptogams, by N. L. Britton; a List of
Michigan Plants, by Irwin F. Smith, and a Catalogue of the Phanogamous
and Vascular Cryptogamous Plants of Indiana, by the editors of the Bo-
tanical Gazette and Professor Barnes. Dr. Engelmann, in Some Additions
to the North American Flora, in the Botanical Gazette, has described six
new species, principally from California and Arizona. In the same
journal Eaton has described a new cynaroid-composite, Saussurea Ameri-
cana, from Washington Territory; IX. L. Greene a number of new species
from New Mexico and Arizona; Thomas Morong a new Potamogeton
Hillvi, with a figure; Vasey new grasses from Oregon, Calamagrostis
Howellii and Alopecurus saccatus, and a Trichostema Parishii from San
Diego. In the Gazette is a Comparative View of the Flora of Indiana
by Coulter, and notes on Chapmannia and Garberia by A. H. Curtiss.
Among the prominent papers by Meehan should be noticed an account
of Mistletoes, and a paper on the origin of Treeless Prairies, which he
thinks is in great part to be attributed to the burning of forests by the
aborigines, both of which papers were read before the Philadelphia
Academy. The Torrey Bulletin contains notes.on Polygala and Lechea
by W. H. Leggett, and a description by E. L. Greene of a new Asclepias
pintfolia from Arizona; the American Naturalist two papers, by E. L.
Greene, Botanizing on the Colorado, and by J. I’. James, Botanical Notes
JSrom Tucson. The first part of Bebb’s Herbarium Salicum, containing
dried specimens of willows, has been issued this year.
One of the most important foreign works issued during the year was
De Candolle’s Monographie Phanerogamarum, vol. iii, containing 1,008
pages and 8 plates, including the following monographs: Philydracea,
by Caruel; Alismacee, Butomacea, Juncaginea, by Micheli; Commelina-
cev, by C. B. Clarke; and Cucurbitaceaw, comprising nearly two-thirds of
the volume, by Cogniaux. The third portion of Nyman’s Conspectus
Flore Europe, including Corolliflore-Monochlamydea, has also appeared
this year. Three important works by Bentham, in the Journal of the
Linnean Society, should be noticed: Notes on Orchidew, Notes on Cypera-
ce@, with special reference to Lestibaudais’s Essay on Beauvois’s Genera.
and the especially valuable Notes on Graminec, in which he expresses
his views with regard to the classification of grasses. Engler’s Jahr-
* biicher contains papers by Engler himself on the Morphological Relations
and Geographical Distribution of the Genus Rhus, in connection with the
408 BOTANY.
living and fossil allied Anacardiacew, and a contribution to the knowl-
edge of the Aracee. The third volume, parts 2 and 3, of Reichenbach’s
Xenia Orchidacea has been published this year. A Synopsis of the Genus
Pitcairnia is given by Baker in the Journal of Botany. The Bot. Cen-
tralblatt contains a bibliography of the works relating to Russian
plants, Fontes Flore Rossice, by Herder. Grénlund’s Islands Flora
contains descriptions of the phenogams and vascular cryptogams, and
a list of the remaining eryptogams of Iceland. Buchenau has published
a Flora of the Islands of East Friesland; a posthumous second part of
Visiani’s Flora Dalmatica has appeared; a comparative study of the
floras of Vesuvius and 2itna is given by Bacearini in the Giornale Bo-
tanico; Ascherson in the Bot. Centralblatt describes plants from the
north of Africa; Willkomm has continued his Illustrationes Flore His-
panie; Celakovsky has issued a Prodromus of the Flora of Bohemia;
Hieronymus has published an account of plants collected in Patagonia
under the title of Sertum Patagonicum. The Reliquie Rutenbergiane, an
account of the phenogams and eryptogams collected by Dr. Rutenberg
in Madagascar, was elaborated by Buchenau, Engler, Haussknecht, J.
Miiller, Kérnicke, and others, the greater part of the orders having
been treated by Buchenau.
GENERAL.
Die Pflanzenmischlinge, by Focke, is an elaborate treatise on hybrids,
of 519 pages, giving a catalogue of known hybrids and an account of
their origin, peculiarities, and nomenclature. A new publication has
appeared under the charge of Professor Eichler, called Juhrbiicher des
kiniglichen botanischen Gartens, which includes a history of the Botanical
Garden at Berlin, with a description ot recent improvements, together
with original papers by the botanists attached to the garden, the most
important of which have been noticed under the proper headings. A
bibliographical work, entitled a Guide to the Literature of Botany, by B.
D. Jackson, has been published in London, and includes 4,000 titles not
given in Pritzel’s Thesaurus. The Traitéde botanique of Prof. Ph. Van
Tieghem, of Paris, of which the earlier parts have appeared this year,
is to form, when complete, a volume of about 1,300 pages. The Botani-
cal Collector’s Handybook, by Prof. W. W. Bailey, is the third of the
Naturalists’ Handy Series, published by G. A. Bates, of Salem, Mass.,
and contains full directions for collecting both phzenogams and crypto-
gams.
ZOOLOGY.
By THEODORE GILL.
INTRODUCTION.
During the past year no discoveries of previously unknown types of
animals of such magnitude as signalized the year 1880 have been made,
but much progress has been effected in general morphology and toward
the systematic appreciation of many minor groups as well as the char-
acteristics of various organs and structures. Investigation has been to
a large extent in the same direction as it has tended to for some years
past, embryology and minute anatomy receiving probably more new
disciples than systematic zoology, but the latter is sure to receive new
light from such special laborers. A noteworthy work that has been
completed during the year—Balfour’s Introduction to Comparatire Em-
bryology—will undoubtedly encourage as it will certainly facilitate re-
search in that field.
The investigation of the deep-sea faunas has been continued and con-
firmation of previous conclusions as to the characteristics thereof has
been obtained and supplemented by new discoveries. The protest which
we have before made against the association of the deep-sea animals
with those of the coast to which they happen to be nearest may be aptly
repeated in this connection. There is no more reason, so far as the ani-
mals themselves are concerned, why for instance we should allocate the ani-
mals of the deep seas off the New England coast with the coast-inhabit-
ing animals than for bringing the animals of the entire northern Atlantic
into the same connection. There is in fact less reason, for there are more
species and more types shared in common by the coast waters of North-
eastern America and Northern Europe, than by the former and the
abyssal depths within a couple of hundred miles of the coast. If it be
urged that it is difficult to draw the line between the different zones, it
must be remembered that it is equally difficult to establish the demar-
cation between contiguous littoral faunas. In a communication on the
deep-sea crustaceans, Mr. Alphonse Milne-Edwards -has called attention
to the fact that near the Spanish coast and the Bay of Biscay are two
distinct faunas neither of which would have been regarded as belong-
ing to the same geological period nor to the same climate, and he not
unnecessarily cautions geologists against too sweeping sun ptions
410 ZOOLOGY.
because of the existence or non-existence of special forms in a given hori.
zon. Contemporaneous with the peculiar types of the present epoch in
the surface waters are forms of a more ancient type in the depths of the
ocean which have continued with slight and only specific modifications
from the secondary epoch.
Exploration during the year by the dredge, &c., has been prosecuted by
the Italian and French Governments, and to some extent by the United
States Fish Commission. An Italian expedition was equipped for the
investigation of the Mediterranean with Captain Magnaghi as com-
mander, he also assuming the physical investigations, while Prof. Enrico
H. Giglioli, the well-known naturalist of Florence, took charge of the
biological work. The last previous deep-sea exploration of that sea
had been conducted by the British vessel Porcupine in the year 1870.
The means for education and investigation in the form of sea-side
laboratories have also been increased. Those which in this country
have been especially justified by their works are that of the United
States Fish Commission, at Wood’s Holl, Mass., and that of the Johns
Hopkins University, at Beaufort, N. C., under the directorship of Dr.
J. K. Brooks. In France a new laboratory has been constructed under
the direction of the eminent biologist de Lacaze-Duthiers, at Port Ven-
dres, on the Mediterranean, the municipal authorities thereof having
secured it by providing a building and boat as well as a capital sum of
32,000 francs, and in addition an income of 750 frances per annum.,
A partial bibliography of noteworthy memoirs and works relating to
different classes of animals is supplied in the present article, and will,
it is hoped, prove to be of use to those to whom the voluminous bibli-
ographies and records of progress in science are inaccessible. It has
been a difficult matter to select the titles which might be most advan-
tageously introduced in a limited report like the present. Articles of
a general interest or of special importance as contributing to throw light
on the affinities of certain groups have been given the first place. Neces-
sarily many very important papers have not been referred to and very
few descriptive of species have been admitted and only when unusual
interest attaches to the new species or the groups which they enlarge.
The compiler desires to make special acknowledgment for most mate-
rial assistance to the Zoologischer Anzeiger of Professor Carus and to
the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, whose abstracts of in-
vestigations have been freely drawn upon in the preparation of those
for the present report. The Zoologischer Anzeiger is so useful to every
working naturalist that it is a matter of deep regret that an index of
the authors whose articles are catalogued as well as subjects treated
in those articles is not given with the close of each volume. The want
of such an index greatly lessens the value of the work for constant use
and hours may be consumed in finding a reference remembered as to
existence but whose exact place is forgotten.
ZOOLOGY. A411
GENERAL ZOOLOGY.
HISTORICAL ZOOLOGY.
Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte. Gegriindet von A. F. A. Wiegmann. Fortgesetzt von
W. F. Erichson. In Verbindung mit Prof. Dr. R. Leuckart in Leipzig herausge-
geben von Dr. F. H. Troschel, Professor in der Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitiit
zu Bonn. 47. Jahrgang. Berlin, Nicolaische Verlags-Buchhandlung, 1881. (8vo.)
Fibliotheca Historico-naturalis, physico-chemica et mathematica, oder systematisch
geordnete Uebersicht der in Deutschland und dem Auslande aufdem Gebiete der
gesammten Naturwissenschaften, etc., erschienenen Biicher. Herausgegeben von
¥. Frenkel. 30. Jahrg. Gottingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1881. (8vo. M.
1.20.)
Zoological (The) Record for 1880, being Vol. XVII of the Record of Zoological Litera-
ture. Edited by Edw. Caldwell Rye. London, Van Voorst, 1881. (8vo. xxiv, 31
49, 13, 23, 123, 61, 30, 3, 238, 15, 11, 23, 23, 22, 12 pp.)
Zoologischer Anzeiger. Heransgegeben von Prof. J. Victor Carus. IV. Jahrgang,
1881. Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 1881. (8vo.)
Zoologischer Jahresbericht fiir 1880. Herausg. von der zoologischen Station zu Neapel.
Red. von J. Victor Carns. I. Abth. Allgemeines bis Vermes. II. Abth. Arthro-
poda. III. Abth. Tunicata, Mollusca. IV. Abth. Vertebrata. Leipzig, Engel-
mann, 1881. (8vo. I=ix, 383 pp., M. 10; Il=iv, 435 pp., M.10; I1I=116 pp., M.
SL Vi—293) Pps ML Se)
SCIENTIFIC DIRECTORY.
International (The) Scientists’ Directory. Containing the Names, Addresses, Special
Departments of Study, etc., of Amateur and Professional Naturalists, etc., etc., in
America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Oceanica. Compiled by Sam. E. Casino. Bos-
ton: 8. E. Casino. 1882. (8vo, viii, 391 pp.)
SYSTEMATIC ZOOLOGY.
Brehm’s Thierleben. Mit 170 Tafeln in Farbendruck, unter Leitung der Zoologen
Dr. Girtanner, Klunzinger, O. Schmidt und Taschenberg nach dem Leben ansge-
fiihrt vom Maler Olof Winkler. 4 Bd., 1—7 Hett,=p. 1—384. Vogel. Leipzig,
Bibliogr. Instit., 1881. (8vo. M. 1 each.)
Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs. 1 Bd. Protozoa, nen bearbeitet
von O. Butschli. 3, 9 Lief.—5 Bd., Abth. Gliederfussler, Arthropoda, von Ad.
Gerstaecker. 1., 2., 3., Lief.—6 Bd., 3 Abth. Reptilien, von C. K. Hoffmann.
18.—26. Lief. Leipzig, C. F. Winter’sche Verlagshandlung, 1881. (8vo. M. 1.50
each.)
Claus (C.) Grundziige der Zoologie. 4 Aufl. 2 Bd. Marburg, Elwert, 1881. (8vo.
M. 8.)
Edwards (Alphonse Milne). Eléments de Vhistoire naturelle des animaux. P. I.
Zoologie mnéthodique et descriptive. Paris, 1882. (8vo, 391 pp. 487 fig.—pub-
lished Noy., 1881.)
Gervais (Paul). Cours élémentaire d’histoire naturelle. 1. Partie: Zoologie pour
Yenseignemenut dans la classe decinquiéme. Paris, Hachette, 1881. (12mo, 408 pp.,
240 fig.)
(Cours d’études scientifiques 4 ’asage des Lyceés et des Colléges.)
Hagelberg (W.) Zoologischer Handatlas. Berlin: Diimmler, 1881. (4to.)
C. D. Amphibien und Fische. (M. 5)
£. Gliederthiere. (M. 5.)
FI’. G. Mollusken und Wiirmer, Stachelhiuter, Strahlthiere und Urthiere. (M. 3.)
Leuckart (Rudolf) und H. Nitsche. Zoologische Wandtafeln zum Gebrauche an Uni-
versitiiten und Schulen. 4. Lief. Taf. X-XI. Cassel, Fischer, 1881. (M. 5.)
412 ZOOLOGY.
MacAlpine (D.) Zoological Atlas (including comparative anatomy). Vertebrata.
London, W. & A. K. Johnson, 1881. (4to. 231 col. fig.)
Pagenstecher (H. Alex.) Allgemeine Zoologie. 4. Theil. Harnabsonderungsorgane
und Haut. Mit 414 Holzschn. Berlin, P. Parey, 1881. (8vo,viii, 959 pp. M. 21.)
FOREST ZOOLOGY.
Altum (B.) Forstzoologie. III. Insecten. I. Abth. Allgemeines und Kifer. 2. Aufl,
Berlin, Springer, 1881. (8vo, vii, 380 pp. M. 8.)
ZOOTOMY.
Bruhl (C. B.) Zootomie aller Thierklassen fiir Lernende nach Autopsien skizzirt.
Atlas in 50 Liefgn. zu 4 Taf. Lief. 21—24. Wien, A. Holder, 1881. (4to. M. 4
each.—These relate to the anatomy of Cephalopods.)
Edwards (H. Milne). Le¢ons sur Ja Physiologie et ?Anatomie comparée de Vhomme
et des animaux. T. 14 (dernier). Fonctions de relation (fin); Considérations
générales; Table générale des Matiéres. Paris, Masson, 1881. (8vo, 534 pp.)
Mojsisovics, Edl. von Mojsvar (A.) Manuel de Zootomie, guide pratique pour la dis
section des animaux vertébrés et invertébrés, etc. Trad. de allem. par J. L. de
Lanessen. Avec 128 fig. Paris, Doin, 1881. (8vo, 376 pp. Frcs. 9.)
Ranvier (L.) Legons d’Anatomie générale faites an Collége de France. (Année 1823-
29. Terminaisons nerveuses sensitives; cornée.) Lecons recueill. par M. Weber,
revues par le professeur. Paris, J. B. Bailliare et fils, 1881. (8vo, xx, 447 pp., 50
figs. Fres. 10.)
EMBRYOLOGY.
Balfour (F. M.) A Treatise on Comparative Embryology. Vol. 2. London, Macmik
lan, 1881. (8vo. 21 sh.)
Goette (Alex.) Abhandlungen zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere. 1. Heft.
Untersuchungen zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Wurmer. Beschreibender Theil.
Leipzig, L. Voss, 1882. (8vo, 164 pp. 6pl., M. 15.):
SYSTEMATIC PALZONTOLOGY.
Zittel (Karl A.) Handbuch der Palxontologie, unter Mitwirkung von W. Ph. Schimper.
1. Bd., 2. Abth., 1. Lief. Miinchen und Leipzig, Oldenbourg, 1881. (8vo. M. 7.)
EVOLUTION, ETC.
Haeckel (E.) Les preuves du transformisme; réponse & Virchow. Trad. et précédé
dune préface par Jules Soury. 2. éd. Paris, Germer-Bailliére & Cie., 1881.
(18mo, xxxvi, 159 pp. )
Perrier (Edmond). Les colonies animales et la formation des organismes. Paris, G.
Masson, 1881. (8vo, xi, 978 pp.)
Roux (Wilhelm). Der Kampf der Theile im Organismus. Ein Beitrag zur Vervoll-
stiindigung der mechanischen Zweckmiissigkeitslehre. Leipzig, W. Engelmann,
1881. (S8vo, vill, 244 pp. M. 4.)
Weismann (Aug.) Studies in the Theory of Descent. Translated and edited, by
Raph. Meldola. P. II. On the origin of the markings of Caterpillars, and on
Phyletic Parallelism in Metamorphic Species. London, Sampson, Low & Co.
1881. (8vo.)
Wilson (Andr.) -On the Origin of Colonial Organisms. Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,
(5,) v. 7, pp. 413-416.
ZOOLOGY. 413
TAXIDERMY, ETC.
Martin (Philipp L.) Die Praxis der Naturgeschichte. 3 Theile. Naturstudien. 2.
Halfte. Allgemeiner Naturschutz. Einbiirgerung fremder Thiere und Gesund-
heitspflege gefangener Siugethiere und Vdgel. Bearbeitet von Ph. L. Martin und
Sohn. Die Pflege gefangener Reptilien und Amphibien, nebst Pflege und Ziich-
tung der Makropoden. Bearbeitet von Bruno Diirigen. Weimar, B. F. Voigt,
1882. (8vo, xv, 210 pp. M. 5.)
EXPEDITIONS AND FAUNAS.
General.
Semper (Carl). Reisenim Archipel derPhilippinen. 2. Th. Wissenchaftl. Resultate.
2. Bd. Malacologische Untersuchungen von Dr. Rudolf Bergh. Suppl.-Heft II.
Wiesbaden, Kreidel, 1881. (4to. M. 20.)
Thomson (Sir -C. Wyville), editor. Report of the Scientific Results of the Voyage
of H. M.S8. ‘ Challenger” during the years 1873~76, under the Command of Capt.
Geo. Nares and Capt. Frank Turle Thomson. Prepared under the superintendenee:
of Sir C. Wyville Thomson. Zoology. Vol. 2. London, Longmans, 1881. (4to.
50sh. )
Arctic Regions.
Norske (Den) Nordhavs-Expedition. Zoologi. Fiske, ved Rob. Collet. Med 5 pl.,
3 Traesn. og 1 Kart. Christiania, 1880. (Published ‘Apr., 1881. gr. 4to.)
North America.
Verrill (A. E.) Notice of the remarkable Marine Fauna occupying the onter banks
of the Southern coast of New England. (=Brief Contributions to Zoology from
the Museum of Yale College. No. XLVIII.) Amer. Journ. Sc., (3,) v. 22, pp.
<92-303.
Europe.
Edwards (Alphonse Milne). Compte-rendu sommaire d’une exploration zoologique
faite dans la Méditerranée 4 bord du nayire de V’état ‘‘Le Travailleur.” Compt.
rend. Acad. Sc., Paris, t. 93, pp. 876-882.
Compte-rendu sommaire d’une exploration zoologique faite dans Atlantique &
bord du nayire ‘‘Le Travailleur.” IJbid., pp. 931-936.
Krukenberg (C. I’. W.), editor. Vergleichend-physiologische Studien an den Kiisten
der Adria. 4. Abth. Nebst anatomischen Mittheilungen von Graf B. Haller und
E. Berger in Wien. Mit 4 lith. Taf. Heidelberg, C. Winter’s Universit.-Buch-
handl., 1881. (8vo. M. 5.) ‘
Lacaze-Duthiers (H. de). Création d’une station zoologique dans les Pyrénées-Ori-
entales. Compt. rend. Acad. Sc., Paris, t. 92, pp. 1023-1029.
Naples Zoological Station. Bericht tiber die zoologische Station wihrend der Jahre
1879 und 1480. Von Anton Dohrn. Mittheil. zool. Station Neapel, v. 2, pp. 495-514.
Fanna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel und der angrenzenden Meeres-A bschnitte.
Herausgegeben von der zoologischen Station von Neapel. Mon. II, III, viz:—
II. Monosraphie: Fierasfer von Dr. Carlo Emery. Mit 9 Taf. u. 10 Holzschn.
Leipzig, Engelmann, 1880. (4to. M. 25.)
III. Monographie: Pantopoda von Dr. Ant. Dohrn. Mit 18 Taf. in Lithographie.
Leipzig, Engelmann, 1881. (4to, viii, 252 pp.)
Rolland (Eug.) Faune populaire de la France. T. 4. Les mammiféres domestiques.
1. Partie. Noms vulgaires, dictons, proverbes, légendes, contes et superstitions,
Paris, Maisonneuve et Cie., 1881. (8vo, xii, 276 pp.)
414 ZOOLOGY.
Afri ca. ’
a
Rolland (G.) Sur les Poissons, Crabes et Mollusques viyants, rejetés par les puits
artésiens jaillissants de Oued Rir’ (Sahara de la province de Constantine). Qoxopt.
rend. Acad. Sc., Paris, t. 93, pp. 1090-10938.
PARASITES.
Kiichenmeister (F.) und F. A. Ziirn. Die Parasiten des Menschen. 2. Aufl. 3. Lief.
Nematoden. Insecten. Leipzig, Abel, 1881. (8vo. M. 10.)
Leuckart (Rud.) Die Parasiten des Menschen und die von ilnen herriihrenden Krank.
heiten. 2. Aufl. 1.B.,2. Lief. Leipzig u. Heidelberg, C. F. Winter’sche Verlags-
handl., 1880. (8vo, xii, pp. 337-856. M. 10.)
Ziirn (F. A.) Die Schmarotzer auf und in dem Korper unserer Haussiugethiere. In
zwei Theilen. J. Th. Die thierischen Parasiten. 2. Aufl. Mit 4 Taf. Weimar,
Voigt, 1882. (Nov. 1881—8vo, xvi, 316 pp. I M. 6.)
MISCELLANEOUS.
Aristotle on the Parts of Animals. Translated, with Introduction and Notes, by W.
Ogle. London, Paul Kegan & Co., 1882. (8vo, 280 pp. 12s. 6d.)
Brandt (K.) Symbiose niederer Tiere mit Algen. Verhandl. Phkysiolog. Ges. Berlin,
1881.
Garrod\(A.H.) Collected Scientific Papers. Edited by W.A. Forbes. London, 1881.
(8vo, 527 pp., with portr. and pl. £1 1s.)
MYCETOZOANS.
Kent (W. Saville). The Myxomycetes or Mycetozoa, Animals or Plants? Pop. Se.
Rev., n. 8., V. 5, pp. 97-116, pls. 3, 4, April, 1881.
Animals or Plants?
Among the lowly organisms whose place in the kingdoms of organic
nature has not even yet been certainly decided are certain forms which
were long regarded as gasteromycetous fungi, represented, e. g., by 4tha-
lium septicum, a notorious hot-house pest. Mr. M. J. Berkeley, an emi-
nent authority on the lower plants, in 1857, in his Introduction to
Cryptogamic Botany, defined them as follows:
‘‘ Whole plant at first gelatinous. Mycelium often vein-like, forming
reticulated or anastomosing strata, but sometimes diffuse, giving rise
to sessile or stipitate, free or confluent peridia, consisting of one or
more membranes, inclosing, when mature, a dry mass of threads or
plates and spores; at length often bursting: threads of various struct-
ure, sometimes containing one or more spirals.”
The forms of these groups, according to Mr. Berkeley, are remark-
able for “their indifference as to the matrix upon which they grow.
The same species may occur on plants of the most distant natural affin-
ities, and on other matrices. One species was observed by Schweinitz
to be developed on iron which had been heated in a forge only a few
hours previously. Like alge, they appear to derive their nutriment
from the surrounding medium, and not from the matrix to which they
are attached.”
ZOOLOGY. 415
Such are the most prominent morphological and physiological features
of the group in question. No suspicions had ever been entertained as
to their existence as plants until a discovery by Dr. A. De Barry, about
the year 1859. That naturalist investigated the development of these
organisms. ‘The spores, on careful cultivation, were found to give
rise not to jointed cellular hyphe, but to flagellate monadiform germs,
possessing locomotive faculties, a spheroidal nucleus or endoplast, one or
more contractile vacuoles, and the faculty of ingesting solid food sub-
stances. After a short interval these germs, retracting their flagella,
assumed an amceboid repent phase, and, coalescing freely with their
neighbors, built up the so-called gelatinous or pulpy masses out of
which the sporangia, or peridia, were developed.” In view of such
manifestations, Dr. De Barry deemed himself forced to the conclusion
that the so-called plants could no longer be properly regarded as such,
but that they were members of the animal kingdom, and he conse-
quently preferred to change the name of Myxomycetes to Mycetozoa,
and thus indicate by the name the supposed facts in the case. The
observations of De Barry were essentially confirmed in 1562 by L.
Cienkowski, and still further extended by himself in 1864 in a special
monograph of the Mycetozoa.
Nevertheless, botanists have been loath to give up the group, and
while some have retained it among plants rather for the sake of con-
venience than conviction as to the plant-like nature of its species,
others have bitterly resented the attempt to transfer the type from the
vegetable to the animal kingdom. Whether such forms are animals or
plants has been a subject of controversy lately between Mr. Saville
Kent, a well-known student of the infusoria, and Dr. M. C. Cooke, an
enthusiastic cryptogamist. Mr. Kent has presented the argument in
favor of the animal nature of the group, and Mr. Cooke, while not
denying the facts epitomized, denies that they prove the organisms so
distinguished to be animals, and still claims that they are of a “truly
vegetable nature.” Another eminent cryptogamist, M. Van Tieghem
(Bull. Soc. Bot. France, v. 27, pp. 317-322) also considers the problem-
atic organisms to be plants, and even that the forms brought together
as Myxomycetes exhibit so much heterogeneity that they cannot be
naturally associated together, but should be dispersed and correlated
with various diverse fungi, which they most resemble in what he calls
their fructification. It may be added, in this connection, that Van —
Tieghem divides the Myxomycetes, as he naturally calls them, into
three groups: (1) those with the plasmodium fused and endosporous—
Myxomycetes restricted ; (2) those with the plasmodium also fused, but
exosporous—Ceratiacee ; and (3) those with the plasmodium aggre-
gated—Acrasiacee.
Some eminent zoologists (e. g., Dr. Claus) also are disposed to or
actually do repudiate the organisms in question as animals.
When such authorities differ we will not presume to offer an opinion.
ANG = ZOOLOGY.
That the characteristics of the organisms in their mature state are
those of plants, the universal consensus of botanists indicates; that the
embryonic condition at least simulates or even is essentially identical
with the amcebiform animals seems to be almost equally certain. Those
who knew the entities only in their adult stage would not question their
vegetable nature; those who might be acquainted with them only in
their embryonic condition would as little question their animal nature,
provided that the protozoans were conceded to be animals. Appar-
ently, therefore, they are animals in the earlier period of their existence,
and plants in the latter. The question then seems to be whether it
shall be admitted that the same organisms may really belong to differ-
ent kingdoms at different stages, or whether the pertinence to either
shall be decided by the features exemplified in the embryo or the mature.
Naturalists will recall how strong is the evidence as to affinities fur-
nished by development in the animal kingdom, and how by it questions
that would be otherwise obscure or insoluble have been completely ela-
cidated. Embryological characters are generally most persistent. On
the other hand, important changes and modifications may supervene in
the early stages of an organism while the adult remain comparatively
unchanged.
Symbiosis of Plants and Animals.
Several very interesting and remarkable cases of consociation and
interdependence between plants and animals have been recorded by Dr.
K. Brandt.
At one time chlorophyll was regarded as a peculiar and distinctive
constituent of plants, but it has now long been known as an element
occurring also in certain inferior animals. That the chlorophyll had
something to do with active vegetation in the animal organism had
been suspected, but the exact relations at least were unknown. Carl
Semper, it seems, approached the truth when he suggested that the
chlorophyll particles were of the nature cf vegetation commensal with
the animal. Commensalism, however, fails to express the interrelation
between the two. The green particles are truly unicellular plants,
and they have been discovered under minor modifications in very differ-
ent animals—infusoria of various kinds, sponges (Spongilla), acalephs
(Hydra), planarians (a fresh-water species). The investigations and
experiments conducted by Dr. Brandt and communicated to the Physio-
logical Society of Berlin may be said, in brief, to have established the
following facts: On the one hand, the alge elaborate organic matter from
inorganic and utilize the waste products of the animal. On the other
hand, the animals forsake an independent life so far as capture and in-
gestion of food is concerned, and are sufficiently nourished by the plants
which have found a home in their bodies.
Such a relationship cannot properly be said to be one of parasitism
or commensalism. The consociation of the two is mutually advan-
tageous, and an interdependence is established between them. The pecu-
ZOOLOGY. 417
liar relationship has been designated Symbiosis, and is justly regarded
by Dr. Brandt as one of the most remarkable phenomena in nature.
Morphologically, the alge are parasites; the animals are physiologi-
eally.
The symbiotic plants are developed under two so-called generic modi-
fications (Zoochlorella and Zooxranthella are the names conferred on
them) and several species. (J. R. M.S. 2, I, 241-4.)
The telegraph and animal life.
Certain manifestations of animal life have been co-ordinated with the
effects of the telegraph, by Nielson, director of the Norwegian telegraph
system. The telegraph posts in the pine region, even when sulphate
of copper has been applied, have been pecked into by woodpeckers,
especially near the insulators, and it is assumed that this has resulted
from the birds mistaking the sonorous vibration of the wires for insect
sounds. Bears, too, are attracted by the sounds, and disturb the stones
which are heaped around the poles, in their endeavors to get at the
bees whose humming is simulated by the vibrations. On the other
hand, wolves are said to be frightened away by the sound of the wires,
and a member of the Storthing, or Norwegian parliament, voted for a
grant to a telegraph line, not because the line would be of direct use to:
his constituents, but because the wolves would be thereby frightened
away. We register these observations without any indorsement of our
own.
PROTOZOANS.
GENERAL,
Balbiani (E.G.) Les Organismes Unicellulaires. Les Protozoaires. Lecons faites au
Collége de France. Journ. de Microgr., 5. ann., pp. 68, 116, 156, 203, 257, 292, 321,
397, 388, 435.
Biitschli (O.) Protozoa. Neu bearbeitet. 2.—7. Lief. Leipzig, C. F. Winter, 1881.
(Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen.—&vo. Each Leif. M. 1.50.) ;
Kent (William Saville). A Manual of the Infusoria, including a description of all
known Flagellate, Ciliate, and Tentaculiferous Protozoa, British and Foreign, and
an account of the organization and affinities of the Sponges. London, 1880-1881.
(8vo.)
Maggi(Leop.) Intorno ai Protisti ed alla loro classificazione. IT. Della classificazione
dei Protisti. Boll. Scientif., anno 3, pp. 16-23.
Ryder(J. A.) Occurrence of the same species of Protozoa on both sides of the Atlantic.
Proc, Acad. Nat. Sc. Phila., 1881, p. 442, 443.
SPECIAL GROUPS.
Pulsatoria.
Geddes (Patrick). Sur une nouvelle sous-classe d’Infusoires. Compt. rend. Acad. Sc.,
Paris, t. 93, p. 1085-1087.
Rhizopoda.
Biitschli (O.) Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Radiolarienskellette, insbesondere der der
Cyrtida. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., v. 36, pp. 485-540.
Haeckel (Ernst). Entwurf eines Radioiarien-Systems auf Grund yon Studien der
Challenger-Radiolarien. Jena. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., vy. 15, pp. 418-472.
S. Mis. 109 27
418 ZOOLOGY.
Tentaculifera.
“Manpas (E.) Contributions & étude des Acinétiens. Arch. Zool. Expérim., t.9, pp.
299-368.
Kent’s classification of the Protozgoans.
A new classification of the Protozoans having several novel features,
and disregarding views now quite generally prevalent, has been proposed
by Mr. W. Saville Kent in a “‘ Manual of the Protozoa.” Of the “ sub-
kingdom” in question, four classes are admitted and systematically
treated, viz:
(1.) PANTOSTOMATA, without a true oral orifice, the food being indif-
ferently ingested through the surface. The groups referable to this class
are the Amoebina, Gregarinida, Foraminifera, Radiolaria, and restricted
Flagellata.
(2.) DISCOSTOMATA, without a true oral orifice, but raking in their food
within thelimits of a discoidal anga occupying the anterior extremity of
the body. Its groups are the “Choano-fla gellate” (collar-bearing Fla-
gellatz) and the Spongida.
(3.) EUSTOMATA, having a true mouth and containing the greater part
of the infusoria, viz: Ciliata, Cilio-flagellata, and “such Flagellata as
Buglena and Chilomonas.”
(4.) PoLYSTOMATA, ‘with tentacle-like organs radiating from the
periphery, each of which serves as a tubular sucking-mouth or for grasp-
ing food,” including the “ Suctorial animaleules or Tentaculifera of
Huxley (Acineta, &c.).”
It will be thus seen that the old view as to the relations of the sponges
is still adhered to and the interpretation of the facts from the light of
development is rejected. (J. R. M.S., 2, I, 615-616.)
Transparent Animaleules.
The waters of Lake Maggiore and the spring of Valcuvia have been
recently examined by Professor Maggi, and by various coloring and
hardening re-agents a number of forms not ctherwise visible have been
revealed under the microscope. These have been collectively designated
as Aphaneri (not evident) and contrasted with the Phaneri (evident),
which term designates the bacteria and other minute organisms visible
under the microscope without re-agents. The Aphaneri are thought
to be harmless. It is proposed to supply the city of Milan with water
from the lake.—( Nature, v. 25, p. 348.)
A new primary Group of Infusorians.
In the mesoderm of a certain Planarian worm (Convoluta schulzit)
occur cells which are about the size of the red blood-corpuscles of a
frog, and which are of a curved pyriform shape, and have a large cen-
tral vacuole filled with fluid. From the wall of this cavity, towards the
convex side of the cell, arise homogeneous transparent fibrille in a row
which is almost parallel with its principal axis. These cells, when free
insalt-water, manifest arhythmical contractility, “the rapidity and vigor
of which are equally surprising, the most active pulsating from 100 to
ZOOLOGY. 419
180 times per minute.” Mr. Patrick Geddes’ investigation of these
bodies convinced him that they were parasitic infusorians with such
well-marked characteristics as to warrant their distinction as a peculiar
primary group (which he called a “ sub-class”) co-ordinate with the Sue-
toria ciliata and Flagellata, and which he has named Pulsatoria. They
deviate from the infusoria generally by the suppression of the cilia
(which would not be available for locomotion among the cells of the
mesoderm) and the differentiation of the contractile vesicle. ‘This dif-
ferentiation,” it is added, ‘‘is certainly very remarkable from every point
of view when we consider the relatively enormous size of the vacuole, the
development of the contractile fibers which limit it, or the rapidity of
their contraction.” The new type has received the specific name Pulsa-
tella convolute. Other Planarians were searched for similar organisms,
but without success. (J. R. M.S. 2, IT, 204-205, from Comptes Rend.
Acad. Se., XCIIT, 1085-1087.)
PORIFERS.
GENERAL.
Schulz (Frz. Eilh.) Untersuchungen iiber den Bau und die Entwickelung der Spon-
gien.—10 Mittheil. Corticiwm candelabrum O. Schm. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., v. 35,
pp. 410-430.
SPECIAL GROUPS.
Fibrosa.
Carter (J. H.) History and Classification of the known species of Spongilla. Ann. g
Mag. Nat. Hist., (5,) v. 7, pp. 77-107, 2 pl.
Dybowski,(W.) Einige Bemerkungen iiber die Veriinderlichkeit der Form und Gestalt
von Lubomirskia baicalensis und tiber die Verbreitung der Baikalschwiimme im
Allgemeinen. Bull. Acad. Se. St. Pétersb., v.31, pp. 45-50; Mélang. biolog., v.11,
pp. 41-47.
Potts (E.) Some new Genera of Fresh-water Sponges. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phila.,
1881, pp. 149-150.
Schulze (F. E.) Sur la structure et la disposition des parties molles de l’Euplectella
aspergillum. Arch. Zool. Expérim., t. 9, Notes, ete., p. xxvii.
Camaraphysemide.
Ryder (John A.) On Camaraphysema, a new tyye of Sponge. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.,
v. 3, p. 269-272.
FOSSIL SPONGES.
Whitfield (R. P.) Observations on the Structure of Dictyophyton and its affinities
with certain Sponges. Amer. Jour. Sc., (3,) v. 22, pp. 53-54; Ann. § Mag. Nat.
Hist., (5,) v. 8, pp. 167-168.
On the Nature of Dictyophyton. Amer. Journ. Sc., (3,) v. 22, p. 122; Ann. &
Mag. Nat. Hist., (5,) v. 8, pp. 237.
APPENDIX.
Parasites.
Carter (H. J.) On Spongiophaga in Spongilla. Ann. § Mag. Nat. Hist., (5,) v. 8,
p. 222.
Duncan (P. Mart.) Onan Organism which penetrates and excavates siliceous Sponge-
spicula (Spongiophaga Carteri). Ann. § Mag. Nat. Hist., (5,) v. 8, p. 120-122.
420 ZOOLOGY.
Peculiar Paleozoic Sponges.
In rocks of the Devonian period and of the Chemung group of New
York, the Waverly beds of Ohio, and the Keokuk beds of Iowa and
Indiana, are found certain problematical fossils to which the generic
names Hydnoceras, Dictyophyton, and Uphanteenia have been given.
These fossils have been supposed by most paleontologists to have been
plants related to the alge. Mr. R. P. Whitfield, of New York, has
recently sought to ascertain their affinities, and has come to the conclu-
sion that they were, in fact, of sponge origin. His later researches were
seconded by Principal Dawson, of McGill University, who now enter-
tains the same opinion. The organisms in question are more or less
elongated tubes, and ‘have been composed of a thin film or pellicle of
net-work made of longitudinal and horizontal threads which cross each
other at right angles”; when carefully examined ‘one set appears to
pass on the outside and the other on the inside of the body.” A Uphan-
tenia from Indiana, which was later examined, exhibited the original
structure better and “retained the substance of the organism. Under
a hand-glass of moderate power it is seen to have been composed of
cylindrical threads of various sizes, now replaced by pyrite.” It had
broad, radiating bands, and between them narrow, thread-like bands as
well as “circular,” narrow or thread ones. ‘The broad bands are com-
posed of very fine thread-like spicules, and the narrow ones of much
stronger ones, while the thin film occupying the intermediate spaces is
composed of still smaller spicules, apparently arranged in radiating
manner.” According to Principal Dawson, viewed as opaque objects,
“the reticulating bands are seen to be fascicles of slender cylindrical
rods or spicules,” and the spicules are “‘ usually cylindrical and smooth,”
but occasionally taper gently to a point. ‘In their present state they
appear as solid, shining rods of pyrite.” It is aptly added, that “ the
most puzzling fact” is “the mineral condition of the spicules, now wholly
replaced by pyrite.” Nevertheless, “the study of the specimen” in
question “inclined” Principal Dawson ‘“ to regard it as more probably
a sponge” than as a fucoid, as he had previously supposed. (A. J.S.,
(3,) XXII, pp. 53-54; 132-133.)
Subsequently, Mr. C. D. Walcott re-examined a fossil from the Utica
Slate, which he had deseribed in 1879 as an alga, under the name Cyatho-
phycus, and now considers it likewise to have been a sponge. It exhib-
ited the same general features of structure as the Hynoceratide and the
spicules in it, too, had been all apparently replaced by pyrite. (A.J.S..
(3,) XXII, pp. 894-395.) All the fossils referred to have been compared,
as to structure, with Huplectella, and it has been said that they exhibited
the greatest similarity to that genus, but doubtless it was meant in a
general manner, and not, as might be inferred, that there was any inti-
mate relationship, or, in fact, closer afiinity between the forms discussed
and the recent genus than with the living relatives of the last.
ZOOLOGY. 4?1
Propagation of Sponges.
Some observations, interesting from a physiological as well as prac-
tical point of view, have been published by Dr. E. von Marenzeller,
respecting the propagation of sponges. The investigations in question
were made in 1863 and 1872, in the Bay of Socolizza, under the auspices
of the Austro-Hungarian Government, with a view to the improvement
of the sponge crop of the Adriatic; but, strange as it may seem, they
were regarded with a determined hostility by the inhabitants of the
region. This antagonism materially interfered with the investigation,
but enough was learned to suggest that, under favorable auspices,
sponge-culture could be successfully carried on. Winter is the most
suitable season for the experiment; clear and sheltered bays the best
place. The sponges for propagation should be carefully gathered, and
the cuttings may be best made with a very fine saw. The best size for
the cuttings is about a cubic inch. Such pieces, consigned to the water,
speedily attach themselves to the surface with which they come into
contact, especially if the cut surface is applied. For fuller details refer-
ence is made to the Journal of the Society of Arts (v. 29, pp. 592-594)
and the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society (2, v. 1, pp. 748-
751). , ;
CQ@LENTERATES.
GENERAL.
Chun (C.). Die Natur und Wirkungsweise der Nesselzellen bei Coelenteraten. Zool.
Anz., 4. Jahrg., pp. 646-650.
SPECIAL CLASSES.
POLYPS.
Andres (Aug.). Prodromus Neapolitan Actiniarum Fauna, addito generalis Actinia-
rum bibliographize catalogo. Mittheil. zoolog. Station Neapel, v. 2, pp. 305-371.
ACALEPHS.
1. General.
Guerne (Jul. de). Méduses dean douce et @eau saumitre. Bull. Sc. Dépt. du Nord,
1880 (publ. 1881), pp. 417-424.
Haeckel (Ernst). Monographie der Medusen. 2. Th. Die Tiefsee-Medusen der Chal-
lenger-Reise. Der Organismus der Medusen. Mit 32 Kupfertaf. und 8 Holzschn.
Jena, G. Fischer, 1881. (4to M. 46.)
Romanes (George J.). Concluding remarks on the locomoter system of Meduse.
Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. London, v. 171, pp. 161-202.
. Medusz and Hydroid Polyps living in Fresh Water. Quart. Journ. Mic, Sc.,
v. 21, pp. 162-165.
2. Special orders.
Hydroidea.
Clans (C.). Ueber Aequorea Forskalea Esch. als Aequoride des adriatischen Meeres,
zugleich als Kritik von E,. Haeckel’s Aequoridensystem. Arbeit. Zoolog. Instit.
Wien, v. 3, pp. 283-312, 1881.
Lankester (E. Ray). On young stages of Lymnocodium Geryonia. Quart. Journ. Mier.
Soc., v. 21, pp. 194-201, 1 pl.
422 ZOOLOGY.
Siphonophora.
Chun (C.). Das Nervensystem der Siphonophoren. Zool. Anz., 4. Jahrg., pp. 107-111.
Fewkes (J. Walter). The Siphonophores. II. The Anatomy and Development of
Agalma—continned. Am. Naturalist, v. 15, pp. 186-195.
Phanerocarpe.
Haeckel (E.). Organisation und Classification der Acraspeden. Jena. Zeitschrift f.
Naturw., v. 14, Suppl.-Heft, pp. 20-29.
Classification der Discomedusen. Jena. Zeitschrift f. Naturw., v. 14, Suppl.-
Heft, pp. 51-64.
Meduse and Hydroid Polyps living in fresh water.
Mention was made in the Smithsonian Report for 1880 of the oceur-
rence of various medusiform acalephs in fresh water, and the change in
our ideas as to their adaptability for life in such a medium which the
facts entailed. “The tolerance by Meduse belonging to marine species
of fresh water under natural conditions was observed by Mr. Mosely,
at Browera Creek, in New South Wales” (Naturalist on the Challenger,
p. 272), and Mr. A. Agassiz communicated analogous instances ob-
served near Boston in a letter to Prof. E. Ray Lankester (Quart. Journ.
Mier. Se., n. s., v. 20, pp. 483-485). Mr. George’J. Romanes has experi-
mented on Sarsia with reference to its tolerance of change, and recalled
that Prof. L. Agassiz made a partial experiment in 1850, and found that
a Sarsia transferred directly from salt water into a glass of fresh “ will
at once drop like a ball to the bottom and remain forever motionless—
killed instantaneously by the mere difference of density of the two
media” (Mem. Am. Acad. Arts and Se., 1850, p. 229). Mr. Romanes,
however, found that while the Sarsia did really drop down as described,
instantaneous death did not ensue, but if transferred back into salt
water within five or ten minutes the Sarsia would revive and regain full
vigor, but if allowed to remain in the fresh water as long as fifteen min-
utes recovery never ensued. Mr. Romanes also sought to ascertain
whether the collapse of the Sarsia in fresh water was the result of a
difference of density, and his experiments, although not conclusive, ap-
peared to indicate that it was not, but rather, perhaps, due to the ab-
sence of the chemical constituents of its natural medium. It is to be
borne in mind that these experiments were on the abrupt transter from
the one medium to the other. As to the cases cited of the living of salt-
water species in fresh water, Mr. Romapes “can only conclude from it
that a gradual transition from salt to comparatively fresh water, not
giving rise to such rapid osmosis” as takes place in case of abrupt
change, “is not so injurious to Meduse” as he should have suspected.
He adds that “the whole subject is thus shown well worthy of further
experimental inquiry.” (Quart. Journ. Micr. Se., n.s., v. 21, pp. 162-
165; Phil. Trans. Royal Soc., v. 167, p. 744, ete.)
ZOOLOGY. 423
ECHINODERMS.
1, GENERAL.
Morphology.
Romanes (G. J.) and J. C.‘Ewart. ‘Locomotor system of Echinodermata, Nature, v.
23, pp. 545-547.
Fauna.
Duncan (P. M.) and W. Percy Sladen. A Memoir of the Echinodermata of the Arctic
Sea to the west of Greenland. London, Van Voorst, 1861. (fol. 108 6d)
« 2, SPECIAL ORDERS.
Blastoidea.
Carpenter (P. Herbert). On certain points in _ the Me cE nels of the Blastoides.
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (5,) v. 8, pp. 418-424.
Crinoidea.
Carpenter (P. Herbert), The minute Anatomy of the Brachiate Echinoderms. Quart.
Journ. Micr. Se., v.21, pp. 164-193, 2 pl.
Carpenter (P. H.). On two new Crinoids from fhe Upper Chalk of Southern Sweden.
With1 pl. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, yv. 37, pp. 128-136.
Wachsmuth (Charles) and Frank Springer. Revision of the Paleocrinoidea. P. II.
Family Spheroidocrinide. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phila., 1881, pp. 177-414, 3 pl.
Echinoidea.
Bell (F. Jeffrey). Observations on the characters of the Echinoidea. IV. The Echin-
ometride: their Affinities and Systematic Position. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1881,
pp. 410-433.
Loriol(P. de). Monographie des Echinoides contenus dans les couches nummulitiques
del’Egypte. Mém. Soc. Phys. et d’ Hist. Nat. de Geneve, v. 27, pp. 59-146, 2 pl.
Ophiuroidea.
Lyman (Theodore). Tie stomach and genital organs of Astrophytide. Bull, Mus.
Comp. Zool., v. 8, pp. 117-125, 2 pl.
a
Holothuroidea.
Ludwig (Hub.). Revision der Mertens-Brandt’schen Holothurien. Zeitschr. f. wiss.
Zool., Vv. 35, pp. 575-599.
The star-fishes and diagnostic formule for them.
The genus containing the common star-fish of the coasts of the New
England and Middle States, has been re-examined by Prof. F. J.
Bell. The name Asterias is retained for the genus, and 79 species are
admitted as distinct. These are distributed under several successively
narrowed series of groups, and a peculiar diagnostic system-or formula
is proposed to make known in terse form the various combinations of
characters. They are distinguished (1) by the number of rays, whether
five (pentactinida) or more (heteractinida); then (2) by the number of
ADA ZOOLOGY.
madreporic plates, whether one (monoplacid) or more (polyplacid); (3)
by the number of spines bordering the ambulacra, these being in some
uniserial (monacanthida), and in others biserial (diplacanthida) ; (4) some
have the madreporic plate, with a circlet of spines (echinoplacida), and
others are destitute of such (anechinoplacida); (5) some again have
“the greater number of the intermediate spines on special local modi-
fications of the integument, which may be known as special plates”
(autacanthid), while ‘‘others retain the simpler disposition which is seen
in A. rubens and most of the better known forms” (typacanthid); finally
(6), the spines of the abactinal surface afford modifications of various
values, some being “simple” (simplices), others ‘‘rare” (rarispinose),
others “blunt” (obtusispinose), and still others ‘‘acute” (acutispinose).
The possession of one or other of these several characteristics is expressi-
ble by symbols, viz:
1 =monacanthid; 2 =diplacanthid; 3 = polyacanthid ;
m = monoplacid ; p =polyplacid ;
> =echinoplacid; a =anechinoplacid;
wv =autacanthid ; t = typacanthid ; s — simplices;
ry =rarispine; r’/=retusispinose; ¢ = acutispinose.
Further, to distinguish between the Pentactinida and the Heterac-
tinida, Professor Bell proposes “to place the formula for the latter
under the mathematical sign of a square root: thus, V Ip is sufficient to
distinguish A. calamaria as a monacanthid, polyplacid, heteractinid
form.” By the use of such symbols Professor Bell has given the prin-
cipal distinctive characters of 78 species within less than an octavo
page. The Asterias vulgaris of New England, e. g., is diagnosed by the
formula, ‘2 ats, which indicates that it has (1) five rays; (2) is dipla-
canthid, or with biserial adambulacral spines”; (3) “anechinoplacid,”
or destitute of a circlet of spines to the madreporic plate; (4) “typa- |
canthid,” or with the intermediate spines simply disposed and not
arising from special plates; and (5) with the spines of the abactinal sur-
face simple. (P.Z. S., 1881, pp. 492-515.) :
BILATERALIA.
ENTEROPNEUSTA.
Metschnikoff (El.). Ueber die systematische Stellung von Balanoglossus. Zool. Anz.,
4, Jahrg., pp. 139-143; 153-157.
Systematic position of Balanoglossus. Journ. R. Microscop. Soc., (2,) v. 1,
pp. 462-463.
[An abstract of the preceding. ]
The systematic position of Balanoglossus.
The remarkable genus Balanoglossus has been re-examined. The
earlier naturalists regarded it, in its adult stage, as a worm, and had no
suspicion that it could have any other relations. What afterwards
.
ZOOLOGY. 425
proved to be the larva was, however, with as little doubt, referred to the
Echinoderms. In its adult condition it has an internal branchiferous
canal, which simulates that of the Tunicates. What, then, are its
affinities ?
As early as 1870 Metschnikoff considered that it might be really
related to the Echinoderms, as its larval condition suggested. This
view has not found much favor, but during the past year he reiterated
it and fortified it with new arguments, based chiefly on its development.
Balanoglossus, then, resembles the Echinoderms in the longitudinal
band of cilia, the water-vesicle opening by the dorsal pore, and the
peritoneal sacs, while the two hinder circlets of cilia and the terminal
anus are developed in some Echinoderms, and the latter is always
found in the youngest stages of all typical Echinoderm larve. The
histological characteristics are equally repeated in the Echinoderms.
The course of development is also similar in the two. In short, Metsch-
nikoff insists on retaining Balanoglossus with the Echinoderms in the
same branch or sub-kingdom—or “type,” as he prefers to call it—and
gives to that type the comprehensive name, Ambulacraria. Balano-
glossus is isolated, as a “sub-type” named Bilateralia, and the typical
Echinoderms form another renamed Radiata.
The observations of Metschnikoff have been reviewed by Prof. A.
Giard, and supplemented by the French naturalist’s own investigations.
He calls special attention to the existence, in the Tornaria state, of a
peculiar heart, which no Echinoderm is known to possess, the compara-
tively late development of the ciliated circlets, and the presence of a
muscular band connecting the dorsal aquiferous system with the median
point of the eye-spots—all presenting difficulties in associating Balano-
glossus with the Echinoderms. Nevertheless, Giard is disposed to coin-
cide with Metschnikoff in approximating the one to the other, while he
does not venture to pronounce on the phylogenetic relationships of the
two. He even suggests a new argument in favor of the approximation,
in the possibility of a similarity of the two in the development alike of
excretory and deutoplasmigenous functions, at certain times of the year,
of the genital glands. He unqualifiedly repudiates the idea that there
is, as has been claimed, any genetic relationship between Balanoglossus
and the Tunicates. (J. R. M. S., (2,) II, p. 194, from Bull. Sci. Dép.
Nord, IV, pp. 372-378.)
WORMS.
ORTHONECTIDS.
Metschnikoff (El.). Observations on the Orthonectida. Abstr. in Journ. R. Micro-
scop. Soc. (2,) v. 1, pp. 461-462.
Characteristics and relations of the Orthonectids.
In the notice of the progress of zoology in the Smithsonian Report for
1580, reference was made to the newly proposed “class” of Orthonectids.
426 ZOOLOGY.
The group has been again investigated—-this time by Prof. E. Metschni-
koff—with the following results:
The Orthonectids may be said to be forms which, on the whole, develop
a radiate plan of structure, and have a ciliated and segmented dermal
layer, well-developed generative organs, and well-marked dimorphism of
the sexes. Professor Metschnikoff considers them to be probably degen-
erated forms, and suggests that they may be most nearly related to the
Turbellarians, through Dinophilus, a member of the latter group, which
has also a superficial ciliary segmentation and well-marked sexual
dimorphism. The sexes are developed from diversiform eggs, the males
arising from the smaller eggs and the females from the larger. The
males are minute, and their “only evident organ is a spacious testicular
sac.” .The representatives of the “class” move in a straight course,
and consequently negative the suggestion of Rabl-Ruckhard, that the
radiate plan of structure is due to movement within a restricted area.
(J. R.M.S., (2,) I, pp. 461-462, from Z. W. Z., XX XV, pp. 282-304, 1 pl.)
PLATYHELMINTHES.
1. General.
Lang (A.). Untersuchungen zur vergleichenden Anatomie und Histologie des Nerven-
systems der Plathelminthen. Mittheil. Zool. Station Neapel, v. 3, pp. 53-96.
Der Bau von Gunda segmentata und die Verwandtschaft der Plathelmin-
then mit Coelenteraten und Hirudineen. Jbid., v. 3, pp. 187-251.
2. Special orders.
Cestoda.
Stein(S. Th.). Entwickelungsgeschichte und Parasitismus der menschlichen Cestoden.
Mit 79 Illustrat. and 115 microphotogr. Abbild. auf 14 Taf. nach J. Grimm.
Lahr, Schauenburg, 1881. (8vo. M. 18.)
Trematoda.
Fraipont (J.). Organes excréteurs des Trématodes et Cestodes. Bull. Soc. Belge. Mi-
croscop., t. 7, 1881, pp. xxxi-xlii. (Abstr.: Journ. Roy. Microscop. Soc., {2,) v. 1,
pp. 741-742.
Pagenstecher (H. Alex.), Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Trematoden, insbesondere’
iiber Arbeit des Prof. Giambatt. Ercolani: Dell’ Adattamento, ete. Verhandl. nat.-
med. Ver. Heidelberg, un. F., v. 3, pp. 33-56.
Turbellaria.
Silliman (W. A.). Sur un nouveau type de Turbellariés. Compt. rend. Ac. Sc. Paris,
t. 93, pp. 1087-1089.
Selenka (Emil). Zoologische Studien. II. Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der See-
planarien. Kin Beitrag zur Keimbliitterlehre und Descendenztheorie. Mit 7 Tat.
und 2 Holzschn. Leipzig, Engelmann, 1881. (4to. v, 44 pp. M. 6.)
A new suborder of Turbellarians.
Parasitic on a Nematoid worm—itself parasitic on the Echinoderm,
Echinus sphera—oceurs a peculiar form, which has been investigated
by Mr. W. A. Silliman. The animal is of sublanceolate form, about
ZOOLOGY. AE
225 millimeters long and 1.5 wide, and is destitute of suckers or hooks.
Its epidermis is constituted by moderately regular hexagonal and cili-
ated cells. The male is noteworthy in that it has numerous tes icles
and the penis ensheathed. The female has a double ovary and pseudo-
vitellogen, and a uterus as well as vagina. The pseudovitellogen is
developed in the second third of the body, and is manifested in the torm
of numerous ramified tubes, which, on each side, unite towards the
median line and debouch into the uterus; the vagina opens far back on
the dorsal surface and extends forwards toward the uterus. The animal
thus distinguished has received the generic name Syndesmis. It agrees.
with the Turbellarians in the ciliated epidermis, oral apparatus, male
organs, and the possession of two ovaries by the female, and with the
Trematods as to the vagina and disposition of the pseud ovitellogen.
The peculiar combination of characters is deemed to authorize its erec-
tion into a special “sub-order” of Turbellarians. (J. R. M.S., (2,) I,
pp. 192-193, from C. R., XCIII, 1807-1809.)
NEMATELMINTHES.
Nematoda.
Perroncito(E.). Helminthologische Beobachtungen beziiglich der unter den Arbeitern
am St. Gotthard-Tunnel aufgetretenen endemischen Krankheit. Jn Moleschott’s
Untersuch. zur Naturlehre d. Menschen, vy. 15, pp. 532-562.
ANNELIDS.
1. General.
Kleinenberg (N.). Sull’ origine del sistema nervoso centrale degli Annelidi. Rela-
zione del Fr. Todaro. Atti Accad. Lincei, Transunti, v. 6, pp. 15-16.
Verrill (A. E). New England Annelida. Part I. Historical Sketch, with Annotated
List of the Species hitherto recorded. Trans. Connecticut Acad. Sc., v.4, pp. 285-
324,
2. Special orders.
Oligocheta.
Eisen (Gustaf) Eclipidrilide and their Anatomy, A new family of the limicolidy
Oligocheta. N. Acta. R. Soc. Upsaliensis, 1881. (4to, 10. pp., 2 pl.)
Darwin (Charles). The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the action of Worms,.
with observations on their habits. With illustrations. London, J. Murray, 1881.
(12mo, vii, 326 pp.)
Polycheta.
Rietsch (Max). Organization of Sternaspisscutata. Abstr. Journ. Roy Microscop. Soc.,
(2,) v.1, pp. 601-602.
Vejdovsky (Frz.). Untersuchungen iiber die Anatomie, Physiologie und Entwicke-
lung von Sternaspis. <Abhandl. Akad. Wiss. Wien, v. 43.
A Parasitic Polychetous Worm.
It is a rule that the Polycheta, the order represented by the great
majority of the common marine annelids, lead a free life. It is a rule
AVS ZOOLOGSs
which has its exceptions, héwever, though they are rare. In early life,
for example, the Alciopids are parasitic in the ctenophorous ceelenterates,
but later become free. But recently Dr. J. W. Sprengel, at Naples,
while examining specimens of Bonellia (a genus of Gephyrean worms),
detected in their coelom orange-colored cord-like bodies, which mani-
fested lively movements, which proved to be polycheetous worms. These
were about 10 centimeters long and a millimeter wide, and had about
200 segments; “the maxillary apparatus was rudimentary, and there
were only three small teeth in the upper jaw.” The form has been
named by Dr. Sprengel Oligognathus Bonellie, and referred to the
family of Lumbriconereids. An elaborate description has been pub-
lished, with illustrations. (J. R. M.S. (2,) v. 2, pp. 190, 191.)
Natatory Bladders in Annelids.
Certain Annelids may be found floating passively on the surface of
the water, and one of such species—the Hesione sicula—was observed
by Dr. H. Eisig to emit air-bubbles both from the mouth and anus.
Dr. Eisig sought to ascertain the rationale of such phenomena, and his
investigations were rewarded by the discovery of a viscus that had
apparently been overlooked in the Annelids. In Hesione were found
two contractile appendages, which communicated with the intestine,
and which might be either distinct bladders or inconsiderable diver-
ticula, according to their distension or collapse. These parts are di-
verticula of the fore stomach, and are regarded as probably arising from
the endoderm. Air-bladders were found to be developed in representa-
tives not only of the family Hesionide, but also among the Syllide, but
not universally. Their absence or atrophy, when not developed, has
been supposed to be due to the assumption of the function of respiration
by the skin; for although the bladders in question serve to float the
animal, such office is merely secondary, and not their principal function.
Their primary purpose is supposed to be respiratory. They were never
found to contain anything except a gas and a clear fluid, which could
be taken in or discharged voluntarily by the animal. The so-called air
was not atmospheric, and was supposed to be secreted by the stomach,
and probably to be oxygen; enough could not be secured to make a
chemical analysis. Although, as already remarked, the organ with its
functions has previously been unnoticed, it was’ known—e. g., in the
Sylidse—as the “T-shaped glands.” :
Worms as Farthmakers.
The common earth-worm comes within the cognizance of the ordinary
observer chiefly as a useful bait to be impaled on a hook and thus used
for attracting fish for the sport of the angler. The juvenile representa-
tives of the brotherhood of the rod have generally learned to recognize
ZOOLOGY. 42)
the whereabouts of their victim by conglomerations of little pellets of
earth here and there; and knowing ones are wont to cautiously explore
localities so indicated with lanterns at night or in the early morning,
and there find the worms partly or entirely outside their holes. Few ot
the many who have learned thus much of the animal in question have
ever thought of the important functions in the economy of nature per-
formed by the humble being. Even as far back as 1837, however, Mr.
Darwin had appreciated the role that it plays and communicated to the
yeological Society of London a special memoir ‘On the Formation of
Mould” by worms. Considerable skepticism was evoked respecting his
conclusions, so insignificant did the means appear to the end, but the
author published as his last contribution to science a special work on
the subject, and has fortified and amplified his early studies and con-
clusions. As Darwin says, some observant ‘farmers are aware that
objects of all kinds left on the surface of pasture land after a time
disappear, or, as they say, work themselves downward.” This disap-
pearance is of course due to no automatic process of the objects sinking
down, but really to the cumulative effect of worms’ castings. The
doubt such a statement may excite will be dissipated by a knowledge
of what a worm can do in a given period, and the multiplication of that
amount by number and time.
Hensen, in experiments made on worms in confinement and fed on
leaves, found that they ejected about eight grains of earth a day; but,
according to Darwin, ‘‘a very much larger amount must be ejected by
worms in their natural state, at the periods when they consume earth
as food instead of leaves, and when they are making deep burrows.”
In corroboration of this opinion, Darwin has tabulated tke results of
numerous observations on the “weight of the castings accumulated at
the mouth of a single burrow.” Before weighing, the castings were
dried (excepting in one specified instance) by exposure during many
days to the sun or before a hot fire.” These castings for each hole
‘‘oenerally exceeded an ounce in weight after being dried, and some-
times nearly equaled a quarter of a pound. On the Nilgiri Mountains
one casting even exceeded this latter weight. The largest castings in
England were found on extremely poor pasture land; and these are
generally larger than those on land producing a rich vegetation. It
would appear that worms have to swallow a greater amount of earth
on poor than on rich land, in order 2o obtain sufficient nutriment.” (P.
162.) In another place we are told that Hensen found that ‘there
must exist 133,000 living worms in a hectare of land, or 53,767 in an
acre. This latter number of worms would weigh 356 pounds, taking
Hensen’s standard of the weight of a single worm, namely, one gram.
It should, however, be noted, says Mr. Darwin, “that this calculation
is founded en the numbers found in a garden, and Hensen believes that
worms are twice as numerous in gardens as in cornfields.” On the
430 ZOOLOGY.
other hand, recent observations demonstrate that worms may occur in
even much greater numbers tlian were found by Hensen. An English
gentleman, e. g., found in Hertfordshire, “in his forest land, as many as
100 to the cubie yard, and in a rich strip bordering vines not less than
180 animals in an equal area; 7. e., from 484,000 to 871,000 to an acre.”
(Critic, N.'Y., v. 2, p. 76, 1831.)
A little calculation will convince the most skeptical that worms with
the habits thus indicated and in the numbers known to occur must in
time produce great effects. Mr. Darwin has been observing their habits
and doings for many years. ‘Near Maer Hall, in Staffordshire, quick-
lime had been spread, about the year 1827, thickly over a field of good
pasture-land which had not since been plowed. Some square holes were
dug in this field in the beginning of October, 1837; and the sections
showed a layer of turf formed by the matted roots of the grasses, half
an inch in thickness, beneath which, at a depth of 24 inches (or 3 inches
from the surface), a layer of the lime in powder or in small lumps could
be distinctly seen running all round the vertical sides of the holes.” (P.
130.) Again, a quantity of broken chalk was spread on December 20,
1842, over part of a field near Darwin’s house. “The chalk was laid
on the land for the sake of observing at some future period to what
depth it would become buried. At the énd of November, 1871—that is,
after an interval of 29 years—a trench was dug across this part of the
field, and a line of white nodules could be traced at a depth of 7 inches
from the surface. The mold, therefore (exclusive of the turf), had been
thrown up at an average rate of .22 inch per year.” (P. 139.) In view
of such operations we can readily account for the burial of ancient
cities and towns, and a number of cases in point are cited in a special
chapter on “the part which worms have played in the burial of ancient
buildings.” The subsidence of pavements, the burial of Roman villas
at Abinger, Chedworth, Brading, and elsewhere, the entombment of
the Roman towns of Silchester, Wroxeter, &c., are shown to be mainly
due to the action of worms. We can readily comprehend, therefore,
how it is that the more ancient cities which once flourished in Asia and
the older seats of civilization have been covered to such a depth as to
have been entirely concealed, even without taking into consideration
the accumulation of dust and other dirt.
Analyses of worm-casts have been communicated to the Royal Hor-
ticultural Society, by Dr. Gilbert, with reference to the amount of nitro-
gen involved. He found that the dried mold contained 35 per cent.
of nitrogen, which was considerably more than was present in the mold
of pasture land and two or three times more than in that of arable land.
It was less rich, however, than highly manured kitchen-garden mold.
On the whole the soil only gained from what the worms brought up
from below, as by trenching.
ZOOLOGY. A3t
ARTHROPODS.
MEROSTOMES.
Trilobita.
Ford (S. W.). Embryonic Forms of Trilobites from the Primordial Rocks of Troy, N.
Y. Am. Journ. Sc., (3,) v. 22, p. 250-259.
Walcott (C. D.). The Trilobite: New and Old Evidence relating to its Organization.
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., v. 8, p. 191-230, with 6 pl.
Xiphosura. ‘
Jousset de Bellesme. Observations sur les fonctions de ’appendice caudal des Limules.
Ann. Scienc. Nat. (6), v. 2, Art. No. 7. (5 p.)
Lankester (E. Ray). Limulus an Arachnid. Quart. Journ. Mic. Sc., n. 8., v. 21, pp.
5@4-548, 609-649, pl. 28-29, July and Oct., 1881.
Relations of the Merostomes.
The Merostomes, 7. e., the Horseshoe Crabs of the present epoch
and their ancient relatives, as well as the Trilobites, have been almost
universally considered, until within the last few years, as true Crus-
taceans. As long ago as 1829, however, an eminent French anato-
mist —Straus Durkheim—maintained that Limulus belonged rather to
the Arachnids, and was the type, in that class, of a peculiar order,
which he named ‘‘Gnathopodes.”. The Arachnids, for him, were char-
acterized by the legs abutting on a common sternum, the presence of
an internal cartilaginous sternum, and the absence of antenne. Al-
phonse Milne-Edwards proposed to isolate the group as an intermediate
form between the Crustaceans and Arachnids. Claus and Packard
considered the group to be one of primary importance within the Crus-
taceans, the Horseshoe Crab and its allies representing a subclass in
contrast with all the other representatives of the class.
Prof. E. Ray Lankester has recently discussed the gross morphology
and relationships of these most gigantic of articulates in the Quarterly
Journal of Microscopical Science, and presented quite a complete and
well-digested analysis of their characters compared and contrasted with
those of Arachnids and Crustaceans. A detailed comparison is insti-
tuted between Limulus and Scorpio, segment for segment, and the
results thereof are summarized in very convenient form, in tables, for
Limulus on one page, and Scorpio on the opposite, exhibiting in several
columns the characteristics of the segments from the first to the eight-
eenth, as to (1) the Tergites, (2) the Sternites, and (3) the Appendages.
The differences between the forms thus specially compared are great in
some respects, although generally less than those which would be appar-
ent on a comparison between Limulus and any true Crustacean. The
hiatus intervening between the two is, however, to a considerable ex-
tent bridged over by the Eurypterinaof the Paleozoic epoch. Inasmuch
as the close affinity of the Eurypterina to the Limulids is now univer-
sally admitted, that which is relevant to the former is applicable to the
432 ZOOLOGY.
major group of which both are equaily members. Professor Lankester
is therefore fully justified in the postulate that “there is not only a gen-
eral resemblance of the Eurypterine body to that of the Scorpion, but
that in many of the most important points the Eurypterine body and
appendages agree precisely with those of the Scorpion, and not in a
merely general way. The Eurypterina, in fact, confirm the validity of
the comparisons between Limulus and Scorpio.
Finally, Professor Lankester has summed up the points of. agreement
of the Horseshoe Crab and Eurypterids with the Arachnids, and their
differences from the Crustaceans, in the following terms:
1. Limulus and the Eurypterines (the one supplementing the other)
agree precisely with the Scorpion in the existence of eighteen segments
expressed in the structure of their bodies, and in the distribution of
these segments into three groups of six each, viz: a leg-bearing cephalo-
thoracic region; an anterior abdominal region, in which each segment
carries lamellate appendages; and a posterior abdominal region devoid
of appendages, ending with the anus and a postanal spine. No Crus-
tacean presents this number and grouping of its constituent somites.
2. Limulus and the Eurypterines agree with the Scorpion precisely in
the position of the genital aperture beneath an opercular plate formed
by the coalescence of the seventh pair (in Eurypterines the actual sixth
pair of appendages). No Crustacean has the generative orifice so far
forward, and in none is there a genital operculum of the kind having
such relations of position to the general apertures.
3. They agree with the Scorpion in the character and position of the
mouth and upper lip.
4. They agree with the Scorpion in possessing a metathoracie sternite,
in the possession of a fibro-cartilaginous entosternite, and in the precise
form and relations of that organ. No Crustacean possesses an ento-
sternite or any structure resembling it.
5. They agree with the Scorpion in the disposition of central (single)
and lateral (grouped) eyes «n the cephalothorax. No Crustacean has
an identical arrangement of single and grouped eyes.
6. Limulus agrees with the Scorpion in the form of the alimentary
canal and its lateral outgrowths (liver), which are more than one pair.
In Crustacea it is very exceptional to find more than one pair of
such diverticula, though a single pair may carry numerous secondary
branches.
7. It agrees with the Scorpion in possessing a supra- or cireum-
medullary (spinal) artery, which arises from the dorsal aorta by two
arches embracing the esophagus. No Crustacean has such a supra-
spinal artery so originating.
8. It agrees with the Scorpion in the form of the generative glands.
No Crustacean has its generative glands in the form of an anastomos-
ing network.
ZOOLOGY. 433
9. It agrees with Scorpio in possessing vibratile spermatozoa. No
Crustacea, except Cirrhipedia, are known to have vibratile spermatozoa.
10. It agrees with Scorpio and Spiders in having a brain which (like
that of that embryo Scorpion and Spider) supplies only eyes and integ-
ument with nerves, and not any appendage. In all Crustacea, except
some Phyllopoda, such an archicerebrum does not exist; but even in
young stages the brain is found to supply at least one pair of append-
ages, as well as the eyes.
11. It agrees with Scorpio in the concentration of the origins of
nerves supplying the anterior partof the abdomen, in the cephalothorax,
in the form of a nervous collar, perforated by the pharynx. Such a
nerve-collar has its parallel in Crustacea, among the braehyurous Deca-
poda, which, however, are in other respects the Crustaceans which least
resemble Limulus.
The points in which Limulus agrees with the Crustacea and differs
from Arachnida are three only. They are as follows:
1. Limulus agrees with many Crustacea, and differs from Arachnida,
in that its respiratory organs are adapted to an aquatic in place of an
aérial medium.
2. Limulus agrees with Crustacea, and differs from Arachnida, in that
it possesses a pair of groups of eyes, in which the association of the
individual eyes of each group is so close as to constitute a compound
eye.
3. Limulus agrees with Crustacea (excepting some Isopoda?), and
differs from Arachnida, in not possessing glandular coca (the Malpi-
ghian tubules) growing out from the proctodeum.
In conclusion, Professor Lankester referred the Merostomes unreserv-
edly to the class of Arachnids, and divided that class into three sub-
classes, or “grades,” the first of which he calls Hematobranchia—a
new name for the Merostomes—and the other two of which are desig-
nated Aerobranchia (Scorpionina, Pedipalpi, and Araneina) and Lipo-
branchia (Solifugee, Pseudoscorpionina, Opilionina, and Acarina).
Among the Hzematobranchia he recognizes three “ orders,” viz:—Trilo-
bita, Eurypterina, and Xiphosura.
Legs of Trilobites.
The Trilobites have long been favorite objects for the collector of fos-
sils, occur in exuberant abundance in many rocks, are very often found
in fine condition—so far at least as the dorsal portion is concerned—
and have been the subjects of several thoughtful monographs. Never-
theless, Piofessor Huxley, in 1877, gave expression to the current belief
respecting them when he wrote (Anat. Invert. An., p. 258) that “up to
[that] time, no certain indications of the existence of appendages, nor
even of any hard sternal body-wall, [had] been discovered, though a
shield-shaped labrum, which lies in front of the mouth, has been pre-
served in some specimens.” But in that same year, 1877, Mr, C. D.
S. Mis. 109 28
434 ZOOLOGY.
Walcott completed the proof of the existence of. true legs in Trilobites
of the genera Calymene and Ceraurus. Thus, too, the correctness of an
observation made about six years before (in 1870) was confirmed, for
Mr. E. Billings, the paleontologist of Canada, then announced the dis-
covery of traces of legs. The accuracy or relevancy of his observations
was generally denied, however, and certainly they needed confirmation.
Mr. Wakcott, continuing his studies, in 1881 published the results of his
researches in a memoir on ‘The Trilobite; new and old evidence relating
to its organization.” He has done his work well, and by means of
numerous sections, longitudinal as well as transverse, has traced the
course and structure of the appendages, and at least conclusively estab-
lished the existence of legs homologous with those of the King crab
and Eurypterids. But he further claims that such appendages were
repeated on each segment, and that in addition to the homologues of
the five pairs of legs whose basal joints perform the office of manduca-
tion, there are “numerous thoracico-abdominal appendages.” If this
statement is the true expression of the facts, it is evident that while
the relations of the Trilobites with the typical Merostomes are estab-
lished, the type of structure is in the highest degree peculiar. So
remarkable would be the deviation from the standard that probably
many may feel disposed to await further evidence and suspend opinion,
lest the observed facts may be susceptible of some other interpretation.
That which will probably provoke most skepticism is the attribute to
the pygidium of plural pairs of limbs similar to the others, and indeed
Mr. Walcott himself admits that as to the character of those append-
ages “the evidence is not all that could be desired” (p. 204). On the
other hand, it may be added that the well-known variability, according
to group as well as to individuals, of the number of segments prepares
us to expect, or at least not to be unduly surprised at, some remarka-
ble deviation from the typical mode of segmentation and appendicular
apparatus. We may, therefore, concede that the limbs are existent in
increased number, but must hold in abeyance confession of belief in
their extension as such, and unmodified, to the extreme end of the
pygidium.
The facts being admitted, even with reservation as to details, little
fault can be found with Mr. Walcott’s systematic conclusions. He rec-
ognizes as constituents of a peculiar “class,” under the name “ Poci-
lopoda,” the typical ‘‘Merostomata” (of which he makes a sub-class
with two “orders”—the Xiphosura and Eurypterida) and the Trilo-
bites, which, at the same time, represent a “sub-class Paleade” and an
‘“‘order Trilobita.” He formulates the results of his comparative re-
searches on the structure of the last in his diagnosis of the “sub-class”
as “‘Peecilopods, with numerous thoracico-abdominal appendages, eyes
compound (when developed), ocelli unknown,” while the “order” is
distinguished by a “mouth furnished with a large hypostoma and four
pairs (as far as known) of appendages; thoracic segments, 2—26, bear-
ZOOLOGY. 435
ing pointed legs with attached branchix ; abdomen formed of anchylosed
segments, 2(?)—28, bearing articulated appendages.”
The memoir of Mr. Walcott is illustrated by 6 plates, displaying sec-
tions and other details of structure. The author’s discoveries certainly
mark an epoch in the history of the Tribolites.
CRUSTACEANS.
1. SYSTEMATIC.
Kossmann (R.). Ueber den classificatorischen Werth der Mundorgane der Crustaceen.
Zool, Anz,, 4. Jahrg., pp. 544-548.
2. FAUNZ.
Europe.
Meinert (Fr.). Crustacea Isopoda, Amphipoda et Decapoda Dani»; Fortegnelse over
Danmarks Isopode, Amphipode og Decapode Krebsdyr. Naturhist. Tidskr., (3,) v.
12, pp. 465-512. ,
North America.
Smith (S.J.). Preliminary Notice of the Crustacea dredged in 64 to 325 fathoms, oft
the south coast of New England, by the United States Fish Commission in 1830.
Proce, U.S. Nat. Mus., v. 3, pp. 413-452.
Middle America.
Edwards (Alphonse Milne). Mission scientifique au Mexique et dans Amérique cen-
trale. Recherches zoologiques publiées sous la direction de H. Milne-Edwards.
5. partie t.1. Etudes sur les Xiphosures et les Crustacés podophthalmaires; par
Alph. Milne-Edwards. Paris, Impr. nationale, 1881. (4to., 372 pp., 61 pl.)
Caribbean deep-sea fauna.
Edwards (Alphonse Milne). Considérations générales sur la faune carcinologique des
grandes profondeurs de la mer des Antilles et du Golfe de Mexique. Compt. rend.
Acad. Sc., Paris, t. 92, pp. 384-388.
. General considerations upon the Carcinologieal Fauna of great depths in the
Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. Ann. Mag. of Nat. Hist., (5,) v. 7, pp. 312-317.
. Report of the results of Dredging in the Gulf of Mexico. Part I. Etudes
préliminaires sur les Crustacés. Bull. Mus. Compar. Zool., v. 8, No. 1.
3. SPECIAL GROUPS.
Pycnogonida.
Wilson (Edmund B.). Report on the Pycnogonida of New England and adjacent
waters. Report U#S. Fish Commission for 1878, pp. 463-506, 7 pl. (1isp., of which 2
are new.)
Copepoda.
Grobben (C.). Die Entwickelungsgeschichte von Cetochilus septentrionalis Goods.
Arbeit. Zoolog. Instit. Wien, v. 13, p. 243-282.
Branchiopoda.
Lankester (E. Ray). Observations and Reflections on the Appendages and on the
Nervous Systems of Apus cancriformis. Quart, Journ. Micr, Sc., v. 21, pp. 343-376,
1 pl
436 ZOOLOGY.
Edrioplihatna.
Delage (Yves). Contributions & l’étude de Vappareil circulatoire des Crustacés
Edriophthalmes marins. Arch. Zool. Expériment., t. 9, pp. 1-144.
E. Amphipoda.
Ulianin (B.). Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Amphipoden. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool.,
v. 35, pp. 440-460.
E. Isopoda.
Harger (Oscar). Report on the Marine Isopoda of New England and adjacent waters.
Report U.S. Fish Commission for 1878, pp. 297-462, 12 pl.
Kossmann (R.). Studien iiber Bopyriden. I. Gigantione Moebii und Allgemeines iiber
die Mundwerkzeuge der Bopyriden. II. Bopyrina Virbii, Beitriige zur Kenntniss
der Anatomie und Metamorphose der Bopyriden. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., v.35, pp.
652-680.
Miers (Edw. J.). Revision of the Idoteidax, a family of sessile-eyed Crustacea. Journ.
Linn. Soc. London, Zool., v. 16, pp. 1-88, pl. 1-3.
Decapoda.
Edwards (Alphonse Milne). Description de quelques Crustacés macroures provenant
des grandes profondeurs de la mer des Antilles. (Suite.) Ann. Scienc. Nat., (6,)
Zool.,v.11. (16 pp.)
Packard (A. §., jr.). Ona Cray-fish (Cambarus primevus) from the lower Tertiary
beds of Western Wyoming. Bull. U.S. Geogr.and Geolog, Surv. Territ., v. 6, pp.
391-397.
Deep-sea Crustaceans.
One of the most interesting as well as important results of the
deep-sea investigations in recent years has been the discovery of the
richness of the Crustacean fauna at great depths. The Decapods ob-
tained by the United States Coast-Survey ship Blake in the Caribbean
Sea and Gulf of Mexico have been reported on by Prof. A. Milne Ed-
wards, of Paris, and the revelations have been most interesting as well as
unexpected. At those depths which were regarded by naturalists of
the past generation as devoid of life, numerous remarkable forms, pre-
viously wholly unknown, were discovered. The brachyurans—true
crabs—occur but sparingly at great depths, but even of them species
extend downward as low as 400 fathoms, in which zone a form allied
to the genus Gonoplax is represented. It is blind, and has been named
by Mr. Edwards, Bathyplax. But it is the Anomurous and Macrurous
Decapods that are especially abundant in the deep sea. Of the family
of Paguride—hermit crabs—numerous forms were secured which are
interesting not only in themselves, but on account of the light they
cast on the morphology of the group, and the “‘intermediate” types they
furnish. One, for example—Pylocheles Agassizii—has a regularly annu-
lated abdomen terminated by a symmetrical fin instead of the usual
soft “tail,” and thus recalls the Thalassinidz. Others, on the contrary—
Spiropagurus and Catapagurus—have very small and sub-spiral abdo-
ZOOLOGY. 437
mens, which they insert in correspondingly small spiral shells. Other
remarkable modifications are exemplified in various new genera, desig-
nated as Mixtopagurus, Ostraconotus, Xylopagurus, &c. Again, the
family of the Galatheide, which was previously not known to be rep-
resented in American waters, furnished 41 species, representing a
number of new genera, as well as the widely distributed old genera,
Galathea and Munida, the latter of which was increased by the addition of
11 new species. Species of the family extend downward to the depth of
2,000fathomsormore. Finally, the family of Dromiida is now ascertained
to be characteristic of the deep and rich in species, and the family of
Eryontide is confirmed as an equally characteristic deep-sea type. Re-
duction or complete atrophy of the eyes was a common attribute of
the newly discovered species, but by no means universal. <A species of
Munida, on the contrary, was marked by an excessive development of
the eyes. They are thus analogous in this respect, as a whole, to the
deep-sea fishes.
Deep-sea Crustaceans near the New England coast.
The deep equatorial seas are not singular. While such rich acces-
sions have been made to the class of Crustaceans from the deep Carib-
bean and Gulf seas, additions of no inconsiderable importance have
also accrued from the exploration of the ocean farther north. Under
the auspices of the United States Fish Commission, in 1880, the
steamer Fish Hawk made three dredging trips to the “ Block Island
soundings,” off the eastern end of Long Island, between latitude 39°
46’ and 40° 06’ N., and longitude 70° 22’ and 71°10’ W. The depths
explored varied from 64 to 500 fathoms. The Crustaceans obtained on
these trips were studied by Prof. Sydney I. Smith. Professor Smith
remarks that “the richness, in both species and individuals, of this
Crustacean fauna would never have been suspected, and scarcely
dreamed of, by one accustomed only to the méagre fauna of the shal-
lower waters of the south coast of New England. The larger part of
the species secured from the great masses of material brought up in
the trawl and dredge are Decapoda.” Thereare comparatively few small
species of Schizopoda, Cumacea and Amphipoda, and further dredging
will undoubtedly increase very greatly the number of species in those
groups. Prentising that the “enumeration is not complete even for the
Decapoda,” Professor Smith enumerates just 50 species, of which some
are widely diffused, although 43 of them are for the first time recorded
“as belonging to the New England fauna south of Cape Cod”; 14 are
described as new, and 3 others are indicated as partially new, while one
new generic type was discovered—Hemipagurus, with two species—
belonging to the family Paguride, so much enlarged by Prof. A. Milne
Edwards. Thirty-two of the species were Decapoda; the others were
Schizopoda (4), Cumacea (1), Stomatopoda (1), Amphipoda (7), and
Isopoda (5).
438 ZOOLOGY.
Parasitic Crustaceans.
The extent to which fishes of various kinds are infested with Crus-
tacean parasites is little known. A considerable proportion will yield
parasites to the careful searcher. Mr. A. Valle has examined a large
number of Adriatic fishes, and found 69 species of entomostracans
alone. Out of 670 fishes examined, as many as 250 had entomos-
tracan parasites. A new species of the remarkable genus Philichthys,
named P. Richiardi, was discovered in the canal of the preopercular bone
of the sparoid fish known as Box salpa.—(Bull. Soc. Adriat. Se. Nat., vi,
pp. 55-81.)
A fossil Tertiary Cray-fish.
The fresh-water cray-fishes of the family Astacidze and like ani-
mals are of new interest since the publication of Professor Huxley’s
monograph on the cray-fish, and in view of the peculiarities of their
distribution. The representatives of the family inhabiting the waters
of the northern hemisphere are divided into genera variously distrib-
uted. They resemble each other closely externally, but are distinguished
especially by the number of the gills. The typical species constitute
the genus Astacus, which is developed in the Old World, and also on
the Pacific slope of North America, while the species of the eastern
waters of North America belong to a pecular genus, named Cambarus.
These types are of considerable antiquity, and Professor Packard has
discovered in the lower Tertiary shales of Western Wyoming, which
are supposed to be of the Eocene age, remains which he refers to the
limited genus Cambarus, with the name Cambarus primevus. The
species, in his own words, “is exceedingly interesting, from the fact
that it represents a period in which heretofore no fossil cray-fish has
been found. The soft, fine, fossil, clayey shales of the Bear River Ter.
tiaries contain not only a good many herring-like fish, but also genuine
‘Skates. The presence of land plants, mingled with marine animals,
shows that the waters were fresh, but communicated with the sea. The
‘conditions were apparently those of a deep estuary into which fresh-
water streams ran, and in these rivers lived the cray-fish.”
It is claimed that “the discovery of an apparently fresh-water
Cambarus in the Green River beds of Northern Wyoming, which are
supposed to be lower Eocene strata, fills up a break in the geological
series hitherto existing between the Cretaceous and Pliocene cray-fishes,
and shows that the dynasty of fresh-water cray-fish, now so powerfully
developed in the Un‘ted States, began its reign during the early Ter-
tiary period.”
ARACHNIDS.,
1. FAUNA.
Europe.
Simon (Eug.). Les Arachnides de France. t. 5. 1. partie, contenant les familles
des Epeirid (supplément) et des Theridionidw (commencement). Paris, Roret,
1881. 8vo. (186 pp., 1 pl.)
ZOOLOGY. 439
Asia.
Phorell (T.). Stud sui Ragni Malesie Papuan., III. Ragni dell’ Austro-Malesia e
del Capo York, osservati nel Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Genova. Ann.
Mus, Civ. Stor, Nat. Genova, v.17, pp. vii-xxvii, 1-720.
Notrr.—I and II were published in Arm. Mus. Civ. St. Nat., v.10 and 13.
Australia,
Koch (L.). Die Arachniden Australiens nach der Natur beschrieben und abgebildet.
Fortgesetzt von Graf E, Keyserling. 28. Lief. Niirnberg, Bauer & Raspe, 1881.
(4to. M. 9.)
2. SPECIAL GROUPS.
Acarina,
Haller (G.). Vorliufige Bemerkungen iiber das Geh6rorgan der Ixodiden. Mit Ab-
bild. Zoolog. Anz., 4. Jahrg., pp. 165-167.
Die Mundtheile und systematische Stellung der Milben. Zool. Anz., 4.
Jahrg., pp. 880-386.
Tardigrada. ;
Jung (—). Ueber Tardigraden. Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Naturwiss., v.54, pp. 190-192.
Revival of Tardigrades after Desiccation. Journ. R. Microscop. Soc., (2,) v.1,
p.5, Oct., p. 732.
Abstract of preceding.
Araneida.
Karsch (F.). Eine neue Vogelspinne aus Siidafrica (Stromatopelma—n. g.—alica-
pillatum—n.sp.). Berlin. Entomolog. Zeitschr., v. 25, pp. 217-218.
MacCook (H.C.). How Orb-Weaving Spidersmake the Framework or Foundations of
Webs. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phila., 1881, pp. 430-435.
Sinion (E.). Révision de la famille des Sparasside (Arachnides). Act. Soc. Linn.
Bordeaux, v.34, pp. 223-351, 1880.
The relations of the Mites.
The small animals known as Mites‘ have been usually regarded as
representatives of the class of Arachnids. Dr. G. Haller, however, has
lately studied these forms with great care, and finds that they have not
only three pairs of maxilla and a true labium, with palpi, but two pairs
of abdominal, besides the cephalothoracic legs. He considers, there-
fore, that they do not belong to the Arachnids, and that they are even
more nearly allied to the Crustaceans, from which they chiefly differ
in breathing through trachee instead of gills. On account of this
peculiar combination of characters he proposes that they should form a
class of Arthropods, collateral to the Crustaceans, penachuids, and My-
riapods and Hexapod insects.
Two remarkable Spiders.
A most peculiar Spider, inhabiting the Island of Madagascar, has
been made known by the Rey. O. P. Cambridge. The cephalothorax,
instead of being simply convex or little tubexculated, as usual, is extraor-
dinarily developed. It first (1) rises upward, like a long, attenuated
440 ZOOLOGY.
neck, and then (2) swells backwards, as well as forwards, into a head-
like prominence, which (3) presents an anterior and downward surface
for the falces, near which are the largest eyes; (4) the falces are
elongated to correspond with the development of the cephalothorax
and curved. In brief, when viewed from the side the cephalothorax
and falees combined forcibly remind one of an Jbis, or, still more, a
Baleniceps in a state of rest, with the head inclining backward, the
cephalothorax representing the neck and head, and the falces the bill.
The mimicry, or rather resemblance, is even stronger im this instance
than that of a horse’s neck and head by the anterior portion of the
Sea-horse, or Hippocampus. The abdomen is higher than long, and
rises upward in a conic prominence. ‘This spider is of rather small size,
and has been described from a single immature male specimen. It has
been named Hriauchenus Workmanni. Mr. Cambridge has provisionally
referred it to the family Theridiidae, and would put it ‘tin a separate
group, near the genera Argyrodes, Latr., and Ariamnes, Thor.,” but
thinks that ‘‘very probably the futare discovery of other allied species
will necessitate the formation of a new family for them.” (P. Z. S.,
London, 1881, pp. 767-770, pl. 66, fig. 2a-f.) The aberration of the form
from its nearest relatives, indeed, appears to be sufficient, involving as
it must corresponding structural modifications, to justify its differen-
tiation as a family type without waiting for kindred species. One of
the prime objects of taxonomy should be to express in the system and
nomenclature the facts of structure, without reference to the number of
species under which peculiarities are manifested.
Another singular Spider, unlike an ordinary spider as a spider could
well be, has been made known by Mr. Cambridge, under the name
Ariamnes attenuata. It is an inhabitant of Brazil (“the Amazons”).
If motionless on the ground it might be mistaken for a thorn or small
dirt-covered pin. The cephalothorax is oblong, and with the oculiferous
area elevated into a slight conical eminence. The abdomen presents
an extraordinary development, being subcylindrical, very long, and
attenuated to an acute point, almost as much as the shaft of an ordinary
pin. The legs are very unequal in length, the first being longest, and
the fourth, second, and third pairs successively shortened; the third
pair are much the shortest. In fine, the animal looks at first sight much
more like an elongated orthopterous insect than a spider. As already
intimated, the genus Ariamnes hag been associated with Hriauchenus in
the same artificial family—Theridiide.
ONYCHOPHORA.
Ernst (A.). Some remarks on Peripatus Edwardsii Blanch. Nature, v.23, pp. 446-443.
INSECTS.
GENERAL,
Germany.
Erichson (W. F.). Naturgeschichte der Insecten Deutschlands. Fortgesetzt von H.
Schaum, G. Kraatz, H. v. Kiesenwetter und Jul. Weise. I. Abth. Coleoptera. 6
Bd., 1. Lief., bearbeitet von Jul. Weise. Berlin, Nicolai, 1881. (8vo. M. 4.50.)
ZOOLOGY. 44]
Insectariwn.
Forbes (W. A.). The insectarium at the Zoological Gardens. Entomol. Monthly Mag.,
v.18, pp. 15, 16.
Phosphorescent insects.
Gadean de Kerville (H.). Les insectes phosphorescents. Avec 4 pl. chromo-lith.
Rouen, impr. Deshaye, 1881. (8vo. 55 pp.)
Generation.
Jobert (—). Recherches pour servir 4 Vhistoire de la génération chez les insectes.
Compt. rend. Ac. Sci. Paris, t. 93, pp. 975-977.
Geographical distribution.
Saj6 (Karl). Die Statistik auf dem Gebiete der Entomologie, im Dienste der Zoogeo-
graphie und Zoophaenologie. Zeitschr. fiir Entomol., 1881, pp. 28-89.
Fossil insects.
Sendder (S.H.). Relation of Devonian Insects to Later and Existing Types. Amer.
Journ. of Sc., (3,) Vv. 20; Ann. § Mag. Nat. Hist., (5,) v.7, pp. 255-261.
Nervous system.
Brandt (E.). Researches on the Comparative Anatomy of the Nervous System in the
different orders of the Class of Insects. Ann. § Mag. Nat. Hist., (5,) v. 7, pp.
71-73.
Periedicals.
Annales de la Société Entomologique de France. 5. sér., t. 11, Paris, 1881. (8vo.)
Bullettino della Societ’ Entomologica Italiana, Anno xiii. Firenze, 1881. (8vo.)
Entomologiske Tidskrift. Utgifv. af Jac. Spangberg. 1881, Bd. 1. Stockholm, 1831.
(8vo.)
Mittheilungen der Schweizerischen Entomologischen Gesellschaft. Bulletin de la
Société Entomologique Suisse. v.6. Schaffhausen, 1881. (8vo.)
Papilio. Organ of the New York Entomological Club. v.1. New York, 1881. (8vo.)
Psyche. Organ of the Cambridge Entomological Club. v. 3. Cambridge, Mass.,
1881. (8vo.)
Société Entomologique de Belgique. Comptes-rendus des séances. 3.sér. Bruxelles,
1881. (8vo.)
Stettiner Entomologische Zeitung. 42.Jahrg. Stettin, Grobmann, 1881. (8vo.)
Zeitschrift fiir Entomologie. Herausgegeben vom Verein fiir schlesische Insecten-
kunde zu Breslau. Neue Folge, Breslau, Maruschke & Berendt in Comm., 1881.
(8vo.)
Economical entomology.
Ormerod (Eleanor A.). A Manual of Injurious Insects, and methods of prevention and
remedy for their attacks, ete. With a short Introduction to Entomology. With
IMustrations. London, Sonnenschein, 1881. (8vo. 364 pp. 3 sh.)
Riley (C. V.). Further Notes on the Pollination of Yucca and on Pronuba and Pro-
doxus. Proc. Am. Assoc, Adv. Sc., v.29. (23 pp.)
Schmidt-Goébel (H.M.). Die schiidlichen und niitzlichen Insecten in Forst, Feld und
Garten. 2. Abth. Die schiidlichen Insecten des Land- und Gartenbaues. Mit 6
Foliotaf. u. 13 Abbild. im Text. Wien, Hédlzel, 1881. (8vo. viii, 296 pp. )
442 ZOOLOGY.
U. S. Entomological Commission.
Second Report of the United States Entomological Commission for the years 1878 and
1879, relating to the Rocky Mountain Locust and the Western Cricket, ete. With
Maps and Illustrations (17 pl.). Washington, Government Printing Office, 1880.
(8vo.)
SPECIAL ORDERS.
Myriapods.
Cantoni (Elvezio). Miriapodi di Lombardia. Atti Soc. Ital. Se. Nat., v.23, pp. 314-
362.
Archipolypoda.
Seudder (S. H.). The structure and affinities of Euphoberia of Meek and Worthen, a
genus of Carboniferous Myriapoda. Am. Journ. Sc., (3,) v.21, pp. 182-186; Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist., (5,) v.7, pp. 437-442.
Chilopoda.
Ryder (John A.). List of the North American species of Myriapods belonging to the
family of the Lysiopetalide, with a description of a blind form from Luray Cave,
Virginia. - Proc. U. S. Nation. Mus., v. 3, pp. 524-529.
Symphyla.
Packard (A. S.), jr. Scolopendrella and its position in nature. Am. Naturalist, v.15,
pp. 698-704.
Ryder (John A.). The Structure, Affinities, and Species of Scolopendrella. Proc.
Acad. Nat. Se. Phila., 1881, pp. 79-86.
Collembola.
Reuter (O. M.). Etudes sur les Collemboles. Acta Soc. Sc. Fennice, Helsingfors, 1880.
v.13. (21 pp., 1 pl.)
Orthoptera.
Packard (A.S., jr.) The Brain of the Embryo and Young Locust. With 2 pl. Am.
Naturalist, v. 15, pp. 3727379.
Prato (Joh. Napol. Barona). Der internationale Phylloxera-Congress zu Saragossa in
Spanien. Wien, W. Frick, 1881. (8vo. 39pp. M. I, 20.)
Riley (Charles V.). The Rocky Mountain Locust. Further Facts about the Natural
Enemies of Locusts. 2d Report U. S. Entomological Commiss., pp. 259-271, with 1 pl.
Pseudoneuroptera.
Imhof (Otho E. W.). Beitrag zur Anatomie der Perla maxima Scop. Inaug.-Diss.
(Ziirich). Aarau, 1881. (8vo. 41 pp.)
Lendenfeld (R. von). Der Flug der Libellulen. Ein Beitrag zur Anatomie und Phy-
siologie der Flugorgane der Insecten. Sitzuwngsber. Akad, Wiss. Wien, v. 83, pp.
289-376, 7 pl.
Poletaiew (Nic.). Du développement des muscles d’ailes chez les Odonates. Hore
Soc. Entomol. Ross., t. 16. (28 pp.)
_ Coleoptera.
Broun (Thomas). Manual of the New Zealand Coleoptera. Wellington, Jam. Hughes,
1880. (8vo. 640 pp.)
ZOOLOGY. 443
Chaudoir (Baron Max de). Monographie des Scaritides. 2. partie. Ann. Soc. En-
tomol. Belg., t.23, pp. 1-130.
Dohrn (C.A.). Zur nordamericanischen Kiiferlitteratur. Stettin. Entomolog. Zeitung,
42. Jahrg., pp. 238-243.
Heyden (L. von). Monstrése Kiifer aus meiner und der Sammlung des Herrn Prof.
Doebner in Aschaffenburg. Deutsche Entomolog. Zeitschr., 25. Jahrg., pp. 105-110.
Horn (George H.). Synopsis of the Silphide of the United States, with reference to
the genera of other countries. Transact. Am. Entomol. Soc., 1880, pp. 219-320, 3 pl.
Kraatz (G.). Monstrése Kiifer. Deutsche Entomolog. Zeitschr., 25. Jahrg., pp. 111-112.
Ueber die Wichtigkeit der Untersuchung des miinnlichen Begattungsgliedes
der Kifer fiir Systematik und Artunterscheidung. Deutsche Entomolog. Zeitschr.,
v.25, pp. 113-126.
Mulsant (Etienne). Histoire naturelle des Coléoptéres de France. Famille des La-
thridiens. 1. partie, par Fr. Marie Jos. Belon. Lyon, Georg; Paris, J. B. Bailliére
et fils, 1881. (8vo. 213 pp.)
Reitter (Edm.), etc. Bestimmungs-Tabellen der europiiischen Coleopteren. IV. Cis-
telidz, Georysside und Thorictidix, von Edm. Reitter. IVa. Gidemeride, von
Ludwig Ganglbauer. Verhandl. k. k. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, v.31, pp. 67-96, and pp.
97-146.
Bestimmungs-Tabellen der europiiischen Coleopteren. V. Paussid, Clavi-
geride, Pselaphidw und Scydmenidw, von Edm. Reitter. Verhandl. k. k. zool.-bot.
Ges. Wien, v. 31, pp. 443-592.
Reichenau (Wilh. von). Ueber den Ursprung dersecundiiren miinnlichen Geschlechts-
charactere, insbesondere bei den Blatthorn-Kiifern. Kosmos, v.10, pp. 172-194.
Schigdte (J.C.). De Metamorphose Eleutheratorum observationes. Bidrag til In-
sekternes Udviklingshistorie. Naturhist. Tidskr., (3,) v.12, pp. 513-593, 5 pl.
Hymenoptera.
André (E.). Spécies des Hyménoptéres d’Europe et VAlgérie. Fase. x (pp. 485-568 ;
fin du v.1.) Beaune, 1881. (8vo.)
Cheshire (E.R.). Physiology and Anatomy of the Honey Bee, and its Relations to
Flowering Plants. With 2 large plates in fol. containing 54 col. fig. London,
1881. (8vo.)
Jahrbuch der Bienenzucht, zugleich Bienenkalender und Notizbuch auf das Jah
1882. Herausgegeben von Fr. Wilh. Vogel. Mit Portr. Dathe’s. Mannheim, J.
Schneider, 1882. (Nov.,1881—8vo. M. 1.80.)
Lubbock (Sir John). Observations on Ants, Bees, and Wasps. Part VIII. Journ. Linn.
Soc. London, Zodl., v. 15, pp. 362-387.
MacCook (H. C.). The Honey Ants of the Gardens of the Gods and the Occident Ants
of the American Plains; a Monograph of the Architecture and Habits of the
Honey-bearing Ant (Myrmecocystus melliger), with Notes upon the Anatomy and
Physiology of the Alimentary Canal, together with a Natural History of the Occi-
dent Harvesting Ants or Stone-mould Builders of the American Plains. Phila-
delphia, 1881. (8vo. $3.)
Spaulding (Justin). The Bee’s Tongue, and glands connected with it, Am. Nat., v.15,
pp. 113-119, Feb., 1882.
Diptera.
Conil (P. A.). Nouveaux cas de Myiasis observés dans la province de Cordoba (Rép.
Arg.) et dans la République de Vénézuéla. Periodo Zoolog. Argent., t. 3, pp. 148-
176; Ann. Sc. Natur., (6,) t. 10, art. 6, 27 pp.
Viallanes (H.). Histolysis of the Muscles of #@he Larva during the postembryonic
development of the Diptera. Abstr. Journ. R. Microscop. Soc., (2,) v. 1, pp. 445-446.
Hagen (H. A.). On the Proboscis of Nemognatha. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., v. 20,
pp. 429-430, 1880.
444 ZOOLOGY.
Meinert (Fr.). Fluernes Munddele. Troptii Dipterorum. Kjabenhayn, Hagerup,
PBSle(4tonolappe. Gupl))
Lepidoptera.
Hartmann (A.). Die Kleinschmetterlinge des europiischen Faunengebietes (Fort-
setzung). Mittheil. Miinchen. Entomolog. Ver., 4. Jahrg., pp. 1-122.
Hutchinson (E. S.). On the supposed Extinction of Vanessa C-album. The Entomol-
ogist, v.14, pp. 250-252.
Kayser (J. C.). Deutschlands SchmetterHnge mit Berticksichtigung simmtlicher
europiischer Arten. (Neue Ausg.) 2.-23. Lief. Leipzig, 1881. (8vo. pp. 17-368,
mit je4 Taf. M.1.)
Lang (Henry Charles), The Butterflies of Europe. Part 1. London, Reeve & Co.,
1881. (8vo. To be published in about 20 monthly parts of 16 pp. and 4 col. pl.
each.)
Scudder (Sam. H.). Butterflies, their Structure, Changes and Life-Histories, with
special reference to American Forms. New York, H. Holt & Co., 1881. (8vo.
322 pp.)
Walsingham (Lord Thomas). On some North-American Tineide. Proc. Zoél. Soc.
London, 1881, pp. 301-325.
Peculiar carboniferous Myriapods.
In 1868, Messrs. Meek and Worthen described a peculiar spinigerous
Myriapod, found in ironstone nodules, occurring in the Carboniferous
formation of Ilinois, under the name Huphoberia major. They referred
it to the order of Myriapods, but the condition of their specimens did
not enable them to satisfactorily elucidate its structure. Later, better
preserved specimens for that purpose were secured, and have been
studied by Mr. S. H. Scudder’ Some noteworthy peculiarities of struct-
ure were disclosed, which contrast with those of living Myriapods. In
the segments of the body “the dorsal plate occupies scarcely more than
two-thirds of the circuit of the body, or even less,” and is opposed by
a broad ventral plate; the dorsal plate is “* not perforated for foramina
repugnatoria, but, as means of defense, it is armed with two or three
huge spines upon either side”; the ventral plates ‘occupy the entive
ventral surface,” or may even extend upwards ; they are together equal
in length to any part of the dorsal plate, the segments of the body
being equal in length throughout. The legs, “instead of being inserted
at the extreme posterior edge of the plate, are planted almost in its very
center, are appreciably distant from their opposites, and are compara-
tively large; they also differ from those of modern types in having the
second joint as long as the others combined.” The stigmata are large
and “ situated in the middle of each ventral plate.” Between the coxal
cavities are peculiar paired organs, ‘situated one on either side of the
median line at the very front edge of every ventral plate,” thought by
Mr. Seudder to be “ supports for branchiz.” On account of such pecu-
liar characters or their combination, Mr. Scudder is of the opinion that
the Huphoberiide should be placed “ in a group apart from ” the primary
subdivisions recognized for liying Myriapods, and has proposed to iso-
late them in a division co-ordinate with the Diplopoda and Chilopoda,
which he has named Archipolypoda. (A. J.S. (3), xxi, 182-186.)
ZOOLOGY. AAS
The Blood of Insects.
The characteristics of the blood of insects have been investigated by
M. L. Frédéricq, of Belgium, as manifested in the larva of Oryctes nasi-
cornis, a lamellicorn beetle. Blood drawn from the dorsal vessel by a
glass cannula was a colorless fluid having nearly the same appearance
as the lymph of mammals, but numerous colorless globules diffused
through the fluid negatived complete transparency. Coagulation super-
vened immediately, and the fluid turned to a dark-brown color soon after
exposure. This change was due to oxidation, and not at all to light.
The coloration is not related to respiration. In reality the phenomenon
of change is one of death, and may be compared to spontaneous coagula-
tion. There is no evidence of the existence of either hzmoglobin or
hemocyanin in the blood.
Stigmata of Insects.
The respiratory system of the hexapod insects has been examined
by Dr. O. Krancher as to a large number of species. The variation
of the stigmata in structure as well as other characteristics proved to
be very extensive, and consequently no positive generalizations could
be formulated. The principal conclusion was that the variations were
correlated with adaptation for various modes of life. The method of
investigation adopted by the author is detailed in his memoir. (J. R.
M.5., 1, 729, from Z. w. Z., v. xxxv, pp. 505-574.)
In this connection it may be added that Dr. H. Hagen, in opposition
to the views of Dr. Palmén, contends that the stigmatic cords are not
rudimentary and closed tubes, but functionless open ones, and that they
do not become completely developed during the larval stages. (Z. A., iv,
404),
Dr. O. Krancher, in 1880 (Zool. Anz., v. 3, pp. 584-588), had grouped
the modifications of the stigmata known to him into two primary groups
and five secondary ones; those without lips having been referred to two
categories, and those with lips to three.
An Insectarium.
In the year 1881 the Zodlogical Society of London added to its rich
exhibition a new feature in the shape of an insectarium. No previous
attempt, at least on an extended scale, had been made to bring to-
gether a collection of living insects for popular instruction, and the
novel addition therefore deserves some notice. The insectarium is
housed in a building framed of iron and glass on three of its sides, while
its back is brick; the structure, however, was not expressly erected for
the use to which it has been put, and its interior arrangements need
only be considered. The insects are imprisoned in special cases, the
largest of which are 32 inches long and 24 wide, with a depth of 18.
Those used for the principal specimens are formed of zine plates.
The upper part of each is glazed on all four sides, the top being
446 ZOOLOGY.
formed of perforated zinc so as to admit the air. The food-plant or
object required for the suspension of the chrysalis, when that stage
of the insect is exhibited, is inserted into the case through a circular
hole in the bottom; but the glass front also opens, so that ready access
may be obtained to the interior. The cases are arranged all along the
sides of the interior of the building as well as on two tables in the mid-
dle. The contents of the several cases are indicated by labels and sup-
plemented by mounted specimens of the corresponding species in its
various stages of development. The most conspicuous of the exhibits
are the large Bombycida, or silk-producing moths, which had been ob-
tained from their respective habitats in the chrysalis form; among them
were the American Samia cecropia and Samia Gloveri, and it was found
that the former selected the plum-tree and the latter the gooseberry as
favorite food-plants.
The Periodical Cicada, alias “ Seventeen-year Locust.”
The well-known Cicada, which, from its periodical appearance, has
been designated as “The Seventeen-year Locust,” is represented by a
form, which, according to entomologists, cannot be specifically differenti-
ated from it, but which differs in habits, appearing at intervals of only
thirteen years, and which has consequently been designated by Professor
Riley as the Cicada tredecim. Certain broods of both of these forms
coincided in their appearance in 1881: one of septemdecim had made its
last appearance in numbers in the year 1864, and one of tredecim in 1868,
and the last simultaneous appearance of the two would therefore have
been in 1660.
Alternate generation in the Gall Insects.
In certain species of Cynipide Dr. Adler has discovered that alterna-
tion of generation takes place, and that the same species in the two stages
may show such differences that the respective forms had been previously
referred to two distinct genera. The discovery was made through the
observation that Neuwroterus laid eggs which gave birth to a form repre-
senting the genus Spatheogaster, such form being an agamic condition.
The organs of generation are nevertheless reproduced in the agamic
offspring, and the eggs are even developed generally in larger number.
It is noteworthy, also, that in the agamic form there is also a recepta-
culum seminis, but it is rudimentary: 19 species representing three
genera—Neuroterus, Dryophanta, and Biorhiza—manifest alternation of
generation, but four others, of the genus Aphilothria, do not develop the
agamic stage. These results are confirmatory of deductions by Bassett
and Riley made in the United States about ten years ago.
Peculiar glands connected with the Bee’s Tongue.
The common honey bee was being examined as to the structure of its
“tongue” by Mr. Justin Spaulding, when he discovered in the mentum
ZOOLOGY. 447
a small spiral tube, and traced it to a glandular body which he consid-
ered to have been previously overlooked. <A full deseription has been
given, but it can be only stated here that Mr. Spaulding believes that
these glands, on account of their size, position, and outlet, furnish the
secretion which changes the nectar into honey. As to their homologies,
he suggests that they are the spinning glands of the larve modified for
the new function, and that in such cases they should be found more or
less developed or aborted in other Hymenoptera.
Aquatic Lepidopterous Larve.
The butterflies and especially their caterpillars are so associated in
our minds with terrestrial vegetation, that few conceive of the existence
of forms that spend their entire larval condition in the water, and
that are especially adapted for aquatic respiration. Yet M. C. Maurice
has indicated that most of the prominent groups of the Lepidoptera
have aquatic representatives. Members of the families Bombycidz
and Sphingide live during their caterpillar stage in the waters, but
none are known to have tracheal gills. The larva of Paraponyx, a
form of the family Pyralidz, however, has long been known to be pro-
vided with branchiz as well as spiracles, and its pupa to live in its
cocoon among leaves under water. The structure of that type has been
re-examined by M. Maurice so far as its respiratory functions are con-
cerned. The tracheal gills have delicate membranes subservient to an
endosmosis of oxygen and exosmosis of carbonic acid. The stigmata
occur in the thoracic regions, but are not functional in the larva and
are closed by a delicate membrane. It is only when the animal is left
exposed to the direct air—for instance, by the desiccation of the marsh
in which it has lived—that functional activity for the spiracles super-
venes. (J. R. M.S. (2), I, 730, from Bull Se. Dep. Nord., IV, 115-120.)
The proboscis of the Lepidoptera.
The proboscis of the Lepidoptera has been examined by M. Breiten-
bach, with a view to determine its origin and the homologies of its
parts. Without at all indorsing his views, we submit an abstract of
them.
The proboscis is represented “‘in the early stages, for in the late
larva it has been found already represented by two long, curved cords.
But, further, the obvious connections of the group with the Trichoptera
show that the biting mouth of the latter has produced the sucking
tube of the former by modification of the labium, maxilla, and labrum,
which were first all united in a tubular organ; the edges of the two
maxilla then became more closely approximated, and the share of the
other two parts in the organ became unnecessary, and they were ex-
cluded from it. This metamorphosis, however, was probably made in
various stages, each having some definite advantage to the insect as its
448 ZOOLOGY.
object: e. g., the exclusion of the labrum and labium from the organ
was a beneficial simplification, the great object being to bring the two
maxille together; the latter organs were able to assume a greater
development in consequence of the reduction of the former; this de-
velopment was further promoted by the abnormal method by which
food was obtained. The increase in the length of the tube was caused
by the depth which the nectaries of certain flowers exhibited, and by
which they excluded insects hurtful to them, while, at the same time,
this very depth allowed of the accumulation of a greater amount of
honey.”
Among other subjects treated of by M. Breitenbach in this connection
are the structure and functions of the so-called juice-borers, which are
discussed at considerable length. (J. Rk. M. S., (2,) II, 35-37, from
Jen. Zeitschr. Nat., XV, 151-214, with 3 pl.)
Devastations by Insects.
Many millions of dollars are yearly lost to the farming community
through the devastations of insects, and thereby the labors of the agri-
culturist are rendered more onerous than they weuld otherwise be, and
not infrequently unremunerative. In order to avert as much as possi-
ble the ravages of these in size insignificant but in numbers formid-
able enemies, it has been deemed the part of wisdom by civilized
governments to retain men skilled in the knowledge of insects and in
investigations of their habits, to learn and teach the best means of
meeting their attacks. The general government and several states
have their special entomological bureaus, and each year reports are
published in which some branch of economical entomology is consid-
ered. From the great mass of information relative to the subject
published in 1881 we select the following notes.
The Phylloxera.—The devastations of the justly-named Phylloxera
vastatrix on the vineyards of various countries have attracted much
attention. The losses in many countries have been appalling. In
France, for example, of the 2,200,000 hectares (about 5,500,000 acres)
planted with vines nearly a quarter have been overrun and the plants
practically destroyed, while as many more have been attacked (A. N.,
XV, 821). Strenuous efforts have been made to prevent the spread of the
insects by different governments. In Italy, Spain, Turkey, Roumania, Al-
geria, and the Cape of Good Hope the introduction of all living plants
is entirely prohibited; in Germany the restriction extends only to vine-
plants, while in Switzerland, Austria-Hungary, and Portugal, introduc-
tion of “living plants” is permitted if attested by certificates to come
from uniniected localities (A.N., XV, 821). So rigidly is the law enforced
in some places that a cargo of potatoes arriving in Cape Town from New
Zealand was destroyed for fear that the pest might be imported therein
(A. N., XV, 239). Objection has been made, however, to such stringent
ZOOLOGY. 449
regulations, but ‘ Dr. Maxime Cornu has lately submitted a report, in
which, while confessing that Phyllovera vastatrix is confined to the
grapevine and can flourish on no other plant, he yet recommends the
following of the example set by Algeria, which is to forbid the intro-
duction of all vegetable products whatever, except those absolutely
required for consumption” (Riley, A. N., XV, 239). It has been found
that the American vines enjoy at least comparative immunity from the
attacks of Phylloxera, and large consignments of roots have been im-
ported into France from the United States to replant the destroyed
vineyards (A. N., XV, 322).
Enemies of Rice.—The rice plant in the Southern United States has
suffered in past years from the attacks of two insects, both beetles, the
Chalepus trachypygus and Lissorhoptrus simplex, and a third insect has
now been added to the list of its formidable enemies; but the newly-
discovered pest is the caterpillar of a Lepidopter—the Laphygma frugi-
perda. The last proved to be very destructive to rice plants in the
summer of 1881 in Georgia, and was identified by Professor Riley. It
had been known before as a scourge to various grasses and grains, but
not as a special enemy of the rice. In the East Indies a third order of
insects—the Diptera—has contributed an additional and very formid-
able pest to the rice cultivator. It is the newly-discovered Cecidomyia
oryze, of which no congener had previously been known to occur in
India. (Riley, A. N., XV, 148, 482, 751.)
Enemies of Pastures.—Another insect, which has long been known, but
had not been hostile to the industry of man, in 1881 assumed a new
role, and attacked pastures in the Eastern States—especially in parts
of New York and New Jersey—“ some fields as large as forty acres being
ruined and others showing only dead spots of a rod or two square.”
The injurious larve were supposed by the farmers to be “army worms,”
but specimens were identified by Professor Riley as representatives of
two distinct species, and both different from the true army worm. One
of the destructive “worms,” and the more common, at least in some
sections, was the larva of Crambus vulgivagellus, and the other that of
Nephelodes violans. Professor Riley well remarks, that ‘the widespread
appearance and injury” of the former species during the past year ‘ fur-
nishes an excellent illustration of the fact that species which have never
before been looked upon as injurious to agriculture may suddenly be-
come so.” (A. N., XV, 574-577, etc.)
Enemies of Clover.—The American agriculturist may have to encounter
still another enemy of his labors—a curculionid beetle—the Phytonomus
punctatus. Ithas been until recently unknown in the United States, but
was detected in 1881 in Barrington, Yates County, New York, and speci-
mens were sent thence to Professor Riley, with the statement that it
had greatly injured the clover in that region. The insect is a common
European species, but has not been known heretofore to do any serious
harm to crops. Professor Riley adds that it is worthy of remark that
iS, Mis, 109 29
450 ZOOLOGY.
this imported enemy of clover made its first appearance in the same
county which, three years before, furnished him with “another Euro-
pean beetle affecting the same plant—the Hylesinus trifolii, or “clover
root-borer.” (A. N., XV, 750-751, 912-914.)
Insect Antidote-—With enemies so numerous and increasing the agri-
culturist must be on the alert, and to render his labor remunerative re-
quires to have antidotes to their ravages at a minimum cost. The seeds
of species of Pyrethrum—P. roseum and P. cineraricefolium—ground to
powder, furnish one of the most effective insecticides. The Pyrethrum
roseum ‘the only species of its genus,” according to Dr. Rodde, “ which
gives a good, effective insect powder, is no where cultivated, but grows
at an altitude of 6,000 to 8,000 feet,” in Asia, the Caucasus, and south-
ward. The P. cinerariefolium is a Dalmatian species, of which little is
known, but which is said to be cultivated in Dalmatia. In spite of the
jealousy of the natives of the countries where these plants grow, seeds
have been imported into the United States, and Professor Riley planted
some in Washington, in the fall of 1880, which ‘‘came up quite well in
the spring, and will perhaps bloom the present year.” It would seem
that the Pyrethrum is quite an effective insecticide, and its acquisition
and retail at a moderate cost will be doubtless a great boon to the agri-
culturist. For detailed information as to cultivation, manufacture, and
use of the plant we must refer to Professor Riley. (A. N., XV, 242, 569-
572, 744-748, 817-819.)
Carnivorous Beetles partly herbivorous.—Even insects that are gen-
erally beneficial to the agriculturist by preying on his enemies, some-
times turn round and become destroyers of crops. Species of Carabide
and Coccinellide, e. g., have been found to change their usual carniv-
orous habits for a herbivorous diet, according to Professor Forbes, of the
Illinois State laboratory. Representatives of 17 different species of
Carabide were examined, and 11 of them were seen to have in their
stomachs ‘either the spores of different fungi, the pollen of flowers,
ov the seeds of grasses and grains.” The Coccinellide were ascertained
to be to even a still greater degree herbivorous, and one of them—the
Megilla maculata—“ was proven to feed also upon the anthers and pollen
of grasses,” and, in fact, to almost rival in its herbivorous tendencies the
squash-beetle (Epilachna borealis), which had been supposed to be excep-
tional in the family for its herbivority. The Megilla had been charged
before with sometimes injuring crops, and a farmer of Saint Inigoes,
Md., reported to Professor Riley considerable injury done by them ‘to
corn by eating holes in the blades, and specimens of blades that were
perforated and riddled accompanied the beetles.”
So far, however, is this tendency to change of diet from being an
unmixed evil to the agriculturist, it has been urged by Professor Forbes,
that it renders these insects more valuable to man. In his own words,
‘‘as a prudent sovereign finds it worth while to maintain a much larger
fighting force than is necessary to the ordinary administration of his
ZOOLOGY. A51
government, in order that he may always have a reserve of power with
which to meet aspiring rebellion, so it is to the general advantage that
carnivorous insects should abound in larger numbers than could find.
sustenance in the ordinary surplus of insect reproduction. They will:
then be prepared to concentrate an overwhelming attack upon any group:
of insects which become suddenly superabundant. It is evidently im-
possible, however, that this reserve of predaceous species should be:
maintained, unless they could be supported, at least in part, upon food
~ derived from other sources than the bodies of living animals.” (A.N.,
XV, 323-327.)
Wings of Insects.
The details of structure of the wings of insects and the contiguous
parts, especially those of the family Libellulide, have been investi-
gated by Mr. R. von Lendenfeld. The monograph of the alar struct-
ures of the Dragon-flies is especially noteworthy. ‘Sixty-two separate
skeletal parts are named and described,” and also “16 muscles and 2
ligaments.” “A diaphragm of chitin separates the muscles for the wings
from those for the legs; the exoskeleton is made up of thin chitinous
plates. There are various methods of articulation, some of which are
_ exactly comparable to those that are found in the vertebrata.”
The Libellulide and “ Neuroptera planipennia” are considered by Mr.
von Lendenfeld to be the lowest of typical insects, on account of the
equality in size of the wings, while those ‘“‘ with one pair of wings appear
to be the most highly organized and possess the largest brain.” The
rank of the other groups is sought to be determined by the relative
development of the two pairs of wings. It is probable, however, that
the logic employed, as well as the conclusions deduced, will be opposed
by many entomologists. Probably more satisfactory are the author’s
observations of the mode of flight.
A method for instantaneously photographing insects’ wings was de-
vised and is detailed by Mr. von Lendenfeld. ‘Two phases are to be
distinguished in the movement of the wing—the movement from behind
forwards, and from in front backwards. In both, however, there is an
upwardly-acting force; with this there are associated other move-
ments, resulting in the course of the wing being a more or less compli-
cated curve, the directions of which depend, of course, on the extent to
which these other forces act.” (J. R. M. 8. (2), II, 184-185, from Sitz-
ungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, LX XIII., 289-376, with 7 pl.)
Relations of Devonian Insects to existing types.
The fossil insects have been for some years the special subjects of Mr.
Samuel H. Scudder’s studies, and the conclusions which he has reached
respecting the relations of the Devonian forms to later ones have been
published, and are as follows: ;
(1) The insects have preseryed their general type of wing structure
452 ZOOLOGY.
unaltered from the earliest times to the present; (2) they were hexa-
pods; (3) they were all lower Heterometabola; (4) nearly all are syn-
thetic types of a comparatively narrow range; (5) nearly all exhibit
marks of affinity to the carboniferous Palodictyoptera, but (6) they
often manifest more complicated structure than most Paleodictyoptera;
(7) they mostly bear little special relation to carboniferous forms, and
have a distinct facies of their own; (8) they were “of great size, had
membranous wings, and were probably aquatic in early life”; (9) some
were precursors of existing forms, while others became extinct; (10)
they flourished under a remarkable variety of structure; (11) they dif-
fered ‘remarkably from all other known types, ancient or modern, and
some of them appear to be even more complicated than their nearest
living allies”; (12) they show no more evidenee of primitive type than
the carboniferous insects; and (13) “while there are some forms which
to some degree bear out expectations based on the general derivation
hypothesis of structural development, there are quite as many which
are altogether unexpected, and cannot be explained by that theory
without invoking suppositions for which no facts can at present be
adduced.”
Some of these conclusions (4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12) coincide quite well with
those derivable from the survey of other classes of the animal kingdom,
€. g., fishes, so far as they are known, but the deductions probably some-
times rather represent the imperfection of the geological record than
the facts as they were, and several of the conclusions (e. g., 8, 11) are
perhaps rather too sweeping. But whatever may have been the facts,
the studies of Mr. Scudder have materially increased our knowledge of
the paleozoic faunas, and his deductions are especially interesting for
comparison with other classes of the organic kingdoms of nature. (A.
J. 8. (3), XXI, 111-117.)
MOLLUSKS.
GENERAL WORKS.
Systematic works.
Fischer (Paul). Manuel de Conchyliologie ou Histoire Naturelle des Mollusqes vivants
et fossiles. 1.-3. Fasc. Paris, Savy, 1881. (8 vo.)
Martens (Ed. von). Conchologische Mittheilungen, als Fortsetzung der Novitates
conchologicew. Kassel, Th. Fischer, 1881. (8vo. Bd. I, viii, 101 pp., 18 Taf. M.
22. Bds II, Heft. 1, 2, pp. 103-128., Taf. 21-24. M. 8.)
Martini und Chemnitz (Systematisches Conchylien-Cabinet von) Neue reich vermehrte
ausgabe [etc.], fortgesetzt von Dr. W. Kobelt und H. C. Weinkauff. 300-313. Lief.
[viz: (300:) Cyprea, pp. 81-104, Taf. 25-30. (301:) Buccinidw, von W. Kobelt,
pp. 1-24, Taf. 71-76. (302:) Mactra, pp. 37-52. Rissoina, pp. 41-48, Taf. 13-18.
(303:) Cypreea, pp. 105-128, Taf. 21-86. Rissoina, pp. 49-56. (304:) Helix, pp.
595-610, Taf. 173-177. (305:) Mactra, pp. 53-68, Taf. 19-24. (306:) Cypreza, pp.
129-152, Tab. 37-41+4-A. (307:) Crassatella, pp. 1-16, Tab. 1-6. (308:) Cypraxa,
pp. 153-184, Tab. 42-47, (309:) Cancellaria, pp. 1-16, 5 Taf. (310:) Buccinum,
pp. 20-40, Taf. 77-82. (311:) Navicella, pp. 1-32, 6 Taf. (312:) Rissoina, pp. 57-80,
Taf. 138-15, 15a-15e. (313:) Die Gattungen Cyprea und Ovula, pp. 185-230, Tab,
48-53.] Niirnberg, Bauer u. Raspe, 1831. (4to. M. 9, each.)
ZOOLOGY. 453
Pfeiffer (Dr. Louis). Malakozoologische Bliitter. Fort#esetzt von 8. Clessin. 4. Bd.
Schluss, mit 7 Taf.; 5. Bd., Bog. 1.-6. Kassel, Th. Fischer, 1881. (8vo.)
Tryon (Geo. W.). Manual ofConchology, structural and systematic. With illustra-
tions of the species. Vol. III. Tritoniidse, Fusidx, Buccinids. Philadelphia
Author, 1881. (8vo. 310 pp., 87 pl.—col. $20.; plain, $12.)
Journals.
Journal de Conchyliologie [etc.], publié sous la direction de H. Crosse et P. Fischer,
[t. xxix, or] 3. sér., t. xxi. Paris, H. Crosse, 1881. (8vo.)
Journal (The) of Conchology. v.3. London, D. Bogue, 1881. (8vo.)
Procés-verbaux des Séances de la Société Royale Malacologique de Belgique. t. x.
Année 1881. Bruxelles, 1881. (8vo.)
Bibliography.
Kobelt (W.). Synopsis novorum generum, specierum, et varietatum Molluscorum
viventium testaceorum anno 1879 promulgatorum. Cassellis, Th. Fischer, 1881.
(8vo. 200 pp. M.8.)
Miscellaneous.
Apostolides (N. Ch.) et Yves Delage. Les Mollusques d’aprés Aristote. Arch. Zoolog,
Expériment., t. 9, pp. 405-420.
Watson (Robert B.). Mollusca of H. M. 8. ‘Challenger’ Expedition. Pt. vi-x,
Journ. Linn. Soc. London, (Zool.,) v. 15, 1881.
Morphology.
Lankester (E. Ray). On the originally Bilateral Character of the Renal Organ of
Prosobranchia, and on the Homologies of the Ielk-sac of Cephalopoda. Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist., (5,) v. 7, pp. 482-437.
Spengel (J. W.). Die Geruchsorgane und das Nervensystem der Mollusken. Ein
Beitrag zur Erkenntnis der Einheit des Molluskentypns. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool.,
v. 35, pp. 333-386, pl. 17-19.
Faunas.
Gulf of Mexico.
Dall (W. H.). Preliminary report on the Mollusca. Reports on the Results of Dredg-
ing, under the supervision of Alex. Agassiz, in the Gulf of Mexico, etc. XY.
Bull. Mus. Compar. Zool. , v. 9, pp. 33.
Morse (Edward). Changes in Mya and Lunatia since the deposition of the New
England Shell-heaps. Am. Naturalist, v.15, p. 1015.
Europe.
Kobelt (W.). Catalog der im Europiischen Faunengebiet lebenden Binnenconchylien,
2. Aufl. Kassel, Th. Fischer,*1881. (8vo. xvi, 294 pp. M.6.)
Locard (A.). Etudes sur les variations malacologiques, @’aprés la faune vivante et
fossile de la partie centrale du bassin du Rhéne, t.1. Lyon, Georg; Paris, J.
B. Bailliére, 1881 (8vo. ix, 473 pp., 5 pl.).
Asia.
Poirier (J.). Description de quelques espéces nouvelles du Cambodge, appartenant
aux genres Lacunopsis, Jullienia et Pachydrobia, Journ, de Conchyliol., v, 29,
pp. 5-19,
Ad4 ZOOLOGY.
Africa.
Uravein (Alfred E.). On 4 collection of Land and Fresh-water Shells from the Trans-
vaal and Orange Free State in South Africa, with descriptions of nine new species.
Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1880, pp. 614-618, 1 pl.
Crosse (H.). Faune malacologique du Lac Tanganyika. Journ. de Conchyliol., v.29,
pp. 105-139.
Smith (Edgar A.). Descriptions of two new Species from Lake Tanganyika. Proc.
Zool. Soc. London, 1881, pp. 558-561.
SPECIAL CLASSES.
CONCHIFERS. -
Mitsukuri (K.). On the Structure and Significance of some Aberrant Forms of Lamel-
libranchiate Gills. Quart. Journ. Microscop. Sc., v.21, pp. 595-608, 1 pl.
Yung (E.). De Vinnervation du ceur et de action des poisons chez les Mollusques
Lamellibranches. Compt. rend. Acad. Sc., Paris, t. 93, pp. 562-564.
‘Yung (Em.). De Vinnervation du ceur et de Vaction des poisons chez les Mollusques
Lamellibranches. Arch. Zoolog. Expériment., t. 9, pp. 421-432.
GASTROPODS.
Teleobranchiata.
‘Graff (L. von). Neomenia and Chetoderma. Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., v. 28, p. 557-570.
Haller (B.). Vorliufige Mittheilung ueber das Nervensystem und Mundepithel niederer
Gastropoden. Zool. Anz., v. 4, pp. 92-94, 1881.
Hubrecht (A.A. W.). Proneomenia Sluiteri, gen. et sp. n., with remarks upon the
anatomy and histology of the Amphineura. Niederl. Archiv f. Zool., Suppl.-b.,
1881.
Kowalevsky (A.). Neomenia coralliophila and Celoplana Metschnikowii. (In Rus-
sian.) Moskow, 1881.
Pulmonata.
Macdonald (John Denis). On the classification of Gasteropoda. Partii. Journ. Linn.
Soc. London, Zool., v.15, pp. 241-244.
Lessona (Mario). Sugh Arion del Piemonte. Atti Accad. So. Torino, v. 16, pp. 185-197.
Pfeiffer (L.). Nomenclator Heliceorum viventium. Ed. 8. Clessin. Cassel, Th.
Fischer, 1878-1881. (4to. 617 pp. M. 24.)
Whitfield (R. P.). A new genus and species of Air-breathing Mollusk [Anthracopupa ]
from the Coal-measures of Ohio. Am. Journ. Sc., (3,) v.21, pp. 125-128.
Wolfson (W.). Die embryonale Entwickelung des Lymnezus stagnalis. Bull. Acad. Se.
St. Pétersb., t.26, p.79; Mélang. Biol. Acad, St. Pétersb., t.10, pp. 351-377.
Nudibranchiata.
Bergh (Rudolph). Beitriige zu einer Monographie des Polyceraden. Verhandl. k. k.
zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, v. 30, pp. 629-668, 6 pl.
Eyes of Gastropods.
Dr. P. Fraisse has investigated the structure of the eye in three
species of Gastropods representing two orders, viz: Patella of the order
Docoglossa and Haliotis and Fissurella of the order Rhipidoglossa.
In Patella the eyes are minute vesicles; the retinal cells pass directly
into theepithelial. Pigment occurs chiefly in the cells opposite the pupil.
ZOOLOGY. 455
There is no ommatophore; the optic nerve is also not developed, and
the lens and vitreous body are equally deficient. The eye of this form
is therefore considered to represent an embryonic stage in development.
In Haliotis the eyes are large and (as in Patella) there is an open cup;
the cells pass from one to the other. Pigment is only found around the
orifice of the cup. Retractile ommatophores support the eyes; optic
nerves are developed of a remarkable character; each divaricates into
two or three branches before entering the eye, and the latter expand and
inclose the entire eye, coming into direct connection with the retinal cells.
A lens of gelatinous substance is found and a vitreous body occupies a
large part of the eye cup. The eyes are invested in loose connective
tissue, and there is no sclerotic nor any other investing membranes.
In Fissurella the eyes lie just below the epidermis and the corneal
cells are separated from the epithelial by a delicate layer of connective
tissue. The “retinal cells belong to two groups; they may be long and
very delicate at their lower ends, or they may be broader and thicker
and more closely granulated, and the latter are moreover destitute ot
pigment. These thicker basal cells are regarded by the author, not as
supporting cells of the true retinal elements, but as those organs from
which the lens and vitreous body are developed; the pigmented cells
alone function as the end-organs of the optic nerve.”
In fine, the author’s investigations have led him to conclude that the
eyes of mollusks begin their development by an invagination of the
epidermis which is originally open to the exterior; as this becomes shut
off, the retinal cells become developed out of the epidermal cells. The
eyes of Patella present the simplest known condition. ‘In Nautilus the
eye is likewise open to the exterior, and in the Hirudinea [leeches] we
may find organs of a somewhat similar construction. In cases of this
kind the use of the term retina should be avoided, and be replaced by
that of rod-cells. The cells which appear to be the organs for the per-
ception of light are very characteristically developed in the Mollusca;
what is here seen almost in diagram is found more or less distinctly in
all other mollusks. The so-called-retina consists of a series of elon-
gated cells, the anterior portion of which is filled up by dark pigment.
This pigment is more or less marginal in position, so that there is in the
center an unpigmented cylindrical canal which passes directly into the
unpigmented part of the cell.” (J. R. M.S., (2,) I, 724-725, from Z. W. Z.,
XXXYV, 461-478.)
The Neomenie and Chetoderme.
One of the most interesting groups of Invertebrates is that represented
by the genera Chetoderma, Neomnia, and Proneomenia.
The representatives of this type have been associated with very
diverse groups by various authors; by some with the worms, by most
with the mollusks; and in the branch of mollusks, by some with the
Nudibranchiates; but by the majority of anatomists with the Chitons.
Although few in number and of rare occurrence, or rather only found by
A56 ZOOLOGY.
careful search in the proper habitats, they have received considerable
attention within the last few years, and to Prof. A. A. W. Hubrecht, of
Leyden, we are indebted for an elaborate memoir on the group, published
in 1881.
The most conspicuous feature of the group is “the presence of four
longitudinal nerve-trunks, united together into one in front of or above
the pharynx,” and coalescing behind in whole or part (two of them) into
a ganglionic swelling above the rectum.
In all the genera of the group ‘“‘a heart, situated dorsally close to
the posterior extremity of the body, a median dorsal and a median ven-
tral blood-vessel, are the principal parts of the circulatory apparatus.”
The respiratory apparatus is variable. In Chetoderma and Neomenia
retractile branchize are developed at the posterior extremity of the body,
in Cheetoderma being paired and in Neomenia being tuft-like; in Pro-
neomenia special branchiz are absent, and respiration is supposed to
be effected through the wall of the intestine and the foot, “and per-
haps more especially in the rectum.”
There is a decided difference, it seems, in the relations of the sexes in
the two primary groups of the class. The Chetodermida, like the
Chitonids, have the sexes separate, while the Neomeniide are mone-
cious or hermaphrodite. There is a direct communication between
the ovary and pericardium (at least, in Chetoderma and Proneomenia),
and the pericardium also communicates with the exterior by a system
of ducts and passages. Such ducts, in part, at least, are considered as
renal organs. ‘And so the Solenogastres exemplify a primitive stage,
in which the pericardium (body-cavity) receives the oviducts on the one
hand, and on the other communicates with the exterior by means of the
nephridia.”
It is maintained by Dr. Hubrecht that the deviations in this type are
rather manifestations of degradation or atrophy of parts than of incip-
iency and original non-development. The radula has been aborted or
lost, and not failed. The condition of the nervous system is expressive
of a reduction of type and is not a primitive stage, and the inferior
development of the intestine and liver is likewise to be looked upon as
a result of reduction.
Americanized European Shells.
Several species of well-known European shells have been introduced
into the waters of the Atlantic coast within recent years. A common
shell of England—Littorina littorea—was found on the shores of Maine
as early as 1868, and still earlier as an inhabitant of Nova Scotia. But
several closely related species were already known as common Ameri-
can forms. During the past year, however, two distinct family forms
have been added to the American Fauna—Truncatella truncatula, the
type of the family of Truncatellide, and Assiminea grayana, also a type
of a peculiar family, the Assiminiide. Both were found for the first time
by Professor Verrill among the docks of Newport, R. L., at high water.
ZOOLOGY. ABT
Land shells of the paleozoie era.
The geological history of the Pulmonates is a most remarkable one
in more respects than one. So far as the evidence appeared until com-
paratively lately, with a limited spot in Nova Scotia unknown, the
paleontologist might have felt justified in declaring that the order was
“ushered in” with the tertiary epoch. But as long ago as 1852, Lyell
and Dawson indicated the existence of a minute pupa-like shell in the
carboniferous period on the testimony of a specimen found in 1851
within the hollow of an erect fossil tree at the “South Joggins,” Nova
' Scotia. Subsequently the form was named Pupa vetusta. In the same
place were afterwards (in 1866) discovered specimens of another land
shell, resembling the species of the existing helicoid genus Conulus.
In 1869, Prof. Frank H. Bradley made known two other terrestrial mol-
lusks in the carboniferous rocks occurring at Pelly’s Fort, on the Ver-
million River, in Llinois, one a pupoid and the other a helicoid. In
1880, Principal Dawson added a third species of land shell obtained
from the Joggins, with the so-called Pupa vetusta, which he called Pupa
Bigsbii. Still more, he described a shell from Devonian rocks of New
Brunswick which he considered to be a new generic type and named
Strophites grandeva. Finally, during the past year Mr. kh. R. Whitfield
has made known a coal meas*1re pupoid shell, which he has designated
as a peculiar generic form, naming it Anthracopupa Ohioensis. Seven
Paleozoic Pulmonates have thus been made known, viz; Devonian:
Strophites grandeva.—Carboniferous: Dendropupa vetusta (N. S.),
Pupa [?] Bigsbii (N.8.), Pupa [?] Vermilionensis (Ill.), Strophites gran-
deva (N. B.), Anthracopupa Ohioensis (O.), Conulus priscus (N.8.), and
Dawsonella Meekii (Il.).
So far as can be determined from the shells, and even the associations,
all these mollusks, except, perhaps, the last (Dazsonella Meekiv), were
true land Pulmonates, related to the existing Pupide and Helicide.
That any of them belonged to the restricted genus Pupa is very doubt-
ful, and Owen has proposed the name Dendropupa for the earliest
species made known. This is not the place, however, to discuss their
intimate affinities. As to the Davwsonella, its helicoid relations are at
least extremely dubious. It has considerable resemblance to a Helli-
cinid, and Mr. Whitfield “cannot but come to the conclusion that Dav-
sonella was an operculated shell” and probably related to Helicinia.
This genus, be it recalled, cannot be associated with the true Pulmonates,
but is allied to the aquatic Neritide, etc. None of the operculate terres-
trial mollusks are, in fact, at all related to the Pulmonates, properly so
called, the Cyclostomidz being most nearly related to the marine Lit-
torinide of the order Pectinibranchiata, and the Helicinide, as just
remarked, of the Neritide, and representing the order Rhipidoglossa.
The Pulmonates then, it appears, existed in the Devonian and Car-
boniferous periods in forms little different from some now living, and
458 ZOOLOGY.
none are known from the roeks intervening between the last and the
tertiary. Nevertheless, no reasonable naturalist will doubt that they
did exist in that intervening period, and few now would believe that
the devonian forms were not preceded by kindred types. The distri-
bution of the order is therefore a striking exemplification of the “‘imper-
fection of the geological record.” (A. J.8., (3,) XX, 403-415; X XI,
125-128.)
Shells of Lake Tanganyika.
As arule there is something in the appearance and texture or epi-
dermis of true fresh-water shells which enables the conchologist at once
to recognize them as such, even though they be quite different from any
forms he has previously known; but in a Central African lake—Lake
Tanganyika—peculiar univalve shells have been discovered which ave
remarkable for their unlikeness to any fresh-water forms before known,
and conversely for their resemblance to marine shells.. The mimic forms
have been designated as follows:
(1.) Limnotrocuus (E. A. Smith, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), v. 6, p. 425, 1880; P. Z.S.,
London, 1881, 285).
This is said to “have all the appearance of a Trochus when viewed
with the aperture from the eye. It is, however, more closely related to
the Littorinid, and exhibits the greatest affinity with the genus EHehi-
nella.” Two species have been discovered, one of which (L. Thomsont)
has an especial resemblance to an Echinella, while the other (L. Kirki)
reminds one, by form as well as sculpture, of a Solarium.
(2.) SyRNOLOPsIsS (E, A. Smith, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), v. 6, p. 426, 1880; P. Z. S.
L., 1881, 288).
This ‘curious form has all the appearance of a marine genus, in fact,
closely resembling Obeliscus or Syrnola.” Mr. Smith believes “it may
temporarily be classed with the Rissoide.”
(3.) TrpHosra (E. A. Smith, P. Z. S. L., 1880, 348; 1881, 293).
This form is thought by Mr. Smith to be “perhaps the most remarka-
ble species of fresh-water mollusca yet discovered.” . It reminds one of
a *“Pyrula,” but still more of a ‘ Rapana,” while it also may recall to
mind the Glotella armigera of the United States.
(4.) TANGANYICIA (Crosse, Journ. Conchol., (3,) t. 21, p. 287, 1881).
The species of this group somewhat resemble Natieids, but they also
approach the Ampuliariids.
(5). SPEKIA (Grosse, Journ. Conchol. (3), t. 21, p. 302, etc., 1881).
This “subgenus” of ‘* Lacunopsis” has been proposed for the ‘‘ Litho-
glyphus zonatus” of Woodward, a shell peculiar for its thickness, and
thus recalling certain Littorine, but related to a fluviatile mollusk of
China.
(6.) ‘“Mrtanra (——?) Horei” (E. A. Smith, P. Z. S. L., 1881, p. 292).
This shell is said by Mr. Smith to be “another instance of a species
ZOOLOGY. 459
from Tanganyika, having very much the appearance of a marine form.”
What particular ‘marine form,” if any, is meant is not specified, but
the figure reminds one of a Planavis.
Two other sub-genera or genera complete the list of peculiar types
discovered in the African lake. They are—
PARAMELANIA (E. A. Smith, P. Z. S. L., 1881, p. 558)
NEOTHAUMA (E. A. Smith, P. Z. 8. L., 1880, p. 349; 1881, p. 293).
The former is a Melanoid; the latter a Viviparine gastropod with the
labrum “deeply emarginate” and reflected.
The discovery in a single body of water of such an association of
peculiar and limited types, and with such a facies is unexampled in the
annals of conchology. In the opinion of Mr. Smith, three of these, es-
pecially the species of Limnotrochus and Syrnolopsis, “have all the
appearance of being modified marine types; and such is probably the
case,” he adds, for, ‘“‘judging from the geology of the neighborhood,
Tanganyika at some remote epoch has been an inland sea, the saltness
of whose waters has almost entirely vanished, leaving only a peculiar
taste, which can scarcely be described as brackish” (P. Z.S., 1881, 276-
277). ‘Their presence involves one of the most difficult malacological
problems, thinks Mr. Crosse (Journ. Conchol. (3), t. 21, p. 303); but
while he retains Limnotrochus in the Littorinde, he is very doubtful
whether the soft parts of Syrnolopsis will confirm its reference to the
same family with Syxnola.
It is very regrettable that the soft parts of the several genera discoy-
ered should remain unknown. The opercula seemed to have been intact
in some of the shells, and probably, therefore, the lingual ribbons could
with proper care have been found. Their examination alone would have
permitted a determination, at least, approximative, of the mollusks,
_affinities. Until such examination the question of relationship must
remain doubtful. It may be suggested, however, that the variations of
the shells, considerable and remarkable as they are, are not incompati-
ble with their association with the Melaniids, for they can be derived
from the same type. But whether the new genera are much modified
Melanians, (or Viviparids,) or related to marine forms, or representatives
of even peculiar families, must remain unsettled till the lamentable
neglect to search for and examine the odontophores at least is repaired.
Meanwhile the most conservative course would be to associate them with
doubt in the family of Melanians. The deductions of Mr. Smith as to
the geological relations of the lake forms do not appear to be warranted.
Lake Tanganyika has now contributed to conchology 32 species, rep-
resenting 19 genera; 20 species and 6 genera or sub-genera have not
been detected elsewhere; 8 species are known to be also found in the
Nile.
As to the Paramelania, Dr. C. A. White, of Washington, has ex-
pressed the opinion that there is a generic identity between those species
and the Pyrgulifera humerosa of Meek, described about five years
460 ZOOLOGY.
before (U. S. Geol. Surv. 40th Par., v. 4, p. 176, pl. 17, f. 19, 19 a) from
specimens obtained in the Laramie group, “which holds a transitional
position between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic series” (Nature, v. 25, pp.
101-102). Dr. White also was of the belief that the ‘“ Melania (Sermyla)
admirabilis” of Tanganyika Lake is “evidently congeneric with” the
““Goniobasis Oleburni,” described by him from the same formation. Mr.
Smith, however, thought that it was “decidedly unadvisable at present
to locate the two forms in question in the same genus” (Nature, v. 25,
p. 218). In view of the known facts of distribution coincident with
structural characteristics of the Melaniids and related forms, it seems to
be premature, without direct comparison, to identify the extinct Ameri-
can and living African shells as congeners.
The quasi-representative forms are probably not only not isotypes,
but simply mimotypes, and it is quite improbable that any of the Ameri-
can Melaniiform mollusks are necrotypes* of Africa.
CEPHALOPODS.
Dibranchiata.
Girod (P.). Structure et texture de la poche du noir chez les Céphalopodes des cétes
de France. Compt. rend. Acad. Sc., Paris, t.92, pp. 966-968.
———. Les vaisseaux de la poche du noir des Céphalopodes. Compt. rend. Acad. Sc.,
Paris, t. 92, pp. 1241-1243,
Ihering (H. von). Uber Aptychen und Anaptychen. Kosmos, v.9, pp. 142-144.
Das Verhalten der Siphonalducte und die Descendenz der Cephalopoden.
Kosmos, v. 9, pp. 145-149.
Owen (Rich.). Descriptions of some new and rare Cephalopoda. Trans. Zool. Soc.
London, v. xi, pp. 131-170.
Yung (E.). Recherches expérimentales sur l’action des poisons chez les Céphalo-
podes. Mittheil. Zool. Station Neapel, v.3, pp. 97-120.
Verrill (A.E.). Giant Squid (Architeuthis) abundant in 1875 at the Grand Banks.
Am. Journ. Se, (3), Vv. 21, pp. 251-252; Ann. §& Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), v.7, pp. 351-352.
Gigantic Cuttle-Fishes.
The gigantic cuttle-fishes have been specially studied by Professor
Verrill, and much light has been thrown on the subject by his researches.
The largest of the class appear to belong to the family of Ommastre-
*The geography of animals and plants may be discussed with increased precision
and terseness by the use of several terms, e. g.:
MIMOTYPES (/11/L0¢, Mimic; tvzoc, form): Forms distantly resembling each other,
but fulfilling similar functions, and thus representing each other in different faunas;
e. g., (1) the Shrews of Europe are mimotypes of the Antechinus of Australia; (2) the
Sloths of South America, of the Phascolarctide of Australia, etc. By the use of this
term, the word “‘ analogue” may be relieved of a part of the burden borne by it.
ISOTYPES (Ico¢, equal or like; tvoc, form): Forms common to different countries:
e. g., the Shrews are isotypes in Europe and North America, etc.
NECROTYPES (vexpoc, dead, and ruroc, form): Forms formerly existent in a country,
but now extinct; e. g., the horses and rhinoceroses are necrotypes of North America,
indigenous species having once flourished on that continent, but become exterminated
in prehistoric times.
ZOOLOGY. 461
phidide, and the genus appropriately named Architeuthis, i. e., chief of
the cuttle-fishes. Two of those are recorded as having an extreme
length of 52 feet. In one (A. princeps?) the body from the base of the
arms to the tip of the tail was 15 feet long. Another, still larger, was
55 feet in extreme length, and its body was 20 feet long. It may be
well to add that the large cuttle-fish lately exhibited in New York and
through the country was very badly, indeed grotesquely, prepared by
the taxidermist, and gave no idea of the real animal.
MOLLUSCOIDS.
POLYZOANS.
Hincks (Thomas). Contributions toward a General History of the Marine Polyzoa.
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (5), v. 8, pp. 122-136.
BRACHIOPODS.
Davidson (Thomas). Monograph of the British fossil Brachiopoda. Vol. iv, part 4.
Devonian and Silurian Brachiopoda that occur in the Triassic pebble-bed of Bud-
leigh Saltreton. With5 pl. London Palewontographical Society, 1881.
Douville (H.). Note sur quelques genres de Brachiopodes. Neues Jahrb. f. Miner. Geol.
_ Paleontol., 1881, v. 1, pp. 438-440.
PROTOCHORDATES.
TUNICATES.
Herdmann (W.A.). Notes on British Tunicata, with descriptions of new species. 1.
Ascidiidw. Journ. Linn. Soc. London; Zool., v.15, pp. 274-290, 6 pl.
‘Olfactory Tubercle” of Simple Ascidians. Journ. 2. Microscop. Soc., (2,) v.
i, p.5; Oct., p. 726. (Proc. R. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh.)
Die Hypophysis der Seescheiden. Kosmos, v.9, pp. 387-389.
Joliet (L.). Remarques sur l’anatomie du Pyrosome. Compt. rend. Acad. Sc., Paris,
t. 92, pp. 1013-1015.
Julin (Charles). Etude sur ’hypophyse des Ascidies et les organes qui l’avoisinent.
Bull, Acad. Belg. (3), t.1, pp. 151-170, 895-900.
———. Recherches sur l’organisation des Ascidies simples. Arch.de Biol., v. 2, pp.
59-126.
Van Beneden (Ed.). Sur quelques points relatifs 4 Vorganisation et au développe-
ment des Ascidies. Compt. rend. Acad. Sc., Paris, t. 92, pp. 1238-1241.
Existe-t-il un cwlome chez les Ascidiens? Zool. Anz., 4. Jahrg., pp. 375-378.
VERTEBRATES.
GENERAL.
Heldreich(—). Vertebradosde Grecia. Cronicacientif., revista internac. de cienc., Barce-
lona, 1879.
Hertwig (O.). Die Entwickelung des mittleren Keimblatts der Wirbelthiere. Jena.
Leitschr. fiir Naturwiss., v.15, pp. 286-340. Also published at Jena, by G. Fischer,
1881, as Studien zur Blattertheorie von O. und R. Hertwig, Heft V.
Lefour (—). Animaux domestiques; zootechnie générale. 6. édit. Paris, libr. agri-
cole de la maison rustique, 1881. (18mo. 184 pp., 33 fig. Fres., 1, 5.)
Loos (P. A.). Die Eiweissdriisen der Amphibien und Vogel. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool.,
y, 35, pp. 478-504, 1 pl. . .
462 ZOOLOGY.
Rei‘zius (Gust.). Das Gehérorgan der Wirbelthiere. Morphologisch-histologische Stu-
dien. I. Das Gehérorgan der Fische und Amphibien. Mit 35 Taf. Stockholm,
Samson und Wallin, 1881. (gr. 4to. xi, 222 pp., 35 Bl. Tafelerklirung. )
Schulin (Karl). Zur Morphologie des Ovarium. Arch. f. mikroskop. Anat., v. 19, pp.
442-512, 3 pl.
Development of paired limbs.
Several naturalists—e. g., Maclise, Humphrey—had long ago sug-
gested that the paired fins were morphologically parallel with the
median ones, but, on account of the crudity of their conceptions and
the insufficiency of the evidence adduced, they failed to convince their
fellow-workers of the soundness of their conclusions. Later, Mr. F. M.
Balfour was led to “the conclusion that the vertebrate limbs were rem-
nants of two continuous lateral fins” by the study of their development,
and soon after Mr. J. K. Thacher, of New Haven, and following him
Mr. St. George Mivart, reached the same results through anatomical
studies. Objections having been raised against the soundness of these
conclusions, the subject was re-examined in 1881 by Mr. Balfour, by
reference to the development of the pectoral and ventral fins in Seylliids
as well as their structure in the adult. After paying due attention to
the observations and criticisms of several naturalists—especially Da-
vidoff and Gegenbaur—he reiterates the opinion that “‘the skeleton of
both the paired and the unpaired fins of Elasmobranchs and Lepidos-
teus is in its development independent of the axial skeleton,” but
admits that ‘‘the phylogenetic mode of origin of the skeleton, both of
the paired and of the unpaired fins, cannot, however, be made out with-
out further investigation.” He aptly dissents (as the recorder did in
1872) from Gegenbaur’s view as to the archypterygium, and also, but
apparently with far less reason, from the ‘derivation of the folds, of
which the paired fins of the Vertebrata are supposed to be specializa-
tions, from the lateral folds of Amphiowus.” His reasons for dissent in the
latter instance have not been given. It may be added, in this connec-
tion, that the ancestors of the Myzonts probably had the lateral fins, and
their absence in all the surviving members of the class is doubtless due
to the elongation of the body. (P. Z.8., 1881, 656-671, pls. 57, 58.)
FISHES IN GENERAL.
ANATOMY.
Integumentary system.
Hertwig (Oscar). Ueber das Hautskelet der Fische. 3. Abtheil. (Pediculati, Disco-
boli, Diana, Centriscidz, Triglidz, Plectognathi.) Morphosog. Jahrb., v.7, pp.1-42,
4 pl.
Osseous systen.
Klein (von). Beitraige zu. Osteologie der Fische. Jahreskft. d. Ver. f. vat. Naturk.
Wiirttumb., 37. Jahrg., pp. 325-360. Mit 1 Taf.
Wiedeisheim (R.). Uebitr das Becken der Fische. Morpholog. Jahrb., v.7, pp. 326-
327, are
ZOOLOGY. 468
Muscular system.
Hartmann (R.). Ueber die Brustflossenmuskeln einiger Fische. Sitzuagsber. Ges. nat.
Fr. Berlin, 1881, pp. 150-154.
Nervous system.
Cattie (J.Th.). Vergelijkend-anatomische en histologische Onderzoekingen van de
Epiphysis cerebri der Plagiostomi, Ganoidei en Teleostei. Leiden, S. C. van
Doesburgh, 1881. (8vo. 104 pp.,3pl. M. 3.)
— —. Die Epiphyse der Plagiostomi, Ganoidei und Teleostei. Zool, Anz.,4. Jahrg.,
p. 604,
Mayser (P.). Vergleichend-anatomische Studien tiber das Gehirn der Knochenfische
mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Cyprinoiden. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., v. 36,
pp. 259-364. Mit 10 Taf. und 1 Holzschn.
Eye.
Zelinka (Carl.). Ueber die Nerven in der Cornea der Knochenfische. Zool. Anz.
4. Jahrg., pp. 338-339.
Berger (E.). Beitrige zur Anatomie des Fischauges. Zool. Anz., 4. Jahrg., pp. 258-
262.
Brass (A.). Die Accommodation des Auges der Knochentische. Zeitschr. f. d. ges.
Naturwiss., v.53, pp. 901-903.
Ear.
Cisow (A.). Earof Ganoids. Journ. R. Microscop. Soc., (2,) v.1, pp. 429-480. (Ab-
stract.)
Accessory organs.
Bell (H. Jeffrey). Eye-like Spotsin Fishes. Pop. Sc. Rev., n. 8., Vv. 5, pp. 221-234, pl.
6, July, 1881.
Guerne (Jul. de). Les yeux accessoires des Poissons osseux. D’aprés le Dr. Ussow.
Bull. Scientif. dépt. du Nord, 1880. Dec. (publ. March, 1881), pp. 459-470, 1 pl.
Krause (Ernst). Die augenihnlichen Organe der Fische. Kosmos, v.9, pp. 433-438.
Leydig (Franz). Die augenihnlichen Organe der Fische anatomisch untersucht.
Bonn, E. Straub, 1881. (8vo, 100 pp., 10 pl. M. 13, 50.)
Sodlger (B.). Zur Kenntniss der Verbreitung von Leuchtorganen bei Fischen. Arch.
Jf. Mikrosk. Anat., v.19, pp. 147-152.
——. Ueber den feineren Bau der Seitenorgane der Fische. Bericht. Site. Nat. Ges.
Halle., 1880, pp. 105-109.
Taste.
Jourdan (E.), Sur les organes du goft des Poissons osseux. Compt. rend. Acad. Sts,
Paris, t.92, pp. 743-745.
Gills.
Riess (Albin). Der Bau der Kiemenblitter bei den Knochenfischen. Arch. f. Natur-
gesch., 47. Jahrg., v. 1, pp. 519-550, 3 pl.
Iymphatiec system.
Trois (Enrico F.). Contribuzioni allo studio del sistema linfatico dei Teleostei. Ri-
cerche sul sistema linfatico dell’ Uranoscopus scaber. Ati 2. Istit. Veneto Sc., Lett.
ed Arti, (5,) t. 6, pp. 404-418, 1 pl.
——. Contribuzione allo studio del sistema linfatico dei Teleostei. P.III. Ri-
cerche sul sistema linfatico dei Pleuronettidi. Atti R. Istit. Ven, Sc., Lett, ed Art,
(5,) v.7, pp. 37-47; v.8, pp. 49-56, 1 pl.
464 ZOOLOGY.
Generative system.
MacLeod (J.). Recherches sur V’appareil reproducteur des Poissons osseux. Bull.
Acad. Sc. Belgique, (3,) t. 1, pp. 500-505, 614-620.
Ontogeny.
Hoffmann (C.K.). Zur Ontogenie der Knochenfische. Natuurk. Verhandel. K. Akad.
Wet. Amsterdam, v. 21 (168 pp., mit 7 Taf.).
FAUNAS.
Europe.
Day (Francis). The Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland; being a natural history of
‘ such as are known to inhabit the seas and fresh waters of the British Isles,
including remarks on their economic uses and various modes of capture; with
an Introduction upon Fishes generally. Part II. London, Williams & Norgate,
1881. (8vo. pp. 65-144, pl. 7-48; 12 sh.)
Doderlein (P.). Manuale ittiologico del Mediterraneo. P.I. Bibliografia ittiologica.
P. II. Sinossi metodica delle specie. Fase. I. Epibranchi, Elasmobranchi.
Palermo, 1881. (8vo. I, 67 pp.; II, 117 pp.)
Moreau (Em.). Histoire naturelle des Poissons de la France. Paris, G. Masson, 1881.
(8vo. 3 vols., viz, v. 1, 480’pp.; v. 2, 576 pp.; v. 3,701 pp.; fres. 60.)
Klunzinger (C. B.). Die Fische in Wiirttemberg, faunistisch-biologisch betrachtet,
und die Fischereiverhiltnisse daselbst. Jahreshft. Ver. vaterlind, Naturk. Wiirt-
temb., 37. Jahrg., pp. 172-304.
Lilljeborg (W.). Sveriges och Norges Fiskar. 1. Haftet. Upsala, W. Schultz, (8vo.
pp. 1-208.)
North America.
Bean (Tarleton H.). Descriptions of some genera and species of Alaskan Fishes.
Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., v. 2, pp. 353-359.
Descriptions of [14] new Fishes from Alaska and Siberia. Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus., v.3, pp. 144-159.
Jordan (David S.) and Charles H. Gilbert. List of the Fishes of the Pacific Coast of
the United States, with a table showing the distribution of the species. Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus., v. 3, pp. 452-458.
—. Notes on the Fishes of the Pacific Coast of the United States. Proc.
U. S. Nat. Mus., v. 4, pp. 29-70.
South America.
Steindachner (Franz). Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Flussfische Siidamerikas. (III.)
Beschreibung der neuen Arten. Anzeiger d. kais. Akad. d. Wiss., 1881, No. XI, pp.
97-99.
Ichthyologische Beitriige. (XI.) Neue Arten. Ibid., pp. 99-100.
Pacific Ocean.
Giinther (A.). Garrett’s Fische der Siidsee. Heft 7 (pp. 217-256, 20 Taf.). Hamburg,
1881. Journ. Mus. Godeffroy, Heft 15.
Australia.
Macleay (William). Deseriptive Catalogue of Australian Fishes, vol.1. Sydney, F. W.
White, 1881. (8vo, vi, 264 pp., 2 pl., numbered 13 and 14. From Proc. Linn. Soc.
New 8S. Wales, v.5, parts 3 and 4.)
ZOOLOGY. 465
FISHERIES.
General.
Amtliche Berichte iiber die Internationale Fischerei-Ausstellung zu Berlin 1880.
Berlin, P. Parey, 1881. (8vo.) viz: I. Fischzucht von M. von dem Borne, H.
Haack, K. Michaelis. Im Anhange: die Angelfischerei, von M. von dem Borne.
Mit 39 Holzschn. (84 pp.) II. Seefischerei, von Dr. M. Lindemann. Mit 162
Holzschn. (244 pp.)
Meyer (J.). Handbuch des Fischerei-Sports. Wien, Pest, Leipzig, Hartleben’s Ver-
lag, 1881. (S8vo. 272 pp. M. 5. 40.)
United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Part VI. Report of the Commis-
sioner for 1878. (A. Inquiry into the decrease of food fishes. B. The propaga-
tion of food fishes in the waters of the United States.) Washington, Govt. Print-
ing Office, 1880. (8vo, liv and 988 pp.; published 1881.)
Fish epidemic.
Endlich (F.M.). An Analysis of Water destructive to Fish in the Gulf of Mexico.
Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus., v. 4, p. 124.
Farlow (W.G.). Report on the contents of two bottles of Water from the Gulf of
Mexico, forwarded by the Smithsonian Institution. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., v. 4,
p. 204.
Glazier (W. C. W.). On the destruction of Fish by polluted waters in the Gulf of
Mexico. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., v. 4, pp. 126, 127.
Ingersoll (Ernest). On the Fish mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. U.S. Nat.
Mus., v. 4, pp. 74-80.
Johnson (8. H.). Notes on the Mortality among Fishes of the Gulf of Mexico. Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus., v. 4, p. 205.
Moore (M.A.). Fish Mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., v. 4,
pp. 125-126.
Porter (Joseph V.). On the destruction of Fish by poisonous water in the Gulf of
Mexico. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., v. 4, pp. 121-123.
Fishes of Alaska.
Fishes had been collected in Alaska and scientifically described long
before any were made known from California, but while the fauna
of the latter was in later years well studied, that of Alaska remained
comparatively neglected. But several collectors have gathered there
within a few years past, and Dr. Tarleton H. Bean, in 1880, visited the
country to study the fishes and fisheries, and has, since his return, pub-
lished a number of articles respecting them, and compiled “a prelimi-
nary catalogue of the fishes of Alaskan and adjacent waters.” (Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus., v. 4, pp. 239-272.) One hundred and sixteen species are
enumerated, all of which but seven are represented in the National
Museum. The species are almost wholly shore fishes, or such as are
found in comparatively shallow water, scarcely any deep-sea forms
having been discovered. We need only add here that the Cod family
is represented by 6 species, the Flounder family by 9, the Sculpins by
21, the Chiridz by 8, and the Salmon family by 9. Two very interest-
ing genera have been added by Dr. Bean to the fauna which are at the
same time new to science, Melletes, a kind of Seulpin, and Dallia, a fish
related to the Mud fishes, or Umbridee.
S. Mis. 109——30
466 ZOOLOGY.
Fish epidemics in the Gulf of Mexico.
In different years, at considerable intervals, an unusual mortality has
occurred among the animals of the Gulf of Mexico around the peninsula
of Florida, and fishes in large numbers and of many species could be
then found floating, dead or dying, at the surface or stranded on thé
shore. The years 1844 and 1854 are especially remembered on account
of the fatality among the inhabitants of the Gulf. In the fall of 1878
there was also a notable epidemic. (Jefferson, &c., in Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus,, v. 1, pp. 244-246, 363, 364.) In the fall of 1880, likewise, occurred
a destructive epidemic. These epidemics ensue on the presence and
diffusion of bodies of discolored “ poisoned water,” which appear ‘in
long patches or ‘streaks,’ sometimes 100 yards wide (and probably
sometimes much wider), drifting lengthwise with the flow of tide,”
and which can be readily distinguished from the natural clear blue
water of the Gulf. The sponges and other animals living near the
bottom seem to be among the first to suffer, and profitable sponging
grounds have been ruined by the poisoned stream. According to Mr.
Ingersoll the epidemic of 1880 “began suddenly, and immediately
followed the terrible hurricane which is known as the ‘August gale,’
the fish and all other ocean life suddenly dying in hordes all along the
southern (eastern) shore of Tampa Bay, in Egmont Keys, at its mouth,
which was the most northern point, and thence southward as far as
Shark River, in Whitewater Bay, on the coast. Thence fatal localities
were to be found in the currents that set southward through Bahia
Honda passage, through the Northwest Passage beyond Key West, and
even out in the neighborhood of the far isolated Tortugas.” Not only
are these masses of deleterious water fatal in their course, for numerous
fishermen are compelled to cross it in going from their fishing grounds
to their markets, and lose their cargoes on account of the transit.
Various attempts at explanation have been made of the phenomena.
The most popular seems to be a hypothesis that the dirty water is due
to an overflow from the everglades or swamps of “fresh water poisoned
by a decoction of noxious acids, &c., leached from the roots which had
been soaking for years in the pent-up floods” (P. N.M., iv, p. 78), or which
had been saturated with the dogwood (Cornus florida), especially. (P.N.
M., iv, p. 122.) Another quite prevalent opinion attributes the unclean
water to the eruption of a submarine voleano or “eruptions of volcanic
gases which may have taken place through the bottom of the sea along
a line stretching from Tampa Bay to the Tortugas and through the
western half of the Florida Keys.” (Ingersoll, P. N. M., iv, pp. 79, 80.)
In order to determine if possible the truth in a case which affects
such large interests, both in labor and capital, the United States Fish
Commissioner sent Mr. Ernest Ingersoll to Florida to collect evidence
in the matter, and referred samples of the “poisoned water” to Dr. F.
M. Endlich for chemical examination, and to Dr. W. G. Farlow for
microscopical investigation.
ZOOLOGY. 467
Dr. Endlich, on analysis and comparison of the ‘poisoned water”
with normal Gulf water, found the constituents to be, respectively, as
follows, the injurious being designated as A and the normal as B:
A B
SPC GING OL AVEGY aces nicaters clei ele fore sje diniala scl sae 2 1. 024 1. 022
Solid constituents (total), per cent....-........- 4. 0780 4, 1095
Herric. compounds, Per Cent .<).\. 66 i-<'s:0 2 <i- = 250.5 0. 1106 0. 0724
Injurious organic matter....-....-..-----.....- ratio =3 ratio =2
He could not find, ‘‘even by spectroscopic analysis, any mineral con-
stituents in the water A which could noxiously affect the fish,” but he
came to the conclusion that “the death of fish was caused by the more
or less parasitic algze, which are found in large quantities in water A,
but do not occur at all in water B.” (P. U.S. N. M., iv, 124.)
Professor Farlow, the eminent cryptogamist, to whom two bottles of
the water were sent, found therein ‘‘a mass of amorphous slime, in
which were numerous crystals, apparently of a fatty nature,” as well
as numerous and partially decomposed remains of small crustaceans and
various plant tissues. It was his “opinion that the trouble is not
caused by the presence of any vegetable substance, but that the pres-
ence of the latter is accidental. The slimy mass probably originated
from a mass of eggs which, for some reason or another, were killed near
the surface, and the smaller crustaceans in the neighborhood here have
been involved in the general mass of slime.” (Op. cit., p. 234.)
Practically the results of the investigations so far have been nega-
tive. More data are required, the extent and course of the noxious
currents should be ascertained, a rigorous co-ordination of all facts
bearing on the question is requisite, and renewed chemical and micro-
scopical investigations must be made, as well as careful examination of
the dead and dying fishes, as to their gills, &c. The factors that have
been assigned as causes of the disturbed waters, and the mortality
among the fishes, are scarcely likely to be the efficient ones. It is use-
less to speculate at this time what are. It is most desirable in the in-
terests of the fisherman, as well as science, that the truth should be
known.
A communication of Mr. 8. H. Johnson, the collector of customs at
Corpus Christi, Tex., is of interest in this connection, but fails to give
any solution to the question at issue. ‘After very heavy rains and
overflowing of rivers, the inner bays on the Texas coast suffer a loss of
from one-half to three-fourths of their salt-water fish, not including
mullet, which live as well in fresh as salt water,” and unusual cold
weather is also quite fatal to fish in shallow waters. The percentages
given are, of course, only of value as crude estimates based on superfi-
cial appearances. (Proc. U.S N. M., IV, 208.)
468 ZOOLOGY.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
The subjects of this ‘‘science” are separable under four classes: (1)
the Leptocardians, (2) the Myzonts or Marsipobranchiates, (3) the Se-
lachians, Sharks, Rays, and Chimerids, and (4) the true Fishes.
CLASS OF LEPTOCARDIANS.
Hatschek (B.) Studien itiber Entwickelung des Amphioxus. Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Wien,
v. 4, p. 1- 88, 9 pl.
Hoppe-Seyler (F.) Uber Amphioxusund Cephalopoden. Berichtigung. Zool. Anz.,
4, Jahrg., p. 185-187.
Krukenberg (C. Fr. W.) Zur Kenntniss des chemischen Baues von Amphioxus lance-
olatus und der Cephalopoden. Zool. Anz., 4. Jahrg., p. 64-66, p. 263, 1881.
Embryology of Amphioxus.
In some respects the most important vertebrate type known is Am-
phioxus or Branchiostoma. Were it not for this form we would be left
in the dark as to the relationships of the great vertebrate with the other
branches of the animal kingdom and could only at best surmise, and
imperfectly, the truth in the case from the facts of the embryology of
the Marsipobranchiates and succeeding animals. Whatever light is
thrown on the history of Amphioxrus, is consequently reflected on the
genealogy and history of all other vertebrates, including man himself.
A full knowledge of that form is therefore especially desirable. Numer-
ous naturalists have contributed to our information respecting the mor-
phology and histology of the adult stage, but few have done aught re-
specting the embryology. Years ago the eminent Russian embryologist,
Kowalevsky, gave the first glimpses of the animal’s earlier history, and
during the past year Dr. Hatschek has added to the stock of informa-
tion respecting its development, and confirmed, supplemented, and
sometimes modified Kowalevsky’s account. The ovaare generally quite
isolated. Oviposition seems to be dependent on the weather and even
time of day. The generative products are discharged through the
mouth, as Kowalevsky stated. The five fat-like bodies of the Russian
author are regarded as yolk granules; the spermatozoa would appear
to always enter at the vegetative pole. The progress of development is
described as it appears at five different periods.
In the first period after the fecundation of the egg, segmentation en-
sues. The cleavage was found to be unequal, the differences between
the two poles being well marked. There is a pause of about an hour
between the formation of the first and second groove.
In the second, or “ blastula-stage,” the investing cells take on “an
epithelial character till there is formed a general outer layer, inclosing
a cavity. This simple epithelium forms the substratum for the later
developmental processes. All the essential organs are formed by fold-
ings or outgrowths from it. Bilateral symmetry is obvious at a very
ZOOLOGY. 469
early period; the blastopore appears to close from before backwards.
The lower layer, which goes to form the endoderm, does not correspond
to more than one-third of the blastula. This undergoes invagination ;
the fluid of the cleavage cavity becomes absorbed, and bilateral sym-
metry soon becomes well marked.”
In the “ ‘third period’ the primitive segments, the nervous system,
and the notochord begin to be apparent; the remnant of the blasto-
pore persists as an opening between the enteric cavity and the nerve-
tube, representing the typical neuro-enteric canal. Contemporaneously
with the development of the nerve-tube, the mesoderm develops the
primitive segments; two lateral longitudinal folds arise in the dorsal
portion of the endoderm, and represent the rudiments of the mesoderm.
The cavities of the primitive segments are diverticula from the arch-
enteric cavity.”
In the fourth histological differ aeanon especially supervenes. ‘The
muscles become apparent; the notochord undergoes histological differ-
entiation, and fibrous cords appear in the medullary tube. Atthe same
time the larva alters greatly in form, becomes elongated and compressed,
and takes on generally a piscine character. The increase in the num-
ber of primitive segments goes on but slowly, but what are formed
gradually fuse in the median central line. Hach muscle-cell has at first
only a single fibril, which is continuous throughout the length of the
body.”
In the fifth period “‘ those changes occur which enable the embryo to
pass into the larva. A number of orifices are now formed—the mouth
and therfirst gill-cleft, the orifice of the ciliated organ (or left endodermal
sac), the club-shaped gland, and the anus. The body meanwhile in-
creases in length, fresh segments being formed ; a number of strong
motile flagella may be seen to be developed from the cells, and all the
tissues of the body are now formed of transparent protoplasm.”
The first four of these phases successively manifested correspond to
the first of “two well-marked stages, the one embryonic when it is ef-
fected at the cost of the nutrient material contained in the egg, and is
very rapid. The fifth phase represents the second stage. At the close
of the first the mouth is developed, and the first gill-cleft. The larva
now begins to feed itself; its cells contain transparent protoplasm, and
the developmental processes are very much slower.” (J. R.M.5S., (2) U,
174-176, from Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien, IV, 1-89, with 9 pl.)
470 ZOOLOGY.
CLASS OF MYZONTS.
Scott (W. B.). Beitrige zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Petromyzonten. Morpho-
log. Jahrb., v. 7, pp. 101-172, 5 pl.
Embryology of the Lamprey.
An important contribution, in the German language, to our knowl-
edge of the development of the Petromyzontids is due to Mr. W. B.
Scott, of Princeton, New Jersey. In the laboratory of Professor Gegen-
baur, at Heidelberg, he instituted new investigations on the family in
question, and has published the result in an elaborate memoir in Gegen-
baur’s Morphologisches Jahrbuch (v. 7. pp. 101-173, with 5 pl.). We
can only notice a few of the fruits of his studies.
The gastrula is the result of a true invagination, (but it is not central
as it is in Amphioxus,) and the overgrowth of the smaller elements.
The notochord was found to be of endodermal origin as has been
known to be the case in the Leptocardians, Selachians, true Fishes, Uro-
dele Amphibians, Lacertilian Reptiles and Mammals. Hight pairs of
branchial clefts are developed, but the foremost speedily disappears,
and it is added that there is no evidence of the existence of gill clefts
anterior to the first pair of the lamprey in any primitive vertebrate.
The embryonic mouth develops into the mouth of the adult, while in
the higher vertebrates, save the Teleost fishes, the medullary tube
arises from the growth together of two folds inthelamprey. The folds
are appressed, and “the medullary tube forms an inwardly projecting
knob, which, when it is separated off from the ectoderm, is at first a
solid tube, and only becomes hollow by the outgrowth of its cells.”
The sensory organ first developed is the auditory, and this appears
just in front of the primitive vertebra (and not, as in the Selachians, at
some distance from it). The brain is notable in that for some time
‘“‘ there is no tendency to folding; when it does occur it appears to be
due to the sudden increase in growth of the median portion.” The ru-
dimentary olfactory organ was found to be primitively single (and not
double, as described by Calberla).
Some of the observations and inferences of Dr. Scott, especially those
on the germinal layer, have been since controverted by J. P. Nuel,
(Archives de Biologie, t. 21, pp. 403-454, with 2 pl.), but the memoir
noticed is one of sterling merit and noteworthy as the production of an
American naturalist.
CLASS OF SELACHIANS.
Balfour (F. M.). On the Development of the Skeleton of the Paired Fins of Elasmo-
branchii, considered in Relation to its Bearings on the Nature of the Limbs of the
Vertebrata. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1881, pp. 656-671, 2 pl.
Benda (Carl.). Die Dentinbildung in den Hautzihnen der Selachier. Arch. f.
mikroskop. Anat, v. 20, pp. 246-270, 1 pl.
Bolau (H.). Uber die Paarung und Fortpflanzung der Scyllium-Arten. Zeitschr.
Wiss. Zool., v. 35, p. 321-325.
ZOOLOGY. ATL’
Herrmann (G.). Surla Spermatogénése chez les Sélaciens. Compt. rend. Acad. Se:
Paris, t. 93, pp. 858-860.
Marshall (A. Milnes). On the Head Cavities and Associated Nerves of Elasmobranchs.
Quart. Journ. Mic. Sc., v. 21, pp. 72-97, 2 pl.
Anterior termination of notochord in Selachians.
It had been generally supposed that the notochord in all fishes termi-
nated in front, back of the sella turcica, and this belief has been embodied
in diagnoses of those animals as contrasted with the lowest of the verte-
brates—the Leptocardians. Recently, however, the eminent German
embryologist, Professor Reichert, thought that he could trace the noto-
chord ‘through the cranial floor in front of and below the hypophysis.”
Reichert’s observation was made on the embryo of a dog-fish (Squalus
acanthias). Dr. Rabl-Riickhard has re-examined the same species with
reference to the mooted question, and confirms the old view in opposition
to Professor Reichert. After an examination of several specimens he
formulated his conclusions as follows:
1. “At no period of its development has the embryo of Acanthias a
notochord with its apex projecting beyond that part of the base of the
skull which subsequently becomes the dorsum sell.”
2. “The hypophysis arises immediately in front of the apex of the
notochord in the basal portion of that deposit of connective tissue which
is termed the middle cranial trabecula.”
3. “The summit of this rudiment (Reichert’s processus sell turcice)
does not pass into the later sella turcica, but becomes the adventitia of
the basilar artery.”
It is added that “though it is certain that the notochord stops short
of the hypophysis and lies behind (not beneath) it, this is not irrecon-
cilable with Reichert’s other statement—that the chorda of young sharks
ata certain period of development reaches to the frontal wall (Stirn-
wand). The cephalic flexure shows us that such a state of things is
quite possible.”
Observations were also made on the morphology and development of
the hypophysis and pineal gland. The results of the lamented Balfour
are confirmed. In contradiction of Fritsch, it is maintained that “ the
pineal gland is developed just as among the higher vertebrates.” The
sources of error which have led to contrary assertions are explained.
(J. R. M.S., I, 9-11, frem Morph Jahrb., VI, 535-570, 2 pl.)
FISHES PROPER.
a Chondrostei.
Parker (William Kitchen). On the Development of the Sturgeon (Acipenser sturio),
Nature, v. —, p. 71.
Salensky (W.). Sur le Developpement de la Sterlet. Arch. de Biologie, t. 2. pp. 233-
341, 8 pl.
Apodes.
Brock(J.). Untersuchungen iiber die Geschlechtsorgane einiger Muraenoiden. Mittheil.
Zool. Station Neapel, y. 2, pp. 415-494, 3 pl.
A472 ZOOLOGY.
Hermes (0.). Uber reife miinnliche Geschlechtstheile des Seeaals (Conger vulgaris)
und einige Notizen tiber den miinnlichen Flussaal (Anguilla vulgaris Flem.). Zool.
Anz., 4. Jahrg., pp. 39-44.
Robin (Charles). Les Anguilles males comparées aux femelles. Compt. rend. Acad.
Se., Paris, t. 92, pp. 328-383.
Weyenbergh (H.). Morphologische Aanteekeningen over de Proest-Alen (Symbran.
chide). Zool. Anz.,4. Jahrg. (31 p.,1I Tab.)
Uber den Kiemenapparat der Symbranchide. Zool. Anz., 4. Jahrg., pp. 407-409.
Nematognathi.
Bean (Tarleton H.). Description of a new species of Amiurus (A. ponderosus) from the
Mississippi River. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., v. 2, pp. 286-290.
Eventognathi.
Cope (E. D.). A new genus of Catostomide (Lipomyzon). Am. Naturalist, v. 15,
p- 59.
Hensen (V.). Nachtrag zu meinen ‘‘Bemerkungen gegen die Cupula terminalis
(Lang).” Arch. f. Anat. u. Entwickelungsgesch., 1881, pp. 405-418, 1 pl.
Nusbaum (Jos.). Uber das anatomische Verhiiltnis zwischen dem Gehérorgane und
der Schwimmblase bei den Cyprinoiden. Zool. Anz., 4 Jahrg., pp. 552-556.
Abdominales.
Bendire (Charl.). Noteson Salmonide of the upper Columbia. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.,
v. 3, pp. 81-87.
Haplomi.
Lepori (Ces.) Osservazioni sull’ uovo della Lebias calaritana. Relazione del De Sanc-
tis. Atti R. Accad. Linc. Transunti.
Sternfeld (Alfr.). . Uber die Structur des Hechtzahns, insbesondere die des Vasoden-
tins. Arch. mikroskop. Anat., v. 20, pp. 382-412, 2 pl.
Acanthoplerygii.
Krukenburg (C. Fr. W.). Beitriige zur Anatomie und Physiologie von Luvarus im-
perialis. Graf Béla Haller, zur Anatomie und Histologie; Das Auge, von E. Berger;
Physiologisch-Chemische Untersuchungen von C. F. W. Krukenburg. Kruken-
burg, Vergl. Physiolog. Studien Adria, 4. Abth., pp. 1-64.
MacKay (CharlesL.). Areview of the genera and species of the family Centrarchida,
with a description of one new species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., v. 3, pp. 87-93.
Martens (Ed. von). Uber die Bewegungsweise der Fische aus der Gattung Perioph-
thalmus. Sitzungsber. Ges. nat. Fr. Berlin, 1881, pp. 160, 161.
Jugulares.
Emery (Carlo). Fierasfer. Studi intorno alla sistematica, ’anatomia e la biologia
delle specie mediterranee di questo genere. Atti accad. Linc. Mem., Cl. fis., t.
7, pp. 167-254.
Also published as the second monograph of the ‘“‘ Fauna und Flor& des Golfes vor
Neapel.” Leipzig, Engelmann, 1880. (4° M. 25,) with the title Le specie de
genere Fierasfer nel Golfo di Napoli e regioni limitrofi.
Plectognathi.
Vignal (Will.). Note sur ’Anatomie des centres nerveux du mole, Orthagoriscus
mola, Arch. Zool. Expériment., t. 9, pp. 369-386, 1 pl.
ZOOLOGY. A73
Retinal vessels of fishes.
Vessels in the retina of the eel have been described by W. Krause as
well as by W. Miiller, but on the other hand several competent anato-
mists have denied the existence of such vessels in fishes. Dr. G. Den-
issenko has, to some extent, reconciled the conflicting statements. In
old eels that investigator was unable, like others, to find any vessels,
and in old carp, although vessels were found, they were very insignifi-
cant, and might easily be overlooked. In the young carp, however,
‘they occur not only in the innermost layers, but also in the outer
granular eye.” Dr. Denissenko was consequently led to believe, with
Krause, that ‘“ with age these vessels usually disappear, in consequence
of the growth of the eye forwards and sidewards and the simultaneous
extension of the optic nerve. In this way the vessels become com-
pressed ; their lumen is reduced and finally obliterated.” They may
thus be developed in the young and atrophied in the old. (J. R.M.5.,
I, 18, from Arch. Mikr., Anat., xviii, 468-480, with 4 fig.)
Development of the sturgeon.
Prof. W. K. Parker has supplemented the important work of Sa-
lensky on the embryology of the sturgeon by a memoir “on the
structure and development of the skull in sturgeons (Acipenser ruthe-
nus and A. sturio)” in more advanced stages. It will be sufficient in this
place to indicate that Professor Parker thinks that the cranial scutes of
the head are only homologous to the bones of the true osseous fishes in
part; that is, the teleost bones ‘can only correspond to the inner layer
of the scute.” But, in addition to others, ‘along the side of the skull
in old individuals, plates of bone appear as splints or parostoses, that
are manifestly the forerunners of the deeper plates that, in the higher
ganoids and the telostei form the proper ectosteal bony centres of the
more or less ossified cranial-box.”
The discovery by Salensky of teeth in the embryonic sturgeon is, of
course, confirmed. Larval sturgeons, says Professor Parker, “are, in
appearance, miniature sharks. For a few weeks they have a similar
mouth, and their lips and throat are beset with true teeth that are
molted before calcification has fairly set in. Their first gills are very
long and exposed, but not nearly so long, or for such a time uncovered,
as in the embryos of sharks and skates.”
Oviposition of callichthyids.
The fact that certain Callichthyids take care of their eggs and young,
and are able to progress on land, has long been familiar through the
oft-republished observations of Hancock on the so-called Hassars of
Guiana. Recent experiments by M. Carbonnier, of Paris, (Comptes Ren-
dus Acad. Se., December 6, 1880,) furnish additional details. The in-
dividuals experimented with were received at Paris from the Rio de la
~~
ATA ZOOLOGY.
Plata. When the female is preparing to deposit her eggs, she brings
together the ventral fins so as to form a pouch which receives them by
degrees, and wherein they are fertilized by the males. The eggs are then
deposited in a spot cleaned, by the mouth of the mother, of vegetation.
Somewhere about two hundred and fifty eggs are extruded and attached
by a viscous coat which envelopes them. The young are developed and
able to swim in twelve or thirteen days, but they do not reach maturity
till two years after hatching. It is noteworthy that the fishes introduced
into France have accommodated their oviposition to the reversed seasons,
for, whereas in the Rio de la Plata they lay their eggs in October or No-
vember, those born in France matured their eggs in June.
New observations on terrestrial progression of these fishes have also
been published by Mr. Joseph Manson, of Ngai in “Science” for De-
cember 25, 1880.
A new type of suckers.
A characteristic family of fishes for the North American fauna is that
of the suckers or Catostomidz. Two genera, it is true, are represented
in Northeastern Asia; but all the other members of this family are
American, and help to impart the stamp of peculiarity to the fish
fauna of the United States. Ten genera have been recognized by Jor-
dan in his revision of the family, and these are divided into three sub-
families, Catostomine, Bubalichthyine, and Cycleptine. To the first of
these is now added, by Professor Cope, a peculiar genus, called Lipo-
myzon, the species of which had been previously confounded with Chas-
mistes. They, however, exhibit a difference, especially in dentition, the
pharyngeal bones being very slender and flattened, and the teeth min-
ute and numerous, as in the carp-suckers.
Two species are known, both from Klamath Lake, Oregon, the L.
lucatus and L. brevirostris.
Peculiar eye-like organs in physostome fishes.
Searcely any two organs would appear to be more unlike than the
eyes of vertebrate animals and the electric organs so highly developed
in certain fishes—the torpedos, gymnotus or electrical eel, and mala-
pterurus or electrical cat-fish. Nevertheless there are nevus organs
found along the sides of the body, and sometimes on other parts, of
sundry pelagic and deep-sea fishes, which have been claimed, on one
hand, by different naturalists to be accessory eyes, and, on ne con-
trary, by others to be rather of the nature of electric organs. The fishes
so endowed are mostly of small size and like herring or salmonids in
appearance, and were formerly associated in the same family as the
latter, but are now referred to several peculiar families—the scopelids,
the stomiatids, the chauliodontids, and the sternoptychids. Generally
the organs in question are manifested as pearl-like spots distributed in
longitudinal rows along the sides near the abdomen, but they are often
ZOOLOGY. 475
likewise developed on the head, and even on the branchiostegal rays.
Nearly quarter of a century ago the illustrious German histologist
Kolliker had suggested that these organs were ‘“ essentially nervous,
and present the nearest resemblance to the electrical organs of fishes.”
But this suggestion received no notice, and has only recently been res-
urrected by Professor Bell. In 1865 Professor Leuckart published the
results of a special examination, and expressed the belief that they
were accessory eyes. In 1879 Professor Ussow examined the organs
anew in seven distinct generic types, and urged that they belonged to
two different categories, those of some fishes being accessory eyes,
while those of others were special glandular organs. The two kinds,
it was claimed, were never developed in the same fish. Finally, in 1881,
Professor Leydig attacked the problem and made known the results of
his examinations in a special work (illustrated by ten plates), of which
an abstract has been given by Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell, from which, in
the absence of the original, we derive the conclusions of the Bonn pro-
fessor.
The peculiar organs of the fishes under consideration are referable,
according to Levdig, to three categories: (1) ‘‘Hye-like organs,” (2)
‘“‘ mother-of-pearl-like organs,” and (3) “luminous organs,” but the last
two are confined to the scopeli.
The eyé-like organs are “ saccular in form and divisible into a bulb,
a neck, and an orifice, and this orifice is always directed downward.”
They have “an investment of brown pigment, a layer with a metallic
glitter, a gray inner body, and a surrounding lymphatic space. The
investment is derived from the general integument of the body, and the
pigment granules are contained in the cells of the underlying connect-
ive tissue; the metallic layer consists of iridescent plates, rods, or
fibres. The gray inner body is divisible into two portions, the hinder
and larger of which fills the sac, while the anterior and smaller occu-
pies the narrower neck. The striate appearance of this part” is ap-
parently due “to the presence of a framework of connective tissue, which
sends rays into or forms a network init; into this gray part there
further proceeds a nerve, the fibers of which probably come into con-
nection with the contained cells.” These organs were regarded by
Ussow as having one or other of two functions, but according to Leydig
there is no essential difference between them, and both must have the
same function—whatever that may be.
The mother-of-pearl organs “have in all cases an outer brown invest-
ment, a metallic layer, a gelatinous internal body formed of connective
tissue; they are provided with nerves and blood-vessels, and are sur-
rounded by a lymphatic space. The metallic plates are regarded by
Ussow as special cells, but Leydig looks upon them as altogether simi-
lar to the minute iridescent bodies found on the skin. The gelatinous
portion is made up of delicate radiate cells, which give rise to a net-
work, and an intermediate soft substance”.
A76 ZOOLOGY.
The so-called laminous organs present no essential difference of
structure from the preceding.
Organs exhibiting the characteristics of these parts, it is urged, can-
not be sensory, much less endowed with the function of sight. The ob-
jections to their consideration as eyes are given in detail, and of the so-
ealled lens itis said that ‘‘it does not lie in the center, but at the edge of
the mass which does duty as the vitreous body,” and its histology is also
antagonistic to an analogy with the lens, and, ‘greatest difficulty of all,
the ‘pupil,’ the ‘lens,’ and the ‘ vitreous body’ are not turned upwards to
the light, but so long as the fish is swimming they look downwards into
the deep ; and in the case of Chauliodus are developed also on the mem-
brane that lines the cavity of the mouth.”
What, then, are these organs? According to Leydig, the problem-
atic bodies ‘bear the closest resemblance to the electric or ‘ pseudo-
electric’ organs of other fishes, and he brings many points to strengthen
his position.” Different as the electric organs are in form as well as
position, in all they are richly supplied with nerves; they are surrounded
by alayer of connective tissue, which gives rise toa number of “alveolar”
chambers filled with a gelatinous substance. Now, on comparison with
these of the eye-like spots of the fishes, it is found that in this one as
in the other there is “a contained mass of gelatinous tissue,” and ‘ the
same net-work of connective tissue,” as well as ‘‘nerve fibres of very
much the same character.” Still other points of resemblance are ad-
duced, but ‘‘ whether they really have the power of developing elec-
tricity is a problem that cannot yet be solved.” As to their phosphores-
cence, it is contended that “ no definite phosphorescent organ has ever
yet been examined which presented any other contents than fatty or
oily matter.” Conceding all the postulates claimed by Professor Leydig,
however, in view of the surroundings of the animals developing the
organs treated of, we can scarcely avoid the belief that they have some
relation to illumination. In the words of Professor Bell, ‘it still re-
mains possible that these creatures add to the feeble light of great ocean
depths by reflecting the light that fall on these eye-like organs,” although
their function as such may be a secondary development.
The Pacific Coast salmon.
The species of salmon-like salmonidz found upon the Pacific coast
of North America and its entering rivers have been unduly multi-
plied, and much confusion has existed as to the limits of the spe-
cies. With more ample material than was enjoyed by any of their
predecessors, and, above all, the privilege of seeing the fishes in their
haunts, Messrs. Jordan and Gilbert have revised all the known forms
and have reduced them to five species. All belong to the genus Onco-
rhynchus, which differ from the Salmo in the greater number of rays in the
anal fin, and accessory but slight modifications of the snout. The males
of all the species when running into fresh water assume an attenuated
ZOOLOGY. 477
beak-like snout, and at least most of them die and never return to the
sea. ‘These five species enjoy vernacular names, and are known as fol-
lows:
(1.) Oncorhynchus chouicha or quinnat. — Chouicha, king salmon,
e’quinna, saw-kwey, Chinook salmon, Columbia River salmon, Sacra-
mento salmon, tyee salmon, Monterey salmon, deep-water salmon,
spring salmon, ek-ul-ba (‘“‘ekewan”), (fall run).
(2.) Oncorhynchus nerka.—Blue-back.—Krasnaya ryba, Alaska, red-
fish, Idaho red-fish, sukkegh, Frazer’s River salmon, roseal, 00-chooy-ha.
(3.) Oncorhynchus kisutch.—Silver salmon.—Kisutch, winter salmon,
hoopid, skowitz, coho, bielaya ryba, 0-o-wun.
(4.) Oncorhynchus keta.—Dog salmon.—Kayko, lekai, ktlawhy, qua-
lock, fall salmon, o-le-a-rah. The males of all species in the fall are
usually known as dog salmon, or fall salmon.
(5.) Oncorhynchus gorbuscha.—Hump-back —Gorbuseha, haddo, hone,
holia, lost salmon, Puget Sound salmon, dog salmon (of Alaska.)*
Of these species the quinnat is the one that is most generally known,
and is the largest and finest of all, deserving the name of king salmon
which has been given to it in some places. This species occurs farther
south than its congeners, and enters into the Ventura River, which is
the southernmost stream of California not muddy and alkaline at its
mouth.
The QO. nerka or blue-back is the most abundant species in Frazer’s
River, and is the famous red-fish of Idaho.
The blind fishes and congeners.
The well known and remarkable blind fish of the Mammoth Cave of
Kentucky is the representative of a peculiar family, limited, so far as
has been ascertained, to the Middle and Southern United States, and
known by the name of Amblyopsids or Heteropygii. The forms are re-
lated, but distantly, to the cyprinodontids, and are distinguished by the
position of the anus under the throat, the very small scales of the body
and the scaleless head. Much interest attaches to the family for various
reasons, and it has indeed been regarded as a keystone to the theory of
evolution on the one hand, or specific creation on the other, Professor
Agassiz having especially insisted upon the value of the study of the
type with reference to this question. Weare indebted to Mr. I’, W. Put-
nam for a revision of the family, and for good descriptions of the genera
and species. By him four species were recognized belonging to three
genera, namely, (1) Amblyopsis, with the large blind fish of the Mam-
moth Cave; (2) Typhlichthys, with asmaller blind fish inhabiting subter-
ranean streams of Kentucky, Tennessee and Alabama, and coexisting
with the large blind fish inthe Mammoth Cave; and (3) Chologaster, with
* Observations on the Salmon of the Pacific by David S. Jordan and Ghakies Hy
Gilbert. (Am. Nat., v. 15, pp. 177-186.)
478 ZOOLOGY.
two species—C. cornutus and CO. Agassizii, the former occurring in
ditches in the-rice fields of South Carolina, while the latter is only
known from a specimen found in a wellin Lebanon, Tenn. A third
species of Chologaster * has recently been added by Prof. S. A. Forbes,
and was discovered in aspring at the foot of a bluff in western
Union County in the southern part of Illinois. At first only one
specimen was obtained and a name was deferred till more information
should be obtained. Later,t seven more specimens were secured and the
form has been named Chologaster papilliferus. Thespecies is especially
noteworthy in that it lessens the gap betweenits own kind andthe blind
fish and answers one of the objections urged against the primitive com-
mon parentage of all the species.
Habits of fierasfer.
In certain of the holothurians (known as sea-cucumbers, trepangs,
&c.), living at moderate depths, fishes may be found in the interior of
the body. These fishes are elongated and taper to the end of the tail,
which is pointed. The name of fierasfer has been given to them.
How they enter into the holothurians has been explained by Pro-
fessor Emery. When free in the water, the fish swims head down-
wards with tail curved toward the back, by undulatory movements
of the anal fin. Coming to a holothurian lying at the bottom of the
water, it eagerly seeks the posterior aperture. Sometimes it pene-
trates through this head-foremost, but generally enters in a character-
istic manner. By its anal aperture the holothurian expels and sucks
in water. The fish, during the expulsion of the water, pushes its head
into the orifice and curves its tail to one side, and then by a rapid
recoil movement, introduces itself, tail-foremost, into the intestinal
canal, pushing farther and farther in with every suction of its in-
voluntary host. From the intestine it penetrates into the pulmon-
ary passages, and thence, after their rupture, into the perivisceral
space. It remains, however, near the anus, and protrudes its head,
when hunger impels, in search of food. It is therefore neither a true
parasite, since it does not feed on its host, nor a commensal, as it does
not share the food of its host, but simply a lodger or tenant at will.
AMPHIBIANS.
Skull.
Parker (W. K.). On the structure and development of the skull in the Batrachian.
P. II, with 44 pl. Philos. Transact. R. Soc. London, vy. 172, 1881, pp. 1-266.
*Forbes (S. A.). A rare fish in Illinois. Am. Nat., v. 15, pp. 232-233.
tForbes (S. 4.). The blind cave fishes and their allies. Am. Nat., v. 16, pp. 1-5,
Jag., 1882.
ZOOLOGY. 479
Vascular system.
Boas (J. E. V.). Bidrag til Kundskaben om Conus arteriosus og Arteriebuerne hos
Amphibierne. Kjébenhayn, Hest & Son, 1881 (8vo, 98 pp., 4 pl., M. 4).
Uber den Conus arteriosus und die Arterienbogen der Amphibien. Morpho-
log. Jahrb., v. 7, pp. 488-572.
Hartog (J.). Bijdrage tot de physiologie van den Bulbus Aortae van het kikvorsch-
hart. Onderzoek. Physiolog. Laborat. Utrecht, (3), v. 6, 1881, pp. 361-418, 1 pl.
Urodela.
Camerano (Lor.). Della scelta sessuale degli Anfibi urodeli. Atti Acad. Se. Torino,
v. 16, pp. 214-225.
Anura.
Boulenger (G. A.). Sur les larves des genres Pipa et Dactylethra 4 propos de la
classification des Batraciens Anoures de M. Lataste. Bull. Soc. Zool. France, 1881,
ibid, pp. 27-29.
Fubini (S.). Gewicht des centralen Nervensystems in Vergleich zu dem Kérper-
gewicht der Thiere, bei Rana esculenta und Rana temporaria. Moleschott, Unter-
such. z. Naturlehre d. Mensch., v. 12. p. 455-461.
Stohr (Phil.). Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des Anurenschidels. Zeitschr. wiss.
Zool., v. 36, p. 68-103, 2 pl. :
REPTILES.
Anomodonta.
Owen (Richard). On parts of the skeleton of an Anomodont reptile (Platypodo-
saurus robustus). PartII. The Pelvis. Quart. Journ. Geolog. Soc. London, v.
37, p. 266-270, 1 pl.
Theriodontia.
Owen (Richard). On the order Theriodontia, with description of a new genus and
species (Aelurosaurus felinus). Quart. Journ. Geolog. Soc. London, vy. 37, p.
261-265, 1 pl.
Plesiosauri.
Sollas (W. J.). On anewspecies of Plesiosaurus (P. Conybeari) from the Lower Lia.
of Charmonuth, with observations on P. megacephalus Stutchb. and P. brachys
cephalus Ow. With a supplement by Mr. G. F. Whidborne. Quart. Journ. Geolog-
Soc. London, vy. 37, p. 440-480.
_Dinosauria.
Marsh (O. C.). Principal characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs. Amer. Journ.
Se., (3,) v. 21, pp. 167-170, 3 pl., 417-423, 7 pl.
New order of extinct Jurassic Reptiles (Celuria). Am. Journ. Sc., (3,) v. 21,
p. 339-340, 1 pl.
Lacertilia.
Eimer (Th.). Untersuchungen iiber das Variiren der Mauereidechse, ein Beitrag zur
Theorie von der Entwickelung aus constitutionellen Ursachen, so wie zum Dar-
winismus. Arch. f. Naturgesch., 47. Jahrg., v. 1, pp. 239-340.
I. Abth. Uber Farben, tiber ihre u. der Zeichnung Anpassung, und iiber ihre
Ursachen im Allgemeinen, unter Hinweis auf Biologisches und mit Bemer-
kungen iiber die Stimmen der Eidechsen.
II. Abth. Die Grundvarietiiten der Mauereidechse. Mit 2 Taf.
Untersuchungen iiber den Bau der Mauereidechse. Mit 3 Taf.
(Schluss.) Arch. f. Naturgesch., 47. Jahrg., v. 1. pp. 341-517.
480 ZOOLOGY.
*
O’Shaugnessy (A. W.E.). An account of the Collection of Lizards made by Mr. Buck-
ley in Ecuador, and now in the British Museum, with Descriptions of the new
Species. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1881, pp. 227-245, 3 pl.
Parker (W. K.) On the structure of the skull in the Chamaelcons. Transact. Zool.
Soe. London, y. 11, pp. 71-105, 5 pl.
Ophidia.
Ihering (H. von). Uber den Giftapparat der Korallenschlange. Zool. Anz., 4,
Jahrg., pp. 409-412.
Peters (W.). Uber das Vorkommenschildférmiger Verbreiterungen der Dornfortsiitze
bei Schlangen, und tiber neue oder wenig bekannte Arten dieser Abtheilung. Sit-
zungsber. Ges. Nat.:Fr. Berlin, 1881, pp. 49-52.
Chelonia.
Sabatier (A.). Du Mécanisme de la Respiration chez les Chéloniens. Revue Sc. Natur.,
(Montpellier), t. 2, pp. 417-437, 2 pl.
Vaillant (Léon). Mémoire sur la disposition des Vertébres cervicales chez les Chélo-
niens. Ann. Se. Natur., (6,) t. 10, art. 7 (106 pp., 6 pl.)
Pterodactyli.
Marsh (O. C.). Note on American Pterodactyls. Am. Journ. Sc., (3,) v. 21, pp. 342,
343. )
A new order of extinct Jurassic reptiles.
In 1879, Prof. O. C. Marsh indicated a ‘ new genus” of reptiles named
Celurus, which he subsequently re-examined and corsidered to repre-
sent a “new order,” most nearly related to the Dinosaurians (A. J. 8.
(3), xxi, 339-340); or, a little later, a “suborder” probably of the
“order Dinosauria” (A. J. S. (3), xxi, 423); and later still, an “ order”
of the “subclass Dinosauria” (xxiii, 85). The new type is remark-
able for the hollowness of the vertebrae and the extreme lightness of
those bones, ‘the excavations in them being more extensive than in
the skeleton of any known vertebrate. There was, in fact, merely a
slender framework of bone to define the form and inclosing extensive
cavities.” The ribs, too, of Celurus are hollow, with well-defined walls
to their large cavities. The metatarsals were “ very long and slender.”
The genus is only known from various vertebre representing the differ-
ent regions of the body, ribs, and metatarsal bones. It is inferred from
these that the animal had ‘a large and powerful neck, a trunk of mod-
erate size, and a very long neat tail,” and it has been suggested that
the posterior limbs may have been larger than the anterior. ‘The re-
mains now known are all from the Atlantosaurus beds of the Upper
Jurassic of Wyoming.” The name Celuria has been proposed as the
ordinal designation.
American Pterodactyles.
The remains of Jurassic Pterodactyles found in the United States
hitherto have been fragmentary. Enough has been preserved, however,
to enable Professor Marsh to recognize in the Jurassic fossils species
ZOOLOGY. 481
of a peculiar genus—the Dermodactylus montanus. In the Cretaceous,
the representatives of a group distinguished by its toothless jaws are
abundant, and of such two species are described. In this paper two
are described—*‘ Pteranodon nanus,” and ‘Nyctodactylus gracilis.” The
large Pteranodon first described exhibited a noteworthy peculiarity of
its skeleton. ‘To aid the powerful wings in flight, the pectoral arch
is strengthened (1) by the anchylosis of several vertebre; (2) by the
robust scapule articulating on opposite sides of the common neural
spine of these vertebrie. This is virtually a repetition of the pelvic
arch on a much larger scale.” This structure was apparently not mani-
fested in Nyctodactylus (A. J. 8. (3), xxi, 342-343.)
BIRDS.
GENERAL.
Systematic.
BRITISH MusEUM: Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum. Vol. 5. Catalogue
of the Passeriformes or Perching Birds in the collection of the British Museum.
Cichlomorphae. PartII. Containing the family Turdide. By Henry Seebohm.
London, printed by order of the trustees. 1881. (8vo., xvi,, 426 p., 18 col. pl.,
20 sh.)
Miscellaneous.
Hay (Arthur, Marquis of Tweeddale). Ornithological works. Reprinted from the
originals, edited and revised by R. G. Wardlaw Ramsay. Together with a bio-
graphical sketch by W.H. Russell. London, 1881. (4to, 64, 760 p.)
Russ (Karl). Handbuch fiir Vogelliebhaber, Ziichter, und Handler. H. Einheimische
Stubenvégel. 2. véllig umgearb. Aufl. Hannover, C. Riimpler, 1881. (8vo, xii,
462 p., M. 5, 25.)
Journals.
Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club. Vol. 6. Cambridge, Mass., 1881. 8vo.
Ibis (the). A Quarterly Journal of Ornithology. Edited by O. Salvin and Ph. Lh.
Sclater. 4 Ser. Vol. 5. London, Van Voorst,1881. (8vo.)
Journal fiir Ornithologie. Deutsches Centralorgan fiir die gesammten Ornithologie.
Herausgegeben von J. Cabanis. 29. Jahrg. (4. Folge, 9. Bd.) Leipzig, Kittler.
1881. (8vo.) :
Stray Feathers. A Journal of Ornithology for India and its Dependencies. Ed. by
Allan Hume. Vol.9. Calcutta, 1880. (8yo.)
Bibliogrophy.
Coues (Elliott). Third instalment of American ornithological literature. Bull. U.S
Geol. Geogr. Survey Territ., v. 5, pp. 522-1072.
Reichenow (Ant.) and H. Schalow. i Gaimnanaiiat der neu beschriebenen Gatumnpen
und Arten. VI. Folge, 5. Serie. Journ. f. Ornithol., 28. Jahrg., p. 314-324; 29.
Jahrg., pp. 70-102.
Morphology.
Behrens (Wilhelm.). Untersuchungen iiber den Processus uncinatus der Vogel und
Krokodile. Inaug. Diss. Géttingen, 1880. (8vo., 36 p.) :
Fraisse (P.). Uber Ziihne bei Vigeln. Verhandl. physik.-med. Ges. Wiirzburg, v. 15,
pp. lii-ix.
Jeffries (J. Amory). On the number of primaries in Birds. Bull. Nutt. Ornithol.
Club, v. 6, pp. 156-163.
S. Mis. 109 3l
482 ZOOLOGY.
Krukenberg (C. Fr. W.). Die Farbstoffe der Federn. 2. Mittheilung. Veigl.-phys.
Stud., (2,) I. Abth., pp. 151-171.
Meyer (A. B.). Die Farbstoffe dev Federn der Edelpapageien und des Koénigspara-
diesvogels. Nach Untersuchungen von C, F, W. Krukenberg. Mittheil. Ornithol.
Ver. Wien, 5. Jahrg., pp. 83-85.
Morse (Edw. S.). On the identity of the ascending process of the Astragalus in Birds
with the Intermedium. Annivers. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., (10. p.)
Koller (Carl). Untersuchungen tiber die Blitterbildung im Hiihnerkeim. Arch. f.
mikroskop. Anat., v. 20, pp. 174-211, 3 pl.
Sedgwick (Adam). On the early development of the anterior part of the wolffian
duct and body in the Chick, together with some remarks on the excretory system
of vertebrata. Quart. Journ. Microscop. Sc., v. 21, pp. 432-468, 1 pl.
e
FAUNAS.
Europe.
Dresser (Henry E). A History of the Birds of Europe, including all the species in-
habiting the Western Palearctic Region. vy. 8. Conclusion of the whole work.
London, 1881. (Ato.)
A List of European Birds, including all species found in the Western Palearctic
Region. The nomenclature carefully revised. London, the author, 1881. (8vo.)
Morris (B. R.). British Game Birds and Wild Fowls. New edit., with 60 col. plates.
London, Groombridge, 1881. (sp. 8vo. 45.)
Robert (Leo Paul) and W. Marshall. Gefiederte Freunde. Bilder zur Naturge-
shichte der niitzlichen Vogel Mittel-Europas. Nach der Natur gemalt yon Leo
Paul Robert. Mit beschreibendem Text von W. Marshall. IJrste Serie. 20 Taf.
Leipzig, Arnold’sche Buchandl., 1881. (Fol. W., 25.)
North America.
Nehrling (H.) Beitriig zur Ornis der nérdlichen Illinois. (Fortsetz.) Journ. f. Or-
nithol. 28. Jahrg., pp 408-418; 29 Jahrg., pp. 196-203.
Ridgway (Robert). A Catalogue of the Birds of North America. Proc. U.S. Nat.
Mus., v. 3, pp. 163-246, 1880.
— Catalogue of the Birds of Illinois. Normal, Ill., 1881. (8vo., 208 p.)
Stearns (Winfrid A.) and Elliott Coues. New England Bird Life, being a Manual of
New England Ornithology. Revised and edited from the manuscript of Winfrid
A. Stearns, by Dr. Elliott Coues. PartI. Oscines.—Boston: Lee and Shepherd,
1881. (8vo., title, 324 p. $2.50.)
West Indies.
Cory (Charles B.). List of the Birds of Hayti, taken in different parts of the island
between January 1 and March 12, 1881. Bull. Nutt. Ornithol. Club, v. 6., pp.
151-155.
Asia.
Oates (Eug. W.). Ornithology Lof British Burma]. Brit. Burma Gazetteer, v.1, pp.
569-604. (Nominal list of 776 sp).
Salvadori (Tommaso). Ornitologia della Papuasia e delle Molucche. P.1. Torino,
1880. (4 to, 540 p.)
Ornitologia della Papuasia e delle Molucche. P. 2. Torino, 1881. (4to., xvi.,
705 p. Fres., 50)
Africa, ete.
Bocage (J. V. Barboza du). Aves das possessdes Portuguezas d’Africa Occidental.
18. lista. Jorn. Sc. Math., Phys., e Nat. Acad. Lisb, No. 26, pp. 100-102 ; 19. lista,
No. 28, pp. 219-246. (S. auch vertebrata, 18, 17, sp.; 19, 93, sp.; 1 n. sp.)
Cowan (W. Deans). List of Madagascar Birds. Antananarivo, 1881. (8vo.)
ZOOLOGY. 483
Hartlaub (G.). Beitrag zur Ornithologie der dstlichiiquatorialen Gebiete Africa’s.
Abhandl. naturwiss. Ver. Bremen, v. 7, pp. 83-128.
Polynesia.
Finsch (G.). On the birds collected in Tongatabu, the Fiji Islands, Api (New He-
brides), and Tahiti. Reports Scient. Results Challenger, Zool., v. 2. Birds, pp.
34-58.
EXTINCT BIRDS.
Marsh (O.C.). Discovery of a fossil bird in the Jurassic of Wyoming (Laopteryx pris-
cus n. g. et sp.). Amer. Journ. Sc., (3,) v. 21, pp. 341-342.
SPECIAL GROUPS.
Ratite.
Douglas (A.). Ostrich Farming in South Africa: being an account of its origin and
rise, how to set about it, etc. London, Cassell, 1881. (8vo. 258 p., 6 s.)
Forbes (W. A.). On the Conformation of the Thoracic End of the Trachea in the
“ Ratite” Birds. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1881, pp. 778-788.
Carinate Steganopodes.
Ewart (J. C.). On the nostrils of the Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo). Journ. Linn.
Soc., Zool., v. 15, p. 455-456.
Carinate Pygopodes.
Dybowski (Bened.). Beobachtungen itiber Mormonide. Vorlaufige Mittheilung.
Sitzungsber. Dorpat. Naturf. Ges., 1881, p. 159-175.
Carinate Grallatores.
Forbes (W. A.). Notes on the Anatomy and Systematic Position of the Jacands (Par-
ridx). Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1881, p. 639-647.
Carinate raptores.
Shufeldt (R. W.) On the Ossicle of the Antibrachium as found in some of the North
American Faleonide. Bull. Nutt. Ornithol. Club, vy. 6, p. 197-203.
Osteology of Speotyto cunicularia var. hypogea. Bull. U.S. Geol. and Geogr.
Surv. Terr., v. 6, pp. 87-117, 3 pl.
Coues (Elliott). Probable occurrence of Sarcorhamphus papa in Arizona. Bull. Nutt.
Orthithol. Club, v. 6, p. 248.
The Claw on the Index Digit of the Cathartide. Am. Naturalist, v. 15, pp.
906-908.
Carinate galline.
Oustalet (E.). Monographie des Oiseaux de la Famille des Mégapodiidés. 2 Des
Ann. Se. Nat., (6,) Zool., t. 10, art. 5, and t. 11, art. 2.
Tegetmeier (W. B.). Pheasants: Their Natural History and Practical Management.
2 edit., illustr. with full page engravings, drawn from life by T. W. Wood. Lon-
don: H. Cox, 1881. (fol. — 15, sh.)
Carinate Columbe.
Lyell (J. C.). Faney Pigeons: containing full directions for their breeding and
management, with descriptions of every known variety and all other information
of interest or use to Pigeon Fanciers. London, Bazaar Office, 1881. (8 vo., 230
pp.—7s. 6d.)
484 ZOOLOGY.
Carinate psittaci.
Braun (M.). Die Entwickelung des Wellenpapageis (Melopittacus undulatus Sh.)
Il. Theil. Arbeiten. Zool.-Zoot. Institut Wiirzbury, v. 5, pp. 205-341, 5 pl.
Potts (H. H.). On the habits of the Kea or Mountain Parrot of New Zealand (Nestor
notabilis). The Zoologist, v. 5, pp. 290-301.
Reichenow (Ant.). Conspectus Psittacorum. Systematische Ubersicht aller bekann-
ten Papageienarten. Jour. for Ornithol. Cabanis, 28. Jahrg., pp. 225-289.
Reichenow (Anton). Conspectus Psittacorum. Systematische Ubersicht aller be-
kannten Papageienarten. Journ. f. Ornithol., 29. Jahrg., pp. 1-49; pp. 113-177.
Carinate cypselifornes.
Eudes-Deslongchamps (Eugene.) Catalogue descriptif des Trochilidés ou oiseaux-
mouches aujourd’hui connus. Revue d’aprés les exemplaires du musée de Caen.
I. Fase. Paris, Savy, 1881. (8vo., 493 pp., 5 pl. Fres. 15.)
Carinate zygodactyli.
Sclater (Ph. L.).- On the Generic Divisions of the Bucconide, together with the
description of a new species of the Genus Nonnula. Proc. Zool. Soc. London,
1881, pp. 775-578.
Carinate passeres.
Brandner (Otto). Der Harzer Kanarien-Vogel. Zweite Vollstandig umgearbeitete
Auflage der gekrénten Preisschrift. Der Gesang des Harzer Hohlroller. I. Th.
Gesangeskunde. II. Th. Zucht and Pflege. Stettin, O. Brandner, 1881. (8°, 1,
M., 2—, I, M.1, 50.)
Brewster (Will.). On the Relationship of Helminthophaga leucobronchialis Brewster,
and Helminthophaga Lawrencei Herrick ; with some conjectures respecting cer-
tain other North American Birds. Bull. Nutt. Ornithol. Club, v. 6, pp. 218-225.
Brewster (Will.). Carnivorous propensities of the Crow Blackbird (Quisqualus
purpureus eneus. Bull. Nutt. Ornithol. Club, v.6, pp. 180-181.
Forbes (W. A.). Contributions to the Anatomy of Passerine Birds. Part IV. On
some points in the Anatomy of the Genus Conopophaga and its Systematic
Position. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1881, pp. 435-438.
Shufeldt (R. W.). Osteology of Eremophila alpestris. Bull. U. S. Geolog. Geogr. Surv.
Terr., v. 6, pp. 119-147, 1 pl.
The coloring matter of feathers.
The coloring matter of feathers has been subjected to an elaborate
examination by Dr. C. W. Krukenberg, both by chemical and spectro-
scopic analyses, and three different substances have been found in the
red and yellow feathers of birds, to which have been given the names
Turacin, Zoonerythrin, and Zoofuloin.
Turacin has only been detected in the feathers of the Plantain-eaters
or Musophagide, and more especially in their red feathers. It “ gives
two different absorption-spectra, according to whether it is in solution
or not—a very unusual circumstance with organic pigments. <A solu-
tion-spectrum has two absorption-bands, nearly coinciding in position
with those of oxyhemoglobin, from which, however, Turacin differs
greatly ia chemical composition, containing, as is well known, copper
in abundance.”
Zoonerythrin “ gives a continuous spectrum.”
ZOOLOGY. 485
Zoofuloin affords a spectrum “ with two absorption-bands which how-
ever are not those of Turacin.”
The attempts made “to extract blue, violet, and green pigments
from feathers so colored have as yet been unsuccessful; and these
colors may therefore depend upon optical, and not chemical, causes.”
(Ibis, (4,) v. 602-603.)
Number of American birds.*
In 1859 was published a catalogue of the known North American birds
north of Mexico, prepared by Professor S. I. Baird, which for many
years afterward was the standard authority for the nomenclature and
arrangement of the species. But the numerous additions that have
been made from time to time, as well as the investigations upon the af-
finities of the forms, have necessitated a new arrangement. In 1873 a
check list of the species was published by Dr. Elliott Coues, which incor-
porated the forms up to that time added to the fauna. Discovery still
progressed, however, and during the past year a new catalogue of all
the species was prepared by Mr. Robert Ridgway, and has been issued
by the Smithsonian Institution, as a “ Bulletin of the United States Na-
tional Museum,” and a comparison of it with that of 1858 is instructive
tn its illustration of the tendencies of ornithologists at the two periods.
The catalogue of 1859 bears the impress of the influence of Professor
Agassiz and Bonaparte in the excessive differentiation of species. Since
that period the comparison of birds obtained from the various portions of
our wide domain has shown that nominal species concerning which there
existed no doubt in the early period are connected by intermediate forms
obtained from intervening stations, and consequently a number of
old species have been associated together as mere varieties or ‘sub-
species” of more comprehensive species. On the other hand, the same
system of comparison has compelled ornithologists to recognize the fre-
quent existence of such differences between forms found at widely re-
mote regions as to warrant the introduction of the category of ‘sub-
species” or varieties which have received trinomial names. ‘Thus we
have many old species now combined together as forms of others but with
varietal differentiations; in other words, the fact that while most of the
individuals are separated into two or more types of differentiation as
distinct forms is indicated by their recognition as varieties, nevertheless
intervening forms occur which forbid their rank as fully developed
species.
Comparing the catalogues of 1859 and 1881, the number of avowed
species in the former is 738, and in the latter 764, but the actual num-
ber of names, that is, forms more or less distinct, including species and
subspecies, was in the catalogue of 1859 764, but in 1881 924 are rec-
* Ridgway (Robert). Nomenclature of North American Birds, chiefly contained in
the United States National Museum. Washington, Government Printing-Office, 1881.
(Bulletin of the United States National Museum, No. 21.)
486 ZOOLOGY.
ognized. While we have thus an increase of nominal species by
only 26, the number of forms—species or subspecies—is 164 more than
were known in 1859. But from the catalogue of 1859 42 names have
been eliminated as synonymous with others, and 20 as extra-limital,
while there are given as new species in the catalogueof 1831 127 spe-
cies, and in addition thereto 89 subspecies, or a total of 226. 395 of
the names of the 1859 catalogue are retained in nearly or quite the
original form in the new catalogue; 89 names are changed, and 100
forms appear under different genera or subgenera, while 61 of the species
of the old catalogue are degraded to the rank of races in the new. The
appendix of the new catalogue is especially valuable on account of the
detailed information regarding changes that have been made. In this
appendix, under different categories, are enumerated :
A. “ Species eliminated from the catalogue of 1859.” (Syns. 42 4+ Ex-
tralimital 20=62.)
B. ‘Species and races described or added to the North American
fauna since 1859.” (Sp. 127.+ S. sp. 99 = 226.)
C. “List of genera which have been added to the fauna since 1859,
under which are names that have been changed since that time.” (26
n. g. + 108 changes = 134.)
D. “Species included in the category which have not yet, according
to the records, been actually taken within the prescribed limits.” (41.)
BE. “Species (chiefly palsarctic) which occur only as stragglers or
visitants in Eastern North America, or which occur regularly only in
Greenland and adjacent portions of the continent.” (39.)
F. “Palearctic and oceanic species occurring only in Alaska and other
parts of the Pacific coast.” (24.)
G. “ Palwarctie species occurring both in Greenland and Alaska, but
not recorded from any intermediate point of North America.” (4.)
H.. “ Tropical American species occurring only in southern portions
of the United States.”
I. “Supposed valid species, described by Audubon and Wilson, which
have not been since met with, and of which no specimens are known to
exist in collections.” (4.)
J. ‘List of untenable species and races of North American birds de-
seribed since 1858.” (35.)
K. “ List of exotic species which have been attributed to North Amer-
ica by various authors, but apparently without sufficient evidence of
their occurrence.” (47.)
L. “ Partial list of foreign birds which have been introduced to the
United States, and those which have been captured after escape from
confinement.” (4+4+10=14.)
It may be added that the species which have been introduced with a
view to their naturalization, and have been actually naturalized, are four
in number, viz:
(1.) Passer domesticus, the too common European house sparrow.
ZOOLOGY. 487
(2.) Passer montanus, the European tree sparrcw.
(3.) Alauda arvensis, the sky lark of Europe; and
(4.) Coturnix communis, the European quail. :
Birds added to the American fauna in 1881.
Aestrelata gularis (Peale). Brewster: Critical notes on a Petrel new
to North America. Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, 1881, p. 91. From Mount
Morris, Livingston County, New York.
Puffinus kuhlit borealis. Cory. Description of anew species of the fam-
ily Procellaride. B. N. O. C., 1881, p.84. From Chatham Island, Cape
Cod, Massachusetts.
Fuligula rufina,Steph. Ridgway: Ona ducknewto the North Amer-
ican fauna. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Apr., 1881, p. 22-24. From *‘ Fulton
Market, New York City.”
Fulicaatra, Linn. Ridgw.,1.c. From Greenland.
Bury norhynchus pygemus (Linn.) Ridgw. Catal., 1881. Bull. U. SiN.
M., No. 21, p. 85. From Arctic coast of Alaska.
Callipepla squamata pallida. Id.ibid., p. 72. From Rio San Pedro,
Arizona.
Buteo brachyurus, Vieill. Ridgway: On a tropical American hawk
to be added to the North American fauna. B. N. O. C., 1881, p. 207.
From Palatka, East Florida.
Buteo fuliginosus, Selater. Ridgw., Ll. ¢., p. 212. From Oyster Bay,
Florida. (‘* Melanistic phase of Bb. brachyurus ?)
Antrostomus vociferus arizone. Brewster: Notes on some birds from
Arizona and New Mexico, with a description of a supposed new Whip-
poor-will. B.N.0.0.1881, p. 69. From Chiracahua Mountains, Arizona.
Myiarchus Cooperi (Kaup.). Brewster: Additions to the avifauna
of the United States. B. N. O. C., 1881, p. 252. From Camp Lowell,
Southern Arizona.
Polioptila californica. Brewster: On the affinities of certain Poliop-
tile, with a description of a new species. B. N. O. C., 1881, p. 103.
From Riverside, San Bernardino Co., California=‘‘ 29. P. melanura Lawyr.”
Ridw. catalog., 1880, Pr. U. S. N. M., 1880, p. 168. (Nee Lawr.),
The following species, included in Mr. Ridgway’s list 1881, for the first
time definitely ascertained to have been taken within the limits of
United States:
Parus meridianalis, Sel. Brewster, l.c. From Chiracahua Mount-
ains, Southern Arizona. '
Myiarchus Lawrencei (Gir.). Brewster, lc. From Santa Rita Mount-
ains, Southern Arizona.
Characteristics of the Archcopterygide.
Prof. O. C. Marsh embraced the opportunity, during a visit to Europe
in 1881, of examining the remains of the remarkable Jurassic Arch«op-
:
488 ZOOLOGY.
teryx hitherto discovered—the feather which originally served as the
basis for the name, and two carcasses. His examination resulted in the
discovery of ‘several characters of importance not previously deter-
mined,” viz: (1) ‘the presence of true teeth in position in the skull;”
(2) ‘Svertebree biconcave ;” (3) “a well ossified broad sternum ;” (4)
“three digits only in the manus;” (5) “pelvic bones separate ;” (6)
“the distal end of fibula in front of tibia;” and (7) ‘ metatarsals sepa-
rate, or imperfectly united.” These characteristics indicate, in the opinion
of Professor Marsh, that we have in Archcopteryx “the most reptilian
of birds.” The brain-east, ‘although comparatively small, was like
that of a bird, and not that of a Dinosaurian reptile.
Apropos of its relations, Professor Marsh found that the extremities
of the Dinosaurian reptile, Compsognathus, evinced “a striking similar-
ity” to those of Archwopteryx. ‘ The three-clawed digits of the manus
correspond closely with those of that genus, although the bones are of
different proportions. The hind feet also have the same structure in
both. The vertebrae however and the pelvic bones of Compsognathus
differ materially from those of Archwopteryx, and the two forms are in
reality widely separated.” Professor Marsh adds that ‘the nearest ap-
proach to birds now known would seem to be in the very small Dino-
saurs from the American Jurassic. In some of these the separate bones
of the skeleton cannot be distinguished with certainty from those of
Jurassic birds, if the skull is wanting, and even in this part the resem-
blance is striking.” (A. J.S. (3), X XI, 337-340.)
An American Jurassic bird.
Although the famous Archeopteryx lithographicus testified many
years ago to the existence of birds in the Jurassic period in Europe,
no remains of the class had been found in America older than Cre-
taceous. But Professor Marsh’s search for more ancient forms has been
lately rewarded ‘‘ by the discovery of various remains, some of which
are sufficiently characteristic for determination.” The posterior part
of a skull exhibited characters which have served as the basis of the
‘* Laopteryx priscus, gen. et sp.nov.” The size indicated ‘“ a bird rather
smaller than a Blue Heron.” Inits main features, ‘it resembles the skull
of the Ratitz more than that of any existing birds.” In the “ matrix
attached to this skull a single tooth was found, which most resembles
the teeth of birds, especially those of Ichthyornis. It is probable that
Laopteryx possessed teeth, and also biconcave vetebre.” The skull de-
seribed ‘“‘ and others apparently of the same species, were found in the
upper Jurassic of Wyoming Territory in the horizon of the Atlanto-
saurus beds.” The discovery thus signalizedis one of great interest on
account of its establishing practically (what was of course theoretically
certain) the existence of birds in the Jurassic period, and as a presage
of future discovery. The specimen found was not however sufficient
to enable Professor Marsh to give a diagonsis which does more than
ZOOLOGY. 489
prove that the form indicated was a generalized bird. Fora knowledge
of its peculiar characteristics and affinities we must await the ex-
humation of other specimens (A. J. 8. (3), xxi, 341-342),
Shedding of the gizzard lining by birds.
It has for some years (since 1869) been known that the horn-bills
(Bucerotids) shed the epithelial lining of the gizzard, but it is only
lately that the same peculiarity has been observed in very different
birds. Mr. A. D. Bartlett, the superintendent of the Gardens of the
Zoological Society, ascertained that a darter (Plotus anhinga) had
“thrown up the lining of its stomach on three or four occasions,” during
the latter half of 1880. A casting was examined by Mr. W. A. Forbes,
the prosector to the society, and was found to be ‘undoubtedly the
shed ‘epithelial’ coat of the gizzard,” and on microscopical examina-
tion proved to be “ quite identical in structure with that of the unshed
epithelium of the stomach.” Mr. Bartlett thinks that a similar habit
will be found to occur in other birds, and suggests that the cormorants
especially may manifest it. (P. Z.8., 1881, 247-248.)
A claw on index digits of the turkey vultures.
Dr. Shufeldt has called special attention to the development of a
large claw on the index digit of the turkey vulture and related forms
of the Cathartide. Ina young California vulture or condor (Pseudo-
gryphus californianus) the claw was over a centimeter long. ‘It can
be immediately brought into view and examined by simply parting the
feathers that overlie the region of the first finger, whereupon it will
be found to be a strong curved claw—convex anteriorly, sharp, slightly
grooved from above downward on its posterior aspect, covered by the
same kind of horny integument, or theca, that shields the bony claws of
the feet, and movable.” When the horny sheath is removed, “it leaves
an osseous claw, such as we find in the distal or ungual points of the feet ;
this has a tranverse facet at its base, that articulates with a similarly
placed surface at the extremity of the index digit, rather toward its
outer side.” Numerous Old World vultures and other Falconidz were
re-examined with reference to the question, and no corresponding claw
was found in any species. It was consequently suggested that its devel-
opment in Cathartide may be looked upon as a family characteristic.
The claw has however been since found in true Falconide.
Woodpeckers and moth cocoons.*
Premising that one of the most interesting, as well as difficult prob-
lems in entomology is the relation which the cocoon sustains to the
pupa, and the various ways in which the cocoon offers protection to the
pupa, or future imago, Mr. Webster has regarded the attack of the
* Cecropia cocoons punctured by the hairy Woodpecker. By F. M. Webster. Am.
Nat., v. 15, pp. 241, 242.
490 ZOOLOGY.
hairy woodpecker on the cocoon of the large cecropia moth ; in opposi-
tion to the belief that the cocoons offer protection against other natural
destructive agencies, such as mice and birds, it isremarked that ‘ there
is at least one bird, the hairy woodpecker (Picus villosus Linn.), from
whose attack the staunch cocoon of the cecropia offers no protection
whatever.” Indeed, although, so far as Mr. Webster -was able to ob-
serve, birds do not attack these cocoons at all until winter; they then
seem to make it a regular source of subsistence, and where the wood-
pecker abounds the cocoons are rarely left uninjured. We need only
remark, in this connection, that while the observations of Mr. Webster
may be quite correct, his inference is scarely justifiable, at least to the
extent he would seem to pushit. What dangers the cocoon may escape
because of its envelopment are unknown, but, doubtless, more than offset
those noticed by Mr. Webster.
MAMMALS.
GENERAL.
Allen (Harrison). Onthe Temporal and Masseter Muscles of Mammals. Proce. Acad.
Nat. Se. Phila, 1880, pp. 385-396.
Balfour (F. M.). On the Evolution of the Placenta, and on the possibility of employ-
ing the characters of the Placenta in the Classification of the Mammalia. Proc.
Zool. Soc. London, 1881, pp. 210-212.
Cope (E. D.). On the Effect of Impacts and Strains on the Feet of Mammalia. Am.
Nat., v. 15, pp. 542-548.
Ficatier (Jac. Fre. Adr.). Etude anatomique des glandes sudoripares. Auxerre,
Gallot, 1881. (4to, 85 p., 3 pl.)
Focillon (A.) Esquisses des Animaux Mammiféres les plus remarquables. Tours,
1881. (8vo, 212 p.)
Hensel (Reinhold). Craniologische Studien. Mit8 Tat. Nova ActaAc. Caes. Leop.
Carol., v. 42, pp. 127-195.
Huxley (Thomas Henry). On the application of the Laws of Evolution to the ar-
rangement of the Vertebrata, and more particularly of the Mammalia. Proc.
Zool. Soc. London, 1880, pp. 649-662.
Lucae (Joh. Chstn. Gst.). Zur Statik und Mechanik der Quadrupeden (Felis und Le-
mur). Frankfurt a. M., 1881. (4to., 24 p., 2 Taf.)
Martin (H. Newell). A new method of studying the Mammalian Heart. Studies
Biolog. Laborat. Johns Hopk. Univ., v. 2, p. 119-130, 1 pl.
Meyer (E.) Spermatogenese bei den Saugethieren. Mém. Acad. Imp. Se. St. Péterbg.,
(7,) t. 27, no. 14. (15 pp., 2 pl.—M. 1 30.)
Paladino (Giov.). Della caducita del parenchima ovarico e del rinnovamento totale
della stesso mercé ripetizione del processo di primordiale produzione. Con. 2 tay.
Napoli, Detken, 1881. (8vo., 73 pp.)
Talma (S8.). Beitrag zur Histogenese der weiblichen Brustdriise. Arch. f. mikroskop.
Anat., v. 20, pp. 145-159.
Fossil mammals.
Grewingk (Const.). Ubersicht der bisber bekannten Reste altquartiirer und ausgestor-
benerneuquartirer Saugethieri Liv, Est--und Kurlands. Sitzungsber. Naturforsch.
Ges. Dorpat, v. 5, pp. 332-336.
Rérolle (Louis). Etude sur les Mammiféres fossiles des depOts pampeens de la Plata,
@apreés les collections du musée de Buenos Ayres, presentée & VAcademie des Sci-
ences, etc., de Lyon le 20 Juill. 1880. Mem. Acad. Scierce., etc., de Lyon, v. 24.
Classe d. Se.
ZOOLOGY. 491
Roger (O/to.). Liste der bis jetzt bekannten fossilen Siitugethiere. (Fortsetzung.)
Correspond. Bl. Zool. min. Ver. Regensbg., 35 Jahrg., 1881, viz: No. 3, pp. 27-34;
No. 4, pp. 52-64; No. 35, pp. 414. No. 8, pp. 117-128. (S. Z. A,—Fortsetz. ibid.,
1879. No. 10.
SPECIAL GROUPS.
Monotremes.
Pritchard (Urb.). Cochlea of the Monotremata. Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. London,
v. 172, pp. 267-282, 1 pl.
Marsupials.
Cope (E. D.). Eocene Plagiaulacidw (Ptilodus mediwvus, n. g. et sp.). Amer. Nat.
v. 15, pp. 921-922.
Edentates.
Schmidt (Max). Der Ameisenfresser (Myrmecophaga jubata.) Zoolog. Garten, 1881,
pp. 225-230.
Sorby (H. C.). On the Green Colour of the Hair of Sloths. Journ. Linn. Soc. London,
Zool., v. 15, pp. 337-341.
Chiropters.
Dobson (G. E.). On the Structure’of the Pharynx, Larynx and Hyoid Bones in the
Epomophori; with remarks on its relation to the habits of these animals. Proc.
Zool. Soc., London, 1881, pp. 685-693.
Robin (H. A.). Sur l’époque de Vaccouplement des Chauves-Souris. Bull. Soc. Philo-
mat. de Paris, 1881.
Sur la morphologie des enveloppes foetales des Chiroptéres. Compt. rend.
Ac. Sc. Paris, t. 92, pp. 1854-1357.
Rodents.
Gayot (Eug.). Lapins, liévres et léporides. 2. édit. Paris, libr. agricole de la Maison
rustique, 1881. (8vo, 216 pp., avec 15 grav. Fre. 1, 25.)
Gill (L. U.). Book of the Rabbit; giving the history, variations, uses, points, selec-
tion, and other information bearing on the subject of fancy rabbits. London,
Bazaar Office, 1881. (8vo, 448 pp. 12s. 6d.)
Klein (E.). The Organ of Jacobson in the Rabbit. Quart. Journ. Microscop. Se., v.
21, pp. 549-570, 2 pl.
A further contribution to the Minute Anatomy of the organ of Jacobson in
the guinea-pig. Quart. Journ. Microsc. Sc., v. 21, pp. 219-230, 2 pl.
Parker (W. K.). Note onsome Points in the Anatomy of the Coecum in the Rabbit
(Lepus cuniculus) and the Hare (Lepus timidus). Proc. Zool. Soe. London, 1881,
pp. 624-626, 1 pl.
Valentin (G.). Beitriige zur Kenntnis des Winterschlafs der Murmelthiere. 26 Ab-
theil. Moleschott, Untersuch zur Naturlehre d. Mensch., v. 12, pp. 466-472.
Creodonts.
Cope (KE. D.). Notes on Creodonta. Amer. Nat., v. 15, pp. 1018-1020.
On the genera of Creodonta. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., vy. 19, pp. 76-82.
Dinocerates.
Osborn (Henry F.). A Memoir on the Loxolophodon and Uintatherium. Accompanied
by a stratigraphical report on the Bridger beds in the Washakie Basin. Pub-
lished by the Museum of Geology and Archeology of the College of New Jersey,
1881. (4to, 54 pp.)
Toxodonts.
-
Cope (. D.). Note on the Structure of the Posterior Foot of Toxodon. Proc. Amer.
Phil. Soc., v. 19, pp. 402-403; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), v. 8, pp. 389-390.
492, ZOOLOGY.
Proboscideans.
Camerano (Lor.). Ein Beitrag zur Anatomie des Loxodon africanus. Zool. Anz., 4.
Jahrg., p. 481-483.
Watson (Morrison). On the anatomy of the female organs of the Proboscidea, Trans.
Zool. Soc, London., v. 11, p. 111-130, 2 pl.
Condylarthra.
Cope (E. D.). A new type of Perissodactyla. Amer. Nat., v. 15, pp. 1017-1018.
Perissodactyles.
Cope (E. D.). The Systematic Arrangement of the order Perissodactyla. Proc. Amer.
Phil. Soc., v. 19, p. 377-401.
On the origin of the foot structures of the Ungulates. Am. Nat., v. 15, p.
269-273.
Cornevin (Ch.). Nouveaux cas de didactylie chez le Cheval et interprétation de la
polydactylie des Equidés en général. Lyon, impr. Pitrat ainé, 1881. (8vo., 31
pp., 3 pl.)
Major (C. J. Forsyth). Beitriige zur Geschichte der fossilen Pferde. 2. Theil. (Schluss,
p. 17-184, 3 pl.). Abhandl. Schweizer Paliontolog. Ges., v. 7.
Poliakoff. Supposed new species of Horse from Central Asia (Equus Przewalskii n.
sp.). in Ann. of Nat. Hist. (5), 8, p. 16-26.
Schlechter (Johann). Uber Bau und Form der Ziihne bei dem Pferde und seinen Vor-
fahren. Inaug. Diss. Leipzig, 1881, Wien, 1881. (8vo, 39 p.)
Selous (F. C.). On the South African Rhinoceroses. Proc. Zool. Soe. London, 1881,
p. 725-734.
Stillman (J. D. B.). The Horse in Motion, as shown in a series of views by instanta-
neous photography, with the study on animal mechanies founded on the revela-
tions of the camera. With anatomical illustrations in chromo. Boston, 1881.
(Ato.)
Artiodactyles.
Selous (F. C.). Field notes on the Antelopes of Central South-Africa, made during
eight years spent in many different districts of the courtry. Proc. Zool. Soe.
London, 1881, pp. 745-765.
Carnivores.
Brandt (J. F.). Beobachtungen iiber die verschiedenen Kleider der Seeotter (Enhy-
dris marina), nebst einigen Bemerkungen iiber ihre geographische Verbreitung.
Mélang. biolog. St. Pétersburg., t. 11, p. 1-12.
Desor (E.). Sur un Emploi singulier des peaux de Blaireaux. Bull. Soc. Se. Na-
tur. Neuchatel, t. 12, p. 195-198.
Filhol (H.). Observations sur le genre Proailurus. Toulouse, Impr. Douladoune.
1881. (8vo., 47 p., 5 pl.)
Mivart (St. George). The Cat. An Introduction to the study of back-boned animals,
especially Mammals. With 200 illustr. London, Murray, 1881. (8vo., 530 p. —,
30 sh.)
Watson (Morrison). On the Female Organs and Placentation of the Raccoon (Procyon
lotor). Proc. Royal Soc., 1881. (27 p.)
Pinnipeds.
Bartlett (A. D.). Are Seals Born Blind ? Zoologist, v. 5, p. 583.
Flower (William Henry.). On the Elephant Seal, Macrcrhinus leoninus (L.). Proc.
Zool. Soc. London, 1881, p. 145-162.
ZOOLOGY. 493
Sirenians.
Lepsius (G. R.). Halitherium Schinzi, die fossile Sirene des Mainzer Beckens. Eine
vergleichend-anatomische Studien. Mit. 10. Taf. Abhandl. des Mittelrhein.
Geolog. Vereins, v. 1.
Cetaceans.
Flower (W. H.). Abstract of Lectures on the Anatomy, Physiology, and Zoology of
the Cetacea. Brit. Med. Journ. (Lect. I, p. 553-554; II, p. 632; ILI, p. 717; IV,
p. 760; V, p. 794-795; VI, p. 840; VII, p. 376: VIII, p. 962-963; IX, p. 38-39.)
Development of the ear-ossicles.
As is generally known, the principal auditory ossicles of mammals are
represented by external bones in the inferior vertebrates, but it seems
to be yet a question what are the exact equivalents in several cases. The
English anatomists—notably Huxley and Parker—have latterly main-
tained that (1) the malleus is developed from the first branchial arch in
connection with Meckel’s cartilage, while (2) the stapes and incus are de-
rived from the second or hyoidean arch. This view has now been called
into question by Prof. W. Salensky. That embryologist instituted re-
searches on the development of the ossicles in embryonic lambs and pigs
ranging from 1.5 centimeters long upward, and derived the following
conclusions :
A 1. “ The proximal segment, at an early period separated from the
cartilage of the first visceral arch, becomes the rudimentary incus. (The
second visceral, Reichert’s cartilage, here plays no part.)”
A 2. “ The distal moiety of the same cartilage gives rise to Meckel’s
cartilage (s. str.), together with the rudiment of the malleus.”
B1. “The stapes is formed independently of the other auditory os-
sicles.”
B 2. “It begins as an accumulation of cells around the mandibular
artery.”
B 3. “From its first appearance the stapes is a perforate and not a
solid plate, though wrongly taken for the latter by all embryologists.”
(J. R. M.S., I, 18-19, from Morph. Jahrb., VI, 415-432, with pl.)
In fine, Salensky adopts the old view propounded by Reichert, and
which was also originally accepted by Huxley.
New Jurassic Mammals.
In the report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1880, a list of the
Jurassic mammals, found up to 1880, was given and thirteen species
were therein enumerated. During 1881, Professor Marsh added to the
list four more, two of them representing distinct genera, viz: Allodon
laticeps and Docodon strigatus. Professor Marsh believed that the former
Should probably be placed in the Plagiaulacide and that the latter was
most nearly allied to Diplocynodon. The other species were named Cten-
acodon nanus and Dryolestes gracilis. As usual for Jurassic mammals,
only lower jaws of the several species were found. All were obtained
AQA4 ZOOLOGY.
from the upper Jurassic beds of Wyoming Territory. (A. J.S. (3), xxi,
511-513),
The Development of the Placenta and its Classificatory Value.
Many, or rather most naturalists for the past two decades, have at-
tached a primary value to the modifications under which the placenta is
manifested, for the classification of mammals. This question was re-
examined early in 1881 by Dr. F. M. Balfour. He considered that “the
fact that in marsupials both the yolk-sac and the allantois are concerned
in rendering the chorion vascular, makes it @ priort probable that this
was the case in the primitive types of the placentalia; and this deduction
is supported by the fact that in the rodentia, insectivora, and cheiroptera
this peculiarity of the foetal membranes is actually found.” Inthe prim-
itive placentalia it is also probable that, from the discoidal allantoic
region of the chorion simple foetal villi, like those of the pig, projected
into uterine crypts; but it is not certain how far the umbilical region
of the chorion, which was no doubt vascular, may have also been villous.
From such a primitive type of foetal membranes divergencies in various
directions have given rise to the types of foetal membranes found at the
present day.”
Reference must be had to Professor Balfour’s article for hiss views as to
the further developmentof the placenta, the ways in which modifications
have arisen, and the significance of such modifications. It can only
be added in this place that his conclusions are as follows: (1) The
rodents, insectivores, and cheiropters exemplify the closest approach to
“the primitive type of placenta described above” and departed least
from what are called the “ protoplacentalia”; (2) the lemuroids, the
ungulates, and the edentates, or rather their ‘ancestors, ‘must have
branched off from the primitive stock before the preceding had be-
come distinctly differentiated ”; and (3) the primates “ are to be derived
trom a primitive lemurian type.” But as to the edentates and un-
gulates it is a question “how far these groups arose quite independ-
ently from the primitive stock, or whether they may have had a nearer
common ancestor.” The carnivores were ‘certainly an off-shoot from
the primitive placental type which was quite independent” of the
lemuroids, ungulates, and edentates, but at what stage cannot be
determined. “No important light is thrown by the placenta on the
affinities” of the proboscideans, cetaceans, or sirenians, but it was
thought that “the character of the placenta in the latter group favors
the view of their being related to the ungulata.” The recorder feels
jmpelled to add that it seems scarcely probable that the cetaceans and
sirenians have diverged from different primitive stocks. (P. Z. 8., 1881,
210-212.)
Relations of some Marsupials.
From analogy in the placental mammals much weight has been at-
tached to some of the modifications of the dentition observable among
ZOOLOGY. 495
the marsupials. The wombats (Phascolomys) of Australia, for example,
have rodent-like incisor teeth, and have been generally regarded as rep-
resentatives of quite a peculiar family. Mr. A. M. Forbes, after a special
examination of the koala (Phascolarctas) and collaterally of other forms,
came to a different conclusion, and has proposed to combine the wom-
bats, the koala, and the phalangers in one family, or at least group of
families, of which the several types named may in the former case con-
stitute subfamilies. The common characters of the three forms com-
bined under the name Phalangistide are a “ diprotodont marsupialia,
with clavicles, and not more than six incisors above the hallux present,
the second and third digits of the pes smaller than the others, and more
or less united together by integument; stomach not sacculated; caecum
present; glans penis more or less bilobed; vagine provided with median
culs-de-sae which may unite.” The phalangers (5 genera) constitute the
subfamily (1) Phalangistive ; the koala the subfamily (2) Phascolarctine,
and (3) the wombats the subfamily (3) Phascolomyine.’ (P. Z. 8., 1881,
180-195.)
On the structure of the pharynx, larynx, and hyoid bones in the Epo-
mophori.
“Tn all species of Chiroptera of which the structure of the pharynx
and larynx has hitherto been described, and in all of those examined up
to the present by |Dr. Dobson], the form of these parts has been found
remarkably simple, differing but slightly from that of the insectivora,
all agreeing in possessing a short pharynx generally guarded by a short
acutely-pointed epiglottis, which, in some genera (Harpyia, Vampyrus,
e. g.), is almost obsolete, opening close behind the fauces, near to which
also the posterior nares enter, and in the small size of the laryngeal
cavity and feeble development of the vocal chords, the hyoid bone also
being slender and connected by a chain of simple cylindrical bones with
the cranium.
“In the Epomophori, however, we find in the structure of all these parts
a remarkable departure from the general type; the pharynx is long and
very capacious, the aperture of the larynx far removed from the fauces;
and opposite to it a canal leading from the narial chambers and extend-
ing along the back of the pharynx opens; the laryngeal cavity is spa-
cious, and its walls are ossified, and the vocal chords are well developed ;
the hyoid bone is quite unconnected, except by muscle, with the cranium;
the ceratohyals and epihyals are cartilaginous and greatly ‘expanded,
entering into the formation of the walls of the pharynx, and, in the males
of two species at least, supporting the orifices of the large posterior pair
of air-sacs which extend beneath the integument of the sides of the neck.”
Dr. Dobson then proceeds to describe the structures exemplified in
the Epomophorus fraqueti in detail, and finally considers the physiology
of the modified parts in the following terms:
“The remarkable form of the hyoid bones and great development of
the isthmus faucium part of the pharynx, in which (though especially
496 ZOOLOGY.
pronounced in the males of certain species) all the species agree, may
be understood when we consider the nature of the food of these animals.
“Tn the collection of the British Museum are specimens of E. gambianus
from the banks of the Zambesi, with the note “ eating figs” on the label
attached to them by the donor Dr. Kirk. That figs constitute the food
of BE. franqueti, macrocephalus, labiatus, and minor also I have proved
by finding remains of these fruits in the alimentary canal of these
species.
“The fig being a hollow receptacle containing numerous small fruits,
is not easily detached from the branch for the purpose of mastication ;
and its outer rind is evidently too tough to be readily torn through by
the feeble teeth of the Hpomophori. The easiest method therefore of
getting at its soft juicy contents is by sucking them out through the
aperture at the distal extremity of the fig.
‘¢ Now the whole structure of the mouth and pharynx of these animals
is admirably suited for this purpose. The peculiarly voluminous lips
are capable of completely encircling the fig, and their adherence to
its smooth surface is evidently securely maintained by the soft pads
which spring from their upper margins near the angles of the mouth.
While thus encircled by the lips, the fruit is probably slowly chewed
by the feeble acutely pointed teeth, and pressed upwards against the
prominent palate-ridges so as to cause it to give up more freely its juices
and soft contents which are drawn out by suction through the terminal
aperture.
“The construction of the parts above described is specially suited to
the action of suction, accomplished probably by the alternate action of
the buccal muscles and the lungs. The spacious pharynx, shut off from
the nasal apertures by the constrictors of the pharynx, and. from the
mouth by the small valvular opening referred to, and having its sides
supported behind by the expanded hyoid bones, constitutes a most per-
fect exhauster; while the broad epiglottis, permanently folded over the
larynx in front so that its aperture is directed upwards towards the
spine, and the great size of the fibro-cartilaginous masses extending
forwards from the arytenoid cartilages to the epiglottis, effectually
guard the glottis, preventing any part of the food, such as the small
fig-seeds, from being drawn into the air-passages.”
American Miocene rodents.*
Professor Cope has studied the American miocene rodents, and given
a list of all the known species. Not less than thirty-seven have been
recognized, and these are referred to 17 genra and distributed under
9 families.
The sciuride, ischyomyde, castcride, mylagaulidx, an undetermined
one for the genus heliscomys, muride, geomyide, hystricidz, and lep-
*Cope, E. D. The Rodentia of the American Miocene. Am. Nat., v 15, pp.
586, 587.
ZOOLOGY. 497
oride were all represented by species. Most of these families will be
recognized as still existent, but two or three families are only repre-
sented by extinct forms, viz: ischyromyida, mylagaulide, and perhaps
the heliscomys type.
Use as a factor in the differentiation of ungulate animals.
Professor Cope, following out the line of investigation indicated in
this country by Mr. John A. Ryder and Professor Cope himself, seeks to
show that the distinction between the odd and even toed types of ungu-
lates is due, in great part, to the effect of use of the toes in progression.
He recalls that the principal specializations in the ungulates are as fol-
lows :*
1. “The reduction of the number of toes to one in the Perissodactyla
(horses, etc.), and two in the Artiodactyla (cloven feet).
2. “The second hinge-joint in the tarsus of the Artiodactyla.
3. ‘The trochlear ridges and keels of the various movable articula-
tions of the limbs,” whether looking downwards (5 categories) or look-,
ing upwards (4 categories).
It is insisted upon that the trochlear keels that look downwards are
much the most prominent and important. The others, enumerated as
looking forward, are weak and insignificant, or of a different character
from the down-looking ones. ‘ The latter are all projections from the
middles of the ends of the respective elements. The up-looking are
generally projections of the edges of the bones. Such are the lateral
crests of the astragalus and the adjacent edges of the cuboid and nay-
icular bones, which cause the emargination of the astragulus in the
Artiodactyla. The proximal ridges of the phalanges are very weak, and
the concavities in the extremity of the radius cannot be called trochlear,
as they are adaptations to the carpal bones.”
Professor Cope then comes to the following conclusions:
1. “The reduction in the number of toes is supposed to be due to the
elongation of those which slightly exceeded the others in length, in con-
sequence of the greater number of strains and impacts received by
them in rapid progression, and the complementary loss of material
available for the growth of the smaller ones.”
2. “The hinge between the first and second series of tarsal bones in
the Artiodactyla may be accounted for by reference to the habits which
are supposed to have caused the cloven-footed character. Observation
on an animal of this order moving in mud shows that there is a great
strain anteroposteriorily transverse to the long axis of the foot, which
would readily cause a gradual loosening of an articulation.”
3. “The trochlez. These prominences, which form the tongues of the
tongue and groove articulations, exhibit various degrees of develop-
ment in the different mammalia, and those of different parts of the
“Corr (E. D.) On the effects of Impacts and Strains on the feet of Mammalia.
Am. Nat., v. 15, pp. 542-548.
S. Mis. 109 o2
A98 ZOOLOGY.
skeleton coincide in their condition in any one type of ambulatory
mammalia, and so may well be considered together. This fact suggests
strongly that they are all due to a common cause.”
Of the prominences in question, it is added that “ they are all imper-
fect in the rodentia and carnivora (except the leporidz), which are es-
pecially characterized by their great speed. Among ungulates they
are very imperfect in the proboscidea. The orders mentioned all have
elastic pads on the under side of their feet or toes. The same is true
of the lowest types of both the artiodactyla and perissodactyla, the
hippopotami and rhinoceroses. In the ruminantia the trochlez are well
developed, with one exception, and thatis the distal metacarpal and
metatarsal keels of the camelide. These animals confirm the proba-
bility of the keels being the effect of long-continued shocks, for they
are the only ruminants which have elastic pads on the inferior sides of
=heir digits.”
A New type of ungulates.
Through the investigations of Professor Cope there has been discov-
ered, in the Wasatch Eocene of Wyoming, a new type of mammal, which,
while related to the ordinary perissodactyles, or odd-toed ungulates, pre-
sents certain peculiarities which necessitate its differentiation from the’
existing type. The newly discovered type approaches the probosci:
deans, and differs from the perissodactyls in the fact that the astragalus
articulates with the navicular only, and by a universal convex surface,
as in the carnivores.
The new type realizes the prediction long before ventured as to the de-
velopment of five good-sized toes on all the feet. ‘‘ The cast of the brain
ease shows that the cerebral hemispheres were quite small and nearly
smooth, and that the very large cerebellum and olfactory lobes were
entirely uncovered by them. The bones of the two carpal rows alter-
nate with each other, and there is a large third trochanter of the femur.”
The animal issupposed to have been partially plantigrade It was at first
regarded by Professor Cope as a suborder of perissodactyla, and named
Condylarthra, and diagnosed by the “ astragalus convex in all directions
distally, only uniting with navicular bone, a third trochanter of femur.”
Recently, however, it has been elevated to ordinal distinction.
In addition to the typical genus, named Phenacodus, a number of
forms coeval with it have also since been associated with it as mem-
bers of the same group.
ANTHROPOLOGY.
By Oris T. Mason.
INTRODUCTION.
The word progress as applied to any science may mean either addi-
tions to our knowledge, without inquiry into their value or relations, or
it may imply improvement in the quality of material, the instrumentality
of research, or in the significance of results. Our account of the prog-
ress of anthropology during 1881 will embrace all the particulars above
named. Not only have students gone on amassing materials and facts
from old mines, but they have opened up new leads, as classes of phe-
nomena hitherto regarded desultory have shown themselves to be the
results of fixed laws.
As in former summaries, the materials are arranged according to a
classification which has been adopted more for the convenience of special
students than because it embodies all the facts according to well defined
bases of division. And yet the arrangement is not wholly unphilo-
sophical. Whatever the time, the place, the manner, or the condition,
the human race had an origin upon our globe. For the discussion of
such questions Haeckel uses the term ANTHROPOGENY.
After this event, came long periods of struggle from the lowest sav-
agery up to the time when the peoples of the earth could record their
own history. The record of these epochs is indicated only by a few
human remains, and the implements of activity. The study of these
remains and their relation to time is called ARCH AOLOGY.
The exclusion of the past leaves us the present and the future. As
he stands before us now, man is an animal, epitomizing in his embryonic
growth the history of all faunas, and exhibiting in his adult form those
characteristics which engage the attention of the anatomist, the phys-
iologist, and the anthropometer. To this extensive study, the old
anthropology, so brilliantly pursued by Paul Broca and his school, and
so sadly neglected in America since the death of Jeffries Wyman, we
may apply the term ANTHROPO-BIOLOGY, or the biology of man.
Again, we find this being endowed with a set of faculties called intel-
lectual, allied in certain particulars to those of the lower animals, but
so far transcending them as to form a separate branch of study, requir-
ing totally diverse methods and machinery of observation, and enlisting
an entirely different set of investigators. To all these studies we have
given the name of COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY, or PHRENOLOGY.
: 499
500 ANTHROPOLOGY.
Through causes now under investigation the human family has become
differentiated anatomically, and these variations have been more or less
fixed and intensified by social and national prejudices, until there have
arisen races of men. The description of mankind, race by race, may be
called ETHNOGRAPHY. All discussions concerning race and the causes
leading to race distinctions should be named ETHNOLOGY.
Among the characteristics of these diversities of man the most trench.
ant, useful, and prominent is language. The investigations respecting
the origin and the diversity of languages we name GLOSSOLOGY, though
the terms LINGUISTICS and COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY, have some
claims to preeminence in the matter.
Next to the speaking tongue comes the cunning hand. Indeed, the
footprints of civilization during its toilsome march may be traced bettér
through handicraft in the various human occupations than in any other
way. To this study Klemm gave the name Culturgeschichte, but the
title preferred here is COMPARATIVE TECHNOLOGY.
For regulating the propagation of the species, the care of the young,
the division of labor, and for mutual protection there exist everywhere
(1) traditional or written codes, (2) manners and customs, and (3) instru-
mentalities. For the investigation of these matters the term SOCIOLOGY
is used.
All races of men have beliefs, practices, and organizations with refer-
ence to a world of spirits. To call the study of these things compara-
tive religion would be misleading. For, in the first place, the word im-
plies action rather than study, and, in the second place, it is commonly
understood to refer only to the higher forms of worship. Various terms
have been suggested, as comparative mythology, spiritology, pneumatol-
ogy, philosophy, daimonology, &c. Although the term ‘ daimonology”
was used in the last summary, in order to call forth the opinions of ©
those competent to judge, the word PNEUMATOLOGY is here employed
with some reserve for the same purpose.
The human race, like all other groups of living beings, is surrounded
and transfused by the laws of the material environment. As the bottle
is the joint product of the breath of the glass-blower and the mold, so
are the tribes of men the result of their own inherent vitality and the
environment. The behavior of living beings in the presence of their en-
vironment Mr. Mivart has called Hexicology, for which the more properly-
constructed and more euphonious term HEXIOLOGY will here be em-
ployed.
Finally, anthropology, like every other honest craft, must have its
tools and its workshops, viz, its museums, libraries, societies, journals,
and implements, and its encyclopedic works. For all these the term
INSTRUMENTALITIES OF RESEARCH willbe used. The scheme, therefore,
stands :
1. Anthropogeny.
2. Archeology.
3. Biology of man.
ANTHROPOLOGY. 5OL
4, Comparative psychology or phrenology.
5. Ethnology. . °
6. Glossology.
7. Comparative technology.
8. Sociology.
9. Daimonology or pneumatology.
10. Hexiology.
11. Instrumentalities of research.
It is well known to all students of nature that knowledge passes
through three stages. The first is the observing and descriptive stage,
in which the universe is explored for new materials and facts. The sec-
ond is the inductive and classifying stage in which facts and materials
are arranged according to differing bases and general principles arrived
at. The third is the deductive or predictive stage, the true scientific
step, in which the laws and the true nature.of things are ascertained
with such accuracy that new consequences may be deduced, and the
recurrence of phenomena, under certain circumstances, may be pre-
dicted. A scheme of nomenclature is presented below merely as a sug-
gestion, in order to ascertain the opinion of anthropologists as to its
merits. To represent the three stages mentioned above, the Greek
words ypé¢7y, 4éyos, and yéyos are chosen to furnish the significant termi-
nation, agreeably to established analogy. As will be seen, a difficulty
occurs with psychology and phrenology, and with the terms denoting
the spirit world together with the actions and apparatus growing out of
it. These difficulties have been noticed under the appropriate head.
As the genesis or origin of anything is essentially speculative, how-
ever necessary, the first term of our technical series does not admit of
this tripartite division :
Anthropogeny (undifferentiated. ) *
Observing and descriptive | Inductive and classifying | Deductive and predictive
stage. stage. stage.
(yp4¢7N) (Aoyo) (voqos)
Anthropography....----- Anthropology -..-.-. .--. Anthroponomy.
ed ee aa Soccbeccod|) | REE Olin Se pSoeoceae Archzeonomy.
IDlOgTa ph yee s-c~, s-a2 5 - IBM y Sac asae aemeaOsoe Bionomy.
Psychopraphy -ssos. -=-- PSY CUOLO RY) s=oc0 amie cecies Psychonomy.
Phrenography- -----.---- Phrenology: aas-ss1ssseSee Phrenonomy.
Kthnography.-..<..----- HMO yA <sccseycesmewies Ethnonomy.
Gilossdprapliyjecesscisse- =. GIOSSOLOD Yio as) selene cose Glossonomy.
Technography.-..-.- faretoleiars Technology. .--.- ajissceee Technonomy.
Sociopraphyies- << sein<% 20 SOCIOLOGY: <\<.52cs/cnacteen Socionomy.
Pneumatography .------- Pneumatolopy--5------.- Pneumatonomy.
Daimonography -..--..-. Daimonology...--. -..--. Daimononomy.
Mythography. ...... -... My thOlop yi «cere s< =n) Mythonomy.
Hexiopsraphy -2<s------=- Hes glopy;ccmmosnacecies == Hexionomy.
Instrumentalities of Research (undifferentiated).
*By a farther application of the Greek word yevéa, this term might be used in a generic sense as the
beginning of a quaternary division, making the series—anthropogeny, anthropography, anthropology,
anthroponomy; thus giving four columns instead of three; the first of which would embrace the genesis
of those branches in which the question of origin could arise.
502 ANTHROPOLOGY.
The multiplication of works on anthropology throughout the world
makes it absolutely impossible to even name them within the limits of
this summary. It isdesigned tomention only works on America, works
by Americans, and valuable republications in America of foreign produc-
tions. In addition to this, the names of foreign journals, &c., containing
anthropologic bibliographies will be given among instrumentalities. In
this manner the student will have the means of compassing the whole
field of literature relating to the science.
In order to render this Summary more complete from year to year the
co-operation of all American anthropologists is earnestly solicited.
I.— ANTHROPOGENY.
The question of man’s origin is separable into several subdivisions,
related among themselves, but quite distinct. Among the titles quoted
under anthropogeny will be noted some referring to the time of man’s
advent and its connection with geology, others dealing with the evolu-
tion of man and his relation to the animal kingdom. A third group
discuss the origin and development of parts of his organism, as the
brain, the soul, or the sexes. A fourth class is concerned with the bear-
ing of the question upon the Adamic races of Genesis. Tinally, Dr.
Woodward, in his annual address before the Washington Philosophical
Society, examines the modern conceptions of the mechanical nature of
life, and puts in a plea for the existence of a vital force. The subject
is surrounded with so many difficulties that men of true scientific as-
pirations have declined to spend much time speculating about it, when
so much valuable material lay within their grasp untouched.
II.—ARCH OLOGY.
There is not a State in our Union devoid of interest to the archzolo-
gist. Along the entire border touched by the salt water are the shell-
heaps. Inland upon the Atlantic border occur stone implements as sur-
face finds in great variety, and rude celts are found in the river gravels.
Once upon the streams flowing westward into the Mississippi the stu-
dent of the past is among the mounds and earthworks of a higher group
of peoples. The same character of remains also occur in the Gulf States
and through the first tier west of the Mississippi River.
As yet the Plains of the Great West, the Great Interior Basin, and
the Sierras have yielded few evidences of ancient population, excepting
in the west coast shell-heaps and in the so-called relics from the aurif-
erous gravels of California. In New Mexico and Arizona the past is
continued to the present in the pueblos, cliff-dwellings (both cavated
and walled), the deserted pueblos, and in the relics of former industry.
Further south there remain throughout Mexico many ruins of the former
populations even yet unexplored.
It is difficult to report all that is doing for the study of every portion
of our Territory. The popularity of archeology induces many persons
ANTHROPOLOGY. 503
of wealth or leisure to expend much time and money on private collec-
tions. The committee of arrangements of the American association
last summer published a list of all such private museums in and around
Cincinnati. The public enterprises for the exploration of American
antiquities demand a more than passing notice. In Massachusetts, the
Achological Institute of America in Boston, the Peabody Museum in
Cambridge, and the Antiquarian Society of Worcester are doing most
valuable service to archeology. The first named has secured the serv-
ices of Mr. A. IF’. Bandelier among the pueblos, and has published its
first volume noticed in the bibliography of archzeology. The report of
the Peabody Museum for 1881 has not yet appeared, but a reference to
the names of the curator and his assistants will show that they have
not been idle.
No publications in archeology have been issued by the museum in
New York or the societies of Philadelphia. The Smithsonian Institu-
tion has published its annual report and Vol. XXII of Contributions,
which includes the monographs of Jones, Habel, Rau, and Dall, pre-
viously issued in separate form. The Bureau of Ethnology, though de-
voted mainly to language, sociology. and mythology, has employed two
explorers among western mounds, and under its auspices Col. James
Stevenson, with a competent force, has been occupied in the pueblo
country reaping a rich harvest of ancient and modern pottery and
other objects. The bureau has also issued as a part of Vol. V, ‘‘ Obser-
vations on cup-shaped and other lapidarian sculptures in the Old
World and in America,” by Charles Rau.
Mention should also be made of the Lorillard expedition to Mexico
and Central America under M. Désiré Charnay, whose preliminary re-
ports have appeared in the_pages of the North American Review.
In the State of Ohio, the Western Reserve and Northern Ohio His-
torical Society publishes tracts, and the Madisonville Literary and
Scientific Society, associated with the Cincinnati Society of Natural
History, reports the progress of explorations in the Madisonville Ceme-
tery.
In the State Historical Society and in the Geological Survey volumes
of Indiana, Wisconsin, and Minnesota occur, now and then, accounts of
ancient remains.
The papers on archeology at the American association will be found
enumerated under Instrumentalities. Special volumes upon archeology
will be noticed under the names of Abbott, Bransford, Evans, Geikie,
Merrill, Nadaillac, Putnam, Rau, Reiss, and Wheeler. R
%
It is much to be regretted that we have not on the wéstern continent
an institution for the study of man as a member of the animal king-
dom. For this cause that portion of anthropology, which has been
pursued with such brilliancy in France, England, Germany, Russia, and
III.—BIOLOGY OF MAN.
504 ANTHROPOLOGY.
Italy, has almost languished among us. Exception must be made in
favor of those surgeons who have, in their medical college courses, in-
troduced higher studies, and those geologists who sought to complete
their investigations by including the highest member of the vertebrate
branch. A further exception in favor of special laboratory work should
. be made in favor of the cranial measurements prosecuted at the Pea-
body Museum, by Mr. Lucien Carr, and at the Army Medical Museum,
Washington, by Mr. Parker, under the direction of the late Dr. Otis.
The last-named institution published the second volume of its great
index-catalogue of medical literature, which includes many titles on the
biology of man. Dr. Billings and Dr. Fletcher continue the editing
of the Index Medicus, a monthly, devoted to the cataloguing of periodi-
cal medical literature.
IV.—PSYCHOLOGY OR PHRENOLOGY.
As interpreted by Professor Huxley, biology includes thinking and the
emotions, as well as mere animal and vegetable life. As long, however,
as we separate the two things for the subject of investigation, it is
necessary to distinguish them by propernames. Theterm “psychology”
has become somewhat popular, but, as expressing an inductive science
of mind or intelligence, is less appropriate than the term “phrenology.”
The objection to the use of the latter word is that it was formed and
first employed by Dr. Gall to express a theory of mind and character
based on the observation of the external form of the skull, and that it
has ever since been thus exclusively applied. This system, however,
by reason of its immature and faulty inductions, has so far fallen out of
use and sight by the scientific explorer in the field of mind, that it may
be regarded as obsolescent, if it is not indeed extinct. To suffer the
name, which would naturally have been selected for the latter science,
to perish with the earlier and abandoned scaffolding, would seem to
be unnecessary and unwise. The term “ biologize,” applied by a class
of peripatetic exhibitors to express their manipulations, has not pre-
vented “biology ” from being completely redeemed. Indeed the analo-
gous term ‘ psycologize” has had a similar career; nor has the previous
use of “anthropology,” in a theologic sense, debarred its employment
to comprehend the entire study of the natural history of man. Is there
any good reason, therefore, why an effort should not be made to rescue
the abused but expressive term “plrenology” from its impending fate
for service in a broader and sounder department of investigation?
The phrenology or psychology of man may be and is considered from
various points of view. James and Romanes approach the subject from
the side of the reasoning powers of animals. Spitzka and Varigny
would reconstruct a phrenology upon the results of cranio-cerebral to-
pography. Preyer and Wyma watch the unfolding of the infant mind.
Mason observes the mental condition and changes of savages in the
presence of higher civilization. Professor Porter seeks to discover in-
eS
ANTHROPOLOGY. 505
tellection and mental growth aside from the medium of language. In
all these studies there is real progress. No doubt introspection reveals
to a trained thinker the processes of thought; but the careful obser-
vation of many minds—animal, infantile, savage, and civilized—in their
processes, sequences, and aims will disclose results hitherto unexpected.
V.—ETHNOLOGY.
The great mass of our ethnologie literature is ethnographic. Little
has been attempted within a year towards developing a rational scheme
of humanity on indisputable marks. Under the encouragement and
patronage of anthropological associations trained observers bring us
into intimate acquaintance with our brethren of every clime and grade.
The bibliographic list attached to this paper includes descriptions of
the peoples of the two Americas, tribes of the Eastern Continent visited
by Americans, and even ethnologic reprints which have been brought
out by our American publishers. Prof. John Campbell, of Montreal,
attempts on philologic grounds to trace the relationships of the Amer-
ican Indians. Major Powell’s first annual report gives notice of a
synonymy of all tribes ever known to have inhabited North America,
together with their priscan home, migrations, and linguistic afiinities.
VI.—GLOSSOLOGY.
In glossology our country has much that is attractive and of perma-
nent value to offer. In the first place, grammars and dictionaries of all
our tribes are in the course of preparation, not only by missionaries,
both Catholic and Protestant, but on a larger scale by the Bureau of
Ethnology, and even by foreign societies. Again, the meaning of the
word language has come to be better understood through studies on
America. The whole panorama of the growth of organized writing,
or speech to the eye, may be witnessed by the pictographs and aerial
pictures, called sign language. It may not be that we shall ever under-
stand the Maya hieroglyphics; but the investigations of Mallery,
Thomas, Holden, and others on the same line will exhibit to us the
value of each form as parts of a continually improving series.
VII.— COMPARATIVE TECHNOLOGY.
Whether we originate or whether we borrow the materials, imple-
ments, processes, and products of industry, the history of civilization
cannot omit the arts, by whomsoever elaborated or practiced. The list
of publications noticed is very meager, and does not at all represent
the immense amount of literature which accumulates upon this subject.
The new National Museum will be anthropological, and all the objects
there will be arranged with reference to the evolution of human industry
A hurried visit through our Patent Office, or, indeed, the inspection of
any old garret or farm yard will convince one of the rapidity with which
the fertile genius of man adapts itself to changing environment.
506 ANTHROPOLOGY.
Just here a word of caution may not go amiss. Collectors of ‘objects
for anthropological museums should be careful to note with reference
to each specimen the source of the material, all the tools employed in
its elaboration, the caste or sex to which its use is relegated, the time
or season of the manufacture, the craft processes and the ceremonies
observed, the variety and range of products in fineness, form and fune-
tion.
VIII.—SOCIOLOGY.
The term “sociology” as a philologic hybrid is not entirely satisfac-
tory, but it could not now be easily displaced, nor is it indeed easy to
substitute a better word. The summary of progress in anthropology
each year exhibits a gratifying progress in sociology. The recognition
of the oneness of all human phenomena gives value to the social structure
of even the lowest tribes. We seem to hear in the songs and dances of
the savage Indians the echoes of our own priscan history. Our own Bna-
reau of Ethnology is not behind in this matter. Major Powell has worked
out the Wyandotte scheme, and has elaborated a series of charts by
means of which the clan and the family organization of any people may
be exhibited.
The inspection of the list of works will show how these investigations
have ramified into every department of society, including marriage and
family life, tribal structure and functions, political institutions, acqui-
Sition, tenure, and cession of property, fashions, economics, statistics,
education, disease, crime, and death.
IX.—DAIMONOLOGY, OR PNEUMATOLOGY.
It is easier to indicate what is included in this class than to find a
name. As regards any set of human activities we have to inquire by
whom, with what, and how. It may be the making of a pot. If so-
then society is organized into those who make and those for whom they
make. Again, the clay must be taken from a certain place at a certain
time, and with appropriate ceremonies; the effect depending quite as
much upon the method as upon the material or theimplement. Further,
more, there are certain tools useful to the potter only; and finally the
finished product of his art passes on to be the implement of some other
craft, say the water seller, the cook, or the caterer.
Now, if we desire to study the religions of the world we must have
a museum containing models of typical sacred ineclosures or edifices,
together with all the furniture belonging thereto. This will not suffice;
we must have mannikins dressed to resemble all the servitors in these
temples, let us call them. Even that would be dead religion. For these
figures must move, they must go through every performance which
enters into their ritual and liturgy, observing carefully the right posture,
saying the right words, at the proper time of the day, or of the month,
or of the year. After all this would be more interesting than com-
a
ANTHROPOLOGY. 507
prehensible, for we should know what words they utier, what their own
conceptions and motives were, and on what general law their conduct
is based. We should not be long in finding out that all we had seen
had reference to a supra-sensible world. The investigation which we
are engaged in, therefore, is the study of human beliefs, of social organi-
zations, activities, instrumentalities, with reference to the supra-sensi-
ble, the so-called spirit world. Inasmuch as we have borrowed a spe-
cific term from the theologians to stand for the whole study of man,
we may be compelled to take the word pneumatology, meaning with
them the doctrine of the Holy Spirit, for the science of the spirit world.
X.—HEXIOLOGY.
Professor Mivart, in his monograph upon the cat, devotes a chapter to
the hexicology (hexiology?) of the animal. ‘Every living creature has
also relations with other living creatures, which may tend to destroy it,
or indirectly to aid it, and the various physical forces and conditions
exercise their several influences uponit. The study of all these com-
plex relations to time, space, physical forces, other organisms, and to
surrounding conditions generally, constitutes the science of hexicology
(hexiology?). The higher a plant or animal stands in its kingdom the
ereater will be the variety of influences bearing upon it and the greater
will be the diversity of impressions made by any external agent. This
being true, the relations of man to force and to matter in the three king-
dome of nature would be numerous and complicated. Indeed it is only
within our own day that men have conceived the possibility of grappling
with this subject at all; and even now treatises upon the subject are so
scattered and so mixed up with economics and medicine that it is dis-
couraging to attempt a bibliography. The defect is partly remedied by
the fact that hexiology is intimately related to other divisions of the
subject: to anthropogeny, since all investigations into the evolution of
man from a lower form proceed upon the assumption of the modifying
and selecting function of environment; to anatomy and psychology, since
climate, food, and natural enemies perfect or dwarf the bodies of men
not less than their minds; to ethnology, since the races of men are almost
universally believed to be the product of surroundings; to language and
technology, since words as well as implements have reference to what
is at hand and not to something outside of experience; to art and enjoy-
ment, since the sense of beauty grows by what it feeds upon, preserves
and reproduces that which has contributed to its indulgence; to society,
since tribal organization and government are well known to be the sport
of geography; to religion, since the gods, the temples, the vestments,
and the routine of worship are very much the creatures of the land
where they had their origin.
XI.—INSTRUMENTALITIES.
The purpose of this section has been so frequently explained that no
repetition is needed. Museums, libraries, associations, congresses, jour-
508 ANTHROPOLOGY.
nals, improved implements and methods of observations, popular works,
and lectures, all are indispensable to the anthropologist. Hence, a list
of the most important is appended. This becomes the more valuable at
this time. Since the numberless publications on anthropology abroad
cannot find a place in our list, the journals and separate works in which
their titles are given will be found under ‘‘Instrumentalities.” In this
manner nearly every issue of importance will be placed within the reach
of American students.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ANTHROPOLOGY FOR 1881.
J.—ANTHROPOGENY.
Bucuanan, 8S. H.—Date of the origin of the humanrace. Cumberland Presb. Quart.,
Oct.
Byrp, H. L.—Pre-adamite races of men. Independ. Pract., Balt., Jan. Separately
printed by Thomas and Evans.
CARLISLE, A. N.—Man’s place in nature. (xixth cent.) Appleton’s Journal, Sept.
CLEVENGER, S. V.—Origin and descent of the human brain. Am. Naturalist, July,
pp. 513-517.
Dawson, J. W.—The antiquity of man and the origin of species, Kansas City Rev.,
Jan., 6 pp.; Feb., 5 pp. [From the Princeton Review. ]
DENTON, WILLIAM.—Is Darwin right? Ortheoriginof man. Wellesley, Mass., 1881,
193 pp. 12mo.
Dewak, A.—The materialistic origin of the sexes. J. Sc., Lond., 1881, pp. 33-36.
Evans, M. J.—The geologic evidence of the antiquity of man. Christian Month., Feb.
GEIGER, L.—Contributions to the history of the development of the humanrace. From
the German, by D. Asher. Boston, 1881. 8vo.
HowarpD, H.—Man’s two natures; man created by evolution; thinking, how pro-
duced; nemology. Canada Med. Rec., Montreal, 1880-1881, ix, 97-107.
Some remarks on ‘Haeckel on the evolution of man,” and on so-called
blood-poisoning. Canada Med. Rec., Montreal, 1880-81, ix. Intelect and Evolu-
tion. British Quart. Rev., Oct.
Les.ry, J. P.—Man’s origin and destiny. Boston: G. H. Ellis, 440 pp. 8vo.
Lewis, T. L.—Indian traditions respecting their origin. Kansas City Rev., March.
Lianas, E.—Conferencias cientifico-religiosas sobre elorfgen delhombre. Sentido ca-
_ t6l. Barcel., 1881, iii, 2.
Mivart, St. G.—The soul and evolution. Am. Cath. Quart. Rev., July.
Nespit, Rev. E.—Antiquity of man. Its recent phase. Baptist Rev., Jan., 12 pp.
PLEISTOCENE MAN, and his relation to the theory ofdevelopment. The Lake Dwellers.
Cosmos, May.
SOUTHALL, J. C.—Man’s place in time. Methodist Quart. Rev., April.
Pliocene man in America: a paper read before the Victoria Institute of Great
Britain. London. 8yvo. 30 pp.
WILSON, J. D.—Pre-adamites. New Englander, May.
WoopwarD, JosEPH J.—Modern philosophic conceptions of life: an address delivered
before the Philosophical Society of Washington, Dec. 3,1881. Washington, Judd
and Detweiler.
WriGut, FreDERICK G.—The glacial phenomena of North America, and their rela-
tion to the question of man’s antiquity in the valley of the Delaware. Phila.,
1881. 12pp. 8vo.
II.—ARCHAZOLOGY.
ABBoTr CHARLES C.—<Articles made of wood. Wheeler’s U. S. Geog. Surv. W. of
100th Merid., vii, pp. 122-124, fig. 42.
ANTHROPOLOGY. 509
Chipped stone implements. Wheeler’s U.S. Geog. Surv. W. of 100th Merid.,
vii, pp. 49-69, pl. 1-4, figs. 1-16.
Historical sketch of the discoyery of the palxolithic implements of the Tren-
ton gravels. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. June 19. xxi.
and F. W. PutnaM.—Implements and weapons made of bone and wood.
Wheeler’s U. 8. Geog. Surv. W. of 100th Merid., vii, pp. 222-233, pl. xi, figs.
100-114.
Miscellaneous objects made of stone. Wheeler’s U. 8. Geog. W. of 100th
Merid., vii, pp. 190-217, figs. 61-99.
Mortars and pestles. Wheeler’s U. 8. Geog. Surv. W. of 100 Merid., vii, pp,
70-91, pl. 5, figs. 17-31.
Musical instruments made of bone. Wheeler’s U. 8. Geog. Surv. W. of 100th
Merid., vii, pp. 284-233, figs. 115-120.
Baaative Industry; or illustrations of the handwork in stone, bone, and clay,
of the native races of the northern Atlantic seaboard of America. Salem, Mass.,
560 pp. &vo. [Reviewed in Nature, Nov. 10.]
Smoking pipes of stone. Wheeler’s U. 8. Geog. Surv. W. of 100th Merid.,
vii, pp. 125 —, pl. vii-ix, fig. 43.
Steatite cooking pots, plates, and food vessels. Wheeler’s U.S. Geog. Surv.
W. of 100th Merid., vii, pp. 93-116, pl. vi, figs. 32-38.
AmEGHINO, F.—La antiguedad del hombre en el Plata. Paris, Masson. 25 plates,
1881. 8vo.
BARBER, Epwin A.—Pueblo pottery. Am. Naturalist, June. pp. 453-462.
BINKLEY, S$. H.—A éloth robe from a mound-builder’s tomb. Am. Antiquarian. iii,
pp- 325-328.
Nest of flint relics. Am. Antiquarian, iii, 144.
Birnie, Rocers, Jr.—Report on ruins visited in New Mexico. Wheeler’s U. 8. Geog.
Surv. W. of 100th Merid., vii, pp. 346-350.
Bootu, HENry.—Notes on some ancient remains in Arizona. Eroe. Poughkeepsie Soe-
Nat. Hist. Noimprint. pp. 37-43.
BRANSFORD, J. F.—Archwological researches in Nicaragua. No. 383, Smithsonian
Contributions. Published by the Smithsonian Institution. 4to.
BRINKLEY, C. H.—Ancient stone mounds—were they objurgatory burial heaps? Am.
Antiquarian. ii, pp. 169-194.
BUCKINGHAM, HARRIOT.—Oregon and prehistoric relics. Am. Antiquarian, iii, 135-°
137.
BuTLER, J. D.—Wisconsin copper finds and lake-dwellings. Am. Antiquarian, iii,
141,
Carr, Lucren.—Statement relating to finding an implement in the Trenton gravel.
Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Jan.19. xxi.
CHARNEY, DiéistrG.—The ruins of Central America. North Am. Review:
Part ¥Y. Resemblances and analogies between Teotihuacan and Tula. Jan.
Part VI. The village of Comalcalco, in the State of Tobasco. Feb.
Part VII. The ruins of Palenque. May.
Part VIII. The ruins of Palenque. June.
Part IX. The probable age and origin of the monuments of Mexico and Central
America. Oct.
[Translated in Petetmann’s Mittheilungen. ]
CHAVERO, ALFREDO.—La piedra del sol. (Continuacion.) Anales del Mus. Nac. de
México. II. Parts iv and v, pp. 234-266, 291, 403-410.
Co.ttertT, Joun.—Mounds and stone graves of Shelby County, Indiana. Rep. State
Geologist, 1881.
—— The mammoth and the mastodon. Remains in Indiana and Illinois. A
Vincennes Mound. Indiana Geolog. Rep., 1879-1880. Indianapolis, C. Hollen-
beck, 1881, pp. 16-28.
510 - ANTHROPOLOGY.
Core, Epwarp D.—Report on the remains of population observed in Northwestern
New Mexico. Wheeler’s Survey W. of 100th Merid., vii, pp. 351-361.
Dr Haas, WrxLs.—The mound-builders: an inquiry into their supposed southern ori-
gin. Am. Assoc., Cincinnati.
Evans, JoHN.—The ancient bronze implements, weapons, and ornaments of Great
Britain and Ireland. With 540 illustrations. N. York: D. Appleton & Co. 509
pp. 8vo.
FaiLyrr, G. H.—Traces of the aborigines of Riley County, Kansas. Tr. Kansas Acad.
Se., vii, p. 132.
FONTPERTUIS, A. E. DE.—Les anciennes civilisations américaines, le peuple des
mounds et ses monuments. (Drapeyron.) Revue de géogr., April, ff.
Gass, J.—Indian burial grounds near the mouth of Rock River. Proc. Davenport
Acad., ii.
Gass, J. and R. J. FarquHARSON.—Exploration of a mound near Moline, Ill. Proc.
Davenport Acad., il.
GEIKIE, J.—Prehistoric Europe: a geological sketch. Phila., 1881. 8vo.
GraTacaP, A.—Prehistoric man in Europe. Am. Antiquarian, iii, pp. 280-290; iv, pp.
1-8.
HALFORD, C. W.—Oriental resemblances in New Mexico. Kansas City Rev., Feb.,
3 pp-
HARRISON, C. E.—Exploration of Mound No. 11, Cook’s Farm, Iowa. Proc. Daven-
port Acad., ii.
Haynes, Henry W.—The argillite implements of the Delaware River, compared with
the palolithic implements of Europe. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xxi, Jan. 19.
Comparison of the implements of the Trenton gravels with those of similar
deposits in Europe. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Jan. 19, 1881, xxi.
Discovery of paleolithic flint implements in Upper Egypt. Reprint from
Mem. Am. Acad. of Arts & Sc., x, Boston.
HENSHAW, H. W.—Cliff-house and cave on Diamond Creek, New Mexico. Wheeler's
U.S. Geog. Survey W. of 100th Merid., vii, pp. 370-371.
HoFrrMan, W. J.—Antiquitiesof New Mexicoand Arizona. Reprint from Proc. Daven-
port Acad. Nat. Sc., iii, 21 pp.
An Indian theater: detailed description of Arikara semi-religious ceremonies
performed during the month of August and part of September of each year, at Fort
Berthold, Dak. Reading (Pa.), Times & Despatch, Sept. 20.
HOLBROOK, W. C.—Stone implements in the drift. Science, Nov. 19.
HOWELL, G. R.—Was America known to the ancients? Potter’s American Month.,
July.
Howartu, H. H.—The sudden extinction of the mammoth. Geological Mag.,
July.
LaNGpoN, I’. W.—The Madisonville prehistoric cemetery: Anthropological notes.
J. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., iv, October, Reprint.
LOEFFLER, C.—Reiseskizzen aus Peru: Die Ruinen von Tiahuannco. Aus allen Welt-
theil, xii, No. 2, pp. 378-380. §
Lorw, Oscar.—Report on the ruins in New Mexico. Wheeler’s U. S. Geog. Surv. W.
of 100th Merid., vii, pp. 337-345. :
McApams, WM.—Sea shells in mounds. Am. Antiquarian, iv, pp. 61-62.
The ancient pottery makers. Am. Antiquarian, iii, 139-140.
The stone images and idols of the mound-builders. Some remarkable relics
from the mounds of Illinois. Am. Assoc., Cincinnati.
Mac.EaN, J. P.—A study of American archeology. II. The literature of the subject.
Universalist Quart., Jan., 22 pp.
Marquez, P. PEDRO Josf.—Dos antiquos monumentos de Arquitectura Mexicana,
illustrados. Traducido para los “ Anales del Museo” por F. P. T., pp. 279-290.
eC OO
ANTHROPOLOGY. 5tT
Menpoza, G., and Ferrer Sf{ncnez Soris.—Anales de Cuauhtitlan. Original, and
translation of Chimalpopoca, in parallelcolumns. Anales d. Mus, Nac. de Mex., ii,
pt. 6; appendix, pp. 41-56.
— Mitos de los Nahoas. (Anales d. Mus. Nac. de Mex., ii, pts. 4 & 5, pp. 271-
278, 315-322.) Translated by F. P. T. Mexico, 1881. 8vo. pp. 80, 3 pl.
MERRILL, SELAU.—East of the Jordan: a record of travel and observation in the
countries of Moab, Gilead, and Bashan, during the years 1875-1877. New York:
Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1881. Ill. and map.
Merz, CHARLES L.—The prehistoric monuments of Anderson Township, Hamilton
County, Ohio. From the J. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., iv.
Mincuin, J. B.—Eastern Bolivia and the Gran Chaco. Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., London.
No. 7, pp. 401-420, with chart.
Moisr, CoLumMBus.—Dead cities of New Mexico. Kansas City Rev., December, 2 pp,
Morrison, C. C.—Notice of the Pueblo Pintado, and of other ruins in the Chaco
Canon. Wheeler’s U. 8. Geog. Survey, W. of 100th Merid., vii, pp. 366-369.
Morse, Epwarps 8.—On the ancient Japanese bronze bells. On worked shells in
New England shell-heaps. Am. Assoc., Cincinnati.
Prehistoric Man in America. Kansas City Rev., June, July, 1881, p. 90.
Mupcs, B. F.—Mound-builders in Davis and Riley Counties. Kansas Acad. Sc. To-
peka, 1881. |
NADAILLAC, MARQUIS DE.—Les premiers hommes et les temps préhistoriques. Paris:
Masson, 1881. 2 vols., 12 plates, 211 figures. 8vo.
Nerr, Perer.—Look-out mounds in Ohio. Am, Antiquarian iii, 138.
Orozco Y BERRA MANUEL.— Cedice Mendozine: Ensayo de descrifacion geroglifica
(Continuacion). Anales d. Mus. Nac. de Mex. ii, pt. 4 & 5.
PALMER, Epwarp.—Utah Mounds. Proc. Davenport Acad., ii.
Parker, J. D.—Heath’s Discoveries in South America. Kansas City Rev., April.
PrET, STEPHEN D.—The emblematic mounds on the four lakes of Wisconsin.—Am.
Assoc., Cincinnati.
Buffalo drives among the mound-builders. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. of Sc.,
Arts & Let., v.
The military architecture of the emblematic mound-builders. Am. Anti-
quarian, iii, pp. 80-101.
— The prehistoric architecture of America. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. of Sc., Arts
& Letters, v.
PERKINS, GEORGE H.—Archeology of Vermont. Am. Naturalist, June, 13 pp.
PREHISTORIC SCIENCE EN FETE.—The International Congress of Prehistoric Anthro-
pology and Archeology. Pop. Sc. Month., Feb.
PREHISTORIC VESSELS, SOME. (La Nature.) Popular Sc. Month., May.
Provuprit, 8. V.—Earthworks on the Missouri River. Am. Antiquarian, ili, p. 139.
- Antiquities of the Missouri Bluffs. Am. Antiquarian, iii, pp. 271-280.
Putnam, F. W.—Archeological explorations at Madisonville, Ohio. Harvard Univ.,
Bull. No. 19, June 1. (These Bulletins publish the titles of all anthropological
works added to Peabody Museum Library.)
—— Fourteenth annual report of the Peabody Museum of Archeology and Eth-
nology, iii, No. 1. Cambridge. 41 pp.
Palaeolithic implements of the valley of the Delaware. Reprint from Proce.
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxi. A symposium by Abbott, Haynes, Wright, Carr,
Wadsworth, and Putnam.
Iron implements and other articles obtained by contact with Europeans.
Wheeler’s U. S. Geog. Surv. W. of 100th Merid., vii, pp. 272-276, pl. xv, figs.
133-134.
Notes on the implements of stone, pottery, and other objects obtained in New
Mex. and Arizona. Wheeler’s Survey W. of 100th Merid., vii, pp. 374-300. 4
beautifully colored lithographic plates.
Hil ANTHROPOLOGY.
—— Ornaments. Wheeler’s U.S. Geog. Surv. W. of 100th Merid., vii, pp. 251-232,
pl. xii, figs. 124-132.
Perforated stones. Wheeler’s U. S. Geog. Surv. W. of 100th Merid., vii, pp.
135-189, pl. x, figs. 44-60.
Pueblo pottery. Am. Art Rev., Feb.
Remarks on the paleolithic implements of the Trenton gravels. Proc. Boston
Soc. Nat. Hist., Jan. 19, vol. xxi.
Textile fabrics, basket works, ete. Wheeler’s U. S. Geog. Surv. W. of 100th
Merid., vii, pp. 239-250, pl. xiv, figs. 121-123.
Quick, EpGar R.—A prehistoric cup made from a humancranium. J.Cin. Soc. Nat,
Hist., iii, 296.
Rav, CuarLes.—Aboriginal stone-drilling. Am. Naturalist, July, pp. 536-542.
Observations on cup-shaped and other lapidarian sculptures in the Old World
and in America. (From Contributions to N. Am. Ethnology, v, Washington,
Govt. Printing Office, 102 pp. 4to, 60 figs.)
REID H. A.—Prehistorie man in Lafayette County, Missouri. Kansas City Rev., Nov.,
4 pp.
Reiss, W. and A. SripeLt.—The Necropolis of Ancon in Peru: a series of illustrations
of the civilization and industry of the Empire of the Incas, being the results of
excavations made upon the spot. Part 5. Dodd and Mead, N. Y.
SAVAGE, JOSEPH.—Mounds in Southern Kansas. Tr. Kansas Acad. Se. Topeka, 1881.
SmMONDs, FREDERICK W.—The discovery of iron implements in an ancient mine of
North Carolina. Am. Naturalist, xv, 7-11.
SmuckeR, Isaac.—Mound-builders’ works, near Newark, Ohio. Am. Antiquarian,
ili, pp. 261-270. ;
Sotp1, M. E.—Ancient sculptures in America. Bul. Soc. d’anthrop. de Paris, iv, p.
205,1881.
Stropparp, C. W.—Primeval California. Scribner’s Mag., Oct.
Tuomas, Cyrus.—An attempt to reconcile the difference between authorities in refer-
ence to the Maya calendar and certain dates; also to determine the age of the
manuscript Troana. Am. Naturalist, October.
The manuscript Troana. Am. Assoc. Cin., Am. Naturalist, Aug., pp. 625-641.
Tuomrson, A. H.—On a recent Indian find near Topeka, Ks. Kansas Acad. Se., To-
peka, 1881.
TROWBRIDGE, 8S. H.—Exhibition of archeological specimens from Missouri. Am.
Assoc., Cincinnati.
VLastTo, M.—Stone implements from Northern Brazil. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Paris,
1881, iv, p. 206.
Wabsworth, M. E.—On the lithological character of the implements in the Trenton
gravels. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Jan. 19, xxi.
We cn, L. B., and J. M. RicHarpson.—A description of prehistoric relics found near
Wilmington, Ohio. Am. Antiquarian, iv, pp. 40-48.
WHEELER, GEORGE M.—Vol. vii, Archeology. Report upon U.S. Geographical Sur-
veys west of the 100th meridian. Washington: Government Printing Office. [Im-
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eminent specialists. ]
WHITTLESEY, CHARLES.—Inscribed stones, Licking County, O. Western Res. & N.
Ohio Hist. Soc., No. 53.
WINCHELL, N. H.—Ancient copper mines of Isle Royale. Engineer & Min. J., Sept.
17, 24; Popular Sc. Month., Sept.
Wriaut, G. F.—On the age of the Trenton gravels. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Jan.
HOF xe
Yarrow, H. C.—The pueblo of Taos. Wheeler’s U.S. Geog. Surv. W. of 100th Merid.,
Vii, p. 327-330.
The pueblo of San Juan. Wheeler's U. S. Geog. Surv., vii, p. 531.
ANTHROPOLOGY. 513
A ruined pueblo and an ancient burial-place in the valley of the Rio Chama.
Wheeler’s U.S. Geog. Surv., vii, p. 362-365.
III.—BroLoey.
ANATOMIST, The. Being a complete description of the anatomy of the human body.
3ed. WN. Y., 1881. 16mo.
Bar t.ey, E. H.—A new craniometer. Pathologist. Brooklyn, i, 29.
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1881, p. 33.
BENEDICT, Moriz.—Anatomical studies upon brains of criminals. A contribution to
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Borpier, A.—De l’anthropologie pathologique. Rev. scient., Paris, 1881. pp. 180-184,
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la femme, comprenant l’anatomie, la physiologie, ’hygiéne, la pathologie, la
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Method of educating the color sense in children. Washington. 4 pp.
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Observations on the crania from Santa Barbara Islands, California. Wheeler’s
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DESCRIPTIVE atlas of human anatomy. London, 1880; Phila.
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EXNER, SIGMUND.—Untersuchungen iiber die Localisation der Functionen in der
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Eyss, The ethnology of. [Standard.] Living Age, June 11.
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Fuint, AUSTIN.—Text-book on human physiology. 3.ed. N.Y. 8vo.
FRIDOLIN, J.—Studien itiber das Wachsthum der Extremitiiten beim Menschen nach
der Gebust. Arch. f. Anat. Leipzig, 1881. pp. 79-88.
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Harris, R. P.—Foot-binding in China, etc. Tr.Coll. Phys. Phila. 38.,v. pp.1; 63.
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IIARTMANN, R.—Handbuch der Anatomie des Menschen fiir Studirende und Aertzte.
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HARTWELL, E. M.—The hindrances to anatomical study in the United States, &c.
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S. Mis. 109 -——33
514 ANTHROPOLOGY.
HessE, W.—Bestimmungen des Gewichtes und Messungen der Kérperlinge bei
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Hiuis, J. D.—Leprosy in British America. An account of West Indian leprosy.
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HOLBROOK, WATSON C.—Mound-builders’ skeletons. Prehistoric hieroglyphs. Stone
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HYBRID marriages to sex in offspring and fecundity, The relationsof. Phila. Reporter,
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KESTEVEN, W. B.—An alleged diminution in the size of men’s heads. Nature, Nov.
3, 10, 17.
LANGDON, F. W.—The temporal process of the malar bone in the ancient human
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MANOUVRIER, L.—La craniologie; sa place parmi les sciences, s0n programme et ses
divisions. Rey. scientifique, 8 Oct., 1881.
Martin, H. N.—The human body; account of its structure and activities and the
conditions of its healthy working. N. Y., H. Holt, 1881. 12mo.
McKig, T. J.—The negro and some of his diseases, as observed in the vicinity of
Woodlawn, S.C. Trans. S. C. Med. Assoc., Charleston. xxxi, pp. 85-90.
McCLENAHAN, H. M.—Medical knowledge of the North American Indians. Phila.
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Morris, C.—Man and the vertebrates series. Pop. Sc. Month., N. Y., 1880-81. xviii,
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PRENTISS, D. W.—Change in the color of the hair through the use of pilocarpin.
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RANNEY, A. L.—Anatomical plates, arranged as a companion volume for ‘‘The essen-
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READ, H. N.—Ready method of measuring children’s heads. Pathologist. Brooklyn.
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ROBERTS, JOHN B.—The compend of anatomy; for use in the dissecting room, and in
preparation for examination. Phila., C. C. Roberts & Co. 191 pp.
ScHMIDT, EmM1L.—Ueber die Bestimmung der Schidelcapacitéit. Archiv f. Anthrop.
xiii. Supp. pp. 53-79.
SEVERANCE, M. S. and H. C. YakRRow.—Notes upon human crania and skeletons col-
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Srmmons, D. B.—The diseases of Japan. Med. Rec., N. Y. xix, pp. 90-92.
SMYTHE, A. G.—Decrease in the size of the head. Med. Rec., N. Y. xx, p.473.
SOLAVILLE, M. DE.—The duration of human life. Pop. Sc. Month., Nov.
SPENCER, T. D.—The phenomena of death. Pop. Sc. Month. xix, pp. 394-399.
SPITZKA, EDWARD C., M. D. (New York.) Author of a series of pamphlets on the
nervous system. Preliminary considerations. Chapter I, The central tubular
grey; Chapter II, The higher ganglia of the mid- and hind-brain.
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York,
ToLptT, C.—Ueber die Schiadelform der Eskimo. Prag. med. Wcehnschr., 1881, vi,
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WILDER, Burt G.—A partial revision of medical nomenclature; with especial refer-
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IV.—PsYCHOLOGY, OR PHRENOLOGY.
ALLEN, GRANT.—Zisthetic Evolution in Man. Pop. Sc. Month., Jan.: The Genesis of
Genius. Atlantic Month., March.
ANTHROPOLOGY. 515
CLEVENGER, S. V.—Contributions to comparative psychology. Science, N. Y., ii,
pp. 233; 342.
JAMES, JOSEPH F'.—The reasoning faculty of animals. Am. Naturalist. pp. 604-615.
Mason, Otis F.—The uncivilized mind in the presence of higher phases of civiliza-
tion. Am. Assoc., Cincinnati.
Part, A. G.—Possibilita della psicologia scientifica. Udine, 1881. 8vo.
PaRVIN, T.—The interdependence of mind and body. Cincin. Lancet and Clinic,
1880, n. 8., V, pp. 521-530.
PORTER, SAMUEL.—Is thought possible without language? Case of a deaf mute.
Princeton Review, January.
PREYER, W.—Psychogenesis; the development of the human mind in the first years
of life. [From the German.] Am. J. Obst., N. Y., 1881, xiv. pp. 461-484.
ROMANES, G. J.—The intelligence of ants. (xixth century, Aug.) Popular Sc.
Month., Aug., Oct. Living Age, July 16.
Spitzka, E. C.—An important contribution to the doctrine of localization. Science,
N. Y., ii, pp. 596-600.
VariIGNy, H. DE.—Cerebral localization; or the new phrenology. Popular Se.
Month., March. 11 pp.
WymMa.—The mental development of the infant of to-day. J. Psych. Med., London,
1881, n. s., vii, pp. 62-69. —
V.—ETHNOLOGY.
Boyp, M. N.—Chili: Sketches of Chili and the Chilians during the war, 1879-1880.
London: Allen, 1881. 240 pp. 8vo. -
BRINTON, DANIEL G.—The probable nationality of the mound-builders. Am. Antiqua-
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BRUNNER, D. B.—The Indians of Berks County, Pa., being a summary of all the
tangible records of the Aborigines of Berks County, and containing cuts and de-
scriptions of the varieties of relics found within the county. Written for the
Society of Natural Sciences, Reading, Pa., by, etc., superintendent of the schools
of the city of Reading, Pa. Reading, Pa., The ‘‘Spirit of Berks” Book and Job
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Butts, W. H.—Mission work in the forests of Guiana. (Atheneum, Nov. 19.)
CAMPBELL, JOHN (Montreal).—Asiatic tribes in North America. Reprint from Proc.
Canadian Inst. 38 pp. Montreal; no date.
Culdee Colonies in the North and West, being a critique of M. Eugéne Beau-
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Origin of the Aborigines of Canada. A paper read before the Lit. & Hist. Soc.
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CANNON, GEORGE Q.—Utah and its people. North Am. Rev., May.
CARRINGTON, HENRY B.—The Dacotah tribes; their beliefs and our duty to them out-
lined. Salem, Mass.: Salem Press, 8vo.
Corra, E.—Les sauvages de la Terre de Feu, leur origine, leurs mwurs, et leur ac-
climatation. Paris, Bouzin, 1881. 16 pp. 16mo.
DatrREAUX, Em1Le.—Buenos Ayres, la Pampa, la Patagonie, études, races, murs et
paysages, industrie, finance et politique. 2. éd. xii, 391.and pp. et grav. Paris:
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D’ALBERTIS, L. M.—New Guinea: What I did and What I saw. Boston: Houghton,
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DaLL, WILLIAM H.—On the so-called Chukchi and Namollo peoples of Eastern Sibe-
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Discoveries in South America, Heath’s. Kansas City Rev., Sept.
Douauass.—The Eskimo race: Its origin, migrations, and characteristics. Good
Company, March-April.
516 ANTHROPOLOGY.
ENDLIcH, F. M.—Demerara. Am. Naturalist, Dec., pp. 937-946.
ExLcu0, R.—Die Indianer Californiens. Westermann, Monatshefte, July. vi, No. 298,
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FIsKE, JoOHN.—Who are the Aryans? Atlantic Month., Feb.
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GaTscHET, A. S.—The Massawomekes. Am. Antiquarian, iii, pp. 321-324.
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Grout, Rev. AA—Who are the Boers? Missionary Herald, April.
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in the Arctic Ocean, 71 pp. Washington.
Hous, Emit.—Seven years in South Africa: Travels, researches, and hunting ad-
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INGERSOLL, ERNEST.—Personal recollections of the Utes. Good Company, March-
April.
Kuiutscuak, H. W.—Die Eskimos von Hudson Bay. (Geogr. Rundschau, iii, No. 9,
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Kotwyk, A. S. van.—De Indianen Caraiben (Tijdschrift Aardrijksk. Genootsch.,
Amsterdam, 1881, No. 2, pp. 57-69.
La SELVE, E.—Le pays des négres; voyage 4 Haiti. Paris: Hachette, with chart,
1881, 376 pp. 18mo.
Lista, R.—La Tierra del Fuego y sus habitantes. Bol. Inst. Geogr., Argent., ii, No. 6,
pp. 109-115.
LopGs, H. C.—A short history of the English Colonies in America. New York, 1881.
560 pp. 8vo.
MANO, J. Co.—Ethnologie américaine. L’Exploration, 1881, xi, No. 227, 913-919.
MARCEL, G.—Australian aborigines. (La Nature.) Popular Sc. Month., September.
Martin, C.—Ein Eingeborner der Insel Espiritu Santo. Jenaische Ztschr. f. Naturew.,
1881, pp. 66-69.
MayYuHew, ATHOL.—In Albania with the Ghegs. Scribner’s Monthly, Jan.
MELINE, Mary M.—Studies among the North American Indians. Catholic World,
May.
MILLER, O. D.—On the origin of the Egyptians and the Egyptian civilization. Am.
Antiquarian, iv, pp. 18-31.
Munro, W. F.—The backwoods of Ontario and the prairies of the Northwest. Lon-
don, Simpkin, 1881, 128 pp, 8vo.
NORDENSKJOLD, A. E.—The Voyage of the Vega around Asia and Europe, with an
Historical Review of Previous Journeys along the north coast of the Old World.
London: McMillan, 2 vols. (Rev.: Acad., Dec. 24, p. 465; Athen., Dec. 17, p.
807; Nature, Dec. 22.)
PETROFF, IvAN.—Population and resources of Alaska. A preliminary report for the
Census Bureau. 46th Cong., 3d session, Ex. Doc. No. 40.
PILLING, J. C.—The Pueblo Indians. Kansas City Rev., April.
Pinto, S—erRPA.—How I crossed Africa from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, &c.
Translated from the author’s manuscript by Alfred Elves. London: Sampson,
Low & Co., 1881. Maps & ill. 2 vols. Rev. in Nature, July 7, 1881.
How I crossed Africa: from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, through un-
known countries; Discovery of the great Zambesi affluents, &c. Phila., J. B. Lip--
pincott & Co., 1881. 2vols. 8vo. 132 ill. & maps. [Acad., May 21, June 11.}
Poo.et, D. C.—Among the Sioux of Dakota. N. York: D. Van Nostrand. 12mo.
ANTHROPOLOGY. 517
PUTNAM, FREDERICK W.—The Southern Californians. Wheeler’s U. S. Geog. Surv.
W. of 100th Merid., vii, pp. 1-30. [Mr. Putnam also edits the vol. ]
Rankin, M.—Twenty years among the Mexicans. Cincinnati, 1881. 233 pp. 12mo.
RAWLINSON, GEORGE.—The origin of nations, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
1 vol. 8vo.
RECLUS, Elisé.—The Zulu Kaffirs. International Rev., June.
REDHOUSE, J. W.—A theory of the chief human races of Europe and Asia. Tr. Roy.
Soe. of Literature, Lond., xii, pt. ii.
Royce, C. C.—An inquiry into the identity and history of the Shawnee Indians. Am.
Antiquarian, iii, pp, 177-189.
SEELY, J. H.—The British Race. Education, March-April.
ScuwatTKa, F.—In the land of the midnight sun. Good Company, June.
SHARPE, WM.—Cause of color among races, Boston: G. P. Putnam & Sons. 1 vol. 8vo.
SHarPE, W.—Causes of color among races, and the evolution of physical beauty.
New ed., N. Y., 1881. 16mo.
STEVENSON, Mrs. TiLtLty.—Znii and the Zunians. No imprint.
TuHEéBAUD, A. J.—Native tribes of North America and the Catholic missions. x. The
Hurons. Month., Jan.
Native tribes of North America and the Catholic Missions. . xi. Process of
conversion among the Hurons, etc. Month., July.
THOMPSON, G.—Notes on the Pueblos and their inhabitants. Wheeler’s U. 8. Geog.
Survey W. of 100th Merid., vii, pp. 319-326.
Tytor, E. B.—The races of mankind. Popular Se. Month., July.
VATTEMORE, H.—L’Amérique Septentrionale, et les Peaus Rouges, explorations, &c.
Paris: Hachette, 1881. 8vo. 224 pp.
VERNEAU, D. R.—The black races of Oceanica. Popular Sc. Month., April.
VircHow, R.—Eskimos von Labrador. Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop.,
Berlin, 1880. 1 pl.
WaLuLacr, SusaAN E.—In the land of the Pueblos. The Pimos. Good Company,
June.
WiEN—Die Indianer in Argentinien. Verhandl. d. Berliner Anthrop. Gesellsch, 1881,
p. 169.
Wrient, J. H.— The Indo-European Family: Itssubdivisions. New Englander, July.
VI.—GLOSSOLOGY.
ABBADIE, ANTOINE.—Dictionnaire de la langue amarififia, Paris: Vieweg. (Reviewed
in Academy, Oct. 8, 1881.)
ApaMm, L. and VY. Henry.—Arte y Vocabulario de la lingua chiquita, sacados de manu-
scritos ineditos del siglo xviii. Paris: Maisonneuve.
ApaM, L.—Les classifications de la Linguistique. Rev. de Linguistique, July, 52 pp.
ADAMS, F. G.—Phonetic representation of Indian languages. Tr. Kansas Acad. Sc.,
Topeka, 1881.
AVERY, JOHN.—Influence of the Aryans upon the aboriginal speech of India, Am.
Antiquarian, iii, pp. 236-243.
BaRaAGA, R. R. BisHop.—A dictionary of the Otchipwe language, explained in Eng-
lish. Part ii. Ochipwe-English. Montreal: Beauchemin & Valois, 1881. A
new edition by a missionary of the Oblates.
BEAUCHAMP, W.M.—The Indian prayer book. Church Eclectic, August.
BRINTON, DANIEL G.—Notes on the Codex Troano and Maya Chronology. Am, Na-
turalist, September, pp. 719-724.
CAMPBELL, JOHN.—The key to the Hittite inscriptions, or their decipherment by
means of the Mexican and Cypriote written characters. Proc. Soc. Bibl, Archzol.,
Lond., Dec.
—— The Davenport mound-builders’ inscriptions read by means of the Hittite
Syllabary. Tr. Davenport Acad., Iowa, 1881.
518 ANTHROPOLOGY.
CHARENCY, M. DE.—Mélanges sur la langue Basque; des couleurs symboliques con-
sidérées comme symboles des points de l’horizon chez les peuples du Nouveau-
Monde. Actes d.1. Soc. Philologique, tome viii.
COLLUDO, ANTONIO DE CORUNA Y.—Zoque, the language of Chiapas, translated by J. A
J. Dacus. Tr. Acad. Sc., St. Louis, iv, i, 6 pp. .
Crivavux, J., P. Sacot et L. ADAM.—Grammaires et vocabulaires arrouaque, piapoco.
et d’autres langues de Ja région des Guyanes. Paris: Maisonneuve.
EELLS, M.—The Twana language of Washington Territory. Am. Antiquarian, iii,
pp. 296-303.
Fiske, JOHN.—What we learn from old Aryan words. Atlantic Month., April.
The theory of a common origin of all languages. Atlantic Month., Nov.
GATSCHET, ALBERT S.—Classification into seven linguistic stocks of western Indian
dialects contained in 40 vocabularies. Wheeler’s U. 8. Geog. Survey W. 100th
Merid., vii, pp. 403-485. With copious notes.
Legends to illustrate the method of recording Indian languages. Ist An.
Rep. Bureau of Ethnol., Smithson. Inst., pp. 583-587.
Linguistic notes; The Taeansas; The Campos of Peru; Shoshoni dialects in
Southern California; Notes on the Iroquois; Names for mounds Malabanchia.
Am. Antiquarian, iv, pp. 73-77; Wandot, the Paez language. Am. Antiquarian,
iii, pp. 249-253; Shawnee, numeral classifiers in Maya, the Sarakhole, Khasia.
Am. Antiquarian, iii, pp. 337-338.
— Phonetics of the Kayome language. Science, Sept. 17.
Volk und Sprache der Timucua. Ztschr. d. Ethnol., Berlin, xiii, 189-200.
HorrMman, W. J.—On the interpretation of pictographs by the application of gesture
signs. Am. Assoc., Cincinnati.
HoLpEN, Epwarp 8.—Studies in Central American picture-writing. 1st An. Rep,
Bureau of Ethnol., Smithson. Inst., pp. 205-245, figs. 48-60.
The hieroglpyhs of Central America. Scribner’s Month., Dec.
LUBBOCK, JOHN.—Observations on ants, bees, and wasps; Power of communicating
something approaching language. Nature, Jan. 13,1881. 3 pp. reported in full.
LANGUAGES of India, with map. (Miss. Herald.) Am. Antiquarian, ili, 130.
MALLERY, GARRICK.—Sign language of the North American Indians compared with
that of other peoples’ and deaf mutes. 1st An. Rep. Bureau of Ethnol., Smithson.
Inst., pp. 263-552, figs. 61-346. (100 copies extracted and reprinted in pamphlet
form with original pagination.) '
The gesture speech of man. Chairman’s address before the subsection of
Anthropology, American Association, Cincinnati, Ohio, Aug., 1881. Salem, 33 pp.
McCurpy, JAMES F.—Aryo-Ternitic speech: A study in linguistic archeology. An-
dover, W. F. Draper. 176 pp. 8vo.
Relations of the Aryan and Semitic languages. Bibliotheca Sacra, Jan. 31
PowELL, J. W.—On the evolution of language, as exhibited in the specialization of
the grammatic processes, the differentiation of the parts of speech, and the inte-
gration of the sentence, from a study of the Indian languages. Ist An. Rep. Bu-
reau of Ethnol., Smithson. Inst., pp. 3-16.
Riaes, S. L.—The Dakota language. Am. Antiquarian, iii, pp. 243-244.
SmitTH, Mrs. ERMINNIE A.—Comparative differences in the Iroquois group of dialects.
Animal myths of the Iroquois.—Am. Assoc., Cincinnati.
Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge. London. The Book of Common
Prayer in Ojibway; also in Cree Syllabics; the Book of Common Prayer. (By the
Rey. J. Horden. )
TRUMBULL, J. HAMMOND.—Indian names of places, &c., in and on the borders of Con-
necticut, with interpretation of some of them. Hartford, Brown & Gross. 8yo.
93 pp.
ANTHROPOLOGY. 519
VII.—TECHNOLOGY.
Bricks and their historical interest. Van Nostrand’s Engin. Mag., Jan.
Burns, E. §8.—History of Chronology. No imprint.
CLARKE, C.—The mace and its use. Canadian Month., Aug.
F. P. T.—Ensayo sobre los simbolos cronogrdficos de los Mexicanos. Anales del
Museo Nacional de México, ii, 323-402.
Gun and its development, The. Army and Navy Jour., July 30.
HALBERT, H. S.—Muscogee fighting pits. Am. Antiquarian, iv, p. 64.
HALDEMAN, S. S.—Beads. Wheeler’s U. 8. Geog. Surv. W. of 100th Merid., vii, pp.
263-271, pl. xiii.
HENDERSON, JOHN G.—Agriculture and agricultural implements of the ancient in-
habitants of the Mississippi Valley. Am. Assoc., Cincinnati.
Houses of the ancient inhabitants of the Mississippi Valley; was the ante-
lope hunted by the Indians on the plains of Illinois? Ilex cassina, the black drink
of the Southern Indians. Am. Assoc., Cincinnati.
MW’GrE, W. J.—Inductive metrology. 8 pp. Reprint from Am. Antiquarian, iii, No.
3, p. 194.
MACLAGAN, General.—The Building Arts of India. Van Nostrand’s Engin. Mag.,
Aug.
MILLER, O. D.—Symbolical geography of the ancients. Am. Antiquarian, iii, pp.
307-319.
Morsz, E. 8.—Review of Audsley and Bowes’s Keramic Art of Japan. Publ. by Estes
& Lauriat. Am. Art Rev.
Morris, ALEXANDER.—The treaties of Canada with the Indians of Manitoba and the
northwest Territories, including the negotiations on which they were based, and
other information relating thereto. Toronto, Belfords, Clarke & Co., 1880. 1
vol. 12mo. 375 pp.
MorGANn, Lewis H.—Houses and house life of the American aborigines. Washing-
ton: Government Printing Office. Vol. iv, Powell’s Contributions to North
American Ethnology.
PEET, STEPHEN D.—The military architecture of the emblematic mound-builders.
Am, Antiquarian. :
Prehistoric architecture, life and manners, a survival of. Builder. April 30.
Putnam, IF. W.—American pottery. (Am. Art. Rev.) Ks. City Rey., March.
Were ancient copper implements hammered or moulded into shape? Kansas
City Rev., December. 1p.
Pueblo pottery. Fromthe Am. Art Rev., Feb., 1881. 4to. 4pp., 1pl.
REDDING, B. B.—California Indians and their food. The Californian, November.
Tattooing. Scientific News, Oct.
Tuomas, Cyrus.—An attempt to reconcile the differences between authorities with
reference to the Maya calendar and certain dates; also, to determine the age of
the manuscript Troano. Am. Naturalist, October, pp. 767-772.
TIBBALD, A. T.—Savage architecture. Builder, July 30, August 13.
Tuck, EpwarpD.—The art of founding in brass, copper, and bronze. Kansas City
Rey., November, 6 pp.; December, 8 pp.
Ty or, E. B.—Origin of the plow and wheel carriage. Pop. Sc. Month., Feb.
Savage architecture. Builder, July 30.
Sayce. A. H.—Horticulture in the time of Merodach-Baladan. Am. Antiquarian,
iii, 128.
ScHUMACHER, PauL.—The method of manufacturing soapstone pots. Wheeler’s U.S.
Geog. Surv. W. of 100th Merid., vii, pp. 117-121, figs. 39-41.
Sumonpbs, F. W.—Farm implements in an ancient mine in North Carolina. Am. Nat-
uralist, Jan., 5 pp.
Soxp1, Em1Le.—Les arts méconnus: Les caméos et les pierres gravées, l'art au moyen
Age, art persan, l’art Khmer, les arts du Pérou et du Mexique, l’art égyptien, les
arts industriels, les musées du Trocadero, ly. gr. in 8yo. 530 pp., 400 gravures.
520 ANTHROPOLOGY.
VIII.—SocioLoey.
ANDREWS, W.—Punishment in the olden time. 8vo. London. Athersum, June 4.
AVERY, JoHN.—Polyandry in India and Thibet. Am. Antiquarian, iv, pp. 48-53.
BANDELIER, A. F.—Historical introduction to studies among the Sedentary Indians
of New Mexico. 2. Report on the Ruins of Pecos. Papers of the Archeological
Institute of America. Boston: A. Williams & Co., 1 vol. 8vo. 135 pp., 11 plates. ©
BuTLER, JAMES D.—A Shakespeare among the Indians early in the history of the
West. Am. Antiquarian, vol. iii, 101-104.
CRAWFORD, T. P.—The dynasties of Berosus and of China compared with those of
Genesis. No date or imprint. ;
Datiy, E.—Causes of human degeneracy. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris, iv, 339,
1881.
DwicutT, H. O.—The family life of the Turks. Harper’s Mag., March. 6 pp.
DuGpALE, R. L.—Origin of crime in society. Atlantic Month., Oct., Dec.
FISKE, JOHN.—Sociology and hero-worship. An evolutionist’s reply to Dr. James.
Atlantic Month., Jan.
FIson, LORIMER, AND A. W. Howitt.—Kamilaroi and Kurnai. Group-marriage
and relationship, and marriage by elopement, drawn chiefly from the usage of
the Australian aborigines.. Also the Kurnai tribe, their customs in peace and
war. With an introduction by Lewis H. Morgan, LL.D. Melbourne: Robert-
son; London: Macmillan. [Reviewed in Academy and Athenzum, April 9, 1881.]
FLoweEr, W. H.—Fashion in Deformity, as illustrated in the customs of barbarous
and civilized nations. Nature Series, Macmillan, No. 26, Humboldt Library.
FoNTPERTUIS, A. DE.—Etudes sur Amérique latine; le Mexique. J. des Economistes,
March.
GEDDES, P.—Economics and statistics, viewed from the standpoint of the preliminary
sciences. Before section F, Brit. Assoc. Nature, Sept. 29, 1881, in full with tables.
Hae, Horatio.—A lawgiver of the stone age. Am. Assoc., Cincinnati.
Harsua, W. J.—The Indian question in the United States. Catholic Presbyterian,
April.
Indian question, Our. J. Mil. Service Inst., U.S., ii.
Indian policy, What shall be our? Army and Navy J., July 9.
LETOURNEAU, C.—Sociology based uponethnography. Translated by H. M. Trollope.
8vo. Library of Contemp. Science.
MITCHELL, ARTHUR.—The past in the present: What is civilization? New York:
Harper & Bros., 1881. lvol. 8vo. 362 pp.
MorsELLI, Henry.—Suicide: an essay on comparative moral statistics. International
Science Series. xxxii. London: C. Kegan Paul & Co. Nature, Dec. 29.
POWELL, J. W.—Wyandot Government. A short study of tribal society. 1st An.
Rep. Bureau of Ethnol., Smithson. Inst., pp. 59-69.
Pierce, M. P.—The Indian problem. Stoddart’s Rey., June.
PEET, S. D.—The tribal condition of the American races a clue to the condition of
society in prehistoric ages. Am. Antiquarian, iii, pp. 202-217.
RAWLINSON, G.—The prospective civilization of Africa. Princeton Rey., Sept.
‘Riaes, A. L.—Where shall our Indian brothers go to school? Jour. of Education,
Sept., Oct.
Concerning gentes and phratries. Am. Antiquarian, iv, pp. 63-64.
Royce, C. C.—Cessions of land by Indian tribes to the United States; illustrated by
those in the State of Indiana. ist An. Rep. Bureau Ethnol., Smithson. Inst., pp.
247-268. Map.
SavaGE, M. J.—Natural ethics. North Am. Rev., Sept.
Scuurz, C.—Present aspect of the Indian problem. North Am. Rev., July.
SmitH, M. C.—Training the Indians. Methodist Prot. Mag., July, Aug.
SPENCER, H.—Descriptive Sociology, or groups of sociological facts, classified and
arranged by H. Spencer; North and South American races, No.7. N. York, D.
Appleton & Co. folio.
ANTHROPOLOGY. | 521
— The development of political institutions:
III. Political integration. Pop. Se. Month., Jan.
IV. Political differentiation. id. Feb.
Y. Political forms and forces. id. March.
VI. Political heads, chiefs, &c. id. April.
VII. Compound political heads. id. June.
VIII. Consultative bodies. id. July.
IX. Representative bodies. id. September.
X. The militant type of society. id. October.
XI. The industrial type of society. id. November.
Voor, Carit.—Lingering barbarism. Pop. Sc. Month., March.
WARD, LESTER F.—Politico-social functions: A paper read before the Anthrop. Soc.
of Washington. Reprint from the Penn Monthly, May. 16 pp.
WEHLE, THEODORE.— Origin and history of life insurance. Pop. Sc. Month., Aug.
YarRROwW, H. C.—Medical facts relating to the Zuni Indians of New Mexico. Rocky
Mt. Med. Rey., Colorado Springs, 1880-81, i, pp. 192-194.
— A further contribution to the study of the mortuary customs of the North
American Indians. 1st An. Rep. Bureau of Ethnol., Smithson. Inst., pp. 87-203.
Figs. 1-47, in wood and on stone.
IX.—DAIMONOLOGY OR PNEUMATOLOGY.
ARGYLE, The Duke of.—The unity of nature. Contemp. Rey.:
VY. On the truthfulness of human knowledge, Jan.
VI. On the moral character of man, considered in the light of the unity of
nature, Feb.
VII. On the moral character of man, considered in the light of the unity of
nature, March.
VIII. The origin of religion, April.
IX. The origin of religion, considered in the light of the unity of nature,
May.
X. The origin of religion, considered in the light of the unity of nature,
June.
BaSssETT, F. S.—Superstitions and legends of the sea. United Service Mag., May, .
June, July, Novemb®.
BEAUCHAMP, W. M.—Indian missions of the colonial period. New York. Church
Eclectic, July.
BIGELOW, H. R.—Curiosities of superstition. Maryland Med. J., October.
BRINTON, DANIEL G.—The names of the Gods in the Kiche myths, Central America.
Read before the Am. Phil. Soc., Nov.4. Printed by McCalla & Stavely, Philad.
Budhist birth stories. [Rev.in Athen., June 18, 1881.]
Cox, GEORGE W.—Introduction to the study of mythology and folk-lore. N. Y.,
Henry Holt & Co. 369 pp. 12mo.
Cox, GEORGE.—Introduction to mythology and folk-lore. Kegan Paul, French & Co.
Rev. in Academy, Oct. 22, 1881.
Development of religion. Westminster Rey., July.
DORMAN, RusHToN M.—The origin of primitive superstitions, and their development
into the worship of spirits and the doctrine of spiritual agency among the aborig-
ines of America. Philadelphia and London, J. B. Lippincott & Co. [Rev. in
Academy, Nov. 5, 1831. ]
DorsEY, J. OWEN.—How the rabbit caught the sun in a trap; to illustrate the method
of recording Indian languages. 1st An. Rep. Bureau of Ethnol., Smithson. Inst.,
pp. 581-583.
— The young chief and the thunders; an Omaha myth. Am, Antiquarian, iil,
pp. 303-313.
522 ANTHROPOLOGY.
Dyer, T. F. T.—The will-o-wisp and folk-lore. (Gentleman’s Mag.) Popular Se.
Montb., May.
FISKE, JOHN.—What is mythology? Atlantic Month., July.
Folk-Lore.—A short review of the literature of. Atheneum, July 16, ’81.
GRINNELL, Dr. F.—The Sioux sun dance. Cincinnati Lancet, July.
Hence, F. H.—The philosophy of fetishism. Unitarian Rev., March.
HuBBARD, A. J. G.—Census of religions. XIXth Century, Jan. 14 pp.
Hyatt, F, E.—Lunar lore and portraiture. Pop. Se. Month., Aug.
KLETT, FRANCIS.—The cachina; a dance atthe Pueblo of Zuia. Wheeler’s U.S. Geog.
Surv. W. of 100th Merid., vii, pp. 332-336.
LEGGE, JAMES.—The religions of China: Confucianism and Taoism described and
compared with Christianity. N. York, Charles Scribner’s Sons. 12mo. 308 pp.
MILtER, O. D.—Solar symbolisms in the ancient religions, 2. Am. Antiquarian, iii, pp.
218-227.
POWELL, J. W.—Sketch of the mythology of the North American Indians. 1st An.
Rep. Bureau Ethnol., Smithson. Inst., pp. 19-56.
Riaas, 8S. R.—A dog’s revenge, illustrating the method of recording Indian languages.
1st An. Rep. Bureau of Ethnol. Washington,D.C. p.587.
SMITH, ERMINNIE C.—Myths of the Iroquois. Am. Antiquarian, iv, pp. 31-39.
W., M. E.—Tree and serpent worship. Western, Jan., Feb. 22 pp. ;
X.—HEXIOLOGY.
BucKELEY, S. B.—Climatic influences on mankind. Penn Month., Jan.
XI.—INSTRUMENTALITIES.
AMERICAN Association for theAdvancement of Science. See Dall, De Haas, Hale,
Henderson, Hoffman, Holbrook, Langdon, Mallery, Mason, McAdams, Morse, Peet,
Smith, Thomas.
AMERICAN Naturalist. Devoted to the natural sciences in their widest sense. Monthly.
[In addition to articles of the highest scientifie value, there is a department of
Anthropology for notes. ]
AMERICAN Oriental Society met in Boston, May 18, 1881.
ANNALES de démographie internationale. Ed. by Dr. Arthur Chervin, and published
quarterly by G. Masson, Paris.
ANNUAL Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to thBsecretary of the Interior
for the year 1880. Washington: Govt. Printing Office.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL Bibliography. Revue d’Anthropologie. Jan., 1882, pp. 187-192.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL materials in the Anatomical Museum of the Royal University at
Berlin. First part by Dr. G. Broesike. Archiv f. Anthrop., xiii, pt. 3, suppl.
pp. i-viii, 1-87.
ANALES del Museo Nacional de Mexico. Tomo li, entrega 4a-6a.
ANTIQUARY (The). A magazine devoted to the study of the past. London: Elliot
Stock, 62 Paternoster Row. iii-v,
ANTHROPOLOGICAL Society of Washington. Abstracts of Transactions, pub. by the
society, 1881.
ARCHZOLOGICAL Congress in Tiflis. Vth session of the Russian Archeological Con-
gress, September, 1881. Archiv f. Anthrop., xiii, pt. iv, pp. 520-522. (Nature,
Oct. 20.) :
ARCHZOLOGICAL Institute of America, 2d Annual Report. Cambridge: John Wil-
son. 49 pp., pamph.
ARCHAOLOGICAL Institute of America. American series1. Boston: A. Williams &
Co. See Baudelier.
Arcuiy fiir Anthropologie. Zeitschrift fiir Naturgeschichte und Urgeschichte des
Menschen. Organ der deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie und
Urgeschichte. Braunschweig: Vieweg u. Sohn.
——=
ANTHROPOLOGY. 523
ARCHIVIO per |’ anthropologia e la etnologia. Firenze. xii, 1880. Ed. Dr. Paolo
Mantegazza.
BaiRD, SPENCER F.— Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1880. Separate pam-
phlet giving account of work done in 1880.
BARBER, EDWin A.—Notes in the Am. Antiquarian. ivy, pp. 78-79.
BOEHMER, GEORGE H.— Index to papers on anthropology published by the Smithso-
nian Institution, 1847-1878. Reprint, 10 pp. Washington.
BULLETINS de la Société d’Anthropologie. 3d series commenced in 1878. 1 vol. a
year, quarterly. 10 frances. G. Masson, Paris.
BUTTERFIELD, C. W.—History of the Discovery of the Northwest in 1634; with a
sketch of the life of Jean Nicollet, the Discoverer. Cincin.: R. Clarke & Co.
12mo.
BayYE, J. DE.—Compte rendu du Congres international d’anthropologie et d’archéolo-
gie préhistorique de Lisbonne. Tours. 8vo.
CATALOGUE of Anthropological Literature. Archiv f. Anthrop., xiii, Supplement, pp.
1-143. (Most excellent, with short reviews of works.)
I. Archeology and Prehistory, by J. H. Miiller, 1-32.
II. Anatomie, by A. Ecker, 32-38.
III. Ethnography and Travels, &c., by Dr. Frederick Ratzel, 38-122.
IV. Zoology, by Dr. W. Branco, 123-end.
CATALOGUE Of American Anthropological Literature. Archiv fiir Anthrop., xiii, Sup-
plement, literature, pp. 108-114. (Prior to 1881.)
CARTAILHAC, E.—Congrés international @anthropologie et d’archéologie préhisto-
riques. Rapport sur la session de Lisbonne. Toulouse, 1881.
CHINESE Linguistic Study, The Progress of. Triibner’s Literary Record, vol. i, Nos. 11
and 12.
CLARKE, ROBERT, & Co.—The scientific, literary, social, art, and public educational
institutions and collections of Cincinnati and vicinity. Cincinnati, 33 pp. [Con-
tains the names of the largest private collections. ]
ConGREs et missions ethnographiques. Second session announced to be held at Ge-
neva, in April, 1882. American delegates, Prof. John T. Short, of Columbus, O.;
and Francis Parkman, of Boston, Mass.
ConerEs des Américanistes at Madrid, Sept. 26, 1881. [Rev. in Academy, Oct. 29,
Nov. 5.]
ConGREs international d’anthropologie et d’archéologie préhistoriques. Rapport sur
la session de Lisbonne, par E. Cartailhac. Toulouse, 1881. 8vo.
ConGRzs et missions ethnographiques, to be held in Geneva in 1882.
The labors of the congress will be divided into seven sections:
1. Ethnogeny: Origin and migration of races.
. Ethnology: Development of nations by environment, ete.
. Descriptive Ethnography: Description and classification of peoples.
. Theoretic Ethnography: The development of nationalities.
Ethic: Manners and customs of nations.
. Political Ethnography: Motives to national existence.
7. Ethnodicy: Comparative legislation. International law.
CONTINENTAL Literature in 1881. Athenwum, Dec., pp. 875-897.
DEUTSCHE anthropologische Gesellschaft. General meeting at Regensburg, 8-10 Au-
gust, 1881. Stenographic Report, in Correspondenz Blatt, vol. xii, No. 9, Septem-
ber, pp. 65-164,
DICTIONNAIRE des sciences anthropologiques. Part 1. A.A—Am., Paris.
DICTIONNAIRE des sciences anthropologiques; anatomie, craniologie, archéologie pré-
historique, ethnographie, démographie, langues, religions. Publié sous la direc-
tion de MM. Bertellon et al. Paris, 1881. 4to. Complete in 24 parts; price per part.
1 fr. 25.
D Nm
524 ANTHROPOLOGY.
EVANS, RICHARD STUART.—Translation from the Spanish of the account by the Pilot
Ferrel of the voyage of Cabrillo along the west coast of North America in 1542,
with introductory notes by H. W. Henshaw. Wheeler’s U.S. Geogr. Survey W.
of 100th Merid., vii, pp. 293-314.
Farr et al.—Report of the anthropometric committee. Rep. Brit. Assoc. London,
1880. xv, 120-159.
FIscHER, G. J.—Historical and bibliographical notes on Hippocrates. Ann. Anat. &
Surg., agente iii, 235; 283.
FLOWER, Prof. W. H.—Address before the Department of Anthropology. British Asso-
ciation. [Reported in Nature, Sept. 8, 1881.]
HERNANDEZ, MANUEL G. Or eoriens for the members of the fourth meeting of the
Congress of Americanists, at Madrid, Sept. 18-20, 1881.
INDEX Catalogue of the library of the Burconleanerals Office, U. S. A. ii. Ber-
leoz—Cholas. Washington: Government Printing Office. 4to. 990 pp. Introduc-
tion, with abbreviations of titles to medical periodicals, containing the following
titles useful to anthropologists: Bibliography, Biography, Biology, Blumenbach,
Brain, Broca, Burial, Cadaver, Camper, Cerebellum, Children. [This is the most
elaborate feat of classifying titles known to this editor. ]
INDEX of gynecological and obstetric literature of all countries for the year 1879.
Tr. Am. Gynec. Soc., 1880. Boston, 1881. v, 391-470.
INDEX MEpICcUS.—A stabi classified record of the current medical literature of the
world. Compiled under the supervision of Dr. John S. Billings, U.S. A., and Dr.
Robert Fletcher, M. R. C. 8. Eng. iii. N. York: F. Leypoldt. N. York.
INTERNATIONAL Congress of Prehistoric Anthropology and Archexology. Lisbon, 20-29
Sept., 1880. Account by Schaaffhausen. Archiv f. Anthrop., xiii, Sept., 100-120.
JoNES, JOHN P.—The Spanish Expedition to Missouri in 1719. Kansas City Rev.,
April. 6 pp.
Incidents of early travel in Missouri, id., May. 4 pp.
Kansas City Review of Science and Industry, Kansas City, Mo. Edited by Theo. S.
Case.
KraceEr, A. E.—Kant’s ‘‘Anthropology.” J. Speculative Philos., January (continued).
LANGDON, FRANK.—List of private collections in archeology and ethnology in Cin-
cinnati and vicinity. Published by R. Clarke & Co. in a pamphlet, describing
Cincinnati and its environs for the members of the Am. Association. August, 1881.
LUBBOCK, JOHN.—Presidential address before the British Association at York. Am.
J. Science, Oct.
The Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Condition of Man; Mental and
Social Condition of Savages. Newed.,ill. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 8vo.
Mason, Oris T.—Monthly notes on anthropology in the American Naturalist.
Progress of anthropology in America during the year 1880. Am. Naturalist,
August, pp. 616-625.
Memos (B. I.) Auteparypa pyccroii reorpasin, cTAaTNCTHRM MW 9THOrpain 9a 1878 rogs. [The
Literature of Russian Geography, Statistics, and Ethnography for 1878.] Pub-
lished in the noztctia [esvestia] of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society. St.
Petersburg, 1881.
MITTHEILUNGEN der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien. Fr. Witter von Hauer,
C. Langer, M. Much. Fr. Miiller, &c. Wien, 1880. ix.
PEABODY Museum, Fourteenth Annual Report of the Trustees of the. iii, No. 1.
Cambridge, 1881. 42 pp. 8vo.
PETERMANN’S Mittheilungen aus Justus Perthes Geographischer Anstalt. Dr. E. Behm.
[Publishes with each number valuable lists of anthropological works among the
geographical literature. ]
PILLING, JAMES C.—Catalogue of linguistic manuscripts in the library of the Bureau
of Ethnology. ist An. Rep. Bureau of Ethnol., Smithsonian Inst., pp. 553-577.
ANTHROPOLOGY. 525
PowELL, J. W.—First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-80. Washington: Government Printing Office.
4to. xxxv-603 pp., 346 figs. in wood and on stone.
On the limitations to the use of some anthropologic data. ist An. Rep. Bureau
of Ethnol., Smithson. Inst., pp. 73-86.
Putnam, F. W.—A course of lectures at the Peabody Museum of Archxology and Eth-
nology. Not published.
Recius, Exvishe.—The Earth and its Inhabitants. Edited by E. G. Ravenstein.
Published in 46 parts, five volumes. N. York: D. Appleton & Co.
QUATREFAGES, A. DE.—The Human Species. The International Scientific series. New
York: D. Appleton & Co. 12mo. 4928 pp.
REVUE @’Anthropologie. Ed. Paul Topinard. Quarterly, 25 francs. G. Masson,
Paris.
Ritcu, W. G.—Inaugural address as president of the Hist. Soc. of New Mexico. Santa
Fé, N. Mex.
SEMITIC literature in 1880. Athenzum, 1881, Jan. to June, pp. 459, 493, 592.
ScumipT, Em1L.—Mittheilungen aus der anthropologischen Literatur Amerikas. Ar-
chiv f. Anthrop., xiii, pt. iv, 485.
Supp, BARNARD.—The history of Hernando de Soto and Florida, &c. Phila., Collins.
8vo.
Societies, Museums, and Collections. Archiv f. Anthrop., xiii, supplement, Cata-
logue of Literature, pp. 39-40.
Sr. MarTIN, M. Vivien.—Nouveau dictionnaire de géographie universelle. 16th fas-
cicule. Paris: Hachette et Cie. 1881.
SCANDINAVIAN Anthropological Literature. Archiv f. Anthrop., xiii, supp., 81-96. By
Miss Julia Mestorf.
THWING, C. F.—The Peabody Museum of Archeology and Ethnology. Harper’s Mag.,
Oct.
TRANSACTIONS of the Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters. v. Madison,
Wis. [Covers work for five years, and contains many communications on au-
thropology. ]
Tytor, E. B.—Anthropology: An Introduction to the Study of Man and Civilization.
N. York: D. Appleton & Co. 1 vol., 448 pp., 78 ill., 12mo.
YaRROW, Dr. H. C.—Anthropological notes. Rocky Mt. Med. Rev., June, July. 3 pp.
Report on the operations of a special party for making ethnological researches
in the vicinity of Santa Barbara, Cal., with a short historical account of the region
explored. Wheeler’s U. S. Geog. Surv. W. of 100th Merid., vii, pp. 32-47.
ZEITSCHRIFT fiir Ethnologie. Organ der Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, &e.
R. Hartmann, R. Virchow, A. Voss. xii, 1880. pp. 1-332.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
ABORIGINAL WORKS AT THE MOUTH OF THE KLIKITAT
RIVER, WASHINGTON TERRITORY.
By T. M. Waitcoms.
The works represented in the accompanying sketch consist of a stone
wall 5 feet high, filled inside with earth, except the two squares within.
These are 8 feet deep and 15 feet on each side, the whole work being about
200 feet on either side. There was formerly some kind of wooden struct-
ure on the stone wall, as the remains of cedar timbers occur at certain
points on the top. The wooden work was evidently destroyed by fire,
since all the cedar is charred.
© Spring.
Ancient Works
' None of the Indians in this country have any knowledge of the build-
ers or of its use. There is a tradition among them that it was finished
a long time ago. Large quantities of arrow-heads are found in and
about the works. The place is eminently adapted for defense, being
100 feet above the river. The scarcity of aboriginal works of aperma-
nent character on the Pacific coast makes this an object of peculiar
interest to the archeologist.
os
528 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
MOUNDS NEAR EDWARDSVILLE, WYANDOTTE COUNTY,
KANSAS. , |
By E. F. Serviss, of Wyandotte City, Kansas.
On the farm of William Kouns, on the Kansas Pacific Railroad, near
Edwardsville, Wyandotte County, Kansas, 14 miles west of this city,
there are four mounds that have never been explored. They are situ-
ated on the third terrace of the valley of the Kansas River, about one-
half mile from it, pear a smallereek. There is a very large spring about
200 yards northeast, and a smaller one about 300 yards northwest. On
approaching the mounds from the east we find them extending in a
straight line in a due westerly direction. They are about 6 feet in
height, 25 feet in diameter, about 50 feet from each other at the base,
and vf uniform size. They have been somewhat injured by cultivation,
the ground having been plowed twice. The soil is a black loam. Be-
fore the clearing of the land the mounds were covered with a heavy
growth of timber, principally oak, and the stumps now remaining would
indicate great age, averaging from 3 to 4 feet in diameter. A large
number of axes, celts, arrow-heads, and other implements have been
found in the immediate vicinity of the mounds.
About two years ago I discovered on the farm of J. L. Stockton, t
mile northwest of this city, remains of an aboriginal workshop or village.
It is located on a small stream, called Jersey Creek, and near a large
spring. It covers an area of about 2 acres. The soil is sandy, and to
the depth of 2 feet is a complete mixture of flakes of flint, ashes, bones
(both animal and human), fragments of ornamented pottery, broken and
unfinished stone implements of nearly every description. The fragments
of pottery are the most numerous; there are three kinds as to color; viz,
black, brown, and red, composed of a mixture of clay, sand, and pounded
shells. The variety of the combinations of lines and dots is inexhausti-
ble. I have never found two pieces alike.
Judging from the degrees of curvature of the fragments, the original
vessels were mostly globular, and would hold from one-half pint to one
quart. I found avery small vessel, containing powdered bone or lime;
it was globular in shape, would hold about one gill, and was profusely
ornamented. There are no deposits of flint and other stone valuable
for arrow-making, &c., in this vicinity. The axes, celts, skin-dressers,
and balls are all made of porphyry, and the arrow-heads of flint.
ANTIQUITIES OF MILLS COUNTY, IOWA.
By SETH DEAN, of Glenwood, Iowa.
Mills County is located on the extreme western boundary of Iowa, and
is the second county from the southern boundary. Immediately prior
to its settlement by the whites it was the home of the Pottawatomie
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 529
Indians, numerous traces of whom may still be seen, but the two places
to which this article refers seem to have an earlier date. The sketch
marked No. 1 is a point in the southeast corner of the southwest quar-
ter section 8, township 73 north, range 43 west of the fifth principal
meridian, and on the lands now owned and cultivated by Mr. O. E.
Allis. Topographically considered it is located on a spur of the bluffs
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which form the eastern boundary of the great Missouri flood plain, and
is perhaps 50 feet above the level of the plain. The remains at present
consist of a number of circular depressions on the southwestern slope,
but near the summit of the aforesaid point of bluff. To the south
about 400 feet there is at present a deep ravine, from which flows an
excellent spring of water, while east and north the range of bluffs rise
to a height of 250 feet above the plain. The depressions are from 20 to
30 feet in diameter, of circular form, and at present are from 14 to 2 feet
deep, but as the ground has been in cultivation for a number of years,
it is probable that they have been filled up considerably.
The ground on the site and for some distance around these hollows
is strewn with small chips of stone and fragments of pottery, together
with occasional tools of various kinds, such as arrow-heads, knives, &c.
Also a number of pieces of different-colored paints and occasional orna-
S. Mis. 109 ——34
530 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
ments have been found. The inhabitants seem to have understood the
manufacture of pottery to some extent, as numero
The clay for this they obtained in the bank near at hand.
us fragments show.
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into shape, and probably the larger vessels were supported by wicker-
work made from small twigs, as there are numerous specimens which
seem to show such an arrangement, although no perfect vessels have
been found here, nor is it certain whether the vessels were baked in the
fire or not.
The writer thinks the inhabitants lived mostly upon the products
.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 531
from the water, as the shells of the fresh-water clam are numerous, and
were obtained from the Missouri River, which at that time probably
flowed along the foot of the bluff, at their very door.
The stone for their implements seems to have been obtained in part
from some ledges near here, and perhaps some of it from a distance, as
the finer and more perfect ef their tools were made from a kind not found
here, except in the form of pebbles or drift bowlders, all the native
stone being a carboniferous limestone, with the exception of a very
coarse fiint which is met with in some localities, and which was used for
the larger tools, but which apparently was not suitable for smaller im-
plements. Chalcedony seems to have been used by them to some extent,
as were other kinds of stone of which the writer does not know the
name. Some of these tools show superior skill, and have been appar-
ently first chipped into shape and then ground to a perfectly smooth
surface. This is the case with some hatchets which have been found,
also of a globular stone which the writer has in his collection, and which
was probably used as a sling-shot or for a similar purpose.
Sketch No. 2 shows the location of a peculiar mound, which is situated
on the summit of one of the highest of the range of bluffs which borders
the Missouri River flood plain. It is near the northwest corner of the
northwest quarter of the southeast quarter section 10, township 72
north, range 43 west of the fifth principal meridian, and is about 54 miles
south and 2 miles east from No. 1.
This bluff is nearly 300 feet above the lowlands, and overlooks the
country for many miles in every direction. The mound in question was
formed of the soil adjacent, and is at the present time about 8 feet in
height above the original surface. The base of the mound is elliptical
in form, being about 70 feet north and south, and 40 feet east and west.
The earth from which this mound was made was apparently taken
from a place 125 feet south, where a large depression exists, about
35 feet square, and at present 5 feet deep. There is the stump of
a burr-oak tree 16 inches in diameter standing near the northwest cor-
ner of the pit, on the edge of the slope of the bank ; also another burr-
oak stump 14 inches in diameter near the southeast corner, which is also
on the bank, but at the edge of the excavation. This mound was par-
tially opened some twenty-five years ago, but without yielding anything
of consequence. My note-book shows the followmg entry: “Opened
mound with 8. B. Proudfit, November 25, 1879, and dug a hole 6 feet
long and 4 feet wide. At 7 feet from the surface came to a layer of
ashes about one-half an inch thick, and below this a layer of stones.
These stones were from 2 to 11 inches thick and would probably weigh
from 20 to 30 pounds. They were evidently placed on what was the
original surface of the ground, and the ashes and earth placed above
them. The stones were probably brought from the Nebraska ‘side of
the Missouri River. About 4 miles directly west the characteristic
fossils in the stones indicate this. There did not seem to have been any
532 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
action of fire on the stones, so far as we could discover, neither were
there any bones or implements found in the mound, although we dug
down 3 feet below the layer of stone. There were a few chips of flint
found on the ground around the base of the mound, and a large stone
implement which the writer thinks may have been used for a hoe, but
belonged to a later tribe than the one which built the mound.” (See
Fig. 1.) Two cemeteries are also found in the county, but no examina-
tion has as yet been made.
DESCRIPTION OF MOUNDS AT SNAKE DEN, NEAR SALEM,
HENRY COUNTY, IOWA.
By W. VY. BANTA AND JOHN GARRETSON, of Salem, Iowa.
There are many unexplored mounds in Henry County, Iowa. The
group examined and here described are 3 miles west of Salem, in sec-
tion 22, on land owned by Mr. Joel Jones, at a place known as the Snake
Den.
1. The first one in the group is 8 feet high, and 20 feet in diameter. It
was opened by the authors, but nothing of value was discovered within.
A burr-oak 26 inches in diameter was growing on the summit. The land
slopes gradually westward to Little Cedar Creek.
2. Sixty feet from No. 1 occurs a burial mound nearly level with the
surrounding surface and 20 feet across. It is covered with flat rocks.
(A large quantity of bones of allsizes were encountered, but none of them
were whole, and some appear to have been burned.)
3. No. 3 is 60 feet from No. 2. It is 3 feet high. It was not very
thoroughly opened. In it was found one body, lying at length, between
flag-stones, the head toward the north. The bones were badly decayed.
4, This mound is the usual distance from the lastmentioned.* Indeed,
to avoid repetition, it is a remarkable fact that each of the mounds in
this row is just 60 feet from the preceding. This mound was 3 feet
high and 20 feet in diameter. It was but partially opened, and three
skeletons were found, badly decayed, lying at length, the heads to the
north.
5, The fifth mound in the series is 5 feet high and 20 feet in diameter.
The top was covered with smooth, flat rocks, arranged intheshape ofan
elongated hexagon or coffin lid, with stones set edgewise around the
border. Five feet beneath the top, that is, on a level with the natural
surface, two bodies were lying at full length, the heads toward the north.
6. The sixth mound was not opened. It is 30 feet in diameter and 5
feet high.
7. The next in order, No. 7, is also 5 feet high and 20 feet in diameter.
It was only partially explored, revealing afew human bones. On the
top there are two trees growing, one of them 2 feet in diameter.
8. No. 8 is 5 feet high and 30 feet in diameter. It had been opened
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 5303
previously to the visit of the authors. It is said to have contained a
stone vault, in which were discovered human. crania, &c. These were
very badly decayed. A sandstone mortar and arrow-points were also
found. The burial seems to have been in a sitting posture.
9. The first eight mounds are in a right line, but No. 9 is 60 feet east
of No. 8. It was 5 feet high, and yielded nothing upon exploration.
MOUNDS IN RALLS COUNTY, MISSOURI.
By GEORGE L. HARDY AND FRED. B. SCHEETZ, of Monroe, Mo.
The only ancient remains in Ralls County, so far as known to the
writers, are what are commonly called mounds. They are located on
Salt River, a western tributary of the Mississippi, passing through
townships 55 and 56, in ranges 5, 6, and 7 west of the fifth prime me-
ridian.
The mounds are invariably found within less than a mile of a stream
affording a permanent water supply. They are always in the bottoms
or on the crests of bluffs and ridges, bordered either by the streams or
the bottom lands, mostly by the latter.
It is impossible to state what changes have taken place in the course
of the streams since the erection of the mounds, but doubtless in
some places they have been very great. The growth of timber is uni-
versally the same on the mounds and in the surrounding forests.
Occasionally a single one is found, but they are almost invariably in
groups, numbering from 3 to 10, and sometimes more. Commonly they
follow the crest of the ridge, but when they occur in the bottoms or on
a level bluff they are found in direct lines or in gentle curves, extend-
ing generally east and west. They exist in large numbers in almost
every bottom and on nearly every bluff, on both sides of the river,
throughout the entire county, as well as on its branches near the main
stream.
The mounds are usually circular in ground plan, and rise above the
present level from 2 to 12 feet. They are composed either wholly of
earth, wholly of stone, or of the two combined. Where stone was used
at all, the plan seems to have been first’ to pave the natural surface
with flat stones in one or two thicknesses for a foundation. In one
case the stones were thrown together indiscriminately. Peculiar con-
structions will be more fully noted in the descriptions given below of
mounds examined by the present writers.
The stones were procured from the beds of the neighboring streams
or from beneath the bluffs. Rarely can it be determined whence the
earth was taken, there being only one example where there was any
indication of the removal of the earth in the vicinity.
534 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
Human remains are almost invariably met with, only one exception
being noted. The bones are generally very much decayed, though each
bone is found almost entire, except those of the head. This seems to
have always rested on a stone, and to have been covered by one or
more, so that it is always found in a crushed condition. In stature
the skeletons indicate a variation from 5 to 6 feet. No jaw-bone or
even a fragment of one has been found from which the teeth were
missing, and of the scores of teeth recovered there has been but one
decayed, a wisdom tooth still in place. The teeth invariably indicate
mature or advanced age. The human remains found in mounds con-
structed wholly of stone are generally much more decayed than those
in mounds of mixed material. In rare instances stone implements,
pipes, &e., are taken from the excavations, but these are more frequently
picked up on the surface at no great distance from the remains.
So far as known, no accounts have been published concerning these
mounds, nor have any systematic examinations been made.
As the stones used in their construction were of a kind useful to the
early settlers in walling up their wells, laying foundations, building
chimneys, &c., nearly all such material has been removed, so that it
is rare to find a mound that has not been disturbed to some extent,
Since all the bottom lands are now in cultivation, those in such loca-
tions have been plowed down for many years. But where they are
tolerably large and built principally of stone, as is generally the case,
they are still well defined. Those that are situated on timber lands
have the same growth of trees upon them as in the surrounding forests,
if they are composed wholly of earth. In some cases white-oaks 2 feet
in diameter or more are found on the very summit as well as on the
slopes. }
In the southeast quarter section 6, township 55, range 5, owned by
Mr. J. Brashear, on the right bank of Salt River, is a row of mounds
on the top of the bluff, which rises precipitously and then slopes back
to the interior. There are twelve of them, the three southern ones be-
ing in a cultivated field, the others in the native woods. They vary
in distance from 20 to 70 yards and in size from 20 to 50 feet in diam-
eter, and in height from 2 to 5 or 6 feet. Except the south one they
are of mixed material. That was wholly of stone, which was mainly
removed by Mr. Brashear some forty years ago, when he commenced
his improvements. He found in it a single human skeleton of large
size. The fourth from the south was examined by us a few weeks ago
by digging a ditch about 3 feet wide through its center. It is 58 feet
in base diameter, and at the center 54 feet above the general surface,
having several white oaks growing upon it as large as any in the
woods. The base was of flat limestone, thrown together without or-
der; above this a layer of earth, another of stone, and so on to the
top. No relics were found except a small fragment of pottery, a por-
tion of a globular-shaped vessel, the inside of which was coated with a,
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 535
greasy. soot, which smutted one’s hand like lamp smoke. This was
found about 3 feet below the surface. Many such fragments have been,
and some can still be; found on the field before spoken of. There was
no indication of any decayed substance anywhere to be detected, nor of
any action of fire, except on some of the limestones, which had evi-
dently occurred before they were placed in the mound. The earth in
this mound appears to have been taken from a portion of the field about
160 yards distant.
Southeast of the house of Mr. Robert M. Spalding,.in the southeast
quarter section 36, township 56, range 6, about 1 mile from the left bank
of the river is a row of mounds, the western one of which was composed
of stone of a pecuNar color, only found in the vicinity on the right bank
of the river at the distance of nearly 1 mile.
On the southeast quarter section 35, township 56, range 6, we opened
a mound, one of several on the top of the ridge. Cn the south side of
it the bed stone had been formed into a shallow trough. On removing
the flat stones which covered this, and which showed no action of fire,
we found a bed of charcoal several inches thick, both animal and vege-
table, and the limestone which composed it was burned completely
through. Some fragments of a human femur were found in a calcined
state. There was no indication of fire elsewhere in the mound, but there
were.the partial remains of several skeletons, lying in two layers, with
stone and earth between them. The implements marked with Mr. Spald-
ing’s initials were found in his vicinity, and are sent by him.
On the west half of the southwest quarter section 4, township 55, range
6 west, owned by Mr. Utterback, a row of mounds, four innumber, isfound,
commencing on the brow of the bluff and extending back in nearly a
westerly direction, in a slight curve for about 250 yards, at irregular dis-
tances. The eastern one is much the largest. The others are all in a
field which has been cultivated for thirty years. One was examined and
opened. Fragments of human bones were found on the surface, thrown
up by the plow. On the north and south sides single skeletons were
found, laid at length east and west, and between the two a confused mass
of bones, as though a number of bodies had been thrown together indis-
criminately. The diameter of this mound was about 30 feet, its height
about 24 feet above the general surface. It was composed of earth and
stones.
On the northeast corner of section 8, township 55, range 6 west,
owned now by W. Keithley, a mound was opened by one of the present
writers (G. L. H.) in 1853. It was on the brow of the bluff, about 50 feet
in base diameter, and at the center 5 to 6 feet high, and made wholly of
stone; near the middle lay a single skeleton, indicating a person 6 feet
4 inches in height. It was extended at full length, with head to the
west. A dry wall was laid up around the remains 14 feet high, and this
covered with large flat stone, on which the remainder were thrown in-
discriminately.
-
536 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
Near the northwest corner of section 18, township 55, range 6 west,
is an isolated conical bill, called the “Round Knob.” Its crest is a nar-
row ridge about 150 yards long, on which are four mounds. The north-
ern one was much the largest, and forty years ago portions of a dry
wall still were standing, 4 to 5 feet in height. Human remains were
found in all these mounds.
In section 24, northeast quarter, township 55, range 7, and on the oppo-
site side (the left) of the river, is a similar but smaller hill, called ‘ Wil-
son’s Knob.” Its crest is about 120 feet long, completely covered with
stone to the depth of several feet, the pile being about 20 feet wide. On
examination, made recently, it was found to have been originally a row of
burial-places, nine in number, circular in form, each from 8 to 9 feet in
diameter (inner measure), contiguous to each other. Theremains of the
walls still stand to the height of about 20 inches. Judging from appear-
ances, it would seem that each had been of a conical or dome-like form.
They were composed wholly of stone, and the remains found in them
were almost wholly decomposed.
On the top of an opposite ridge to the west is another row, four in
number, similar to those just described, except that the cists are square
instead of circular, the sides being equal to the diameter of the former.
In these also only small fragments of bones could be found. These
last have been examined within a few days.
On the left bank of the river, about 1 mile below the “Round Knob”
above referred to, are what are known as ‘‘The Painted Rocks,” a num-
ber of rough representations of the human figure, about 20 inches in
height. They are drawn on the face of the bluff, which overhangs so
as to afford almost complete protection from the weather. This bluff
rises 180 to 200 feet above the bed of the stream, and these drawings
are 60 or 70 feet below the top. At the foot of the bluff are large masses
of fallen rock and earth, filling up between the river and the bluff, and
rising within 30 feet of the drawings. The central human figure is
somewhat larger than the others, who are represented as approaching
him in Indian file.
A single mound was found on the northwest corner of the southwest
quarter section 12, township 55, range 7, on the point of a secondary
ridge, near a small northern tributary of Salt River. It contained two
skeletons, one with the head east, the other west. Beneath one of these
a trench had been dug and filled up with stone, on which flat stone had
been laid, and on which last the body had been placed.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 537
MOUNDS IN THE SOUTHERN PART OF PIKE COUNTY, MIS.
. SOURL.
By JosrepH C. WATKINS, of Ashley, Mo.
There are mounds inthis section known as ‘‘ Indian graves.” The time
of their construction antedates the settlement of this section by the
whites. Some of the oldest citizens suppose that the mounds were the
burial places of the Sacs and Foxes, but they say the mounds appeared
as old when they first came here, sixty years ago, as they do now. Ihave
found no one who ever saw or heard of the construction of one of these
mounds. There are no other indications of a former occupation of this
region by the aborigines that I have ever seen. The mounds visited
by me are located in the southern part of Pike County, Missouri, as
follows:
One mound on the land of L. M. Wells, southwest corner of the north-
west quarter section 34, township 52, range 3 west, about 14 miles south-
west of Ashley; one on what is known as the ‘‘ House Land,” about the
center of the southwest quarter section 28, township 52, range 3 west,
about 2 miles west-southwest of Ashley; one on the land of James Far-
quar, northwest corner of the northeast quarter of the northwest quar-
ter section 10, township 51, range 3 west; three on the land of HE. G.
Collins, near the southwest corner of section 16, and about 1 mile south-
east of New Hartford; two on the land of Benjamin Young, northwest
corner of the northwest quarter section 24, township 51, range 3 west;
three on the land of John Motley, near the southeast corner of section
24, township 51, range 3 west, and near the junction of the creeks North
Cuivre and Indian, and nearest the post-office of Louisville, Lincoln
County, Missouri; two on the Coperhaver farm (now occupied by Nune
Estis), about 24 miles south of Louisville, Lincoln County, Missouri.
All the mounds in question are situated on high points of land, form-
ing bluffs to the creeks Cuivre and Indian. At the foot of the blufis
are good springs. Back from the bluffs the surface is undulating and
tillable.
Three of the mounds are isolated, six in groups of threes, and four in
groups of twos. All the mounds are circular. They are composed of
soil and rock, some with the dirt and rock alternating, some of clay,
with vaults of rock in the center. In the center of some there are rect-
angular vaults containing remains and soil. The material was probably
obtained near by—the rock from the ravines and the soil from the banks
of the same. Eight of the mounds have been partially explored—all of
the Collins group, both of the Benjamin Young group, and Nos. 1 and
2 of the Motley group; also one of the isolated mounds on L. M. Wells’
land.
In No. 1 of the Collins group the remains of two skeletons were found,
with some fragments of pottery. In No. 2 of same, in a rectangular
538 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
vault, 4 by 5 feet, were found the remains of eight skeletons, with a few
pieces of pottery. In No. 3 of same, a vault made of flat rocks, in the
shape of a coffin, containing a few pieces of cranial bones, ¥ery much
decayed. In No. 2 of the Young group nothing was found. In No. 1
of samé, a large vault, the dimensions of which we did not have time
to determine, contained human remains, much decayed, among which
were found three flint arrow-heads, a small vessel molded of clay and
burnt, and a pipe carved out of steatite, having upon its front a figure-
head. In No. 1 of the Motley group bones were found, and among them
a piece of pottery which shows some attempt at ornamentation, and a
peculiar rock, oblate-ellipscidal in form, with depressions (central) on its
opposite sides. Around these depressions are 36 marks, arranged in
groups of threes. All seem to have been diminished in altitude by con-
tinued exposure to the elements.
Trees were growing upon all the mounds, but some of them have been
cleared... On the apex of No. 1 of the Motley group an oak tree had
grown 22 inches in diameter, but was blown down, and now lies in the
last stages of decay. Large oak and hickory trees have grown upon
the other mounds.
ANCIENT ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN JOHNSON COUNTY,
ARKANSAS.
By EDWARD GREEN, of Clarksville, Ark.
Five miles north of Clarksville, Johnson County, Arkansas, in section
7, township 10 north, range 23 west, is situated a cavern, or rock house,
as it is commonly called, rather remarkable for its shape and the inscrip-
tions on its walls. This cavern is in the southern side of a solid mass
of sandstone that crops out on the crest of a hill, which rises some 200
feet above a small stream that flows by its southern base.
The cavern presents the appearance of having been worn out by the
action of running water in some remote geological period, and in shape
approximates a quarter section of a sphere. It is about 50 feet wide,
25 feet deep, extending into the rock, and about 10 feet high.
A partition, or rather two pillars of rock, descending from the dome
or roof to the floor, divides the cavern into two chambers, of which the
western, or left-hand one as you enter, is three or four times as large as
the other. This partition divides the entrance into two semicircular
apertures, which, together with the high, bold, and retreating mass of
rock above, give it the appearance of an enormous skull buried to the
orbits in the earth. This, together with a peculiar resonance produced
whenever the floor is forcibly struck, must have caused this place to be
held in reverence and awe by the superstitious aborigines. The cavern
is somewhat difficult of access, and could have been easily defended in
time of war.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 539
On the walls of the larger chamber curious characters have been eut
into the rock to a depth varying from one-fourth to one-half inch, by
some blunt instrument in the hands of an unskillful sculptor.
Upon my last visit to this interesting spot, with the assistance of Mr.
C. E. Robinson, of Clarksville, Ark., 1 succeeded in tracing these char-
acters on paper, which I afterward reduced to one-sixth the size of the
originals, by means of the camera lucida, thus preserving their true
outlines and proportions ; a traced copy of which accompanies this ar-
ticle.
2
© f
on" Se
QYg-e
Fig. 1 represents hemispherical depressions or holes in the floor of
the cavern, near the left entrance and a few inches from the wall. They
are arranged in an are-shaped row, with concave side to the wall.
Tig. 2 and the first character in Fig. 3, which occur above Fig. 1, on
the wall, are incised circles, each 7 inches in diameter, and have each
a single ray pointing downward and to the right. The other character
of Fig. 3 consists of two concentric circles, the outer one measuring 54
inches in diameter, and the inner one 3 inches.
Vigs. 4,5, and 6 occur to the right and at about the same height as
Fig.3. Fig. 4 measures from top to bottom 114 inches; Fig. 5, 7 inches,
and Fig. 6, 23 inches.
e
NVa
Fig. 7 is a double character. The one on the left may represent the
antler of a stag, the other a bow. The whole figure from left to right
measures 234 inches.
Fig. 8isa rayed character with a circular body chiseled out to the
depth of the rays, viz, one-fourth inch. The body of this figure is 44
540 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
inches in diameter, and the length of its rays about 24 inches. One of
the rays connects with a similar but smaller figure.
Fig 9 is also a double figure ; the first character is like Fig. 8, but
larger and has one ray less. The body of this figure measures 74 inches
in diameter, and the length of the rays from 2 to 3 inches. The second
character represents some reptile, as the tortoise, and measures from
head to tip of tail 13 inches. The bodies of these figures, like Fig. 8,
are cut to the depth of one-fourth to one-half inch.
Fig. 10 is another double object and might have been intended by the
unskillful sculptor to represent a lizard with its prey or young. The
smaller figure is reversed. The larger figure, from head to tip of tail,
measures 15 inches; the smaller one, 7 inches.
To the right of the characters represented in Fig. 10 are two charac-
ters, Figs. 11 and 12, which are somewhat confused, and were difficult
to trace, as they are surrounded by a multitude of indistinct lines and
cuts. The sculptor had perhaps spoiled his figure and tried to obliter-
ate it.
Fig. 13 are small irregular depressions in the wall of the cavern, to
the right of the character represented by Fig. 14.
Fig. 14 is another reptile, with a peculiar swell on the neck and an
elongated head. The length of this figure, from head to tip of tail, is
193 inches.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 541
Figs. 15 and 16 occur still further to the right, and appear to be of a
more recent period, and cut with a better instrument or by a more
skillful sculptor.
In the rock floor of the smaller chamber is a round hole 19 inches in
depth and 74 inches in diameter at the top, and about 4 inches at the
bottom; probably used for a mortar by the ancient cave-dwellers.
On the roof or dome there are several figures, as represented by Fig.
17, that have been painted on the surface of the rock and are now faded
to a pale gray.
I found no spiral figures of any kind here, which occur so frequently
among inscriptions of this character in other localities.
No stone implements of any kind, except a few broken pieces of arrow-
heads, have been found in the vicinity of this cavern.
The sculptured characters here described are undoubtedly of ancient
origin, and the only ones that have been discovered in Johnson County.
However, I have been informed that similar inscriptions occur in New-
ton and Carroll Counties, of this State.
MOUNDS AND OTHER REMAINS IN INDEPENDENCE COUN-
TY, ARKANSAS.
By A. Jones, M. D., of Caddo Gap, Ark.
In the fork of White and Beach Rivers, Independence County, Arkan-
sas, is a collection of mounds 2 or 3 miles each way in extent. They
are 4 or 5 feet high, and laid out in rows in a semicircular form, about
6 miles above Jackson.
There is another group south of Suspension Rock, half a mile south,
laid out in the same way.
On section 17, township 5 south, range 21 west, are two mounds 7
or 8 feet high, sunken at the top. Near by are depressions whence the
earth for the mounds was taken. These have never been explored.
They are on a piece of upland that has been cultivated and each had
large trees growing on thesummit. They stand about 2 miles from the
Caddo River. There are two shell-beds near by, constructed of the com-
mon mussel, in which the coarse clay and shell pottery is found.
Four miles north of Amity, section 17, township 5 south, range 23
west, are several shell-heaps on a high and second bottom of the Caddo,
entirely above overflow.
Another mound is in the Caddo Cove, 2 miles west of Black Springs,
on the old Major Farr place, now owned by Dr. Gray. It is 5 feet high
and has been explored. A depression 80 yards distant is the only spot
in the vicinity whence the material of the tumulus could have been
derived.
There are several shell-beaps on a high table-land bordering on the
542 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
Washita, in this county, 4 miles southwest of Cedar Glades, on the land
of Robert Hansley. Fragments of pottery occur about the heaps.
The beds are 40 feet above high water, indicating that the shells mtst
have been carried to the spot.
On the south fork of Washita, section 24, township 2 south, range 26
west, near Mount Ida and at the upper ford of the creek, human remains,
partly washed out, were discovered. The bodies were buried in a recum-
bent posture, the head to the west. The bones were too friable for pre-
servation, the teeth alone remain firm. Forty years ago the ground was
covered with a dense growth of cane. The bottom is a high one and
above overflow. Many human remains have been plowed up in the
vicinity. The cemetery must be about 200 to 300 yards long, and 75
yards wide. Near by, running east and west, are severals small mounds,
in the largest of which a former owner, Mr. Powell, was buried.
Three miles east of this point, in a bottom-land owned by Reuben
McKenney, were plowed up the remains of a very large man. Pottery
has also been found in the same vicinity.
On section 9, township 4 south, range 24 west, is an outcrop of nova-
culite or flint of a very tough quality and of various colors. From
this material large quantities of arrow-heads, &c., have been formed.
The ancient artisans went down on the south side of the outcrop, which
is a ledge 700 or 800 feet above the adjacent valley, and carried away
immense quantities. The material is the same as that of arrow-heads
from Tennessee, Mississippi, and westward.
There is on Capt. R. S. Burk’s farm, section 17, township 5 south,
range 23 west, evidence of an extensive workshop in arrow-heads and
cutting implements. The arrow material was taken from the quarry
above described, although ten miles away. The cutting instruments
were of the hatchet kind and made from a species of iron ore. There is
another atelier near my home, section 7, township 4 south, range 24
west, Montgomery County, Arkansas.
MOUNDS NEAR THE NATIONAL HOME, MILWAUKEE
COUNTY, WISCONSIN.
By GEORGE W. BarBER, of the National Home, Wisconsin.
The mounds described in this paper are on land owned by Joseph
Carey, nearly opposite the Dewy place (adjoining John R. Goodrich’s
farm), now occupied by E. P. Bacon. They are about one mile west of
Milwaukee City limits, on the south side of National Home avenue,
and on the west side of the Trowbridge road. The two that have
been removed were upon land owned by William Trowbridge, lying
south of and adjoining Carey’s land. Two are in Wauwatosa town-
ship, two in Greenfield, and all are in Milwaukee County, Wisconsin.
They are situated upon a swell of land from 20 to 100 rods distant
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 543 _
from what was once a shallow pond or lake. The land occupied by the
lake has been partially drained within a few years, and is now a
meadow. The surface around the mounds is covered with soil from 12
to 18 inches deep, and might have been used for cultivation. William
S. Trowbridge and other old settlers have said that there are, or were
a few years ago, hilocks or marks of Indian cornfields in this vicinity,
and that they have seen Indian corn growing, planted by the Indians.
The land to the west has been partially drained. There is no apparent
arrangement of the materials. The center of the mound is not differ-
ent from other parts. The material was probably obtained around the
mound, as the soil is deeper under it than at its sides. All have been
explored. I have taken bones from two of them, and have been told
that pottery and bones were found in the other two. I have one good
skull from No. 2, and leg bones, vertebra, ribs, &c., from No.1. No
account of these mounds has ever been published, to my knowledge.
Nos. 3 and 4 have been entirely obliterated for purposes of cultivation.
No. 2 has been dug into. No. 1 is fast being undermined to obtain
gravel for the streets of Milwaukee. For two years past I have
watched with sad interest the destruction of this grand old monument
of a decayed race, and secured the bones as they were exposed. It
now presents a perpendicular section, running nearly through the cen-
ter, of which a photograph might easily be taken. A maple and a red-
oak tree grew upon the mound, each 18 inches in diameter. There are
two red-oak stumps within two or three rods of No. 1, 3 feet across the
shorter, and 34 feet across the longer diameter. Judging from the soil
around them, these trees must have grown since the mound was built.
I have counted the annual rings of growth of one, and found them to
number 155. I assisted in taking out of No. 1 the fragments of three
skulls, and other bones of three skeletons. The skulls, vertebra, and
hip-bones of each skeleton were on about the same level, and in a
space not more than 15 inches square. In one case the crown of the
skull was downward, and the top on a Jevel with the hip-bones. This
position at first puzzled me, but I suppose that the body was buried in
a sitting posture, and the superincumbent weight of the earth, as it
settled and the flesh decayed, turned the top of the head downward by
the side of the body, and it continued to descend until it reached the
level of the hips. The faces, judging from the position of the legs,
were toward the west. The bodies were not inclosed. One skull was
quite well preserved, but the other bones were considerably decayed.
544 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
EXPLORATIONS IN MOUNDS IN
WHITESIDES AND LA
SALLE COUNTIES, ILLINOIS.
By J. D. Moopy, Mendota, Ill.
The explorations noted in Plan J, were made at different times in
company with Dr. Everett, of Troy Grove, and Dr. Edwards, of Men-
dota, Ill. Those noted in Plan III, were made in company with Prof.
Wap ss MOSS
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Samuel Maxwell, of Lyndon, II.
The “find” noted in Plan II, was
made by some workman while digging for gravel.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 545
The location of Plan I is about 4 miles in a southeasterly direction
from the village of Troy Grove, La Salle County, Illinois. It is about
10 miles north of the village of Utica, on the Illinois River, near which
was situated the great town of the Illini Indians, famous in the early
history of Illinois.
All of the mounds discovered were situated on the bluffs on the
eastern side of Vermillion Creek, a small stream flowing into the Ili-
nois River. . '
No. 1 was a circular depression about 12 feet in diameter and 1 foot
deep at the center. On trenching it we found evidence of a long-con-
tinued fire-place in the baked clay, burned stones, and fragments of
charcoal, evidently the site of an Indian’s fireside.
No. 2 was a mound 15 feet in diameter and 4 feet high, occupying a
commanding position on a high bluff projecting out into the valley.
The view from this point is a fine one, commanding the valley for miles.
in either direction. On opening the mound we made the following dis-
coveries: In the center and just under the sod we found a great quan-
tity of burnt bones, human and animal,—the latter those of dogs or
wolves. From a careful examination of the fragments of skulls, we
determined the remains of nine individuals. There was no evidence of
fire in the soil. They had been placed there in comparatively recent
times after having been elsewhere cremated. Along with these bones
were found a few perfect arrow-points, numerous fragments, and a rude
stone pipe fashioned somewhat like a spool.
On digging deeper, just below the original surface of the ground, was
found a skeleton lying upon its back, with the feet toward the west.
It was of an individual of average height and advanced in years, as in-
dicated by the absorption of the alveoli and the angle of the inferior
maxillary. The arms were extended along the body. ‘The frontal de-
velopment of the skull was of a low order, more so than is found in the
Indian, and yet not so much so as is usually ascribed to the mound-
builder. This was the only burial in a horizontal position discovered
in this locality. A very careful examination of the soil about the head
and upper parts of the body failed to bring to light any relies what-
ever. The burial was in a compact dry clay, and the bones in a crumb-
ling condition.
No. 3 was a burial place on the point of the same bluff just spoken of.
Nothing but bones were found in it, the remains of several individuals.
One skull was taken out in good condition, lacking the inferior maxil-
lary. The bones still preserved quite a portion of the animal matter,
and indicated a comparatively late burial, presumably Indian.
No. 4 was a circular depression but a few feet in diameter, evidently,
from the burnt stones, being a fire-place.
No. 5 was a mound about 10 feet in diameter and 24 feet high. It
had been opened a short time before our visit and a few bones taken
S. Mis. 109-——35
546 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
out. From the description we received we could form no idea as to the
character of the interment. No implements of any kind were found.
No. 6, on a broad flat in the bend of the creek, is the remains of an
Indian encampment; numerous fire-places just beneath the surface of
the ground, broken flints, &c., being found.
No.7 is a group of three mounds. Having been plowed over for
years, they were nearly obliterated. The remains in mounds Db and ¢
were alike, each containing the bones of several individuals thrown in
promiscuously. They were not burned, yet each mound contained great
quantities of ashes and bits of charcoal. The bones crumbled on the
slightest touch, and presented the appearance of having been leached.
In mound a one skeleton in tolerable preservation was found. It had
been buried in a sitting posture. Near the head was found a large
mussel-shell filled with what appeared to be paint. A little to one side
and at bottom of excavation was an ash-pile with about one peck of
charcoal in the center of it. Neither ornaments nor implements were
found. This group was evidently Indian in origin.
No. 8 is a mound 35 feet in diameter and 5 feet high. Though reg-
ular in outline and occupying a commanding position, yet from our ex-
amination of its structure we considered its artificial origin as doubtful.
No. 9 is a mound 12 feet in diameter. In it was found one skeleton
very much decayed, and near the head a very rude earthern bowl, hold-
ing about one pint.
No other mounds are found in the vicinity. Scattered over the bluffs
and fiel@s are found quantities of broken pottery, arrow-points, flint
chippings, stone axes, &c. A copper spear-point was also found in the
vicinity. From my examination of them, I assign to them an origin
and date, with possibly the exception of the horizontal burial in No. 2,
as of the Illini Indians, and of about the beginning of the seventeenth
century.
Plan IJ is located 4 miles southwest of the city of La‘Salle, on Cedar
Creek, a small stream flowing into the Illinois River from the south.
There were three graves two and a half feet deep, on a gravel point
projecting out from the ridge. No mounds had been erected over them.
They were close together. They were discovered by some laborers
while digging for gravel. One of them, possessing a little curiosity,
gathered up the bones and relics. One body was deposited in each
grave, and in a recumbent position. The relics found consisted of sev-
eral simple, rude pipes cut from sandstone, a few shell beads, arrow-
points, and the fragments of a curious vase, holding, when reconstructed,
about four ounces,.and representing a man sitting on his knees, with
hands folded across the abdomen. The opening was at the back of the
head. It was composed of clay and powdered shells baked. The face
presents strongly-marked Aztec features, or possibly an exceptional
Indian countenance. The bones were very much decayed, with the ex-
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 547
ception of one side of one inferior maxillary. This was well preserved,
and stained a deep green color. Not understanding the import of this,
the laborers missed finding a copper implement of some kind. No other
remains were found in the vicinity.
J. Haver:
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Plan II.
Plan III is a singular group of mounds 3 miles from Spring Hill post-of-
fice, Whiteside County, Illinois. The bluffs along Rock River are covered
with mounds. This group, however, is on the alluvial bottom, about 30
rods from the river. Though there may be others on the lowlands, yet
these are the only ones I found so situated. This group is in a semi-
circular form, in quite regular lines, as will be seen by a reference to
the plan. They are on a plat of ground a little higher than the sur-
rounding level. They are surrounded on three sides by a slough, in
earlier times probably communicating with the river, and this may have
had some influence in shaping the crescent form of the arrangement.
However, being on the ground, the impression cannot be resisted that
there was some special design in the grouping.
While most of the mounds were round and of varying size, some of
them were long and narrow. The figures inside the circles indicate the
dimensions of the larger ones in paces (24 feet to the pace). Their rel-
548 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
ative sizes are preserved in the diagram. The ground is covered with
timber. A stump standing on one of the mounds indicated an age of
over two hundred years. The soil was a very hard, sandy clay. The
' Abas RE, pas ee
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Plan III.
space A of the diagram was inclosed and used as a hog-lot. None of
the mounds were over three feet high. Nos. 1, 5,4, and 7 were opened,
but nothing whatever was found. In No. 2 we found no bones, but
two rude vessels, holding about one quart each, made of clay and coarse
sand molded on the inside of a grass basket and then burned, as evi-
denced by the impressions of the grass on the outside. No. 3 contained
the remains of several individuals, lying side by side, but too badly de-
eayed to be preserved. No.6 had been bored through years before for
a well; quantities of broken bones were brought to the surface. Our
time did not allow of any further explorations. The regularity in the
arrangement of the mounds presented a weird appearance in the forest.
Some of the mounds on the bluffs opened at same time yielded the same
results. On one a white-oak tree, three feet in diameter, was growing.
Rude vessels and stone axes have been found in the neighboring mounds.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 549
ANTIQUITIES OF FOX RIVER VALLEY, LA SALLE COUNTY,
ILLINOIS.
By W. Herctror Gate, of Wedron, Til.
Having recently had the pleasure of examining a portion of the Fox
River Valley, about 8 miles from Ottowa, the capital of La Salle County,
Illinois, the author gives below the results of his investigations. The
valley abounds in picturesque scenery of rocky bluffs and wide, fertile
fields. The surface rocks are the Saint Peter’s sandstone and Trenton
limestone of the Lower Silurian. The drift in many places is 40 feet in
thickness, consisting of a bluish clay, very hard, which, when under-
mined, breaks into blocks with the regularity of stratified rocks.
The Fox River passes along the eastern side of the valley in this
locality, and is, in ordinary times, very shallow and rapid. The stream
has, in the remote past, covered the entire valley, about one-half a mile
in width. The ground is eminently historical as being the region which
was explored by those intrepid voyageurs, La Salle, Tonti, Marquette, and
Joliet, also the scene of the almost romantic extermination of the Ilinj
Indians by the Iroquois. Within a radius of a few miles, and especially
within this immediate locality, were enacted some of the most sanguin-
ary scenes of the Black Hawk war.
But relics of a still older people are unmistakably visible here. It
may be well to add that the course of the river here is from north to
south. Perpendicular bluffs, of Saint Peter’s sandstone, rise along the
eastern shore, which are washed by the waters of the Fox, even at low
water, while along the western side of the valley are sloping bluffs from
20 to 60 feet above the river. My experience during the late war teaches
me that, were an enemy expected from the south, this locality, on ac-
count of its natural advantages, would be fortified and made a very
strong place. It would seem that this fact was not lost sight of by the -
prehistoric inhabitants. On the west side of the valley, on a point of
the bluff highest above the valley, I find an earthwork commanding the
surrounding country, and facing toward the east and south. The bluffs
are divided from those south by the Indian Creek, which enters the Fox
about one-quarter of a mile distant, coming from the west, and has cut
out a valley from that direction. The general shape of the fortification
may be seen by an examination of Fig.1. The large mound at the cor-
ner is highest, rising some 5 feet above the natural surface of the ground.
Some time since, an excavation was made in the center of the mound,
and a few bones found, but they had perished to such a degree that it
would be impossible to describe any of its characteristics in an intelligi-
ble manner. On either side of the mound referred to is a smaller one,
about 2 feet in advance of the main line, giving a passageway, gate, 01
entrance on either side, yet not leaving space entirely open and unpro-
tected. In “the rear of the fort, Fig. 1, is a thick second growth of oak
\
550 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
and hickory. Immediately in front there are very few trees, but whether
they have been removed by the builders of the earthwork, by a more
modern race, or have never existed, I am unable to state. The valley,
Uj A HW Wy, Frehistoric Fort,
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before cultivation, was a succession of mounds, crowded closely together,
and the remains of many arestill plainly visible. Someof these have been
excavated, and in most cases found to contain skeletons, which, upon
being exposed to the air, rapidly crumble away. In some cases stone
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 551
axes made of syenitic rock were found, and in one instance two earthen
vessels or jars of rade workmanship. Across the river, in an easterly
direction from the fortification just described, is another fort, facing in
the same direction. This was surveyed by Col. D. F. Hitt, in 1877, and
from this I take the drawing (see Fig. 2). The sand-rock is from 385 to
40 feet perpendicular above the river, and on the eastern side of the
bluff is a ravine 65 feet deep, nearly vertical. The earthwork extends
from the bluffs on the river side to the bluffs on the western side of the
ravine.
By
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AMS
SS by Gale. Gibbs and Belrose
Fia. 2.
552 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
In my examination I discovered a mound about 80 rods south of the
fort which bore no evidence of ever having been disturbed, and, in com-
pany with Mr. J. I. Gibbs, of Vermont, and Thomas Belrose, of Wed-
ron, Lll., gentlemen interested in archeology, made an examination of its
contents. About 2 feet from the surface we discovered charcoal in quite
large quantities, and the skull, thigh bones, a fragment of the collar
bone, and one joint of the vertebra of what had once been a member
of the human family. Underneath was a number of granitic bowlders
of quite large size, placed in a circular form, inside of which was found
charcoal. Were I to give an opinion, I should say that the fact of find-
ing but a small portion of the skeleton and charcoal in so large quan-
tity is conclusive evidence to me of cremation. The skull was very
narrow, With arapidly sloping forehead, extremely heavy under jaw, and
large teeth. The skull retained its shape but a few moments, when it
crumbled in pieces. It was, when discovered, lying with the face nearly
downward, and the head to the east.
MOUNDS IN HENRY AND STARK COUNTIES, ILLINOIS.
By T. M. SHALLENBERGER, of Cambridge, Ill.
The locations of the mounds referred to in the title of this paper are
indicated on the two accompanying plats. The first gives an outline
of Henry and Stark Counties. The point marked A is 14 miles south-
west of Cambridge, aud is more fully illustrated in plat No. 2.
At B is a group of fourteen mounds, 1 mile east of Cambridge, still
unexplored.
In Peoria County, at the location marked C, is a large conical mound
on the river bottom, which was excavated by the writer, but nothing
of value was found, inasmuch as it had been previously opened. No
doubt a body had been interred in this mound, since the slab which had
Jain over it was still there, and the ground at the original surface was
burned hard. Two other flat stones close by had been probably taken
from the mound, there being no other stones in the mound which could
have been used to support the slab before mentioned. There are no
other mounds in the vicinity.
At D is a mound still unexplored. It is situated in West Jersey
Township, and is yet 4 feet high, although it has been cultivated for
several years.
The point marked E is a salt marsh, and would in all probability
yield relics of prehistoric salt works and mastodon bones. Fragments
of pottery have been discovered here already, but the exploration of
this spot would be attended with considerable expense.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 553
In the corporation of Toulon, marked F, from a very low mound were
taken two axes and some white flakes like enamel. Judging from the
deposits, as well as from the mold, a body had been interred here.
In the northeast of
Henry County, at a
point marked G, are
immense sand-hills
and swamps. The ,,
mound-builders evi-
|
!
dently made this a !
i | HENRY CO.
|
|
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rendezvous for game = CAMBRIDGE |
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and fish, the sand-
banks abounding in
all kinds of relics.
This is the Winne-
bago swamp, and
scattered through it
|
are many evidences of !
ancient inhabitants. — | Part of KNOX CO.
!
Edwards Pirer.
As mentioned above,
Plat No. 2 is in en-
FAL OMEND OL, POIMSA | 12 oo
in Plat. The mounds Pat No.l.
will be described in
the order of the numbers in the figure.
1, The mound was opened and a polished agate was found, about the
size and shape of a hen’s egg, but
more pointed. Both this mound
and No. 2 are still covered with
a") timber.
3. Nothing but ashes was found
in the bottom of this mound.
4. At the bottom, the stump of
a crab-apple tree was discovered,
which had been felled by a blunt-
~edged tool. Another tree had
grown on the surface of the mound,
and the roots completely sur-
rounded the ancient stump be-
neath. Another mound formerly
located at this point has since
a
Prat No.2. I MILE SQUARE.
now
my Tih)
AW ayo"
been obliterated.
5, 6, 7. Permission to open these could not be obtained.
All the mounds mentioned in this paper are about the same size, 30
feet across, and 24 feet high, and are built of material found on the spot.
The last named are on the land of Peter H. Nilson.
‘
5h4 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
4
ANTIQUITIES OF KNOX COUNTY, ILLINOIS.
By M. A. MCCLELLAND, of Knozville, Zl.
The drainage of the eastern and southern part of Knox County, Ili-
nois, is accomplished by numerous small streams navigable in the
spring forcanoes. Their general course is toward the southeast to empty
into Spoon River, a tributary of the Illinois. In the northwestern part
of the county numerous other small streams have their rise, and, run-
ning to the west, finally empty into the Mississippi. The portage be-
tween the headwaters of these streams is only a few miles in extent.
The trails anciently followed by the aborigines have now entirely dis-
appeared, but along their former course, and upon the bluffs of the
streams, are still found implements of war, amusement, and the chase.
The discoidal stone, stone hatchet, and arrow-points sent to the Nation-
al Museum were all found upon the north bluffs of Court Creek, prin-
cipally upon sections 13, 14, 15, 16, township 11 north, range 2 east,
Knox County, Illinois. The stone axes, and arrow-points came also
from these sections, except the largest, which came from Haw Creek,
section 3, township 10 north, range 2 east.
To all the interrogatories contained in circular No. 316 I return a
negative answer, except as to mounds and cemeteries.
Mounds and excavations.—No.1. One and a half miles west of Knoxville,
on section 30, township 11 north, range 2 east, Knox County, Illinois, on
the east side of a ravine running into Haw Creek, on a level piece of
timber land belonging to Harvey Montgomery, esq., is a single mound
51 feet in diameter, aud at the center about 3 feet above the general sur-
face. The trees upon this land are of two ages, viz, first, Jarge oaks, elm,
&e., 2 feet 8 inches in diameter, and a smaller growth, of black-jack,
and white oak, ash, hickory, &c., 6 to 8 inches in diameter. The mound
is surrounded by six or seven of these larger trees, one on the southwest
edge of the mound, the others, west, north, northeast, east, and south.
east, at variable distances, from 20 to 32 paces. Upon the mound there
are numerous trees, of from 5to 6 inches, growing. ‘There are very large
areas of ground in this same timber, in which the larger trees are very
sparsely scattered. The mound is circular in form, and 60 feet S. S. W.
is a circular pond or excavation, about 40 feet across, from which,
doubtless, much of the earth of whiclf the mound is composed was taken-
Within 60 feet of its western edge the ground begins to decline to form
the ravine which carries the water from the adjacent praries to Haw
Creek.
The mound had been dug into before, by whom I do not know, and
I think nothing was found—at least that is the report. I cleaned out
the former excavation, which was in the center, and about 4 feet across,
enlarging it to 6 feet, carrying it at least 2 feet deeper, or 24 feet below
eT
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 555
the general surface of the soil, and thence ran a trench 6 feet wide
towards the west 10 feet. The composition of the mound from surface
down was as follows: thin layer of humus; then yellow clay and humus
mixed, becoming more largely mixed with humus as it reached the level
of the surrounding country, this layer being 2 feet 10 inches; then a
thin, light colored layer one-half an inch to an inch in thickness, which
I suppose to be ashes of grass and leaves, as there was no sign of char-
coal in any part of the layer; then a layer of a few inches thickness,
similar to the surrounding soil; then a firm yellow clay, that had no
appearance of having ever been disturbed. The ash layer was under-
mined to the extent of two feet on each side. It was found to lie hori-
zontally and at about the level of the surrounding ground. Nothing
else was found.
No. 2, on the southeast quarter of the northeast quarter section 16,
township 11 north, range 2 east, Knox County, Illinois, is 36 feet across,
and on the east side of a ravine that runs into Court Creek from the north.
The land is lightly timbered. A quarter to a half a mile nearer Court
Creek, however, there are some fair-sized trees (2 feet). The ground
immediately surrounding has hazel brush and scrub oaks, black-jack,
&e.- In height the mound is similarto No. 1. Its envelopes are similar,
but the ash layer contains decided traces of charcoal. Nothing found
by a very positive excavation carried to the depth of 35 feet below
level of surrounding surface. In the fields around for a quarter of a
mile a great many arrow-points have been found. The twenty-eight
nearly or quite perfect oues sent in package to the National Museum
were found within this area.
To the north and a little to the east, about 100 rods, there is a very
high point of land, from the summit of which an extensive view may
be had of the surrounding country. This hill is and has been for thirty
or forty years under cultivation, and upon it arrow-points in large num-
bers have been found. There are places on it where the ground is white
with flakes and chips of the same material as the arrow-points. The
stone hatchet of Witterell’s collection was found about 40 rods east
of the top of the hill. Between this point and where the hatchet was
found, the old trail running from Maquon, on Spoon River, to Hender-
son Grove, on the head of Henderson Creek, was easily recognized thirty
years ago. Upon the eastern slope of this hill and upon both sides of
the old trail, and upon the south slope, towards the mound, are found
numerous deposits of small, mostly flat-faced stones. The stones are
found now but 2 or 5 inches beneath the surface. These are so placed
that their flat faces are on the same horizontal plane, and cover a space
of a foot or two, with intervals of a rod or two between them. Many
of them are reddish, as if some ore of iron might enter into their com-
position, which upon being heated had become changed to red. The
stones present other appearances of having been subjected to the in-
fluences of fire.
556 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
Trails.—Thirty years ago there were three distinct trails running
across the country. Oneran from Maquon, on Spoon River, to Hender-
son Grove; thence, in a northerly direction, to Galena, on the Mississippi.
Another from the mouth of Court Creek, on Spoon River, to the same
points. A third trail ran from Maquon north to strike the trail from
mouth of Court Creek to Henderson Grove. These two trails met in
township 11 north, range 3 east. Along these routes all the specimens
sent you were found. Maquon was an Indian settlement on Spoon
River. Here, within the memory of our oldest settlers, they had a vil-
lage, and lived from year to year. There is an old Indian cemetery at
this point and another at the mouth of Court Creek. Near the south
line of Knox County, half a mile west of Spoon River, there is a group
of three mounds, not yet examined, and half a mile further south, in
Fulton County, there is another group of three, none of which have been
explored.
DESCRIPTION OF A GROUP OF MOUNDS IN BUREAU
COUNTY, ILLINOIS.
By A. 8. Tirrany, of Davenport, Iowa.
The group of eight mounds described below and represented in the
accompanying plan is situated near Bureau, in Bureau County, Illinois,
on the bottom lands of the Illinois River and Bureau Creek.
The land on which they are located has been farmed about forty
years, and the smaller mounds have been considerably reduced. Num-
bers 1 to 3 are situated on a natural swell, and the diameters can be de-
termined only approximately. These three were explored by the writer
and Mr. Sale.
Dimensions and distances of the mounds.
4q
No. |Diameter | Height. Directions. Distance.
Feet. Inches. Feet.
1 50 30 | Wi 20° N. to No. 2... 90
2 50 30 | W. 20° N. to No. 3-..- 100
3 50 30 | W. 45° N. to No. 4... 120
4 70 36 | S.» 40°W. to No. 5... 185
5 80 48 | S. 26°W. to No. 6..- 240
6 70 42 |S. 25°W. to No. 7--- 240
a 90 66 | S. 25°W. to No. 8... 210
8 80 48
A rectangular opening, 7 feet square, was made in mound No.1. At
a depth of 15 inches a bed of ashes several inches in thickness was
reached, which extended in all directions beyond the opening. At a
depth of 5 feet a few bones, much decomposed, were found. They were
parts of two individuals. A small number of bone awls were lying near
them.
A slight dip in the floor of the mound was observed in the northeast
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 557
corner. The exploration was extended 9 feet further, making the entire
length of the opening 16 feet. The remains of two- individuals were
found with their heads toward the north. Under the head of the in-
dividual lying upon the west side was discovered a porphyry crescent-
Aeeries Mertere MWe Wrrare WUD. Derdian nyse ities, spree Wire. Mtrree Misr
Worse Wr Mido Wate Wayne Wire Medd tan, eae dden Waren, Wi + Mise Vile danreee ens
Wer ses W ir ire Witt Mitre Mirae tse dieser ms) Wy Vesste Pdrtese Mi rater Stserce stone
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SMP races Artes Mines Mri rene sarees Mise QB Mere ares tele Meise alee Morene | Mt reer
tnese, al tieeee MIR ey Witenes allizseee lepers Matec e Miler te here ee ieee e idee lara
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shaped implement of rare beauty. It is polished on both sides, and all
its edges are nicely wrought. The perforation does not extend through
the stone, being only .55 inchs in depth, but sufficient for mounting
A flint knife was deposited with the same individual, about where the
right hand would naturally be. :
At the northeast corner of this excavation, with some decomposed
bones of the other individual, a bone awl or needle was recovered, about
four inches in length, but a portion had been broken off. It was grace-
fully tapering and finely pointed.
A few pieces of pottery obtained were of the same character as that
which oceurs universally in this region. The crania were too fragile to
558 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
be saved. A few unio shells and water-worn pebbles had been deposi-
ted in different parts of the mound.
In mound No. 2 the skeleton of a youth, much decomposed, was all
that rewarded our labor.
In mound No.3 no human remains or objects of interest occurred.
The second group of mounds surveyed are situated on the bluff at
Bureau, Bureau County, Illinois. The measurements are given in the
accompanying table:
Ba
coo
& o
: : os
No. |Diameter.| Height. Angle. Se
ac_
285
fa) Cr
Feet. Inches. Feet.
1 18 18 | S. 20° av. to No.2. .- 18
2 21 30 os 33
3 21 20 120
4 30 40 50
5 30 36 130
6 21 18 250
7 30 30 150
8 36 36 735
9 24 30 39
10 21 15 30
11 25 12 24
12 24 24 66
13 27 2 49
14 30 24 30
15 24 30 30
16 25 20 5 45
17 24 20 57
18 27 SOILS: 200° Wie eee eee 30
19 18 TON Si QOS Wisstee soccer. 24
20 24 OF. | So 20CUR Ne ee ee eee 27
21 15 TO (SH200E ceo eenese 30
22 27 BSUS R40 Wie eke ec a ee 30
23 24 ASHES SQ0C Hi eee eran 24
24 24 ZEISS0O Wiceeeecee eas 78
25 20 QA. LOOM ees te cece sce to No. 25
*Explored; pebbles, cedar wood, decayed, and coal; one skull.
tOak stump; 160 annular rings.
{Oak stump; 450 annular rings.
§ Large white-oak tree.
MOUNDS IN SPOON RIVER VALLEY.
By W. H. Apams, of Peoria, Il.
On what is usually termed a hog-back, on the north side of the Spoon
River, 75 yards distant, 80 rods west of the east line and 20 rods south of
the north line of section 12, township 11 north, range 43 east of the fourth
principal meridian, is a round mound about 30 feet in diameter. Onthe
highest point of the hog-back, at the surface, is some evidence of fire.
The evidence of a former fire increases very rapidly. Ata depth of
from 12 to 16 inches five skeletons were found, of which nearly all the
bones were calcined, and many of them entirely consumed by the fire.
One of the skulls lay to the north, one to the northwest, one to the south-
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 559
west, one to the south, and one to the northeast. With the bones were
fragments of sandstone burned red; at or near each skull, and nearly
on a line between the point of the shoulder and ear, was a water-worn
00g
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Sy 4f:
ined
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pebble, except in one instance, and in that it was an angular piece of
flint. The pebbles had not been acted upon by the fire, so that they
must evidently have been placed there after the intense heat had sub-
560 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
sided. From the appearance of the earth one would be strongly in-
clined to believe that the fire in this instance had been one of unusual
intensity. From the position of the skulls with reference to one an-
other, the feet of one body would reach to the head of the next, if laid
at full length. One of the skulls was rather thinner than those we usu-
ally find in other mounds. Some of the teeth evidently belonged to a
person of great age, while others were very small, but I cannot say that
they belonged to an infant. The skulls were in fragments, the largest
piece obtained being about 2 inches square.
On another hog-back, east of the one described, commencing on sec-
tion 12, township 11, range 4 east, and extending across the northwest.
corner of section 7, township 11, range 5, and also some distance on
section 6, township il, are thirteen common round mounds, varying in
height from 18 inches to 5 feet. As far as examined these are burial
mounds, and nineteen skeletons were found in one of them. ‘This mound
was 45 feet: in diameter and 5 feet high. The bones in it were in a
fair state of preservation. I opened four or five of this group, and in
each were found pieces of trap-rock from 14 to 2 inches square, pieces
of burnt sand-rock, and small water-worn pebbles, which I suppose to
be jasper or something of that character, and in the largest mound was
discovered a very small fragment of red pottery.
On the high bluff between Spoon River and Walnut Creek, on the
south line of the southeast quarter section 6, township 11 north, range
56, are three mounds of some importance. The first is a common round
mound, 34 feet high, with a base diameter of 40 feet. This mound is
three rods north of the sectional line between sections 6 and 7, and 60
rods west of the east line of section 6. (The land is owned by Henry
Jaques.) I opened this mound at the apex, and at a depth of 2 feet
found quite an amount of ashes, also one piece of trap-rock of irregular
shape, and about the size of a small boy’s head ; also a honestone arrow
point of the leaf-shape pattern. Eight feet east of this is a mound 62
feet long and 19 feet wide, with the greatest length from southwest to
northeast. I made a cross cut of this mound at the middle, and in the
center found a bed of charcoal, 10 inches deep, intermingled with ashes.
I also made an opening near the east end and found nothing. Twenty
rods east of this, on the sectional line, is an oblong mound, measuring
64 feet from west to east, and 47 feet from north to south, with an ap-
parent height, above the surrounding level, of 3 feet. I made an
opening in the center of this mound, 44 feet in diameter, and at a depth
of 2 feet I found some ashes and fragments of stone which had been
polished, and 3 inches of yellow clay. This clay has the appearance of
having been rammed or packed whilein a plastic state. Below the clay
isa thin stratum of red paint, and below the paint were ashes and paint in-
termingled. Inthis material were found fourteen arrow points made of
honestone, all of the leaf pattern except one, and this was 34 inches long,
with notches at the base, and had 'the appearance of having been used;
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 561
also a small piece of galena was exhumed. There was a slight depres-
sion on the surface above the deposit. I made an opening 9 feet east
of the center, in which was obtained a copper awl or veedle 34 inches
long, and three-sixteenths of an inch square, thick in the middle, and
sharp pointed at each end. This copper implement was inclosed in
some material, which, under a microscope of low magnifying power, has
the appearance of being the bark ofa tree. This tool lay with the points
southwest and northeast. I also found a white-flint spear-point or lance-
head, 4 inches long and 14 inches wide, without notches at the base.
We found the flint implement about 10 inches southwest of the copper.
This was surrounded by the same red material as the first. We first
made an opening 14 feet west of the center of this mound, and at a
depth of 3 feet 8 inches we found one copper needle or awl, rounded and
pointed; three copper beads one-quarter of an inch in diameter and
three sixteenths of an inch in length; one piece of copper tubing or
bead 1 inch in length and one-quarter of an inch in diameter; one piece
of tubing or bead three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter and 1 inch in
length; one piece 13 inches in length and one-quarter of an inch in
diameter; and five other pieces very much like those described; also a
small fragment of a tooth supposed to be human, and several small flint
pebbles.
There are traces of a breastwork or fort, commencing at the south-
western part of this mound, about 6 to 12 inches in height. Commenc-
ing at the mound it extends southwest 120 feet, thence south 67 feet,
thence south-southeast 106 feet, thence to bluff of Spoon River 130 feet
(the bluff is 40 feet high), from the mound to the bluff in a straight
line southeast 186 feet.
All the arrow points were finely finished, and far superior to those
found on the surface of the ground. This mound is 42 rods west of
Spoon River. The bluffs here are composed of the usual yellow clay,
and contain very little sand. On the northeast corner of the northwest
quarter of the southeast quarter section 5 are three common round
mounds, standing in a triangular position to each other, with @
the largest to the north, the next:in size directly south of it, 3 %«
and the smallest to the east, somewhat like the following & °
figure: e
On or near the southwest corner of section 4, township 11 north of
the base line 5, east of the fourth principal meridian, are a series of
common round and long mounds of more importance than any other yet
discovered in this part of Illinois. (See Fig. 2.) Commencing at a
point near the foot of a long bluff sloping to the south, and 40 rods
north of the south line of section 4, and 10 rods east of the west line,
are three common round mounds. For convenience we have numbered
these, commencing with the most westerly. The distance is reckoned
from center to center of round mounds, and from end to end of long
mounds,
S. Mis. 109 -———36
562 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
From 1 to 2 is 39 feet from center to center, from 2 to 3 is 30 feet from
center to center, from 3 to 4 is 50 feet from center to center. This last
inound is 80 feet long, with a cross mound at the center 33 feet long, 2
feet high, and 10 feet wide. The principal mound is 15 feet wide.
/
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an
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See. 3. Sec. &.
ee ee ee ie a Se fionial = ea ee ee
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Vy (ie tg ples
antes I ae
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ETAT
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sql? Pie iq
aye |
wit (il? it | a Syl isy |
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= a he I UAE Ete eUleey oat \
eel Te I} | |! + | ‘, 3 '
Fig. 2,
a 4
a
From No. 4 to No. 5 is 123 feet. No.5 is a common round mound, 3
feet high, with a base diameter of 40 feet. No. 6 is 53 feet from No. 5,
98 feet long, 2 feet high, and 18 feet wide, with the greatest length from
===
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 563
southwestto northeast. No.7is 75 feet west-northwest of No.6,andis 104
feet long, 24 feet high, and 18 feet wide, with the greatest length from
southwest to northeast. No.8 is 100 feet from No. 7, and is 140 feet long,
3 feet high, 20 feet wide. Fifty feet from the south end of this is a
black-oak tree, 3 feet in diameter, standing in the middle of the mound.
(In accordance with the usual rule in this vicinity of computing sixteen
growths to the inch, measuring on one side of the center, this tree was
nearly three hundred years old.) This mound is 100 feet west of the
bluff of Spoon River. The bluff is 40 feet high at this place, and very
precipitous. In company with Mr. W. J. Morris, I made a cross cut in
this mound to the original soil. At every spadeful we would bring up
flint chips, and we found several pieces of trap-rock, some of them be-
ing polished on one side. Around the mound where the surface is bare
great quantities of flint chips are picked up. We made a slight exam-
ination of Nos. 6 and 7, and found nothing, excepting traces of ashes
and charcoal. On opening No. 3, at a depth of 2 feet, we found ashes;
at 24 feet, 6 to 8 inches of charcoal and ashes; at 3 feet, hard-packed
earth; at 3 feet 3 inches, two skeletons, all the bones very much de-
cayed, except the teeth, and these were not worn, showing the owners
to have been not over thirty years of age. We opened Nos. 1 and 2,
and found nothing. All the mounds appear to have been built at the
same time, by the same people.
Spoon River at this point is 100 feet wide. We found no depressions
whence the material of which these mounds are built was taken.
BURIED FLINTS IN CASS COUNTY, ILLINOIS.
By J. F. SNyDER, M. D., of Virginia, Ill.
Prof. Joseph Jones has well said that ‘the fabrics of a people unlock
their social history; they speak a language which is silent, but yet more
eloquent than the written page.”
To every thoughtful person there is a peculiar interest in the remains
of nations that have fulfilled their destiny, and passed away; and this
interest grows to fascination when studying the works of art, however
rude, of people who have disappeared, and left no other legible records
of their history and characteristics.
The origin and language of the prehistoric occupants of this region
may remain forever unknown to us, and their color and personal appear-
ance be only conjectured; but their implements, utensils, and ornaments,
which have escaped the ravages of time, when properly interpreted,
repeople our hills and prairies with their ancient inhabitants, and tell
us, in language as plain as the written page, the story of their domestic
pursuits and arts of life; of their customs, superstitions, and habits of
thought.
564 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
In this view it is important that all discoveries of the remains, either
of the works or the skeletons, of the aborigines, it matters not how in-
significant, apparently, or how similar in kind they may be, should be
carefully noted and accurately recorded, as each may possibly increase
in some particular our knowledge of the primitive American tribes, or
serve to confirm anew some fact of their history already known. Every
stone implement, shell or bone ornament, and earthen vessel recovered,
is a silent revelation of the past; and from this accumulated material
the restoration of ancient life upon this continent is becoming annually
more and more distinct.
It is well known to have been the custom of pre-Columbian Indians,
as of their descendants in later times, to hide in the ground, for security
until again wanted, stores of surplus provisions, and such implements
and other articles as were not immediately needed or easy of transpor-
tation. Many of these buried stores of perishable materials, forgotten,
or from other causes never recovered by their owners, soon totally dis-
appeared; but others, consisting of objects wrought in stone, bone, and
shell, are yet occasionally discovered in all parts of our country previ-
ously inhabited by the red race. These deposits are all full of interest,
and some are wonderful for the surprising numbers, or weird beauty of
design, or marvellous forms of the strange things they comprise.
Within the limits of this county two small subterranean long-hidden
stores of flint implements have been recovered by the plow during the
last two years. In the alluvial soil of Central Illinois, so destitute of
surface rock, a stone of any kind turned up by the plow is of so rare
occurrence as to at once attract the attention of any plowman, but un-
fortunately many valuable specimens so found excite but momentary
notice and are again lost.
In the spring of 1880, Mr. George W. Davis, an intelligent farmer
residing in Monroe precinct, 10 miles east of the Illinois River, when
plowing one day in a field that, until a few years ago, had been cov-
ered with a heavy growth of timber, observed in the furrow his plow had
just made a few sharp-pointed flints, and stopping his team to secure
them, he found on examination that they formed part of a deposit con-
sisting of thirty-two small implements, which had been carefully placed
in the ground, on edge, side by side, with their points toward the north.
They seem to have been buried near the foot of a large oak tree long
since prostrated and decayed. This spot was on the crest of the ridge
bounding the valley of Clear Creek on the south, and half a mile dis-
tant from a corresponding elevation on the north of the little stream,
known locally as ‘‘ Indian Hill,” so called because the skeletons of sev-
eral (supposed) Indians with stone implements, bone awls, glass beads,
&c., were some years ago disinterred there in the process of grading a
public road.
The thirty-two implements were presented to me by Mr. Davis.
With one exception they are made of a cherty, muddy-looking siliceous
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 565
stone, of grayish color streaked with white; a flinty formation occurring
in all lead-bearing strata of Illinois, and identical with the cherty nodules
and seams very common in the sub-earboniferous outcrops of the upper
Mississippi and southwest Missouri. They had been buried new, show-
ing no marks of having been used, and their peculiar style of workman-
ship and similarity of design leave but little doubt that they are the
product of the same artisan. The exceptional one in the deposit is a
well-proportioned and perfect spear point, nearly 3 inches in length,
neatly chipped from opaque, milk-white flint, strongly contrasting in
material, shape, and finish with the others, and evidently manufactured
by some other hand, perhaps in a different and remote workshop.
Fourteen of the lot are of the laurel leaf or lanceolate pattern, pointed
at one end and rounded at the other, with edges equally curved from
base to point, averaging three-eighths of an inch in thickness in the mid-
a
——
Fie. 1.
dle and evenly chipped to a cutting edge all around. They are uniform
in shape, but differ in size; the smallest measuring 23 inches in length
by 14 inch in width at the center; and the largest one is 6 inches long
and nearly 2 inches wide. These fourteen are of a type quite common in
all parts of the Mississippi Valley, and are supposed to have been used
as knives or ordinary cutting tools. In our collection are six of these
supposed knives, taken a few years ago from a deposit of over four hun-
dred in West Virginia, and very similar in material, pattern, and di-
mensions to the fourteen now before me.
The remaining seventeen are shaped alike, but also differ in size as
the first do, and are of the same average thickness. They too are sharp
pointed at one end, but in outline from base to point their sides are un-
566 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
equally convex, one being considerably curved and the other curved
but little from a straight line, giving them an ungainly and lop-sided
form. Their broad ends, originally rounded, probably, like the first
fourteen, have been chipped away on each side for half or three-fourths
of an inch from the extremity, forming a broad rudimentary shank. At
first glance these objects would readily be mistaken for unfinished awk-
wardly shaped spear-heads; but slight examination proves them to be
completed implements, all fashioned after exactly the same pattern, with
one end pointed, a greater convexity of one side than the other, and the
base which in the first fourteen is regularly rounded, in these has been
slightly cut away on each side, perhaps to facilitate their insertion in
some sort of handle. The greater rounding out of one side than the
other in all cannot be accidental, or due to want of skill in the workmen
who made them; and this odd design is not easily reconciled with the
ordinary forms and uses of spear points. Occasionally flint arrow-points
are found approximating this shape, one side from FOP,
point to shank describing a slightly curved or (f RC),
straight line with the other side regularly barbed, / NY Hi
or curved, as in the common types. In our collec- fi\ i We! | y\
tion are two specimens somewhat concavo-convex, a I BN “ip
or sickle-shaped. It has been gravely suggested pe Ny / Yi
that implements of this form were so made, and in- {7 \ iY] Mee
tended for use, exclusively for spearing and shoot- Gaz, , \ my i
ing fish, on the hypothesis that the greater weight " | Sg
of one side of the flint, or its irregular form, would S | Ny Wy, |
give the shaft to which it was attached, when We, \ 0 ”,
launched, a curved direction, thereby overcoming fe Yl Mes
the water’s refraction of the solar rays, and cause Za
the weapon to strike the real and not the appar- Fic. 3.
ent position of the fish aimed at. In order to test this idea I made sev-
eral experiments with the abnormally shaped flints. Securely fasten-
ing the one-barbed arrow-heads in straight, perfectly made arrows, I
shot them with a strong sinew-backed Indian bow, at marks in the
water and in the air, and found in every instance that the deformed
flint had not the least tendency to deflect the shaft from its direct
course. I then inserted some of the lop-sided implements from this.
Clear Creek deposit in light javelin shafts 5 feet or more long, and failed
to discover the slightest deviation of flight when thrown either with
much or little force in the air or in the water. The result of these ex-
periments led me to conclude that the one-barbed arrow-points are
merely weapons accidentally mutilated; and the most reasonable view
of all the flints in the deposit now under consideration, save the intru-
sive white spear-point, places them in the general class of common cut-
ting tools.
The second deposit of flints to which I have alluded was also turned
up by the plow, on the 28th of March of the present year (1882), on the:
Be a ey
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 567
southern border of this county, 26 miles east of the Illinois River. Its
location was on the brow of the hills overlooking Indian Creek to the
south, and in a field cultivated for the last ten years, but which had
been cleared from a dense growth of large forest trees. In this cache
were thirty-five elegant implements entirely different in form, material,
and finish, from those before described. Their position in the ground
was vertical and closely packed together, but otherwise without any
peculiar arrangement. Axes and other objects made of copper, buried
in the ground long ages ago by their rude owners, are now and then
found, in many instances still encased in shreds of coarsely woven fab-
rics in which they had been carefully wrapped; the preservation of the
matting or cloth being due to the salts of the decomposing metal. It
is probable that the articles in all minor deposits, as the two here de-
scribed, were also enveloped, when consigned to the safe keeping of the
earth, in bark cloth or dressed skins, which, in the absence of antiseptic
mineral oxides, have long since decayed without leaving a trace of their
presence.
The thirty-five beautiful flints of this Indian Creek deposit are the
perfection of ancient stone-chipping art. In form they are of the broad,
\ eS Ss
—~
Fie. 4.
or lilac-leaf pattern, pointed more or less obtusely at one end and
regularly semicircular at the other; the length but little exceeding the
width; scarcely more than three-eighths of an inch thick in the center;
they are smoothly chipped to an even sharp edge all around. They
vary a little in size and somewhat in proportions, in the greater number
the length exceeding the breadth by scarcely a third, while in a few,
approaching the lanceolate type, the length is twice that of the width.
The smallest of them is 3} inches long by 22 inches broad at the
base; and the largest one measures 5 inches in length and 3} inches
568 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
across the widest part. Six of them are made of mottled red and brown
glossy jasper, and the remaining twenty-six of ordinary white flint,
shading in texture from the compact translucent glassy, to the opaque
milk-white varieties. In one of the neatest and most perfectly propor-
tioned specimens the natural conchoidal fracture of the stone from which
it was struck gives one side its exact contour without aid of any chip-
ping. Inseveral are embedded fragments of fossil crinoidal stems around
which the siliceous atoms in solution or suspension first collected and
solidified to form the rock; and in six there remain near the edges
small patches of the buff, rind-like calcareo-siliceous outer coating of
the flint-nodules from which they were split, not entirely removed by
the process of manufacturing. The rounded edge of each is smooth and
worn, and the sides of some are gapped, testifying to long and hard
usage before their interment, and indicating conclusively that the broad
circular edge of the tool was the one chiefly used. There is no reason
to believe that these beautiful objects were used as weapons in any
manner. Their pointed ends may have been inserted in handles of some
description for convenience of manipulating them; but their crescent
edges, So similar to the half-moon knives of modern curriers and other
leather workers, forcibly suggest their use as skin-dressers. They are
too fragile to have been serviceable in the scraping work of canoe-mak-
ing, or in shaping any hard-wood or bone instruments; and could not
have so well preserved their fine edges as hand-used agricultural im-
plements, or clay-diggers for pottery making. Hence, I conclude that
they were the vade mecum of the squaws, and their chief reliance in all
their work requiring the aid of mechanical appliances.
INDIAN REMAINS IN CASS COUNTY, ILLINOIS.
By J. F. SNYDER, M. D., of Virginia, Ill.
Cass County fits into the angle formed by the confluence of the San-
gamon, flowing from the east, with the Illinois River in its course to
the Mississippi, a little west of the center of the State. Itis notin
tue “forks” of the two rivers, but the one sweeps its entire northern
border while the other bounds its limits on the west. Its topography
is identical in main features with the most part of the great undulating
prairie system of the State; and may be briefly described as a scope
of open rolling land, studded with groves and furrowed with creeks
and rivulets, and fringed all along its northern and western portions
with ranges of bluffs which form the boundaries of the river valleys.
Extending from the foot of these ranges of bluffs to the rivers lie the
rich alluvial ** bottoms” varying in width from 2 to7 miles. Viewed
from below the bluffs rise to the height of 150 feet in picturesque
grass-covered peaks and ridges separated from each other by deep
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 569
wooded glens and gorges; and the bottoms, gently declining from the
hills for half their width, are smooth as lawns, and now converted into
the finest farms in the State, then reaching a lower level as they near
the rivers, become heavily timbered and interspersed with numerous
lakes and sloughs. Nature was here lavish in its supplies of fish, game,
and wild fruits, and every condition necessary for the subsistence and
endurance of a large population was present. This beautiful and fer-
tile region, it is evident, was occupied by successive tribes from the ear-
liest times before our history began down to the peaceable expulsion of
the last of its dusky tenants, the Sacs and Foxes, during the adminis-
tration of General Jackson. In testimony of this faet we have the
relics of their remains, arts, and methods of life, which time has been
powerless to destroy, in great profusion and full of fascinating inter-
est. Of these silent records of a rapidly vanishing race the most im-
portant as well as the most legible are the earthen mounds which cover
the bones and dust of their dead. They crown all the peaks and
ridges of our blutts, a few rising to considerable proportions, but the
greater number are mere swellings of the surface not readily recog-
nized as being of artificial origin. Every gradation of mound struct-
ure is here present, from the stately tumulus 50 feet in height to the
broad, flat sepulchres so slightly elevated as to be scarcely noticed.
It would be useless labor and waste of time to attempt to locate on
a map the situation of each mound or group of mounds in Cass
County, and a tedious and unprofitable repetition to detail minutely
the examination of each separate mound. For brevity of description
they can readily be grouped in two or three classes, and the descrip-
tion of one will answer generally for all of its particular class. While
in all of them, so far explored, the inclosed bodies of the dead were
deposited on the surface of the ground, we find in some the _ posi-
tion and arrangement of the remains to have been different from that
found in others; from which we must infer that at times changes and
innovations in mortuary customs were introduced, perhaps by different
tribes who succeeded each other in occupancy of the country.
Of the first class of mounds, and by far the largest, and no doubt the
most ancient, but one has yet been opened, and, unfortunately, no one
versed or interested in ethnological study was present at the time to
collect and preserve the relics it disclosed, or make any record of them.
This mound, which I have before had occasion to mention,* formerly
stood immediately upon the bank of the Illinois River, within the pres-
ent limits of the city of Beardstown, 6 miles below the mouth of the San-
gamon. This locality is slightly more elevated than the surrounding
river bottoms on either side, and was anciently an island surrounded
on one side partly by the Illinois and on the other by a slough through
which the river had once passed and yet discharged its surplus water.
The island, on account of its peculiarly favorable position, had been for
*Smithsonian Annual Report for L876, p. 438
-
570 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
centuries a camping ground and stronghold of the aborigines. Geologi-
cally it, as well as most of the bottom, has a basis of loess or drift
clay with a superincumbent stratum of sand 5 to 10 feet in thickness.
All around the site of the mound the soil to the depth of 20 inches is
composed of the débris of old camps, a mixture of ashes, mussel shells,
bones of fishes and wild animals, charcoal, broken pottery, &c.; and
here hundreds of implements of stone, bone, and shell have been ob-
tained. The big mound is said, by persons who have often seen it
before the hand of vandalism desecrated it, to have been more than 30
feet high by 150 feet in diameter at the base. Its summit commanded
an uninterrupted view of the distant bluffs on both sides of the river
and of the stream itself for 2 or 3 miles above and below. We can easily
imagine the strange scene this great cone presented when it swarmed
one autumn day with an eager, startled multitude of wild, half-naked
barbarians gazing with astonishment at the sun-burnt, bearded faces
and tattered garments of Marquette and Joliet as they wearily paddled
their frail canoe up the quiet river at its base. More than thirty years
ago the city authorities of Beardstown commenced the destruction of this
splendid monument to utilize the clay of which it was composed for
covering the sand of their streets, and in a few years the grand struct-
ure was totally demolished. The mound was found to have been made,
on the sand, of clay taken from the bed of the river at low water or
brought from the bluffs; and it had been used as a burying ground by
people of different eras and races. Just below the surface the shallow
graves and well-preserved skeletons of recent Indians, buried with im-
plements of stone and iron and ornaments of glass and brass, were
Shoveled out; and a little deeper the spades uncovered the remains of
a few Europeans, deserters, perhaps, from the commands of Chevalier
La Salle or Lieutenant Tonti, who had found an asylum and graves
among the Indians of this distant wilderness. There was one of them,
however, whose mission in this part of the New World was widely dif-
ferent from that of his buried associates: the silver cross still grasped
by his skeleton hand, the Venetian beads about his waist that had
formed a rosary, and the ghastly skull still encircled by a thin band of
polished silver proclaimed that here a self-sacrificing disciple of Loyola
had expended life in the hopeless work of converting the heathen.
These intrusive burials passed, nothing more was discovered until the
original sandy surface of the island was reached, and what was there
deposited before the great mass of clay had been piled over it was cast
aside by the laborers without notice. From the street commissioner
who had the work in charge I gained the following meager account of
all that attracted his attention sufficient toimpress hismemory. Ranged
_along the middle of the structure was a parapet or wall, as he supposed,
of rough tlag-stones 30 inches high by 3 feet in breadth and 25 feet in
length, designed apparently by the ancient inhabitants as a breastwork
or rampart for the defense of their town from river approaches. But,
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. D571
on removing the stones, it was found that this work of defense was not
a solid wall, but a series of crypts or stone graves, constructed by plant-
ing broad, flat stones perpendicularly in the sand and covering them
with others of the same kind laid across them. These rude tombs were
entirely empty. Nota bone or tooth remained; so great was the lapse of
time since the bodies of the honored dead had been laid in these secure
vaults that not a vestige of them survived but blotches of dark dust
upon the yellow sand. On either side of the primitive coffins, but not
contiguous to them, were traces of fire, and with ashes and charcoal
were noticed calcined bones, small cubes of galena, and broken flints
and pottery. The destruction of the great mound yielded many rare
and fine implements and ornaments of stone and shell, which no one
thought to preserve; and no one thought to observe whether they had
been interred with the dead at the base of the tumulus or with those
buried upon its surface. Among the many relics unearthed, one par-
ticularly fine axe of polished stone is remembered, having a groove cut
around the middle and a cutting edge on each end; also three pestle-
shaped objects of beautifully polished porphyry 20 inches long, 23 or 3.
inches in diameter, rounded at one end and pointed at the other.
Seven miles east of Beardstown, up the Sangamon, and quite near it,
at Mound Lake, is a conspicuous landmark known as *“‘the Mound;” a
ridge-like elevation 40 feet high by 60 yards in width, and 400 feet in
length. This mound has never been explored, and may be of artificial
origin; but I am strongly inclined to regard it a natural formation (like
the great Cahokia mound and other similar elevations in the American
Bottom), merely an outlier of the loess or bluff formation left there in the
primal erosion of the river valley. It is situated in the edge of the tim-
ber, on the bank of a small lake, 3 miles from the bluffs, and in the midst
of the finest fishing and hunting district, even in this day, to be found
in Illinois. Whether or not the Indians raised this mound is a question
to be determined by future investigation, but there is no doubt of their
having used it as a place of resort and camping ground for a great
length of time. Although it has been in cultivation for many years,
traces of camp-fires are yet seen all over it, and its surface and the ad-
joining fields are yet littered with potsherds, flint chips, and decayed
bones and teeth of wild animals. One of the very few entire pieces of
pottery ever recovered in this county was plowed up with some human
bones on this mound in the early history of its cultivation. It was a
globular earthen vessel, 10 or 12 inches in diameter, marked externally
as usual with the impression of the fabric in which it was moulded or
sustained while drying. <A similar vessel, but smaller, was plowed up
unbroken in a field a few miles east of this place a few years later. At
a point about midway the lake-side base of the mound I discovered, some
years ago, the remains of a kiln in which the savages had burned their
pottery. It was an excavation in its side, almost circular and 4 feet
in diameter, an old-fashioned lime-kiln in miniature, with walls burned
572 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
as hard as a brick, and the bottom for the depth of a foot filled with
ashes, charcoal, and broken pottery.
Nine miles farther east, up the Sangamon Valley and near the bluffs,
is another large conical mound, 25 feet high, which has never been ex-
amined even superficially. These three mounds, assuming the latter
two to be the product of human agency, are all of the first class, and of
any class worthy the designation of mounds, found upon the river ter-
races or bottoms in the county.
The next class of mounds comprise those next largest in magnitude,
and are more numerous than the first. They are invariably perched
upon the peaks of the Sangamon bluffs, rarely exceeding 8 or 10 feet in
height by 20 to 30 in diameter, and are more frequently met of much
smaller dimensions. This class of mounds differs from all the others
in the peculiar disposition of the remains they inclose. Too few in num-
bers to constitute the sepulchers of a distinet tribe with an exclusive
burial custom, we must conclude that they cover the remains of a class
of individuals distinguished from the commonalty for superior ability
or merit. The mode of inhumaticn in mounds of this kind consisted in
placing the body or bodies (for they contain from one to six or eight
each) of the deceased upon the ground in a sitting or squatting posture,
with the face to the east, and inclosing them with a rudely-constructed
circular wall of rough, undressed stones, which was gradually contracted
at the top, and finally covered over with a single broad stone slab, over
all of which the earth was heaped. Though I have carefully examined
several of these mounds, I have not yet succeeded in securing from them
either an entire skull or earthen vessel, as their inclosed cairns are in-
variably found to have fallen in and crushed the bones and accompany-
ing pottery into a confused mass. Nor have I discovered in them cop-
per implements or pipes of any description, or any object of carved
stone; but only a few flint and bone implements, and broken pottery
without ornamentation and of very poor quality. Judging from every
indication, external and internal, I would conclude that the class of
earthworks under consideration were very old were it not for the sin-
gular fact that in one of them, a few years ago, the decayed bones of a
single individual were found, with a few flint arrow points, a small
earthen cup or vase, and an ivon gun-barrel very much corroded.
The next class of mounds in this county are so numerous and were
obviously constructed with so little care and labor that we must regard
them as the depositories or cemeteries of the common and untitled dead.
They are seen on every knob and ridge of the bluffs and on the hills
bordering all of our smaller streams. Seldom rising in elevation more
than a foot or two above the general surface, they frequently cover a
space of 10 or 15 yards in diameter, and we sometimes find eight or ten
of them in a row, along the crest of a ridge, separated from each other
by intervals of 10 or 15 yards; each containing the bones of a greater
or less number of individuals in different states of preservation. Their
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 573
repose is often rudely disturbed by the plow, and their human remains
scattered over the fields with broker pottery and occasionally flint im-
plements, stone axes, bone awls, and other relics. In many mounds of
this class the first step taken in the inhumation of the corpse or corpses
apparently was to scoop out from the soil a shallow, dish-like excava-
tion in which the body or bodies—generally several together—were de-
posited, sitting up with limbs flexed upon the breast; they were then
probably covered with bark or other perishable material, as no large
stones are ever encountered in these graves, and then covered with
earth. In some of them the bones of the dead, in extreme stages of de-
cay, are in great confusion and were buried without definite arrange-
ment or system, somewhat as was observed by Mr. Jefferson in a mound
which he describes in his “ Notes on Virginia,” indicating that in those
the skeletons of all members of the tribe who had died within a definite
period of time had been collected from the tree-scaffolds, or brought
from the tribal bone-house, as was witnessed by Bartram, and laid to-
gether in bundles and ‘covered with a great mount.” The chalk-like
softness of the bones in this class of mounds tends to confirm the first-
thought impression of high antiquity; but this fact alone cannot be re-
lied on as satisfactory proof of their age when we consider that the
covering of earth, perhaps not of great thickness at first, has been
washed down and thinned by rains, leaving the animal remains but
slightly protected from the decomposing agencies of water and frost.
In one instance unquestionabie evidence of comparatively recent origin
was presented. In cutting down a roadway through one of the Prairie
Creek ridges, since known as “Indian Hill,” in the southwestern part
of the county, a broad, low mound was removed and the skeletons of
several individuals exposed. With the mingled mass of bones thrown
out were found broken pottery, a few stone and bone implements, to-
gether with a quantity of glass beads and brass rings of European man-
ufacture. Resting in what remained of the hand of one of the female
skeletons was a beautiful pipe of polished serpentine in the perfect
form of a squatting frog, of life size, but instead of the usual flat, carved
base of the so-called ‘‘ mound pipes,” it had an aperture drilled to con-
nect with the bowl for the insertion of a cane or wooden stem. Some
time afterward, at the foot of this ridge, the plow turned up a single
skeleton from a mound so small as to have escaped previous notice;
and so far advanced in decay were the bones that it was with difficulty
I succeeded in partially restoring, by the aid of glue and plaster, the
skull and facial bones. The only relics found with this individual,
which I judged to have been a female, were a stone frog, probably un-
finished, larger than the natural maximum size, without perforations
of any kind, and a pipe, representing the head of a fox, both rudely
cut out of soft, coarse, yellow sandstone.
In all the interments I have heretofore mentioned the bodies of the
dead, so far as I could ascertain, had been primarily placed upon the
574 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
surface of the ground, or in shallow saucer-like depressions, in a sit-
ting or doubled-up posture; or the dry bones, after decomposition of
the flesh, had been gathered in bundles and placed on the ground in
piles, and the earth heaped over them in a conical mound of greater or
less magnitude. But in some, judging from the better state of preser-
vation of the inclosed remains to be of most recent construction, a dif-
ferent arrangement is observed. The buried skeletons are found on the
surface of the ground, but laid at full length on their backs, and sur-
rounded or inclosed with thin broad stones or sheets of bituminous
shale, stuck into the ground upright, and probably at the time of inter-
ment covered over with poles or bark before the earth was thrown on.
This change in disposing of the corpse for burial was, in my opinion, a
consequent innovation of the first contact with Europeans; and we
have convincing reasons for believing that the old practice of burying
the dead above ground in mounds of earth or stone prevailed generally
among our Indians down to their acquaintance with the whites. Here,
as elsewhere, we occasionally find the remains of Indians extended full
length in graves below the surface of the ground, unmarked by mound
or monument of any kind. These comparatively modern graves, copied
after those of the white intruders, are, like the mounds, invariably on
the high lands; and in many instances the crumbling chalk-like bones
ean only be identified as belonging to the red race by the implements
of stone or shell ornaments associated with them.
Upon the open prairies of Cass County neither mounds nor graves of
the pre-historic dead are ever found, and but few of their relics except-
ing flint weapons of the chase. The Indians no doubt hunted the deer
and buffalo and elk on our prairies, but neither lived nor buried their
dead there. Their cumping-grounds and villages were in the groves
along the streams and near springs, and they located their cemeteries
upon the adjacent bluits.
The southern line of this country in its entire length coincides very
nearly with a small stream, called Indian Creek, which drains the prai-
ries of a portion of Sangamon County, and, running almost directly
west, joins the Illinois ten miles below Beardstown. ‘This creek, too,
was the resort of the hunter tribes, and along its banks are still traces
of many of their camps and relies of their home life; and on the hills
overlooking its valley are the low mound graves of their dead. Ona
high terrace sloping down to the water of this little stream I discovered,
some time ago, the location of an ancient workshop for the manufacture
of flint implements. The ground for a considerable space was littered
with chips and nodules of flint and broken and unfinished arrow and
spear points; and scattered here and there were several water-worn
bowlders of granite and greenstone, brought from the drift clay of the
hills for use by the early artisans as anvils. In this débris a beautiful
polished celt of hematite and a few complete flint weapons have been
recovered, together with bone punches and awls, and quantities of
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 515
broken pottery, ashes, charcoal, and fragments of shells, bones, and
antlers of deer and elk. Only a few of the Indian Creek mounds have
been critically examined, but there is no reason for believing that they
differ in any essential characteristic with those of the Sangamon bluffs.
The remains of Indian art found in this country differ but little from
similar objects found in all parts of the Mississippi Valley. The race
inhabiting this locality before us left no specimen of their work indicat-
ing any expression of genius, or any marked degree of skill or proficiency
in the common arts of life. The pot-sherds seen in profusion about
their old camps and mounds are composed in the main of clay and lime
(calcined muscle-shells), but a large proportion were molded from clay
alone, and apparently formed parts of small rude ill-shaped and poorly
burned vases and cups. The best specimens are ornamented with im-
pressions of coarsely woven fabrics and bark of trees, curved lines, nobs,
and indentations, and the marks of finger-nails. In no instance has
there been noticed the slightest attempt to produce upon any piece of
pottery the representation of the human face or figure, or of any bird
or animal. But few of their earthen vessels have survived to the pres-
ent time; besides the two pots found unbroken, which I have before
described, not half a dozen have been secured entire in the whole
county.
I have not yet heard of an implement or ornament of copper having
been found among the mound remains of the county, and of hematite
only the small celt before mentioned ; two or three so-called ** plummets,”
several “paint rocks” (or burnt pieces), and some rough blocks of the
ore, constitute all of the relics of this material so farknown. Occasionally
with the bones of the dead are noticed small cubes of galena; and in our
collection is a ball of this ore, taken from a mound, weighing a pound
and two ounces, which probably did service, enveloped in raw hide, as
some form of weapon. No lead, however, has here ever been discovered
with any of the aboriginal remains. It is passing strange that the Illi-
nois Indians, so well acquainted with lead ore as we know them to have
been, should have never gained the knowledge of its fusibility and ready
reduction to metal. Plates of mica are of comparatively common oc-
eurrence in our mounds, and in many instances are found to have been
deposited upon the breast of the corpse. Inoneof thesmall ridge mounds
of the Sangamon bluffs a skeleton was uncovered having upon the de-
cayed sternum ten plates of mica uniformly cut to the dimensions of 9
inches -in length and 4 wide, with the corners neatly rounded. This
mineral is not found in situ in Illinois, and of course must have been
imported from a considerably remote distance.
Of marine shells no entire specimen of the conch, or Cassis, or Lycoty-
pus, has been seen in the old graves of our country; but small ornaments
and beads made of the columellas and broken pieces of large sea-shells
are quite frequently found. In ourcollection is anecklace comprising 178
pieces of conch shell—each perforated in the center and presenting all
576 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
stages of finish, from the rough angular sections two or more inches
Square, to the round polished complete dise two or three lines in thick-
ness and from half an inch to an inch in diameter—which a short time
ago was turned out of a low mound by the plow, with the skull and cer-
vical vertebrae of a female skeleton. In another low mound on the bluffs
the plow threw out, with a mass of chalky bones, a pint of small sea-
shells (Marginella apicina), each pierced at the shoulder for the recep-
tion of a string to suspend them about the neck or hair. These beauti-
ful little shells are often found in our mounds, and must have been in
general use for personal adornment, or asa medium of exchange in the
primitive system of commerce and trade. The valves of several species
of fresh-water mollusks, especially of the Unios and Anodontas, were
utilized as spoons and knives, and used for digging in sandy soil. Rarely
we meet with ornaments cut from them. The hypothesis that our river
mollusks constituted a part of the food-supply of the Illinois Indians is
not sustained by the presence on our streams of shell heaps of any ex-
tent. Fish and game were abundant enough for subsistence at all times,
and muscles were in this latitude evidently not considered a luxury.
The long bones of the deer, turkey, &c., were here as elsewhere fash-
ioned into awls, needles, fish-hooks, and punches, and made to do service
as handles for stone-tools and domestic utensils. The only ornament of
bone (if it was an ornament) the county has yet produced is a broad,
flat rib from the carapace of a very large snapping turtle, perforated
at each end and ground smooth and polished all over.
Of objects carved in stone but few, besides the specimens I have specif-
ically mentioned, have come to light in this county. Of pipes, a small
‘*mound” pipe from Beardstown and the frog (of serpertine) are the only
fine specimens known. In our collection are the fox-head pipe and seyv-
eral coarse, heavy affairs, without beauty or symmetry, which were un-
doubtedly used for smoking tobacco; and pipes made of clay and burnt
are not uncommon. These latter objects were perhaps manufactured
after the arts of the whites had been learned, as they are fashioned in
the exact shape of common English clay pipes; at any rate, their resem-
blance to the imported article is so striking as to place their claim to
high antiquity in serious doubt. As a rule, the objects carved in stone
by the stone-age denizens of this region, exhibit such flagrant deficiency
of taste or talent in design, and such low order of skill in execution,
that we must conclude the few elaborate and finely-finished specimens
now and then discovered here are importations from a distance, secured
either by barter or reprisals in war, and were made by a people of higher
intelligence and advancements in the arts. Of these exotic relics the
porphyry “ pestles,” the ‘‘ mound,” and serpentine pipes, the perforated
weapon of ribbon slate, a discoidal stone of milky quartz, and one of
those beautiful perforated “‘ ceremonial ” stones of rosy, variegated, trans-
lucent quartz now in our collection, constitute all of that class known
within the limits of the coanty. Agricultural flint implements, com-
~~
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 577
prising spades and hoes, are not uncommon in the rich loamy terraces
of our rivers, but are generally inferior in size and workmanship to
those met with in that portion of Saint Clair and Madison counties
known as the American Bottom. The spades are smaller and ruder,
and the hoes are plain and without notches for fastening them to hand-
les. Thebroad hornstone disks, discovered some years ago buried in the
sand a short distance above the large Beardstown mound, and which
I have described in a previous paper,* are supposed by some archol-
ogists to have been intended for agricultural tools, though never intro-
duced in general use. Of this however we have no positive evidence,
and until our knowledge of this class of relics is increased, we must
regard that strange deposit as an unsolved mystery.
Celts and grooved axes of granite and Various augitic rocks, of all
sizes and many patterns, have been, and still are, abundant here. The
largest grooved ax in our collection weighs twelve and a half pounds;
the smallest, one and ahalf ounces. Our largest celt, cut from a coarse-
grained diorite, weighs eleven pounds; and the smallest, obviously a
child’s toy, weighs scarcely half anounce. Flint arrow and spear points,
knives, scrapers, and hatchets of the usual forms have been collected in
Cass County in great profusion. Hammer-stones, nut-stones, discoidal
stones, perforated “talismans” or “arrow straighteners” of ribbon-slate,
of basalt, and of fossil wood; stone-balls, plain and grooved; in short,
all of the ordinary types of rough and polished stone implements in use
by the pre-metal Indian tribes have been and still are often found about
our streams and bluffs.
The archeological remains of which I have so far briefly treated are not
peculiar to this county or to any circumscribed locality, but are common
in all those portions of Illinois and of almost all of the Western, Middle,
and Southern States contiguous to water-courses, where the aborigines,
with identical habits of life and by identical methods, obtained, with little
effort, their food-supplies. And the comprehensive generalization which
I have attempted of the antiquities observed here will, with trifling
variations and additions, apply equally well to those of other counties
and States.
I have yet to mention, however, one object recently discovered in this
vicinity, of rare occurrence in the prehistoric remains of this State, be-
longing to aclass so suggestive of savage, ethnic characteristics as to
incite interest and thoughtful study. On the crest of one of the highest
and most prominent points of the Sangamon bluffs, jutting out from
the range into the valley, a promontory, conspicuous for many miles in
all directions, was one of the common oval swellings of the surface,
usually known here as an “Indian grave,” but so overgrown with
bushes and weeds and tall grass as to have required close inspection to
distinguish it from the natural contour of the hill. The owner of the
land, having occasion to build a pasture-fence over this point, set a
Smithsonian Annual Report for 1876, p. 438 et seq.
S. Mis. 109
9
v
578 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
laborer to digging holes for the fence-posts; but when the work had
progressed as far as the “‘ grave,” the spade barely penetrated the sod
at its edge, when it came in contact with a stone, which proved, on re-
moving the soil covering it, to be a rough, flat sandstone flag, nearly
square, 3 inches thick and 18 or 20 inches broad. It was thrown aside,
and the fence completed. Some time afterwards, on learning that such
a stone was found on this point, I concluded to explore the place with
the hope of securing a skull or other relic of interest which it may have
covered. Investigation soon convinced me that it had not formed any
part of the covering of a grave, but had been laid flat on the bare ground.
Carefully removing the bushes and earth in which they grew, other
similar stones were uncovered, forming together a rude floor or pave-
ment 12 feet in length by 8 in width, somewhat dish-shaped, the center
being gracually depressed 10 inches below the edges. The stone first
discovered had formed one of the corners of this curious structure. The
long axis of the work coincided with the strike of the ridge, exactly
north and south; and the flags of which it was made had been carried
up from an outcrop of carboniferous sandstone a mile and a half distant,
and were rough and uncut, but fitted together with surprising accuracy.
They were reddened and cracked, apparently by long continued heat,
and the interstices between them were compactly filled with fine
ashes. Upon this pavement or “altar” was a mass of ashes, per-
haps a foot thick in the middle, and a little more than filling to a
level its basin-like concavity. On the surface of this ash-bed I col-
lected fragments of charred bones, constituting parts of three adult
human skeletons, among which were considerable portions of three
lower jaws, with teeth intact, large pieces of six femurs and pelvic
bones, the occipital protuberances of three crania, some bodies of ver-
tebra, and many small pieces so burned as to be unrecognizable. The
fire which consumed these three skeletons had been smothered be-
fore it was exhausted, and while yet glowing, as many large pieces of
charcoal were mingled with the bones, and the superincumbent earth in
contact with the fire was reddened and partially baked. Interspersed
throughout the mass of ashes filling the basin were many small
pieces of bone and teeth converted into animal charcoal, and bits of flint,
perhaps weapons, shivered and broken by the fierce heat of the pyre.
I also observed many minute scales of burnt mica and shell, but found
no part of any pipe or other object carved in stone, or of pottery. The
mound inclosing this weird “sacrificial altar,” after the washing of rains
and beating of storms for centuries unnumbered, measured but little
more than 2 feet high by 20 in diameter. The cracked and fire-scarred
stones and great quantity of ashes without charcoal, mingled through-
out with fragments of calcined bones, considered in connection with the’
prominent situation of the ‘‘altar,” in full view of the valley below and
of the highlands around for miles, seem to support the inference that
here, at stated times, for a long period, had been practiced the burning
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 579
of human bodies; or that the remains of a great number of individuals
had at one time been consumed until, with the three last victims, the
fire was suddenly extinguished by heaping over the seething mass the
earth that was to keep the story for the coming of another race. We
are warranted in believing that all tribes of Indians inhabiting this
great valley, from the remotest times, executed by burning certain cap-
tives taken in battle; but we have no evidence that dish-shaped plat-
forms of stone were constructed especially for that purpose. The
simpler method of securing the doomed wretch to a stake or tree and
there slowly roasting him amidst the wild jeers and exultations of the
captors is far more consonant with well-known Indian nature and
usages. But for the absence of collateral testimony the hypothesis that
so-called “altars” of this class were made for the purpose of incinerating,
at stated periods, the remains of the dead of the entire tribe, collected
for such disposal from tree-scaffolds or bone-houses, would present many
elements of plausibility. It is possible that a single tribe may have so
cremated the skeletons of their deceased kinsmen before making their
voluntary or compulsory exodus from this locality; but observed facts
fail to sustain the idea that such a mortuary custom prevailed here
generally at any time or among any people. We have the authority of
La Hontan that the Indians of the Lower Mississippi “ burnt their dead,
keeping the bodies until they had accumulated” sufficiently in num-
bers for the grand ceremony, which was performed in certain places
remote from their villages. But Du Pratz, whose opportunities for
observation and sources of information were equal if not superior to his,
positively asserts that ‘‘ none of the nations of Louisiana were acquainted
with the custom of burning their dead.” Had this custom been in vogue
to any considerable extent or for any considerable period of time it is
plain that cinerary altars would be numerous and sepulchral mounds -
exceptional. In Cass County and the State of Illinois, so far as my
knowledge extends, this strange monument is unique and without par-
allel among thousands of Indian mound-graves, a mystic expression, it
may be, of religious fervor or superstitious frenzy.
The intrinsic evidence of many prehistoric remains of this county
sustains their claim to extreme antiquity, but no work or specimen of
art of a former race has yet been found here above the capacity or
achievement of the typical North American Indian. And in studying
the life, habits, and burial customs indicated by these relies, I can see
no necessity for ascribing them to the agency of a distinct or superior
race, when they express so unmistakably the known status of Indian
intellect.
580 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
ANTIQUITIES OF JACKSON COUNTY, ILLINOIS.
By G. H. Frencnu, of Carbondale, Ill.
Among the many objects attesting that Southern Illinois is part of
a region once inhabited by a race of people about whom comparatively
little beyond conjecture is known, the various mounds and cairns form
a conspicuous part. The exploration of one of these structures was
the subject of two visits by Dr. E. B. Chapin, a resident of this place,
and myself on the 3d of April and the 3d of June, 1878. The mound
is situated on the farm of E. M. Norbury, about 3 miles south of
here, and is about 40 rods west from the Ilinois Central Railrcad, on
a hill that forms a spur from a comparatively level area of land back
a little from a creek on the south, and just in the edge of a piece of
second-growth oak timber. Situated as it was on the point of this
hill, it was difficult to judge at first of either its height above the nat-
ural ground or of its size; but subsequent examination showed that it
was, in its highest part, about 3 feet above the original ground, and it
appeared to be 25 or 50 feet in diameter. We found, however, that in-
side these limits was a series of stones that seemed to have been placed
around the base of the mound to hold the dirt in position as it was
heaped up, and as the elements in time had removed the dirt from the
higher parts and spread it around and beyond these stones they had
become partly or wholly covered up, while the extent of the structure
was increased. If this theory is correct, and the position of the con-
tents of the mound seemed to indicate that it is, the mound was origi-
nally oval or nearly oblong, and measured 12 by 15 feet in its shortest
and longest diameters.
For 2 or 3 rods to the south and for 20 or more rods to the north and
northwest, chips of flint were abundant, both mingled with the soil and
on its top. The same soil and flints mixed with broken bits of pottery
formed the general substance of the mound. These seemed to indicate
that the immediate vicinity had been the site of an Indian workshop
and perhaps camping ground. In the time when this ground was
covered with the primeval forest the small branches only a few rods
to the east and west would have afforded them water most of the
year, if this locality ever formed a permanent place of abode; while the
creek, from 50 to 80 rods to the south, would be the unfailing source
when the heats of summer had dried up the others. Several other facts
seemed to point to this as having been for them a central position.
Across the ereek, that is to the south, and 80 or more rods on the other
side, in a southwesterly direction, was a stone mound that we also ex-
plored, but found no remains of any character either in or about it.
It seemed to be simply a monument of direction as much as anything we
could discover, an irregular cairn of stones in such a position that the
natural contour of the land would indicate there might have been here
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 581
a trail, but all other marks are now obliterated. Still further to the
south, but whose exact position I did not learn, are several other mounds,
which I think have been more or less explored. To the southeast, at a
distance of 5 or 6 miles, is a structure known now as “Stone Fort,” that
is supposed to have been constructed by the Indians, and probably for
defensive purposes. This is, or evidently has been, a wall across the
neck of a projecting point of rocks, though it is now but a long pile of
stone as though a wall had been demolished. Northwest from this
mound, some 12 or 15 miles west of Carbondale, are other mounds, while
north or northwest of these are others, as though forming a line with
those that have been found within the vicinity of East Saint Louis and
Alton. All these facts seem to bear more or less directly on the idea
that at some time this locality had been a place of general work and
resort.
The central part of the mound had been more or less disturbed on
top by having been a place where brush and other refuse had been
burned, and where hogs had lain and rooted, but it was claimed by Mr.
Norbury, the owner of the place, that other than this it had not been
disturbed. As intimated before, the mound was composed of the nat-
ural black surface soil of the place mingled with chips of flint and broken
pieces of pottery, the latter red, the flint of a blue kind, and in all shapes
and sizes, but we found no arrow-heads or other implements of the same
kind of stone. We found only one arrow-head, and that was of white
flint, regular lanceolate shape and about 3 inches long. The pieces of
pottery were all small and of irregular shapes. The only implement
found, other than the arrow-head, was a thong-gauge, about 3 inches
long by about an inch and a half wide, with two gauge-holes and a slight
depression on one side between the holes as thougha place for the thumb
when used. This was composed of either red stone or pottery; I am
inclined to think the first, as it seemed to be too compact for pottery, or
at least more so than the broken pieces found.
In the northwest part of the mound was found a skeleton in a hori-
zontal position lying on the back with the head towards the northeast,
and about 34 feet below the top of the mound. The bones were so de-
composed that it was with difficulty that a whole one of any part of the
skeleton could be taken out without breaking and crumbling, though
while in position the shape of the skull indicated that it corresponded
with those taken from other mounds at Sand Ridge, this county, and
other points in the vicinity.
No other complete skeleton was found in the mound, though pieces of
human bones representing nearly all parts of the skeleton were seattered
through different parts of the structure, together with the bones of other
animals. Of these we could recognize the lower maxillary of deer and
the atlas of a bear, but the rest were too much broken to be identified.
Besides these there were a few land-shells, a species of helix, and a few
broken salt-water shells, perhaps of some species of unio. The scattered
582 MISCELLANEOUS: PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
human bones were all of them more or less broken, the breaking seem-
ing to have been done when the bones were fresh. In one or two in-
stances only were we able to find the different pieces of the same bone.
In one case a femur was broken into threepieces, the head and two parts
of the shaft, and these were 2 or 3 feet apart. It may be stated here
also that these scattered human bones, the flints and broken pieces of
pottery, together with the shells and bones of animals, were all of them
above the depth where the skeleton was found, as though they were
mixed with the earth of which the mound was built. Wecould account
for this in the following manner: The chips of flint, shells, bones of an-
imals, and the scattered human bones were on the surface when the
burial took place, and after the body had been placed in position the
dirt on the surface that could be the most easily obtained was gathered
up together with whatever was scattered over the surface. Of this the
mound was built, and, from what we know of the habits of the Indians
of the present, it takes but little imagination to form a picture of the
squaws gathering up this material in their baskets and carrying it to
the place where it was wanted. This would imply that the people who
did the burying were cannibals, and the broken character of the scat-
tered human bones would in a measure substantiate that view.
A STONE FORT NEAR MAKANDA, JACKSON COUNTY, ILI.
NOIS.
By G. H. FRENCH, of Carbondale, Ill.
In company with Prof. A.C. Hillman and Mr. John Martin, one of our
students very much interested in natural history, I visited Stone Fort,
near Makanda. This place is situated in township 10 south, range 1
west, of the third principal meridian, on the east side of the linois Cen-
tral Railroad, and is about three-fourths of a mile, by road, northeast from
the village of Makanda. The country here is very hilly and rocky, Ma-
kanda being situated in a gorge, through which the Drury Creek runs.
North of Makanda, where the road turns east, is a side gorge, through
which runs a small tributary stream of the Drury, more or less lined
with rocky bluffs on both sides. The surface beyond the bluffs in some
places slopes upward; at others the bluffs are nearly as high as the
general elevation of the surrounding country. On the west of a bluff
known as the Stone Fort another smaller stream comes down between
the bluffs. It is now nearly dry but is well filled with water in times
of freshets. Stone Fort is a ledge of rocks projecting out as a rounded
point from the northern and eastern side of this second gorge, more
toward the stream than the general course of the bluffs. On the south-
ern face the bluff is 125 feet high. Across its neck above extends a pile
of stone, running east and west, which gives the place its only import-
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 583
ance archaecologically. This pile of stone is about 280 feet long, and on
an average 2 rods wide, and in the middle is about 30 inches high.
The distance from the front face of the bluff to the middle of the stone
wall is about 300 feet. The lengths were obtained by pacing, and the
width and depth by tape-line. The middle of this inclosed space is from
15 to 20 feet higher than the edges, the slope being gradual. The whole
space is covered with trees similar in size and appearance to those
on the tops of the other bluffs. All around the bluff, from the front or
south face to the east and west, the rocks are either perpendicular or
overhanging; but on both sides back of the line of piled stone the top
may easily be reached, as the distance from the summit of the bluff
on its southern face to the more nearly level ground below decreases
toward the north, being perhaps 50 feet at the eastern and 25 feet at the
western end of the stone wall. This pile of stone across the neck of the ©
bluff shows evidence of having been a wall. To see if there were any
signs of regularity in its structure, and upon what base it had been
constructed, we took out a cross-section of the stone in one place where
they seemed to have been thrown down, and partial sections in several
other places. First, the materials are sandstone, the same as that of
the bluffs. Many of them are flat, all irregular, just as would occur in
breaking up that kind of stone. In size they vary from some smaller
than a man’s head to those as large as one man can lift. They are built
upon the ground and not upon the ledge of rocks, as the earth beneath
the pile is the same as that constituting the top of the bluff, save that
here there is no vegetable mold. Most of the larger stones are placed
where was the base of the wall, seemingly with but little regularity.
At the ends, where the hillis a little steep, the flat stones at the bottom
are set on edge, and the next course so laid that its top surface would
be nearly level, or sloping a little up the hill. This, of course, would
make it easier to lay the succeeding stones. Where these stones came
from is hard to tell. Ifthere were only a few of them one might conclude
that they were picked up from the surface of the inclosed aiea south of
the wall and on the open space north of it. But there are not stone
enough on the same area of the tops of the other bluffs to make such a
pile. Part of them may have been obtained in that way and the rest
brought there from above, where this bluff is not very high.
The question “‘ why they were placed there?” seems to admit of but
one answer—they were a means of defense. The fact that it has been
known as Stone Fort ever since the country was settled implies that
such has been the general opinion of the people acquainted with the
place. Jt has been assumed, however, that it was the work of hunt-
ers for the purpose of a protection to their camp. I ean hardly con-
ceive that a party of hunters, for a temporary camp, would go to the
trouble of gathering such a mass of stone as is represented in 280 feet
long, 33 feet wide, and, on an average, 14 feet high. It may have been
the location of an Indian encampment in some former years, and built
~
584 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
by them as a protection from their foes, and used very much as Starved
Rock, on the Wlinois River, was by the Iinois Indians.
The question will occur, where did they obtain their water for domestic
purposes? On the west side, just within the end of the wall, there is a
deep, narrow fissure in the rocks, down which one man at a time might
go; and it is only a few feet from the bottom of this fissure to the stream
that comes down the rocks. Evidently there is always a little water
here, and it is quite palatable, as we found by trial. This may have
been their mode of egress and ingress to the inclosure.
We found very little remains of the former occupants. At one place
beneath the stones, evidently just south of what was the south side of
the wall, we found a broken arrow-head of white flint, the only relic dis-
coverd in the inclosure. We did not dig into the ground, either south or
north of the wall, not seeing any elevation that looked like a mound. I
would add further, in relation to the bluff, that the fissure just spoken
of, inside the western extremity of the wall, is the only place where it
is possible to reach the top from any point south of the wall.
That it was a place of refuge from any body of men using fire-arms
does not seem probable, for the following reason: In addition to the
evidence which the broken arrow-lhead affords, the bluff to the south,
across the creek, is considerably higher than this one, and is within
range of a rifle, but would not be within arrow-shot. This, and the fact
that there seems to be no tradition of the building of the wall, would
lead us to conclude that it antedates the white settlements of this region.
It is not far from a number of Indian mounds to the north, or a little
west of north, that seem to form a nearly continuous line with others still
farther north. One of these mounds I opened in 1878.
ANCIENT REMAINS NEAR COBDEN, ILLINOIS.
By F. M. Farre.., of Cobden, Ill.
Along the range of sandstone bluffs that traverse Southern Illinois
running eastward and forming the water-shed between the tributaries
of Big Muddy River on the north and Cache River on the south, and
from 16 to 20 miles east of the Mississippi River, I have been making
a few discoveries which prove that the sheltered nooks formed by the
projecting cliffs were the favorite abodes of an ancient race that once
peopled the Mississippi Valley.
The first place investigated is 2 miles east of Cobden, Ill., under a
projecting cliff of sandstone (millstone grit) about 60 feet high and fac-
ing the east.
Around an ancient fire-bed, not more than 1 foot below the surface,
in a loose, porous clay, were found charred bones, flint chippings, frag-
ments of arrow-heads of very rough workmanship, fragments of rude
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 585
pottery made of red clay, and fine gravel. The pieces were half an inch
thick, or nearly so, and, judging from the curve, they may have been of
considerable size.
One morning in March, 1880, a party of us went to the bluffs known
locally as Buffalo Gap, a deep triangular hollow, inclosed on two sides
by immense ledges of stone, towering high above the tree-tops, and pro-
jecting far over the base, and forming sheltered nooks which bid defi-
ance to the storms of winter and the heat of summer.
All along the base of these rocks the ground is strewn with flint
chippings, bones, bits of pottery, arrow-heads, rocks, and rubbish. We
made excavations in several places, and to various depths, varying from
1 to 3 feet.
The earth is dry and loose, and composed of considerable vegetable
matter, and has the appearance of having been forming slowly for ages.
All through this dust we found bits of pottery, arrow-heads, charred
bones, charcoal, bones split lengthwise to extract the marrow, mussel-
shells, turtle-shells, deers’ horns, bones and jaws of various kinds of
mammals, a bunch of charred hay, a large limestone mortar, having a
bowl nicely cut in the center, which was circular in form and 1 foot in
diameter, and deep enough to hold about a gallon. Ona fire-bed 2 feet
from the surface were the fragments of an earthen pot, probably a cook-
ing vessel, as it contained bones and a fragment of a deer’s upper jaw;
also other material, which we were unable to determine. Near this pot
were numerous spherical bodies, resembling spice in form, white, hollow,
and too fragile to be preserved.
The pottery has markings on the surface like the impression of grass,
twine, and sometimes small sticks, showing that the vessels were
molded in some kind of woven sack or basket made of willows and
twisted grass. Some of the fragments were smooth and thin, the coarser
ones one-half inch thick, and made of pounded mussel-shells, small
gravel, and red clay. The shells which were found were probably
brought up for that purpose, the animal having been used for food. The
arrow-heads are rude and very poor compared with the field specimens
of which I will speak later.
An old fort is near by, on top of a cliff, and cut offfrom the main land
by a wall of stone, which is now nearly flat, covering a base 20 feet wide
and about 150 feet long. The fort is triangular, the wall making one
side and the perpendicular rocks below forming the other two sides.
It had but one point of access from below, which is a path up a crevice
in the rock, and could have been easily defended from above. This has
the appearance of being very ancient.
Near the Illinois Central Railroad track, 5 miles north of Cobden, are
other large bluffs, and underneath are numerous beds, which have afforded
@ great many relics. Several human skeletons have been unearthed,
wore or less preserved, though usually badly decayed, but one skull
586 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
(female adult) was nearly perfect; forehead small, domestic faculties
largely developed. The body of an infant was found near this one.
Besides human skeletons, bones of a good many kinds, though mostly
deers’ horns and bones, bones split lengthwise, large numbers of mussel-
shells, turtle-shells, broken pottery (some of which must have been
large), a considerable amount of parched corn, and the impression in
the earth of woven fabric, which is rare here. The arrow-heads are nu-
merous but of a rude character. Several fine bone awls were found.
This seems to be the richest locality yet discovered here.
Near Makanda, 3 miles north of this place, is an old fortification, called
Stone Fort, as it has once been defended by a stone wall, which is now
nearly demolished.
Field relics.—Near all large springs implements of stone are found
more numerous than at other places. They are of fine workmanship
usually, and of various forms. The arrow-heads are of flint, of all colors.
Shovels from 4 to 15 inches long have been found. Celts are of green-
stone, handsomely polished, from 3 inches to nearly a foot long. Green-
stone hatchets, having a groove for a handle, are found of various sizes,
and wellmade. I have twoin my possession, weighing 14 and 24 pounds,
respectively, though some found here will weigh probably 5 pounds.
Workshops.—Three miles west of Cobden, near Kaolin Station, on the
Saint Louis and Cairo Railroad, is the most extensive workshop I have
found. It covers several acres of ground, and car-loads of flint chips
and bowlders are strewn everywhere. Four miles south of Cobden is
another of less dimensions. Others of greater or less size are met with
in various parts of the country, but no relics of much value are found
with them. .
Aboriginal burial_—Seven miles west of Cobden, in Union County,
Illinois, near Clear Creek, on the farm of Adam Smith, is an aboriginal
cemetery. It is situated on a hillside facing the south. The graves
are in a group, and were probably arranged according to some plan, but
the spot has been in cultivation fifty years, and the graves are sadly
mutilated. Each grave contains a single individual. The bodies were
stretched out at fulllength. Of the two that were examined one was lying
with the cranium to the west; the other toward the north; the face
of the one toward the rising sun; the other facing the noon-day sun.
The remains were inclosed in sarcophagi made of thin slabs of white
sandstone, which were probably quarried from aledge about three-fourths
of a mile distant, in the bank of Clear Creek. The bones were (except
the teeth) nearly decomposed. The graves were scarcely a foot beneath
the surface, and mostly disturbed by the plow.
The mounds 7 miles below Jonesborough, Il., have afforded many
valuable relies, including numerous perfect water-vessels and other pot-
tery, arrow and spear heads, celts, hoes, hatchets, pipes, skeletons, and
one stone idol made of stalactite. These mounds have been investigated
by F. M. Perrine, of Anna, Tll., who has a fine collection of mound and
field relies.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 587
ANTIQUITIES OF WAYNE COUNTY, ILLINOIS.
By H. F. Smsxey, of Fairfield, 1.
Wayne County is one of the larger counties of the State, located on
the southern border of the prairie region. At least three-fourths of its
Surface was originally timbered land. The prairies are generally small.
The principal streams are the Little Wabash and Elm Rivers and the
Skillet Fork (a branch of the Wabash). The surface is generally roll-
ing and elevated from 50 to 125 feet above the stream beds. The
Wabash and Skillet Fork bottom lands are generally rather low and
flat, with the exception of some few ridges of high land, ordinarily lying
parallel with the watercourse. On the ridges generally we find the
ancient tumuli of the Mound Builders. One of the most prominent
places of ancient resort in our county was a ridge in the Skillet Fork
bottom, now known as Fleming’s Ridge, in Arrington Township. (See
map.) The ridge commences at the river and runs almost due north to
the prairie, and is from one-half mile to one mile wide. Near the
south end of the ridge, about one-quarter to one-half mile from the
river, is a group of mounds, seven or eight in number. Several farms
have been opened up, and mounds are found all over the ridge. Two
of them have been explored and the ordinary fragments of pottery,
shells, human remains, &c., were found, but all seem to have been
disturbed. Just to the sonthwest of the ridge I have drawn a half-
moon-shaped figure for a pond, or rather where a pond had been, but
which has been drained for the fish. It is now known by the name of
the Horseshoe Pond from its peculiar shape. It was probably an artifi-
cial fish-pond built by the Mound Builders, as it fills up when the river
is high, but can easily be shut up even during high water. Southeast
of the ridge are two more mounds, about 100 feet long and 50 feet
wide, and now 6 or 7 feet high. One of them was examined, and in it
were found some flint arrow-heads (very rude), an immense number of
turkey and wolf bones, together with deer-horns, &c., which seemed
to have been thrown into fire, some of them being partially consumed.
Human remains were also found, as well as some broken bits of pot-
tery. There seemed to be no line of separation. —
In the southwest corner of Big Mound Township are three mounds
in one group which have never been examined. Northwest and near
to them are two more, of which one was examined, and in it were
found rude arrow-heads, broken pottery, &c., but could not get a skele-*
ton in any state of preservation at all, so as to determine how they
were buried.
On the east edge of the township, some 2 miles sonth of this place
(Fairfield), are two mounds, one of which was slightly examined, and
found to be a burial mound. One mile farther south, almost right in
the center of Little Mound Prairie, is a natural elevation, topped out by
588 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
the Mound Builders into a cemetery that can be seen for a long dis-
tance. It was the burial-plaee of hundreds who are interred in the
stone cists, of which numbers have been examined. Axes, arrow-points,
&c., used to be found in abundance in the vicinity, but they are now
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about all picked up. In Barnhill Township, 5 miles east of us, is a
group of seven mounds, which have not been examined, but which
were probably dwelling-places. They aresmall, about 90 feet in cireum-
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 5389
ference, and from 24 to3 feet high. In Leech Township, on the west
side of the river, is a group of six mounds, which have not been exam-
ined; neither has the one which is on the east of the river at the Iron
Bridge, where the stage road crossesthe stream. About one mile east and
one mile south of the bridge are three mounds, standing as shown on the
map, one of which was examined, and found to be a burial mound.
About 100 yards southwest of these mounds is a pit 10 or 12 feet square
and 7 or 8 feet deep, and within 6 or 8 feet of the river bank. It has
never been examined. One of the old men in the vicinity told me he
had noticed it every year for a long time, and says it is not nearly so
large as it used to be. Just below, at the mouth of the Pond Creek (on
the west side of the river), is a square inclosure, said to be 100 yards or
more square, called the Old Fort, but I have not seen it. In Massillon
Township is a group of seven or more mounds, as shown on the map.
It is avery high bluff, and has been a famous place for the ancient race.
It is a good fishing and hunting locality, the river at that point con-
taining a shallow rapid or riffle, and just across the river on the east
side is a low, flat, bottom land, stretching around for miles, and has been
one of the choice spots for game.
In the northeastern part of the county are two mounds, which, from
the description given, must be the largest in the county, being 60 or 80
feet high and wide in proportion, but they have never been examined.
Our mounds, as a rule, do not at all compare with those on the Ohio
River, about 60 miles south of us. They are small and scattered, and are
generally found in groups of from 3 to 20. I must not omit to mention
that there are a number of mounds outside of Wayne County, situated
on the bank of a river in White County. I have never been to see them,
but I have been told that they number between thirty and forty, all
in a row and following the trend of the river. Throughout the county
generally are found more or less of the stone implements, but they are
much more plentiful near the streams and in the timbered lands, and
are scarce on the prairie.
In the Smithsonian Report for 1876 (page 436) is cited a remark of
Messrs. Squier and Davis relating to the disks of black flint. There
have been two deposits found in this country, one in the county south of
us (White), and one in the county west (Jefferson). The first one con-
tained thirteen of them, of which I obtained eight, and the other con-
tained forty-six, of which I obtained several. Speaking of the disks,
on page 440 (1876), itis said: ‘*Thus far not one of them has been found
isolated or bearing marks of use.” This is a mistake, if mine are of the
same kind as those spoken of by them, as I have found three in this
county, one at a time, and one of them not quite twice the size of a trade-
dollar. They are of the same stone and the same shape, &c., but none
bear marks ofuse. In addition to those given above, fifteen more mounds
have been found in Massillon Township. They are on the west side of
the river, about one inch (as measured on the map sent) from the north
590 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
line, on a high binff, hardly a quarter of a mile from the river. They are
somewhat in this shape, the largest
mound being in the center.
The mounds in Barnhill Township,
M “ Nien just east of Fairfield, areseveninnum- -
as edhe ber. They were explored two or three
* 2 eis years ago, butnothing but charcoal was
Ae ety found in the bottom. I have inquired
ia of the man living on the farm, but he
does not find many tools, &c. The mound in Big Mound Township
Cu dots ; :
marked \Y—x is3milesfrom here. Itis, probably,alarge natural mound
°
on the prairie, to which dirt, &e., has been brought from other parts, and
so completed the cemetery. Thereare many graves, and several bodies or
parts of bodies appear to be buried in cne grave, but they are so decayed
that no perfect skulls can be obtained. The graves are made by building
the side and end walls of a hard sandstone, with a large one for the bottom
and one for the top. The stone could not have been obtained nearer than
Tor 8 miles, on the Skillet Fork. Twotrees are growing on the mound, one
of them a catalpa and the other an oak, both of which have been planted,
beyond adoubt. The catalpa is found in abundance in our river bottoms,
but there are none on the upland. The other two mounds in the same
township are also large, and located in the bottoms in the woods. One
of them was found to contain human remains and a few broken pieces
of pottery, but nothing of value. The other contained human remains,
but not in any order of arrangements; also river shells, deer-horns,
wolf jaws, &c.; also much charcoal and many small stones occur among
the mass. The group of mounds in Four Mile Township is near the
Skillet Fork. The one in the southwestern corner, marked ‘ Explored,”
has been plowed over a great many times, and evidently contained
human remains and flint tools). The second one above it was explored
this spring, but not very thoroughly, as it was very warm and the woods
dense. Human remains were found, and one broken piece of pottery,
too small to tell its shape, and one flint arrow-point. The pottery was
different from any I have ever seen, of bright-red clay and small peb-
bles. There are probably a great many mounds about 12 or 15 miles
from here, in the woods, all of which are built on what is called Flem-
ing’s Ridge, mentioned above. Probably the Mound Builders settled
on the same ground for this reason: the best ford on the river was just
south of the mounds, in fact it is the only place I know of where it can
be forded at all for miles. The place marked “ Hay Pond” isa low place
that used to be a kind of lake, which was drained by the inhabitants
to catch the fish. The mound in Leech Township (on the north) is near
my dwelling. Those south of it are three in number, situated as in-
dicated in the drawing. Right on the bluff is a square hole 10 or 12
feet in diameter. All of these mounds are unexplored. The square
hole used to be much deeper than it is now, about 5 to 7 feet.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 591
MOUNDS AND EARTHWORKS IN VANDENBURG COUNTY,
INDIANA.
By FLoyp Stinson, M. D., of Lvansville, Ind.
On the 3d day of June, 1876, I visited Mathias Angel’s farm, situated
6 miles southeast of Evansville, where I found six mounds, four dis-
tinct cemeteries, three lines of earthworks, one large stone cist, and one
altar.
The first and most western mound is 15 feet high, 585 feet in circum-
ference, truncated, and 100 feet across the top. The second mound, east-
northeast of this, is 8 feet high and 150 feet in circumference. This had
been dug into by Charles Artes, who found in it some human bones, burnt
earth, charcoal, and ashes. Near this mound I found a stone cist, which
was 8 feet long, 4 feet wide, 4 feet deep, walled with slate. In this were
found several skeletons. Nearly north of this is a third mound, which
is 20 feet high, 402 feet in circumference, truncated, and 60 feet across
the top. On the top of this mound, just below the surface, was burnt
earth. Forty yards from this I found a remarkable altar. The roof,
which was sand rock, was plowed off; the sides and ends were slate, 4
inches thick; the floor the same as the roof rock. Inside it was 3 feet
long, 2 feet wide, and 14 inches deep. The contents of this altar were
first earth, then one-half peck of burnt and charred bones, charcoal, and
ashes. Part of the bones were human, (the patella and head of the
femur). Beneath this was burnt earth, and below that, earth. Ihave
in my cabinet part of the contents of this altar.
East-southeast from the second mound is a fourth mound, which is
150 feet in circumference and 4 feet high. To the east of this is one of
the most remarkable mounds I ever beheld. It is 100 yards long, 100
yards wide, and square; consequently it is 400 yards around. It is 45
feet high to a plateau, the width of which is 185 feet. Then at the
southeast corner, on the top, there is an additional mound, 15 feet high,
which would make a mound 60 feet high. Then at the west end there
was an elevated platform 4 feet high, 150 yards long, 55 feet wide. I
will designate this as the fifth mound. Hast and west of this great
mound are burying-grounds. All of the graves in this section are
walled with slate. East of this again is a sixth mound, which is 10 feet
high, 30 yards in circumference. Around these six mounds is a line of
earthwork, resting at either end on the river bank, and inside of this
are two other short ones. The outer line is about 1 mile in length.
The middle and inner lines are about 24 feet high, and about every 40
yards there are mound-like widenings on the outer edges. One-half
mile northeast of these mounds is a mound 50 feet high and 164 yards
in circumference.
592 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
EXPLORATION OF A MOUND NEAR BRACEVILLE, TRUM-
BULL COUNTY, OHIO.
By S. N. LuTuer, of Garrettsville, Ohio.
Recently, in company with Mr. C. Baldwin, I explored an ancient
mound on the estate of the late Nathan Humphrey, esq., situated one-
third of a mile southeast from the center of Braceville, Trumbull County,
Ohio. Miss E. B. Humphrey, who now has charge of the estate, in-
formed me that the mound was formerly covered with a growth of heavy
timber, which was cleared from it by her father many years ago, and
that grading and the process of cultivation have reduced it from not less
than 10 feet in altitude to its present height of 44 feet. It is situated
on a terrace a few feet above the alluvial bottom of the Mahoning River.
The length due east and west is 75 feet, and the breadth about 60 feet.
It is elliptical in form, composed of the dark sandy loam which sur-
rounds it, and in several places has been considerably disturbed by
previous explorers and by the burrowing of woodchucks. We com-
menced by digging trenches from the east and south sides toward the
center, somewhat below the base of the mound. In the eastern portion
we found the remains of five bodies, a short distance from each other.
Except the crania and fragments of the long bones, nothing could be
saved, barely enough remaining to define the position in which they
lay. Of the crania two were saved in fair condition. With two others
we were not so successful, though enough was preserved for several
measurements. The fifth was so frail that no portion of it had escaped
decay. The bodies were usually buried with the head to the west, though
in one case this order was reversed, the head lying to the east. Near
the latter were a quantity of very bright-red ocher, pieces of pottery,
and at a short distance a stone pipe of peculiar construction. Many
bright fragments of stone, a few arrow-heads, and flakes of chert were
found inthe process of excavation. Throughout the undisturbed portion
of the base, and about 1 foot from the original soil, a very hard layer
of earth was discovered, 2 inches in thickness, beneath which were the
skeletons. It is stated that a tier of skeletons were obtained by remov-
ing the upper part, and that many relics have been secured, but the
persons who made the excavations being inaccessible, I cannot obtain
authentic imformation of their observations.
Measurements of the crania.—No. 1, the best preserved skull, is that of
an old person. Length, 7.05 inches; vertical height (inside measure),
4.92 inches; occipito-frontal arch, 15.09 inches; parietal diameter, 5.68
inches; horizontal circumference, 20.35 inches; cephalic index, .8056.
No. 2 is that of a young person (the wisdom teeth only partly through
the process). Length, 6.90 inches; vertical beight (inside measure), 5.10
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 593
inches; occipito-frontal arch, 14.45 inches; parietal diameter, 5.45 inches;
horizontal circumference, 20.25 inches; cephalic index, .7898.
No. 5, Length, 7.07 inches; vertical height (inside measure), 5 inches;
occipito-frontal arch, 13.30 inches; parietal diameter, 5.45 inches; hori-
zontal circumference, 20.50 inches; cephalic ipdex, .7708.
No. 4. Length, 7inches; parietal diameter, 5.70 inches; cephalic index,
8143.
Three-fourths of a mile west of Hiram, Portage County, I examined
a stone structure to which my attention had been called several times
by persons who supposed it to be a place of burial. On viewing it, I
found an annular pile of sandstone nearly 3 feet high, inclosing a space
10 feet in diameter, with an outer diameter of 25 feet, making a wall 5
feet in width. When the center was excavated, ashes and charcoal
were found to the depth of 3 feet, the wall showing the action of much
fire. The entire absence of bones and other kitchen refuse, with the:
elevated location, led to the inference that this was a signal station.
It is one of the highest points on the Western Reserve, and commands.
a view of over 30 miles to the east, and also a portion of the Cuyahoga
River on the west.
There is quite an important cemetery in the extreme southeast part
of “Geauga County, 2 miles southeast from the village of Parkman.
The graves were mostly constructed of flat stones, placed on edge at
the sides and ends. They are paved and covered with the same flag-
ging stones found at the Grand River, which is not distant. Over these
were piled loose stones. The location is a side hill, with a descent to
the east. In one place the graves extended several rods up the hill in
a line, in such a manner that the foot of one grave made the head of
the next, and were all covered by a continuous pileof loose stone. This
burial-place has been almost entirely despoiled by the persistent ef-
forts of relic-seekers. I can learn of no implements of special interest
that were found here. Those obtained consist of the commoner forms
of chert, with celts, grooved axes, &c.
DESCRIPTION OF MOUNDS AND EARTHWORKS IN ASH
LAND COUNTY, OHIO.
By H. B. Case, of Loudonville, Ohio.
The accompanying map locates nearly all the mounds and earthworks
in Ashland County, Ohio. Each one is indicated by a letter, and oppo-
site the same letter in the text will be found a description of the work.
A.—This square inclosure with the gateway to the southwest is situ-
ated in section 36, Clear Creek Township, on the line between the north-
west and southwest quarters of the section, upon land owned by John
and Thomas Bryte. It is about 400 feet long by 200 feet wide, and has
S. Mis. 109-38
594 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
ee
a gateway at the southwest corner near a very strong spring. In 1824
Mr. Bryte commenced to clear his farm. The embankment at that time
was from 3 to 4 feet high and 10 feet wide at the base. -Both the em-
war
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MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 595
bankment and the area were covered with large oak trees. The place
now goes by the name of Bryte’s Fort.
B.—Two mounds stand upon a high natural elevation (90 feet) covering
about 5 acres at the base, and being about 60 by 90 feet on the top,
which is nearly flat. Each is 25 feet in diameter and 4 or 5 feet high.
They are situated on the northeast quarter section 35, Clear Creek Town-
ship. At least one of them was explored as early as 1844, by Thomas
Sprott and brother, who found a number of human skeletons in a kind
of stone cist, upon which was almost a peck of red Indian paint. The
bones were replaced.
C.—A circular inclosure containing 2 acres, more or less, is situated
just north of the Atlantic and Great Western Railway, and within the
city limits of Ashland. The farm was formerly owned by Henry Gamble.
In 1812-15 the first settlers found embankments from 3 to 4 feet high,
and from 8 to 10 feet wide at the base. A forest of oak, hickory, sugar,
and ash grew upon and near this work. It overlooked the valley to the
south and east, and had a gateway at the southwest opening near a fine
spring. The site has been plowed for more than fifty years; and scarcely
a trace of it remained in 1878. ;
D.—At this point is a circular inclosure located near the north line
of the northeast quarter section 9, Mohican Township, one mile east of
Jeromeville.
KH, I’.—On the farm of Nicholas Glenn are a mound and an earthwork.
Information might be obtained from John Glenn, jr., or from William
Gondy, an old settler, both of whom live at Jeromeville, Ohio. The
works are about 2 miles southwest of Jeromeville.
G.—The Mohican town called Johnstown was located here. In the
years 1508~10 it contained Delawares, Mohegans, Mohawks, Mingos,
and a few Senecas and Wyandots. Captain Pipe, a Wolf Indian, ruled
the village until he left it, in 1812.
H.—This large circular inclosure and burial mound are situated in
_ Wayne County, just south of the road leading from Lake Fork to Blateh-
leysville, and just east of the road leading from McZena to Blatchleys-
ville. These remains are upon a high, gradual elevation overlooking a
vast range of prairie, northeast and southeast, as well as the valleys
westward. The circle is a little less than one-third of a mile in cireum-
ference. At present the embankments are from 1 to 2 feet in height.
The area and embankment are covered by the forest growth, which is
not older than 60 or 70 years, the Indians having burned this region
annually until about 1812, for the purpose of hunting. Years ago the
mound was opened by unknown persons. In 1876 the author visited it,
and found that an animal had burrowed into it and brought out a frag-
ment of skull, which is now in his possession. Some time after, Mr.
Thomas Bushnell, of Hayesville, made excavations in the mound and
found only bones, among which was a well-preserved skull. The mound
is 25 or 30 feet in diameter and 4 feet in height.
596 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
I.—A small mound, 3 or 4 feet high and 15 feet in diameter, stands
upon a very high hill, perhaps the highest land in the county, and is
composed of stone and clay. It was excavated some years ago by Dr.
Emerick and a Mr. Long, who are said to have found a skeleton in a
kneeling or sitting posture, and a pipe, both near the center. The au-
thor was unable to learn what had become of the pipe. Messrs. H. B.
Care and J. Freshwater made another examination in 1876, but found
nothing. There isa large spring at the foot of the hill, on the east
side, but it is nearly half a mile from the spring to the mound on the
hill.
J.—This work is said to be located on the west side of the.creek. The
author has not visited the site.
K.—In 1876 the author, in company with Mr. J. Freshwater, made a
slight examination of thismound. It is 25 or 50 feet high, ovalin shape,
and over 100 feet long. The citizens regarded it as an artificial mound,
but we considered it a natural elevation of gravel drift. Excavations
might change this view. The mound is located on the west side of the
Lake Fork, and just north of the road and bridge leading from Mohican
to McZena in Lake Township.
L.—A mound is situated on the lands of J. L. and Cyrus Quick, in
Washington Township, Holmes County, Ohio, It stands upon an emi-
nence which slopes gradually for half a mile southward toward the bot-
tom lands of the Lake Fork; northward and westward it declines a
short distince to a small valley extending to the southwest. It is about
5 or 6 feet high, and 30 feet in diameter. Some trees were growing upon
the mound when the author first visited it, some twenty-seven years
ago. The trees were, perhaps, not of more than one hundred years’
growth, but were as old as the trees in the immediate vicinity; not far
from it, however, were oak trees 2 and 3 feet in diameter. The mound
was excavated about 182025 by Isaac and Thomas Quick, Daniel
Priest, and others.. It is said that, upon making a central excavation,
they found a wooden puncheon cist, together with some human remains,
and ornaments of muscle shell, which appeared to be strung around the
neck. All the remains are reported to have crumbled away on being
exposed to the air. It is difficult to ascertain the facts concerning this
excavation. It has been said that some pottery was found also. Ad-
ditional remains might be disclosed by further investigation. The per-
sons who made the excavation are dead.
M.—This mound, located a little southwest of mound L, on the lower
ground about half a mile from the same, was probably of an equal size
originally, but, having been plowed for nearly fifty years, it is now
spread over quite a space. It is, however, still discernible from a dis-
tance, and shows the eleyation from the flat surface of the field. The
yellow clay presents a contrast with the darker soil of the surrounding
land. No excavation had been made until 1877, when the author, aided
by Mr. Freshwater, removed abort £ square feet from the center. We
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 597
found tough, tempered clay, some bits of charcoal, but noremains. This
could not be regarded as an examination, being of so small a character.
Further work on this mound might unearth interesting relics.
N.—A lake is situated a short distance east of mound M, on the
farm of D. Kick, Washington Township, Holmes County, Ohio. In
draining this pond a cache of flint implements was discovered. Speci-
mens of these implements may be seen-in the Smithsonian @@llection.
The remainder are in the author’s possession. (See Smithsonian Report
_ of 1877, article by H. B. Case.)
O, P.—There are mounds southeast of Odels’ Lake, upon the summit
overlooking the lake, on the farm of J. Cannon. They were excavated
by Dr. Boden, of Big Prairie, Ohio, who has in his possession some teeth,
jaw bones, and long bones taken from them. He says that they should
be further examined. The author has not visited the mounds.
Q.—A mound stands on the summit of Dow’s Hill, one mile northeast
of Loudonville, just east of the Holmes County line. It was excavated
about 1855 by Dr. Myers, of Fort Wayne, and D. Rust, who found a
skeleton near the center, whose structure is of stone and earth. The
top has since been leveled by the plow. In 1876, Mr. Lucien Rust
made some excavations upon the site of the mound, and great numbers
of stone were removed. At length a kind of pot or cist was unearthed,
which was about 18 inches in diameter and 8 or 9 inches deep. It was
formed of stone, and the edge was covered by other stones which made
a roof over the pot. The removal of this roof or top showed that the
cist was filled with charcoal, apparently closed while glowing coals.
About 4 feet below this charcoal deposit human remains were found,
reposing horizontally. Near the left hand was a perforated stone hav-
ing the figure of a bird, resembling slightly the pheasant, scratched upon
it. <A part of a bone implement was also found. The bone, which is of
firmer texture than the human bones, and is perhaps a part of the leg-
bone of a deer, had been perforated, evidently with a stone drill. Lying
across this lower skeleton and some distance above it were the remains
of another. But little of the mound has been excavated, and further ex-
amination should be made. From the mound the view of the surround-
ing country is very fine. The mound proper has been obliterated for
some years, but the site can be observed by a slight elevation and the
great number of stones scattered about and upon it. There must have
been a kind of hollow made in the Waverly shale which lies near the
surface upor the underlying Waverly sandstone, of which the hill is
composed, because when one digs the same depth elsewhere on the hill
the shaly sandstone is penetrated. The stone implement is in the pos-
session of L. Rust, Loudonville; the bones, bone implement, and char-
coal are in the author's cabinet. ;
t.—This mound, similar to mound Q, is situated just north of Loudon-
ville, on the summit of Bald Knob. For along time it was supposed
by the citizens of Loudonville to have been formed by counterfeiters in
598 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
former times. The author excavated it in 1877, and found it a veritable
mound containing fragments of human bones and of charcoal. Being
encased with large sandstones, and composed of stone and earth, it is
very difficult to excavate. As there has been a central depression for
a great many years, What remains the mound V contained of a perish-
able character have probably been destroyed by the collecting of water.
This Sit@galso commands a fine view of the Black Fork Valley.
S.—The settlers of 1808~09~10 found here a village of Delawares,
the remnant of a “Turtle” tribe. Their chief was a white man, taken
in infaney—Capt. Silas Armstrong. They removed to Piqua, Miami
County, Ohio, in 1812, the site of the old burying-ground, now almost
entirely obliterated by cultivation. It is located a few rods north
of the Biack Fork, upon a gentle eminence, in the southwest part of
northeast quarter-section 18, Green Township. The southern portion
of the site is still in woods, and the depressions that mark the graves
are quite distinct. Henry Harkell and the author exhumed several of
the skeletons in the summer of 1876. In some cases the remains were
inclosed in a stone cist; in others small, rounded drift-bowlders were
placed in order around the skeletons. The long bones were mostly
well preserved. No perfect skull was obtained, nor were there any stone
implements found in the graves.’ At the foot of one a clam shell was
found. The graves are from 24 to 3 feet deep, and the remains repose
horizontally. A few relics, such as stone axes, arrow-heads, and a few
bits of copper, have been picked up in the immediate vicinity. They
are in the hands of the author. On the opposite side of the stream and
some distance below, near the south line of southeast quarter section
18, Green Township, there are ancient fireplaces. They are about 15
inches below the present surface, and are formed of bowlders regularly
laid. The earth is burned red. Great numbers of stones have fallen
into the streams during its incursions upon the west bank. Some three
or four of these fireplaces are yet plainly visible,.but in a few years
they will be swept away by the current. About half a mile east of the
graves marked § is a small circular earthwork almost razed. It con-
tained about 14 acres, and had a gateway looking to the river, which is
westward. It is situated upon the nearly level bottom land of the beau-
tiful valley.
T.—Upon the high ridge separating the valleys of Black Fork and
Honey Creek is a depression filled with large and small bowlders. J.
Freshwater and the author removed them to some depth, but as the
stones were heavy we desisted from further investigation. This point
would command a view of the valley of the Black Fork, overlooking, as
it does, the old village of Greentown; and by walking a few rods east-
ward on the same eminence a view of the valley of Honey Creek might
be had. Most of the trees on this height are less than 100 years old. It
may have been timberless during the occupation of this work. The ex-
cavation appears to have been about 15 feet in diameter.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY, 599
U.—There is a stone mound, like mound R, situated on a lofty emi-
nence overlooking the Black Fork Valley northwestward, and eastward
the valley near Loudonville. The author has never seen the work, but
it has been described to him as a small stone and earth mound such as
are usually found on high points.
Y.—A short distance northwest of mound W, on the farm of L. Os-
wald, southwest quarter section 18, in the woods, is a mound about 30
feet in diameter and from 4 to 6 feet high. It was slightly opened at
the center by the owner of the lands, who found part of a skull.
W.—This mound and earthwork are located upon the old Parr farm,
now owned by C. Byers, in the northwest part of southwest quarter
section 19, Green Township. The mound stands on the west side of
the Black Fork, within 2 or 3 rods of the stream. It was quite large
originally, perhaps 8 or 10 feet high and 35 to 50 feet in diameter.
At present it is from 4 to 6 feet above the level of the bottom land and is
spread over a considerable space. When the first settlers came, there
was an earthwork running a little southwest from the mound for some
20 rods, then back eastward to the river. he place has been under
cultivation for forty or fifty years and the work is now obliterated.
The mound was encased with a wall of sandstone bowlders as large as
a man can lift.
These stones must have been carried from the hill half a mile west,
where they are found in place. The wall was carefully laid, as can be seen
by excavations below the depth of the plow where the pile is still intact.
The mound was examined in 1816 by some persons named Slater, who
found in it bones, flint implements, a pipe, and a copper wedge which
.they thought gold. Accordingly they took it to a silversmith at Woos-
ter, Ohio, who told them that it was copper, and bought it from them
for a trifle. In 1878 the mound was explored by J. Freshwater and the
author. The center of the mound, where not disturbed by former ex-
cavations, resembles an altar or fire-place where the fire had burned
the earth to a brick-red. In the ashes and burnt earth were fragments
of arrow-heads broken by the heat. The fire had been kindled on the
mound when it was from 24 to 3 feet high. No human remains were
discovered in this last excavation. A few scrapers were found, which
are in the cabinets of the above-named gentlemen.
X.—On the summit of a hill west of Perryville, and to the right of the
road leading to Newville, was a mound, now entirely obliterated. In
1816~20 it was opened by the Slaters, who found a pipe, human remains,
and some other relics.
Y.—A large oval earthwork on the summit of the ridge between the
valleys of Black Fork and Clear Fork. It is 210 feet wide by 350 feet
long. About the center of the inclosure was a large pile of stone bowlders,
most of which have been removed to the level of the ground. There is,
however, a visible outline of the stone-work, which consisted of a paved
circular space. Wo excavation has been made in either the stone or clay
G00 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
work beyond 1 or 2 feet in depth; consequently the character of the
mound is unknown. A forest, containing oak trees over 30 inches in
diameter and other large trees, covers most of the work, but a portion
extends into a field and has been almost razed by the plow.
Z.—Ona high hill directly north of the junction of the Black Fork and
the Clear Fork, and overlooking the same, is a stone and earth mound
composed principally of large sandstones from the immediate vicinity.
Some twenty or twenty-five years ago it was explored by unknown per-
sons. The author examined it again in 1877, but discovered nothing.
A similar mound is said to have been located upon the hill south of the:
Clear Fork, just below the junction of Pine Run. The stone were hauled
away and the site plowed over. (See Za.)
Zb.--This is the site of Old Delaware village of Hell Town. It was
deserted about 1782, the time of the massacre of Anaden Hutten. Graves
were visible until two years ago; the field is now cleared and plowed.
In the author’s cabinet are two iron scalping-knives and an iron toma-
hawk which were thrown up by the plow; also the brass mountings
of a gun, a gun-flint, a stone ax, and some arrow-heads. Dr. James
Henderson, of Newville, Ohio, has in his possession several articles ob-
tained from this site. The Indians formerly called their settlement Clear
Town, and the stream Clear Fork; but learning the German word hell,
for clear or bright, they changed the name to Hell Town.
Ze.—A rock shelter is located on the west side of Clear Fork, in the
conglomerate sandstone of the Lower Carboniferous. It was explored
in 1877 by L. Rust and the author, who found about 2 feet of ashes in-
termingled with a few animal bones and coprolites. No human‘remains
were disclosed excepting a split bone, and even that is doubtful. The
ashes continue deeper, and further examination might prove interesting.
EARTH-WORKS NEAR JONES’ STATION, IN BUTLER COUNTY,
OHIO.
By J. P. MacLEAN, of Hamilton, Ohio.
While I was engaged in examining the earth-works of Butler County,
Ohio, I was informed by Mr. John W. Erwin that an ancient work was
near Jones’ Station. On repairing thither I was unable to find either
the work or any one who had ever heard of it. I next attempted to find
the papers of Mr. James McBride, but no one knew what had become
of them. The record of the sale of McBride’s effects gave no account of
them.
During the month of December, 1879, I received a note from Mr. W.
S. Vaux, of Philadelphia, stating that he owned both the cabinet and
the archeological papers of the late James McBride. I immediately
applied for that portion of the papers relating to the earth-works near
~
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 601.
Jones’ Station. These papers were placed in my possession January
26, 1880. On the 27th of the month, in company with Mr. John W.
Erwin, I started to locate the works. Although it had been nearly
thirty-eight years since Mr. Erwin visited the spot and assisted in the
survey, and made the original delineation, he recognized the spot and
the plan of the works as preserved in the papers of James McBride.
These works were located on the southeastern slope of one of the
highest hills in the vicinity. The hill is a detached one and surrounded
entirely by one of the richest valleys in the State. Between it and the
uplands toward the north was originally a swamp. This swamp was
drained at the expense of and under the direction of the State. Through
it passes the Miami Canal. The hill is composed of a yellowish clay,
having been formed during that period known as the glacial or drift.
Its summit is about 225 feet higher than the city of Hamilton.
The works are now entirely obliterated. There is not the slightest
evidence that they ever existed. We searched in vain. They occurred
in both Fairfield and Union Townships, on section 15 of the former and 9
of the latter. The township line passing through the works, if extended
southward, would terminate at the foot of Broadway, in Cincinnati.
The work marked A is wholly in Fairfield Township, while the township
line passes through the center of the smallest circle, marked B. The
same line passes on a fraction of the wall of the largest circle,C. On the
summit of the hill, Fairfield Township, section 15, is a mound composed
of yellow clay, about 5 feet high, from the top of which a commanding
view of the surrounding country may be obtained. It probably belongs
to that class of mounds known as signal stations. It would be impos-
sible to tell the original height of this tumulus. The plow for fifty-two
successive years has accomplished all this destruction.
James McBride came to this county in the year 1808; and, as he
early took an mterest in antiquities, it is probable he saw these works
before the forest trees had been cut away. Heand John W. Erwin sur-
veyed the works May 7, 1842. The following is a verbatim copy of Mr.
McBride’s description:
“Saturday May 7, 1842.—Went, in company with John W. Erwin,
civil engineer, and James McBride, jr., to an ancient work in Butler
County, Ohio, six miles southeast from the town of Hamilton, on the
lands of James Beaty. The work is situated principally on section
No. 9, town 3, range 2, M. R., about 30 poles south of the N. W. cor-
ner of the section. On measuring the main part of the work it was
found to be a true circle 3 ch. 5 links in diameter. The ground was
cleared some 14 or 15 years ago, and has been cultivated since that time,
consequently the height of the embankment has been much reduced.
Previous to cultivation the embankment was fully three feet high above
the natural surface of the ground. Inside of the embankment was a
ditch two feet deep, making a perpendicular height of about 5 feet from
the bottom of the ditch to the top of the bank.
602 MISCELLANEUUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
“Three cliains east of this work is another circular work 1 ch. 30 links
in diameter, and from this in a direction 8. 15° W. three chains distant is
another circular work of the same dimensions, viz, 1 ch. 30 links diam-
eter, and also the same distance, viz, 3 ch. 00 links from the center or
main work.
Sec. 16 Sec. 10.
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“At the distance of one chain N. W. from the center or main work is
another small circular work two poles in diameter, and adjoining and
touching this is still another enclosure, of an oval form, from 2 ch. 30
links by 1 ch. 70 links in diameter, extending in a N. W. direction.
“The embankment of the smaller works before reduced by cultivation
was upwards of two feet high above the natural surface, with ditches
on the inside eighteen inches deep.
“On the S. E. of the main work is an opening in the embankment com-
——
a ee
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 603
municating with the smaller works to the 8. E. Probably communica-
tions might have existed throughout from one work to the other, though
they cannot now be distinctly traced.
“The embankments of these works are of a bright yellow clay, differ
erent from that which appears on the surface of the surrounding ground,
hence the form of the works can be distinctly seen and traced as far as
the eye can see them.”
MOUNDS IN BOYLE AND MERCER COUNTIES, KENTUCKY.
By W. M. LINNEY, of Harrodsburg, Ky.
In the counties of Boyle and Mercer, State of Kentucky, there are a
number of mounds, graves, &c., which were constructed by former in-
habitants of the country, and many aboriginal implements have been
found. On the map of Boyle and Mercer Counties I have located all
points of interest that I have been able to learn. They will be alluded
to more particularly in the following notes by the letters that are con-
nected with them. The point of greatest interest (A on the map) is
situated on the west bank of Salt River, in Mercer County, a little north
of its union with Boyle County, on a farm owned by Dr. Thomas Hyle.
The first notice given of this point is found in ‘Collins’ History of Ken-
tucky,” under the head of Mercer County. Speaking of ancient towns
and fortifications, it says: ‘‘There are two of these, both on Salt River,
about 4 miles above Harrodsburg, containing ditches and a mound 10
or 12 feet high, filled with human bones and broken pieces of crockery-
ware. On one side of the mound a hickory tree, about 2 feet in diam-
eter, grew and was blown up by the roots, making a hole 3 or 4 feet
deep. Its lower root drew up a large piece of crockery-ware which had
been on some fire coals. The handle was attached to it, and human hair
lay on the coals. This was probably a place of human sacrifice. The
other ruins were about a mile and a half above this, both being on the
west bank of Salt River. There is no mound near this, but only the
remains dug out of ditches.”
The ground has been cleared, and the continual cultivation of the
land has filled up the ditches and removed all traces of any lines that
once existed. The mound has also been removed by the plow. From
it have been taken, as cultivation yearly went on, the bones of a num-
ber of human skeletons, none of which were retained, few of them be-
ing ina good state of preservation; the skulls crushed to fragments and
the soft ends of the bones, with few exceptions, gone entirely: I do not
know that any relics have been taken from the mound proper, except
some shell beads. The river bank here is only about 15 feet high, and
the slope back from the river is not more than 2°. The mound stood
200 yards from the stream. Between those points there must have been
a Village of huts or some form of habitation; for even now, when the
604 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
ground is freshly plowed, there is a regular parallelogram, where the
uniform lines of black earth, charcoal, and burnt bones show the former
presence of fires long continued at that point. Within this area have
ANDERSON CO.
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MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 605
been found a great number of specimens of broken crockery, plain and
ornamented in crossed lines; grooved axes of greenstone; celts in green-
stone, jasper, agate, hornstone, and limestone; pipes, arrow and lance
heads, chisels, grinding stones, pestles, sinkers, flint flakes and cores,
ornaments in slates and other colored stones; bones of fish and many
animals, horns of deer and elk, teeth of bears, &e. Some of these may
have been thrown up by the plow and scattered over the space near the
mound. From the number of fragments of various stones, it seems that
there was a workshop here, and so I have located one on the map. The
mound was built of earth taken from the vicinity, and there were evi-
dently some large stones in connection with it, but how they were placed
is not known. B,C, D were within a mile of A, and were single graves,
They have all been opened, and each contained one skeleton, without
implements or ornaments so far as known. In one, the body seemed to
have been buried horizontally, on the right side, with the head to the
east; the position of the others is unknown. ‘There seemed to have
been a stone cist erected on or near the surface of the ground; and
then rocks appear to have been set on edge around it, until a space 10
or 12 feet square was inclosed. If ever covered with earth, time has
removed it down to the rocks. B is on the farm of Dr. Thomas Hyle,
and © and D on that of Cornelius Terhune. E and F are points on
Salt River, above and below A, where remains of pottery, &c., have
been found; but their real character cannot be determined. IE is on the
farm of John Ludwich, in Boyle County, and F on that of Mrs. Lewis.
Gis a grave on the farm of Thomas Knox, but I have not Seen it.
From description it is like B, C, and D.
H is only a point marked by great numbers of flint chippings and
broken arrow-heads.
I represents a space on a farm owned by W. B. Cecil, where a great
many pipes, axes, &e., have been found.
J is a mound of earth on the farm of the Misses Craig, about 14 miles
south of Danville, in Boyle County. It is some 5 feet high and 50 feet
in circumference. It has been opened, but I know of nothing obtained
from it.
K is located on the farm of John F. Yedger. It has been opened, and
is similar to B, C, D.
L is in Boyle County, on the land of Wyatt Hughes. It was destroyed
by excavating a road-bed for a railroad; and seems to have been like
B, C, and D.
M is asmall earthen mound on the southern bank of Rolling Fork,
Boyle County. It has been razed by cultivation. Some bones, a grooved
ax, and a few arrow-heads of hornstone were disclosed.
N is said to be the site of two graves, and is just west of Harrodsburg
and ‘‘old Williams” place. From what I can learn the graves are like
BO. D.
O is a single (?) grave with stones set up around it. I have not ex-
amined it, but from appearances it is like B, C, D.
606 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
P is an earthen mound, on the farm of J. A. Shuttleworth. It is 4
feet high and 50 feet in circumference, and was opened in 1807 or 1811
and later. From an old man, who was a boy when it was first opened,
Llearn that a number of bodies had been buried in it, and that an ax
or two were found. On the night of the day on which it was opened
occurred the earthquake of that year, and the whole neighborhood
thought that the Indians had come after them for disturbing their bones.
Q was one or two graves, now obliterated, on the farm of Achilles
Davis.
R is a point on the farm of Dr. Walter Davis, where some relics were
found in digging the foundation of a house. <A lot of bones were near
these relics.
S is the site of three graves covered with stones placed on edge, and
is on the farm of George Davis, sr. The two near each other have been
opened, and a number of human remains were exhumed from each.
They had, seemingly, been buried with their heads together and their feet
radiating from this venter. Plates of mica were found with the crushed
skulls, as if they had been placed over their eyes. Only one implement
was obtained here. A bone had apparently been buried with one of the
bodies, and, when discovered,
it was lying upon the arm, at
the elbow, and parallel to it.
The third grave has not yet
been examined, but will prob-
ably be explored in the spring.
T isa group of four earthen
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Grr Cruer ===] mounds on the farm of Thomas
\\s SS SZ we S=
\ Ga Re 8 A Coleman. They have all been
| rae excavated at sometime. The
last examination took place
in July past, and yielded one
skeleton, and a copper bead
almost destroyed by oxidiza-
tion. Their relative positions
as to streams and to each
other is shown in diagram T.
(See also the accompanying
plan.)
U is the site of two mounds 8 feet high, and 60 or 70 feet in cireum-
ference, on land owned by Mr. Hugely, upon the bluffs of Dick’s River.
The mounds seem to be composed of gravel, earth, and limestone. Sev-
eral persons have examined them, and pronounced them mounds. Par-
tial excavations have been made, but without success. Poplar trees
(Liriodendron) 2 feet in diameter are growing upon them. Iam disposed
to think that the mounds are the remains of lime-kilns made in the first
settlement of the State; at any rate the limestone in them has been
burned.
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MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 607
V was a large pile of rocks, giving no evidence of ever having been
covered with earth. It was opened and some skeletons were found,
probably those of Indians killed in some attack on Harrodsburg.
W and X are similar to V.
The above list ineludes all the points of much interest in these two
counties. Nearly every spot mentioned has been examined, and the
relies carried off or destroyed. The great majority of those relies, such as
pipes, arrow and lance heads, grooved axes, and celts, have been
plowed up isolated in fields all over the counties; but the larger num-
ber have been found on the farms contiguous to Salt River. No shell
heaps have been noticed except at A, where the common mussel of Salt
River seems to have been used for some purpose other than pottery
manufacture, perhaps as food.
Nothing is known as to our caves or cliff shelters having been used
for dwellings. <A cave east of Danville, on the farm of Samuel Stone,
contained some human skeletons; but as the remains had been thrown
down into a sink-hole without other opening, and as there were no im-
plements, I suppose that the persons were Indians, or perhaps murdered
whites of a comparatively recent date, and not mound-builders. The
bones were in a good state of preservation. Nowhere in this part of the
State has anything resembling masonry been observed, to my knowl-
edge.
As far as I can learn, no carving, engraving, or sculpture has been
discovered in those counties; but in the Deaf and Dumb Institution at
Danville, Professor Dudley, principal, there isa carved image or rather
bust of Aztec type, which was plowed up in Marion County, Ken-
tucky. Rock paintings and inscriptions are not found here. The dead
are discovered both in mounds and in isolated graves. Some contain
one individual, others more. It is difficult to determine the position of
the bodies when interred, as the pressure from above and the trees
over them have forced them out of place. Some appear to have been
buried in a sitting posture, some were stretched out, and others evi-
dently lying on their sides. They weve laid, in most cases, toward the
east, sometimes toward the west, and again in every direction like
spokes in a wheel. <A few were placed in cists, others in earth only.
Generally only a few of the more solid bones were preserved. At one
point in Boyle County some arrow-heads were turned up by the plow,
but they were lost or thrown away. No large places are known where
flint implements -have been manufactured; but chippings, evidently
broken off by mechanical means, show that arrow-heads have been made
in limited quantities. I am unable to learn whether or not the pottery
found at A had been made on the grounds. The presence of many frag-
ments, the quantities of decaying mussel shells, the balls of sand ecar-
ried from the river, and the proximity to suitable clay all render it likely ;
yet there are no places, that I could see, which give any reliable evi-
dence of its manufacture.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
608
CAO. NTE?
Scottville.
County Seat.
YA Choy, y,
ore Cr. Glasgow
p44 County Seat.
265 h
| 7 en) me
PrAn 1:
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 609
MOUNDS IN BARREN AND ALLEN COUNTIES, KENTUCKY.
By R. B. EVAns.
I, Mounds in Allen County.—The figures in the text refer to the ac-
companying map. Nos. 1, 2,3, 4, and 5 are mounds on Barren River,
and near the mouth of Routon’s Creek. They are inclosed in one corner
of a cultivated field, though covered thickly with large trees. No. 5
was explored about fifty years ago, and some stone implements and a
silver pipe were found. The author does not know what became of
them. About two years ago he thoroughly examined No. 1, and dis-
covered many large bones, which, however, were much decayed. The .
vault was 10 feet deep from the top of the mound, and 8 feet in diameter.
It was round, and walled up with stones like a well. Every 2 feet was
a layer of large flat rocks, and between these layers were human remains.
The bottom was made of stones laid edgewise, and, being keyed in with
small stones, was consequently very tight. Old farmers in the neigh-
borhood say that Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 have never been excavated. No. 6
is a cluster of graves which were formed of stones placed edgewise.
Some of the graves are long and others short, the longest being 8 feet
and the shortest 245 feet in extent. The author opened one and found
some human bones in a very decayed state.
II. Mounds in Barren County.—Nos. 1, 2, and 3 are mounds on Barren
River, at the mouth of Peter’s Creek. From No. 3, the largest, a great
many human bones and several stone implements have been taken. The
author has one specimen of the latter. Nos. 1 and 2 are not so large,
and haye never been explored. They have been seen by Professor Put-
nam, of Cambridge. The mounds are bare of timber. No.3 is mow
used as a graveyard by J. F. Jewell, the owner of the land.
III. Ancient town and cemetery in Barren County, Kentucky.—The ae-
companying diagram, Plan II, represents the location and details of an
aboriginal town and burying-ground on the Barren River, in Barren
County, Kentucky. The work occupies a bluff 60 feet high. The six
teen circular figures are lodge sites, partly raised on the outer rim and
depressed in the center. In the center of each, a foot beneath the sur-
face, were found coals, the grain of the wood being easily distinguished
as oak and poplar. The diameters of these rings average about 18 feet.
The other figures represent mounds. These works are now in the virgin
forest. One of the mounds was opened by the author, but a detailed
account of the exploration will have to be deferred.
S. Mis. 109-——39
610 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
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MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 611
MOUNDS ON FLYNN’S CREEK, JACKSON COUNTY, TEN-
NESSEE.
By Josuvua Haire, Sr., of Jackson County, Tenn.
The valley in which these mounds are situated is on the east bank of
Flynn’s Creek, which empties into the Cumberland River, and is 3 miles
above the mouth of the creek and 1 mile south of the river. The valley
is 4 miles west of Gainesboro’, the county seat, and near the center of a
section of country that abounds in mounds and graves. This valley
which is full of these graves, contains near 100 acres, and is the site of
the village called Flynn’s Lick. There are five limestone springs, one
sulphur spring, anda salt spring. From the number of mounds of earth,
stone, and shell, it is evident that it has been a large town and a place
of note among the inhabitants of that day. A further reason is that
the valley is easily approached from every direction. The valley is full
of graves, placed as close as they can be in the ground. It has been
in cultivation sixty-five years. Before it was cleared it was covered
with a dense forest of trees, some of which are from 4 to 6 feet in diame-
ter. Even on the tops of these mounds trees were standing (of the oak
and poplar species) measuring 4 and 5 feet in diameter. At the time
the valley was cleared it was not known that there were any graves
there.
The graves are of all sizes, varying from 18 inches to 6 feet in length
and the usual size in width. The coffins are made of slate-rock slabs
(which now seems to be plentiful 4 miles up the creek, where there is a
large quarry), and are generally neatly polished. The bones and _ pot-
tery are now found from 18 to 20 inches below the surface of the ground.
The coffins are constructed in the following manner: They first placed
on the bottom of the grave one or two slabs of slate-work neatly polished
and jointed closely together in the middle when they had to use two
of them; they next placed one at the head and one at the foot of the
grave; then they set up one or two, as the case required, on edge
on both sides, neatly fitted together in the middle and at the ends, which
forms a box. They next took one or two pieces, as the size of the coffin
demanded, neatly polished and jointed together in the middle and at the
ends, and placed them on for the lid, projecting on all sides from 2 to 4
inches. Occasionally we find a grave where they have used limestone
instead of slate rock.
On the east side of the creek, about 100 yards from its bank, is the
grand earthen mound, which is larger and higher than any of the others
in the valley. All the graves as a general rule face this grand mound ;
but occasionally, owing to the rock in the ground, this rule is varied and
the direction changed, showing that closeness or compactness was their
leading idea.
The mounds referred to in this valley and vicinity are composed both
of earth and stone, and are found on both sides of the creek. The
612 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
largest earthen mound, which I call the grand mound because all the
graves are facing it, is about ninety feet in diameter, and at this time
about 4 feet high; but when first discovered by whites it was 5 or 6 feet
high. This mound has not yet been examined, but others in the
valley, not so high but larger in diameter, have been looked into and
were found to contain graves, pottery-ware, pipes and arrow-heads made
of dirt or cut out of rock. These are found in the graves in the mound
and in those around it.
On a hill adjacent to the valley, about 2°0O feet high, are six stone
mounds constructed of rough limestone rock. These mounds are‘situa-
ted about 300 yards east of the valley. They are about 20 feet in
diameter and 24 or 3 feet high. Four of them have been examined, and
all of them were found to be full of human bones and pottery ware, but
not so close together as the others. The graves were constructed, or
covered over with rock, differently from the others. The corpse seems
to have been put in first, and then rock slabs set up and placed together
at the top in the shape of the roof of a house. In this way was the
place filled with graves all over a certain spot, and then rough stone
piled on until the mound was formed. I have spoken of only six mounds
on this hill, of this kind; but there are many in this vicinity of this kind,
but they have not been examined. Near the center of the mound ex-
amined by me, in a grave, were found bones of a human being charred
perfectly black, around which were placed all the others.
On the west side of the creek is a bluff in which were found several
holes, and on examination one of them was found to lead into a cave
which has been explored for about 100 yards. This cave contains sev-
eral apartments which are dry, and within this are found a great many
human bones, some of which are still in a state of preservation.
A female skeleton was taken from a grave found about 80 yards west
of the mound that I have designated in this letter as the grand mound.
This skeleton was lying with the face towards the mound, with a
pipe in her right hand resting on her right thigh. With this skel-
eton I found in opening the grave an infant child lying with its feet
against the thigh bones of its mother. When first opened this child’s
skull-bone and other bones were in perfect form, but as soon as the
air came in contact with it it broke into lime, or powder. This female
evidently died in childbirth, the feet of the foetus coming first. This
female we are led to believe, from the pains taken in burying her, must
have been of note amongst them, for I found in disinterring this skeleton
that the remains were deposited in a wooden coffin, and then this one
was put into one of neatly polished rock. A jug was found, with the
mouth down and the bottom upwards, placed against the skull-bone.
The stone with a hole in the center, which is called a corn-muller, I
foind about 80 yards from the grand mound. This was plowed up and
found, among a large number of human bones in a decayed condition,
upon the top of a small mound in the valley. The pottery, of the char-
acter sent, is found in all the graves and in a similar condition.
—- eS
a eaten ae ina ae
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY, 613
ANTIQUITIES AND ABORIGINES OF TEXAS.
By A. R. Rorssier, of Washington, D. C.
In my frequent walks, some years since, along the beaches of the bays
and inlets of the Gulf of Mexico, a few miles south of the Guadalupe
River, I rarely failed to find a number of aboriginal relies—especially
immediately after the ebb of a high tide. I have also found many about
the bases of the sandy hillocks, or “dunes,” which have been heaped up
by the winds in many places along the coast. I have occasionally found
large flints; but these were probably used for harpoons. Some of these
arrow-heads are very rudely wrought, while others, particularly a very
small kind, are.of exquisite finish, with a point as sharp as a lancet, and
the cutting edges finely and beautifully serrated. Most of the specimens
collected by me had necks, or shanks, by which they were fitted into the
shaft; a few, however, were without this appendage, but were either
grooved or beveled on both sides of the base of the tongue. The flint
pebbles, from which these arrow-heads were chipped, were probably ob-
tained from 30 to 40 miles inland, where they abound in several localities.
All the Indian tribes of Texas, when it was first colonized by Americans,
used metallic arrow-heads, which they had probably substituted for flint
ones nearly a century before, or not long after the establishment of the
missions and military posts of San Antonio and La Bahia, where they
doubtless obtained copper, brass, and iron, all of which metals they used
for pointing their missiles. Fragments of earthen pottery are coexten-
sive with the flint relics. But they bear evidence that our aborigines
were never much skilled in the ceramic art.
The Indian dead usually receive very shallow sepulture. Often the
Texas tribes do not bury their dead at all, but merely pile logs or stones
upon their bodies, which are soon extricated and the flesh devoured by
beasts of prey. The bones being thus left to the action of the elements,
rapidly decay. Hence the osseous remains of the aborigines are rarely
found far inland, but in various places along the coast the winds have -
performed the rites of sepulture by blowing the sand upon the dead.
At Igleside, in 1861, human bones were disinterred at two localities
more than a hundred yards apart, from a depth of 8 feet; and recently,
in October, 1877, others were discovered in a sand hill, or “dune,” near
what is locally known as the “False Live Oak,”in Refugio County.
About a month after the discovery I went to the spot and found that a
large quantity of human bones, including several skulls, had been ex-
posed by the caving of the “dune;”’ but being much decayed, had
broken to pieces in falling, and quickly dissolved in the Gulf tide at the
base of the ‘“‘dune.” I saw for 40 feet along the face of the steep slope,
from which the sand had slidden, a number of human bones and skulls
projecting at various angles. One skull, which was better preserved
614 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
than the rest, was of medium size and remarkably round. The others
seemed of similar size and type. The teeth of all were well preserved,
and did not exhibit any appearance of having been faulty during the
lifetime of their owners. None of the bones seemed to have belonged
to persons above the average size, with the exception of one femur.
Neither the vertebral nor pelvic bones, the ribs, the omoplates, nor the
bones of the hands and feet were preserved. These human remains
were from 5 to 74 feet beneath the surface of the ground, and 10 or 12
feet above the level of the bay.
After an interval of about six weeks, I again visited the spot. About
2 feet of the hill had caved away since my first visit; but the bone de
posit was still unexhausted, for I found three more skulls and several
limb bones, all of which broke into fragments in extracting them from
the compact sand.
I was disappointed in not finding stone arrow-heads in the caved
sand. But my search for them was not thorough. There is no reason,
however, to doubt that these are aboriginal remains. Their imperfect
state of preservation in any kind of earth, very conservative of organic
substances, alone warrants the conclusion that they are ancient, which
is reinforced by an argument which I will here state. These remains
are found at the southern extremity of a sand ridge about 2 miles long
from north to south, and varying in height from 20 to 40 or 50 feet, and
which was evidently formed while the gulf beat directly upon the shore
of the mainland. But ever since the long, sandy islands extending par-
allel with our coast were heaped up by the action of the waves and cur-
rents of the sea, the only communication between the gulf and the in-
terior bays, or lagoons, has been through a few narrow channels called
“bayous.” The consequence is, that the sandy materials of which the
“dunes” are formed, instead of reaching the shore of the mainland as
in former ages, are now deposited on the gulf side of the islands and
blown up by the east and southeast winds into hillocks similar to, but
generally less elevated than, those which were formerly heaped by the
same agency upon the mainland.
Now, on the assumption that these human remains, in accordance
with the universal custom of North American savages, were only in-
terred to the depth of 2 feet at most, several feet of sand must subse-
quently have been blown over them to account for the depth at which
they were found, and the sand for this purpose must have been trans-
ported to the adjacent beach by the currents of the gulf. Hence, I
conclude that the remains were deposited in the “dune” before the gulf
was cut off from the mainland by the formation of the chain of island
barriers above mentioned. The sand ridge containing the osseous relics
has been preserved from the wasting effects of the winds by the thickets
of dwarf oak and sweet bay with which it is overgrown. Some of the
live oaks at its eastern base are of sufficient girth to indicate an age of
two centuries. Other oaks of the same species a short distance south
‘MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 615
of the “dunes,” and very near the bay, are of much greater antiquity.
_ All these trees must have grown up since the Gulf retreated behind
Matagorda Island, which at this point is about 8 miles distant from the
mainland. From all of which it follows as highly probable that the
human remains, which I have described, were inhumed at a period
when the broad waves of the sea resounded along the shore of the
mainland, and before the sail of a ship had gleamed on the Gulf of
Mexico.
Both history and tradition preserve the names of several tribes of
Texas Indians, which had become extinct or had been blended with
other tribes before the State was first colonized by Anglo-Americans,
at which period, A. D. 1821, the only tribes with which the settlers
came in contact were the Comanches, Wacos, Tawacanies, Ionies, Keech-
ies, Lipans, Tonkaways, and Carancaways. Of all these tribes the last
named was the most remarkable. They inhabited the coast, and ranged
from Galveston Island to the Rio Grande. The men were of tall stature,
generally 6 feet high, and the bow of every warrior was as long as his body.
These Indian’ navigated the bays and inlets in canoes, and subsisted,
to a considerable extent, on fish. They were believed by many of the
early settlers to be cannibals; but it is probable that the only cannibal.
ism to which they were addicted was that which was occasionally
practised by the Tonkaways, if not by all the tribes of Texas. This con-
sisted in eating bits of an enemy’s flesh at their war dances to inspire
them with courage. <A dance and feast of this kind I once witnessed at
a settlement on the Colorado, where the Tonkaways were temporarily
camped. <A party of its braves on a war tramp slew a Comanche, and
upon their return to their tribe brought with them a portion of the dried
flesh of their slain foeman. This human ‘tasajo,” after being boiled,
was partaken of by the warriors of the tribe with cries and gestures of
exultation. Their thievish and murderous propensities early involved
them in war with the settlers of Austin Colony, by whom they were re-
peatedly defeated with severe loss,én consequence of which, about the
year 1825, they fled west of San Antonio River, whither they were pur-
sued by Austin at the head of a strong party of his colonists. When
he arrived at the Manahuila Creek, 6 miles east of Galliad—then called
La Bahia—he was met by a Catholic priest of that place, who bore a
proposition from the Carancaways, that if Austin would desist from
hostilities they would never in future range east of the San Antonio.
Austin agreed to this proposition and countermarched his foree. The
Carancaways, however, did not long keep their promise. A few years
afterwards several parties of them returned to the Colorado, their favor-
ite resort, and committed divers thefts and atrocious murders, for which
they weie again severely scourged by the colonists.
Kifforts were long made by the Catholic missionaries to christianize
these savages, and the mission of Refugio, 30 miles south of Galliad,
was, I believe, founded for that special purpose. But the Carancaways
616 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
were proof against all civilizing influences. At length, about the year
1843, forty or fifty men, women, and children—the sole remnant of this
tribe, which twenty-one years before numbered nearly a thousand souls—
emigrated to Mexico, and were permitted to settle in the interior of
the State of Tamaulipas. At this time it is not improbable that the
Carancaways are almost, if not quite, extinct. JI am unable to ascertain
whether any of the other tribes mentioned before in this paper are also verg-
ingon extinction, but itis weil known that they have allrapidly diminished
in numbers since they came in contact with civilization, and the con-
clusion is inevitable thatin a score or two of years all the smaller tribes
will become as extinct as the mammoth and the mastodon that preceded
them.
MOUNDS, WORKSHOPS, AND STONE-HEAPS IN JEFFERSON
COUNTY, ALABAMA.
By WILLIAM GESNER, of Birmingham, Alabama.
Three mounds are to be seen in township 17, range 1 west, of Jeffer-
son County, about 4 miles north of Birmingham, and west of the South
and North Alabama Railroad, in that portion of Jones Valley through
which flows Village Creek from east to west. They are on the north
side of the creek where it is forded, on the Birmingham and Huntsville
wagon road, and west of the machinery and buildings of the Birmingham
Water Works Company about 1 mile. The largest of them is nearest
to, and visible from, this road toward the west. The one, which is the
most southerly of the group, appears to be about 30 feet high, conical,
and about 100 feet in diameter at its base; the others, distant from it
and from each other, about 300 yards, are not in a direct line with each
other. The second one north has not one-third the dimension of the
first, and the third is much smaller than the second. They are situated
on the plain of one of ‘the most fertile tracts of land in Jones Valley,
which has been cultivated for more than fifty years.
Five Mile Creek, also flowing from east to west, through the hills,
from out of this Jones anticlinal Valley, along the base of low ridges
of Millstone Grit, bordering the Warrior Coal Field on the southeast,
being crossed at Boyles Gap, on the South and North Alabama tail-
road, places these mounds between two streams, abounding in fish, and
tributary to the Black Warrior River. Their immediate locality is
unsurpassed by any other region of the State for number, size, clear-
ness, and coolness of the springs, issuing from out both the ridges of
Silurian quartzites, and beds of limestone outcropping in the valley.
‘They have been injured to some extent by hunters and farming opera-
tions, particularly the smallest one, but the largest one has oaks and
other trees of large dimensions on it, growing without thriving. No
explorations having been made of any of them, their arrangement and
composition remain unknown.
m
r
4
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 617
Workshops.—In township 18, range 7 east, of Talladega County, on
the headwaters of Talladega Creek, at the eastern end of Cedar Ridge,
(a spur of the Rebecca Potsdam sandstone Mountain) in the old fields
where the Montgomery Mining & Manufacturing Company’s, Sulphur,
Bluestone, Copperas, and Alum Works were situated, wagon loads of
quartz fragments, broken arrow-heads, and spear-points, cover the
ground ; but on a much larger scale appears to have been the manu-
factory of these implements in township 19, range 27 east, of Lee County,
on the Columbus Georgia branch of the Western Railroad east of
Yongesborough; for in the fields, on the southeastern side of a low
ridge called Storees Mountain, many acres are covered with the broken
quartz, in every variety of that mineral found in this hill, from trans-
parent rock crystal to jasper and chalcedony; among which occasional
good implements occur.
Stone-heaps.—In township 23, range 14 east, of Chilton County, on
the middle prong of Yellowleaf Creek, about 34 miles northeast of
Jemison Station, on the South and North Alabama Railroad, there are
three stone heaps. The first one is about 100 yards from and on the
west bank, being about 20 feet in diameter, and from 4 to 5 feet high at
the center, with a post oak and pine growing on it of ancient appear-
ance, and each of them about 8 inches in stump measurement. Two
others nearly west of this, distant about 700 yards on the eastern brow
of the ridge, are about 100 yards apart; one of them about 10 and the
other 20 feet in diameter at the base and from 4 to 5 feet high at the
center, which, though in the primitive forest, have no trees growing on
them. Another, 1 mile east of these, on a more westerly ridge, in the
same range and township, is about 50 feet in diameter at the base and
over 5 feet high at the center. In township 21, range 3 west, on the
quartzite ridge east of Siluria (about 1 mile), on the South and North
Alabama Railroad, occurs a smaller stone heap than any of those be-
fore mentioned, supposed to be the grave of an Indian warrior.
ABORIGINAL SOAPSTONE QUARRY AND SHELL-HEAPS IN
ALABAMA.
By Cuares Mone, of Mobile, Alabama.
In the course of a mineralogical trip through the region of metamor-
phic rocks in this state, stopping at Dudleyville, Tallapoosa County, I
heard much of an ancient soapstone quarry, worked by a race of which,
according to the statements of the first settlers amongst the Creeks and
Muscogees, no tradition existed among these tribes. I was urgently
pressed, but could not go, to visit the quarry myself, so it is due to Dr.
Johnston, of Dudleyville, that I am enabled to make this contribution.
Thé gentleman writes: ‘“‘I picked up the large fragments near excava-
618 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
tions in the rock from the very place where the ancient stonecutter left
his rude and unfinished work.” Allusion to these so called soapstone ex-
cavations and pottery is made in the second biennial report on the Geol-
ogy of Alabama, by Professor Toumey, 1858, and also in the first report
of the Progress of Geological Survey of Alabama, by Dr. E. Smith, 1874,
pages, 86, 94, and 118. The rock from which this specimen has been
quarried is rather a fibrous serpentine, intermixed partly with an asbes-
toid actinite than a soapstone. <A stone chisel has, according to the
statement of Dr. Johnston, been found in the soapstone quarries, and
was undoubtedly an instrument used in cutting and dressing the vessels,
and is of a porphyritie or dioritic rock foreign to the geological forma-
tion in that section.
I found a peculiar tablet of indurated ferruginous clay, the straight
lines along the margin of which would lead one to think that it was
used for a tally, worn around the neck suspended by a string. It was
found in an old field on the western shore of Mobile Bay, near Magnolia
race course. In this county two kinds of shell-banks or shell-mounds
are met with.
The first are situated in the low marshes of the delta of Mobile River,
first recognized as artificial accumulations of shells, and described as
the gnathodon beds by Professor Toumey in his second biennial report
on Geology of Alabama, 1858. He mentions the same at the time of
his visit extending over several acres of ground, and some with an ele-
vation of from 10 to 20 feet, presenting the shape of truncated cones,
covered with a growth of native forest trees. These beds are almost
entirely made of the shells of Gnathodon cuneatus, but in some quanti-
ties of stone of Cyrena carolinensis and the Neritina reclivata have served
in a less degree to swell those accumulations; together with these,
charcoal, ashes, and the bones of birds and animals are found. Relics
of the handicraft of the builders of these shell-mounds are almost
unknown. Professor Toumey speaks of an instrument cut from the shell
of the Pyrula jficus which he found 10 feet below the surface, and of
scarce fragments of pottery. These beds are, at this day, almost all
levelled to the ground, and are rapidly disappearing, many having been
appropriated as excellent sites for market gardens, and vast quantities
of shells have been, and are still, removed for the construction of our
shell-roads. The time is rapidly approaching when scarce any vestige
will be left of them, and it is therefore most to be wished that the little
of what yet remains should be closely investigated, and a minute account
be put upon permanent record.
The other shell-banks are situated on the.eastern and western shores
of Mobile Bay, and along the coast of the Mississippi sound to the mouth
of the Pascagoula. They are all above tide-water on dry land, contigu-
ous to the extensive oyster beds in these waters, and composed exclu-
sively of the oyster. The most interesting and the most extensive of
these accumulations made by the ancient Ostreaphagi is found onthe
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 619
north side of the Bayou Cock d’Indes near its mouth, a few miles dis-
tant from Bayou La Batterie, in the extreme southern part of this
county. But comparativeiy aswall part of the large mound is left, and
what remains serves as a beautiful site for a farm house, shaded by mag-
nificent live oaks of the growth perhaps of scores of decades, offering
under their shade, from an elevation of from 25 to 35 feet, a fine view
of the surrounding country, and the island-studded waters of the Gulf.
A quarter of a century ago these banks furnished this city for years
with lime for building, and are still much used for the construction of
roadbeds; having, however, passed of late years into the hands of farm-
ers, the application of lime for agricultural purposes tends now, more
than anything else, to their demolition and rapid disappearance. Con-
siderable quantities of remains of the industries of these shell-bank
builders have been found, mostly in the shape of ornamental pottery, as
testified by a collection of these relics in the hands of Major Walthall.
They consist of a pipe, bowls, handles of pots, mouthpieces of jars, rep-
resenting heads of birds and animals, and human heads with a most
characteristic and impressive cast of features, reminding me strongly of
the faces of Mexican idols. Some of these are almost indentical with
those mentioned by Mr. Putman, in his report on the Peabody Museum
of Archeology and Ethnology, published in the June number of the
American Naturalist, and figured under Nos. 7775-76, specimens repre-
senting female heads bearing the very same features and the same style
of head-dress as No. 7778. They are all made of soft clay found on.the
bay shore, mixed with very small particles of burnt shell. What inter-
ested me mostly in looking over these remains is the occurrence of the
same double concave, rounded, and polished disks, agreeing exactly
with those of No. 7838 in the same paper.
T learn that near Mount Vernon Arsenal, 50 miles distant from this
city, and about 34 miles from the Alabama River, are ancient burial
grounds, and that the exploration of the same has, from time to time,
been attempted by different persons, I do not know with what result.
SILVER CROSSES FROM AN INDIAN GRAVE-MOUND AT
COOSAWATTEE OLD TOWN, MURRAY COUNTY, GEORGIA.
By CHARLES C. JONES, JR., LL.D., Augusta, Ga.
The two silver crosses, correct representations* of which are herewith
presented, were taken, in November, 1852, from a grave-mound at Coosa-
wattee Old Town,in Murray County, Georgia. Indian relics were
found associated with them. We incline to the opinion that they may
properly be referred to the expedition of Hernando de Soto.
If we interpret aright the wanderings of the Adelantado over the
*These drawings are half-size, and delineate both faces of each cross.
620 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
territory embraced within the geographical limits of the modern State
of Georgia, his command halted for a while at the precise spot where
these objects were obtained; and thence, moving down the valley of
the Oostanaula, reached Chiaha, the site of the present town of Rome,
where De Soto tarried during the month of June, 1540, to recruit his
men and animals.
G
a —
Fic. A 1.
In the Spanish narrative we are informed that before entering the
village of Canasagua the strangers were met by twenty natives, each
bearing a basket of mulberries.
Now, this name Canasagua lives to-day, and is borne by the Connas-
agua River, which, uniting with the Coosawattee, forms the Oostanaula.
Coosawattee Old Town is located not far above the confluence of these
streams. Within the historic period it continued to bea favorite abode
of the Cherokee Indians.
In the neighboring county of Habersham, metallic objects of Euro-
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 621
pean manufacture have been unearthed under such circumstances that
we feel justified in attributing them to the companions either of De
Soto or of Louis de Velasco.
It is a well-established fact that twelve priests, eight clergymen of
inferior rank, and four monks accompanied the Adelantado’s army.
We are assured that the conversion of the natives was one of the avowed
Fig. A 2.
purposes of the expedition. These clerical gentlemen were supplied
with crucifixes, crosses, and rosaries, which they employed about, and
distributed during the course of, their religious labors. That some ef-
fort was made to indoctrinate the aborigines in the mysteries of Christi-
anity, and tolead them to look upon the cross as a symbol of peace, we
are distinctly advised. Witness the erection of large wooden crosses,
and the teachings of the priests at Achese, at Casqui, in the province
of Icasqui, and elsewhere.
It appears by no means improbable that these crosses were presented
622 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. ~
by the Spanish clergymen of the expedition to prominent Indians—
reckoned as converts at the time—and that their fellows, in obedience
to a custom long established and maintained even to the present moment,
upon the death of the fortunate owners, buried them inthe grave-mounds
erected for their sepulture.
x
Fig. B 1.
We regret that we have no suitable references at hand which would
enable us to determine, at least approximatively, the date of the manu-
facture of these crosses. The silver of which they are made is seem-
ingly quite pure, and each cross is about the thirtieth of an inch in
thickness.
Some intrusive engraving appears on the face of one of these objects.
Behold the delineation of the head and neck of a horse! Even the most
superficial examination will convince any one that this figure was not
made with the graver’s tool which wrought the other ornamentations, but
that it was more rudely done, and, in all likelihood, with the sharp
point of a flint flake.
Why an owl should have been figured on the other face of this cross,
I know not. Were this a Roman relic our wonder would not be excited.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 623
We are at a loss to suggest a satisfactory interpretation of the in-
scription appearing in the center of one of the faces of the cross which
still retainsits ring forsuspension. Can it bearudetracing by the donor,
on the spur of the moment, of the name of the Indian to whom the
cross was presented? ‘This inscription has an illiterate, unskillful, and
hasty look about it. It is not a of a kind with the rest of the engrav-
ing, and was certainly added after the completion of the object. Writ-
ten from left to right, 1t runs as follows: TyNKICcIDU. Read from right
to left, we have UDICIKNYI. In either case, by a slight exercise of the
imagination, we have a name with a traditional aboriginal ring about it.
Manifestly these letters were not within the double circle when the
cross passed from the shop of the silversmith, and we are persuaded
that both a clumsy tool and an unskilled hand were employed in their
superscription.
As we well know, the Florida tribes were wholly unacquainted with
the horse prior to the advent of the European. To them, therefore, on
its first appearance, this quadruped must have proved an object of
special interest and wonder. These silver ornaments, too, were doubt-
624 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
less held in high esteem, because, in beauty of material, symmetry of
form, and excellency of manufacture, they far excelled all the products
of aboriginal fabrication.
May we not suggest that the native, into whose ownership one of
these crosses passed, endeavored with a flint flake to perpetuate his
recollection of this animal which, in his esteem, was not less remark-
able than the pale-faced stranger or his shining gift? We cannot re-
sist the impression that this equinal delineation was the work of an
Indian.
THE GREAT MOUND ON THE ETOWAH RIVER, GEORGIA.
By CHARLES WHITTLESEY, of Cleveland, Ohio.
Not having seen a detailed description of this mound, I made a visit
to it in behalf of the Western Reserve Historical Society in May, 1871.
It stands upon the north bank of the Etowah, about 2 miles below where
it is crossed by the Chattanooga and Atlanta Railway, near Cartersville.
Its form, size, and elevation are singular and imposing. It occupies
the easterly point or angle of a large and luxuriant river bottom, a part
of which is subject to inundations. The soil is a deep, rich, black loam,
covering several hundred acres, which has been cultivated in corn and
cotton since the Cherokees left it about forty years since.
I was compelled, by bad weather, to make the survey in haste. The
bearings were taken with a prismatic compass, the distances measured
Fre. 1.
by pacing, and the elevations obtained with a pocket level. They are
therefore subject to the corrections of future surveyors. Its base covers
a space of about 3 acres, and stands at a level of 23 feet above low water
in the river. In great floods the water approaches near the mound on
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 625
the west, but has not been known to reach it. The body of the mound
has an irregular figure, as shown ‘in the plan. It is longest on the
meridian, its diameter in that direction being about 270 feet. On the top
is a nearly level area of about an acre, the average height of which is 50
feet above the base. A broad ramp or graded way (1) winds upward
from the plain, around the south face of the mound, to the area on the
top.
Like some of the pyramids of Egypt, it has two smaller ones as tenders:
‘one on the south, C; another to the southeast, B; each about 100 feet
distant, their bases nearly square, and of nearly equal dimensions. If
they were not in the shadow of the great mound they would attract
attention for their size and regularity. The ground at Bis 3 feet higher
than at C. All of them are truncated. The mound C is not a perfectly
regular figure, but approaches a square, with one side broken into three
lines. Its height above base is 18 feet. The bearing of its western side
is north 10° west, and the léngth on the ground 47 paces, having been
somewhat spread out by plowing around the foot. On the east is a
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Etowa River.
Fie. 2.
ramp, with a slope of one to two degrees which allows of ready ascent
by persons on foot.
The slopes of all the mounds are very steep and quite perfect, in
S. Mis. 109——40
626 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
some places still standing at an angle of 45°. Bis a regular truncated
pyramid, with a square base about 106 feet on a side, two of the faces
bearing 5° west of the meridian. Its elevation is 22 feet. There is no
ramp, or place of ascent which is less steep than the general slopes.
Towards the southeast corner of the surface of B is a sunken place
as though a vault had fallen in.
The proprietor has managed to cultivate the summits of all the mounds,
regarding the group in the light of a continual injury by the loss of,
several acres of ground. Most of the material of the mounds is the rich
black mold of the bottom land, with occasional lumps of red clay. The
soil on their sides and summits produces corn, cotton, grass, vines, and
bushes in full luxuriance. The perimeter of the base of the great mound
is 534 paces. As the ground had been recently plowed and was soaked
with a deluge of rain, a pace will represent little more than 2 feet.’ I
give the circumference provisionally at 370 yards. The area on the top
is like the base, oblong north and south, but its figure is more regular.
Its perimeter is 231 paces.
From the center of the pyramid C@ a line on the magnetic meridian
passes a few feet to the west of the center of the platform on the summit
of A. Its sides are nowhere washed or gullied by rains. Prior to the
clearing of the land, large trees flourished on the top and on the slopes.
I estimate its mass to contain 117,000 cubic yards, which is about four-
fifths of the Prussian earth monument on the field of Waterloo.
At the base the ramp is 50 feet broad, growing narrower as you as-
cend. It curves to the right, and reaches the area on the top near its
southwest corner. Twenty-five years since, before it was injured by
cultivation, visitors could easily ride to the summit on horseback along
the ramp. From this spot the view of the rich valley of the Etowah,
towards the west, and of the picturesque hills which border it on either
side, is one of surpassing beauty.
About 300 yards to the north rises the second terrace of the valley,
composed of red clay and gravel. Near the foot of it are the remains of
a ditch, inclosing this group of mounds in an are of a circle, at a dis-
tance of about 200 yards. The western end rests on the river below
the mounds, into which the high waters back up a considerable distance.
It has been principally filled up by cultivation. The owner of the
premises says there was originally an embankment along the edge of
the ditch on the side of the pyramids, but other old settlers say there
was none. If the last statement is correct, a part of the earth compos-
ing the mounds can be accounted for by the ditch.
Its length is about one-fourth of a mile, and it does not extend to the
river above the mounds. Near the upper end are two oblong irregular
pits, 12 to 15 feet deep, from which a part of the earth of the mounds
may have been taken. The diameter of the pits varies from 150 to 200
feet, and the breadth from 60 to 70. The ditch is reputed to have been
30 feet wide and 10 feet deep. Two hundred yards to the northeast of
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 627
A are the remains of four low mounds within the ditch, near the large
pits. Five hundred yards to the northwest, on the edge of the second
terrace, is a mound which is yet 8 feet high, although it has been indus-
triously plowed over more than thirty years. On the opposite side of
the river, one-fourth of a mile below, and on the same side 2 miles
below, are said to be small mounds.
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On the summit of a rocky hill, 24 miles northwest, which overlooks —
the valley of the Etowah towards Rome, and also the hill country on
the south, is an inclosure of loose unhewn stoves, known as the ** Indian
Fort.” It has now the appearance of a heavy stone fence which has
fallen down.
breadth of 10 to 60 feet, situated at irregular distances.
There are six openings or entrances, B BB, having a
It is an irregu-
628 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
Jar oval figure inclosing the rocky summit of the hill, the largest diam-
eter of which is 220 paces and the shorter 200. The elevation of the
knob, at the center, is 50 feet above the terrace or bench, on which
the lines of loose stones are lying. This interior space is principally
cleared of loose stone, and shows bare ledges of lime rock, in horizontal
layers. .
The hill is covered with an open growth of oaks. There is nothing
in this structure suggestive of a fort, except its elevated position, which,
however, is by no means inaccessible. The openings are too wide and
too numerous to warrant the idea of a defensive work. Itis more prob-
able that it was the scene of imposing public processions and displays,
and was approached by crowds of persons from all sides through the
openings. The rude wall or line of stones would be the necessary re-
sult of clearing the ground of the blocks of limestone once scattered
profusely over the surface.
Near where the railway from Cartersville to Cedarville crosses Petit’s
Creek, at the base of the limestone bluff, about half a mile east of the
“fort,” is an artificial pile of small stones, which was once about 18 feet
in height. It is now very much injured by persons in search of treasure
and of relics, who have formed a crater at the center nearly down to the
ground, throwing the stones over the sides. It must have been a regu-
lar cone, with smaller heaps attached around its base, which was irregu-
lar, and about 160 feet in circumference. This mound of stones does
not differ from those raised by the red men over the remains of their
dead chiefs except in size.
A few days before I was at the great mound, a rude stone effigy of a
female was plowed out near its base on the north side. It is quite gro-
tesque, resembling the uncouth carvings in wood of the Indians of
thenorth. Its height is 14 inches, its weight 36 pounds, and the mate-
rial is the limestone of the region.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 629
I have a photograph of it, viewed on three sides. On the hips and
back are colored zigzag lines of white and brown, intended for orna-
ment. Some years since a male, prob-
ably the mate to it, was plowed out near
the same place; also an earthen vase and
other pottery, with flintdisks. The first-
found image was lost or destroyed, and
the other soon will be. In style and ar-
tistie execution they appear to be the
work of the present red man.
Mr. Tumlin, the owner of the premises,
and Mr. Sage, of Cartersville, who knew
the country while the Cherokees were in
possession of it, state that the summit of |!//
the great pyramid was a fortified village,
surrounded by pickets of wood and a
slightembankment. This parapet is still
visible, but is, at least in part, owing to Fic. 6.
furrows turned outward in plowing, and, until recently, the stumps of
the pickets were struck by the plow. Near the southeast corner of the
area, on the top, is alow mound. It is a third of a mile, at the nearest
point, to where there is land of a height equal to the mound, and there-
fore it was a place easily defended. Although the Cherokees made use
of it as a fort against the Creeks, they always denied having any knowl-
edge of the race or the persons by whom the mound was erected. The
gentlemen above named questioned them repeatedly on this point, and
always received the same answer. If it had been designed asa place of
defense originally, a much less broad and gentle road to the summit
would have been made.
Iwas attracted to this mound and its surroundings as a type of the
flat-top pyramids, so common on the waters of the Gulf of Mexico, which
have been by some archeologists attributed to the present race of red
men. In Florida ‘and in Alabama, the early English and Spanish tray-
elers found Indian ecaciques with their wigwams on the top of such
mounds, around which were the villages of their tribe. Instances are
given where Indian towns occupied spaces surrounded by ancient em-
bankments of earth, both with and without mounds.
Mr. S. F. Haven, long distinguished in archeology as the secretary
of the American Antiquarian Society at Worcester, Mass., in his article
in the Smithsonian Contributions for 1855, vol. viii, has referred to an
instance of an intrenched fort made by the Arickarees, in a bend of
the Missouri River, above Council Bluffs. The description of this fort
by Lewis and Clark does not give it the character of an earthwork with
ditches for defense. It was a temporary breastwork of logs and earth
and stone, hastily thrown up, such as are common in Indian warfare,
and in all warfare.
630 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
The Indian forts which were attacked by Champlain in northeastern
New York in 1609 were constructed of pickets set in a low bank, strength-
ened by interlacing branches and poles, secured by bark and withes.
During the French wars with the Iroquois, on the waters of Lake Ontario,
they met with nothing more advanced than these light stockades. The
pickets were set in the earth, and the bank raised against them from
both sides, to give them amore firm support. Inno case was the bank
or ditch relied upon as a protection or as an obstacle to those without.
They were of a profile too slight for this purpose.
The northwestern Indians have been questioned in numerous instan-
ces as to the authors of the earthworks of the West. They universally
deny having any knowledge or tradition of the persons who built them;
a tradition which could not have been lost, or the art of making them.
The relics which are found in the mounds, in connection with the first
or oldést burials, although there are resemblances, differ from the relics
of the red menin many particulars. If stone axes or mauls of the Indian
type have been found in the mounds, they are rare. The last-named
race were not miners of copper or copper-workers. In the implements
of the two races there are resemblances, especially in those which are
made of flint, but no greater than in those of the ancient races in Europe,
where no connection is claimed.
It cannot, however, be denied that continued investigations bring to
light a strong similarity between the works of the ancient tribes of the
South and the mound-builders. If the dividing line shall be broken
down as to them, there is a wide difference between the northern tribes
and the mound-builders.
Col. C. C. Jones, of Atlanta, Ga., in his valuable work on the Southern
Indians (1874), has given historical proof to show that the Spaniards
were witnesses to the erection of such mounds.
Most of the above descriptive matter is an abstract of my remarks at
the Chicago meeting of the American Association, in August, 1871,
before the appearance of the book of Colonel Jones. The drawings
used at the meeting have been reduced by photograph for this paper.
I take pleasure in referring to his work (pages 137 to 143) for details
not in my description, especially the artificial ponds D D, and the mound
E inclosed by the moat. The cavities H H H of my sketch are the
ponds P of Colonel Jones, but at the time of my visit were without water.
There is but one ascent to the platform A, which is represented at 1, ej,
and is in very good condition. Fort Hill no doubt had a relation to this
group of mounds answering to the high places of worship which are
common in Palestine.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 631
NEW RIVER MOUNDS, BERRIEN COUNTY, GEORGIA.
By WILuiAM J. Taylor, of Nashville, Ga.
The mounds described in this paper, two in number, are situated on
a dry sandy level of pine and oak land near the edge of a hummock
which skirts the creek in the ninth district of Berrien County, Gvorgia.
They are about 300 yards from the creek and 100 yards from a branch
emptying into the creek. This site is on lot numbered 275, and 6
miles southwest from the town of Nashville.
The mounds had been partially explored previously to our examina-
tion, but the following is an account of our results :
Mound No. 1 was 30 feet wide and 4 feet high, and perfectly cir-
cular at the base. The earth composing it was obtained from a saucer-
shaped excavation, now 8 feet across and 1 foot deep. At the bottom
of this depression were found charred wood, ashes, and pieces of burnt
pine wood, which appeared to have been placed there when the inter-
ment was made. ;
Mound No. 2 resembled No.1 in every respect. The growth on both
mounds were wire-grass, sedge, bushes of the red oak and post oak.
The early settlers and the Indians whom they encountered were alike
ignorant of the origin of these relics of the past.
ANCIENT CANALS IN FLORIDA.
By CHARLES J. KENWORTHY, of Jacksonville, Fla.
In November and December, 1877, I indulged in a sail-boat cruise
from Key West to Cedar Keys, and en route found and superficially ex-
amined an ancient canal in township 50 south, range 25 east. The
accompanying drawing gives a sketch of the locality.
The canal is at present 12 feet wide at the bottom, and about 40 at
the top. The embankment on each side is about 4 feet higher than the
original surface. Engineering skill was manifested in laying out the
canal, for its first 600 feet are at right angles with the coast line, after
which it trends to the eastward. Those canals were not erected by our
indolent Indians, and in my opinion they were made by another race.
Three years ago I made a boat trip from Cedar Keys to Charlotte Har-
bor, on Lake Okeechobee. On my return I superficially examined a
eanal at Pine Island, Charlotte Harbor.
Some of the largest mounds in the State have been constructed near
the southwest end of the canal. In my opinion the mounds have been
made since the canal was excavated. I was anxious to make an exami.
nation to determine the date of the mound-building as regards the canal,
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
632
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MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 633
but my companions would not stop. I was assured, by a gentleman
who had resided on the island for 24 years, that the canal extended
across the island a distance of 3 miles, and that it could be traced in-
land (from the shore of the mainland) a distance of 14 miles. A canal
similar in character exists between the falls at the head of the Caloosa-
hatchee and Lake Okeechobee. An old coaster informed me that he
had discerned an ancient canal on one of the Thousand Islands south
of Cape Romano. Those excavations are evidently very old and not the
work of Indians. They were not constructed for defensive purposes,
but evidently for canals.
In his examinations, Professor Wyman did not visit the large mounds
of the State. The largest of those standing are to be found on Pine
Island and Gasparilla Island, Charlotte Harbor, at Old Fort Centre,
Fish Eating Creek, on the plain between New Fort Centre and Fort
Thompson, and between Fort Myers and Cyprus Bay. The mound at
Old Fort Centre is about 50 feet high. It was evidently used for burial
purposes, and if an excavation was made many things might be eollected.
I used a stick, and with a few minutes’ scratching I found bones every-
where. The largest and most interesting mounds in the State have es-
caped notice and examination. From the immense number and large
size of the shell heaps on the southwest coast, this section must have
been inhabited for along period by a large population. The distribution
of the shells in some of the heaps led me to believe that the inhabitants
were governed by some law. In some ofthe heaps you will find a layer
of conch shells several feet in thickness, and above or below a layer of
oyster shells. The largest number of shell mounds are to be found on
the Nelt River, a lagoon or river connecting Crystal and Henoosana
Rivers.
In my wanderings I found a remarkable shell deposit on the shore of
Orange Lake. I noticed an elevation on the flat near the shore of the
lake, covering over an acre and about 6 feet high. I noticed on the
surface fragments of oyster shells. I obtained a grubbing hoe and
made an excavation about 2 feet deep, and found a bed of oyster shells.
They differed from other shells I have examined in other portions of the
State. As far as examined, each shell had been broken at the end, as
oysters were opened some years ago. The present elevation of Orange
Lake is 48 feet 8 inches above the ocean level. The nearest oyster bed
is distant 43 miles. This immense heap of shells was not transported
43 miles, but in my opinion were obtained from Orange Lake when it
was a bay or estuary of the sea. From my investigations I feel assured
that the oysters were collected and eaten when the State of Florida
consisted of a belt of high land extending from the Chattahooehee to a
point south of Sumterville, and before the balance of the State at-
tained its present elevation above the ocean. If my views are correct,
Florida was inhabited a long time ago. If the shells referred to have
not presented the endeavors of man’s work I might have referred the
634 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
collection to other causes. Two years ago I made the acquaintance of
a very intelligent gentleman residing near Sumterville. Four years ago
he was out deer hunting with dogs on the shore of Lake Charleossos-
skie. He was riding over an
J) Nea oe «| elevated hummock sur-
WE
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rounded by a large sun-grass
Swamp, and discovered traces
of old cultivation. Looking
about, he discovered a heap
of ancient pottery, which, he
assured me, amounted to
several cart-loads. He dis-
mounted and examined a
number of the vessels, and
found that a hole had been
made in the bottom of each
to render it useless. After
examining a few of them he
followed in pursuit of his
dogs. It seems to me that
this hummock must have
been the resort of a tribe of
Indians, and when attacked
by enemies they rendered
their most valuable utensils
useless to the enemy.
He had in the city, some
months since, a large molar
tooth weighing 9 pounds. It
was picked up near Sumter-
ville. On some of the tribu-
taries of Pease Creek huge
‘| bones are visible in the sand
bars at low stages of water.
Plan No. 1 is an accurate
sketch of the locality, show-
ing the peninsula, inlet, lagoon, islands, and canals. Plan No. 2, on a
smaller scale, shows John’s Pass and Marco Inlet.
One mile and three-quarters south of Doctor’s Pass is John’s Pass,
with three inside channels connecting them. Three miles and a quarter
south of John’s Pass is Little Marco Inlet, with an inside channel con-
necting them. :
The land on the peninsula traversed by the canal is low, and poor
pine land, not over 4 feet above high-water mark. From a passing
examination of the mainland east of the lagoon it presented the ap-
pearance of low pine land unfit for cultivation. It is evident that no
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 635
large settlement ever existed in the neighborhood of the canal. Unless
marked changes have occurred in the land by the opening of passes
since the excavation was made, there is no apparent reason why so
much labor was bestowed on the work.
Along the Gulf shore, for a distance of 150 feet inland from high-
water mark, there exists a flat sand bank about 4 feet above the gen-
eral surface of the peninsula, and this deposit has apparently blocked
up the Gulf end of the canal. The canal at the head of the Caloosa-
hatchee connects with the river and ends abruptly inland.
The canal crossing Pine Island is less than 4 miles from its northern
end, and there is no apparent object why the excavation was made.
The width, depth, and general appearance of all the canals are the
same.
MOUNDS IN ALACHUA COUNTY, FLORIDA.
By JAMES BELL, of Gainesville, Fla.
There are at least fifty mounds within 20 miles of Gainesville, Flor-
ida. The accompanying sketch gives the location of six which have
been examined, and of which the descriptions are given in this paper.
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Fia. 1.
Mound No. 1 was 7 feet high and 30 feet in diameter, and located in
a cleared field which has been plowed over for the last twenty years.
636 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
A shaft was sunk below the original surface. Openings were also made-
in the sides. But no relies whatever were found.
Mound No. 2 is situated in the same field 300 yards north of No. 1.
It was at the time of its examination 10 feet high and about 95 feet in
base diameter. Like No. 1, it had been much plowed over. A shaft was
sunk in it below the base and extended laterally, but nothing wasfound —
excepting a few fragments of charcoal and pottery. a
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Fic. 2.—Mound No. 3—looking north (1 and 2—shafts: 4, 4=pottery.
Mound No. 3 is upon a hummock near its edge. It measures 12 feet
in height, and 105 by 70 feet in base diameter. Being situated on the
slope of the hummock, the summit of which overlooks the mound, this
work seems to have escaped observation. A family living only 30 yards
distant were very much surprised to find it a burial mound. Two large
trees were growing on the top at the time of my visit, and the entire
surface was covered with a dense growth of bushes and grape-vines.
The accompanying sketch will convey a clear idea of its appearance.
A shaft 6 feet in diameter was sunk to the original surface. After dig-
ging down about 10 inches broken pottery was encountered in great
quantities, but so much shattered that it was impossible to restore a
single vessel.
' gh
4)
e : ‘ ~
} ( Be Z
he —
iu ay SOT Aes
Wy
Fia. 3.—Mound No. 3—looking west.
The first bones were found about 15 or 18 inches from the surface.
This stratum extended over the mound for a space 30 feet in diameter.
There appeared to be three tiers of bones about a foot apart. The
bodies had not been buried here; the bones seemed to have been thrown
in promiscuously.
Being compelled to abandon my work for a season, other persons dug
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 637
into this mound and recovered some valuable pottery. One large basin
was made in imitation of a duck with wings and bill exposed.
Resuming the exploration, the surface was dug over for a space of
30 feet in diameter and 5 feet deep. Within that area not less than one
thousand skeletons were exhumed and at least two wagon loads of pot-
sherds. This pottery commenced about a foot from the surface and ex-
tended down to the first stratum of bones.
Mound No. 4 was only 4 feet high and 15 feetin base diameter. Upon
examination it was found to contain no relics.
Fic. 4.—Mound No. 5—looking north (1, 2, 3=shafts: 4, 4, 4—=charcoal and ashes. }
Mound No. 5 was 10 feet high and 32 feet in base diameter, and very
symmetrically shaped. It was situated on a hummock about 50 yards
from the margin of the arm of Payne’s Prairie. This was formerly a
lake, but about twenty years ago the water disappeared through the
sink. It remained dry for about three years, when it filled with water
and has remained a lake ever since. This mound was examined (see
Fig. 4) and a stratum of ashes, charcoal, and charred bones encountered
3 feet from the surface.
Mound No. 6 was about 8 feet high and 80 feet in base diameter. It
stood in a cleared field which had been plowed over for a number of
years. Nothing was discovered within it, although a ditch was cut
through from one side to the other.
SHELL DEPOSITS AT THE MOUTH OF SHORT CREEK, WEST
VIRGINIA.
By H. B. HuspsBarp, of Wheeling, W. Va.
Short Creek is a little stream that enters the Ohio River 9 miles above
the city of Wheeling, and the shell deposit alluded to commences to
show in the bank of the river some 50 yards above the mouth of this
creek, and is exposed for over 100 feet up the river, when it is hidden
by a fill for a road down to the water. The siells are those of the fresh-
water clam and are very fragile, splitting into fine scales on handling,
though an occasional one is found that is perfect. The shells are now
covered with about 3 feet of silt, and formerly there were 3 or 4 feet of
the same loamy deposit over this, but it was removed in grading for a
public road. A portion of this road, with much of the deposit of shells,
has fallen into the river by the caving in of the bank.
638 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
While many of the usual indications which mark such deposits as
artificial, such as the remains of fires, &c., are present, there are two
peculiarities worthy of especial notice. One of which is a stratum of
river bowlders which divides the deposit of shells, which is over 2 feet
in thickness, into two very equal parts throughitsentireexposure. These
bowlders were evidently selected with great care for uniformity in size
and are about 3 inches in diameter, and are packed as closely as in a
pavement. The remains of the fires show both above and below these
bowlders, but none immediately upon them. The other peculiarity is the
abundance of human bones found mixed with the shells, but these are
probably of later origin, and, if so, show that the pie has subsequently
been used for a burial place.
The large mound at Moundsville, W. Va., was opened in 1838 by Mr.
Tomlinson, who, in opening, drove two shafts into it, one on the plane
of the base to its center, the other from the top to the base. The hor-
izontal shaft was through a loamy clay as far as driven, which was some
12 or 15 feet at the time I was there, and for 3 or 4 feet in from the sur-
face on the sides and top was marked with fine dark lines which formed
segments of circles springing from each other in successive rows, after
the manner of what issometimes termed the “‘shell-pattern.” These lines
were from 12 to 16 inches from point to point of contact and 23 to 3
inches apart at their greatest vertical separation. These lines suggested
the idea that the mounds had been faced with turf. In support of this
hypothesis, it would be necessary to remember the high angle of eleva-
tion of the faces of the mound, the height of the mound and the material
of which it is composed, and while the angle of inclination of the faces
is no more than nature willingly tolerates under such circumstances,
yet, unless the faces were protected, they would be much wasted and
gullied by the rains before they would be protected by spontaneous veg-
etation. The adaptation of the means to the end is apparent in the
facility with which the material could be obtained and applied, and in
the perfect protection which such a casing would afford.
ANTIQUITIES OF SOUTHWESTERN PENNSYLVANIA.
By Rev. Horace HayDEN, of West Brownsville, Pa.
In view of the fact that in the States of Ohio, Indiana, and espe-
cially Wisconsin, ancient remains have been so carefully investigated,
it must appear strange that the many indicia of a prehistoric race in
the western part of Pennsylvania and in the State of West Virginia
should be so little known. At the present date these indicia have been
largely decreased by vandalism and by the action of the elements,
Many mounds have been plowed down to the surface of the surround-
ing ground or leveled to make way for towns. Many of the remark-
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 639
_able sculptured rocks have been used for building purposes or are
lying below the surface of the Monongahela River, even at low tide,
the river being higher now at all seasons by reason of the slack-water
improvements than it was forty years ago. The second geological re-
port of Pennsylvania contains nothing on the subject of antiquities;
Dr. Creigh, in his ‘History of Washington County,” is entirely silent
as to the numerous mounds, &e., which are found in the county limits ;
and the centennial volume of the “Resources of West Virginia,” by
Prof. M. F. Maury, ignores the many and exceedingly interesting re-
mains in that State. I shall here, however, give simply an account of
the antiquities of Fayette County, Pennsylvania, and, in another paper,
of those in parts of West Virginia. This account will necessarily be
taken largely from an unpublished work by Hon. James Veech and
Freeman Lewis, the latter an old and experienced surveyor of Browns-
ville, Pa. Remains of embankments or “old forts” are numerous in
Fayette County. The Indians known to us could give no satisfactory
account of them. While the trees of the surrounding forests were chiefly
oak, the growth upon and in the old forts was generally of large black
walnut, wild cherry, and locust. Some indicate an age of three hun-
dred to five hundred years, and some stood around the decayed remains
of others. Judge Veech thinks they were originally composed of wood,
as their débris is generally a vegetable mold, no stone being used in
their construction. Old pottery, made of clay and mussel-shells, is al-
ways found among these ruins. The old forts were of various forms,
square, oblong, triangular, circular, and semi-circular. Their sites were
generally well chosen in reference to defense and observation, and, what
is a singular fact, they were very often, generally in Fayette County,
located on the highest and richest hills, and at a distance from any spring
or stream of water.
One of these “old forts” was on the land of William Goe, near the
Monongahela River, and just above the mouth of Little Redstone,
where afterwards was a settlers’ fort, called Cassell’s or Castle Fort.
Another was situated at the mouth of Speers Run, where now stands
the town of Belle Vernon. Two or three are found on a high ridge
southwardly of Perryopolis, on the State road, and on land lately owned
by John F. Martin.
Another noted one is on the west bank of the Youghiogheny River,
nearly opposite the Brood ford, on land lately owned by James Collins.
There are several on the high ridge of land leading from the Collins
fort southwestwardly towards Plumsock, on lands of James Paull, John
M. Austin, John Bute, and others, aremarkable one being on land lately
owned by James Gilchrist and the Byers, where some very large human
bones have been found.
There is one on the north side of Mountz Creek, above Irishman’s Run.
A very large one, containing 6 or 8 acres, is on the summit of Laurel
Hill, where the mud pike crosses it, covered with a large growth of
black walnut.
640 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
One especially noted as containing a great quantity of broken shells
and pottery existed on the high land between Laurel run and the
Youghiogheny River, on a tract formerly owned by Judge Young, and
remains of the fort are to be seen. There are yet distinct traces of one
on land of General Henry W. Beeson, formerly Colonel McClean’s, about
miles east of Uniontown.
There was one northeast of New Geneva, at the locality known as the
“Flint Hill,” on land now owned by John Franks.
Two miles northeast of New Geneva, on the road to Uniontown, and
on land late of William Morris, now Nicholas B. Johnson, was one cele-
brated for its great abundauce of mussel-shells. In the high ridge south-
wardly of the headwaters of Middle Run several existed, of which may
be named one on the Bixler land, one on the high knob eastwardly of
Clark Breading’s, one on the Alexander Wilson tract, and one on the
land ot Dennis Riley, deceased, formerly Andrew C. Johnson’s. Judge
Veech also states that ‘a very noted ‘old fort’ and of most command-
ing location was at Brownsville, on the site of Fort Burd, but covering
a much larger area. Even after Colonel Burd built his fort here, in 1759,
it retained the name of the ‘Old Fort,’ Redstone Old Fort, or Fort Ked-
stone.” Iam quite sure that Judge Veech is in error in locating this
old fort on the site of Fort Burd.
Of the antiquities immediately around Brownsville no trace at pres-
ent remains. On the original draught of Fort Burd, made by Major
Joseph Shippen in 1759, and now in the possession of the Historical
Society of Pennsylvania, can be seen, immediately to the rear of Fort
Burd, the old Indian Fort, which is now so entirely obliterated that
very few remember where it was located. The fullest description of
this earthwork is found in “Travels in America, performed in 1806, for
the purpose of exploring the rivers Allegheny, Monongahela, Ohio, and
Mississippi, &c., by Thomas Ashe, esq., London, 1808.” In the fifth let-
ter of this work the author says:
“The neighborhood of Brownsville or Redstone abounds with
monuments of Indian antiquity. They consist of fortified camps, bar-
rows for the dead, images and utensils, military appointments, &. A
fortified camp (which is a fortification of a very complete nature, on
whose ramparts timbers of 5 feet in diameter now grows) commands
the town of Brownsville, which undoubtedly was once an Indian settle-_
ment. This camp contains about 13 acres, inclosed in a circle, the ele-
vation of which is7 feet above the adjoining ground. Within the circle
a pentagon is accurately described, having its sides 4 feet high and its
angles uniformly 3 feet from the circumference of the circle, thus leav-
ing an unbroken communication all round. Each side of the pentagon
has a postern opening into the passage between it and the circle, but
the circle itself has only one grand gateway, which directly faces the
town. Exactly in the center stands a mound, about 30 feet high,
hitherto considered as a repository for the dead, and which any correct
observer can perceive to have been a lookout. I confess that I examined
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 641
‘these remains of the former power of man with much care and venera-
tion; nor could I resist reproaching those writers who have ignorantly
asserted, ‘We know of no such thing existing as an Indian monument
of respectability, for we would not honor with that name arrow-points,
stone hatchets, stone pipes, half-shapen images, We.’
“The one which I have opened might have been originally a parallelo-
grain 60 feet by 20, and 30 feet high, whose upper surface and angles
have been rounded by the long influence of time and accident; for we
are not to conceive that the form of ancient works is exactly similar to
that which they first possessed. Such, indeed, as are built of stone and’
have not been exposed to dilapidation do not experience any material
change; but all those monuments (and they are by far the most numer-
ous) which are composed of earth must have undergone consider-
able alteration and waste, and therefore afford a very scanty evidence
of their original dimensions, or (except where bones are found) of their
purpose. The bones in the barrows of this neighborhood were directed
to every point, without regard to system or order. This surprised me
more as I am well convinced that in general most of the ancient abo-
riginal nations and tribes had favorite positions for their dead, and
even favorite strata with which to cover them, as I shall have occasion
to explain when on the spot where the primitive Indians resided. Per-
haps the irregularities in the barrows of this place may arise from ihe
bones deposited in them, having been those of persons killed in battle,
and collected by the survivors in order to be buried under one great
mound. - - - At the same time and place I found in my researches
a few carved stone pipes and hatchets, flints for arrows, and pieces of
earthenware. I cannot take upon me to say that the workmanship of
any of these articles surpasses the efforts of some of the present race
ot Indians, but it certainly destroys an opinion which prevailed, that the
inhabitants in the most remote times had the use of arms, utensils and
instruments made of copper, iron, and steel.”
Josiah Priest, in his American Antiquities, 1833, p. 85, mentions this
ancient fort, but he uses the language of Ashe without giving credit.
Mr. James L. Bowman, who had frequently seen the outlines of the
camp, notices it briefly in ‘‘ Day’s Historical Collections” and the “‘Ameri-
can Pioneer.”
Curiously carved rocks are to be seen on many parts of the Monon-
gahela River. At the mouth of Ten-Mile Creek, 12 miles above Browns-
ville, are the most interesting of these. Some of the rocks there bear
the impress of a man’s foot, a horse’s foot, a hand, a head, a turkey, a
fish, birds, beasts, &c.
On the farm of Mr. George. E. Hogg, near Dunlap’s Creek Chureh, 5
miles east of Brownsville, there have been found a vast number of flat
stones, soft and friable, which are full of small circular indentations of
various diameters, as if made by the attrition of some harder substance,
rubbed between the hands. Possibly they were used to produce fire by
rubbing pieces of cane if them rapidly between the palms of the hand.
S. Mis. 109——41
642 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
ROCK-CARVINGS ON THE SUSQUEHANNA RIVER.
By F. G. GALBRAITH, of Bainbridge, Pa.
The rock referred to in this paper was originally 71 feet in length
and 10 feet in width. Seventeen feet on the west and 16 on the east
remain undisturbed. The center, 38 feet in length, was blasted away
many years ago, and the stone used in the construction of a shad-fish-
ery, by which many carvings were undoubtedly destroyed, traces of
which I discovered upon fragments of rock lying scattered over the
upper end of the island. The rock was evidently a continued mass of
sculpturing, and hundreds of these may yet be traced with a little care.
A large portion of the east end is becoming detached from the main
body, and will in the course of a few years topple over, face foremost,
into the river. Many -of the carvings, which are undoubtedly of a
very remote date, are much defaced by the elements. This statement
relates more particularly to those on the north and east ends, which I
impute to the changing in the course of the stream at this particular
point. The rock being located at the head of Grey Rock Falls, is sub-
ject to much wear by swift water. For this reason, and the fact that the
rock is composed of talcose slate, it is my impression that the carvings
were originally deeply cut, which evidence can again be traced in the
east and south end carvings, all of which are much deeper than those
on any other portion of the rock. The large circular carving is the only
one traceable by compass on the rocks, and faces ‘nine o’clock, sun-
rise.” The tracings were all taken by actual measurements from dead-
lines made upon the rock, one perpendicular through the center of the
carving and another across. The one from which the tracings were
made is slightly enlarged to show it more plainly. The small island (a
fishery) which it connects is probably 80 feet long by 20 broad at its
widest point. The large rock on the opposite side of the middle chan-
nel is about 150 yards distant, having several carvings upon it. Iam
unable to say whether the spring and fall floods rise sufficiently high
to cover the large projecting rocks below the small island so as to
change the course of the stream at that point, but do not think so, as
the fall of water is about 8 feet to the mile. Mr. French informed me,
however, that the rock and island were accessible in very dry seasons,
so that it does not appear necessary that boats should have been brought
into requisition by the natives, or if so, only in case of high water,
while at work upon the rock. The outer rock can only be reached by
boat. .
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 643
CHAUTAUQUA COUNTY, NEW YORK.
By JAMES SHEWARD, of Dunkirk, N. Y.
Chautauqua County has furnished many indications of a former oe-
cupancy ; but, as yet, we have found nothing to establish its probable
antiquity.
I have some fragments of a piece of pottery, a jar or vase, found be-
neath the roots of a very old apple-tree in the town of Stockton. This
tree grew in a valley, and was evidently quite old when it was blown
down. The vase or jar was broken, but it was estimated, from the
pieces found, to be about two gallons capacity. The pieces indicate
that it was made principally from pounded quartz. The surface was
smooth and impervious to water. The depth at which it was found I
have been unable to ascertain with any certainty. Thus far I can find no
evidence of a secular increase in the valley ; consequently there are no
data for a calculation of the period when the jar was abandoned. The
fragments and description were given to me by Mr. F. McCullough, of
Delanti, this county. Within the village of Frewsbury, town of Car-
roll, some years ago, a pine stump, which had been left standing for a
long time, was pulled up, and under its roots were found two human
skeletons. Isaw some of the bones were parts of the skull, but was
unable to determine whether the crania indicated round, flat, or oval-
shaped heads. I could obtain no certain information as to the depth
below the surface at which these bones were found, and none as to sec-
ular increase. The pine stump was very large and showed 580 cuticle
layers or growths. The tree at the time it was felled was five hundred
and eighty years old, and was probably cut down twenty years or
more before the stump was pulled up. A period of six hundred years
must have elapsed since that tree began to grow. How long those
skeletons have been inhumed prior to the germination of the tree we
eannot tell. At the first settlement of that section of our county the
valley was a vast pine forest. Through this valleyruns a creek or
brook, tributary to the Conawauga, one of the tributaries of the Ohio.
I have reason to think that a thorough exploration of this neighborhood
would give valuable information.
In the town of Sheridan, on the farm of Mr. N. Gould, have been
found, at various times, numbers of human bones. These bones indi-
cated, by their number, size, and position, that the place where they
were found was either a cemetery or had been the scene of a battle
where large numbers of all ages and sexes had been killed. The cra-
niological developments I know nothing about. In the vicinity of Mr.
Gould’s farm are yet to be found earthen fortifications, breastworks,
and ditches. These fortifications are somewhat numerous and exten-
644 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
sive, reaching over into the town of Perufret, where a hill, known now as
Fort Hill, gives unequivocal testimony of the work of man. Between
Fort Hill aa Mr. Gould’s farm is found a hill about 30 feet high, with
a circumference at its base of about 90 paces. The top of this hill is
flat, oval in outline, and composed, as far as examined, of the material
constituting the surface formation of the plain. The hill may possi-
bly have been formed by currents of water, but there is no bluff or
bank near it. It stands about 3 miles inland from the lake, and was
originally covered with large forest trees in nowise differing from the
trees of the surrounding plain. Mr. Gould, over seventy years of age,
says he well remembers the hill as it was in bis childhood, and that it was
so conspicuously above the surrounding trees as to be regarded asa
landmark by early navigators of Lake Erie. He describes one tree,
which grew near the top of the hill, as being 4 feet in diameter. Care-
ful examination of the plain gave no depression in the surface to indi-
cate that the earth which composes the hill was excavated there. IL
am inclined to the opinion that the hill is in reality a mound, and that
it was in some way connected with the other fortifications already men-
tioned. In this connection I may mention that some years ago, in
plowing a field on his farm, Mr. Williams, of the town of Sheridan,
turned up as much as two bushels of flint spalls or chips, and anumber
of arrow and spear heads. These were pretty much all together, and led
Mr. Williams to suppose that Indians made their tools there. Some of
these implements, in outline and material, very nearly, if not entirely,
correspond to those found in Ohio, near what is called Flint Ridge. I
believe that flint or chert is not to be found in this county. Whether
the crude stone was brought to the place where the flints were found, and
was there worked into shape, ‘cannot be settled as yet. Some fifty-odd
years ago I saw a large field in what is now the city of Zanesville, Ohio,
plowed up for the first time. The whole field was dotted over with
flakes, spalls, arrow and spear heads, stone hammers, and axes, indica
tive ofa manufactory. Old and partly decayed stumps were overturned
or pulled up and the spalls were found under them. From this field to
Flint Ridge there was nearly a continuous water communication. There
are grounds for believing that the material was originally quarried at
Flint Ridge, where numerous excavations, partially filled up, are to be
found, and having trees growing in them. Whether the persons or
people who wrought in Sheridan were located there we do not know,
neither can we safely say that the implements found were made by
those who erected the fortifications.
T have an amulet which was plowed up on the farm of Mr. Prender-
gast, in the town of Westfield, this county, and by him presented to me.
It somewhat resembles Fig. 27 in Colonel Foster’s work, ‘‘ Prehistorie¢
Races,” page 222, which he calls a totem. His totem was found in Wis-
consin; the amulet was found in Chautauqua County. I will give my
reasons for regarding these effigies as amulets in an article now pre-
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 645
paring, entitled “‘ An Inquiry into the Origin and Antiquity of the Indian
Race.” Ihave never yet found an Indian drawing or signature of his
totem that could be at all compared to the outline of the amulet; and
as there are two holes neatly drilled and rimmed for the reception of a
thong or cord, I am inclined to think that no Indian made it, and that
it belonged to a people of superior taste and skill. He who made and
polished it was an expert workman, and could not have been a hunter
or a warrior of the Indian kind. I have astone gouge of admirable con-
struction, which was plowed up in the town of Sheridan and given to
me by Mr. Griswold. Like the amulet, it must have been made by an
expert. The stone is hard enough to carry quite a fine edge, and the
tool gives evidence of having been much used on wood. It is supposed
that it was used for tapping the maple tree. I have some other imple-
ments found in this county, one in the shape of a celt, which, a Seneca
Indian told me, was used by his people for skinning animals.
Chautauqua Lake lies within this county, and many relics have been
found along its shores. At one place Long Point juts out into the lake,
forming along, narrow neck of land, which used to be fringed with bushes
and covered with stately trees. On this point, near its outer extremity,
there had been a canal and basin excavated. A party or a person
could easily double the point in a canoe, part the bushes and paddle
through the canal and into the basin, where they were perfectly hidden
from view. I saw the remains of this canal and basin about seventeen
years ago; the outlines were then quite distinct. These works, how-
ever, are not proofs of a settled population.
The Iroquois knew all about our territory; indeed, they gave the name
to the lake, Cha-tau-quah, or ‘‘bag tied in the middle.” In a written
speech, prepared by Corn-planter, Half-town, and Big tree, Seneca chiefs
or sachems, and presented to President Washington, they ask their
“father” if he is determined to crush them, and say, in case he is: ‘In
this case one chief has said he would ask you to put him out of his pain.
Another, who will not think of dying by the hand of his father or his
brother, has said he will retire to the Chataughqua, eat of the fatal root,
and sleep with his fathers in peace.” This speech was answered by the
President, and these chiefs replied as follows: ‘ Father, we see that you
ought to have the camping-place from Lake Erie to Niagara, as it was
marked down at Fort Stanwix, and we are willing it shall remain to be
yours. And if you desire to reserve a passage through the Canawauga,
_ and through the Chataughquah (Lake), and land for a path from that to
Lake Erie, take it where you like best. Our nation will rejoice to see it
an open path for you and your children while the land and water remain,
but let us pass along the same and continue to take fish in those waters
in common with you.”
There was, at an early day, a path or road from Lake Erie through
the towns of Portland and Chautauqua to Chautauqua Lake, and thence
to Pittsburgh, which the French and Indians traveled; but, except a
646 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
rude camp and defenses, there was no settlement nearer than Logstown,
Ohio. The Senecas formed what was called the western door of the
Troquois Long-house, and claimed our county as a part of their hanting-
ground. I can find no satisfactory proof of the occupancy of this ter-
ritory by any tribe of Indians, unless it may have been the residence of
the Kah Kwahs, a tribe said to have been driven out by the Iroquois,
and which has wholly disappeared. It is claimed by some that there
was once a tribe called Alleghans occupying lands in or near this county.
It appears to me that the Iroquois, admitted to be the most intelligent
and powerful of all the tribes or confederacies, were never far enough
advanced to construct the fortifications or to make the polished stone
implements found in our county; and if they were not, was there any
other people who were ever settled in this territory ?
Champlain, in 1609, gives us some idea of the barbarism of the Sene-
cas, against whom he made war. Wassenier, the Dutch historian, in
1621~2 represents the Indians as savages who could not have been of
the “polished stone age.” Cartier found them “insufferable”; so Cadil-
lac describes them. All we can gather from historical documents leads
to the belief that the stone implements, the pottery, the fortifications, the
skeletons found, and the large mound (if it be one) were the work of a
people existing anterior to the historic period and more advanced than
the Knoshioni, or Powhatanic stocks. One argument grows out of the
fact that all the relics have been dug or plowed up. Stone axes, flint
or chert arrow and spear heads have often been found on the surface or
just below the surface of the land, while the pottery, gouge, amulet, Xc.,
have been found at various depths. The two skeletons found at Frews-
bury under the pine stump lived and died long before the “League of
the Long-house” was formed. Two feet, at least, of a secular increase
has grown up since these two human beings were laid away. Can we, in
the absence of “monuments of known age,” ever ascertain the rate of
that increase? The lofty old pine tree began its life more than six hun-
dred years ago. How long before that tree sprouted had these bodies
been deposited there? And then, again, were these two dead ones
members of the tribe or nation that raised the breastworks and made
the implements we find at various depths below the surface of to-day?
In my search after data upon or from which to estimate a secular in-
crease of land I have consulted many Indians and whites, but none
are able to give any facts. Sa-gun-da-wie, or Big Nose, a member of
the Seneca tribe, gave me an iron ax or hatchet, evidently one of the
kind used by the Dutch or French to trade for furs. He told me it was
plowed up on the Cattaraugus reservation from a depth of about § inches,
but he could not say whether the plow had ever before passed over the
spot. The ax must have been lost or thrown away at least two hundred
years ago; it may have been two hundred and fifty years. If we were
sure that the implement was left on the surface two hundred years ago,
the secular increase would have been at the rate of about 4 inches per :
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 647
century; if two hundred and fifty years had passed, it would have been
at the rate of 34 inches per century, or nearly the same as that found by
Dr. Horner at Heliopolis, in Egypt. If we assume an average secular
increase in our valleys of 3 inches per century, the skeletons at Frews-
bury are at least eight hundred years old; they must be at least six
hundred yéars old. I am not without hope that closer and more pa-
tient observations will, in course of time give us some reliable data
upon or from which we can estimate antiquities now seemingly beyond
our reach.
That Chautauqua County was once inhabited by a people more ad-
vanced than were the Indians found in the neighborhood by the French
and Dutch may, I think, be assumed. That there were human beings
here eight hundred or even one thousand years ago seems probable.
I think there are many reasons for the belief that the Indian race, or
races, if you will, were the descendants of the Mound-Builders, notwith-
standing eminent ethnologists think to the contrary.
I think our county would richly repay a thorough scientific explora-
tion. ;
ANTIQUITIES OF ONONDAGA AND ADJOINING COUNTIES
IN NEW YORK.
By W. M. BEAUCHAMP.
The best accounts of the antiquities of this portion of New York are
in Clark’s History of Onondaga (1849). This work treats principally of
Elbridge and Pompey. General J. A. Clark, of Auburn, has published
an identification of Onondaga historical sites, which is also worthy of
study. Recently the Skaneateles Democrat gave an account of the
finding of a clay pipe there, with human face, 30 inches under ground,
in low land; the Auburn papers, of the discovery of human skeletons
in Fleming; and the Syracuse papers, of the disinterring of thirty pre-
historic skeletons in stone cists in East Syracuse, and of the finding
of several skeletons (historic) in Onondaga Valley.
The writer has also made extensive investigations in this section,
correcting some errors, and gives, in the following notes, the results of
his labors and reading. The localities mentioned will be found on the
accompanying chart.
OSWEGO COUNTY.
At Fulton, on the east side of the Oswego River, were the remains
of a European earthwork, constructed in the French war, and of a
semicircular aboriginal fort. The other portions were removed in mak-
ing the canal. Here was a noted portage. Bone Hill, now leveled,
on the west side of the river, contained large quantities of human.bones,
and about Lake Neawantha were many arrows.
1. On the line dividing the towns of Volney and Schroeppel was an
648 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
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MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 649
earthwork on a hill, now destroyed. A long wall, separating the hill
from a marsh on the east, still remains. Arrow-heads of flint, en caché,
have been plowed up.
Bone Hill. Se S
Oswego River:
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2. The remains of a circular earthwork on Mr. J. T. Geer’s farm, lot
24, Granby, east of the railroad station, are in very good preservation,
[ ] & Geer's.
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showing both gates. It yields nothing but small pieces of earthenware.
The area inclosed is about an acre, and is upon a2 hill; Clark’s estimates
for this and the next are too high.
650 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
3.-There was an earthwork, like the preceding, on lot 52, east of the
State road, but it has been demolished by cultivation. It was on a large
plain, and many fragments of pottery, celts, and clay pipes are found.
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4, There were villages about Phoenix of historic and prehistoric
dates. One of the most important was on a small island, where over
1,500 flint implements have been collected; scrapers, flint and quartz
arrows and knives, polished slate arrows, points, celts, gorgets, and bird
totems abound.
7. A village site and cemetery occur at Caughdenoy, on the Oneida
River. Arrows, gouges, and fine celts have been found.
8. At Brewerton are several village sites on either side of the Oneida
River, near the lake. A noted burial-place is on the north side. These
villages were both historic and prehistoric, and here the walls of old
Fort Brewerton are still in good preservation. Arrows, pipes, celts,
gorgets, and bird totems are met with here, and between this site and
Caughdenoy two fine bayonet-shaped implements of slate were discov-
ered.
9. On the Oneida Lake, at Good Harbor, fine arrow-points, stone tubes,
and gouges have been found, and there are other localities beyond.
CAYUGA COUNTY.
52. In Brutus is the site of an earthwork, near the Seneca River, de-
scribed by Squier. Fine gouges, with and without grooved backs, gor-
gets, arrows, and celts occur.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 651
53. Remains of an earthwork, figured by Schoolcraft, are still to be
seen on Fort Hill, Auburn. The pipes found here are peculiar. Two
other sites have been identified in Auburn, and there were Cayuga
settlements on Cayuga Lake, Salmon Creek, and Seneca River, mostly
of the historic period. A well-known site is on Frontenac Island. Skel-
etons were dug up in Fleming in 1878. West of Cross Lake are sites
but partially examined, and yielding coarse implements: Early sites
have been found in the southern part of the county.
MADISON COUNTY.
The Tuscarora village of Conaseraga was in this county, as well as
some Oneida hamlets and villages. There is said to have been an earth-
work at Cazenovia, and there are burial-places near there. The most
noted site is at Nichols Pond, on the Mile strip, which is claimed as the
stockade attacked by Champlain in 1615. It is a few miles northeast
of Cazenovia, and presents strong points of agreement and disagreement
with Champlain’s picture. It is prehistoric and yields fine relies.
There was a fishing village at Bridgeport, and other sites will be men-
tioned in connection with Pompey.
ONONDAGA COUNTY.
Town of Clay.—On lot 14, near the Seneca River, was a small village
and burial-place; and also on lot 16, at Oak Orchard, skeletons, tablets,
arrows, pestles, celts, &c., have been found. A fine slate “ bird-pipe”
was picked up here in 1878; also slate arrows on lot 48, and a sand-
stone tube on lot 49. A fine copper celt, weighing 2 pounds 14 ounces,
was recently found on lot 22.
Town of Iysander.—Near Belgium, on lot 82, a fine banner-stone was
discovered, and also a fine and curious copper celt in 1878.
11. A village site exists at Cold Spring, lot 100. Human remains, celts,
banner-stones, flint and quartz arrows are most frequent here. <A bird
totem, unique in form and material, has also been found on this spot.
10. On lot 89 was an earthwork, inclosing about 2 acres, within two
circular ditches. Something like a wall was between these. It was
on high ground, and the relics are earthenware, celts, pipes, and slender
arrows of flint.
Two small hamlets were on lots 93 and 94, with similar relics, but
coarser arrows; and two others occur on lots 86 and 87 (15), near Float
Bridge and Railroad Bridge.
16. At Baldwinsville are vestiges of three small hamlets on the north
side of the river, one of some size. The relics do not differ from those
on neighboring sites.
17. A village site of two acres, probably once stockaded, occurs on
high ground on lot 78. The arrows are slender and pottery fine.
18. A village site of two acres is on lot 76, where fine drills, celts,
arrows, &c., are found, with banner-stones.
652 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
19. Here are three hamlets, with the ordinary relics, on lot 75, and
there are others on lot 74. On this lot also was found a fine copper
spear-héad, and another was obtained on lot 64.
20. A village site remains on lot 96, where arrow-heads, celts, and a
little pottery are found. This is on the Seneca River, and smaller ones
occur at Cross Lake.
21. On lot 99 are two or three hamlets, revealing arrow-heads, ham-
mer-stones, pestles, gouges, and celts. On the same lot was recently
found a fine and very sharp copper celt. There are some smaller sites
not mentioned here.
Town of Elbridge—Small sites occur on the shore of Cross Lake, on
lots 31, 32, and 33, with the ordinary relics.
23. Lot 34 contains the remains of a large village and one or two
smaller hamlets, where arrow-heads, pestles and mortars, celts, fine
gouges, and a little pottery have been found.
25. Lot 35 has similar remains on several sites, one historic. Stone
pipes are found here i graves, and in a recent burial-place a fine human-
headed pipe was unearthed. West of Carpenter’s Brook one of the rare
pentagonal arrows was found by the writer.
34. On ahigh hill on lot 70 was an earthwork, which Clark describes
as rectangular, with two gateways, and inclosing 44 acres. It really
was elliptical, and inclosed a smaller area. Pottery is abundant there
yet.
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Fig. 5.
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3). A smaller one on a hill on lot 81 inelosed 14 acres. It is described
by Clark as having straight walls on three sides and a curved wall on
the fourth. It was probably also elliptical, but has been leveled.
36. On lot 83 was a large Indian village. The writer has ascertained
that Clark was mistaken in saying that hundreds of grooved axes were
found there. None were found, and they are very rare in Onondaga
County.
37. Here was a circular fort on lot 73, inclosing about an acre.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 653
22. On lot 84 was a circular earthwork, with two gateways, and said
by Clark to have included three acres, but his estimates prove almost
always too high. Earthenware always occurs in earthworks or stock-
ades, and often river shells in the north part of the county.
Town of Van Buren.—26. An Indian orchard was located on lot 18,
27. Here was a small hamlet, on lot 16, with pottery, arrow-heads, and
_a pick-shaped banner-stone.
28. In the river, at lot 3, is a stone fish-weir in good preservation, with
several bays, and formed of bowlders. Since the river has been dammed
it has been generally
some feet below the
surface, but an unu-
sual drought gave op-
portunity for full ex-
amination. There are
others on the river, the
Indians reserving the
right to make them in
their treaties.
29. An Indian -or-
chard and burial-place
were located here, one
of the few recent sites.
On lot 4, west side
of Dead Creek, was a
hamlet.
30. On lot 8, east Stone Fish Weir.
side of the same creek,
was a hamlet of con- Fic. 6.
siderable size, and there are fire-places on the opposite bank of the
river. The Van Buren site yields celts, arrows, pestles, and pottery.
31. On high land, on. lot 6, there is a large village site which was
stockaded. Arrow-heads, celts, fine clay pipes, pottery, and one copper
bead have been recovered. Close by was found a fine copper spear-
head of large size.
32. Lot 7 includes at least four distinct village sites in Baldwinsville,
south of the river, all of considerable size. On one was found a pentag-
onal arrow-head; on another a clay face luted on pottery. Here are
burial-places and a great variety of prehistoric relics, including some
fine pipes. At one point glass beads have been found.
33. A stockade, inclosing two.acres, stood on a low hill on lot 13, by
a small stream, and having one gateway. The usual prehistoric relies
oceur, with both stone and clay pipes. Near Memphis, lot 37, many fine
articles have been found, as tubes, bird totems, slate knives, &c. Fur-
ther east, on the Seneca River, are occasional small sites.
Town of Geddes.—12. On lot 9, west side of Onondaga outlet, are two
654 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
village sites, on which occur celts, banner-stones, pestles, arrow-heads,
scrapers, drills, stone pipes, plummets, gouges, together with a little pot-
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Stockade, Lot 13. Van Buren.
EG ee
tery. Another small hamlet was east of the present outlet, and a burial-
place in a gravel-bank, now removed. In the woods a little north is a
small mound. Fort of 1696.
38. There is a village site on BO ABO Tew
the north side of Nine-Mile Creek, uae rae
with arrows and pottery, and
there are others still further
north, with fine relics. On one
of these, by the shore, the writer :
obtained a small cup-shaped
stone pendant of very rare ocecur- ::
rence, the only one in the Smith-
sonian collection having come
from California.
The site of the ancient Kan-
eenda, a fishing village of A. D.
1700, was on the west bank of
OnondagaCreek. Relics modern, %7
senses?
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.
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ee
eae tf te eesh
Pe ccces
but fine. ie hee
39. Town of Salina.—A_ scat- "ore, Keene
tering village stood on lots 61, Pan Srpeie®
62, and 65. Pottery, banner- ee
Stones, pestles, and arrow-heads Fig. 8.
are found, and other remains occur near Liverpool, where was also a
village. Bird totems have also been found in this town.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 655
The old French fort of 1696 stood on lot 106, but traces of it can now
be found only by digging. An Indian village grew up about it, and
there was a burial-ground farther south. In Syracuse there were also
orchards and burial-places.
Town of Onondaga.—Sir William Johnson built the Onondagas a
stockade in 1756, which was burned in 1779. It stood on a plateau on
Webster’s Mile Square, and the inclined roadway by which it was
reached from the creek yet remains. The writer recently examined and
fully described this site. The several burial-places and other sites in
this town are all modern, and yield European and Indian relies. Yeta
stone plummet and a bird totem were found at the present reservation,
the latter worn as an ornament by an Indian girl.
40. Town of De Witt.—A burial-place was discovered in East Syra-
cuse, lot 42, in 1878, from which many skeletons were taken. They were
inclosed in rude stone cists, which yielded also clay pipes, arrow-heads,
and celts. Near Jamesville fine stone pipes have been found.
41. Town of La Fayette—On lot 3, east side of the reservoir, is the
site of the large fort destroyed in 1696, during Frontenac’s invasion. It
was a stockade and earthwork, and the remains are both Indian and
European. Several burial-places occur in this vicinity.
42, On lot 13 was a large Indian orchard and a settlement, which was
abandoned on the invasion of 1779.
The relics are both Indian and
European. <A burial-place has the
graves in rows, and also scattered
promiscuously. The bodies were
inclosed in boxes of wood or bark.
(Clark.)
Town of Pompey.—This has many
sites, nearly all historic, and fully
described by Clark, but with some
errors.
43. At this point is a village site,
which had circular lines of stone
and relies of mixed origin. (Clark.)
44, A little south of the last named
is a burial-place, and also lines of
earthworks, with similar remains.
(Clark.)
45. On lot 19 was a village site /
with four streets and mixed relics. Hf
(Clark.) Fia. 9.
46, On lot 9 is Indian Hill, probably the Onondaga Castle of 1650.
Clark describes the settlement as about a mile long, with a burial-place
of 30 acres, but makes an overestimate again. He describes the earth-
work as elliptical. European relics are found there yet. It may extend
slightly into lot 20.
‘Th wT hoduog Uz 740
656 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
47. East of lot 44 was an angular earthwork and stockade, inclosing
five acres, with a burial-place. (Clark.) The plan given by Clark would
seem to be reversed by present indications. This is a prehistoric site,
and has yielded very fine articles; among the rest, a clay pipe with 14
human faces, and earthenware with faces luted on at the corners:
On lot 68 there is a site of about 3 acres.
48. The site on lot 69 is described by Clark as similar to No. 47, but
it is on higher land and has some European relics.
50. On lot 100 is a ditch with a stockade inclosing 8 acres, with raves
Fort in Pompey. Lot 100.
i | - bM
Fig. 10.
~
within and without. The bodies were placed in rows, which face the
east and west alternately. (Clark.) A historic site, judged by relics.
The post-holes and graves can yet be seen. .
49. On lot 99, and like the last (Clark), graves are yet distinct.
On lot 98, touching the town line of Fabius, is another circular site
ona hill-top, and of early date, though the writer discovered European
articles mixed with the peculiar pottery. This is notmentioned by Clark.
54, This was “Indian Fort.” An earthwork on lot 33, inclosing ten
acres, with a straight ditch across the point, the flanks being defended
by steep banks of the ravine. Pottery and early Indian relics abound,
but with some European articles. (Clark.) Some have supposed this was
occupied by the Onondagas just before they moved to Indian Hill.
Through this town and on the Seneca and Oswego Rivers brass and iron
arrow-heads are sometimes found, of European origin, occasionally per-,
forated, and of the same pattern as those found with the ‘‘Skeletons in
Armor” at Fall River.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 657
Town of Manlius.—The deep spring on lot 79 was the eastern door of
the Onondagas, and shows signs of their occupancy. It was the start-
ing-point for surveys. There is a reputed earthwork in the west part of
this town, but of doubtful character.
GENERAL REMARKS.
Some banner-stones of striped slate have been found in Camillus, and
one on Skaneateles Lake. Arrow and spear heads are occasionally
found in all parts of the country.
The settlements in Southeastern Onondaga show a large and general
intercourse with the whites; those in the northern part but very little,
the only indications there being the Indian orchards, a few brass ket-
tles at Jack’s Rifts, and a few glass beads at Baldwinsville. Many sites
have no signs of vessels of any kind. Potstone vessels occur in several
localities, but.seldom in connection with earthenware. Banner-stones,
bird totems, and gorgets of striped slate occur in many places, some
apparently recent. Catlinite is found at Phenix and Onondaga Lake.
Polished slate arrows are found on all the rivers, but sparingly. Stone
tubes are generally of striped slate, and of many forms, while pipes
have their usual variety of form and material. Copper articles are not
common, but are generally fine. Stone cups take many shapes, a hand-
some circular one of striped slate from Hannibal being the finest.
Banner-stone and gorgets vary greatly in form and material. Plummets
are often highly finished, and some of the finest drills have been dis-
covered here. Arrows and spears are of all materials and finish. Sink-
ers and hammer-stones occur on most sites, and the latter exhibit a per-
plexing variety of forms. Many fine articles have been found on the
great trail from the north crossing at Brewertown, and others near the
east and west trails.
The Onondagas were partial to stockades, although they also had
earthworks. None of the settlements seem very ancient, and the defens-
ive works may be placed in four groups: Earthworks along the Seneca
and Oswego Rivers, east and north of Baldwinsville; simple stockades
about Baldwinsville; earthworks in Elbridge; earthworks and stock-
ades combined in Pompey. The last two groups have features in com-
mon, but the others are distinct; they seem of different periods.
The pottery is of the ordinary Indian type, and some attempt has been
made to compare sites by its styles of ornament. Celts are of both hard
and soft stone, and pestles and mortars of common forms. Semi-cir-
cular slate knives are sometimes found, generally without a thickened
back.
There are no large burial-places known near the Seneca River, but
the bodies found are in a sitting posture, and corn frequently occurs in
graves. Horn implements are found on the southern sites, seldom on
the northern; and there are marked differences in arrows, spears, and
earthenware.
S. Mis. 109———42
658 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
1
A PERFORATED TABLET OF STONE FROM NEW YORK.
By WILLIAM WALLACE TOOKER, Sag Harbor, N. Y.
In every considerable collection of aboriginal antiquities can be seen
those thin, perforated tablets of stone, commonly called gorgets, twine-
twisters, pendants, or whatever else the theory or fancy of different
writers or collectors have bestowed upon them.*
These fanciful titles are mostly conjectures, for it is a recognized fact
that no one yet knows the aboriginal use of these tablets with any de-
gree of certainty.t Those with one tofive perforations are all given the
same name or put into the same class, without regard to the fact that
those with more than two perforations of a recognized form were used
for a different purpose and should be classed differently.
We do not call drills arrow-points, nor grooved axes celts, because
they have the same kind of points or blades.
So it ought to be with the different forms of these perforated tablets.
To those with one perforation perhaps belong the name of pendant, hav-
ing been used for personal adornment, but as the greater number of
those with two perforations bear no marks of having been worn sus-
pended by a string, may be called twine-twisters or anything else that
theory may invent but cannot prove. As the writer of this brief article
does not care at present to theorize in regard to the uses of the tablets
with one or two perforations we will leave those out of the subject and
proceed to explain the object of this essay.
The tablets with four perforations similar to one already figured and
described as a gorget by a well-known writer on this subject,{ (who
does not say whether the specimen bears any cord marks or not, prob-
ably not,) belong to another class, and were no doubt used for an entirely
different purpose. :
It is one of these tablets in my possession that I intend to describe
and to prove, as I have already done to the satisfaction of all who have
seen it, that it is neither a gorget, twine-twister, totem, or pendant, but
something that I have never seen mentioned in any work bearing on
the subject that has been accessible to me.
That something is nothing more nor less than a puzzle, a plaything
made to amuse some young savage, or perhapsan older one, as we know
they are easily amused.
This tablet, of which figures 1 and 2 show the obverse and reverse, is
made of slate with the usual countersunk perforations common to all
perforated tablets, andis marked onits edge with twenty-four tally or rec-
ord marks. These have become nearly obliterated by time and weather.
This tablet was found on Montauk Point, New York, and must have been
* Jones. Antiquities of the Southern Indians.
tRau. Smithsonian Contributions, No. 287, 1876, page 33.
t Abbott. Primitive Industry, Fig. 361, 1881.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 659
in use for a long time to have caused the wear near the perforations,
consequently have been the cherished property of its aboriginal owner.
One can easily see the marks of where the cords have worn slight
grooves or abrasions between the different perforations. This is where
it differs from all the tablets with two perforations only that have
come under my observation, as they as a rule never bear any marks of
cords.*
This tablet, it will be noticed, bears on its upper margin a slight notch
or groove, worn smooth as by the wearing of a cord. The abrasions on
this tablet having been made by cords or sinews passing through the
i:
1
Y
4
Hi
Yj
4
j
7}
various perforations, the question naturally arises how were the cords
put on to have caused the wear in those particular places, and why
were they put on in that way? If it was a gorget or a pendant, why
the necessity of so much cord traveling through the different perfora-
tions, which evidently belonged to it when in use; why so many per-
forations, when one loop and one perforation would have answered ?
This I consider as a proof it was not a gorget, nor was it worn as an
ornament. ;
Let me proceed and illustrate as simply as I can how this tablet was
used and strung during the aboriginal era. Take a piece of cord thirty-
six inches long or thereabouts, tie the two ends together, place it on
———
*Rau. Smithsonian Contributions, No, 287, 1876, page 33.
660 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
the tablet, beginning at the top, forming a slip noose through the two
top perforations, then following the direction of the abrasions with the
tied end, we find the cord placed on the stone as in Figs. 3 and 4, which
shows it better than any description could give. One slight abrasion
above the third hole on Fig. 3 has not been covered by the cord; that
place has been made no doubt by hanging up the tablet when not in
use or by reversing the cord. This was evidently the way the string
was placed on the stone originally, for in no other way could those
abraded places in the tablet have been made. .
The puzzle part of this tablet is to get the string off, with some one
holding fast the knotted end, then to put it on again with the end still
fast.
The puzzle is solved by following the cords with the loop over the top
down through the two lower perforations with plenty of slack; after
getting through the perforations slip the loop over and clear around the
tablet, then the loop will be found separated from the two strands, then
the cord can be drawn from the tablet quite easily. In putting the
cord on again the process is reversed, and consequently more difficult.
Fig. 5 represents an ivory heart-shape puzzle from China. The reader
will see that the cord is put on in the same way, and that the perfora-
tions bear the same relation to each other as they do in the former illus-
trations.
In offering the above to the scrutiny of those who have made these
objects of stone almost their life study, I wish to say that I know I am
invading their domain to assert that these tablets with four perforations
are puzzles. But I think I have made out a good case in favor of this
tablet of mine, and hope the subject may be investigated still further,
and that others of the same form and number of perforations may be
extant that will show the cord marks as perfectly as mine does, and thus
corroborate my assertion that this tablet of stone is a puzzle.
To the many contributions in regard to the problematic uses of these
tablets I offer the above mite, trusting that it will solve partly the
problem that has puzzled so many.
ANTIQUITIES OF EAST WINDSOR, CONNECTICUT.
By E. W. Exvtswortn, of Last Windsor, Conn.
There are no remains of aboriginal structures in this vicinity. The
indications of a former occupation by the aborigines are scattered relics
found in the soil. These relics are to be found anywhere, but are not
remarkably abundant in any one locality. The most promising places
for search are dry sand knolls, in the vicinity of some river, brook, or
large spring. é
The caving of the banks of the Connecticut River occasionally disclo-
‘MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 661
ses a place of interment. The graves are not in groups, nor arranged
according to any plan—sometimes in level loam soil, though sandy ele-
vations seem to have been preferred.
Usually each grave contains the remains of one individual, though,
in some cases, those of several have been found near each other. No
burial posture is distinctly indicated. Bones, soft, crumbling, and broken,
are found. The graves are not more than 3 feet deep. No evidence of
artificial preservation of bodies exists, though there is a hint of crema-
tion in the frequent occurrence of charcoal among the bones, which,
however, are not plainly calcined.
Spear and arrow heads have been found cached. I have in my pos-
session a find of fourteen flint arrow heads, averaging about two and
a half inches in length, and most of them perfect. These heads were
found at East Windsor Hill, on my father’s farm, about 50 rods from
Connecticut River, in a sand knoll, about two feet under ground, asso-
ciated with a little charcoal and sooty sand. <A fragment of a small
and remarkably thin soapstone cup was found near them ; nothing else.
They came to light in consequence of the digging of a roadway through
the knoll.
Another similar find was made this spring in this town (South Wind-
sor), not far from the line of Connecticut Central Railroad, about mid-
way between South Windsor and East Windsor Hill stations, near a
brook, in low ground. The cache was opened in plowing, though
the plowman did not notice it. Some boys afterward found flint
spear heads among the furrows, and dug up the ground, and took out
about one hundred heads, each between two and four inches in length,
many whole, some broken. There was a scramble among the boys to
procure them, and the collection was scattered beyond recovery before
it came to the notice of any person interested to preserve it entire.
Arrow heads in unusual numbers are found on sand hills, brought to
the surface by rains and winds; and in the same places it is common
to find flat and sharp angular chips of flint and quartz, such as are not
found in our sand elsewhere. These are suggestive of the manufacture
of arrow and spear points at those localities.
Fragments of clay pottery are common; but there is nothing by
which places of manufacture can be located.
Some items of value may be gleaned from the ‘‘Connecticut Histor-
ical Collections,” published by John Warner Barber, New Haven and
Hartford, 1836. For instance, ‘In the south part of the town” (East
Windsor, now this town of South Windsor), “where Podunk River
crosses the road to Hartford, was an Indian burying ground. A few
years since a number of skeletons were discovered, by digging from
one to four feet. These skeletons were found lying on one side, knees
drawn up to the breast, arms folded, with their heads to the south. A
covering of bark seems to have been laid over them, with some few re-
mains of blankets; in one instance a small brass kettle and hatchet
662 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
were found in good preservation, the remains of a gun barrel and lock,
a number of glass bottles, one of which was found nearly half filled
with some sort of liquid. These articles were probably obtained from
the Dutch, either by present or by trade. There was also found a pair
of shears, a pistol, lead pipes, strings of wampum, small brass rings,
glass beads; a female skeleton with a brass. comb; the hair was in a
state of preservation wherever it came in contact with the comb. Af.-
ter the Podunks had removed from these parts they were known to
have brought a dead child from toward Norwich and interred it in
this burying place.”
The Podunk Indians were of peaceable disposition, and we have no
records of serious feuds between them and the white settlers. They
(the Indians) suffered much from forays of the Mohawks, who roamed
across the wilderness from the northwest.
Of scattered relics, quartz and flint arrow points are most frequently
found here. These were probably in numerous instances lost by the
Indians in hunting. Then we have stone axes, hoes, chisels, gouges,
and pestles. A large proportion of the axes, hoes, chisels, gouges, and
pestles are made of trap-rock, and many of them have had but very
little artificial fashioning to adapt them to their uses.
There are localities in this State, one of which in New Britain, I have
particularly examined, where trap-rock, broken from the face of a cliff
by the atmospheric vicissitudes of centuries, has accumulated in a slo-
ping pile at the foot of the cliff. This débris consists of elongated and
angular fragments, some of which, untouched as they are by art, would,
if found in our fields to-day, be mistaken for genuine Indian relics.
Kettles excavated from lumps of soapstone are sometimes found. These
are usually broken and portions missing. They are of rude oval form,
with a capacity of from one to three gallons; they have short, project-
ing handles or lugs at the ends, and are without ornamental carving.
The sides and bottoms are from half an inch to an inch in thickness,
and are sometimes externally sooted, indicating that they were used in
cooking.
Fragments of clay pottery are frequently found here, though it is rare
to find a single piece large enough to show the size or shape of the ves-
sel from whichit was broken. Occasionally a sufficient number of pieces
of one utensil are obtainable to admit of a reconstruction. One which
I have in my possession was put together with glue and brick-dust, and
some gaps were supplied with the same composition. It is now sound,
’ strong, and perfect in appearance, and, for exhibition purposes, as good
as if it had never been broken. This pot is egg-shaped, about fourteen
and a half inches high and eleven inches in diameter, with a contrac-
tion in the rim below the mouth. The sides are about three-eighths
of an inch thick. Similar pottery is always rudely ornamented on the
outside by dots or lines, smooth or serrated, which were impressed by
pointed implements when the clay was soft. Granules of quartz or mica
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 663
were commonly mingled with the clay to prevent cracks in drying; and
the ware was finished, without glaze, by burning in the same manner
as modern bricks. In fact, it may be regarded as in substance soft
brick of poor quality. One of these pots, recently obtained by Dr.
Wood, was found in the bank of Connecticut River, in Massachusetts.*
It was much broken, and has been clumsily reconstructed, but is nearly
entire. The bottom is quite sharply conical, and the neck has no con-
traction, but slopes inward quite uniformly to the brim. The figure is
somewhat that of a gigantic beet. Now, if we had given us a strap of
leather, say 2 inches wide and 18 inches long, and were required to
fasten it as a bail to this kettle, an obvious method would be to punch
several small holes in the strap near its ends, and drill corresponding
holes in the opposite sides of the neck and brim of the kettle and lace
the strap thereto with a couple of strings. Whether this particular
kettle ever had such a bail we cannot know, but there are the holes of
suitable size and arrangement for the purpose. When I first saw them
they struck me as an experimental attempt of the finder to sew or lace
the broken parts together; but closer examination satisfied me that
they had been drilled before the pot was baked, and while the clay was
soft, with some tool like an arrow point. Subsequently I learned that
the finder testified that the holes were in the sides of the neck when
the kettle was found. There are no other drilled holes in the kettle
besides these on opposite sides of the neck.
Breaks in Indian pottery sometimes seem to follow lines originally
unsound, which gives a hint that the process of manufacture was not
continuous, but that successive portions of the work were built up after
previous ones had become firm by drying, from which there’ sometimes
resulted an imperfect union between the wet clay and the dry.
About the year 1840 students of the Theological Institute, then lo-
eated at East Windsor Hill, found on the bank of Connecticut River, at
the west end of the institute grounds, a deposit of Indian relics. The
place was a sandy knoll, above the highest water-mark of floods, and
was traditionally known as ‘‘Gun’s Hill,” and as the site of an Indian
fort. The articles then dug up consisted of fragments of large soapstone
kettles, of the form previously described, axes, chisels, gouges, arrow-
points, and other relics of stone. Referring to the Smithsonian work.
No. 287, by Dr. Rau,t there was an article identical with figure 210; the
only specimen of its kind that I have known to be found in this region.
These relics were scattered among those who found them, and the sand
hill has since been eut into by the river, beyond the place where they
were found. I have, from that locality, a cup of soapstone that will
hold about a pint; and an ancient musket bullet of large size. I have
a copper chisel, like Fig. 226; length, 3 inches; width, 2; thickness, 3;
* West side, midway between Thompsonville and Springfield.
+‘ The Archlogical collection of the U. 8. National Museum.”—Smithsonian Contri-
butions, vol, xxii.
664 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
which was found by a laborer in the meadow directly west of my resi-
dence. I have not known of any similar relic found in this region. _
Ihave several times visited the locality where was found that re-
markable ancient implement of wood, which I described in the Smith-
sonian Report for 1876, p. 445. It lies so low that it is usually covered
by the water of the river. I had a good view of it last September, but
made no discoveries, and found nothing to modify the inferences set forth
inthe report. Undoubtedly the place was an ancient swamp, lower than
the present average water level of Connecticut River. The soil was very
wet with springs, some of them issuing from holes an inch in diameter.’
In seasons of low water many springs appear along the banks, most of
which are ephemeral. The banks being previously filled with water,
partly from the river and partly from the accumulations of rain, drain
off in a low time.
A great deal of fine quicksand was issuing from the springs above
mentioned, and I found more of this minute sand in the clay than I de-
tected when it was in a frozen state. .The natural color of the bed
where untinged by vegetable material is very blue—quite different from
the browns of the loam and sand now deposited by the river. The
grooved log described in the report was unchanged. It inclines down-
ward, as it enters the bank near the low-water line, and lies very firmly
in place. Prying upon it with a lever ten or twelve feet long did not
change its set in the least. I was deterred from attempting to dig it
out by the certainty that the hole would immediately fill with water.
I visited the place again on the 18th of this month. The water was
low, and appearances were not much changed. I traced the blue clay
formation thirty or forty rods farther north than I had previously dis-
covered it, and found it there containing much less vegetable material.
Walking about twenty rods south of where I found the mallet, and near
the water’s edge, on a gently sloping beach of loamy sand, I noticed
a portion of a buried stone, about two inches in length and half an inch
in width. The pecked and rubbed surface looked familiar, and on being
taken out it proved to be a pestle of gneiss 114 inches long and 2 inches
in diameter. It is round and smooth, well made, and perfect, with the
exception of a small piece broken from the handle end.
©
SHELL HEAPS IN BARNSTABLE COUNTY, MASSACHUSETTS.
By DANIEL WING, of South Yarmouth, Mass.
On both banks of Bass River, which separate the towns of Yarmouth
and Dennis, in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, are ancient shell
heaps and stone hearths. They are particularly numerous in the vicinity
of the Old Colony Railroad bridge and below the village of George-
town; in both cases upon the Yarmouth side of the river. They are
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 665
generally upon the brow of the river bank in a commanding position,
though sometimes on lower ground. In diameter they vary from 4 or
5 to 15 feet, and in depth from 2 or 3 inches to 2 or more feet. They
consist principally of oyster, clam, and quahaug shells. Stone imple-
ments have been found in the vicinity of shell heaps in great numbers,
though not of many species. This I attribute to the fact that the In-
dians living hereabout used shells for many purposes. The Pilgrims
on landing upon our shores found in the wigwams baskets formed by
sewing together shells of the horseshoe crab. I have a collection of
nearly a hundred spear and arrow points of stone, in about every form
represented in Schoolcraft’s large work on the Indian tribes of the United
States. I have also a stone pestle, ax, hatchet, and a fragment of a
stone mortar or kettle. All up and down the peninsula of Cape Cod
are to be found stone implements of the kinds mentioned above—though
in the attack upon the Pilgrims at Namskaket Creek, in 1620, the arrows
used by the Indians were tipped with brass, eagles’ claws, and bits of
horn. This last fact led some writers to suppose that the Indians could
find no suitable material on the cape for constructing their imple-
ments. Though there are no outcropping ledges on the cape, yet there
aremany bowlders and fragments of rock which the Indians found suited
to their purposes. I know of several ancient burial places, but they
have not been examined, or, if they have, I am not aware of the fact.
A SCULPTURED STONE FOUND IN ST. GEORGE, NEW BRUNS:
WICK.
By J. ALLEN JACK, of St. John, N. B.
In the autumn of 1863 or winter of 1864, a remarkable sculptured
stone, representing a human face and head in profile, was discovered in
the neighborhood 6f St. George, a village in Charlotte County, in the
province of New Brunswick, Canada. This curiosity was found by a
man who was searching for stone for building purposes, and was lying
about 100 feet from the shore of Lake Utopia, under a bluff of the same
formation as the material on which the head is sculptured, which
abounds in the neighborhood. This bluff is situated three rhiles or more
from St. George, and Lake Utopia empties into the Magaguadavic
River, or, as it may be translated from Indian into English, the River of
Hills, which flows towards and pours through the village in the form of
a beautiful waterfall. The stone, irrespective of the cutting, which is
in relief, has a flat surface, and is of the uniform thickness of 2 inches.
Its form is rounded elliptical, and it measures 214 inches longitudinally
and 184 inches across the shorter diameter. The stone is granulite, being
distinguished from granite proper by the absence of mica. The sculp-
ture, shortly after it was discovered, attracted a good deal of attention,
666 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
- Ud
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 667
and was examined by a number of persons possessing respectable scien-
tific attainments. As faras I am aware, however, neither its visible
characteristics, nor its history, or its historical associations have ever
been carefully studied by any conversant with American archeology.
This carved stone was found at the point marked a in the accompanying
map. For myself, while undertaking to comment upon this interesting
memento of a past age, I must at the outset acknowledge my want of
qualifications for the purpose, and explain that my object is rather to
suggest than to dogmatize, and to give such small assistance to the
learned asis comprised in scraps of information which I have been able
to obtain from various sources.
A tolerable knowledge of the history of Charlotte County and of
the province, and an imperfect memory and record of the contents of
several letters received from various persons upon the principal subject,
are all of some service in furthering my purpose. The letters which
were written to assist me in preparing a paper upon the stone, subse-
quently read before the Natural History Society of New Brunswick,
an association not now in existence, were unfortunately destroyed in
the great fire of St. John. The paper itself was preserved, and em-
bodies at least a portion of the contents of the letter. Opinion, at the
time of discovery, was somewhat divided, both in regard to the nation-
ality of the workman Dean Lae.
by whom the stone was i Ree
earved and also in re-
spect to the object of
the work. Three sug-
gestions, one of which
is probably correct,
were offered by differ-
ent parties with refer-
ence to the workmen:
First, that he was ag
British colonist; sec-@
ondly, that he was a
Frenchman, and, third-
ly, that he was an In-
dian. The discussion
of these several propo-
sitions naturally sug-
gests, if it does not nec-
essarily involve, in each
case a consideration of sa
the motives of the work- Ra, Se ae
man. I have little hesitation in dismissing, as highly improbable, the
hypothesis that the artist was a British colonist. The appearance
and position of the stone when discovered, to which I shall presently
.
668 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
more particularly refer, convince me that it was not carved for the pur-
pose of deceiving scientific investigators, as might be, and I believe has
been, charged. For the same reasons I am led to form a strong opinion.
that the carving was executed long before the date of British oceupa- _
tion. Irrespective of these reasons, however, I would point to the carv-
ing itself as an answer to the theory; and the argument here makes as
strongly against the suggestion of French origin as it does against that
of British. The features and expression of the face are not in any re-
spect European, neither is the shape of the head. Again the ellipti-
cal eye, appearing on a profile as it should only properly appear to the
spectator in the full face, is a characteristic of Eastern, especially of
Egyptian, art. I have not the means at hand to verify the opinion, but,
if my memory serves me rightly, this same peculiarity appears in de-
lineations of human faces among the ancient Mexican Indians, if not
among other American tribes. The theory for which I contend is, —
that a European workman, either skilled or unskilled, would have pro-
duced something having a semblance to a European subject or work of
art. The suggestion of French origin for the sculpture leads me to
speak of the connection of the French with the history of this part
of the province.
The earliest record of the French occupation of Acadia is that of
De Monts, who with a party of fellow-countrymen passed the winter of
1604 on the island of St. Croix, situated on the river of the same name,
forming the boundary between the province and the State of Maine,
and distant about twenty-one miles from the village of St. George. I
have never heard of there being any considerabie number of French set-
tlers in the neighborhood of St. George, and cannot even say with cer-
tainty that there were any French families permanently settled there. |
L’Etang approaches to within 300 feet or so of Utopia, and La Téte Pas-
sage is distant about eight miles from the village, and the occurrence of
these names may lead to the inference that there was a partial Freneh
occupation of the adjacent country. Ihave indeed heard of inscriptions
on the rock at Black’s Harbor, or its vicinity, on Bliss’s Island, which are
supposed to be in French, but have never met any one who had actu-
ally seen these inscriptions. This island is nearly half way between
Campobello or Deer Island and Utopia, from which it is about ten
miles distant, and opposite the mouth of La Téte Passage. By no hy-
pothesis, however, am I able to connect this curiosity with any Euro-
pean custom or idea, and consequently the remainder of my investiga-
tion will be devoted to the argument in favor of its Indian origin.
If it is possible to derive approximately accurate information as to
the age of the stone from its situation and condition when found, it
would of course assist materially in discovering the nationality of the
workman. I believe that the finder, who, as I have stated, was search-
ing for stone for building purposes, was attracted by the shape of the
stone in question; that it was lying on the surface and covered with
‘
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 669
moss, and that it was not until the removal of the moss that-the true
character of the object appeared. An examination of its surface must,
I think, convince the observer that the stone has been subjected to the
long-continued action of water, and from its situation it seems fairly
certain that the water which has produced the wasted appearance was
rain, and rain only. An expert might perhaps form a tolerably accu-
rate opinion as to the peried which would be required for ordinary rain-
falls to effect such results as are here plainly visible. For myself, I
hesitate to speak of the precise period where the stone showed no
marks of rain. I feel, however, that I am safe in expressing the belief
that it would require a length of time commencing at a date before a
Frenchman is known to have set foot in the country to produce from
the action of rain so worn a surface as this stone exhibits. If this
proposition is correct, there can be no reasonable ground to doubt that
the carving is the work of an Indian. J may refer, but solely for the
purpose of expressing my disbelief in any such hypothesis, to the sug-
gestion that art, employed for the purpose of deceiving, and not any
force of nature, has produced the worn appearance to which reference
has been made. The mossy deposit, and the unfrequented locality in
which the curiosity was found, both aid in dispelling this idea; but even
had it been found in an often visited part, and without its mossy coy-
ering, I should have no hesitation in affirming that its worn appearance
was not due to the hand of man. I may further urge that, had the object
of the workman been solely to deceive, he would have scarcely selected
a stone whereon to carve of a granite character, and especially a piece of
granulite, one of the hardest of rocks to work, being not only hard in qual-
ity but of crystalline structure, and ill-adapted for receiving a polish, at
least under rough tools. Granting, however, that for the reason stated we
are justified in assigning the origin of the carving to the Indian period,
there still remain many difficulties in the way of determining its object
or meaning. There are at the present time several Indians in the
neighborhood of St. George, but half a century ago there were many
more in that locality, and previous to the commencement of that period
*the vicinity of the canal, about one and one-half miles from the bluff
mentioned before, was continuously a favorite camping ground for these
people. The Magaguadavie Lakes abound in fish, even at the present
day, and the surrounding woods, formerly well stocked with all kinds
of game, would prove a great attraction to the savage hunters, and the
proximity of the sea would also add to the attractions. The Magagua-
davic Indians speak the Milicete langnage, and are, I believe, members —
of that tribe, and are, of course, descended from the Algonquins. I speak
with some hesitation of their being Milicetes, because I understand that
the Passamaquods claim to be distinct from the Milicetes, and there
may be some question whether Magaguadavie Indians were not a por-
tion of the former tribe. A very obvious question presents itself to the
mind of the investigator, which may here very properly be considered.
What purpose would an Indian have in view in producing this curious
670 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
work of art? Inthe paper which I read before the New Brunswick
Society I was unable to give any tolerably satisfactory reply to this.
At the present time I think that I can suggest an answer which
may be correct, and which, at least, deserves some consideration. The
members of that society were, if I mistake not, generally impressed with
the force of the arguments brought forward to support the suggestion
that the sculptor was an Indian, and were mclined to guess that the
carving was, in some indefinite way, connected with the funeral rites,
or was in commemoration of a departed brave. No work published at
that time afforded any solution of the difficulty. No relics of a similar
character to this had been dug up at any Indian burial ground in New
Brunswick, and although our Indians produce very well executed full
relief figures of the beaver, the muskrat, and the otter, upon soapstone
pipes, their skill apparently goes no further in this direction. I have
indeed seen rude sketches of human figures executed by these people,
but have never seen or been informed of any likeness to a man being
carved by them in stone. It was only by bringing pieces of informa-
tion together, and after the lapse of some years, that I was enabled to
suggest an answer to an apparently almost unanswerable question.
Upon one occasion, while in conversation with an old resident of St.
George, he gave me an account of a'somewhat singular monument
which, many years before this period, stood on the summit of a high —
hill near the canal, and about one-half mile distant from the place
where the carved stone was found. It consisted of a large oval or
rounded stone, weighing, as my informant roughly estimates, seventy- —
five hundred weight, lying on three vertical stone columns, from ten
inches to one foot in height, and firmly sunk in the ground thus .°.
(The above weight, I should imagine, is an over-estimate, but I give it
as stated to me.) The site of this monument is marked b on the pre-
ceding map. My informant stated that the boys and other visitors —
were in the habit of throwing stones at the columns, and that eventually
the monument was tumbled over, by the combined effort of a number
of ship carpenters, and fell crashing into the valley. Some years after-
wards I read, for the first time, Francis Parkman’s ‘ Pioneers of France
in the New World,” when my attention was at once arrested, and the
conversation with the gentleman from St. George brought to my mind,
by a passage which occurs on page 349, of that highly interesting
work.
Champlain, the writer states, had journeyed up the Ottawa River be-
yond Lake Coulange, and had reached an island in the neighborhood ~
of the village of a chief named Tessonat, which, Mr. Parkman is of
opinion, was on the Lower Lake des Allumettes. I quote what the his-
torian writes of what the French explorer sees: ‘‘Here, too, was a
cemetery, which excited the wonder of Champlain, for the dead were —
better cared for than the living. Over each grave a flat tablet of
wood was supported on posts, and at one end stood an upright tablet, —
carved with an intended representation of the features of the deceased.” —
“eS
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY, 671
Now, it may be that there is no connection whatever between the Indian
custom described by Champlain, as existing at the place described, and
the finding of the sculpture and the appearance of a large stone, sup-
ported on stone columns, at a place in New Brunswick. The points are
certainly far apart, and while in the one case there is clear evideneée of
the common custom, there is in the other barely sufficient evidence to
justify the supposition that there may be a single instance of the adop-
tion of the custom. The Magaguadavic Indians indeed have a tradition
that they were driven from some distant part of Canada to the seaboard,
but if this were established as a fact, it would scarcely aid in the elucida-
tion of this matter. Two conjectures may be made, however, either of
which if correct might account for the supposed existence of an Ottawa
custom in New Brunswick.- An Indian might have been captured, or
might have been expelled by his brethren on the Lower Lake des Allu-
mettes, and been carried, or have found his way, to the maritime province.
Or, a young Milicetes might have been carried away by the Ottawas, and
have escaped to his old home. In the one case the prisoner would nat-
urally wish to secure for his burial place the monuments which had orna-
mented the graves of his fathers, and might have succeeded in securing
the aid of his captors in the accomplishment of his object. In the other
the escaped captive might well desire to adopt the arts of his former
masters, and wish to take his last rest beneath a monument with his
effigy at its head. The use of a large stone instead of a wooden tablet
scarcely deserves comment, for the change of material would in no sense
interfere with the object in view, but on the contrary would render the
monument more deserving of the. name.
I think that a careful or even superficial examination of the carving
must impress the observer with the idea that it is intended to repre-
sent the face of an Indian, and the head, although viewed only laterally,
certainly presents many of the peculiarities of the North American type.
Of course the examiner is placed at a great disadvantage in having
only a profile, and not a completely developed head, as for ethnological
purposes craniology is chiefly available when an opportunity is given
to measure the comparative breadth from the petrous portion of the
right, to the petrous portion of the left temporal bone, or to measure
from and to the parts of a carved head representing these portions.
There is a portrait of a Magaguadavie Indian by Mr. C. Ward, of St.
George, which is considered to present some points of resemblance to
the head in discussion, which may be found in the Illustrated London
News of the 5th of September, 1863, No. 1220. The fashion of wearing
the hair as represented by the carving is perhaps somewhat calculated
to puzzle the investigator, but there is scarcely anything sufficiently
definite in the delineation to enable one to trace an analogy to either
Indian or European fashions. It may be noticed that some have ex-
pressed an opinion that a wig was intended to be represented.
672 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
A SUPPOSED SPECIMEN OF ABORIGINAL ART,
Discovered at Gondola Point, parish of Rothesay, in Kings County, New Brunswick,
and exhibited at the Provincial Exhibition held at the Mechanics’ Institute, St.
John, New Brunswick. (Autumn of A. D. 1851?)
By G. F. MatTHEw.
Living in the neighborhood of the spot where this object was found,
J undertook, at the request of J. Allen Jack, esq., to make inquiry into
the circumstances connected with its discovery. It had been found,
T was told, on the farm of Andrew Kilpatrick (now owned by David
Kilpatrick), about half a mile from the Episcopal church, near Gondola
Point. It was turned out from a depth of between three and four feet
below the surface of the ground in digging a cellar on the farm referred
to; and was intrusted to Mr. Harding to take to St. John and ex-
hibit at the provincial exhibition held at the Mechanics’ Institute (in th
year 1851 ?)
In general outline the object, which is a rough-looking stone, is of an ©
oval form, 2 feet —
rr ee ee ~ q
BZ 113 inches long, 1
Zia onedat 34 inches
Z, broad, and 1 foot
=
2% inches deep;
TA 4 and as regards
= most of its surface —
does not differfrom _
an ordinary bowl-
der of Lower Carboniferous conglomerate, numbers of which lie scat- —
tered around the neighboring fields. This conglomerate consists chiefly —
of pieces of granite, and protogene in association with less numerous, —
but characteristic fragments of crystalline limestone of the upper series
of the Laurentian area, the border of which lies about a mile to the
southward of the point where the bowlder was found. I am satisfied,
therefore, that the bowlder was not brought from a distance, but belongs
in the neighborhood where it was dug up.
While, as regards most of its surface, this stone does not differ from
an ordinary bowlder, there is an exception in the appearance of one end.
This has been carved into the form of a human head, looking out, as it —
were, from the end of the stone. The features are aquiline, rudely carved,
and somewhat irregular, as though chiseled by an unskilled hand. They
present the appearance of having been worked out upon the surface of
the stone by using certain hard protuberances as the basis for the more
prominent features and graving the rest to correspond. The artist has
apparently seized upon a rude semblance of the human face presented,
and worked out the finer lineaments to correspond.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 673
On examining the carved head carefully it was found that the surface
thad been coated with a dark-red pigment. This could hardly have
been on the stone when it was dug up, if, as I was assured, it came
from a depth beneath the surface of three feet or more; and for the fol-
lowing reasons I suppose it to have been painted after it was exhumed.
An examination of the bank or hillside where the relic was found
revealed the presence of “Drift,” a deposit of the glacial and post-
glacial period, immediately below the surface loam, which is a foot thick.
The point at which the stone was dug up is not more than about
sixty feet above the Kennebecasis River, and it would thus for a long
period have been below the sea-level in the time marked by the accu-
‘mulation of the Ledalelay of which (or of the bowlder clay) the deposit
containing the stone lay consisted. if buried by natural causes in this
deposit the age of the relic would be carried back to a very distant
period—a period so distant that one may question whether it could
have had its present appearance at that time. And it seems more rea-
sonable to suppose that if it possessed its present aspect when dug up,
it must have been buried later than the Drift period, either by accident
or design. Thepaint with which the face is covered appears to have been
a subsequent embellishment, for long-continued exposure to the action
of the elements would have removed the oil or other substance which
serves to give body to the color, and the paint would have remained as
a dry powder liable to be brushed off with the slightest touch.
The mode of burial of this stone cannot now be verified, owing to the
crumbling condition of the bank, and its actual age as a work of art
must remain to a great extent a matter of conjecture. The naturally
rough features have been rechiseled, and (since the stone was dug up)
coated with paint ; so that in some respects the object is not in its pris-
tine condition, and its value as an object or specimen of aboriginal
art has been seriously marred by these changes.
ANTIQUITIES OF NOVA SCOTIA.
By Rry. GEORGE PATTERSON, D. D., of New Glasgow, N. 8.
No earthworks, properly speaking, exist in this region, but shell heaps
are to be found in various places. The shores of this county at vari-
aus places give evidence of the former occupation of the country by
the aborigines, particularly the shells, which are found in the soil as it
is turned up by the plow, and the stone implements which were formerly
picked up in abundance, and are still sometimes found, though more
rarely. The principal places are, Middle River Point, Fraser’s Point,
both sides of the East River at its entrance into the harbor, Fisher’s
Grant, and the Beaches, all in Pictou Harbor, and almost every island
S. Mis. 109——43
674 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
and headland in Miegomish Harbor. In the neighboring counties on
the northern shore of the province, the same thing is to be found,
particularly at Antigomish Harbor to the east, and at Tatamagouche
to the west.
There is scarcely anything in this province that can be called a
mound or earthwork, at all events like those found in the Western
States. There was found some years ago, at Tatamagouche, a small
heap. It was situated on the farm of the late Rey. Hugh Ross, next
to A. Campbell’s, which forms Campbell’s Point, at the entrance of the
harbor. It was opened and examined some fifty years ago by the late
Dr. Thomas McCulloch, of Pictou, who found in it a large number of
human bones, and various stone implements. He published no account
of them, but I have learned that he came to the conclusion that it was a
place where a large a number had been buried, probably after a battle.
The spot has long been plowed over, and the ground leveled.
There was another found at Kempt, Yarmouth County, in the west-
ern part of the province. The spot where it was found was some fif-
teen miles in the interior, and some distance from the river. It was
opened by Dr. Joseph Bond, of Bear River, Digby County, N.8., and
from him I learned that it was about ten feet in length, five feet in
width, and four feet in height. It has been represented to me as re-
sembling a large cradle hill. In this were found forty very beautifully
executed stone-arrow or spear-heads, which are now in the county mu-
seum at Yarmouth, established by L. E. Baker, esq., who has had them
photographed. Dr. Bond supposed that it was an ancient burying
place, though he found no bones, for which he accounted by supposing
that they had become so entirely decayed as to be no longer recogniza-
ble. But Dr. John W. Webster, of Yarmouth, informed me that from
the material around he believed it had been the site of an old work-
shop. This might be the case, and the mound might have been a cache
of such implements.
I have seen some thin layers of shell at points on the shores of our
harbors, but I am told that there are some of considerable thickness at —
points in Miegomish Harbor. They are generally close by the shore, —
and the sea, wearing away the soil, exposes them on the banks. But
none in this part of the country have undergone a proper examina-
tion.
There are in the museum of the Mechanics’ Institute, St. John, N. B., two
sculptures. The oneisvery rude, and will be found figured in Dawson’s
Acadian Geology. The other is a medallion of about fifteen inches in
‘diameter, containing a rather well-executed profile of a human head.
But I am not certain that this was found in the province.
The rocks on the north shore of the province are soft, and are being
worn away so rapidly that if there had been any carving upon them it
would long ere now have disappeared. In Yarmouth a stone has been
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 675 -
found on the shore with what looks like letters engraved on it, but
they have never been deciphered. The stone is in the possession of
John K. Ryerson, of Yarmouth. Dr. Gilpin, of Halifax, has discovered
a rock in Annapolis County with some engraving on it. In the history
of the county of Pictou, published by me, on pages 29-31, will be found
an account of the only genuine prehistoric cemetery with which I have
met. I could see no plan of arrangement in the graves. They would
be found at distances of from three to five feet apart, and over a spaceof
about fifty feet square, lying to the west of a pit. Iwas not able to find
any to the eastward, that is, farther away from the shore. The graves
formed a layer of brown, velvety mold, two or three inches deep, and
containing fragments of bones. The ground is gently sloping and fac-
ing southwestwardly. In only one instance could I detect the posture
of the body. This one was lying on its side, and doubled up. In other
instances there were plainly a number together, and the bones were so
decayed and seemingly so mixed, that I could not trace any order. I
did not particularly observe, but I think the body lay north and south
with the face to the west. The graves were shallow, not more than
from nine to twelve inches deep.
There was no evidence of desiccation. But there is in the possession
of Dr. Wm. Doherty, of Kingston, Kent County, N. B., a perfect
mummy of an Indian head. ‘The face retains its features, and the hair
adheres as completely as in life. It was found ona part of a bank of
the river Richibenclo. Along with it was found a copper kettle, showing
that the burial took place after the arrival of Europeans, and while they
still retained the practice of burying the valuables of the deceased with
him. The skin has a bluish discoloration, probably from the copper.
IT am informed that up the St. John’s River a large copper kettle was
found with the remains of a body, which had been squeezed into it.
There are no quarries. There is an island known in the Micmae lan-
guage as Pipestone Island, to which they may have resorted for mate-
rials for their pipes, but I have not been able to find the place. ©
The only workshops that I have heard of in these maritime provinces
is what is known as Bockman’s Beach, Lunenburg County, N.S. Itis
a beach of sand and gravel, running east and west, perhaps 300 yards
in length and connecting an island, known as Bockman’s Island, with
the main-land. On the north side the sea has heaped up the sand and
gravel, but in the rear of this itis lower, and here, about midway be-
tween the shores, have been found large quantities of flakes and splin-
ters of stone and arrow-heads in various states of preparation. Many
of these have been carried away by collectors, but the sea washes over
the spot, and after every storm more are exposed.
A small circular heap, about 6 feet in diameter, and from 15 to 18
inches high at the time of my visit, has been supposed by some to have
been the seat of the ancient arrow-maker. But on close examination
of the spot and from information received from those living in the
676 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
neighborhood, as to the changes effected upon the shore by the action of
winds and the sea in storms, I could easily see that the sand around it
had been swept away, leaving this spot a little above the head of the
surrounding beach. In fact changes have been going on which render
it impossible to ascertain how the ground lay in those old days. But
the amount of splinters, hammered stones, &c., plainly shows what had
been going on. These principally consist of agates and jaspers, which
are not to be found in any rocks near, but are similar to those found at
the present day in the trap rocks bordering on the Bay of Fundy, form-
ing the northern mountains of King and Annapolis Counties, distant,
in a direct line across the country, nearly sixty miles. A few are of the
dioritic rocks, which are found intrusive in the southern mountains of
the same counties, and some are of quartz, such as is found in the-~
metamorphic rocks in the immediate neighborhood. An examination of
these rocks shows the process which had been going on. Hereis a stone
at which the old arrow-maker had been hammering, with the view of
splitting it longitudinally, but the result was several cracks crosswise,
and it was thrown away. Here is a disk-like stone, around the edge of
which he had been hammering, but, instead of splitting through the
center, it broke away in fragments to the side. And then there are
flakes of all sizes and thickness. A few complete arrow-heads have
been found, and a much larger number of imperfect ones. These are
-all small, from 12 to 2 inches in length, but are very finely executed.
Stones are also picked up which bear on their edges the evidence of
having been used as hammers. <A few stone chiseis or axes have also
been found, but it is evident that the work carried on was mainly of
forming arrow-heads, for which they brought from the Bay of Fundy
the finer stones mentioned. Small pieces of copper are also found. They
consist sometimes of small nuggets seemingly in their natural state,
sometimes they are flattened out by hammering, and they are also
formed into small knives or piercers.
There were portages, where they carried their canoes from one lake or
stream to another, or across a headland. These were mere paths
through the forests, and are now either grown up with wood or have
‘been plowed up.
I have some small copper knives and small specimens of copper, the
‘atter from Lunenburg County. It has commonly been supposed that
‘the Micmacs were entirely ignorant of the use of metals till the arrival
‘of Europeans. These show that they had at least got to the length of
making use of the small specimens of native copper found in the trap
vocks of the Bay of Fundy. I have also some bone spear-heads, a
good deal decayed, from some cemetery; also, a pipefrom the same place.
It is made out of a very hard granitic rock, and Dr. Dawson, of McGill
College, Montreal, our highest authority on the geology of these regions,
says that he knows no rock of the same kind nearer than Bay Chaleur,
Jy
' MISCELLANLOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 677
and, furthermore, he has since received a number of pipe-heads, resem-
bling it in shape, from the Upper Ottawa.
There is, in the Provincial Museum at Halifax, a collection of various.
aboriginal antiquities. It contains, besides the usual stone axes and
arrow-heads, some small pieces of copper, similar to those from Bock-
man’s Beach, and a flat pipe found in the interior of the province, re-
markable from the circumstance of its having been found so far east,.
it being held that this is characteristic of the mound-builders or tribes
of the far West. There are also a few articles in the museum of the
Mechanics’ Institute of St. John, N. B. The most remarkable are the
sculptured figure and medallion already referred to, and a small hammer
with a short stick for a handle, remarkable for the manner in which it
is fastened to the helve, being merely held by a band of burnt clay.
Professor Jack, of the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.
B., is said to be the best authority in that province on this subject.
In the collection of Judge Desbusay, of Lunenburg County, N. S., are
also small pieces of copper from Bockman’s Beach. Dr. Gray, of Ma-
hone Bay ; in the same county, also has a collection.
THE ABORIGINES OF FLORIDA.
By S. T. WALKER.
In comparison with their number and size, the shell-heaps of Florida
contain but few relics of the people who constructed them. Besides the
ashes of their fires, the refuse of their feasts, and the fragments of their
utensils, we find but little to aid us in our researches into their civiliza-
tion or condition. The shell-heaps are so vast in size thatit is only when
the sea has swept away their slopes or when the lime burner has at-
tacked their sides that we get an insight into the mysteries of their in-
terior, and even then there is little to be obtained and but few uncertain
data given upon which to base a calculation. By far the greater mass
of these heaps is composed of shells, bones of mammals and birds, ashes,
charcoal, and thin layers of soil. Scattered throughout the heap how-
ever there are quantities of broken pottery and near the top, a few ob-
jects of stone, and numerous implements of bone or shell.
Theaccompanying diagram represents a section of ashell-heap at Cedar
Keys, Fla., formed by cutting through the center of a mound to open a
street. This may be considered a fair representation of the interior of
all shell-heaps with the exception of the unusually thick stratum of soil
near the center of the mass. From this it will be seen that the pottery
is pretty uniformly distributed throughout the heap from the bottom to
the top and is generally in small fragments, most probably pieces of pots
and utensils accidentally broken during the ordinary culinary opera-
‘678 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
tions of theirowners. Ihave never known a whole vessel to be found in
a Shell-heap. Anexamination of this pottery, then, it seems would give
us a pretty correct idea of the progress of
the aborigines in the art of pottery during
) aperiod of time corresponding with that of
| j-,BhR AnGhes of modern sof \ | the age of the shell-heaps.s) Am inquiry
fae therefore into this progress among the
builders of the shell-heaps necessarily in-
(Later stage.) volves a question of time, and is by far the
Fine thin pottery beautifully orna- | most difficult part of the subject.
Sito cid fio as ee _ In the section of the shell-heap given in
| Seer pends ote Sr dione ast, | the illustration, it will be seen that a
(eaere: Theda feet stratum of soil six inches in thickness has
accumulated since the completion of the
mound, and that a similar stratum nearly
two feet in thickness occupies a position
near the center of the mass, indicating a
cessation in the growth of the heap, when
Two feet of soil containing a few | . 5
fragments of pottery. % it had reached a height of seven feet, for
a period of time sufficient for the accumu-
lation of this two feet of soil on the sar-
face of the shell. After this the accumula-
tion of shell begins again, and when it had
acquired a depth of three feet it ceased
again and this time forever.
Now, we know pretty well how long a
(Middle stage.) period has elapsed since the aborigines
Better pottery, rudely ornamented. | ceased to inhabit this region, and although
Primitive implements of bone and} ., . >
shell. itis possible that there has been no addi-
paras tion to this heap for seventy-five or one
hundred years, we know positively that
| there has been none for the last fifty years.
It requires then at least fifty years to ac-
-cumulate six inches of soil on a shell-heap,
and consequently we may be justified in
| supposing a period of two hundred years
to have been necessary for the formation
(Earlier stage.) of the central stratum of soil in this mound.
Rude, heavy pottery, destitute of A comparison of the pottery immediately
Sere anatese tect above and below this stratum of soil repre-
senting a period of two hundred years
ought to give us some idea of the rate of
progression made in the arts. And a criti-
eal comparison of the different styles of
pottery with each other in different portions of the heap should give
us a rude idea of the age of the shell-heaps. The object of the present
SECTION OF SHELL-HEAP.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 679
paper is to present the reader with a description of the relics and pottery
found in each stratum of the shell-heap, beginning at the foundation
and ending at the top, and from a comparison of the various styles
which mark the march of progress and improvement, to hazard a con-
jecture as to the time which elapsed from the beginning of the shell-
heaps up to the advent of the European.
Tn all the large shell-heaps examined hitherto I have invariably found
pottery in the lowest stratum of shell, and, in many instances, in the
soil beneath the foundations, which I regard as conclusive evidence
that the aborigines were acquainted with the art of fabricating earth-
enware pots long before they began these vast accumulations of shell.
The art however was in its rudest state. The fragments are thick,
heavy, and coarse, the composing clay often containing a mixture of
coarse sand or small pebbles. The utensils were of large size and rudely
fashioned, as shown by the curves of the fragments, and they were des-
titute of all attempt at ornament. The rims were plain, and were not
thickened or re-enforced to increase their strength. This style is found
generally for about three or four feet in height, and may be said to rep-
sent the first stage. Above this a gradual change is perceptible, the
two styles overlapping, so that it is difficult to say where one begins and
the other ends. .
The second stage however as we ascend, soon becomes plainly
marked. The walls of the utensils become thinner. The rims are
turned outward and slightly thickened. Dots and straight lines are
cut into the sides of the vessel by way of ornament, and the thickened
rims are sometimes * pinched” like pie-crust with the fingers. During
this stage the savage artist first began to mold his wares in rush bas-
kets, which were subsequently burned away, leaving the vessel curi-
ously checked as though it had been pressed while wet with coarse
eloth. The use of sand or gravel is totally abandoned during this
stage, and the quality of the pottery is in every way improved. Im-
plements of shell and bone are sometimes found, but they are generally
few in number and rude in manufacture.
This brings us to a portion of the shell-heap corresponding in position
with the two-feet stratum of soil shown in the diagram, and that stratum
marks the transition period between the middle and modern styles of
Indian pottery. Immediately below this layer of soil we find the curved
line introduced in ornamental designs on the utensils, and a few frag-
ments of the rims of pots show that ears began to be attached to them
for the convenience of suspension, and that the thickness of the ware
was reduced by the employment of better materials. Immediately over
the stratum of soil all the fragments show improvement on those below.
New patterns are introduced, and we begin to find fragments of dishes,
bowls, cups, as well as those of jars and pots, many of them of elegant
design and of a superior quality of ware. Stone axes, arrow-heads, bone
and shell implements are of frequent occurrence.
680 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
AS we approach the top, marks of improvement are numerous. AI}
the larger pots are furnished with numerous ears, through which strings
might be run for suspension. Vessels are sometimes furnished with
handles, and all the finer wares are elaborately ornamented with zigzag
lines, curves, dots, and, in rare cases, with figures of men and animals.
The finest wares are invariably found on or near the surface, and among
them we find the first attempt at coloring their work.
We thus observe that from the testimony of the pottery the age of
the shell-heaps is divided into three distinct periods, which may be
styled the ancient, the middle, and the modern, which are further
divided by two periods of transition, the latter of which is marked
by the stratum of soil representing a period of two hundred years.
Assuming that the march of improvement was uniform, and seeing that:
a period of over two hundred years* was occupied in a transition from
the middle period to the modern, I think we might be safe in attribut-
ing a period of at least two hundred years to each of the five eras men-
tioned above. This would give one thousand years for the age of the
oldest shell-heaps. ;
I might properly extend this time much beyond these figures, as
there are many shell-heaps which were abandoned fully as long as this
upon which there is no accumulation of soil, or at best but little, so it
would seem that I have adopted the smallest period of time necessary
to a correct ealculation, still these calculations may be far from the
truth. There are so many possibilities to be encountered that the ques-
tion of age is lost among them. The growth of a shell-heap depended,
of course, upon the number of people living in the vicinity, whether
their residence was continuous or occasional, the abundance or scare-
ity of shell-fish, and many other accidents too numerous to mention.
Layers of soil in different portions of the same heap show that portions
of the mass ceased to grow for long periods of time, while thick strata
of clean shell indicate the rapid and continuous growth of other portions.
Future investigations may throw more light on this subject at present
involved in doubt and mystery.
The key to the whole matter is a critical study of ancient pottery. That
the aborigines of Florida reached the state of advancement in which they
were found by the Europeans by slow and painful steps is evident to the
most superficial observer. That they did advance is equally plain. Ac-
cording to the estimate of time made in this paper it was three hundred
years before they thought of ornamenting moist clay with lines and
dots, and five hundred years before they thought of making ears to pots.
Dishes and bowls were not thought of for eight hundred years, and cups
with handles for nearly one thousand. Still they progressed, and who
can say what point their civilization might have reached had the discov-
ery by Columbus been delayed another thousand years?
OS AS UREN TUS PD AD GSTS a 2 Tce Ee eC te
*I say ‘over two hundred years,” because this transition began in the latter years
of the middle period and continued in the earlier years of the modern period.
ABSTRACTS FROM ANTHROPOLOGICAL CORRESPONDENCE..
4 Numerous correspondents of the Institution, in writing upon various
article.
matters, frequently convey valuable information. It is the design of
this chapter to put on record those statements of correspondents re-
specting archeology that are not sufficiently long to form a separate
BARKLEY, W.F., writesthat about 15 miles from Mount Pleasant, Pa.,
are the remains of a burying ground, in which the dead are interred be-
- neath piles of stone.
CARRUTHERS, ARTHUR, writes that in the western part of Am-
herst Township, Lorain County, Ohio, on the farms of Joseph Rice,
David Shevarts, and others, are sandstone rocks rising about 1 foot above
the ground and from 6 to 50 feet across the top. They belong to the
Waverly sandstone. The impressions of Indian moccasins, bears’ tracks,
turkey tracks, and those of small birds are very plentiful. They donot.
all run in the same direction, but cross and recross one another.
CovuES, ELLIOTT, mentionsa cliff-house on Beaver Creek at its junc-
tion with the Rio Verde, 40 miles from Fort Whipple, Ariz.
j Ferry, C. M., of Oneida, New York, mentions the opening of a
trench of buried Indians. Part of the bodies were in wooden coffins,
plainly indicating recent burial. Some of the dead had been wrapped
in blankets, and a child’s moccasin was ornamented with glass beads..
Buttons and bricks also add their testimony to the fact that the ceme-
tery is not ancient.
FLINT, EARL. Rock inscriptions extend all along the summits of
the Cordilleras, from Bolivia to Mexico. They are similar in character.
At Telembela, in Ecuador, is a sacrificial stone, similar to that in Mexico.
A sculpture of a chief with a scepter in each hand, surmounted by a
condor, and standing on the prostrate form of a supplicant, was found
in Peru. This resembles very much the figure in the Palenque stone,
but itis coarser. AtSamiapata, near the top of the declivity, sculptured
in relief, is a figure of a tiger. A little higher up is asimilar one, more
massive, from which a double series of rhombs lead from the sculpture
to a kind of throne, supported on four feet of a bird of prey, surrounded
by a circular line of seats. These all join to form the body of the cross.
The top is in shape a species of platform, on which are chiseled hemi-
spheric holes, one yard in diameter, communicating with one another by
681
AS ™>
682 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
small canals. Seulptures of this class occur from Bolivia to Columbia.
Lower down, at Samiapata, are niches cut in the rock, and buried near
them are inscribed stones. Similar ones, and less elevated, where the
Cordilleras separate the territory of Chaco from Chiriquanes, occur in a
real desert, and being ona declivity, have escaped the alluvial burial of
the first. Inscribed on the stones found at Chaco and Samiapata and
those of the niches are the same persons, figures and paintings as those
on the murals of Palenque.
GRAHAM, N. B., writes that there is a mound four miles south of
England’s. Point post-office, Cherokee County, North Carolina, on the
farm of Jesse Raper. It is the only mound within ten miles, is circular
in ground plan, 120 feet in base diameter, and 90 feet apex diameter.
It is composed of alternate layers of burnt clay, ashes, and soil.
HARLAN, CALVIN SN., describes a cave ina rocky hillside, four miles
from Ellora, Baltimore County, Maryland, known as the Old Indian
Cave. It extends into the hill about 56 feet. Around the entrance are
ashes and charcoal, which are also mingled with the earth about the
floor ; oyster shells, some of which show the action of fire, occur in the
débris. Arrow-heads are also reported to have been found.
About one and a half miles from Sweet Air, in the same county, are
the remains of an old Indian trail, leading from the Rocks of Deer Creek,
in Harford County, a seat of the Susquehannocks, to a settlement south
of Sweet Air post-office, at which spot arrow and spear heads have
been found, together with several axes. .
Other localities in the vicinity of Sweet Air have been mentioned
where chipped stone implements occur.
HomsuHEr, G. W., Fairfield, Indiana, writes to the Institution that he
is preparing maps and sketches of the mounds, circles, implements, &e.,
of Franklin County, in that State.
KALES, J. W., sends the following report: Along the east shore of
Cayuga Lake, New York, occur many relics of aboriginal populations.
On the beach are found multitudes of notched sinkers. On the points
these relics are most numerous. Several burial places have been dis-
covered ; one of them is on a small island opposite the village of Union
Springs. The skeletons rest on a substratum of rock, about 2 feet be-
low the surface. <A large number of skeletons were unearthed about
one mile north of Union Springs and 200 feet from the lake. They were
promiscuously buried in a pit under about 2 feet of fine black earth,
those of men, women, and children being intermingled. The skeletons
of males indicated men of large size and great strength. No relies oe-
curred in the pit.
LUTHER, 8. N., writes to the Institution with reference to the former
use of manganese as a degraissant in the manufacture of Indian pottery,
ra
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY. 683
in the vicinity of Nelson Ledges, Portage County, Ohio. These ledges
are outcrops of the conglomerate, and their cavities had furnished shelter
for the ancient people. In the talus and on the higher level are found
areas of dark soil, rich in relies of various kinds, and among these only
occur the lumps of manganese. This mineral crops out in places at
Bainbridge, twenty miles away, and no nearer. Pottery fragments,
showing black spots of the manganese, and lumps having a polished
surface, have been picked up. Mr, Luther also speaks of a great mortar
which appears to have been used in crushing quartz.
McLEAN, JOHN J., while transmitting a meteorological report from
Sitka Castle, Alaska, notes the “ fish-dance,” performed in honor of the
arrival of the shoals of herring. ‘The herring are so plentiful that an
Indian with his nail-studded thin board could catch a canoe full in an,
hour. The Sitka Indians built fires at the mouth of Indian River, and
sang and danced their national airs every night for more than a week.
I witnessed several of the dances at the arrival of the fish. None but
the men participated, the women sitting around the fire and keeping
up a shrill monotonous chorus. The dancing movement consisted in a
step from one foot to the other and stamping to emphasize the music,
the body more or less stooped, and the head jerked from one side to
the other in rapid movement. The melodies were extremely simple,
containing three or four notes. The time was now slow and stately,
fike a funeral dirge, again quick and lively. There were numerous
pauses, each ushering a slight modification of the melody and time. On
the whole the tune was not inharmonious, having a barbaric fitness to
the people and the occasion. They seem to have an appreciation of
the picturesque, for they had chosen one of the prettiest spots in the
whole neighborhood for their festivities. The dark snow-capped mount-
ain for a back-ground and the broad waters of the beautiful bay, lit
up by the full moon. The subject of the songs was a description of
hunting and fishing. Their costume consisted of blankets with tin tags,
sewn on, jingling with each movement of the body, wigs made of oakum
and eagles’ feathers, and blackened faces striped with vermilion. The
sports were kept up each night until a late honr.
MACLEAN, J. P., describes and figures in his letter of December 10th
two circular inclosures in Syeamore Township, Hamilton County, Ohio.
He also found on Blennerhasset Island numerous antiquities, among
them a shell heap, 100 feet long. He reports that Dr. G. O. Hildreth,
in sinking a cistern a little west of the Graded Way, Marietta, Ohio,
came upon a cave containing human and animal bones. The cistern
was commenced 15 feet below the plain, on a side hill. Six feet below
the surface the diggers came upon a solid mass of concrete, composed
chiefly of quartz pebbles. Below this was a cavern one foot in height,
on the floor of which were the bones above mentioned. There was no
outlet to the cave, and it is to be supposed that by the filling up of the
684 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
ravine the original opening was closed. Inthe Marietta Works* a line
of embankments leads from the mound inclosed by a circle to the
square containing 27 acres. Recently, in cutting down a portion of this
embankment, near the fence, the workmen came upon a circle composed
of sandstone pestles and round balls, arranged radially, the balls alter-
nating with the pestles.
MONTFORTH, WARREN. There are located in the vicinity of New
Liberty, Owen County, Kentucky, a few mounds. There are a number
of mounds in the ‘‘bottoms” along the Ohio River, and on the hill-tops.
not far from the Kentucky River. There are others in secluded spots.
One of them, about 50 feet in base diameter, and 15 feet high, is situated
at the junction of two small streams, about a mile and a half from the
Ohio River, in Gallatin County, surrounded on all sides by high hills.
it has been cultivated a number of years and many relics have been
found.
NULL, JAMES W., sends the following account of mounds, &c., in
the neighborhood of Reel-Foot Lake, in Western Tennessee, a body of
water 20 miles long and from 2 to 5 miles wide, formed by the sinking
of the earth during the earthquakes of 1811 and 1812. Near Thomp-
son’s landing is a group of seven mounds within a space of 3 acres,
circular in outline, 5 feet high, and 20 or 25 in diameter. Some were
bare, others had large trees growing upon them. A large tree up-*
rooted revealed the structure of one to be a layer of soil over a heap of
sand. One-fourth of a mile north is a group of eight, very similar to
the former in every respect. A few hundred yards further north is a
group consisting of a central mound, about 3 feet high, kidney-shaped,
100 feet long, and 40 to 50 feet wide, surrounded by a number of circular
mounds 2 to 3 feet high. Several isolated mounds were discovered
larger than those in groups. Dyer, Obion, and Lake Counties are alk
said to be rich in aboriginal remains.
PALMER, EDWARD, reports mounds and graves at Niles Ferry on
the Tennessee River, at Chattanooga, and at points near Nashville.
PEET, S. D., announces that he has been prosecuting the survey of
the mounds of Wisconsin during the past year at his own expense.
RicE, H. B., announces the discovery in South Florida of crania
having a peculiar shape. ‘They are without foreheads or depressions
at the root of the nose. A number were buried close together, inverted, -
and in proximity to normal skulls erect in position, all partly decomposed.
The crania do not exhibit evidences of flattening.”
RhusBy, H. H., describes a cave near Silver City, N. Mex.
* “Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,” by E.G. Squier and E. H. Davis:
plate xxvi.—Smithsonian Contributions, vol, i.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY 685
StockTon, J. B., Toronto, Kans., reports that there are no mounds
in that vicinity. A cave near the town is reported to have carvings on
the walls.
TANDY, W., of Dallas, Hancock County, Illinois, excavated a mound
near that place, which had been the burial place of warriors. AII the
-skeletons were those of adults; ten of the crania and a vertebra havy-
ing arrow-points sticking in them. There are about thirty mounds in
the vicinity of Dallas, of which Mr. Tandy will make a map.
WALKER,S.T., writing from Milton, Florida, makes the following men-
tion of antiquities: ‘“* I know of quite a large mound containing bones
on the Withlecoochee River, seven miles north of Crystal River post-
office, from which human bones have been taken; another is situated 28
miles north of Milton, the most wonderful that I have seen. It is one
hundred paces in circumference.”
He also states: “I have sailed over five hundred miles, and located
many mounds, shell heaps, sites of ancient villages, cemeteries, Xe.
The most important discovery was that of an ancient canal leading from
the head of Horseshoe Bayou into the fresh-water lakes of the interior.
This canal is about 10 or 12 feet wide, and must have been originally
from 6to 15 feetdeep. Itisas straight as an arrow, excepting an obtuse
angle in one place. Estimated length, one mile. Large pines grow on
the embankments and cypresses, 2 feet in diameter, in the bottom of the
trench. The lakes, connected by this canal, are about 7 or 8 miles long,
and are famous for the immense numbers of fish which they contain.
All along Four-Mile Point shell heaps abound, and low mounds, from 1
to 2 feet high, are scattered through the woods for miles. These were
undoubtedly built for residence, each being large enough to accommo-
date a single house, excepting a few which are large enough for half a
dozen. East and west of Four-Mile Point the signs of ancient occupa-
tion grow gradually less, especially toward the mouth of Choctawhatchie,
where a single sand mound exists. Westof this, at Indian Bayou, there
isa large domiciliary mound and several shell heaps. No more occur until
East Pass is reached, where areseveral smallheaps and a cemetery. The
‘burials seem to have been made in separate graves, some being covered
with a species of clay or coquina rock. At Camp Walton, or Brook’s
farm, on the mainland, at the head of the sound, were discovered fifteen
large shell heaps and a large domicile mound, 15 feet high, 135 feet
wide, and 300 feet long, containing a layer of shells and some human
remains, while all through the hammock there are dozens of small cir-
eles of earth, &c. At Black Point, at the mouth of Garnier’s Bayou,
was found a large sand mound, 10 feet high, with a circular base about
200 feet in diameter, and having a sloping roadway to the top.
‘‘ Although no oysters now live in Choctawhatchie Bay, they once ex-
isted there in vast numbers. The heaps are composed almost entirely
686 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO ANTHROPOLOGY.
of this shell, and they were are as large as they ever grow in this lati-
tude. Scallops also were once numerous, but now are entirely extinct.
The cabbage palm and the pelican have also vanished within the memory
of old men.” |
WIGGINS, JOHN B., announces the discovery of.the mound where the
Indians buried their dead after the battle between the Shawnes and
the Nanticohes, at Nanticoke, Hanover Township, Luzerne County, Pa.
WILLIAMSON, GEORGE, calls attention to works near Marksville,
La. South of that place is an embankment extending from a bluff on
an old channel of the Red or some other river, a distance of a mile or
more. The embankment is from 8 to 12 feet high and is flanked on
the outside by a wide, deep ditch. In several places appear to have
been sally-ports, and large old forest trees are growing on the bank. In-
side the work are two large mounds, one of them covering several acres.
In this vicinity are a great many mounds, some of them of great size.
The remains are on the first high land on the bank of what was once a
river channel, communicating with the Atchafalaya.
WILTHEISS, C. J. incloses testimony of A. J. Templeton and Joseph
Defrees with reference to finding two tablets in a gravel bank within
the corporate limits of Piqua, Ohio, on the land of Wilson Morrow.
One of these tablets was 15 feet from the surface, which was covered
with 4 feet of loam. On the surface of the object were ‘‘ characters ”
and in the center lead inserted. The second was found the next day in
the loose gravel which had caved down.
= aS ae a
TUCKAHOE, OR INDIAN BREAD.
By Pror. J. Howarp GORE.
Among the many interesting topics relative to the American aborig-
ines, few are more interesting than their means of obtaining subsistence;
principally because of its importance as a factor in solving the problem
of the primitive population. Procuring food, and waging war, occu-
pying the Indian’s whole attention, developed his ingenuity by exercis-
ing it, and the degree of skill employed in these pursuits determines
the relative status of different tribes. Nearly every writer upon the
customs of the Indians has made this the subject of special considera-
tion, and as the early settlers in different parts of America were fre-
quently compelled to resort to the use of Indian foods, on account of
failure in their first crops, our historians have dwelt largely upon the
food products of the Indians. In regard to the character of the game
and the means of obtaining it, there is but little doubt, but in the case
of vegetable foods, much that has been written is of no value, since only
the common names of the plants and roots were given, on account of
the ignorance of the writers on botanical subjects; and, in addition to
this, many mistakes have occurred by the change or corruption of the
names by which these plants were formerly known. Those who were
sufficiently skilled in the identification or the naming of the plants which
came under their observations have given us important data for compar-
ing the flora of the country at different periods. Unfortunately, many of
the scientific pioneers were so enthusiastic in the discovery ofnew species
that insufficient care was observed in naming plants already described,
so that our botanical synonymy has become tangled, and in some cases
the specific is not a check for the common name, which, varying in differ-
ent places and at different times, causes plants to possess impossible
properties, that have been ascribed to others once bearing the same com-
mon name, and the complicated synonymy sometimes fails to point out
the exact inconsistency. An example of the condition of affairs just
mentioned is the subject of this paper.
In 1875, while in charge of the museum of Richmond College, Virginia,
some specimens of Tuckahoe were received, which elicited considerable
interest concerning its production and the methods by which it was
obtained, since the donor said that it was once an article of great es-
teem among the Indians as food. Many questions were asked of the
students who came from the locality from whence the specimens were
sent, and some correspondence was resorted to in hopes of obtaining
687
688 TUCKAHOE, OR INDIAN BREAD.
information upon the topics referred to. The very little knowledge
‘thus procured, together with the curious shape of the substance, its
‘traditional use and mysterious propagation, at once suggested that it
be made the subject of a careful examination. But, as library facilities
were not then available, nor could a definite plan of procedure be deter-
ined upon, the investigation was deferred until the beginning of the
past year. In order to ascertain all that is now known on this subject,
circulars of inquiry were sent, through the Smithsonian Institution, to
every cryptogamic botanist throughout the United States, asking for in-
formation upon its botanical nature, also to curators of natural-history
museums, and a set of queries for publication sent to at least one news-
paper in every town along the Atlantic coast from New Jersey to
Florida, in the Mississippi Valley and in California, with a request that
all the readers who were able would favor me with answers to the ques-
tions asked. By these means a large number of specimens were ob-
‘tained, all of which were identical in their general appearance, showing
that wherever it is now found, the same substance bears the same name.
Its geographical distribution was also accurately ascertained, and much
valuable information relative to the character of its growth and the at-
tending conditions. In the mean time the literature of the subject re-
ceived especial attention; the various libraries of this city were thor-
oughly examined, as well as those of Boston and Harvard. The differ-
ent theories concerning its use and production, the analyses obtained,
with a very elaborate one made especially for me, and the record of
observed facts, when brought together, gave a medley with so many
contradictory elements that it seemed impossible to either reconcile the
differences or deduce any satisfactory conclusions therefrom.
The disagreement in the analyses could be accounted for by supposing
that either some were wrong, or that the specimens when examined
were in different stages of development. But when all (see future part —
of this article) negatived tradition, as well as the statement made by
historians and botanists, that Tuckahoe was nutritious, the outlook
was far from cheery.
The only solution then apparent was the supposition that the sub-
stance called Tuckahoe by these writers was not the same as the tuber
now known by that name. This surmise receives confirmation from a
comparison of the following quotations: ‘‘ Lycoperdon solidum, a very
large tuber of the ground, outside rough, white within. The Indians
use it for making bread, commonly called Tuckahoe” (Clayton, “ Flora
Virginica,” p.176). By referring to the analysis it will be seen that a sub-
stance with less than one per cent. of nutritive properties could not
be used with any success as food, while the description given exactly
suits the tuber now called by the same name. So there is some reason ~
in thinking that the property belonging to one root known as Tuckahoe
has been ascribed to all roots having that common name. In Fries’
“Systema Mycologicum,” vol. 2, p. 242, we read: “ Pachyma cocos, oblong,
|
!
TUCKAHOE, OR INDIAN BREAD. 689
with a hard scaly bark, with a brown and woody appearance; elliptical
in shape and about the size of a man’s head, exactly resembling a
cocoa nut; bark thick and fibrous, in general appearance like a pine
root. Within, the substance is almost white and flesh-like, with an
odor like a mushroom. When they attain their growth, the color is
white, and they are considered by the natives as possessing medicinal
properties. They are found in Carolina, especially among the pine for-
ests.” Almost the identical description is given by Von Schweinitz, in
“Synopsis Fungorum,” p. 56; also in Walter’s “Flora Carolina,” p. 256.
In order to be able to positively assert that there were more than one
root known as Tuckahoe, we must find at least one other whose proper-
ties and general appearance will coincide with or take the place of those
already given. <A search for this was made among the earliest histories
of the eastern parts of America. The first promise of success was de-
rived from Smith’s “ History of Virginia,” p. 87, where itis written: ‘‘The
chief root they have for food is called Tockawhoughe. It grows like a
flag in marshes. In one day a savage will gather sufficient for a week.
These roots are much of the greatness and taste of potatoes. They used
to cover a great many with oak leaves and ferns and then cover all with
earth in the manner of a coal pit; over it and on each side they continue
a great fire 24 hours before they dare eat it. Raw, it is no better than
poison, and being roasted, unless it be tender and heat abated, or sliced
and dried in the sun, mixed with sorrel and meal it will prickle the
throat extremely, and yet in summer they use this ordinarily for bread,’
The account given by Smith is confirmed by Beverly, “History of Vir-
ginia,” p. 153: “Out of the ground they (the Indians) dig earth nuts, wild
onions, and a tuberous root they call Tuckahoe, which, while crude, is
of a very hot and virulent quality. But they can so manage it, as in
case of necessity to make bread of it. It grows like a flag in the miry
marshes, having roots of the magnitude and taste of Irish potatoes.”
Also, in Campbell’s “‘ History of Virginia,” p. 75: ‘“‘Of the spontaneous
productions of the soil, the principal article of sustenance was the tuck-
ahoe root, of which one man could gather enough in a day to supply
him with bread for a week. The Tockawhoughe, as it is called by
Smith, was in the summer the principal article of diet among the natives.
It grows in marshes like a flag, and resembles somewhat the potato in
size and flavor. Raw, it is no better than poison, so that the Indians
were accustomed to roast and eat it mixed with sorrel and corn meal.
There is another root found in Virginia called Tuckahoe and confounded
with the flag-like root described above, and erroneously supposed by
many to grow without stem or leaf. It appears to be of the convolvulus
species, and is entirely unlike the root eaten by the Jamestown settlers.”
It is evident from the preceding extracts that at least two dissimilar
roots were referred to, so that the supposition that more than one tuber
was known as Tuckahoe may now be ealled a conclusion. The ques-
tion then remaining is: What was this flag-like root? The Kooyah, or
S. Mis. 109-———44
’
690 TUCKAHOE, OR INDIAN BREAD.
Tobacco root (Valeriana edulis), resembles in several particulars the
root described by Smith and Beverly, especially in having its poison-
ous properties removed by prolonged cooking in the ground. (See
Fremont’s ‘‘ First and Second Expeditions,” pp. 135 and 160; also Agri-
cultural Report for 1870 p. 409.) But as this species of Valeriana is
not found so far southeast as Virginia, this surmise will have to be aban-
doned and another answer sought. Iam indebted to Prof.J.Hammond .
Trumbull for a reference which assisted in the solution of the problem.
In Kalm’s “Travels,” vol. 1, p. 388, we read: “ Tawko and Tawking was
the Indian name of another plant, the root of which they eat; some of
them call it Tuckzh, but most of the Swedes knew it by the name of |
Tawko. It grows in moist grounds and swamps. This is the Arum
virginicum, or Virginia Wake Robin.” And again: “Tawkee is another
plant, so called by the Indians who ateit. Some of them called it Tawkin
and others Tackoim; the Swedes called it always by the name of Taw-
kee; this was the Orontium aquaticum” (Golden Club). - - - “Tawho,
Tawhim, some call it Tucah. It grows in moist swamps, roots as large
as a man’s thigh. When fresh, are pungent and considered poisonous.
They were cookedinpits. It is the Arum virginicum, or Virginia Wake
Robin, same as the Tuckahoe of North Carolina” (vol. 1, p. 389). This
description agrees with that given by Smith and Beverly, and as it was
written by a botanist with sufficient knowledge of the habits of the In-
dians to speak with accuracy, we feel perfectly safe in accepting his
statement, and conclude that Tuckahoe, if not applied exclusively to the
Arum virginicum, at least included it, and its reputed nutritive proper-
ties were obtained from A. virginicum, or a similar root, as may also be
seen from this quotation from Rafinesque’s “ Medical Flora,” vol. 2, p.270:
“¢. - - all esenlent roots were called Tuckahoe, such as Apios and pota-
toes. Tuckhaus is a solid white mass, with wrinkles and gemmules out-
side; several species seen (3) rugosus, leviusculus, and albidus. T. rug-
osus reaches 40 pounds weight. Fungose, when fresh, hard, brittle like
starch when dry, tasteless, inodorous, and esculent, eaten by Indians
in many ways.” In order to substantiate this theory, we will appeal to
language as the final arbiter. We are again pleased to acknowledge
our indebtedness to the distinguished ethnologist, Professor Trumbull,
who gave us access to his notes. He says: ‘Tuckahoe, Tawkee [Dela-
ware, ptucqui, mass, petukqui; Cree, pittikwow: round globular.] This
name, varied by the dialects of the several tribes, belonged to all esculent
bulbous roots used by the Indians, among which are these: Orontium
aquaticum, Golden Club, and Pentandria virginica, Virginia Wake Robin. —
The word Tuckahoe is generic, and was given to several species, which
has misled the botanists and tangled the synonymy. The word is not
derived from the Indian word for ‘bread’ but the word for loaf or cake,
derived from ptucqui or ptuckqueu, and signifies that which is made round,
orrounded.” This conclusion was reached before appealing to Dr. Trum-
bull, and it is a source of great satisfaction to have it indorsed by such
2
7
TUCKAHOE, OR INDIAN BREAD: 691
indisputable authority. In the-future, then, when we read of the nutri-
tive properties, of Tuckahoe, and that it affords the chief article of sus-
tenance for the Indians, we shall know that nothing more definite was
referred to than an edible rvot.
For the substance now quite familiar as Tuckahoe we will adopt the
name Pachyma cocos Fr., and proceed with a discussion of its many in-
teresting features, giving, first,
THE SYNONYMS:
Pachyma cocos, Kries, Ti. 2, p. 242, in 1822.
solidum, Oken, p. 93, in 1825.
pinetorum, Horaninow, pp. 2—23, in 1856.
coniferarum, Horaninow.
Iycoperdon solidum, Clayton, p. 176, in 1762.
sclerocium, Nuttall, p. 200, in 1820.
cervinum, Walter, p. 262, in 1788.
Sclerocium cocos, Schweinitz, p. 56, in 1823.
: giganteum, MacBride, 1817.
Tuckhaus rugosus, Rafinesque, vol. 2, p. 255, in 1830.
MacBride stated that Tuckahoe was thought by some to be the root
vf the Erythrina herbacea, or Convolvolus panduratus (Trans. Lin, Soc.,
June 8, 1817), but this supposition is so far from a semblance to truth
that these names should not be included in the synonymy. The other
names refer to the same substance beyond a doubt, as shown in the case
of several by the quotations already made and also by the derivations
of the names.
The generic designation Pachyma is from zaxvs—thick—referring to the
thick skin; cocos from cocoés—a cocoa nut, which it resembles. P. solidum
is evidently given on account of its solid nature, which distinguishes it
from other species of Pachyma. P. pinetorwm is from pinus—a pine—
around whose root it was found, as stated by Fries, in the extract already
given; and also vonSchweinitz, Am. Phil. Trans. for 1823, p. 264: “I have
foundit among the pines of Carolina.” Coniferarum is from conifer—cone-
bearing—as the pine and fir, as first mentioned. Other botanists, think-
ing that it was similar to the mushroom in the character of its growth,
gave to it the same generic name—Lycoperdon—aifferentiating it from
other species by the characteristic which appeared to them the most
striking, as L. solidum, L. cervinum, from cervinus—like a stag’s horn—
a shape which Tuckahoe sometimes assumes.
The first analysis made of it was by Torrey in 1819, which is sum-
marized as follows: In an elaborate analysis of this fungus it was found
that no gluten enters into its composition, but that it consists almost en-
tirely of a peculiar vegetable principle, which he calls sclerotin (Si lliman’s
Journal, vy. 2, p. 369). This confirmed the view held by MacBride,
that it belonged to the genus Sclerotiwm of Persoon, and, considering
it an unnamed species, he was pleased to eall it S. giganteum. Nuttall,
692 TUCKAHOE, OR INDIAN BREAD.
a year later, thinking that it belonged to the genus Lycoperdon, and
recognizing its predominating constituent as determined by Torrey,
called it Z. sclerocium. Schweinitz also considered it as belonging to
the Sclerocium of Persoon, but specialized it by cocos, by reason of its
external appearance and shape. The appellation of Rafinesque was
altogether tanciful—Tuckhaus, from the common name Tuckahoe, and
rugosus from its roughened exterior. So it happened that the synonymy
has become so extensive—Not knowing the character of the formation,
the manner of reproduction, nor its chemical constituents, each writer,
forming a theory of his own, gave it a name in accordance therewith.
By general consent we have adopted the name of Fries—Pachyma cocos—
which will be equally applicable should we be compelled to alter our
views upon any or all of its salient features.
The next point to be observed is some of its ascribed
Affnities.—It is quite reasonable to suppose that wherever the req-
uisite conditions for the growth or formation of P. cocos exist similar
structures may be found, with the same or different names. The
synonyms just given were all applied to the species found in America,
the common name of which is the same in all localities, with various
secondary appellations, as “Indian Bread,” “ Indian Head,” and “ Indian
Loaf.” That there is at least one similar tuber in China is shown by
Smith, in “Materia Medica of China,” p. 166, “‘ Pachyma cocos” (Fuhling).
This fungal growth, which is both food and medicine for the omnivorous
Chinese, is met with in the form of large tubers, having a corrugated,
blackish-brown skin, and consisting internally of a hard starchy sub-
stance, of a white color, but sometimes tinged with pale or brown, es-
pecially towards the outside. The tuber is sometimes perforated by
an irregular channel, lined with a red membrane marking its attach-
ment to some root. They are met with on the sites of old fir planta-
tions, or actually connected with living trees. A similar stuff is found
in Japan and South Carolina, where it is called Indian bread. It is
ground up, mixed with rice-flour, and made into small cakes, which
are hawked about all hot in the early morning. They are set down as
good in febrile and dyspeptic complaints.” In Cleyer’s and Hanbury’s
‘‘ Materia Medica” like statements are made. It is known in China by a
variety of names, as: Fuhling, Pu-fuhling, Pefolim, and Pu-foohling. In
Burmah it is called Tsein aphotaroup. From Dr. Barbeck, of Phila-
delphia, I have the following information: “ Pachyma tuber regium
Fries (diameter varying from 3 to 5 inches, surface rough and strobic-
ulate) is found in the Moluccas, growing in the ground like our Tucka-
hoe. Itis called by the natives Ubi Radja, Culat-Batu, or Ulta-Batu,
and furnishes a favorite remedy for diarrhea, fever, and other diseases.
From this Pachyma a mushroom (Agaricus tuber regium Fr.) is devel-
oped, which is edible, though rather poor. Also in China there is a
similar Sclerotium (size of a child’s head, surface shriveled, color yel-
TUCKAHOE, OR INDIAN BREAD. 693
lowish, in and out side), known as Hoelen or Foelem. It grows in sandy
soil, in the province of Tcheucu, and is generally esteemed for its medic-
inal properties.” In this country there seems to have been found a plant
quite like P. cocos, as indicated by the following extract: “ Picquotaine, a
highly nutritious plant growing in North America and used by the In-
dians as food. It belongs to one of the species of the genus Psoralea,
and is temporarily placed by Lamare Picquot, who first introduced it
into France, under the species esculenta, of Prusch. In the proportion
of one-half or one-third parts farina, makes excellent bread with wheat
flour” (Booth & Morfit’s “Encyclopedia of Chemistry,” p. 832.) These
authors considered Picquotaine identical with Tuckahoe, since the above
sketch is referred to under the word Tuckahoe. That they are different
can be seen by the analysis of Picquotaine, which is: Nitrogenous matter,
4,09; mineral substance, 1.61; starch, 81.80; water, 12.50 (Payen, in
Comptes Rendus, for 1848, p. 826).
By comparing this with the analysis of P. cocos, it will be seen that
it contains six times as much nitrogenous matter as P. cocos, while the
starch in the former is equal in quantity to the pectine in the latter.
So the claim for identity is groundless, and there is but little indication
of affinity. ;
The next topic occupying our attention is its
Habitat.—By means of the set of queries sent to various parts of
the United States, asking, among other questions, about the prevalence
in each locality where it is found, the geographical distribution was
accurately determined. The States only will be given, without men-
tioning the county. It has been found in several places in Delaware
as far north as Kent County, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania,
Virginia, North and South Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, Mississippi,
Kansas, Arkansas, Texas, and Florida. The character of the soil in
which it is universally found is a light loam, free from prevalent moist-
ure, and in fields that have not been farmed for several years, especially
those from which the timber has been cleared within fifty years past,
Not a single specimen has been found in very old fields, nor in wood
lands. This however might be from the fact that timber land is not dug
up nor plowed—the way P. cocos is always found. Even if it were nu-
tritious, this accidental manner of finding it—by no means frequent in
plowing several acres—would render it of very little and uncertain
service as food. The above requisites for its production being so fre-
quently coexisting, there would appear no natural limit to the extent of
P. cocos, unless we suppose that a cold climate and a prolonged frozen
condition of the ground would prevent its formation. This is quite
likely, as it is not found north of Delaware.
Chemical composition—In order to fully determine whether P. cocos
could possibly be used as an article of food, it was necessary to have a
careful analysis made of its substance, especially since the analyses
694 TUCKAHOE, OR INDIAN BREAD.
previously consulted were so different as to attach uncertainty to all.
Several specimens for examination were placed in the hands of Professor
Colyer, chemist-in-chief of the Agricultural Department, with the result
indicated by the following report, prepared by Dr. Henry B. Parsons,
assistant chemist, with the concurrence of Professor Colyer:
“The first careful chemical examination of Tuckahoe was made by
Prof. John Torrey, in 1819 (New York Medical Repository, vol. 1, p. 37).
He found the fungus to consist almost entirely of a hitherto undescribed
substance, not starch, which had the property of forming a jelly when
heated with water and allowed to cool. To this substance he assigned
the name ‘sclerotin.’ The later researches of Bracconnot on the jelly-
forming constituents of fruits and tubers were published in 1824, and
led to the adoption of the term ‘pectous substances’ (Ann. Chim. Phys,
vol. xxvili, p. 173). In 1827 Torrey republished his original article with
additions, and demonstrated that the substance he had named sclerotin
was identical with the pectic acid of Bracconnot (Med. & Phys. Jour.,
vi, p. 484). In this conclusion he was certainly correct, as this gelatin-
ous substance deports itself exactly like pectic acid, as described in the
standard text-books on proximate analysis (Prescott’s Prox. Orig. Anal.,
p. 166). In 1875 an analysis was made at the Bussey Institute. In this
the gelatinous substance is spoken of as pectose; in most respects the
analysis there made agrees very closely with the one here reported.
Trifling differences are to be ascribed to the examination of different
samples.
e Department picket In- | University
of Agricul stitute. of Vir
ginia.
eioieure SUNN Oe Ber Sobssoodadacecisednoobe BS O DS OHSESS5OSr 12 a 14. a 10. 70
BSS aed a SSO OnO aS Meo nO Se Sapa De SEno acispOBcE oe Sopasesnad me 3.
Aladaridoidse
Soluble invalcohol, not iniwaters-.-c.- <nconesceeanceseaclene- . 28 ; 79 1.38
Soluble in water, not in alcohol ..,-.....--.----------------- PLS ot .7
Carbohydrates:
Tannin-like substance soluble in water .-........ .-.--.---- 1025
Gam oe ass paisenios wine eolanaeen scar alessio eles asinine -20 bro, 88 73.73 (Ose
Pectic acids by dj fierence)-cse selec ieee Sosa amie iasiaane 78. 43
Fatty substance soluble in gasoline. ..........-.-.-------------- -35 agi) Lae est se5
Crndeicellidlose ns ee a ee See eee eee 5.77 9. 80 3. 76
aviineralims bbeRh = <6 SOs Snes Seo oe eee ae ce fee ie aoe amen e oe ce esiall ts eateienie acer al] ee eieiamian aie 3. 64
(The other two analyses appended for comparison were not known tc
Dr. Parsons until after he had finished his. The one made at the Uni
versity of Virginia was under Professor Mallett’s supervision, and can
be seen in London Chemical News, No. 882, p. 168.)
The most notable peculiarities of this substance are, the entire absence
of starch (“‘No fungus has yet been found to contain true starch.”—
Sach’s “Botany,” p. 241), the comparatively small amounts extracted by
solvents, the gelatinous character of the cellulose, and the very small
amount of albuminous substance. Nothing else yet analyzed has been
reported to contain so large a proportion of pectinous matter. In ordi-
nary fruits, such as are commonly used for making jellies, these pectin
TUCKAHOE, OR INDIAN BREAD. 695
bodies seldom amount toten percent. According to Sach’s Botany, “the
origin of colloidal pectin is still unknown.” Its nutritive value seems also
to be entirelyundecided. The older writers considered the pectin bodies
of no value as foods, while later authors seem inclined to give them a
value approximately that of starch. It seems certain that a diet of
Tuckahoe (P. cocos) alone would not sustain life, because of the lack of
sufficient nitrogenous materials to repair the waste in‘the animal tissues;
still, it might prove a valuable adjunct to highly nitrogenous foods.
Various medicinal properties have been ascribed to P. cocos, such as,
an antidote to mineral poisons; for poultices on the ulcers that follow
yellow fever; diarrhea; cancers; and, the most startling of all—the state
ment made in Hobb’s ‘‘ Botanical Hand-Book”—that it is aphrodisiac.
ltis easy to understand how these properties could be ascribed to Tucka-
hoe—a representative name for all round or tuberous esculent roots—
and now when P. cocos is the only root bearing the name of Tuckahoe it
retains the traditional virtues of a large part of the Indian materia
medica. From the-large number of correspondents upon this subject,
not one has been found who ever knew of any use to which it has been
put. So we may safely conclude that P. cocos possesses no practical
value; but it is unsurpassed in interest from a botanical standpoint,
especially since so little is known concerning its
Growth or formation.—To those not familiar with the general appear-
ance of P. cocos a description might be acceptable. As already stated,
the outside is rough, dark brown in color, in many places considerably
wrinkled, looking like the bark of a hickory tree just at the surface of
the ground. Uponcutting this bark there will be seen a grain almost
as distinct as that in the bark of the oak or hickory, and a woody ap-
pearance in other respects. There is not noticeable any membranous
division between this bark and the substance within, neither does the
one merge into the other, but there is a marked distinction between
them. Within we find a compact white mass, without any apparent
Structure, either vascular or granular. When first taken from the
ground it is quite moist, and gives away under pressure; but this moist-
ure is doubtless absorbed from the ground and is not inherent. When
dry, this white substance cracks from within and becomes very hard.
At all times it is absolutely tasteless, and insoluble in water. Even
after a careful and extensive study of the subject, there is still some
doubt as to its formation. From a critical inspection of its structure,
and an examination of many specimens at different stages of develop-
ment, together with the confirmatory evidence of numerous correspond-
ents, the following conclusion was reached. At some season of the year
spores are given off and transmitted by insects, water, or other natural
means, and are attached to the roots of other trees suitable for its pro-
duction. This doubtless occurs while the tree is in a living condition.
These spores have the property of converting the woody fiber of the
Fie. 3.
Figs. 1 and 2.—A root with growth of Tuckahoe around it.
Fic. 3—A mass of Tuckahoe.
696
TUCKAHOE, OR INDIAN BREAD. 697
8
root into their own substance, which forms underneath the bark. It may
also, by stimulating the flow of sap to this point, receive accretions by
assimilating the sap, and the periodic giving-off of spores may continue
to excite the deposition of sap at this point. It gradually grows in this
manner, appropriating the bark of the root for its own covering until it
becomes too large, during which process it forms a bark of its own, as
already described.
Every link of the above theory is indisputable except the production
and transmission of spores. About this there is a shadow of doubt—a
shadow only—because the microscope reveals a mycelium, and spore.
Specimens in all stages of development are in my possession, from the
root, with only a film of the substance between the bark and the woody
part of the root up, to pieces of 6 inches in diameter. In the smallest
the original bark surrounds the, whole, and continues to do so until it
attains a thickness of an inch or more. In the largest specimens will be
found the root still passing clear through the substance of the Pachyma,
or scars at both ends marking its previous attachment. The root within
the Pachyma is always smaller than that just without.
From this fact, as well as the total disappearance of the root in some
pieces, we are safe in saying that the wood of the root has been con-
verted into the substance of the Pachyma. By way of confirmation,
extracts from a few letters will be given:
“ At the close of the past winter, having occasion to build a new gar-
den, in land that had never been cleared, we dug and plowed up several
pieces of it, Some in advanced state of growth, while others had just
commenced growing. Several small pines had died on this spot four or
five years ago. This growth had taken place from the roots of these
pines, as was evident from some having just commenced growing, the
pine root extending through and reaching out ateach side. - - - Others
were developed to considerable size, showing no appearance of any root
in them or any bark of the pine on the outside, as was the case with
the smaller ones. - - - I think the whole root for 2 inches or more is
changed into this substance, from the fact that some of the roots ex-
tended entirely through it, some of them being small inside and larger
outside.”—(Jonathan Stewart, Barnesville, Ga., June 21, 1880.)
“In almost every case I have observed they have been plainly at-
tached to a root of another growth. I have no doubt they have been, at
some time, in every case. This root is usually about one-half or three-
quarters of an inch in diameter outside the tuber, frequently larger ;
sometimes runs directly through the center of it, sometimes nearer one
side than the other. This root is always free from bark inside the tuber,
and is often diminished to a slender stick or single fiber, and is some-
times imperceptible, having the appearance of being,eaten away more
or less, or entirely, in the process of formation.”—(Edwd. Bull, Wood-
bridge, N. C., April 21, 1880.)
698 TUCKAHOE, OR INDIAN BREAD. p
“Phe Tuckahoe of which this is a part was at least 20 inches in length;
the dead root which you see in this ran quite through its whole length,
and about which it was formed. The specimen was in a growing con-
dition when found, the growth proceeding towards either end of the root
between the bark and heart, showing there was something in the root
favorable to its development. The specimen proves that it has no top
growth.”—(Thos. E. Baker, Fountain Hill, Ark., March 29, 1581.)
In order to determine its botanical character, a searching microscopical
examination was necessary; this was prosecuted by Prof. W.H. Seaman,
of Howard University, and Prof. Thomas Taylor, microscopist, Agri-
cultural Department. Professor Seaman reports as follows.:
“On February 25, 1881, I received a large fresh Tuckahoe from North
Carolina. The interior was soft, white, and crumbly; specific gravity
nearly that of water. Boiling made it more mealy; the iodine test
gave no reaction. The body of the fungus is composed of short, irreg-
ularly-jointed threads of mycelium, somewhat tuberculated, which swell
considerably on heating with water. The fungus is covered with a skin
or cortical layer much resembling the bark of a young pine tree, be-
neath which is a dense layer of dark-colored mycelium composed of finer
threads, from which at the proper season I should expect to find spores
developed.”
The appended report of Professor Taylor gives a detailed description
of many interesting experiments which I had the pleasure of witness-
ing. It is my desire to express my satisfaction with the examination
' made by him—doubtless the most searching and satisfactory ever at-
tempted. —
‘‘In my early experiments made some years ago, with Tuckahoe, I
was successful only in finding a few very mifute spore-like bodies. In
these experiments the microscope only was employed, and the Tuckahoe
was used in its natural condition. In some recent experiments the
difficulties encountered by reason of the o§acity of the Tuckahoe, I
called in the aid of chemical solvents with very gratifying results. In
consequence of the success attending this line of investigation, I made
the following experiments:
‘‘ First I placed a portion of the crust on a glass plate, pouring over
and combining with it afew drops of strong sulphuric acid, whichchanged
it into a pulpy mass. Quickly and before total destruction of the or-
ganie matter could take place I examined the mass under the micro-
scope with a power of 75 diameters, and found present a mass of dark-
brown mycelium. I have repeated these experiments many times, using
different pieces of Tuckahoe, with the same results.
‘In the second, experiment I placed a section of Tuckahoe, including
the brown crust, in a glass vessel containing strong nitric acid. After
the lapse of forty-eight hours I found that the larger portion of the
lews of sections of Tuckahoe.
1c V
Microscop
Fics. 4 and 5,
9
(
i)
6
COO -” TUCKAHOE, OR INDIAN BREAD.
specimen was changed to a transparent jelly. A portion of the trans-
parent crust was examined under powers varying from 25 to 250 diam-
eters. In each case I found in it large quantities of mycelium of a dark-
brown color, branched, transparent, and in long fibers or cells, varying
from the .002 to the .020 of an inch in diameter.
‘¢T next subjected a section of Tuckahoe to the action of a strong solu-
tion of cyanide of potassium for a period of 48 hours. The substance
of the Tuckahoe became quite transparent and pasty, color light-amber.
On subjecting a portion of this paste to the microscope in the usual
way, under a glass cover, masses of mycelium were discovered.
“With a “ Beck” inch-and-a-half and No. A eye-piece I can clearly de-
fine in nearly every portion mycelium stretching in masses over the
whole field in view.
“In the crust of the Tuckahoe, under the acid treatment, the mycelium
is of a transparent amber-color, while in the white portions the mycelium
is whitish and translucent. In the fourth experiment I cut very thin
sections of moistened Tuckahoe, and mounted them in the usual way,
dry, and in glycerine. When examined under the microscope a few
threads of mycelium were visible, but only at points of rupture. Tuck-
ahoe, whether dry or in watery solution, is opaque, and for this reason,
and partly because of the exceeding fineness of the mycelium, the latter
is not discovered in quantity by the simple use of the microscope.
“The application of balsam or other mounting fluid has very little
effect in rendering its structure transparent, but my experiments have
shown that strong alkalies and mineral acids, especially the nitric acid,
will render it perfectly transparent and so soft that with slight pressure
the pulp is reduced to a thinner condition than can be obtained by the
use of any section-cutter.
“Specimens reduced by means of cyanide of potassium may be mounted
with a solution of gum-arabie and glycerine. Specimens prepared with
acids may be mounted in glycerine temporarily.
‘* Having succeeded in demonstrating by the methods described that
mycelium is present in large quantities in Tuckahoe, I have come to the
conclusion that although Tuckahoe may not itself be a fungus in the
strict sense of the word, it is probable that it is caused by the mycelium
of a fungus acting on the roots of trees on which Tuckahoe is found.
‘¢ The outer surface is a bark-like crust which appears to consist of large
cellulose cells, and between this outer crust and the inner white sub-
stance is a thin and dark layer about an eighth of an inch in thickness
of amber-colored pectic acid, cob-webbed through with masses of dark-
brown mycelium.”
Bibliography of Tuckahoe.
One of the interesting features of every subject is a knowledge of
what has been written upon that subject, the preliminary step being
the acqaintance with books and authors from which such knowledge
TUCKAHOE, OR INDIAN BREAD.
701
can be obtained. The following list is perhaps far from complete, but
it embraces all the works which treat of Pachyma cocos under its own
name, or one of synonyms, that were found among the many hundreds
that were examined:
Agricultural Report for 1859, 1870, and | MacBride.
1871.
Berkeley, M. J. Transactions Linnean
Society. London, 1817.
Berkeley, M. J. American Journal Aris
and Sciences. 1859.
Beverly, Robert. The History and Pres-
ent State of Virginia. London, 1722.
Booth & Morfit. Encyclopedia of Chem-
istry. Philadelphia, 1863.
Bulletin Bussey Institution for 187476.
Campbell, J. W. History of Virginia from
its Discovery till the year 1781. Phila-
delphia, 1781.
Chemical News.
Clayton. Flora Virginica.
tavorum (Lyons), 1762.
Cleyer, Andreas. Specimen Medicinz
Simiex. Frankforti (Frankfort), 1682.
Currey & Hanbury. ‘Transactions of Lin-
nan Society, Vol. XXII.
Ellet, Stephen. A Sketch of the Botany
of South Carolinaand Georgia. Charles-
ton, 1821~24.
Fries, Elias. Elenchus Fungorum,
phiz (Greifensee), 1828.
Fries, Elias. Systema Mycologicum Sis-
tens Fungorum. London, 1822.
Fliickiger & Hanbury. Pharmacographia.
Gardener’s Chronicle. London, 1848.
Hanbury. Materia Medica of China.
Hobbs, E. C. Botanical Hand-book. Bos-
ton, 1876.
Jahresbuch der Chemie. 1876.
Jobnson, C. W. Farmers’ and Planters’
Encyclopedia of Rural Affairs. Phil-
adelphia, 1857.
Kalm. Travels.
London, 1772.
London, 1876.
Lugduni Ba-
Gry-
Translated by Foster.
American Monthly Magazine,
vol. 1.
MacBride. New York Philosophical So-
ciety Transactions. New York, 1817.
National Dispensatory, Ist ed.
New York Medical and Physical Journal,
Vol. VI, No. 4.
Nuttall, Thomas. Systematic and Physio-
logical Botany. Cambridge, 1820.
Oken. Lehrbuch der Naturgeschichte,
2ter Theil: Botanik. 2ter Abtheil, lte
Hiilfte, 1815.
Payen. Comptes Rendus, 1848.
Persoon, C. H. Synopsis Methodica Fun-
gorum. Gdéttingen, 1801,
Rafinesque. Medical Flora of North
America. Philadelphia, 1830.
Schweinitz, L. D. Synopsis Fungorum
Caroline Superioris. Leipzig, 1€22.
Schweinitz, L. D. Transactions Ameri-
can Philosophical Society. Philadel-
phia, 1832.
Silliman’s Journal, vol. 2 and vol. 27.
Smith, F. P. Materia Madica and Nat-
tural History of China. London, 1471.
Smith, John. History of Virginia. Rich-
mond, 1819.
Southern Planter. Richmond, 1847.
Tatarinoy. Catalogus Médicamentorum
Sinesium. 1856.
Treasury of Botany. London, 1876.
Torrey, John. Transactions Natural His-
tory Society. New York, 1819.
Torrey, John. New York Medical Repos-
itory, vol. 1. New York, 1821.
Walter, Thomas, Flora Carolina.
don, 1788.
Lon-
Pte)
ng pe
eit
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
By GEORGE H. BOrEnMER.
INTRODUCTORY SKETCH OF EARLY EFFORTS IN INTERNATIONAL
EXCHANGE.
Before giving an account of the system of literary and scientific ex-
changes, organized and first carried into effect by the Smithsonian In-
stitution in 1850, it may be appropriate, for indicating more clearly its
precise character and importance, to briefly notice previous attempts
in a similar direction. One of the earliest of such undertakings is thus
set forth in a history of the Royal Library of France:
“In 1694 the Royal Library of France exchanged its duplicate vol-
umes for new books printed in foreign countries. This kind of trade,
authorized by the special order of the King (Louis XIV) and continued
for several years, could not fail to supply the library with a very con-
siderable accession of valuable books, especially from England and
Germany. In 1697 one hundred and forty-nine Chinese books were
received, in return for which the King gave a selection from all bis
engravings.” (Hssai historique sur la Bibliothéque du Loi.)
In our own country the American Philosophical Society, founded at
Philadelphia in 1743, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
founded at Boston in 1750, commenced about the beginning of the present
century asystem of international exchange of their proceedings and
transactions with those of foreign scientific societies.
In 1852 M. Lichtenthaler, director of the Royal Library of Munich
(Bavaria), in a letter dated January 22 of that year, addressed to M. Alex-
andre Vattemare, of Paris, referring to a conversation previously held
between them, recalls the large number of duplicates in the Munich
Library, and asks: ‘‘ Would it not be possible, with your connections at
Paris, to interest the Burean of Fine Arts in adopting an exchange with
our library?” This letter appears to have given Mr. Vattemare the im-
pulse to enter upon the execution of a favorite project—the establish-
ment of a system of library exchanges. He secured the approval of
his plans, and in a measure promise of co-operation on the part of the
King of Prussia (letter of Count Charles Briehl], director-general of the
museum) and of the King of Denmark (letter of the scientist, Mr. Hank).
At the court of St. Petersburg he was introduced by a letter of King
Fredenck William LV, of Prussia, to his sister, the Empress of Russia.
Ae
Vo
(04 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
In 1883 he went to Vienna and addressed the Count Maurice of Die-
trichstein, director general of the Imperial Museum, who replied, on
the 6th of December, 1833, by letter, that the preparation of a catalogue
of duplicates in the library would require more time than he could just
then devote to the subject; but that, nevertheless, Mr. Vattemare might
depend on his assistance, and he further expressed his belief that,
through Mr. Vattemare’s intervention, the library would be greatly
benefited.
He had now received favorable consideration from a number of sov-
ereigns and governments which were waiting for France to take the
initiative. Knowing that in laying his propositions before his govern-
ment he must be prepared to support them in an incontrovertible man-
ner by facts, and possessing now official evidence of the favorable re-
ception accorded them abroad, Mr. Vattemare returned to Paris in
November, 1835. ;
In his first petition to the two Chambers he set forth the fact that
‘all the large establishments founded by the munificence of govern-
ments in the interest of science and arts, namely, museums, collections,
galleries, and libraries, possessed, besides the treasures they displayed,
many others, which by reason of their abundance were condemned to
be useless. The duplicates which formed this precious waste, the’sa-
vant saw with regret, buried in the dust of forgetfulness”; and ‘there
was not one large city in Europe which did not possess a considerable
number of such duplicates. The library at Munich had 200,000; Jena,
12,000; St. Petersburg, 54,000; Vienna, more than 30,000, which in-
cludes a large number of these ‘incurables,’ which were hidden away
in store-rooms. At Vienna 25,000 duplicates were encumbering the en-
tomological section of the Brazilian museum. <Any attempt at enumera-
tion would be imperfect, for everywhere there would be discovered, in
addition to those collections of books intended for study or exhibited
as curiosities to the public, hidden collections, unknown libraries and
museums, treasures lost to science and the world,” Se.
The report on this petition was made to both Chambers in March,
1836. The proposition was favorably received. Two years, however,
elapsed without any action being taken, the government being en-
grossed by political events.
Mr. Vattemare, becoming impatient at the delay, resolved to go to
England for the purpose of propagandism. He,laid his project before
the Marquis of Landsdowne in May, 1838, and succeeded in establishing ~
an exchange with the British Museum.
After his return to Paris, Mr. Vattemare addressed a second petition
to the Chambers on February 2, 1839, in which he stated an important
fact. He said: ‘For two years the system of exchanges of duplicates
has been in operation to some extent. Austria, Prussia, and England
have obtained important results, and the greater number of the dupli-
cates at Vienna, Berlin, and Munich, of whose existence mention was
—- =.
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 705
made in my first petition, have enriched other libraries, and are lost
to us.” =
Upon this the Chambers seemed desirous of taking more effective
measures, but the administration remaining inactive, matters remained
at the same point as in 1836.
At the suggestion of one of the deputies that it would be desirable
also to make an arrangement for exchanges with the United States,
Mr. Vattemare resolved to visit America. He left Havre October 20,
1839, and arrived at New York November 29, 1839. After taking some
preliminary steps in New York he left for Louisiana. On the way he
aroused the interest of the Société Royale Patriotique de la Havane in
the project of establishing exchanges.
On the 26th of March, 1840, the legislature of Louisiana voted $3,000
for the collection of material for exchanges.
Mr. Vattemare then went to Albany, N. Y., where he arrived two
days before the adjourning of the State legislature. He had a memoir
presented to the senate, which body approved the plan and voted an
annual appropriation for the purpose of exchanges.
Wherever Mr. Vattemare went his views were indorsed. On reaching
Washington the session of Congress was nearing its end, and impor-
tant measures were being considered. Many influential men assured
Mr. Vattemare that the moment was not a propitious one for his cause,
but he persevered in his efforts, which were finally crowned by success.
On June 5, 1840, in the Senate of the United States, Mr. Preston,
chairman of the Committee on the Library, presented a favorable re-
port on Mr. Vattemare’s memorial, setting forth: ‘There are now in
the possession of Congress many hundred volumes of public documents,
some of which might well be distributed among friendly governments;
and, for a like return, and at a very small expense, permanent provis-
ion might be made to supply them in future. Asin this department of
publication we probably exceed most foreign nations, the exchange
would be equalized by receiving in return national works of science or
art, which the more ample powers of other governments enable them to
execute. Besides this not inconsiderable means of profitable exchange,
Congress also has, occasionally, the disposition of duplicate books in
the Library.”
The committee’s report concluded by recommending the passage of a
joint resolution, authorizing such exchanges of duplicate volumes in the
Congressional Library, and also of a limited number of public documents.
The report also published several of the testimonials from distinguished
persons presented by Mr. Vattemare, abstracts of which are here given.
[From his excellency Alexandre de Mordwinoff, St. Petersburg. ]
“T have the honor to inform you that His Majesty the Emperor, hay-
ing been made acquainted with your proposition respecting the estab-
lishment of a system of general exchange of duplicates, has perfectly
S. Mis. 109 45
706 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
approved your idea; and you are requested, sir, to present a prospectus
clearly setting forth your plan for effecting that object.”
[From M. Guizot, minister of public instruction of France, December 31, 1835. ]
“T have examined with much attention the plan which you have sub-
mitted tome. The considerations adduced by you in support of this
plan appear to me to be of such a nature as to entitle them to attention ;
and I ardently desire that it may be possible for me to put it into exe-
cution.”
[From M. de Lamartine, member of the Chamber of Deputies of France, April 10,
1836. ]
‘Your plan for a general exchange of duplicates between all libraries
is excellent. It would aid us in completing our collections which are
already so rich; but it would also have another and happier effect; it
would introduce into France all the ideas of Europe, and would spread
through Europe all the ideas of France. Thus, by means of simple ex-
changes, this diffusion of information—the object of so many of our cares
and labors—will be effected.”
[From M. Eugene de Monglave, of the Historical Institute of France, March 12, 1836.]
“ Your idea, dear sir, is a grand and generous one, which ought to
succeed, and which every studious man should encourage by all means
in his power. The Chamber of Deputies has offered you its aid, and you
will doubtless also receive that of the Chamber of Peers.”
[From the Due de Broglie, minister of foreign affairs of France, June 12, 18385. ]
‘The minister of foreign affairs has read, with great interest, the let-
ter which M. Vattemare has done him the honor to address to him, re-
specting the establishment of a system of exchanges between the aie
ent libraries of Europe possessing several copies of the same works.
The usefulness of the labors undertaken by M. Vattemare, with the
view of facilitating such exchanges, seems to be unquestionable; and
the minister of foreign affairs will embrace the earliest occasion to speak
to his colleague, the minister of public Instruction, upon the plans
formed by M. Vattemare.”
er from the speech of the Marquis de Laplace in the Chamber of Peers of
France, March 30, 1836. ]
“T believe it to be the duty of our government to encourage and to
protect such an enterprise, and that it becomes France to take the lead
in a measure which may produce such desirable results. Such publicity
will draw out invaluable works, which are not sufficiently appreciated
by their owners, from the dust of oblivion and from their obscure re-
treats. How many manuscripts thus buried and lost to the world may
be restored to light, and shall we not congratulate ourselves for having
made private interest contribute to so great a work?”
a
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. TOF.
[From Gnlian C. Verplanck, New York, December 3, 1839. ]
“The high and numerous attestations given to your plan of literary
and scientific exchanges by the most eminent scholars and publie men of
Europe, and the eloquent manner in which several of them have stated
its philanthropic objects and beneficial results, leave me little to say on
those heads. - - - Iadmire the zeal and devotion with which you
have applied yourself to the execution of this unpretending but bene-
ficial plan.”
[From Washington Irving, Albany, N. Y., May 7, 1840. ]
“T regret extremely that engagements which require my departure
for New York will prevent my having the pleasure of attending at the
meeting to be held this evening for the consideration of your plan for a
system of exchanges between governments and learned institutions,
throughout the civilized world, of duplicate specimens in natural history
and productions in literature. It is a noble and magnanimous scheme,
worthy of the civilization of the age, and the advantages of which are
so obvious and striking that they must strike every intelligent mind at
a single glance.”
[From Joel R. Poinsett, Secretary of War, Washington, December 18, 1839. ]
“T regard the subject of your memorial as highly interesting, useful,
and important, and it will command my warm support.”
In accordance with the recommendation of Mr. Preston’s committee,
the following act was passed by Congress July 20, 1840 (Vol. V, Statutes
at Large, p. 509):
Joint Resolution for the exchange of books and public documents for foreign publi-
catious.
Be it resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That the Librarian, under the
supervision of the Committee on the Library, be autherized to exchange
such duplicates as may be in the Library for other books or works.
Second. That he be authorized in the same way to exchange docu-
ments.
Third. That hereafter fifty additional copies of the documents printed
by order of either House be printed and bound for the purpose of ex-
change in foreign countries.
Mr. Vattemare also visited Canada in 1841, and his mission was
equally successful there. In the summer of 1841 he returned to France
and immediately presented a third petition to the Chambers, referring
to his success in America. The report of the Count of Montesquiou to
the Chamber of Peers was sent back to the ministry of foreign affairs
and public instruction, but no more was heard from it.
Now, however, Mr. Vattemare commenced the distribution of the ob-
jects intrusted to him for exchange. Some had their destination as-
signed them, but the distribution of the greater number was left to Mr.
708 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Vattemare’s discretion. He transmitted the legislative documents to
the chambers, elementary books of education, &c., to the ministers of
public instruction, &e.
The cities of Boston, New York, Baltimore, and Washington had pre-
sented certain works and documents to the city of Paris. On December
21, 1842, it was resolved to address a letter of thanks to the former cities
and to send them books in exchange for those received from them.
Mr. Vattemare received from the chambers, departments, and those
scientific institutions which had been included in his first distribution
a great number of important works. He also made an appeal to sa-
vans, authors, and artists, from whom he received some contributions. .
The sendings to the United States had been gradually growing larger
from the year 1842, and on the 1st of January, 1846, 6,000 volumes had
passed between France and the United States. The following year
their number reached 8,000. .
Mr. Vattemare concluded to personally deliver a large amount of ex-
changes, and he started on May 10, 1847, with sixty-one boxes.
The custom-house charges at New York being very heavy, he ad-
dressed the Secretary of the Treasury, explaining to him that the ex-
changes from the United States were allowed free entry in France, and
in reply the same privilege was granted for the French exchanges.
On his second visit to the United States Mr. Vattemare was equally
successful; he forwarded in the course of the year 1548, forty-eight cases
to France.
On the 26th of June of the same year Congress charged the Library
Committee with the nomination of an agent to conduct the operations
of the exchanges between France and the United States. The commit-
tee unanimously designated Mr. Vattemare, who entered upon his duties
July 25, 1848. It was also resolved that everything transmitted by this
agent should be admitted in this country free of duty.
The French Government failing to give further support to the service
of international exchanges, notwithstanding the renewed efforts of Mr.
Vattemare, its operations ceased at his death, in 1864.
Another movement in our country to effect a system of exchanges
(chiefly directed, however, to natural history specimens) was made by
the ‘ National Institution” organized at Washington, D. C., in May,
1840. Karly in 1841 the institution addressed a circular to the principal
scientific institutions of Europe, soliciting their correspondence. A let-
ter to the corresponding secretary from Dr. H. G. Brown, professor in
the University of Heidelberg, Germany, proposed, “‘if acceptable to you
I offer an exchange of the petrifactions of your country for those of
Germany and the neighboring countries.” In September, 1841, the
United States consul at Lima, Peru, offered to the institution his valu-
able entomological collections. Almost simultaneously M. Dufresnoy,
of the Royal School of mines at Paris, wrote that he had delivered to Mr.
D. B. Warden (formerly consul of the United States at Paris) a box of
ee
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 709
specimens of mineralogy for deposit in the cabinet of the National In-
stitution at Washington, expressing the hope that such transmissions
may become frequent.
In December, 1841, Dr. E. Foreman, of Baltimore, proposed to the
institution a plan for obtaining conchological specimens from all parts
of the country by a system of exchange. In pursuance of a resolution
of the institution adopted December 13, 1841, a committee appointed
to propose a plan of exchanges reported February 14, 1842, first, “‘that
a system of exchanges is of very great importance in the accomplish-
ment of one of the primary objects for which the National Institution
has been declared to be formed, viz, the establishment of a national
museum of natural history,” &c.; and second, “that in exchanges of all
kinds the natural productions of our country shall first and always have a
decided preference. This method, while it recommends itself to us and
our interests, is calculated to extend benefits and encouragement to the
societies and naturalists of our country, who will thus have a central
depository, from which they may enlarge and vary their own collections;
and thus also in due time the duplicates of the exploring expedition
may with the greatest advantage be diffused throughout the land, there-
by fulfilling in the amplest manner the intentions of those who formed
that noble project, and justify the liberality of the government which
supported it.”
And the committee recommended:
“1, That a system of exchanges be entered upon without delay.
“2. That the curator and assistants be directed, for this purpose, to
separate all duplicates, except those from the exploring expedition; and
that they select and label such specimens as are to be sent to individu-
als or societies.
“3. That the first step taken be to discharge the obligations of ex-
change already incurred by the institution.
“4, That a committee be appointed, to whom the curator shall submit
all sets of specimens thus set aside for any given exchanges, who shall
decide upon the equivalency before said specimens shall be boxed up
and sent off.
“3. That in all cases of difficulty which may arise, reference must be
made to the president or vice-president of the institution for decision,
who will, if they conceive it necessary, submit the question to the in-
stitution.
“6. That a book be kept by the curator, subject at all times to the
inspection of the committee, in which must be noted the contents of each
box or package, lists of the articles for which they are the equivalents,
the name and the place of the society or individual to whom one set is
to be sent, and from whom the other has been received.” .
In July, 1542, the institution adopted the name “ National Institute.”
It willtbus be seen that the efforts of the National Institute towards
the establishment of a system of exchanges were mainly intended to
710 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
enrich its cabinet of natural history, although the exchange of books
was not excluded. In this way its museum obtained many valuable ad-
ditions during the succeeding years, but the financial condition of the
institute prevented a vigorous execution of the system. Notwithstand-
ing several appeals to Congress for aid, of which the last one was made
on December 16, 1845, nothing was done toward giving the desired re-
lief, and on the 25th of November, 1846, the following ‘notice to the
members of the National Institute” was published, which will give a
fair insight into its condition:
“ A reference to the last ‘memorial to Congress,’ which was presented
to the Senate by the Hon. Lewis Cass and to the House of Representa-
tives by the venerable John Quincy Adams, will afford the members
some idea of the present condition of the National Institute. Notwith-
standing that renewed appeal, Congress has again omitted to grant re-
lief. More than a thousand boxes, barrels, trunks, &c., embracing col.
lections of value and rarity in literature, in the arts, and in natural his-
tory, remain on hand unopened, the liberal contributions of members at
home and abroad, of governments, of learned and scientific societies and
institutions, of foreign countries and of our own, and of munificent friends
and patrons in every part of the world. The worth, extent, and Amer-
ican interests of these collections may be understood, though imperfectly,
by a perusal of the four bulletins which are now before the public. For
the preservation, reception, and display of these the institute has neither
fundsnor a suitable depository. Theusual meetings of the members have
been suspended for a considerable period. Hence the regular proceed-
ings have been interrupted, and hence the present volume (which has
been published by the subscription of afew members and others, a sub-
scription so limited as to have rendered it indispensably necessary to
abridge the publication within the narrowest possible compass), instead
of presenting in the usual form the proceedings of the institute, gives a
inere and meager abstract of a voluminous and valuable correspondence,
and an imperfect account of donations and contributions to its library
and cabinet.”
And thus with the year 1846 virtually ceased the activity of the Na-
tional Institute in that direction.
From this sketch it will be seen that the system introduced by the
two early scientific institutions of our country had in view mainly the
interchange of their own transactions for those of foreign societies, for
their own benefit and the extension of their own reputation, and that the
system introduced in France had in view mainly the interchange among
public libraries of their superfluous duplicates and of government pub-
lications. The Smithsonian Institution, starting out with the same —
system, at a very early date in its history inaugurated the original en-
terprise of furthering the mutual interchange of scientific transactions
and publications throughout the world, without reference to any direct
benefit to itself by reason of such exchanges.
SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Among the definite lines of policy adopted by the Institution at the
commencement of its operations was that of a diffusion of its publications,
resulting in a system of exchange not limited to the distribution of unused
duplicate volumes accumulated in libraries, but comprehending a full
interchange of the intellectual products of the two hemispheres.
In the original “programme of organization” presented to the Board
of Regents by Prof. Joseph Henry, December 8, 1847, this object was
set forth, and in the explanations and illustrations of the programme
the consideration was urged that the publication of a series of volumes
of original memoirs would afford the Smthsonian Institution the most
ready means of entering into friendly relations and correspondence with
all the learned societies in the world and of enriching its library with
their current transactions and proceedings.
A committee of the American Academy of Artsand Sciences appointed
to consider the plan proposed for the organization of the Smithsonian
Institution reported, December 7, 1847, on this feature, that “it can
scarcely be doubted that an important impulse would be given by the
Smithsonian Institution in this way to the cultivation of scientific pur-
suits, while the extensive and widely ramified system of distribution and
exchange, by which the publications are to be distributed throughout
the United States and the world, would insure them a circulation which
works of science could scarcely attain in any other way.”
The first volume of the Smithsonian “‘ Contributions to Knowledge,” a
memoir on the ancient monuments of the Mississippi Valley (by Messrs.
Squier & Davis), was published in 560 quarto pages in 1848, and during
the following year was distributed to learned societies in the folowing
countries:
No. of societies. No. of societies,
In Middle and South America: In Europe—Continued:
Caba SHavanat=stus- sociecccssc set 1 BOlOUMNG Ts sas bod te bes oct eae 6
int SAD lO <- eae nso scmsics an celeh a re Denmark c-2 bes Goeeree ocr Aes sce 3
New Grenada, Bogota....-.....-... 1 IBNANCE) scseee tence se eecl eee nseseee 25
Venezuela, Caracas :-.--.-..-.. 2... 1 Germany, #2 25b<t5, 95, = b4 26:5 scree 28
Brazil, Rio Janeiro ....-........... 1 Great Britain and Ireland.-.-...-.--. 41
In Africa: GIEGCO Toh eo as ance scecisweulas soos Soe
POV OUTO oa cccsecitinccietecisscees 1 1 (0) UIC (6 a a os Se RE renee A 6
In Asia: talywcceactesoee Sloctateceue aceon 16
China, Hong-Kong. ....-....-...--.. 1 Nonwaiyite to: nesses Sore Unser cos: 2
India, Allahabad, Bombay, Ceylon, Rorsn alles sie yec sain mectasme tee ont 1
ands Magn a.s soca talents eines 5 GSE) CEeAgaca CeCe SD Onn See 6
JAVA PD MANIA 6220s sles nocicwic aca 1 SNe TAT BS Oe SR ee eee 3
Philippine Islands, Manila -........ 1 DWEGON wesc cowcacscmecs waaee coe 5
In Europe: PWillzerlandcascscteee cena se seme 7
ATIBLIN eee nes ene ciaereecetecdast «asst Durlveyets face camaoan pass acne ceed
712 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
.
In addition, the volume was liberally distributed to distinguished
savans interested in its subject, and to numerous institutions through-
out our own country.
.At the commencement of its system of exchanges, the Institution was
much trammeled by the great delays and considerable expenses attend-
ant on custom-house requirements, but by earnest efforts and proper
representation to Congress, the United States Government adopted the
enlightened policy of admitting through our custom-houses, duty free,
all scientific publications from foreign countries addressed to the Smith-
sonian Institution, whether for its own use or as presents to learned
societies and individuals in any part of our country.
The efforts of the Institution were then directed to the procurement
from foreign governments of a reciprocal liberality on their part. The
following extract from the Secretary’s report for 1851 will sufficiently
indicate the steps first taken: °
‘The promotion of knowledge is much retarded by the difficulties ex-
perienced in the way of a free intercourse between scientific and literary
societies in different parts of the world. In carrying on the exchange
of the Smithsonian volumes, it was necessary to appoint a number of
agents. Some of these are American consuls, and other responsible
individuals, who have undertaken in most cases to transact the busi-
ness free of all charge, and in others for but little more than the actual
expense incurred. ‘These agencies being established, other exchanges
could be carried on through them, and our means of conveyance, at the
slight additional expense owing to the small increase of weight; and
we have accordingly offered the privileges of sending and receiving
small packages through our agency to institutions of learning, and in
some cases to individuals who chose to avail themselves of it; the offer
has been accepted by a number of institutions, and the result cannot
fail to prove highly beneficial, by promoting a more ready communieca-
tion between the literature and science of this country aud the world
abroad.
‘As a part of the same system, application was made through Sir
Henry Bulwer, the British minister at Washington, for a remission of
duties on packages intended for Great Britain, and we are informed that
a permanent arrangement will probably be made through the agency of
the Royal Society for the free passage through the English custom-houses
of all packages from this Institution.
“The Smithsonian exchanges are under the special charge of Professor
Baird, who has been unwearied in his exertions to collect proper ma-
terials, and to reduce the whole to such order as will combine security
with rapidity of transmission.
“The system of exchanges here described has no connection with
that established between national governments by Mr. Vattemare. It
is merely an extension of one which has been in operation, on a small
SS a ae
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. tLe
scale, for nearly half a century, between the American Philosophical
Society and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences on this side
of the Atlantic, and the several scientific societies on the other.”
Early in 1852 Professor Henry addressed a commnnication to the
vice-president of the Royal Society of London, Col. Edward Sabine,
with a view of obtaining the influence and co-operation of that distin-
guished body in the promotion of an unrestrained scientific interchange
between the two great English countries.
This communication received a very prompt and favorable considera-
tion from that society, and the following official response was placed by
Professor Henry before the Board of Regents at its meeting, May 1,
1852:
Royal Society’s Apartments,
Somerset House, London, March 19, 1852.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY:
My Dear Sir: I duly communicated to the Earl of Rosse, president
of the Royal Society, your letter to me on the subjects of the inter-
change of scientific publications between the United States and this
country, and the admission into England, duty free, of scientific books
and memoirs presented to institutions or to individuals here, either
by or through the Smithsonian Institution. JI accompanied this com-
munication by a letter addressed to the president, which you will read
in the inclosed printed minutes of the council of the Royal Society of
January 15,1852. The subject has since been brought by the Earl of
Rosse under the consideration of Her Majesty’s Government, who have
shown, as might be expected, much readiness to meet in the same spirit
the liberal example which has been set by the United States, in ex-
empting from duty scientific books sent as presents from this country
to the Smithsonian Institution, and through that Institution to other
institutions and to individuals cultivating science in the United States.
The move which has been suggested by our board of customs for admit-
ting, duty free, scientific publications designed for this country, and
which we hope will receive the approval of the treasury, is, that a list
should be furnished by the Royal Society of the names of all institu-
tions and individuals to whom such works may be expected to be ad-
dressed, when the custom-house officers will have’ directions to pass
without duty all such publications having the names of such institutions
or persons inscribed either on the cover or on the title-page, which are sent
to this country in packages directed to the Royal Society, the list to be
amended or extended from time to time. The Royal Society will gladly
take charge of, and distribute under these regulations, the books which
the Smithsonian Institution may send for institutions and individuals
in this country, receiving them from the agent in London appointed by
the Smithsonian Institution; and I shall be obliged by your furnishing
me, at your earliest convenience, with a list, as complete as you may
V14 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
be able to make it, of the names of the institutions and persons to whom
books or memoirs are likely to be sent.
The Royal Society will also gladly receive and forward to their ulti-
mate destination (where such assistance may be useful) packages con-
taining publications of a similar description, designed for institutions
and individuals on the continent of Europe; such packages being
directed to the Royal Society, and stated on the outside of the case or
package to be from the Smithsonian Institution. The customs duties will,
in such cases, be either altogether remitted or returned on re-exporta-
tion.
If it be a convenience to the cultivators of science in the United
States, that publications presented to them by institutions or individn-
als on the continent of Europe, or elsewhere, should be addressed to
the Royal Society asa channel of communication, the same facilities will
be given by the board of customs, and the Royal Society will, with
pleasure, make the required arrangements. It will be necessary, in
such cases, that packages arriving from the continent of Europe or
elsewhere should be marked on the outside, “for the Smithsonian
Institution,” and the foreign secretary of the Royal Society should be
apprised of their being sent. Expenses of freight would of course be
defrayed by the agent of the Smithsonian Institution.
Iam, my dear sir, with great respect and regard, very sincerely yours,
EDWARD SABINE,
Vice-President and Treasurer of the Royal Society.
This, though an important concession, was still attended with consid-
erable delay, and on farther solicitation the rule was so relaxed that all
duties were remitted on books, not foreign reprints of British copyrights.
Colonel Sabine’s views on the subject were laid before the British
Association in his address as president of that body, on occasion of their
annual meeting in 1852, as follows:
‘¢ Another subject which has occupied the attention of the parlia-
mentary committee in the last year is one to which their attention was
requested by the council of the association, with a view of carrying into
effect the desire of the general committee for a more cheap and rapid
international communication of scientific publications. The credit of
the first move towards the accomplishment of this desirable object is
due to the Government of the United States, by whom an arrangement
was made for the admission, duty free, of all scientific books addressed
as presents from foreign countries to all institutions and individuals
cultivating science in that country, such books being sent through the
Smithsonian Institution, by whom their distribution to their respective
destinations was undertaken. This arrangement was notified to our
government through the British minister at Washington, and a similar
privilege was at the same time requested for the admission, duty free,
into England, of books sent as presents from the United States to public
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 715
institutions and individuals cultivating science in this country, under
such regulations as might appear most fitting. This proposition gave
rise to communications between the president of the Royal Society and
the chairman of the parliamentary committee on the one part, and the
treasury and the principal commissioner of customs on the other; the
result of which has been the concession of the privilege of admission,
duty free, into England, of scientific books from all countries, designed
as presents to institutions and individuals named in lists to be prepared
from time to time by the Royal Society, after communication with other
scientific societies recognized by charter—under the regulation, how-
ever, that the books are to be imported in cases, addressed to and pass-
ing through the Royal Society. This arrangement has come into oper-
ation; and it may be interesting to notice, as giving some idea of its
extensive bearing, that the first arrival from the United States, which
has taken place under these regulations, consists of packages weighing
in all not less than three tons.
‘There is another branch of the same subject which is more difficult
to arrange, viz, the international communication by post of scientific
pamphlets and papers at reduced rates of postage. The parliamentary
committee have directed their attention to this part of the subject also;
and I earnestly hope that their exertions will be successful.”
In his annual report for 1852 Professor Henry states:
“The whole number of articles received during 1852 is 4,744, which
is more than three times that of all the previous years. The publications
received in many cases consist of entire sets of transactions, the earlier
volumes of which are out of print and cannot be purchased. They are
of use in carrying on the various investigations of the Institution, and
of value to the country as works of reference. |
“The principal object, however, of the distribution of the Smithsonian
volumes is not to procure a large library in exchange, but to diffuse
among men a knowledge of the new truths discovered by the agency of
the Smithsonian fund. The worth and importance of the Institution is
not to be estimated by what it accumulates within the walls of its build-
ing, but by what it sends forth to the world. Its great mission is to
facilitate the use of implements of research, and to diffuse the knowl-
edge which this use may develop. The Smithsonian publications are
sent to some institutions abroad, and to the greater majority of those
at home, without any return except, in some cases, that of co-operation
in meteorological and other observations.
“In carrying out this plan the Institution is much indebted to the
liberal course adopted by the Government of Great Britain and the
ready co-operation of the Royal Society of London. All packages in-
tended for Great Britain, for some parts of the Continent, and the East
Indies, are directed to the Royal Society, and on the certificate of its
president are, by a special order of the government, admitted duty free,
and without the delay and risk of inspection. The packages are atter-
716 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
wards distributed by the agent of the Institution, or by those of the
society.
‘This system of exchanges does not stop here. The Royal Society
has adopted the same plan with reference to Great Britain and all other
parts of the world; and the Smithsonian Institution, in turn, becomes
an agent in receiving and distributing all packages which the society
desires to send to this country. A general system of international com-
munication, first started by this Institution for the distribution of its
own publications, has thus been established which will tend to render
the results of the labors of each country in the line of literature and
science common to all, and to produce a community of interest and of
relations of the highest importance to the advancement of knowledge
and of kindly feeling among men.”
So rapidly and generally was the beneficent work of the Smithsonian
Institution recognized and appreciated abroad, that in his report for the
year 1854 the secretary—Professor Henry—announced: “There is no
port to which the Smithsonian parcels are shipped where duties are
charged on them, a certified invoice of contents by the secretary being
sufficient to pass them through the custom-house free of duty. On the
other hand, all packages addressed to the Institution arriving at the
ports of the United States, are admitted, without detention, duty free.
This system of exchange is therefore the most extensive and efficient
which has ever been established in any country.” And in the following
year, 1855, the secretary remarked in continuation of the subject: “The
Smithsonian agency is not confined to the transmission of works from
the United States, but is extended to those from Canada, South and
Central America, and in its foreign relations embraces every part of the
civilized world. It is a ground of just congratulations to the Regents
that the Institution, by means of this part of the plan of its organization,
is able to do so much towards the advance of knowledge.”
The system of international exchange of literary and scientific produc-
tions thus established, naturally developed into two distinct branches:
The foreign exchange, or the distribution abroad of publications by
the Smithsonian and by other American institutions.
The domestic exchange, or the distribution within the United States
of publications by foreign establishments.
To this might be added, as a third branch, the introduction in 1867
of a separate system of government exchange. —
I. FOREIGN EXCHANGES.
The Smithsonian Institution, in undertaking to extend the system
of international exchange of literary and scientific publications, com-
municated its purpose to the chief learned societies throughout the
country, with a proffer of its services to the end in view. The princi-
Af
ace
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 7
pal bodies responding to its invitation were the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences, Boston; the Boston Natural History Society,
the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, the United States Coast
Survey, the Naval Observatory at Washington, and a few others. The
Hon. Luke Lea, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, at the instance of the
Institution (seconded by the authors), embraced the opportunity of
presenting to about one hundred and fifty establishments in Europe
(selected from the Smithsonian list) copies of Schoolcraft’s History of
the Indian tribes. In this case the Institution requested the recipients
to return a special acknowledgment to the Commissioner of the In-
dian Bureau. Numerous documents of scientific interest published by
Congress were, through the personal liberality of members in distrib-
uting their copies, received from the Senate document room for trans-
mission abroad. The Senate also assigned to the Institution three
hundred copies of Foster and Whitney’s report on the copper lands of
Lake Superior; one hundred copies of Owen’s report on the geology of
Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota; and one hundred copies of Stans-
bury’s report on the exploration of Utah, for foreign distribution.
Inthe Smithsonian report for 1854, the secretary states: ‘“‘ During
the past year the number of societies availing themselves of the facili-
ties thus offered has largely increased, including among others nearly
all the State agricultural societies of America publishing transactions.
This result has been produced by a circular which was issued by the
Institution early in the spring of last year, to make known more gen-
erally the system of exchange. Copious returns are being constantly
received for the societies, and an intercourse is thus established which
cannot fail to produce important results, both in an intellectual and
moral point of view.”
As an indication of some of the incidental benefits conferred by this
extensive system of exchange, a few special transmissions may be
cited.
In 1867, at the suggestion of Hon. John Bigelow, late American
minister to France, a request was made by the Institution that some of
the principal publishers of school-books in this country would furnish
copies of their elementary text-books, in order that these might be pre-
sented to Professor E. Laboulaye, of the College of France, for exam-
ination, witli a view to the application of some of their peculiar feat-
‘ures to the purposes of instruction in his own country. The character
of this distinguished professor, and his known admiration of American
institutions, secured for this request the prompt and liberal response
of several publishers, a list of whom, with the number of works con-
tributed, is as follows :
Volumes.
Harper & Brothers, New York..-.-.- Se eRe eae eel te Sea Sasi p cia code eee memes 62
ACES wis uEMes Oe OOs INE WA OL Kis oistra saan iriocsenisascol moc sacisecieccicces acetate susie 26
BD Ue AsO ON OWMLOL Mon cs cisecacmacticrs Sans coe cites sobalinem occ Seu necebeecee CU
COGIC ANG We ODK ES stccusre state sa isend cone ascase de ae chee kb oe ewe en weeieeewe
718 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Volumes.
HH. Cowperth waite dé Co., Philadelphia, . 25. oan oscceseainainsshiceck eae Gere naenees 10
Us Hunt) & sony Phitadelphias. Jo. oee en Se coe ens creme enya alte ere ee ae ae ered
BHOve J. Biddle; Philadelphia 22522 25s a caks Se eae, eee ae a ee
Aj Su Davis de.Cor, Boston Jos ck eS bod joe eee onisdes Ve see ea ease eee 6
Sargent, Wilson’ && Hinckie, ,Cincinnataie: (acute cottage tant = eee eee eee eee
Professor Laboulaye, in acknowledging the receipt of these 174 vol-
umes, says: ‘These books form the admiration of all who take an interest
in education, and I hope that France will profit by this example. We
have excellent things at home by which you in turn might profit, but
we have seen nothing comparable to your readers, your object lessons,
your graphics, and your geographical series.”
The Institution in like manner frequently received applications from
foreign governments and societies for official publications of the States,
of general government, relative to certain branches of political economy,
statistics, education, &c. During the year 1868 a request of this kind
was received from the Belgian Government for all the publications of
the States in regard to public schools.
In answer to a circular asking for these documents, a large and valua-
ble collection was received, for which the thanks of the Institution were
returned to the following persons: A. Rogers, second auditor of Virginia;
T. Jordan, secretary of state, Pennsylvania; 8. C. Jackson, assitant
secretary board of education, Massachusetts; J. A. Morris, school com-
missioner, Ohio; N. Bateman, superintendent of education, Ulinois; C.
J. Hoadley, state librarian, Connecticut; F’. Rodman, secretary of state,
Missouri; R. A. Barker, secretary of state, Kansas; Ed. Wright, secre-
tary of state, lowa; C. W. Wright, secretary of*state, Delaware; J. E.
Tenney, secretary of state, Michigan, and the secretary of state, Wis-
consin.
Another application of a similar character was received from the Gov-
ernment of Norway forthe publications of the United States relative to
military affairs, which, on being referred to the heads of departments
and bureaus, secured a large number of the desired publications. Ac-
knowledgments for these favors were made to General E. D. Townsend,
Adjutant-General; General A. A. Humphreys, Chief Engineer, United
States Army; Surgeon-General Barnes; Paymaster-General Brice; Gen-
eral Dyer, Chief of Ordnance; Commodore Jenkins, Chief of Bureau of
Ordnance and Hydrography, Navy Department ; General Myer, Chief
Signal Officer.
For official co-operation with the Institution in its plans for the pro-
motion of knowledge, and important assistance rendered, besides the
foregoing, may be mentioned Hon. William H. Seward, Secretary of
State; Hon. Hugh McCullough, Secretary of the Treasury ; Hon. Horace
Capron, Commissioner of Agriculture ; General Meigs, Quartermaster-
General; Mr. Spofford, Librarian of Congress; Professor J. H. C. Coffin,
Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, and Commodore Sands, of the
National Observatory.
Se
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. (oes
Most valuable assistance in connection with foreign exchanges was
also rendered by E. J. Davison, Argentine consul; José I. Sanchez, con-
sul of Venezuela; B. Blanco, consul-general of Guatemala; L. H. J.
D’Aguir, consul-general of Brazil; R. C. Burlage, consul-general of Neth-
erlands; Hon. E. Juteirez, minister from Costa Rica; the American
Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions ; Real Sociedad Econom-
ica, Havana; Board of Foreign Missions, New York; American Col-
onization Society, Washington; Society of Geography and Statistics,
Mexico; University of Chili; Bataviaasche Genootschap van Kunsten
en Wetenschappen, Java; and the Institute of History, Geography, and
Ethnology, of Rio Janeiro.
It was not alone from societies or public,bodies that works vere received
by the Institution for gratuitous distribution at home and abroad among
libraries or establishments of learning where they might obtain appre-
ciation. Copies of works produced by private enterprise were not infre-
quently sent to the Institution by individuals who could not afford the
additional expense attendant upon their desired transmission to distant
and scattered points.
In most cases the list of distribution was made out by the parties
sending the copies, but sometimes the selection of recipients was left
to the Institution.
Among the articles distributed in this way was the narrative of an
exploration to Musardo, the capital of the western Mandigoes, through
the country east of Liberia, by Benjamin Anderson, a young man of pure
negro blood. The narrative was printed without correction from the
original manuscript, at the expense of Mr. H. M. Schieffelin, of New
York, and nearly the whole of the edition was presented to the Institu-
tion for distribution.
LIBERALITY OF TRANSPORTATION COMPANIES.
The rapid extension of the Smithsonian exchanges soon became @
heavy tax upon the resources of the Institution; and the conduct of its
principal function (“the increase of knowledge among men” by the pro-
motion of original research and discovery) was threatened with being
crippled and overridden by the demands of a service really held as in-
cidental and subordinate thereto. With a view to diminish, if possible,
the expenses involved, the Institution, in 1855, addressed several of the
leading transatlantic steamship companies, unfolding its methods, and
asking, in consideration of the great public benefit of the system, the
favor of reduced rates of freight upon this particular service.
With a liberality and public spirit which cannot be too highly admired,
_the companies addressed agreed to carry the freights of the Smithsonian
Institution not merely at an abatement, but without charge; and thus
generously enabled the Institution to maintain the growing magnitude
of the operations, when otherwise the system must have broken down
by its own weight.
720 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
At a meeting of the Board of Regents, on the 8th of March, 1856, it
was—
Resolved, That the Secretary, on the part of the Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution, return thanks to the United States Mail Steamship
Company, M. O. Roberts, president; Pacific Mail Steamship Company,
W.H. Aspinwall, president; South American Mail Steamship Company,
Juan Matteson, president; Mexican Gulf Steamship Company, Harris
& Morgan, agents; and the Panama Railroad Company, David Hoad-
ley, president, for their liberality and generous offices in relation to the
transportation without charge of articles connected with the operations
of the Institution.
In the Secretary’s report for 1867, he says: ‘The system has now at-
tained a great development and increases measurably every year. The
expenses hitherto have been principally borne by the Institution, but
their amount has now become so great as seriously to interfere with
otheroperations. - - - Theexpenses of the Smithsonian exchanges
would be considerably greater than they are, but for the liberality of
various transportation companies in carrying packages free of cost.”
—~ The line of sailing vessels between New York and the west coast of
South America, belonging to Mr. Bartlett, 110 Wall street, also engaged
to carry all the Chilian exchanges free of charge.
In the course of the year 1858, Hon. RK. Schleiden, the minister from
Bremen, offered his service in trying to procure for the Smithsonian
Institution the advantage of free or reduced freight on exchanges for
the port of Bremen. His success is announced in the following letter:
Bremen Legation, Washington, January 25, 1859.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution:
Sir: Agreebly to your verbal request, I have proposed to the presi-
dent and directors of the North German Lloyd of Bremen to manitest
their interest in the cause of science by facilitating literary intercourse
between the United States and Germany, by means of their steamers
plying between Bremen and New York.
It affords me great pleasure now to inform you that, according to a
letter of the president of the Lloyd, dated the 5th instant, and just re-
ceived, the said Bremen Steamship Company have resolved, henceforth
and until further notice, to forward by their steamers all the packages
of books and specimens of natural history which the Smithsonian Insti-
tution may be pleased to send to Germany, or which may be sent from
Germany to the Smithsonian Institution, free of charges between New
York and Bremerhaven.
I beg leave to add that Messrs Gelpcke, Keutgen, and Reichelt, 84
Broadway, New York, are the agents of the North German Lloyd at that
place, and that the next Bremen steamer sailing for Europe will leave
New York on the 19th of February next.
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. (PR!
I avail myself of this occasion to offer you renewed assurances of my
high consideration.
R. SCHLEIDEN,
Minister Resident of Bremen.
The following resolution was adopted by the Board of Regents, Feb-
ruary 15, 1859:
Resolved, That the thanks of this board be returned to his excellency
R. Schleiden, minister resident of Bremen, for his intervention with the
“North German Lloyd of Bremen,” to facilitate and advance the cause
ef science by transporting, free of charge, &c., packages of books and
specimens of natural history from Germany to the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, and from the Institution to Germany, and the like thanks to the
president and directors of the North German Lloyd of Bremen for their
generous liberality in the instance above referred to.
On the 16th of February, 1860, Professor Henry addressed a letter to
Mr. Edward Cunard, of the steamship line running between New York
and Liverpool, asking similar favors, in reply to which the following let-
ter was received, which was laid before the Board of Regents at their
meeting on March 17, 1860:
New York, February 25, 1860.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution:
DEAR Sir: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the
16th instant, and, in repty, I beg to inform you that I shall have much
pleasure in conveying in our steamers from New York to Liverpool,
every fortnight, one or more cases from the Smithsonian Institution to
the extent of half a ton or 20 cubic feet measurement. The cases to be
addressed to your agent in Liverpool, or to his care. The arrangement
of free cases is intended only to apply to those shipped by you from
this side of the water.
Your obedient servant,
E. CUNARD.
At a meeting of the Regents, held April 7, 1860, it was—
Resolved, That.the thanks of the Board of Regents are hereby given
to the various companies and individuals who have generously aided in
advancing the objects of the Smithsonian Institution and the promotion
of science, by the facilities they have afforded in the transportation of
books, specimens, &e., free of charge.
In the next year, 1861, in response to an application by Professor
Henry, another concession of free freight was granted by the Hamburg
American Packet Company, in the following communication:
S. Mis. 109 ——46
722 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Hamburg American Packet Company,
New York, October 21, 1861.
Prof. J. HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution:
DEAR Sir: In reply to your favor of October 18, we beg to state that
we shall be most happy to accommodate the Smithsonian Institution
in furthering the wishes you express, and take on freight, free of charge,
any packages which you desire to ship, be they specimens of natural his-
tory, books, or other articles desired to be forwarded to Germany or the
continent of Kurope, irrespective of bulk.
Very respectfully, yours,
KUNHARDT & Co.
At a meeting of the Board of Regents held May 1, 1862, it was—
Resolved, That the thanks of the Board of Regents be presented to the
Hamburg American Packet Company for their liberal co-operation in
assisting to advance the objects of this institution.
Without detailing the successive acquiescence of different companies
it is sufficient to mention that the following great transportation lines
now grant free freight to the Smithsonian packages:
Anchor Steamship Company (Henderson & Bros., agents), New York.
Atlas Steamship Company (Pim, Forwood & Co., agents), New York.
Bland (Thomas), New York.
Cameron (R. W. & Co.), New York.
Compagnie Générale Transatlantique (L. De Bébian, agent), New
York.
Cunard Royal Mail Steamship line (Vernon Brown & Co., agents),
New York.
Dallett, Boulton & Co., New York.
Denison (Thomas), New York.
Hamburg American Packet Company (Kunhardt & Co., agents), New
York.
Netherlands American Steam Navigation Company (H. Cazeaux,
agent), New York.
North German Lloyd Steamship Company (agents, Oelrichs & Co.,
New York; Schumacher & Co., Baltimore).
Pacific Mail Steamship Company, New York.
Red Star Line (Peter Wright & Sons, agents), New York.
White Cross Line (Funch, Edye & Co., agents), New York.
FOREIGN AGENCIES.
In the special work of foreign distribution of memoirs and packages
sent abroad, the establishment of various agencies in the principal capi-
tals, of course, became necessary. The same agencies were also em-
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 123
ployed as centers for the collection of publications designed to be sent
to the Institution. In the Smithsonian report for 1878 it was announced
that—
‘‘Of late years in certain countries these labors have been materially
lightened by a portion of the exchange being undertaken by some learned
society, or by the government. These, being constituted Smithsonian
agents in their respective countries, receive whatever may be sent them
for distribution, collect the returns and transmit them, thus giving to the
Institution the benefit of an intelligent superintendence of the work.
The first of these organizations was that established some years ago by
the University of Christiania, Norway, and by Holland in the patronage
of the Scientific Bureau at Harlem under the efficient supervision of Br.
E. H. Von Baumhauer. During the past year a similar organization
has been effected for Belgium, and it is hoped that their number will
continue to increase. Even now, without any formal arrangement to
that effect, the Academies of Science of Stockholm, of Copenhagen, of
Madrid, and of Milan, discharge the services of agents of the Institution
for their respective countries.”
Present List of Foreign Centers of Distribution.
Argentine Republic.—Museo Publico, Buenos Ayres.
Austria-Hungary.—Dr. Felix Fliigel, Leipsic.
Bavaria.—Dr. Felix Fliigel, Leipsie.
Belgium.—Commission Belge des Echanges Internationaux, Brussels.
Brazil.— Commission of International Exchange, Rio Janeiro.
British Guiana.—Observatory, Georgetown.
Canada.—McGill College, Montreal; Geological Survey of Canada,
Ottawa.
Cape Colonies.—W illiam Wesley, London, England.
Chili.—Universidad, Santiago.
China.— United. States consul-general, Shanghai.
Costa Rica.—Universidad, San José.
Denmark.—K. D. Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen.
Dutch Guiana.—Koloniaale Bibliotheek, Surinam.
East Indies.—W illiam Wesley, London, England.
Ecuador.—Observatorio, Quito.
Egypt—tInstitut Egyptien, Cairo.
Finland.—¥. A. Brockhaus, Leipsic, Germany.
France.—Commission Frangaise des Echanges Internationaux, Paris.
Germany.—Dr. Felix Fliigel, Leipsie.
Great Britain. — William Wesley, London.
Greece.—Bibliothéque Nationale, Athens.
Guatemala.—Soviedad Economica de Amigos del Pais, Guatemala.
Hayti.—Secrétaire @Etat des Relations Extérieures, Port-au-Prince.
Iceland.—Islands Stiptisbokasafn, Reykjavik.
Italy.— Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele, Rome.
(24 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Japan.—Minister of Foreign Affairs, Tokio.
Tiberia.—Liberia College, Monrovia.
Mexico.—Museo Nacional, Mexico.
Netherlands.—Bureau Scientifique Néerlandais, Harlem.
Netherlandsch India.—Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen,
Batavia, Java.
New Caledonia.—Gordon and Gotch, London, England.
New South Wales.—Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
New Zealand.—Colonial Museum, Wellington.
Norway.—K. N. Frederiks Universitet, Christiania.
Philippine Islands.—Royal Economical Society, Manila.
Polynesia.—Royal Hawaiian Agricultural Society, Honolulu.
Portugal.—Kscola Polytechnica, Lisbon.
Prussia.—Dr. Felix Fliigel, Leipsie.
Queensland.—Government Meteorological Observatory, Brisbane.
Russia.—Commission Russe des Echanges Internationaux, St. Péters-
burg.—(Imperial Public Library.)
Saxony.—Dr. Felix Fliigel, Leipsic.
St. Helena.—William Wesley, London, England.
South Australia Astronomical Observatory, Adelaide.
Spain.—Real Academia de Ciencias, Madrid.
Strait Settlements.—William Wesley, London, England.
Sweden.—K. 8. Vetenskaps Akademien, Stockholm.
Switzerland.—Hidgenossensche Bundes Canzley, Berne.
Tasmania.—Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobarton.
Trinidad.—Scientific Association, Port of Spain.
Turk’s Istand.—Publie Library, Grand Turk.
United States of Colombia.—Central Office of Exchanges, National
Library, Bogota.
Venezuela.—University, Caracas.
Victoria.—Public Library, Melbourne.
Wiirtemberg.—Dr. Felix Fliigel, Leipsie.
AMOUNT AND COST OF EXCHANGES.
The tabular statement subjoined of the yearly amount of matter sent
abroad by the Institution from the commencement of its operations to
the end of the last year, 1881, will show the progress, extent, and con-
dition of its foreign exchanges. It may be stated in brief that during
the first ten years of the system (closing with 1860) the total weight of |
matter sent abroad amounted to 145,979 pounds, the cost of the same
to the Institution being $22,989.29; the weight sent during the second
decade (closing with 1870) was 221,713 pounds, at a cost of $32,398.84;
and that the weight sent during the third decade (closing with 1880) was
570,571 pounds, at a cost of $78,453.01. :
Notwithstanding the remarkable liberality with which the exertions
of the Institution have been aided by the great transportation compa-
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 725
nies at home and abroad, the co-operation of learned societies, and the
remission of duties and custom-house expenses by all nations, the act-
ual cost of these international exchanges to the Smithsonian fund has
reached for the last five or six years to fully one-fourth of its entire in-
come.
Cost of exchanges to the Institution.
EARS SC eee SINGOS. OO ASOTic0 os Su at eeuas suena een $3701 93
[SEL So a a Bh DiQTOrsGe| AGS ce oe Lee aee nee ee Sit 4 870) 72
Pena meaty AR Ais Oe 078033) 1/1669 Ja. IUS ae We See 4, 860 94
Mes 22.5. apie Or 2 ee ed QIBO TONES TO Lseee Bt Sacre mee ae 4,165 62
{Se RNs A err ye D738. Goi iSTh sed cost le eee 4,201 50
Lae a ae eee O30) TAMA G72 Sate a a a ae 5, 870 32
“SE pt ea Sera he 1517 SAN Mesacsee a tee mei 6,251 74
a pen ae eee EA Nts ORO G TET IG 7A 7 UM Sia Me eno AAT 5,589 89
[i SERS eka) Se Men Ne 8 TCR 1/526) GO WS Tbe Sere Oe TL A 6,748 80
“HSRC A ea SS lee DAOOT LOA MGT Ge alee Ute aie Wy Sic 10,199 10
CELTICS ARE ee 2) 54804 G77 2 oak ee 9,790 73
“(SLE eH i A ea a P4900 AP IGE sen eam kee ce 10,250 41
[Se RAR SS DEGIEY BEL WTO) sis ae a eee cts See 9,554 47
GRD ESL aaa CIN 83 ye 3 lp ita Usics Dae a aa mle alee 9,996 05
eGA Se cehar ae ate Spe AS 77/28) Galles boo) eon RUM I Peper) *7,467 84
TASTES OAR aD SF SE a 2,807 76 Se TR
SG RUN SPOS 5 ee Soe eae 2, 252 60 | Totals os sod tte $141, 308 98
Slain sla lst/[selsel[elal[als(/alaflfsalaleics
a lolfalalalalealalolslieselisislishelsis
re ri re ri Sol ri ri ri ri be | Sol ri snl ri nr nr ri
——}—_ |__| |_| — |_| | |__| 4+ —
PARES o same miseleetinaes Seco om leas = ee Ut ee 4 Ba) peecl soca = oF ese eae 2
America:
Tee Any Se el ie cellar acl aac) ocd Eceels4ee| tacd bose bsoal sod soocl bacelaese loacd Gece ee
Central America and |....]...-|..-. sonllesas| beeellesctiboaaii sac Bn eae fae
West Indies.
1 Gy ee oa essebec cod BoCd Smee Me eae Sod Aca betel iscice “coojiccoolecod nian Shad bec bose cea ogee
South America .--...../... [-... SU 2: | aes ote Se eee bccllesact BSA Bp a ees Dares are
EERE SOLES ee en (Sa ea 1 Bo A rea HAS RR [ed aba Sas a igs oad buen Pear
ANTRUTEN ECT oe SE On SRDS EERE F Bad ser) Bete Eeisel botie| Bacal fates eens Je3 1} 1
Europe:
Belpiumy==-2<- s---<s5- SU Ua EA pa enh Oi ea TES em | a Wey hes fee a Pasa) 1
Denmark (ucludin gs oUt yee | aed eke |e ea ate Eee Tet Ope a teeta erstellen
teelaid). |
France -..-.% - 6 6 5 6 51 4 8 4 610! 10 4113 9 8110 9
Germany | (including 10 | 11 | 13 | 12 | 11 | 12 | 27 | 11 | 21 | 17 | 12 | 18 | 24} 17 | 17 | 24 | 20
Austria-Hungary).
Great Britain ......... 12) 11)11/)11} 8} 5) 9} 10) 17 | 25) 22) 6) 16} 14/13] 9F m1
GIECCOM acon eo sascisee|nalec| Pees] seeclense Seales) 6 ses) Sseclbeoal sea ise Se) sales | oea'l Semel aan ees |aeoe
Mtalive sesso oeabe nes SESH Sil saan Sea SAR ee aoe ly Sie salad 4
Netherlands.-.-.-...... ac BA fe RO IY aD eel ea VN a PS a Db eS a PBN ONS by cay hie
IN eat Af pace criccoeeed asc Hse I PU eB EL er Uy ea pe ET ah Fase l atom hyde ib Let eee es Da ea tl a
Ia AAR can Sar bor oF ee AT a hares noel pe be eC) Neca SN He mc eS a OS dene i FR Ye] ae 3
Slice tert aa te 3 Pa ah eo al eel eal ose) fale ete ate lel ariel pees ba ae 2
Sweden Secoenood| 2 1 1 1 1 Bi al 1 RI 1 1 2 2 1 1 us il
Beverevinadl. seeks 2) | eh ne Si eke ZOE Tu eter St Aes de ONES ee 8 3
AY RGM? Bose 26 Eobeasone| Bsce| sen) boos Ess bal las <5 sand] feoee seed) boce Sead ess ase soq RGRale a eee
Polynesia .- ep se see ee| se ce|enea lense [mac eris=| acu | ian ctael|petecloocclooeciocms|ececlomeelaacele welet
Rest of the world. .<.....-. D2 coe Seed ||| Ane Gillbalecon LON Bi sOul sa) 4 Onto 1 195
40 | 40 | 46 | 48 | 38 33 | 70 | 40 | 56 | 82 | 63 | 73 |114 | 61 | 63 | 77 | 83
H } |
*The apparent reduction of expense for the last year (1881) is due to an appropria-
tion of $3,000 allowed by Congress in aid of the government exchanges. It thus ap-
pears that the average expense of the international exchanges for the last six years
has exceeded $10,000 per annum.
726
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Shipments of foreign exchanges—No. of boxes from 1850 to 1881—Continued.
ElZi(slele el ele lee teehee elma
co | © | © | ~ | cw |] wD | 3% | ~& | ~& |] —e | w& 1 oO | wo | we | ow | OTAl.
ri rt) mr rc re ri rc mr ri re — ri ri So nr
MAS TICA) = /Sciswinwemiscne nisi aie scles ee Bed ees eosele San MONI (ait Aeeeullesme| Sree all eal | heat tarot ML eae 11
America:
British America ,..-.-.-.- steal Nees Reise aclee se [a aerelieeere Quis hee ie Oat waa Si eest 36
Central fAmerioa) ‘anid. 22|555-|- sola eel ec oe |bene 2 ea Ne SSO al SQ 14a aaa G 48
West Indies.
IWGSSOD concoomonsoo BeOnoS Smaslasdleede hood le eae|loseis| laoes See lh dal| ees eee tO ARON eS 40
South America ...--..--- BPs (rd ee | es ceeclese (08!) Sel Si S00] S56.) 20nASh OSs ete
(ASI ate eee pecan ocie sc ccjoen aioe Melsaleaoe leemaleeee Sees Parle CON veeLai eee aiyens be ietaeal ley isl ee Ack ee) 84.
ATISUPAI ASI wacoen won os cesses See becter Wer ae kare Oo eal eae ell Seta On boon oO era Ne 2b Os 186
Europe:
Bel FINI cnce le eecaei== |) ern eaenl meca lpn elton 74a beufall me On et On nda eu On ern | meal mom aS 100
ear (including Ice-| 2} 2| 3] 3] 2] 8} 4| 4} 3] 5] 5; 6)14] 8; 6 88
and).
Mrancesssscenesoeceeeane. 7114) 7 | 3) 6 |) 8] 18} ad | 24) 23 | 32>| 42) 40) |). 26.136 428
Germany (including Aus- | 38 | 26 | 35 | 37 | 28 | 40 | 59 | 36 | 39 | 62 | 95 | 77 | 77 | 54 | 80 | 1,060
tria-Hungary).
Great Britain ............ 24 | 22 | 16 | 20 | 23 | 27 | 36} 30 | 43] 64] 71] 58 | 52 | 52 | 54 802
Greece .-...- PS) eee SA Set ered (em) U4 See er bap fe) Ge Pata Op De hy al le Pea EE fa 2s 22
taly s=ss-- 5 5 5) 3 8 8 5 | 10 3 8 | 11 | 20 | 10) 13 | 5 | 46 214
Netherlands soo) i 4; 4| 4 il 4] 10 5 4 7 | 138 8 8 | 11] 14 144
NOLrWayss-22ccccecsecosue 1 2 al 2 2 3 8 Seas: 9) 65) 4 4! 9 78
(RUSSIB seer ec seeaccieeeees 6 6 4; 8 4 6) LO) "7 OAS G5) OHO) 2 ar 203
Spain and Portugal .-..-. a AG Da ae Saleen mans OMT ON rota One SalelOpeLO 117
Swedente=-- ssecscee sear Dale 25 Qe SoS Sa) WASPS Nl Os eIS Ou Sr one tONELO 112
Switzerland............-. Ql 48 SS Sa 2 eae Ou 64 6n ose) Guldas Sait eaaiens 127
MarkOyjeeenoteees Scoccds S58 eee Hoes eee see Seca lets (Ske Gy EES eae Pee eels eee 15
POlWNeB ate ce anaes cee ere | setae Ieee al aye | meee Spo M Pe tae aE TR |e Ue edie 4
Rest of the world ...........- TS ASR O68 bmp 23 i | P2OL Ss ace lene eecnnee | anes eeae Sacis Pees eee] ayeew,
113 |104 |112 |121 108 |179 }196 |149 |208 |323 |406 |309 |311 |268 |407 | 4,339
Shipments of foreign exchanges—whole quantity from 1850 to 1881.
wear Number | Bulk in /Weight in| Vienne Number | Bulk in |Weightin
° of boxes. cubic feet.) pounds. 7 of boxes. |cubicfeet.| pounds.
WET escacoccocntoacs 40 200 6;:900):)|| T867-o.cco ccc cccns es 113 975 22, 523
itil no asec dss 40 240 RNO2O WW TS68 ec cnciceaae asim 104 1, 057 31,171
Weossesoceeeeecso se 46 263 978854 | AS69 esse ees e eee 112 1, 033 23, 376
UB5S eee eee eee een 48 392 125-200: )|(\U8lO sec ceee cece ese 121 1,189 31, 383
CH EE eocnooasoaS 38 365 OP OT PL Bile an sectees eee 108 712 28, 950
SHO pessoas eee 33 358 LOCA I MBi2 2 ae see esses 179 954 26, 850
ei hanacios caecosaes 7 586 PSP 271|| PBIBSE sce. 2 eos acs 196 1, 476 44, 236
hy Cee eee 40 384 T4248) W874 & so. 5-2-85c50 149 933 27, 990
TSHG ASS: Stee ee ees 56 Gia SaiGia | ders eee ee eee ee 208 1, 503 45, 300
Uae soscnoScoocor 82 1, 054 20,480) | IST 6cccscceleeece ce 323 2, 261 80, 750
TS60 ess ccccc eee cel 61 167 205029) |Site cweascesesecee 406 3, 276 117, 000
gs Gy Bees Sarees oe eee 73 625 1619585 || ATSwasee se eee 309 2, 160 69, 220
HGGZEe once eee aaa ces 114 1, 006 Pls stes in ha bey (OSA ein ees 311 2,177 69, 975
1B yee oceereorise 61 447 105,286):||' W880 = 22s Sa 268 1, 976 60, 300
USGA Sat eee eee, 63 B46) 208500 || beaten anes aaneeee 407 2,800 | 100, 750
TSGpsoasee ee eee 77 557 18, 630 ——— — ——'—_—_——_
GBs eceeieee see te 83 yal ABS050)||MEOtalseoss ees sete 4, 339 33, 575 | 1, 054, 913
I].—DoMESTIC EXCHANGES.
The system of domestic exchanges embraces not only the distribution
of Smithsonian and other American contributions to knowledge through-
out our country, but that of the publications received from foreign
countries as well, intended for societies and individuals here.
liberal courtesy of many well-established houses in the book business
in different parts of the country, these domestic transmissions were ef-
fected with a very satisfactory dispatch and fidelity.
By the
The gentlemen to
whem the Institution was mainly indebted in 1851 and the immediately
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. if pew
following years for this valuable service were Messrs. J. P. Jewett &
Co., of Boston; George P. Putnam, of New York; Lippincott, Grambo
& Co., of Philadelphia; John Russell, of Charleston; and H. W.
Derby, of Cincinnati. To these names should be added in 1852 and
following years those of Messrs. Jewett, Proctor, and Worthington, of
Cleveland; Dr. George Engelmann, and John Halsall, of Saint Louis;
and B. M. Norman, of New Orleans.
As an incidental but striking illustration of the interest awakened
in the international exchange at that early day may be mentioned,
among the numerous literary gifts to the Institution, a rare and curious
collection of manuscripts of very varied character, sufficiently described
in the following letter of presentation:
“Avenue Lodge, Brixton Hills, near London,
‘October 28, 1852.
‘Prof. JOSEPH HENRY :
‘Str: I have the pleasure of offering for your acceptance for the use
of the Smithsonian Institution a collection of documents formed for
the purpose of illustrating the history of prices between the years 1650
and 1750. The collection, regarded as a collection, is, I believe, unique
in its kind, although many manuscripts of the same description are to
be found dispersed amongst the vast stores of the British Museum and
other libraries in this country. It consists of about seven thousand
original papers bound in fifty-four volumes, including bills, accounts,
and inventories respecting commercial and domestic articles of nearly
every description.
“Jt will afford me great pleasure if the allocation of these papers at
Washington prove of use at any time to the literary inquiries of your
great nation. Without incurring the imputation of falling into the ordi-
nary error made by collectors in attaching a fictitious value to relies
which have necessarily required the expenditure of considerable time
and exertion to bring together, it may, perhaps, be allowed me to
entertain a hope that these fragments of an earlier age, now con-
fided to your care, may be hereafter regarded of importance in the
list of materials which will some day assist in producing a history
of social progress.
“Mr. Henry Stevens, F. S. A., the agent to the Smithsonian Institu-
tion in England, has kindly undertaken to forward the collection to
you on an early opportunity.
‘“‘T feel sure you will excuse the liberty I am taking in addressing you
on this subject; and I have the honor to be, sir,
“Your obedient, faithful servant,
“7, O. HALLIWELL,”
728 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
The history and condition of domestic exchanges, from their com-
mencement to the present time, are exhibited in the following tables:
. . . . For other institutions
Received for the Smithsonian library. iaithelnibod States.
~ wear.
Parts and | Maps and
Volumes. pamphlets. |en are Total. Addresses.| Packages.
470 624 4 BOOB) esses eerste! ee mies ores sree
549 GISi| sss teeee nee DAG Tal eee RC
1, 481 2, 106 1, 749 5, 336 96 637
1, 440 991 125 2, 556 160 1, 052
926 1, 468 ~ 434 2, 828 149 987
IPOS TAI y Tn 1207 26 2,770 219 1,445
1, 356 1, 834 140 3, 330 189 1, 245
555 1, 067 138 1, 760 1938 do
733 1, 695 122 2, 540 243 1, 539
1, 022 2, 540 40 3, 602 293 1, 933
1, 271 4,180 220 5, 671 355 1, 908
821 1,945 120 2, 686 274 1, 406
1, 611 3, 369 55 5, 035 273 Pith!
910 3,479 200 4,589 73 1, 522
823 2, 754 109 3, 686 299 2,482
767 3, 256 183 4, 206 345 2, 368
1, 243 4, 509 121 5, 873 329 2, 703
1, 557 3, 946 328 5, 831 347 971
1,770 3. 605 134 5, 509 436 2, 394
1, 234 4, 089 232 5, 555 501 4, 130
1,113 3, 890 179 5, 182 567 3, 705
936 3, 579 82 4,597 573 8, 952
1, 262 4, 502 198 5, 962 587 4, 635
889 4,354 454 5, 697 689 4, 782
863 4, 521 162 5, 546 750 4, 326
1, 120 5, 813 114 7, 047 610 4, 661
1, 017 6, 193 375 7, 585 644 4, 853
1, 889 6, 511 320 8, 726 766 4, 962
1, 263 7, 392 14 8,729 662 5, 292
1, 949 8, 071 183 10, 203 785 6, 971
1,148 7, 275 152 8, 570 945 5, 587
1, 867 9, 904 188 11, 959 1, 054 8, 483
33, 877 99, 787 6, 966 165, 631 13, 286 94, 765
Distribution of domestic exchanges, showing number of packages received for societies, §c., ‘tn
the United States and British America from 1852-1881.
ALABAMA. Little Rock :
Mobile: Governor of the State-.....---. 39
Barten Academy--....-. .---- 1 Institution for Deaf and Dumb- 2
University of Mobile........-. 1 Educating the
Montgomery : ; _ Blind ......-- 1
State uibrary.lac-ss1e-sel ous 99 Literary Institution. ----...--- 2
Talladega : State Geologist wisiece Sees ncacse 1
Institution for Deaf and Dumb- Q Institute -...----------- 1
Tuscaloosa: Library” teens Seen ae
Alabama University ..----.-.- 11 University -..--- core eeee 22
Geolosical iSurveyits---- ----0- 5
Hospital for the Insane....---. 2 CALIFORNIA.
Berkeley :
arpa fea University of California. ...... 5
Prescott: Marysville ;
Territorial Library ..--.-..---- 6 Marysville Library.-.--.-..---- 1
Oakland:
ARKANSAS. Health Ofice 225.2507 2
Fayetteville: Institution for the Deaf and
Industrial University......--. il puna bie see eee ee ee ree 1
Holly Grove: University of California. .----- 27
Literary Institute. ..---- gaecce 6 | Sacramento:
Judsonia : Agricultural and Horticultural
Judson Uiniversiby;se-c-s--esee 1 Society poss-cocee-ooeeeeeeee 7
HISTORY OF~ THE ‘SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Distribution of domestic exchanges, §-c.—Continued.
Saoramento—Continued.
California Institution..-.---..
Preeiibrary-_- 2-0-2 -tien eee
Geological Survey of California.
Institution for the Deaf, Dumb,
and Blind
Medical Society of California-.
State Agricultural Society. ----
Pbrary;<.22s.,.2ss<22-<6
San Prancisco:
Academy of Sciences.-.---.-.---
Agricultural Society -..--..---
_and Horticultural
Society -.-..-..
Bibliothéque de la Ligne -.----
Board ‘of Health----:...2--.-.-
California Historical Society - --
Corporation of the city..2.....
Geological Soclebyie-2--cs-s2-
SULVOYoo-c5-eocee°
Governor of State.--......----
Institution for Deaf and Dumb.
Library of San Francisco.-----
Lick Observatory......-..----
Mayor of the: city_----.-.-22=-
Mechanics’ Institute .......-..
Mercantile Library Association -
Microscopical Society -----.----
Municipality
Observatory 225535552522 5222
Odd. Fellows’ Library .-.-..-..--
Office of James Lick Institute.
Pharmaceutical Association. --
Society for Protection of Ani-
MA] Seas J esse aa esos
St. Ignatius College. ....-.-...
State Horticultural Society ----
Santa Clara:
Santa Clara College......-----
University of the Pacific....-.-
Stockton :
Society of Natural History--.-..
State Lunatic Hospital......--
tee we ee ee ee et eee eee
es
COLORADO.
Central City:
Miners and Mechanics’ Institute
Colorado Springs:
El Paso County Library Asso-
ciation
Denver :
Agricultural Society ...--.-.-.
Governor of Colorado-.-.-...-.---
Statedsibrarye.---- sees eo-
Territorial Library...-..-..----
CONNECTICOT.
Bridgeport :
Bridgeport Library and Reading
Hartford:
American Philological Associa-
MON 5- secs
Philosophical Society
Board of Agriculture...-...-.-..-
Hartford Society of Science-.-.
Historical Society of Connecti-
WSS ABs Gaenooe soo oebaSne
~
COO OR STE hOD WH RORY
—
_
ew
ew
PMB
_
mm Tr 0
Hartford—Continued.
Hospital for the Insane--..-.---
Tnetien tion for the Deaf and
Damp oe sie ss caissiee oe
Murphy Philosophical Associa-
iPhysicalhSocietya=-=-5-----=--
Retreat for the Insane.-..-.--
Society of Natural History ----
Science -...
Physical Science- --.
State Agricultural Society- ----
Jhibraryeesios seer estes
Theological Institute--.....----
Trinity College .--------2---.-
Watkinson and Connecticut
Historical Society. -.---.----
Watkinson Library of Refer-
LION eee one
Litchfield :
Retreat for the Insane.-------
Springfield Institute......-.--
Middletown:
Connecticut State Hospital for
the Insanoscsoss4ee eee a
Wesleyan University .-.--..----
New Britain:
State Normal School.-..-.-.--.---
New Haven:
American Journal of Arts and
Sclences=-e4-— s<e
Oriental Society - ---
Pome wou Academy of Sci-
Mercantile ibranyacsne oes
New Haven Museum..--------
Peabody Museum.----.-------
Sheffield Scientific School... ---
State Board of Agriculture ----
Yale) College. = <=. -2-- 2. s-= =
Museume-- so. =
Observatory ..----
Young Men’s Institute-.-.--.---
New London :
Young Men’s Christian Associa-
tion
Norwich :
Otisiuibranyeo---oees sae eee
Waterbury:
Bronson Library .-.----.-.------
DELAWARE.
over:
State Library... -......---.
Newark;
Delaware College..-.--...-----
Wilmington:
Agricultural Society..-.-.-----
Wilmington Institute-.-..----..
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
Georgetown:
Georgetown College
Observatory of Geor getown Col-
eye een Does ae Ao
—
Or POR WIRE & ©
Se wie
a
il User
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Distribution of domestic exchanges, §c.—Continued.
Hillsdale:
Pioneer Sunday School-...-.-.-.
Washington :
Agricultural Department------
American Annals of the Deaf
and Dumb--..+.-- 2
MedicalAssociation. 195
Museum -.- 23
Anthropological Society. ..---. 5
Belgian Legation.--........-- 5
Board of Healthiag sss. a52ce- 8
Botanic Gardena. seen ee 2
Bureau of Ethnology ......-.--. 3
Censns)Bureaut eee ee ees 100
Chinese Legation.......-..... 15
CoastiSunveyseseeaae scene case 1, 585
Columbia Hospital for Women. 1
Universityi2255 2555 22
Commissioners of the District- 1
Construction and Repair Bu-
reau, United States Navy -.-
Clinico Pathological Society - --
Corcoran Art Gallery
Corporation of the city.....---
Corps of Topographical Engi-
NEGISe asa eee Ce eee Nee
Education, Bureau of... ...---
Engineer Bureau, United States
ATM Ys ee 5 ee eens
Entomological Commission --.. 6
Geographical Surveys--..-.-.- 14
Geological Surveys of the Ter-
TIGOTICS sais 2 eee eae eee 600
German Reading and Chess
Clob sass ease il
Relief Association - -- 28
Governor of the District ..__-_. 2
Government Hospital for the
ANSANG Lo Se eae eet S 7
Howard University.........-- 4
Hydrographic Office .......... 126
IndexoMedicuse=sa. sae eee 3
indian Bureatissss sete eee 24
Commissioners ........ 14
Interior Department... ....-. 90
Tian diOiiceee sas see ee Mees 83
Library of Congress-.-..-....-- 619
Light-House Board .........-. 8
Marine pEospitialessssers ese 4
Medical Society of the District
ot Columbia): 22.222. sean. 10
Meee and Surgery, Bureau
ORE eee asec aes Cee Se 3
Mint Bureanone as =.) noses 16
National Academy of Sciences. 942
Deaf-Mute College--.- 20
Instibute;2o222 22222< 39
Museumeseeen = rae 36
Nautical Almanac .........-.-. 119
Naval Observatory........---- 1,898
Navigation, Bureau of.....-- A 68
Navy Department. ..........-. 52
Ordnance Bureau, United States
ATMyps FNS Sete aa 122
Odd Fellows’ Library ....-..-. 1
Patent Office
Washington—Continued.
Paymaster Department, United
States Navy
Pharmaceutical Association...
Philosophical Society ..---....
President of the United States-
Provost-Marshal General.----.
Public Schools2e235tso-- aaa
Quartermaster-General’s Office.
Revenue Department
Signal Office, United States
Army
Spencerian Business College ..
State Department
Statistics, Bureau of_.....--..
Surgeon-General’s Office, U.S.A.
Hospital - ---
Swedish and Norwegian Lega-
WOnscase bs ee ee eee ~
Survey of North - American
bakes ic. cc ste eee
Territorial Legation
Topographical Bureau--..-----
Treasury Department...-.-..--
Trigonometrical Survey--.-.----
U.S. Agricultural Society. --.-
and Mexican Boundary
Surveyssse san cseeeaee
Fish Commission ------..
Expedition to
tec eee ce oee
War Department
Washington Sentinel.........-
FLORIDA,
Jacksonville -
Young Men’s Christian Associa-
tONI ea R5 chaos Jenesisl tances
Saint Augustine:
Historical Society of Florida --
Tallahassee :
Academy of Tallahassee
Public Library
GEORGIA.
Athens :
Hospital for the Insane
State Agricultural College ---.
University of Athens..---.--.--
Atlanta:
Agricultural Department and
State Agricultural Society --
City doi brary2ess eee ae ee ee
Medical College
and Surgical Journal-
University
Augusta :
Horticultural Society
Medical College
Cave Spring:
Institution for the Deaf and
Dumb
Macon:
Public Library and Historical
Society
Milledgeville:
Hospital for the Insane
Se eee a
EO ® 09
csr are
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Distribution of domestic exchanges, §:c.—Continued.
Milledgeville—Continued.
Oglethorpe University... ..----
StatevLabrary: S25 25 2a eee
WLVersrbyn ste as We
Oxford:
Emory Colleges: esses eee
Pennfield :
Mercer University ...-....----
Savannah:
Chatham Academy ...---...--.
Historical Society
IDAHO.
Boise City:
Territorial Agricultural Society
ILLINOIS.
Abingdon:
Abingdon College..-----..-.--
Aurora:
Literary and Historical Society
Bloomington :
Illinois Museum of Natural His-
HOLY ae eee retetos
Natural History Society
Library
Wesleyan University ----------
Carbondale:
Southern Illinois Normal Uni-
VeUblbyn tess sete os saeee ce
Champaign :
Industrial University ---------
Chicago:
Academy of Sciences.---------
American Electrical Society - --
Astronomical Observatory - ----
Nociebye---— = --5-
Boardiofetirade==-- 2-5 eos se-
Botanig Gardena. ass 2- seas
Chicago Historical Society ----
Medical Journal.-----
Times s2s22e2
Ereemibraryiteeo. oe oes sae
Historical Association --..----
Tlinois Staats Zeitung --..-.--
InsanevAsyluntes s+ sss ses ee ee
Mayor ot thecity--------se--—
Mechanics’ Institute.------.--
Museum of Natural History-.--
National Live Stock Journal--
Observatory. 255. sce so -—32
Publiciiibranyeeece. . eae snot
School Library ---.---.-
Rush Medical College...----.--
Society of Natural History ----
State Microscopical Society -- -
Theological Seminary ---------
University eos. s2o-45-2eese
Young Men’s Association Li-
brary LER B Stas Stan se velco
Elgin:
Hospital for the Insane ..--.--
North Jlinois Hospital...--.--
Evanston :
Northwestern University ...-.-.
Galesburg:
Academy of Music ..........-.
IR Ox Collen orem senses 9 aa ate
_
i"
Slt et Be OT 0D C2 et 0 6 0
10
Jacksonville:
State Hospital for the Insane-.-
Institution for the Blind.
Lebanon :
McKendrick College ..---.----
Monmouth :
Monmouth College..-.....---.
Warren County Library- ------
Moro:
American Pomological Society-
Mercantile Library Association
Normal:
Illinois Museum of Natural His-
COLL SS ees es ee
sates Sei SANS Soe Beet a!
Natural History Society
“The Schoolmaster” .._--.--.-
Ottawa:
Ottawa Academy of Natural
Sciences: Le Js-/s J Pe see esos
Peoria:
Mercantile Library Association
Rantone:
Literary Society ..------------
Rock Island:
Augustana College........----
Publictibranyesess-- oe ee ose
Springfield :
Academy of Music .-.-.....---
Geological Survey -.--..------
Library Association -----------
St. Joseph’s College... ....---.
State Agricultural College -...
Board of Agriculture... =
Tibrary.sas so. eee
Wniversity:.<-.5 25-5550
Vandalia:
Historical and Archeological
Westfield College ...--.-.-----
Wheaton:
Wheaton College ..---.....---
INDIANA.
Bloomington:
Indiana University.......-..---
Crawfordsville:
Wabash College...-..:..------
Fort Wayne:
Concordia College ..--....----
Greencastle :
Asbury University .........---
Hanover :
Hanover College.-....-.----.--
Indianapolis :
Academy of Sciences..-.-..--.-
Bureau of Statistics and Geol-
OPY. csc 55 6 Ce res
Geological Society ....--.-----
Survey of Indiana-.
Horticultural Society .....----
Hospital for the Insane ...---.
Indiana Historical Society ----.
@
Ou Col, Sa
b= 0D
wo
ee et aa ae OM We)
cs
Go
~
~
OO Os te 0D
Ne
132
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Distribution of domestic exchanges, §c.—Continued.
Indianapolis—Continued.
Institution for Deaf and Dumb-
Educating the
Blind
McIntire Institution for Deaf
Muteste seer ese tes oseces
Owen Cabinet 222 52225225--—-
Publicweibrany( 2422s s See
Lafayette:
Pardee University ------'------
Meran:
Union Christian College ..---.
New Albany:
Society of Natural History. ---
Theological Seminary ---- -----
Notre Dame:
University of Notre Dame-.-.--
Richmond :
Richmond Scientific Association
Saint Mainard:
St. Mainard College -..--.-.--
Terre Haute:
State Normal School.-..-.-.--.-
INDIAN TERRITORY.
Arinstrong :
Armstrong Academy..----.--.-
IOWA.
Ames:
Iowa Agricultural College --.--
Burlington:
Burlington University --------
Towa Historical and Genealogi-
callinghitutess=o-4-- eee
Council Bluffs :
Institution for the Deaf and
Dumbi2 co. 222s ook eee eee as
Davenport :
Academy of Natural Sciences- -
Griswold College .-.....---.---
Decorah:
Norwegian Lutheran College-.
Des Moines:
AMA YStitacrps awe aicieeterteee Bere etacel=
IK O) aK ean TED Ca ees Pieters AOS
Geological Survey -.-.--.-----
Governor of Iowa...--.-------
Iowa School Journal......----
Dubuque:
Iowa Institute of Science and
Fairfield:
Jefferson College Library Asso-
Cations ese eee ee eee
Grinnell : ;
Grinnell University...-.-..-.-.-
Towa Collegesa. see seosaenese
Independence :
Hospital for the Insane -.-.-.-.-.-
Indianola:
Simpson Centennial College...
—"
a
RF Be Be BP Bw Se SS BR Pw
i
242
a a
Towa City:
Geological Survey ------=-----
Grand Lodge of lowa ---.-----
Institution for Deaf and Dumb.
Iowa Weather Service -.--.-.--
Laboratory of Physical Sciences
State Historical Society .------
of Iowa (see also Des
NT OVIVES) 2 eee ee
Keokuk:
Library Association ....-....-
Mount Pleasant:
Hospital for the Insane -.---- -
Wesleyan University -.-...---
Mount Vernon:
Cornell College --<--- 2-5...
Oscaloosa :
Oscaloosa College....-...-----
KANSAS.
Baldwin City :
Baker University --..-.--------
Lawrence :
Academy of Sciences..-....-..
Kansas Historical Society ---- -
University of Kansas -....-..-
Leavenworth :
College of Pharmacy .-...-.-----
Kansas Academy of Music --..
Mercantile Library Association .
State Academy of Sciences----
Young Men’s Christian Associa-
CHO SSS he5 GaGbHS cnsbes cooks
Lecompton :
State Library --...----..---— 3.
Olathe:
Institution for Deaf and Dumb.
Ossawatomie :
Hospital for the Insane.----.--
Topeka:
Academy of Sciences....-.--.--
Kansas Historical Society ---- -
Natural History Society
State suibratyese=--- se —- ===
Washburn College....-. ---..- <
Wyandott :
Library Association...---.----
KENTUCKY.
Ashland:
Columbia:
Christian College ---..--------
Danville:
Center College------2--- == ===
Institution for the Deaf and
Theological Seminary-.--. -----
Farndale:
Kentucky Military Institute -. -
Frankfort:
Geological Survey of Kentucky -
Publicuitibraryyeese= sees sae
State*uibrary2e---- 5. --eee ese
a
La oo WW Re wo
Ot be Lame Le ww
Owe
-
HISTORY OF -THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Distribution of Aomestic exchanges, §-c.—Continued.
Frankfort—Continued.
Third Kentucky Hospital forthe
Insane
Hobbs :
State Hospital for the Insane.-.
Hopkinsville:
Second Kentucky Hospital for
thevnsane = 52 ese n 8 eee ee
Western Lunatic Asyfum....-.
Lebanon:
St. Mary’s College ...... ..-...
Lexington:
Eastern Lunatic Asylum ..--..
First Kentucky Hospital for the
Insane
Kentucky University..........
State Agricultural Society .-...
Transylvania Medical College. .
University -.---.
Young Men’s Christian Associa-
GION se saeaced Shoo scene
Louisville:
College of Pharmacy..-....-...-
Corporation of the city .......
Grand Lodge of Kentucky .-..
Historical Society of Kentucky -
Louisville and Richmond Med-
icaleJournalessaa.cee eee
Mayor of the city
Medical Department, University
OpmouiswallG. seo neaee eee
Public Librar
University of Louisville.......
Russellville:
Bethel Collegess js... 23. 5h.
Logan Female College -----...
Shelbyville:
Observatory of Shelby College -
shelby Collec eeeceseaeeeaeaes
LOUISIANA,
were eee eee cere es sown ©
Baton Rouge:
A CAME: =i ass conc 2 snes nes
Institution for Deaf and Dumb.
SusbewMiibnarve 22 seas eee oes
Universibyce-s saserneoee
Clinton:
Louisiana Insane Asylum
Grand Coteau:
St. Charles College --.... .....
Jackson:
Insane Asylum .--..... - oetee
New Orleans:
Athenée Louisiannaise -.......
Cioyglaibrary:.-t) Soe a ee
Corporation
ImpanerAsy lum cs. pee saacese es
‘Lyceum of Natural History -.--
Mayor of the city_-..-...-...-
Mechanies’ Society Library -. -
Medical Department, Pniver-
sity of Louisiana ..........-
Municipality
New Orleans Academy of Sci-
ences- ed Ee
New Orleans Deutsche Zeitung -
State librarysc.-s4-ss5 ee ese.
University of Louisiana...-..-
be
Nee OO Oe BS CMe st oe fH
MAINE.
1 | Augusta:
1
wre
~
BIO RRE SB CF HF WO OFWE
=
ra
Board of Agriculture..........
Commissioner of Fisheries- .-..
Historical Society of Maine.--.
Hospital for the Insane-......_.
tate Woibraryses asks oe ee
Natural History and Geological
Society
State Lunatic Hospital-...-...
Calais:
High School and Academy ....
Bangor:
Commissioner of Fisheries. .-..
Mechanics’ Association ....-...
Brunswick :
Bowdoin College.----.......:.
Historical Society... ......--.-
Colby:
Colby University2-..2222%22
Coll6ge ss sSe se See ee eee
Dartmouth:
Dartmouth College...-........
Hebron:
Hebron Academy ...-....-.-.-
Houlton:
Forest Club
Lewiston :
Androscoggin and Natural His-
tory Societ
Manufacturers and Mechanics’
ASSOCIAION soa asisce ee eee
Norway:
High School and Academy --..
Orono:
Maine State College of Agricul-
CURG) SIs 26 eee ate eee
Portland:
Atheneum and Public Library.
City Registrar: 25-42. oe
Commissioner of Fisheries ----
Legislature of Maine........-.
Maine Agricultural Society ..--
Historical Society ...---
Journal of Education...
Mayorjof the city...) seen
Portland Society of Natural His-
LOTrys <2. So Sse Sesser
Saco:
Work Institute <-v seas sesso eee
Waterville:
Colby Unitversitycs 2-50 cco ase
Waterville College ............
MARYLAND.
Annapolis:
St. John’s College -...........
State Library
United States Naval Academy.
United States Naval Observa-
LOL ieee sels eee a eerie
Baltimore:
' Academy of Sciences..........
American Journal of Chemis-
irye many eae Se eae
American Journal of Dental
SCION CEM k eas fs coos a exe
733
_—
Rem DM WH UFLWDS
1
_ ig we Bal
(J)
WOM OME Wee
734
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Distribution of domestic exchanges, §:c.—Continued.
Baltimore—Continued.
American Journal of Mathe-
MAtICS! 52 Seen ee eee
Baltimore City College------.-.-
Deutsche Zeitung... -
College of Pharmacy .---------
Corporation of the cit
Historical Society of Maryland-
Jobns Hopkins University ----
Maryland Asylum for the In-
Institutes. -se—
Mayor of the city=.--222 see:
Mercantile Library...-..-.-----
Loyola College
Mount Hope nghtation Eee ne
Municipality
Newton University ..-.--.-.-.
Odd Fellows’ Library. ESL oe
Paul’s Lyceum and Library As-
sociation 2.222% steece ele
Peabody Institute .--.-.+:----
Sin Marys Collesere ce: --s2ae-
State Agricultural Society ----
Librar Vises Ds Sue eer
Normal School
Superintendent Public Instrue-
TONS eee eee ee ee
University of Maryland-.------
Young Men’s Christian Associ-
BULON 5s sche ene eee
Frederick City:
Institution for the Deaf and
Hyattsville:
State Agricultural College --.-
Rockville:
Rockville Academy --.---.------
Saint James :
College of Saint James ...-...-
Woodstock :
Woodstock College
MASSACHUSETTS.
Amherst :
Astronomical Observatory ----
Geological Survey of Massa-
chusetts ase see cee sees
Massachusetts Agricultural Col-
Andover :
Theological Seminary. --------
Boston :
Agricultural Society ......----
American Academy of Arts and
SCIiONCES!=3 Ae =22e
Board for Foreign
MISSIONSH See nee
Christian Examiner.
Gyaceglosice Soci-
Natoealist eq ek eye
Social Science Asso-
GrOniOIy 66 posaae os
Statistical ” Associa-
tion
Unitarian — Associa-
tion 2 Sees eae
or
WWE wWAL FF Whe Ree
e (90)
- two 8) BORE wp oo
Se Se eS Se
Boston—Continued.
Appalachian Mountain Club --.
Art, Museum: 228522222 scenes
Association for Improving the
Condition of the Poor. ..---.
Atlantic Monthly .........-..-
Board of Education.-..-....---
BostonvArtiClubeee-eeeceases
Atheneum ...-..-...- z:
Journal of Medicine -. -
Journal of Natural His-
Ory see eee
Colleges alt eue es sins
Medical and Surgical As-
SOCIatiON 222 -fae esas.
Medical and Surgical
Journals ee eae
Observatony- 22225. 2323
Scientific Society ...---
Society of Natural His+
LORY aaeeec soe
University beep ey aye Utd
Bowditch Library .........---
Bureau of Statistics and Labor.
Citys iibrarye222 3s see ee aoe
Commissioners of Insurance. .- -
Commonwealth of Massachu-
8ebts:c sso. eee: Stace eee
Corporation of the city .----.--
Christian Register Association.
Day School for Deaf and Dumb-
Department of Public Instruc-
TON Sse 2sosoe soe eee eee
Directors of public institutions-
Geological Survey .--.---.-.---
Good Health Journal
Hospital for the Insane ---.---
House of Correction .-.--...--
Inspectors of State prisons.---
Library of Boston Hospital -- -
Lyceum of Natural History -. -
Massachusetts Asylum for the
Blind
macy
Mastachadetialicetionleatsl 30°
ciety
Massachusetts
Technology
Massachusetts Society for Pre-
vention of Cruelty to Ani-
mals
Massachusetts State Board of
Mori culture ssa-= 4 eater
Massachusetts State Board of
Charities] 2. ee a
Massachusetts State Board of
He alitthyse ser sacha see
Massachusetts State Library --
Massachusetts Teacher.-------
Mayor of the city ------------
McLean Hospital for the In-
BANG eet eee Re ra eter eee
nusetts Institute of
Society ---- 0 hap Soeeds
~
SD Be Be HP OUNR RE Re
I
Roe
~
Oo
CRW He
= ©)
ee pe Sem mow
_
_ wo OR O12 0
HISTORY~OF”~ THE*SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
735
Distribution of domestic exchanges, §c.—Continued.
Boston—Continued.
Microscopical Society -----.---- 1
Municipality
New England Historical and
Genealogical Society .--.-.--- 58
North American Review ..-...-.- 39
,Ornithological Club.......--.- 1
‘Perkins’ Institute for the Blind. 18
Philosophical Society.-.-----.- 1
Prison Discipline Association... 19
Buble ibranyees--5-5-so—- 433
Sanitary Commission -..-...-- = 2
Ingtitmteles=s-ssese- 1
Science Observer .-----.---.-- 1
Society for the Development of
Mineral Resources ----..----- 1
Worcester County Horticultu-
TALES OCIObYs ese eect ws ere 1
Young Men’s Christian Associa-
tion’ 24225255 sees cseeclcees 1
Brookline :
Bupleuiibraryeese-— ese 1
Cambridge:
American Association for the
Advancement of Science.... 391
Astronomical Journal -...--.-..- 143
ATONE See eae Ue a oeee ier 1
Botanical Garden ...--.-... raeraae 8
Museums 232 e2 2-022 1
Cloverdon Observatory .-..----- 1
Wane WibLaryeso este eran 3
Entomological Club ‘‘Psyche”. 24
FanvardCollegeses-. ass aa=- 889
Observatory-- 736
Natural History So-
Clolyeesoa-ese slo 1
Herbarium of Harvard College. 12
Institution for the Blind ...--. 2
Law School Library ..---....-.- il
Lawrence Scientific School---- 2
Museum of Comparative Zo-
MOYEN cnc codaoceusnsaceoscce Jin!
National Academy of Sciences... 32
Nautical Almanac ..--.-..---- 3
Nuttall Ornithological Club .. - 2
Peabody Museum .--.-.....--.. 42
Philosophical Society ..----.-- 2
Theological School Library ---- 1
College Hill:
inthis wCollege recone ssaoecee—= 1
Concord:
Bubliesibrary,22--.-1\---- --=' 1
Dorchester :
State Board of Health ....-..-. 4
Haverhill:
Public habrary,7.-s-s----<2se< 14
Gloucester :
Sawyer Free Library ..--.-....-- 2
Hingham:
Pupliemuibrary..-ces-—---ese- 1
Jamaica Plain:
Bussey Institution ...-....--.. 117
Lancaster :
Mow Watbrary = -sasasese ee 1
Lawrence:
Publiciibrary;s-e=eisceceese
Leicester :
Public Free Library ......-.--. 4
Lowell :
Mechanics’ Association....-.-. 1
Lynn:
Public Library
Society of Natural History ---- 2
Manchester :
Literary and Philosophical So-
ciety
Nantucket :
Atheneum):22 -22e2 ses oel Loss 1
Newburyport:
Publichbabranyeeeeees sass sos. 1
Newton Center:
Theological Institution
Northampton :
Clarke Institution for Deaf
Mutes:: 2242. 352s
Publicybibrary s2-2-4ee eee
State Lunatic Asylum. ........
Pittsfield:
Library Association. -..-..-----
Quincy :
Public iibratyy-es=- sees eae
Salem :
American Association for the
Advancement of
Sclencene-e ee eee
Naturalist --..- .-..
Oriental Society: ===---=-5---2 7
Atheneum. 252.) sce ast ease
Hiesex Institute). --5 425 ses
North Church and Society- ---- 2
Peabody Academy -...----..---
Penekese Island :
Anderson School. -.-2-.---2=- vf
Somerville:
McLean Asylum for the Insane. 3
South Hadley :
Mount Holyoke Female Semi-
Navy -| 24 sass eee ea
Springfield :
City Library Association.-..---
Taunton:
Bublicsirbrary so-so
State Lunatic Hospital.---.--.-
Watertown:
Free Public Library. ...-------
Wellesley:
Wellesley Colleges: 22... 22--:
Williamstown :
Astronomical Observatory vesen
Williams College 2: .2--'5.-=--
Woburn:
Public-Librany 222-2) 225 .2)2225
Worcester :
American Antiquarian Society -
Catholic College .--.-...-----.
Free Institute of Industry ---.
Pabliontibrary,—-e cess 722s
Society of Natural History -.---
State Hospital for the Insane-.
Technological Institution ---...
Worcester Academy. ..-....---.
a et Att
i ore _ ee © D- _
MICHIGAN,
Adrian:
Adrian College
736
HISTORY -OF“ THE: SMITHSONIAN” EXCHANGES.
Distribution of domestio exchanges, §:c-—Continued.
Ann Arbor:
Detroit Observatory
Geological Survey of Michigan.
Herbarium of the University -
Observatory
Society of Agriculture
University of Michigan
Coldwater :
Michigan Library Association -
Detroit:
Geological Survey of Michigan.
Historical Society of Michigan.
House of Correction. -.----.--..
Museum
Peninsula and Independent
Medically Journalesoc22 22222
Public Library
St. Philipp’s College -.......:.
State Agricultural Society. --..
Survey of the North American
Lakes
Flint:
Institution for the Deaf and
Dumb
Hillsdale:
Hillsdale College
Kalamazoo:
Asylum for the Insane-......-.
College: S225 eo pee aoe
Geological Survey
Lansing:
eee eee eee eee ee eee eee
Se
wee eee ee eee eee wee ewes
were cece
Geological Survey
Olivet:
Olivet College
Port Huron:
Ladies’ Library Association . ..
ec ee ewes ween
MINNESOTA.
Duluth:
Ereeibnblicitibranvysee sees
Scandinavian Library--.-......
Faribault:
Institution for the Deaf and
Dumb
Minneapolis:
Geological Survey
Minnesota Academy of Sciences
University of Minnesota
Red Wing:
Hamlin University 3. 2-222...
San Anthony :
University of Minnesota
Saint Paul:
Academy of Natural Sciences. -
Chamber of Commerce
Institution for the Deaf and
Dumb .2 sees yeaa see:
Minnesota Historical Society --
Library Association.........- z
Northwestern Medical and Sur-
gical Joummabk 7. ../2226eesee
State. ddbrary2.. se eeeemeee
ee
1
Ors
Fotis
ee
aor
er 0 Ss
Bg
- ork >
for)
_
S
Re ROR 1m an Lom wm Odo te)
pe
Saint Peter:
Institution for the Insane -.---
MISSISSIPPI.
Clinton:
Mississippi Collegé........._-.
Daleville:
Cooper institute: 222) ene
Jackson:
Hospital for the Insane... -__.-
Institution for the Deaf and
Dumb es 22a ie eee ic
IGibrany Sacre ke
Natchez :
Public Library
Oxford :
University of Mississippi... ----
MISSOURI.
Columbia:
Agricultural College..........
Geological Survey of Missouri-
State Library
University of Missouri........
Fulton:
Institution for the ,Deat and
State Lunatic Asylum
Glasgow :
orrison Observatory ---.-----
Jefferson:
Governor of Missouri...-.....-
Historical Society
State Board of Agriculture..-.
Library
Kansas City:
Kansas Review
wer eee eee ewe we =e
ciation
Liberty :
William Jewell College Library
Rolla:
Geological Survey of Missouri.
Schoollof:Minests-s. eee eeeee
Saint Louis :
Academy of Sciences...--.. ---,.
f
Botanical Garden-.--<-5..---:
Catholic Institute for Deaf and
Dumbs22 epee ice (sine erate eS
College of Pharmac
County Hospital for the Insane.
Corporation
Deutsches Institut zur Bef6r-
derung der Wissenschaften,
Kunst und Gewerbe
Geological Survey of Missouri-
Governor of the State.......--
Humboldt Medical College----
Institution for the Deaf and
Dumibysotsaseis ese oeceeee
Law Library
Mayor) of the City=225-55-222="
Medical Archives of St. Louis--
Mercantile Library
—"
el oe os 4 wor - Ww ee
~
2s
wr OF CO
_
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN
EXCHANGES.
Distribution of domestic exchanges, §-c.—Continued.
Saint Louis—Continued.
Missouri Dental Journal ..---.
Historical Society ----
Peabody Academy -.-.--..---.---
Polytechnic Department of the
Wmiversitiv ens: - feet. ce nee
BublicwWuibrany, s-----<125 ee
School Library ---- ----
St. Louis Medical and Surgical
PONT a 2 2 sos eyeta sete
St. Vincent Hospital for the
(Msanewsssas. Soe
State Bureau of Geology and
Mines: Jo55-ss/ taco. Sos cles
‘Washington University-..----.
iWrestlich6 Post s--)5-5---)--6 =<
Warrensburg :
State Normal School ..---..-.---
MONTANA.
Helena:
HIstonical Soclebyasee —— =. eee
NEBRASKA.
Lincoln:
State dabrarys.s55--m.---- -sse
University of Nebraska -..-.---.
Omaha:
Institution for Deaf and Dumb.
Nebraska Historical Society - --
Statesdnbrary sess. 42s cs cee
Merritorial Mailbrary .. 2-2 +c.
eTu:
State Normal School ..........
NEVADA.
Carson City:
Statiewuibrary)).-22-:.-s-s.----
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Concord :
Department of Agriculture---.
Natural History Society-.-.-----.
New Hampshire Historical So-
CHOU R oe ee emcee eee es
New Hampshire State Lunatic
PARAS are hs oo Gs ae
State Agricultural Society --.-.
ULON 2 Sa ween ses eccee sas
Exeter:
Phillips Exeter Academy --.--.
Hanover :
Dartmouth College ....-.-.-...
Opservatory 2: s2-:sccescioteno
Manchester :
City Tobrary)j--~5--1--ss-cieene
Portsmouth :
FATHOM OHM satatoca\= sche se eae
NEW JERSEY.
Burlington:
Burlington College ....-..-.-..
Hoboken:
Stevens Institute of Technol-
S. Mis. 109 ——47
COW wtwsrtl
ry
Se NOWnW
117
58
Mount Holly :
Lyceum of History and Natural
DGlON COS Bese sale cea eees
Newark: .
Historical Society of New Jer-
BOVE ib sa Nain! winjminis aisfcmute
New Brunswick:
Geological Survey of New Jer-
Rutgers Scientific School... ----
Newton:
Newton Library Association. --
Princeton:
Agricultural Society -.-.------
College of New Jersey --------
Green School of Science. -.----
Halstead Observatory .-..----
Horticultural Society --.------
Observatory.ceersoe esa ae
Pharmaceutical Society--.--.---
Theological Seminary ---------
Rahway:
Library Association.-......---
Salem:
SalomyAcademyn- === ---ae-a—
Trenton:
Geological Survey ...-.....-.--
Statedaibrany.. 25-1. css sacle
Lunatic Asylum.-.-....-.-.
NEW MEXICO.
Santa Fé:
Historical Society of New
Mesa COM oot eh etetes cnas kis
Territorial Library .----.-- seat
NEW YORK.
Albany:
Adirondack Survey Office - .---
Albany; Library. 25255245. s--
Institute: =2-24o5--7--—-
Bureau of Military Statisties--.
Commissioners State Park- ----
Dudley Observatory --...-----
Governor of the State....--.-..-
Homeopathic Society-.-.-.----.
Inspector of Penitentiaries ----
State Prisons. ---.
New York State Agricultural So-
Cletye5-1-=-
Cabinet of Nat-
ural History -
Literary Society
Medical Society
Museum of Nat-
ural History -
Regents of N. Y. University - --
Secretary of State...-.....---
State Board of Charities ------
Ti Tanyees ee a oe eee
Normal School-.---...--
Superintendent of Insurance -.
Young Men’s Christian, Associa-
GIOD) Ce set Ute eeta telecine ie
Alfred Centre:
ODSOLV AOL. hee eee
737
—"
for)
@
—
—_ ~
REPRO WOW Pe Lad Or @
—
Kw
ol
et
ou -
eo _ Oe Or & OW
738
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Distribution of domestio exchanges, §-c.—Continued.
Annandale :
St. Stephen’s College---..------
Auburn:
_ Agricultural and Mechanical
Collegers see sees sac io oe
Hospital for theCriminal [nsane
Theological Seminary ---- - ----
Bath:
Library Association -----------
Blackwell’s Island :
New York Lunatic Asylum ...-
Binghamton:
Institution for the Blind..----.
Brooklyn:
Baker Collegiate Institute. ----
Brooklyn Library -------.-----
Collegiate and Polytechnic In-
Stitt hee ee eee ote n ee eae
Entomological Society ---. ----
King’s County Medical Society -
Long Island Historical Society -
Mayor of the city .-.----------
Mercantile Library Association
Statistical Society of Brooklyn
Young Men’s Christian Associa-
WN Me coces eeoscs sooces SaSbEC
Buffalo:
Buffalo Historical Society ---- -
Medical Association. -
Practical School -.----
Society of Natural Sci-
Grosvenor Library
Institution for the Deaf and
Dumb SAE ee
Medical and Surgical Journai- -
North American Entomologist-
Observatolyesseeee eee eee eee
Society of Natural History - ----
Young Men’s Christian Associa-
tion! 22 4.-
Young Men’s Library-.- .-------
Canandaigua:
Brigham Hall’s Hospital
Canton:
St. Lawrence University ------
Clinton:
Hamilton College.-----.------
- Litchfield Observatory of Ham-
ilton College...-------.-----
Corning :
Corning Library ...--.--------
Cornwall:
Cornwall! Eabrary--*=2---)------
Elmira:
Elmira Academy of Sciences. --
Young Men’s Christian Associa-
LON Sse aa see ee aeete
Flatbush :
King’s County Hospital for the
Insane
Flushing :
Sanford Hall Asylum ......----
Fordham:
St. John’s College...--...---..
Geneva:
Hobart College --..-..........
x to
Olt et — Oe e
Se NHONWeVOhe
>
ror) =n
WNwRANRE WOO Res
ee re ey ey at io eet) ett
Se Be eS
Governor’s Island :
Military Service Institution...
Hamilton :
Madison University..---..-...-
Hornellsville :
Library Association......---.-
Hudson:
Observatory -p----\-- essen es
Ithaca :
Cornell University -..-.-...-...
Jamestown :
Microscopical Society ....-.-.-.-
Le Koy:
Ingham University -...--.-...
Dima:
Genesee College ..---. -.-.----
Wesleyan Seminary .-.-.-.--.-
Newburgh:
Theological Seminary Associa-
tion, Reform Church....-...
New York:
Agricultural Intelligencer. ....
American Agriculturist....----.
Bible Society --.. -- Ze
Bureau of Mines--.-~
Chemical Society --.-
@hemistt2s5- -o-eee
Christian Commission
Druggists’ Circular --
Episcopal Theological
Seminary
Ethnological Society .
Geographical Society
Inshithieress=sesee-=
of Architects
Journal of Chemistry -
Microscopy
Mining - --
Obstetrics -
Medical Eclectic Re-
VIOW. L265 Soe ee ag
Medical Journal. ----
Microscopical Society
Museum of Natural
Histor
Missionary Society. --
Naturalist: oo -see2—-
Public Health Asso-
Clghlonee-s-- ase =
Society of Civil En-
ING WOLD sees ee ee ete =
Apprentices’ Library ----------
AstoriMibraryeecese=—= ==
Austrian Consul =-=--- ----=---
Bavarian Consul.-.------------
Board of Education. -----.-----
Bloomingdale Asylum for the
Insaneleee ese ea ea
Chamber of Commerce.--- ----
Christian Inquirer office -------
College of Pharmacy ---- ------
Physicians and Sur-
geons ..----...----
the City of New York
we
—"
— ND
ee ee ee ee Rene
eo
—"
Pe OREO Hee oe
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Distribution of domestic exchanges, 4c.—Continued.
New York—Continued.
Columbia College...--....--.-
Commissioners, Central Park-.
Cooper Union: =~ - + 0-a=-hesoee
Courrier des Etats-Unis --
Dermatological Society
clectic Medical College ..----
TUE IOeE DE and elas Jour-
na
Farmer and Mechanic Se teeecie ne
Farmers’ and Mechanics’ Intel-
Figencer fot as See Soe
General Society of Mechanics
and Tradesmen
Gynecological Society ---- -
Herbarium of Columbia College
Historical Society
Homeopathic Sun
Institution for the Blind
Deaf and
Instruction
Deafand Dumb
Insurance Department ---.- ----
International Review .-.- .----
Lenox Librar
wee ent eee eet wee eee eee eee
Thera W@hristianies= ss. S52 cs5 2
library ourmaly=soes- --- ——
Manufacturerand Builder- ----
Mayor of the city -.-....----..
Mechanics’ Institute .---------.
Medical College
Gazobtereses: S535 28-5
Library and Journal
Association -.-..---.
GCOrd ts. . 25 Senseo =
IRG6COIder scsec-s25=-2-
Society
Mercantile Library Association
Merchants and Clerks’ Library
ASSOUISUIONS =" son\s5 ee 4-5 == >
Meteorological Observatory - -
Metropolitan Board of Health.
Museum of Art -
Mexican 'Consulj=.-s¢>---2--——
Municipality
National Board of Underwriters
Natural History Society
New York Academy of eunanee
edicine
sole heysores Jour-
City Lunatic Asylum
Dental Journal -.-..
Handels Zeitung ---.
Herald
Hungarian Society --
Journal of Pharmacy
Lyceum of Natural
Histor
Medical Journal
Medico- Historical So-
CGI: acmasecte See
Society Library. .-...
of Libraries.
Staats Zeitung......
eee tee meee eee
=
S RRR OnWwWw
_
oS
BR mrwe eS
a
pat at at te Rm wwe PEHOMM ON
_
=
a5
ll ee) » oO mm Wr WCW
COnmnNwW WO Pe
New York—Continued.
New York Statistical Society. --
WMeEs);- 52508 cee
Norton’s Library Gazette...---
Numismatic and Archeological
SOClOtyssaa-t -seees ee ees
Philosophical Society -..--.----
Prison Association ........----
Public Health Association. ----
School eC a eee
Sanitarian eeeeee eee:
Scottish American Journal .---
Society for the Protection of
Animals 32. 2s 228 See
Charities: 3.2553 50s3oe2 tee
Swedenborg Society
Swedish-Norwegian Consulate.
TherNation!s5 Jas secon soe
Torrey Botanical Club
Uniao Scientifico Brazileiro --.
Union Theological Seminary -.
University of New York
United States Sanitary Commis-
SLO ae = te
Van Nostrand’s Magazine --...
Young Men’s Christian Associa-
HON ae eee eee
Young Men’s Christian Associa-
LONG CLMan eee ieee eee
Poughkeepsie:
Public Library
Hudson River Insane Asylum-.
Society of Natural Sciences ----
Vassar Female College ....-.-.
Rochester :
Theological Seminary. .-.......
Wniversityiss espa sa5 eee
Randall’s Island:
Housejof netugeresstesae ass
Schenectady :
Union! Collegeiss-< 22 -s..scan-
Sing Sing:
State Lunatic Asylum
Prison oat eee
Syracuse:
Public Library
WHIVerslty) a 2=saceny os cssecses
Yy
Female Seminary -...-.--..----
Marshall Infirmary
Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti-
in@in és e kes ee ee sees Ses
Utica:
American Journal of Insanity-
State Lunatic Asylum. ....---.
Ward’s Island:
Emigrant’s Refuge and Hospi-
FERRE BS aie Oi nd leet
West Point:
ODSEIVaALOTY s.oo0 ee eee een
President, Committee of Engi-
_
ee ket OD Co
_
ws
Le)
wsatraoc
—
~
—
~w
mO OCR Re Re 0
_
740
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Distribution of domestic exchanges, §c.—Continned.
West Point—Continned.
United States Military Academy
Witlard:
Willard Asylum for the Insane.
NORTH CAROLINA.
Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina. -
Davidson College:
Inlay Babseo coer asescoosc5
Lenoir: :
Davenport Female College ----
Raleigh:
Hospital for the Insane - .-----
Institution for the Deaf and
DENN G4 Seve pte sd oeisees
Statepeibranye eee eae
Trinity College:
Geological School. ..-.---.----
Trinity College -..-----.-------
Warrenton:
Female College -.....----..---
OHIO.
Ashtabula:
Anthropological Society ...---
Athens:
Wmiversibyerse eerste aaa =
Cincinnati:
Academy of Medicine ----.-----
American Freemason
Medical College. ----
: Journal ..--
Astronomical Society ---------
Cincinnati Lancet .-----------
Quarterly Journal of
SClenGee == aes e=—
College of Pharmacy ----------
Dental Register. ....----------
Geological Society ------------
Historical and Philosophical
Societyeres-----eeee ee
Mayor of the city. -..----------
Mechanics’ Institute .----.-----
Medical College of Ohio-.-----
Mercantile Library -----------
Municipality ..-..------------
Mussey Medical Library- ------
Natronal Normal 2-2-22-22 -2=-
Observatoryioo-5-5+ >= 3-=--- =
Public Mibraryes-s----------=
Society of Natural History ----
University of Cincinnati -.----
Volksblaibtiess ses nee sete
Volkszeitung ..-...-----------
Western Academy of Sciences.
Young Men’s Mercantile Li-
brary
Zoological Society ------------
Cleveland:
Academy of Natural Sciences. -
@asewlilbrarys2es--e2 o> === - = -\-
Kirtland Society-.-.-----------
Observatory -=-2--5-2--=---2---
Public School Library ---------
WMEVersltys = 222s 5seer ot
Carthage:
Longview Hospital for the In-
Bale) Ameer se oe elena
29
~ =
>
See OWNS =
RSOIwoe= © DM
Om o
wee
me 0D SER © m Oo
Columbus :
Bureau of Statistics ..---.----
Central Lunatic Asylum ....-.
Geological Survey of Ohio -.--
Horticultural Society -..-.----
Hospital for the Insane ...----
Institution for Deaf and Dumb.
Ohio Lunatic Asylum -.-..-----
State Agricultural Society .----
Board of Agriculture .... 1,207
IG DTaAnY; s-seee eos saee ee
WMVersibyse se eee== een
Dayton:
Hospital for the Insane. ----- --
Publicsinbranyeesee sees
Delaware:
Ohio Wesleyan University ----
Fremont :
Burchard duibraryoe-s---see=
Gambier:
Kenyon Colleze----.---2--22--
Granville:
Dennison University ...-------
Hiram:
Hiram: C@ollece=sc--seeaee-= a=
Hudson:
Western Reserve College-..----
Observatory -
Lebanon :
Mechanics’ Institute ...-..----
Marietta:
Marietta College..-.---.--------
New Athens:
Franklin College--.-.-.-.. ----
Newburg:
Northern Ohio Lunatic Asylum.
North Bend:
Horticultural Society of Ohio. .
Oberlin:
Oberlin College. .-------------
Oxford:
Miami University -------.-----
Painesville:
Lake Erie Female Seminary --
Mill Creek:
Lunatic Asylum ...-----------
Springfield :
Public Library --.-.-.-----------
Tiffin:
Heidelberg College -.---------
Theological College of the Ger-
man Reform Church
Urbana:
Central Ohio Scientific Associa-
Hina Se eop Moe dba steccuedoans
Urbana University ------------
Westerville :
Otterbein University ----------
Wooster :
Wooster University. ----------
Yellow Springs :
Antioch College .-------------
OREGON.
Forestville:
Pacific University ------------
Oregon City :
University of Oregon ---.------
96
wo
_
ao = = & So
HISTORY OF
~
THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. (
Distribution of domestic exchanges, §c.—Continued.
Portland :
Library Association. .-....--..
Hospital for the Insane -------
Salem:
Institution for the Deaf and
MUM De Sse ee ee sa eter eee
Statedabraty2<- 22% cee
Willamette Observatory ...-..-
University ........
PENNSYLVANIA.
_ Allegheny:
Allegheny Observatory ..-.---
Society of Natural Sciences ---.
Western State Penitentiary - --
TheologicalSeminary.
Bethlehem :
Lehigh University ..........-.
Packer Universibyens asso
Carlisle:
Carlisle Society of Literature -.
Dickinson! Collere)-j25--)-—---
Chester :
Crozer Theological Seminary --
Dixmont:
Western Hospital for the In-
Danville:
Northern Hospital for the In-
SAN OW eo Seem e cians Seine
Easton:
American Institute of Mining
MCINeGersesee= cass ase
Northwestern University --.--.
Pardee Science School .-..-.---
Frankford:
Friends’ Asylum for the Insane.
Germantown:
Germantown Literary Associa-
HOME eee sos Sees ain cicicas
Gettysburg:
Pennsylvania College -....-..-
Theological Seminary .-.--.---.--
Harrisburg:
Adjutant-General ........--..-
Harrisburg Academy ..-.-.------
Medical Society of the State -
Second Geological Survey of
Pennsylvania Bee reise
State Agricultural Society ---.
Di brawny ee so-so case
Lunatic Hospital..---.--
Haverford:
Haverford College ........-.-.
Kellyville:
Woodbury Retreat...--....-..
Lewisburg:
University -.-..-. Sas cea She
Mansfield :
State Normal School .......--.
Meadville:
Theological Seminary .....-..-
Media:
Delaware County Institute of
Seloncesso ose. cose e cideorsss he
New Wilmington:
Westminster College .........
a
He ee
=r)
e
—
Ke OD OO Prd
_
_
v=
_
mon
— = ite} — wo WwWowa ore
Philadelphia:
Academy of Fine Arts.......-.
Natural Sciences.. 4,
Agricultural Society of Penn-
BYLV AN a terete see ee eee
American Pee Ine sal Soci-
TOCUS ot mamon ecco
Journal of Conchol-
OPA HSE Sa eBee
Journal of Dental
Sclencess- ooo
Journal of Medical
Sciences. = scence os
Natta isheee see eeee
Philosophical Society 2,
Apprentices’ Library---..-----
Asylum for the Insane .-.-..----
Atheneum .. Bae ae Se a
Board of Health Sete tte rete cee
Inspectors of County
Prisons=- =. see
Public Charities....-
Education -..
Publications .2--s.---
Mrade@css cosas
Central High School.--.-.-.-.-
School Observa-
UO scces5 5066
College of Pharmacy.......-.-
Physicians)... ese
Commissioners Fairmount Park
Corporation of the city .....---
Curator of Birds, Philadelphia
Mmseuiny cece se seisce somes
NGUITeG ete-e eee eee
MavOratory-e= <a ss
Times! ss- 4.
Eastern State Penitentiary .-..
Entomological Society of Phila-
delphia. Se erate as stele ate ehaats
Eyening Bulletin ...--. ...-.. -
Journalies 2522 -—see6
Friends’ Bookstore.-.-...-..-.
Insane Asylum .-.... .
Geological Society -:-. ---.....
Survey of Pennsyl-
tsi: pee Sere
German Society ..--....2...-.-
Girard. College.-.-.. /22-52%.2.
Historical Society of Pennsyl-
Waste oeenc we ces ae cis ocs
Jefferson Medical College .----
Library Association of Friends.
Library Company ..-.-...-.-..-.
of Pennsylvania Hos-
Ditalitenase sama cee
Magnetic and Meteorological
ODseEV Abo Yes cocina
Mayor of the city ........--..-
Medical and Chirurgical Jour-
DE Ns SO ents
+1
1
576
296
1
s
ym
Cre
cw)
= 0 Co CO SCOrFwCONF We 0 0 Fe OO Ge
_
oo
vo Ou —
WNW. RR Wee SORE Oo NOW ee
_
1 =
Nw
142
HISTORY-OF -THE SMITHSONIAN - EXCHANGES.
Distribution of domestic exchanges, §c.—Continued.
Philadelphia—Continued.
Medical and Surgical Reporter
Review -
Society of Pennsylva-
TMD a tisceccesecjcae
ARIMOS fies actyecseo sees
Mercantile Library .----.-----
Mexican Commission .--.--.--
Mammcipalibynss=s=sesee nea =e
Naturalists’ Leisure Hour --.-.-
Naval Review! 2... ceocsneaee oes
North American Medico-Chi-
TuTrgical Review -2s=-ss-se
Numismatic and Antiquarian
Society/e--2=--
and Archeolog-
ical Society ---
Observatory 222220): 522.222.
of Girard College-
Office of Gray’s Atlas..-.-....--.
Penn Monthly ....-.....-..-.-
Penns HOspitalecessa—esa sss —
Pennsylvania Horticultural So-
Clelyiee ae os ca
Insane .-.-.---
Institute for the
Blinds eee.
Institute for the
: Deafand Dumb
Pennsylvania Society for Pre-
vention of Cruelty to Animals
Philadelphia Hospital ......-.
Journal of Medi-
moting Agriculture .-......-
Polytechnic Bulletin...-..-...
Collere ss aa-e-
Reyiew,-=--..-----
Public Schoolssesensemcsss=a=
Royal Bavarian Consulate- .--.
Social Science Association. ----.
Society for Alleviating the Mis-
eries of Public Prisons -.-.-.
Society for the Protection of
AMIN SS meee aie ctoa ce
Stacey Stone-Dressing Machine
Companyesern~cacececosece
State Lunatic Asylum. .-..---.
University of Pennsylvania ---
United States Mint e-.-...---.
Wagner Free Institute.-------
Zoological Garden tecencueen ese
NOClOUYgeea esse
Pitisburgh:
Day School for Deaf and Dumb.
German Library --...--+<-.---.
Mercantile Library -----.-..-.-.-
National Iron and Steel Pub-
lishing Company-.----.-----
Western Pennsylvania Hospital
for the Insane..---.
Penitentiary .--. --.--
Sharon:
Observatomypnessecteseeseece ss
South Bethlehem:
Lehigh University <<so-<-+ss--
oO - FOO WwW Nee Bros roe B DPD WOROHNWeEWHO KF Hw oS
— on
YQ RHONDA oF
8
Strathmore :
Strathmore College ....-..-..-
Washington:
Western College......-.......
West Grove:
East Pennsylvania Experi-
mental Marm <s2225 22> ee
RHODE ISLAND.
Newport:
echanics’ Library. ...2-: 2-22
Redwood Librar
Society of Science ........-.-..
Providence:
American Naturalist .........-
Atheneum) 222222) esse eee
Brown University ..----.-----
Butler Hospital for the Insane.
City Registrar’s Office -...-..-
NormaliSchooli se aees eee te
Publicnibrary: so-so. eee
Registrar-General for Rhode
Island 2532 yeas Sec Se
Rhode Island Historical Society
Secretary of State. .-........-.
Society for the Encouragement
of Domestic Industries ..--.-
State Library... <2-\.-<---1cesse
Woonsocket «.
Harris Institute Library ...-..-
SOUTH CAROLINA.
Cedar Springs:
Institute for the Deaf and Dumb
Charleston :
Charleston Journal of Medicine
Medical Journal and
Review seceesee.
Museum of Natural
Historyies ee
Observatory -.-.----
College of Charleston ......-.-
Elliott Society of Natural His-
HGR fic poace a ceeach Ueode es oha¢
Medical School of South Caro-
lind asec esee se eee aeerncees
Public hibrary= sc.) -c=--ee-
South Carolina College Librasty
Historical Soci-
QM osecee Shee
Medical Associ-
BONE sesisee
Society Library ----------.-..
State Medical College---.-----
University of Charleston ...--.
Columbia:
South Carolina College. .-- -.--
State Library --..-.-2....-.<--
Lunatic Asylum -.----.---
University — Geological
Rooms ....
Theological Seminary- ---. .---
University of South Carolina -.
Due West:
Erskine College. ..-.-..--------
eer nee eeese
="
©
mie Oe OV eG)
on
woe
—
re en
—_
ww
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Distribution of domestic exchanges, §-c.—Continued.
Greenville:
Furman University ...........
Lexington:
Theological Seminary ~.......
TENNESSEE.
Columbia:
ANON GUM Soe sseu aes Coes
Jackson College ......-.......
Hiawassee:
Hiawassee College .... —..-..-.
Jackson:
Southern Baptist University...
Knoxville:
Cumberland University ......-
East Tennessee University -.-.
Institution for Deaf and Dumb.
Cumberland University ....-...
Marysville:
Marysville College............
South West Theological Sem-
INGLY Molen hone oss Sans
Memphis:
Christian Brothers College -...
Nashville:
Geological Survey
Historical Society of Tennessee.
Hospital for the Insane... -...
Institution for the Blind ...-..
Siate Wbrary oo... = -sasho5e2
University
TEXAS,
Austin:
Institution for the Deaf and
Babliciibrany, sseassses n= =
Slabeelibnanyjes es yee aos seem
Lunatic Asylum ...._.
University of Texas.......
Bonham:
Geological Survey ............
Chapel Hill:
Soulé University.............-
Le endence :
wor UniVersiby:..-2=0a-s55
UTAH.
Salt Lake City:
Territorial Library
University of the Deseret. _._-
VERMONT.
Barnet:
State Lunatic Asylum....._...
Burlington:
City clerks <<. 2 facou. ae fis
Fletcher Free Public Library.
University of Vermont .... .- es
Castleton:
Orleans County Society of Nat-
ural Sciences . 242s. Lon kkk
_ ne ie) nm Spr
eo oO
rate —_
moomoo me eS
Derby:
Society of Natural Sciences...
Montpelier :
Historical and Antiquarian So-
L
Rutland:
Pharmaceutical Association - --
St. Johnsbury:
Athanenm(:|.'5353, ae ee.
VIRGINIA.
Blacksburg :
Agricultural and Mechanical
Collagen co s)o econ eels
Charlottesville:
University of Virginia ........
Emory:
Emory and Henry College ....
Hampden-Sydney :
Hampden-Sydney College . ....
Hampton:
Hampton Colle
Normal Institute ....
Union Theological Seminary - ..
Lexington :
School of Civil Engineers -....
Virginia Military Institute ....
Washington and Lee Univer-
BLGY. eo St penn re ele eee
Lynchburg :
Medical Society of Virginia --.
Young Men’s Christian Associa-
GION ote tape ao ees ee
Polytechnic Institute .........
Richmond:
Medical Society ...............
Richmond College ............
Medical College ....
Sonthern Fertilizing Company -
State Library... -......-2. 2...
University ......
Virginia Historical Society --.-.
Young Men’s Christian Associa-
CG) GEE pee eR ope ek et
Salem:
Roanoke College....—........
Staunton :
Institution for the Deaf and
Dumb
Western Insane Hospital... --.
Williamsburg :
Eastern Lunatic Asylum ...--.
WASHINGTON TERRITORY.
Olympia:
Territorial Library ...........
Seattle:
Territorial Library <-..-....-+
Steilacoom :
Insane Asylum
WEST VIRGINIA,
Charleston :
State Library’ s.col.Nl.. Leek
743
_
19
16
744
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Distribution of domestic exchanges, §c.—Continued.
Flemington: Madison—Continued.
West Virginia College .....-.-- 1 Natural History Society. ...--- 4
Romney : Observatory eee oae eee ee ul
Institution for the Deaf and Skandinaviske Presse Forening 6
Dum byes eee seit see 1 Society for Educating the Blind 2
West Virginia Hospital for the State Agricultural Society. -.-. 615
Insaneme nc a. 32 cates 1 Historical Society -.----- 146
Shepherdstown : Hibrary-eee eerie 60
Shepherd’s College...--..-.---- 1 Superintendent of Public In-
Wheeling : siruebion so ee eae 1
Natural History Society. ..----. 1 University of Wisconsin ..-.-... 17
Washburn Observatory ...---- 12
WISCONSIN. Young Men’s Christian Associa-
Appleton : BLOT tat A I RL 1
Lawrence University -.-...---- 6 | Milwaukee :
Beloit: | Catholic Seminary ...-.....--- 1
Beloit College tcl Seite 1 German Natural History Society 2
Geological Survey of Wisconsin 8 Milwaukee Seebote ......-.-..- 1
Delavan: Milwaukee University --..---- 3
Institution for Deaf and Dumb. 3 Naturhistorischer Verein ...... 95
Duluth: : Public Library 2/362 22h 1
Scandinavian Library. ---.---- 3 Skandinaviske Presse Forening 2
Galesville: We Young Men’s Christian Associa-
Galesville University -.--.-.-.--- 5 pean eapian sure neha niet SP, 1
Inmanville : : Neeah:
Scandinavian Society ---.----- 11 Scandinavian Literary Associa-
Janesville : tion one 2 aes a
Institution for Educating the Wisconsin Scandinavian Libra-
Tey UTI ee ee as meee Naa 47 DY aN eee eee eee 19
University, ---2ess-2= 52-0 sce: 21 Pine Lake:
Madison: , Wisconsin Scandinavian Socie-
Academy of Sciences..-..----. 304 tyke ee ee aes 3
Agriculture Department. ------ 2 | Racine:
College of Arts ....----------- 2 College Library 222225222250. 2
Educational Society-...--.---- 1
Office of Emigration -----.---- 4 WYOMING.
Geological Survey .-----.-.-=- 2 | Cheyenne:
Hospital for the Insane ...---. 1 Territorial Library ---.--.---. 3
RECAPITULATION.
FAS DAMA sa eee cee sere eee aise 44°) (Nebraska 222 Soa. ceaerce wet 26
ATIZONAM Sessa tse cacese swe meee csi Gili Nevadart soe eee ee Sse sealers 3
Arkansas tas goo scence eee nose osisse Al6” | New: Hampshire saceee- sso 237
California's ss. cs2s-so-s-- estes 15487) | New Jerseyja- es 25s eee sess seee 401
@oloradotcsye ts ote Neier 15 sl New Mexico So2322 855s S62 s5se2 ee 6
Connecticut 2-2eoo 4.6 sete eee 3,461 \HNew York. 222 sae ese ease sees 9, 070
Delaware 2.322... 2-o5cseeu eee c 9) PNorbh Carolinaiess] see sece see 43
District of Columbia...2.-.--.---- 15s D184 (Ohio fees See eee a ae ee a 2, 296
Mond ape seee wie eee ee eee LON GOLrec Ones sere oa aee ee eee 11
Georgia cae nas oan neces L1G) (Rennsylvantansoee oe pene eee 10, 634
Tdahow scree sets ee see see meee Sul Pbodevislands==-2---—eeen ater 208
PMO Bee eee eto oe ole nye 16345 )South) Carolinae oo esses sea 548
Iidianal sce oeeseses ens. < tsceete ils} |) deranaves eee 6 SE et Sek co Seo cobS sor 105
Indian Vernbonyjaesssceene- seo — S| ROXaS Ah oa sae o oases ene eee 104
LO wish oe ee Se re ot VOU) Witah eis ose. ocak ete eoeminaen seas 6
Kamnsasieoecter ceases ceelssecee ace LOLS | FViermonty 20s sesso eeecwe ee aces 473
Kentuckysesncmseee eo eecnas sae 2390 AVAL OM Decca eee ene en ien ae aero 243
Mouisiana 2 2-/->/--4c5cnss sa Sasa 896) |) Washine tons sae essa eee eee 18
Maine seen eee tee tes so aionese cis A73\\) West Vargimiaiaseseseoqeeoncese se 8
Marylandsesass css eos ee aes 369) |]WoSCONSINY Sent eaer eam eer ere neers 1, 398
Massachusettsacsoseeesssenan sees 1 A238 W YODA Onteniente
IMichigamies sane See aes ee eeeoe se 742 eee United States -.---
Minn esotameecscecactecee cote a 215 | Societies -..- ane Z 23, 505
MISSISSIppiN 2 sees eee eae 45 | Individuals... ; British BIRerLeA
MEISSO TTS eet ere Net ae re eee CRE ee 2,908
Montanaieiecns ae <cnsc ee ona Totals scwcd Geese 94,765
III.—GOVERNMENT EXCHANGES.
Although Congress, by act July 20, 1840, authorized the printing
and binding of fifty copies of all volumes published by the two Houses,
which volumes were to be reserved for the purpose of exchange with
foreign powers, yet from the omission to provide for the extra print-
ing, or from other cause, this liberal arrangement failed to go into
operation.
An act of March 4, 1846, directed the Librarian of Congress to pro-
cure a complete series of reports of the United States courts and of the
laws of the United States, and transmit them to the minister of justice
of France, in exchange for works of French law presented tothe United
States Supreme Court.
By act of June 26, 1848, the Joint Committee on the Library was au-
thorized to appoint agents for exchange of books and public documents.
All books transmitted through these agents of exchange, for use of the
United States, for any single State, or for the Academy at West Point,
or the National Institute, to be admitted free.
A resolution of June 30, 1848, ordered that the Joint Committee on
the Library be furnished with twenty-five copies of the Revolutionary
Archives, twenty-five copies of Little & Brown’s edition of the Laws of
the United States, seven copies of the Exploring Expedition then pub-
lished, and an equal'number of subsequent publications on the same
subject, for the purpose of international exchange.
A joint resolution of March 2, 1849, directed that two copies of certain
volumes of the Exploring Expedition be sent to the Government of Rus-
Sia, in lieu of those which were lost at sea on their passage to that coun-
try. The Secretary of State was also directed to present a copy of the
- Exploring Expedition, as soon as completed, to the Government of
Ecuador.
By the act of August 31, 1852, the act of 1848 regulating exchanges
was repealed.
In 1852 the Smithsonian Institution urged that Congress should make
some systematic and permanent arrangement for distributing complete
series of its works to European libraries, to at least thirty of which they
might be judiciously supplied. It was also suggested that particular
works of scientific interest, as reports of patents, coast-survey opera-
tions, government explorations in geography and geology, and others
of a similar character, might be assigned in larger numbers of from one
hundred to three hundred, as had already been done in some instances
by the Senate. These might be distributed by the Smithsonian Institu-
tion at moderate cost to the government, and direct returns or exchanges
obtained for the Library of Congress, if desired. The distribution of
Congressional documents in the United States could also be advanta-
geously modified. The copies given to the State Department for do-
mestic distribution were sent only to colleges or lyceums, not to regular
public libraries, even of the largest class. The rule in force Se the
é
746 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Smithsonian Institution might well be applied in this case, of making
as equable a distribution as possible throughout the country, swp-
plying all larger public libraries, and giving to smaller ones only where
a large district would otherwise be destitute. It had always been
matter of complaint with men pursuing special objects of research that
public documents relating to their investigations were frequently inac-
cessible. In order to remedy this, some department could be directed
to keep full lists of all persons prominently engaged in the various
branches of science, and to supply the names on such list regularly
with extra copies of documents to be furnished by Congress.
By act of August 18, 1856, the Secretary of State was authorized to
purchase one hundred copies each of Audubon’s Birds of America and
Quadrupeds of North America, for exchange with foreign governments
for valuable works.
The matter of government exchanges received, however, no further
definite action until 1867, when the following act was passed :
A RESOLUTION to provide for the exchange of certain public documents.
Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States
in Congress assembled, That fifty copies of all documents hereafter printf,
ed by order of either House of Congress, and fifty copies additional of
all documents printed in excess of the usual number, together with fifty
copies of each publication issued by any department or bureau of the
government, be placed at the disposal of the Joint Committee on the
Library, who shall exchange the same, through the agency of the Smith-
sonian Institution, for such works published in foreign countries, and
especially by foreign governments, as may be deemed by said commitee
an equivalent; said works to be deposited in the Library of Congress,
Approved March 2, 1867.
A primary object of this movement was to secure as regularly and -
economically as possible all reports and other documents relative to the
legislation, jurisprudence, statistics, internal economy, technology, &c.
of all nations, so as to place the material at the command of the com-
mittees and members of Congress, heads of bureaus, &c.
No appropriation was made for meeting the necessary expenses, which
could not conveniently be borne by the Smithsonian fund. But asa
year would necessarily elapse before any documents would be ready for
distribution, the following circular was issued by the Institution, with a
view of ascertaining what governments would enter into the proposed
arrangement:
CIROULAB RELATIVE TO EXCHANGES OF GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS.
Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, U. 8. A., May 16, 1867.
A law has just been passed by the Congress of the United States au-
thorizing the exchange, under direction of the Smithsonian Institution,
of a certain number of all United States official documents for the cor-
HISTORY: OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. (47
responding publications of other governments throughout the world, the
returns to be placed in the national library at Washington. The works
to be distributed under this law will consist of reports and proceedings
of Congress, messages of the President, annual reports and occasional
publications of departments and bureaus, &c., the whole relating to the
legislation, jurisprudence, foreign relations, commerce, statistics, arts,
manufactures, agriculture, geography, hydrography, &c., of the United
States, and including everything of whatever nature published either
by direct order of Congress or by any of the departments of the gov-
ernment. The series will embrace a large number of volumes each year,
the most of which are bound.
The object of the law above mentioned is to procure for the use of the
Congress of the United States a complete series of the publications of
other governments, to include the documents of Special bureaus or
departments, as well as the general publications, of whatever nature,
printed at the public expense, and also embracing all such works as are
published by booksellers with the aid of grants or subscriptions from
governments. The lawis not retrospective, although it may cover some
of the publications of the last session of Congress.
Some time will necessarily elapse before the first transmission can be
made, butin order to organize a plan of exchange, to be presented for
consideration to the Library Committee and the Librarian of Congress,
I beg leave to ask your advice as to the best method of accomplishing
the objects above stated. It is important to ascertain what govern-
ments are willing to enter into the proposed exchange, and whether any
one bureau or branch of government or public library in each country
will undertake to collect all the national publications, as above men-
tioned, and transmit them to Washington, or whether separate arrange-
ments must be made with more than one office. The former plan is con-
sidered preferable, as diminishing the labor involved, and may possibly
be adopted by enactment, as has been done by the United States.
Whatever method be most feasible, you will confer a favor by giving us
such information on these and other points as may serve for our guid-
ance in further action.
Information is also desired as to the titles and character of the regu- ,
lar official publications of each country, and their average number and
extent in each year, as well as the names of the different bureaus and
officers from which they emanate.
The Smithsonian Institution, in behalf of the Library of Congress, is
prepared to promise, if necessary, the delivery of the above-mentioned
publications free of charge for freight. It will also name an agent in
each country who will receive parcels or boxes containing the exchanges
returned, and transmit them to Washington.
Besides the exchange of complete series of national publications, the
law of Congress above stated authorizes the distribution of works on
special subjects to the different bureaus having them in charge, as
748 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
finance, statistics, patents, agriculture, &c., provided that copies of
their publications be given in return.
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary of Smithsonian Institution.
[The Smithsonian Institution to the State Department. ]
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, June 4, 1867.
Hon. WILLIAM. H. SEWARD,
Secretary of State:
Str: I have the honor to send, herewith, copies of a printed cireular
relative to an international exchange of public documents, for the bene-
fit of the Congressional Library, with the request that you will trans-
mit the same to all the diplomatic representatives of the United States
in foreign countries, and, if favorable, to foreign ministers aceredited to
the United States.
Yours, respectfully,
JOSEPH HENRY.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, June 18, 1867.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary to the Smithsonian Institution :
Str: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 4th in-
stant, inclosing copies of a printed circular relative to the international
exchange of public documents for the benefit of the Congressional
Library, and to inform you in reply that your request in regard to the
distribution of the circulars has been complied with, they having been
transmitted to foreign ministers here and to our ministers abroad.
Most truly yours,
WILLIAM H. SEWARD.
The honorable Secretary of State having thus courteously undertaken
the official distribution of the Smithsonian circular to the representa-
tives of foreign governments, formal recognitions were received from
these powers, a majority of whom signified their approval and accept-
ance of the proffer. The following is a list of governments which
responded favorably to the proposed international exchange of official
documents:
Argentine Republic. Great Britain.
Baden. Hamburg.
Belgium. Netherlands.
Chili. Norway.
Colombia (United States of). Spain.
Costa Rica. Sweden.
Denmark. Switzerland.
Finland. Victoria.
France. Wurtemberg.
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 749
These all embraced the opportunity offered of procuring the national
publications of the United States, and proffered complete series of their
own in return. Some of them, indeed, sent at once large packages of
their works without awaiting further action on the part of our govern-
ment. Among them one large box of books from the government of
Victoria, Australia, was received, and its contents deposited in the
Library of Congress.
Of the communications on this subject received either directly or
through the Department of State, the greater number are herewith
subjoined.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, July 19, 1867.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution:
Str: Herewith I inclose an extract of a dispatch of the 1st instant,
from George N. Yeaman, esq., minister resident at Copenhagen, which
relates to the exchange of public documents with the Government of
Denmark, as proposed in your circular of the 16th of May last.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
WILLIAM H. SEWARD.
[Inclosure. ]
No. 77.] Legation of the United States,
Copenhagen, July 1, 1867.
Hon. WM. H. SEWARD,
Secretary of State, Washington:
Sir: I have further to acknowledge the receipt of your circular dis-
patch-of the 13th June, touching the subject of Professor Henry’s cir-
cular, in relation to the exchange of official documents with foreign
countries, and to state that Mr. Vedel, the director-general of the min-
istry of foreign affairs, with whom I have conversed upon the subject,
and with whom [I left a copy of Professor Henry’s circular, has expressed
himself gratified with the proposal, and suggests that for the present
anything of interest he may have for the United States shall be left
with me for shipment, and that United States documents might also be
addressed to me for the Danish Government.
If other arrangements are deemed more convenient, hereafter they will
be made.
* * ” * * * *
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
GEORGE H. YEAMAN.
750 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
[The Argentine Legation to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Argentine Legation in the United States,
10 University place, New York, August 17, 1867.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY, Esq.,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington:
Sir: Uponmy return from Washington I found anote from the Secretary
of State inclosing your memorandum relating to an exchange of official
documents of the United States for those of other countries. In fulfill-
ment of the desires of the honorable Secretary and of those who direct
that Institution I will hasten to communicate to my government the
contents of those documents.
* * ¥* * * *- =
Hoping soon to have the pleasure of presenting my respects in person
to you in that city,
I remain, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
B. MITRE y VEDIA,
Chargé Ww Affaires.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, August 23, 1867.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY, &c., &c., Smithsonian Institution:
Sir: I inclose herewith, for your information, a copy of a note of the
19th instant, from the minister of Spain, in regard to the conclusion ar-
rived at by Her Majesty’s Government for the interchange of official pub-
lications between that government and the United States.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
WILLIAM H. SEWARD.
[Incloswre.—Translation. ]
No. 27.] Legation of Spain at Washington,
Washington, August 19, 1867.
Hon. SECRETARY OF STATE of the United States, &c., de., de:
The undersigned, envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary-of
Her Catholic Majesty, communicates to the honorable Secretary of
State that, having submitted to the Government of Her Majesty the ad-
vantage of establishing a mutual interchange of official publications be-
tween Spain and the United States, with reference to the bases set ont
in the printed memorandum of Prof. Joseph Henry, Secretary of-the
Smithsonian Institution, has now received an answer on that point.
The Government of Her Catholic Majesty accepts with much pleasure
the proposal for an exchange of documents, and is ready to deliver to
the legation of the United States at Madrid, or to the agency that may iy
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. (51
be designated, all the official publications of importance that may be
brought out in Spain.
The undersigned avails of this opportunity to renew to the honorable
Mr. Seward the assurance of his most distinguished consideration.
FACUNDO GONI.
[The U. S. Legation at Switzerland to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Berne, September 21, 1867.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington :
Str: Under instructions from Mr. Seward, transmitting to me your
circular relative to an international exchange of national publications,
Lhave communicated with ‘the proper authority”—that is, the chief of
the department of the interior—designated by the high federal council
as its agent” to arrange the mode of proceeding in the execution of the
plan.”
As the result of our conferences I am authorized to say to you that
the high federal council accepts with great pleasure the proposition
for the exchange of national publications.
It is desired to know whether you prefer to receive these publications
as made and at the time of issue, or whether, at the end of each year,
all the publications made during the year shall be delivered together in
one or more packages.
It is preferred by the federal council that the publications shall be
received and delivered at Berne by an agent of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion. I suggest that this legation be designated as such agent to re-
ceive and deliver such exchanges, which arrangement would be more
acceptable to the Swiss Government than the agency of any private
party.
The number and bulk of the federal publications will be small in com-
parison with ours, and the question was propounded whether the prop-
ositions also embraced necessarily the publications of each canton, as
that would be somewhat difficult. I presume that, while such publi-
cations would be acceptable to you, it was not contemplated to include
those of the cantonal governments.
For every reason I advise you to receive the publications of each year
en masse, in lieu of receiving them in detachments.
The Swiss publications will be delivered packed ready for transpor-
tation.
Ican only add that I stand ready to act in the premises as you may
desire.
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
GEO. HARRINGTON.
(52 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, October 2, 1867.
JOSEPH HENRY, Esq.,
Secretary of the Smithsonian ones
Sir: With reference to a memorandum from you which was com-
municated to Mr. A. Marzel on the 14th of June last, proposing an ex-
change of official publications of the United States for those of the
Netherlands, I have now the honor to inclose a translation of a note of
the 30th ultimo from Mr. A. Marzel, signifying a disposition on the part
of the Netherlands Government to adopt the reciprocal arrangement
proposed by you.
I am, sir, your very obedient servant,
WILLIAM H. SEWARD.
[Inclosure—Translation. }
Legation of the Netherlands, September 30, 1867.
Hon. WILLIAM H. SEWARD, éc., &c., ée.:
Str: Referring to my dispatch of the 15th of June last, in relation
to an exchange of official documents between the United States and
other countries, I now have the honor to inform you that the Govern-
ment of the Netherlands is disposed to accede to the wish of the See-
retary of the Smithsonian Institution in reference to the said exchange.
The different departments of the public administration having been
consulted on the subject, they have unanimously applauded the idea
suggested by Prof. Joseph Henry.
All that is needed now is an agent of the United States, appointed
for the purpose, to be put in communication with the competent Neth-
erlands authorities to carry out the proposed exchange in a regular
manner.
I take the occasion to offer the assurance of my distinguished con-
sideration.
A. MARZEL.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, October 24, 1867.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington:
Str: With reference to the correspondence which has taken place
between us heretofore on the subject, I have the honor to inclose a
copy of a communication of the 22 instant from Francis Clare Ford, esq.,
the chargé d’affaires ad interim of Great Britain, in relation to the pro-
posed exchange of the official publications of the two countries.
I have the honor to be your obedient servant,
WILLIAM H. SEWARD.
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 753
[Jnclosure. ]
Washington, October 22, 1867.
Sir: With reference to your note of the 13th of June, addressed to
the late Sir Frederick Bruce, inclosing a memorandum of Prof.
Joseph Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, relative to
an exchange of United States official documents for those of other
countries, I have the honor to inform you that, the subject having
been duly brought to the notice of my government, [ have been in-
structed by Lord Stanley, Her Majesty’s principal secretary of state
for foreign affairs, to communicate to you the suggestions which have
been made by the lords commissioners of Her Majesty’s treasury in
regard to the manner in which the proposed exchange should be car-
ried out.
The lords commissioner of Her Majesty’s treasury readily acknowledge
the advantages of an exchange of copies of official documents between
Her Majesty’s Government and that of the United States, and are quite
ready to give effect to the act of Congress referred to in the memoran-
dum of Professor Henry, which was inclosed in your note of June 13.
They suggest that the list of official documents prepared by the comp-
troller of the stationery office (a copy of which is herein inclosed)
should be transmitted to you for the information of the Government of
the United States, with an intimation that they will be prepared to
give directions that a copy of the books therein enumerated, or any
other official documents which may be named, shall be delivered to the
agent of the United States, and that Her Majesty’s minister at Wash-
ington be requested to obtain from the Government of the United States
a list of corresponding official publications.
The lords commissioners of Her Majesty’s treasury have, however,
ascertained from the British admiralty that copies of the charts and
publications of that department are already sent, annually, to the sec-
retary of the United States Coast Survey and the Bureau of Navigation,
and selections to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
I have the honor to be, with the highest consideration,
sir, your most obedient, humble servant,
FRANCIS CLARE FORD.
[The Government of Colombia to the U. S. Legation. ]
[ Translation. ]
Department of the Interior and Foreign Relations,
Bogota, November 7, 1867.
To Hon. General PETER J. SULLIVAN,
Minister Resident of the United States of America, &e. :
Str: In due time I had the honor of receiving your excellency’s very
attentive communication inclosing a letter from Mr, Joseph Henry, of
S. Mis. 109-48
754 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
the Smithsonian Institution, dated the 16th of May last, in which he
solicits, on the most liberal conditions, the exchange of the official (his- —
tory) productions of this country for those of the United States of
America.
The Government of Colombia, which sincerely desires to promote the |
interests of its countrymen, heartily adopts the plan of exchange which
Mr. Henry of the Smithsonian Institution proposes through his excel-
lency, and accepts it with greater satisfaction inasmuch as the official
productions of the American Government, as Republican and enlight-
ened, will be a worthy example for the citizens of Colombia, a country
that is making every effort in its power to establish a free and just gov- .
ernmnt.
The national librarian has been ordered by this department to make
a detailed report as to the best manner of carrying into effect this ex-
change. As soon as it is received in this office, I will forward it to his
excellency that he may transmit it to Mr. Henry as he requests.
And thus have the honor to offer to his excellency the assurance of
my high and distinguished consideration.
CARLOS MARTIN.
[The Royal Library of Wiirtemberg to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Stuttgart, November 11, 1867.
Mr. JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution:
DEAR Sir: In regard to the proposed exchange of government pub-
lications, we have the honor to submit the following answer to your
communication.
Having inquired of all the bureaus issuing official publications, we are
enabled to say that our government will readily enter into the proposed
arrangement.
The Royal Public Library will undertake the collection and transmis-
sion of all the publications of our national institutions, thinking that
arrangement would be more agreeable to both parties.
* * * * * * *
We are well aware that the publications of our, government, ordinary
and extraordinary, will not bear comparison either in size or value with
those of the Government of the United States; but since the offer of ex-
change proceeds from them we are glad to show our estimation of it by
accepting it readily.
With regard to transmission, we think that a mutual delivery at
Leipzig free of charge would be consistent with the ordinary terms of
intercourse between the public libraries of Europe and America. .
* * * * * * * .,
F Very respectfully, your obedient servant, — ‘
STAELIN, i)
Head Librarian of the Royal Public Inbrary. .
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 755
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, November 14, 1867.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution :
Str: Herewith I inclose for your information a transcript of a com-
munication of the 21st ultimo, from the United States minister at Brus-
sels, relative toan exchange of public documents with the Government of
Belgium.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
WILLIAM H. SEWARD.
[Inclosure No. 1.]
No. 464.] Legation of the United States,
Brussels, October 21, 1867,
Hon. WILLIAM H. SEWARD,
Secretary of State, éc., &e., &e.:
Sir: With reference to your circular dispatch of 13th June relative to
an exchange of public documents with this government, I have the
honor herewith to inclose in translation copy of a communication from
Mr. Rogier expressing the concurrence of the government in the prop-
osition, and inclosing a first list of documents which it is proposed to
forward by the end of the year, to be followed by others semi-annually.
J also inclose copy of my reply accepting the arrangement proposed.
The documents to be sent in exchange on our side can be forwarded,
I presume, through the Belgian legation at Washington.
I have the honor to be, with great respect,
Your most obedient servant,
H. 8S. SANFORD.
[Inclosure No. 2.—Translation. ]
Brussels, October 17, 1867.
Mr. SANFORD,
Minister, &e., &e., &e., Brussels:
Mr. MINISTER: I have communicated to the minister of the interior
the contents of the letter you were pleased to address me on the 5th of
July last, respecting the proposal of an exchange of documents between
our two governments.
My colleague is quite ready, Mr. Minister, to offer the Government of
the United States of America a copy of the various official publications
brought to light by the cares of his department. He has moreover, in
accordance with the desire I had expressed to him, communicated the
proposal in question to the other ministerial departments. The minister
of finance has already declared that he is quite willing to give his adhe-
sion thereto. I am persuaded that a similar statement will be made by
ny colleagues of the war, justice, and public works departments.
756 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
The best method to adopt with the view to secure the regular and
collective dispatching of Belgian publications would be, seemingly, to
collect them at the ‘‘science and letters division” of the ministry of the
interior, so as to form the object of yearly or half yearly communication
to the legation of the United States at Brussels, through the medium
of my department. :
I join to my letter, Mr. Minister, a provisional list of documents that
could be placed at the disposal of the Government of the United States.
The departments of foreign affairs will add a few publications enumer-
ated at the end of this list. Should you have no objection, Mr. Minister,
to make to the disposition intended to be taken, a first supply of works
might be prepared before the end of the year.
The letter of the Minister of the Interior concludes as follows:
‘“ As far as public instruction is concerned the exchange proposed has
already been made the object of a direct communication from Mr. Sanford,
dated May 27 last. Mr. Sanford was informed, in reply, that the United
States must be in possession of the laws, decrees, and other documents
relating to that service; that, in fact, the department of the interior has
transmitted two copies of them to the legation at the time of their
publication with request to be so kind as to forward one to the United
States Government. The documents alluded to are the triennial reports
in the three degrees of instruction. They contain everything connected
with public teaching in our country. Mr. Sanford has been informed,
besides, that, if he wished for it, another collection of these documents,
as complete as possible, would be forwarded to him.”
The only thing requisite in this respect would therefore be to act in
conformity with precedents.
Please to receive, Mr. Minister, the assurance of my most distin-
guished consideration.
For the minister—Mr. ROGIER,
The Secretary-General, Baron LAMBERMONT.
[ Inclosure No. 3. ]
Legation of the United States, Brussels, October 19, 1867.
His Excellency Monsieur ROGIER,
Minister of Foreign Affairs, de., &e., &e.:
Mr. MINISTER: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your
excellency’s letter, under date of 17th instant, relative to the proposition
made in my communication of the 5th of July last, for an exchange of
public documents.
I thank you, Mr. Minister, for the interest you have been pleased to
manifest on this subject, and I shall have great satisfaction in receiving
and transmitting to my government the documents as proposed in your
letter, and at such times as will be most convenient to your excellency’s
department.
The documents referred to in the letter of his excellency the min-
ister of the interior were specially designed for the Bureau of Educa-
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. tot
tion at Washington. The triennial reports on public instruction period-
ically sent to this legation by vour colleague of the department of the
interior have been duly transmitted to my government, and duplicates
of these copies will not, therefore, be needed.
Thanking you again, Mr. Minister, for your courteous and liberal re-
sponse to the suggestion of exchange of public documents,
I pray your excellency to receive the renewed assurance of my high-
est consideration.
H. S. SANFORD.
Department of State, Washington, December 11, 1867.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution :
Sir: Referring to your circular of the 16th of May last, in regard to
the proposed exchange of a certain number of all official documents of
the United States for the corresponding publications of foreign govern-
ments, I inclose for your information the translation of a note upon the
subject which Mr. Berthemy, the French minister here, has addressed
to the Department.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
WILLIAM H. SEWARD.
[ Inclosure.—Translation. ]
Legation of France to the United States,
Washington, November 15, 1867.
Hon. WILLIAM H. SEWARD:
Mr. SECRETARY OF STATE: In conformity with the wish you did me
the honor to express to me in your letter of 13th of June last, I hastened
to transmit to the imperial government, in commending it to attention,
a circular from Prof. J. Henry of the Smithsonian Institution concerning
an exchange of documents of official character, edited in the United
States,—tor publications of a similar kind printed by order, and with the
concurrence of foreign governments.
In reply to the communication which was addressed to him on this
subject by the minister for foreign affairs, the minister of agriculture,
commerce, and public works has made known to the Marquis de Mon-
stier that he could give of what pertains to his department his assent
to the project for exchange, and could dispose of publications relating
to general statistics of France, and to special statistics of railroads, as
well as of reports made on the labors of engineers of mines, of annals of
commerce with foreign countries and some analogous documents.
The minister for foreign affairs has charged me to bring this com-
munication to your knowledge, and to add that the French administra-
tion would take the measures necessary to effect the exchange in ques-
tion, either through the medium of the legation of the United States at
Paris or through my intervention, as soon as it be known what are the
758 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
documents which the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution is author-
ized to send to France.
Accept, Mr. Secretary of State, the assurance, of my high consideration.
BERTHEMY.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Wahington, January 21, 1868.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution:
Sir: For your information, I inclose herewith a transcript of a dis-
patch of the 19th ultimo, from the United States minister at Copenha-
gen, relative to the proposed exchange of public documents between the
United States and European governments.
Ian, sir, your obedient servant,
WILLIAM H. SEWARD.
[Inclosure. ]
No. 122.] Legation of the United States,
Copenhagen, December 19, 1867.
Hon. WILLIAM H. SEWARD,
Secretary of State:
Sir: Recurring to the circular of the Department and to that of Pro-
fessor Henry, of the Smithsonian Institution, touching an exchange of
documents, books, and publications with European governments, I have
now to add that Count Friss, in a note to me of the 17th of this month,
informs me that the Danish Government has charged the “ Royal Library
of Copenhagen” with the execution of the arrangement on the part of
this government, and he suggests that the Smithsonian Institution select
an agent in this city to carry the interchange into effect by receiving
and forwarding the books, &c. For the Department and the Smithso-
nian Institution I have expressed satisfaction with this arrangement,
and I cannot now think of a better local agent here than Mr. L. A.
Heckoher, the United States vice-consul, who, I have no doubt, would
act, and who is an intelligent, prompt, and careful business man. I
have already forwarded one valuable scientifie work to Professor Henry,
in the care of Mr. Bille, chargé affaires.
lam, sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
GEORGE H. YEAMAN.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, February 7, 1868.
Prof. JosEPH HENRY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington:
Sir: [have the honor to inclose, for your information, a copy in trans-
lation of a note of the 23d ultimo addressed to this Department by Mr.
op een a
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES, 759
Bille, chargé daffaires of Denmark, and a copy of a note of the 25th ul-
timo from Baron de Wetterstedt, the Swedish and Norwegian minister,
both referring to your proposed exchange of official documents between
the Governments of Denmark and Sweden and Norway and the Govern-
ment of the United States.
I am, sir, your dbedient servant,
WILLIAM H. SEWARD.
[Inclosure No 1.—Translation. ]}
Legation of Denmark, Washington, January 23, 1868.
Hon. WILLIAM H. SEWARD,
Secretary of State:
Str: The Royal Government has charged me to communicate to you
that itis happy to give its adhesion to the exchange of official documents
which during last year was proposed to it by the Government of the
United States, and of which the Smithsonian Institution at Washington
would serve as intermediary according to the organization planned in
the letter of Mr. Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, dated
May 16, 1867.
I have the honor to add that the Grand Royal Library of Copenhagen
is in charge, from this time, of all matters connected with such inter-
change, and that the different branches of the Danish administration
will place subject to the direction of the library the publications they
may wish to offer to the Government of the United States.
In consequence, and referring to the letter above mentioned from Mr,
Henry, I venture to ask you, Mr. Secretary of State, to please inform
me who is the agent of the Smithsonian Institution who will, at Copen-
hagen, be in charge of the packages intended for exchange with Den-
mark.
Please accept, Mr. Secretary of State, the assurances of my highest
consideration.
F. BILLE.
[Inclosure No. 2.—Translation. }
Legation of Sweden and Norway,
Washington, January 25, 1868,
Hon. WILLIAM H. SEWARD,
Secretary of State:
Str: Referring to my note of 19th June last year, in reply to yours
of 13th same month, concerning a proposed exchange of official docu-
ments, I have the honor to inclose copy of an official letter, received
from the Norwegian department of the interior, under date 19th ultimo,
in which the acceptation by Norway of the offer of exchange is made
known, and to request you kindly to bring the contents of the letter to
the notice of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
I have the honor to be, with high consideration,
Sir, your obedient servant,
N. W. DE WETTERSTEDT.
760 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
[Translation of an official letter from the Royal Norwegian Department of the Inte-
rior to His Swedish and Norwegian Majesty’s minister at Washington, dated Chris-
tiana, December 19, 1867. ]
Under date June 18, last year, you forwarded to this department
transcript of a note from the State Department at Washington, and a
printed copy of a memorandum containing a proposition to establish a
system of exchange of printed official documents, &¢e., between the
United States of America and other countries, under the direction, on
the American side, of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington.
In reply, the department will not fail to notify you, that the propo-
sition is readily accepted from the Norwegian side, and that proper
measures have been taken to the end that the exchange may take place
from here in connection with the literary transmissions from the Univer-
sity of Christiana under the direction of the secretary of the university.
You are requested to bring the above to the knowledge of the proper
authority at Washington, and also to co-operate to the end that the
Smithsonian Institution may, in conformity with the offer made in the
memorandum, appoint an agent here in Christiana, by whom the Nor-
wegian documents may be received for further transmission to Wash-
ington.
BRETTEVILLE.
N. BONNEVIE.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, February 8, 1868.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY,
Smithsonian Institution:
Sir: I have the honor to inclose to you a copy of a communication
received by Alvin P. Hovey, esq., minister resident at Lima, Peru, from
the minister for foreign affairs of that Republic in reply to Mr. Hovey’s
note informing him of your proposition for an exchange of public docu-
ments.
I shall be pleased to receive such suggestions as you may deem it
proper to make, so as to enable me to reply to Mr. Hovey on the subject.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
WILLIAM H. SEWARD.
[Inclosure No. 1.—Translation. ]
No. 58.] Foreign Office, Lima, December 30, 1867.
His Excellency the MINISTER OF THE UNITED STATES:
The esteemed note of your excellency, No. 54, was received at this |
office, inclosing a proposition from the Smithsonian Institution of Wash-
ington, sent to your excellency by the Department of State proposing
an exchange of the official documents of that Republic for those of this.
I must mention to your excellency that the note referred to would
ee ee ee
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 761
have been long ago answered, but it was received just previous to your
excellency’s departure tor Chili.
I also desire to thank the Government of the United States through
your excellency for the kind offer made to the Government of Peru.
The Government of Peru accepts with pleasure the proposition of
your excellency’s government, and I have the honor to inclose a copy
of the decree issued by the President of Peru in relation to the matter.
The government proposes to organize the exchange in the following
manner :
1. In the foreign office of Peru will be collected the different publi-
cations and documents requisite for the exchange. ~
2. To insure regularity in the exchange, the Government of Peru
will send its publications to its consul in New York; and the Institution
will send those it may desire to remit to the consul of the United States
at Callao By these two officers the documents will be forwarded to
their destination.
3. It is deemed convenient that the exchange should commence from
the beginning of the present year, 1868; but if the Institution thinks
proper, any publications issued before that date will readily be ex-
changed.
4, With respect to the nature of the publications to be exchanged,
I beg to call your excellency’s attention to the inclosed list. If the
Institution approves, the Peruvian Government will send the works
contained in the first series, and afterward will continue sending each
year, a copy of the works contained in the second series, receiving in
exchange the corresponding publications issued in the United States.
I beg that your excellency will transmit to the Institution these bases,
and communicate the reply to this department, so that if the reply be
favorable, the Peruvian Government may immediately commence its
part in this arrangement.
I beg to assure your excellency of my most distinguished consideration.
% I. A. BARRENECHEA.
[Jneclosure No. 2.—Translation. ]
Lima, December 27, 1867.
Having seen the note of his excellency the minister of the United
States of America, and the adjoined circular of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution of Washington, proposing an exchange of the official documents
of Peru for those of the United States, the proposal is accepted in all of
its terms.
Let the corresponding orders be given.
To be registered, communicated, and published.
Rubric of His Excellency the President.
J. A. BARRENECHEA.
Copy.
J. FEDERICO ELMORE,
Chief Clerk.
762 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
[The U.S. Legation at China to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Legation of the United States, Peking, April 17, 1868.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary of Smithsonian Institution:
Str: A circular from you, dated May 16, 1867, respecting the best
method of carrying out the provisions of the law of Congress authoriz-
ing the exchange of United States official documents for those of other
countries, was received through the Department of State last year. It
was only recently, however, that I found a convenient opportunity of
ascertaining the views of the Chinese officials upon the proposal. The
inclosed correspondence exhibits their views, but in addition to the
statements made in my letter, the purposes, advantages, and results of
the exchange were personally explained to Tung Siun, the most learned
and literary member of the foreign office, whose name is perhaps
already known to you for his version into Chinese of Longfellow’s Psalm
of Life. He entered into the plan with entire readiness, but stated that
its adoption rested with another department of government from the
one he belonged to, and might not therefore immediately be accepted.
The Chinese Government has from time to time published or aided
works of value, but it issues nothing like our reports of departments,
nor has it any official organ for making known its operations, decrees,
or appointments. The Red Book, or quarterly official list of incumbents
in the civil and military service, and the Peking Gazette, are both al-
lowed to be published under its sanction by private persons, who never
add anything to the papers furnished them, but the Calendar is, so far
as I know, the only authorized publication issued by any branch of the
government. The three last Emperors have not equaled their prede- —
cessors in their patronage of letters, and if an exchange of a suitable se- —
lection of the books printed by order of Congress can, by and by, be made ~
for some of the statistical and political works of former monarchs, the
result would no doubt be mutually advantageous.
The United Learning College, of which mention is made in the cor-
respondence, if it succeeds in carrying out the designs of its founders,
will, in a few years, educate natives who will be able to turn the infor. *
mation given in our books to good account. At present, Ido not think —
that there are a score of Chinese in the whole country who are able to
fully understand them, but it is even more probable that there is not
half that number of persons in the United States (not including Chinese) —
who could intelligently consult the works which this government might
send to you in exchange. It is perhaps best then not to press the sub- |
ject at present.
I am, sir, with esteem,
Very respectfully your obedient servant, a
S. WELLS WILLIAMS.
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 763
[The Indian Survey Office to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
No. 131.] Geological Survey Office,
Caleutta, October 26, 1868.
Professor HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution, Washington:
DEAR Str: In the last packet of books received by me from the Smith-
sonian Institution I found a printed notice proposing to establish, through
the agency of the Smithsonian Institution, a system of exchange of the
various public documents printed and issued under the sanction of the
Government of the United States, for similar documents issued by other
governments.
I at once submitted this proposal to the secretary to the Government
of India, expressing a hope that the proposition might be favorably re-
ceived. And I am now instructed to inform you that the Government
of India will be happy at once to enter upon a system of reciprocal ex-
change of their public documents with the Government of the United
States, through your Institution.
I have further the pleasure to inclose to you a list of such reports and
other documents as are at the present available. It is possible also that
some of the former numbers of those which have appeared in series can
be obtained.
As soon as I shall have the pleasure of hearing from you, whether
such a series will be acceptable, the books can be packed and forwarded
to the Smithsonian Institution, as you may desire. Books for Caleutta
should be forwarded direct by ship (the quickest way), or sent to London ;
to the care of the Secretary of State for India, India Office.
All parcels should be addressed to the Secretary to Government of
India, Home Department, Calcutta.
I trust that both this country and the United States may long con-
tinue to reap the important advantages which must result from a free
interchange of such documents relating to either country.
_ [have the honor to be, sir, your most obedient servant.
THOMAS OLDHAM,
Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India.
[The Government of Colombia to the State Department. ]
Bogota, November —, 1869,
His Excellency the SECRETARY OF STATE
of the United States of America:
The Colombian Government considers the exchange of their respect-
ive literary and scientific productions as an effective means of develop-
ing the civilization and wealth of nations, of drawing their mutual re-
lations closer, and of rendering the same more fraternal.
764 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES,
Desiring to contribute to the attainment of an object which, for this |
country, is so important, the Government of the Union issued the decree
of the 23d of January, 1868, ‘which establishes, in the national library,
a central bureau for the exchange of the national publications for those
of other American countries.”
That your government may become acquainted with the provisions
of said decree, the undersigned secretary of the interior and of foreign
relations has the honor to send your excellency a copy of the same.
And as the executive power of the Union does not doubt that the pro-
ject contained in this decree will be accepted by your excellency’s gov-
ernment, it has ordered the box containing the first collection of Colom-
bian publications, intended for your country, to be sent to the national
administrator of finance at Santa Marta, to be held by him at the dispo-
sal of your government, or of itslibrarian. A list of these publications
is given in the annexed note, addressed by the national librarian to the
librarian of the United States of America.
The undersigned begs your excellency to obtain from the most excel-
lent President of your Republic the adoption of this project, and the
making of the necessary arrangements, that it may be carried out; and
is happy to present you the assurances of the very distinguished con-
sideration with which he has the honor to be,
Your excellency’s obedient servant,
ANTO. M. PRADILLO.
[Jnclosure.—Translation. |
DECREE ESTABLISHING, IN THE NATIONAL LIBRARY, A CENTRAL OFFICE FOR THE
EXCHANGE OF THE NATIONAL PUBLICATIONS WITH THOSE OF THE OTHER COUN-
TRIES OF AMERICA.
The President of the United States of Colombia, considering—
1st. That the literary and scientific works of the nation are very little
known and circulated outside of the country, on account of the lack of
relations established for this purpose ;
2d. That the republics of the United States of America, Bolivia, and
Chili have already initiated the establishment of such relations with
the Colombian Union, and that it is not doubtful that the other Ameri-
can nations will gladly welcome the organization of exchanges of pub-
lications which may make us better known to each other; and
. 3d. That no means can more efficaciously contribute to the cause of
enlightenment, and towards the fraternity of the nations of America,
than the establishment of a literary and scientific correspondence among
the different peoples, which would be the result of such exchanges—
DECREE.
Article 1. There is established in the national library, under charge
of the librarian, a central office for the exchange of official publications —
RY seen ee ee oe SY
|
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 765
and of such literary and scientific works as the national government,
the governments of the states of the Union, and private individuals,
authors or publishers, may designate to be sent to other American coun-
tries, in exchange for their publications.
Art. 2. The national librarian shall enter, directly, into such nego-
tiations or correspondence with the librarians of the other countries of
America as may be necessary to establish the regular exchanges and
literary relations which are the object of the present decree.
Art. 3. The national administration of finance in the state of Panama,
and the Colombian Consuls-generals and private individuals in the na-
tions of America, shall assist the national librarian in carrying out the
projected exchanges, acting as intermediate agents, and promoting and
facilitating said exchanges so far as it may be in their power to do so.
The librarian may communicate directly, for the purposes indicated,
with the consuls of Colombia, and with the administrator of national
finance in Panama, and for the greater security of his letters to other
countries, he may send them, if he shall think proper, through the depart-
ment of the interior and of foreign relations.
Art. 4. There shall be placed at the disposal of the librarian twenty-
five copies of each of the official publications of the country which shall
hereafter appear, for the objects of this decree, and twenty-five copies
of those now in the archives or in the national library, in order that
he may remit the same, together with the invitation which he shall ad-
dress to each one of the libraries of America, to establish exchanges.
Art. 5. The librarian shall propose to the executive the purchase
of such non-official publications as he may deem suitable to be sent in
exchange. If the executive shall think that the publications proposed
ought to be purchased for said purpose, he shall issue an order to that
effect, and the cost of the same shall be paid from the national contin-
gent fund for “sundry expenses” of the department of the interior.
Art. 6. There shall be addressed by the department of the interior
and of foreign relations, to the governments of America, a circular
giving notice of the provisions of this decree, and calling their attention
to the importance of their adopting the proper means to carry out the
beneficent plan of establishing and systematizing our literary and
scientific relations.
Art. 7. There shall likewise be addressed, by the same department,
a circular to the governments of the Colombian states, urging them to
aid in the execution of the provisions of this decree by all the means in
their power.
Art. 8. The national librarian may extend the provisions of this
decree to some of the libraries and establishments for the publication
and sale of books in Europe.
Art. 9. All works which may be sent to this office in exchange for
national publications shall be preserved in their respective places in
766 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
accordance with the prescriptions of the executive decree of the 21st
instant, providing for the proper ‘‘ arrangement of the national library.”
Given at Bogota, January 23, 1868.
Santos Acosta,
President.
CARLOS MARTIN,
Secretary of the Interior and of Foreign Relations.
[The National Library of Colombia to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
[ Translation. ]
United States of Colombia, National Library,
Central Office of Exchanges,
Bogota, November 17, 1869.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington:
In the month of November, 1867, the Hon. General Sullivan, who was
then minister resident of the Union near our government, communicated
to the latter the law passed by Congress authorizing the exchange of
official publications for those of other countries, under the direction of
the Smithsonian Institution. The Government of Colombia accepted,
and furnished to the minister all the data which he had thought proper
to ask, at the same time conferring on me the honor of designating me for
the management of everything relating to the subject.
Subsequently, the national executive drew up the decree of the 23d
of January, 1868, ‘“‘ establishing in the national library a central office
of exchanges of the national publications for those of the other countries
of America;” an authenticated copy of which decree I have the honor
of herewith transmitting.
Authorized, therefore, as well by the commission received from the
government on the occasion named, as by the decree which I inclose, I take
the liberty of addressing myself to you, now that the central bureau of y
exchanges is beginning to operate with all desirable regularity, having
overcome the.embarrassments and impediments incident to every office
recently created, and which have hitherto delayed the official invitation
which I have now the honor of submitting to you.
It is quite time that populations should be brought into contact, and
that, for their mutual advancement, they should come to know one
another by the initiation of literary relations. But, that this end might
be satisfied and not remain a simple project, it was necessary that in- —
troductory measures should be taken by the government, giving at the —
same time greater security to the exchanges and encouraging private
individuals to furnish their productions under the guarantee thus pro- _
vided that they will be duly forwarded.
The noble object of the Smithsonian Institution absolves me from the i
necessity of troubling you with considerations relating to the utilityand
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 767
convenience of the proposed exchanges, but inasmuch as an under-
standing should exist between us respecting the manner of verifying
them, I submit to your consideration the proposition that the Govern-
ment of Colombia should place the packages intended for remittance
by the library in the port of Santa Marta, where they will be delivered
by the administrator of the national property to the person whom you
may be pleased to designate, and that the same national functionary
shall receive at that port those which you may be so good as to send us.
Desiring that, until this be possible, there should be a general basis for
the exchange of publications, it seems to me equitable that this office
should deliver and receive in our own sea-ports.
As a first remittance, I have the honor of dispatching a case contain-
ing 204 volumes, pamphlets, collections, &¢., as will be found detailed
in the annexed catalogue. Of some of these publications it has not been
possible, for the moment, to send complete collections, but I have taken
a note of the numbers or deliveries which are wanting, in order that
they may be sent in subsequent remittances.
This case is directed to Santa Marta, to the care of the administrator
of the national property. He will keep it in his own custody until you
shall be pleased to give instructions respecting the person to whom it
shall be delivered. For the next, I shall be guided by the directions
which you may think proper to communicate to me, but in the present
instance it seemed more convenient that you should directly instruct
the administrator (administrador de hacienda nacional) as to the disposal
of the case in question, with a view to save the time which would be lost
by an exchange of notes.
It remains to be mentioned that a case, with like contents, is remitted,
at the same date with the above, for the national library at Washing-
ton; so that the one in question is expressly destined for the Institution
over which you preside as Secretary.
I am led to hope that the remittances will promptly be augmented,
both in number and importance; but the honor will still inure to me of
having exchanged with you the first notes on the inception of these
literary relations, an honor which I prize the more highly from its af-
fording me the occasion of expressing the respect and high consideration
with which I am
Your very obedient servant,
OTAVA,
LAbrarian, and Director of Exchanges.
In October, 1874, four cases of documents were sent to the Goyern-
ment of Ontario, Toronto; and in November, 1874, five cases to the
Parliamentary Library, Ottawa ; five cases to the Government of Japan,
and four cases to the Bibliothek des Deutschen Reichstag, Berlin.
A number of boxes were also shipped to the agents of the Institution
in Europe, to be held by them for further instructions.
768 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
A large quantity of these public documents having accumulated at
the Institution, it became necessary to provide for their distribution
without further delay, and accordingly the Institution issued, in 1875,
the following circular:
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, October 1, 1875.
The Congress of the United States has authorized the exchange, under
the direction of the Joint Library Committee of Congress, through the
Smithsonian Institution, of a certain number of all United States of-
ficial documents for the corresponding publications of other govern-
ments throughout the world, the returns to be placed in the national
library at Washington. The works to be distributed consist of reports
and proceedings of Congress, messages of the President, annual reports
and occasional publications of departments and bureaus, &c., the whole
relating to the legislation, jurisprudence, foreign relations, commerce,
statistics, arts, manufactures, agriculture, geography, hydrography, &c.,
of the United States, and including everything, of whatever nature,
published either by direct order of Congress or by any of the depart-
ments of the government. The series embraces a large number of vol-
umes each year, the most of which are bound.
The exchange expected from each government is a complete series of
its publications, to include the documents of special bureaus or depart-
ments as well as the general publications, of whatever nature, printed
at the public expense, and also embracing all such works as are pub-
lished by booksellers with the aid of grants or subscriptions from gov-
ernments.
The Smithsonian Institution, in behalf of the Joint Library Com-
mittee of Congress, is prepared to deliver the publications of the
United States, free of charge for freight, to any person in the city of
Washington or in New York who may be designated by the govern-
ments which enter into the arrangement.
The books intended for the United States are to be delivered to
either of the Smithsonian agents, viz:
London.—William Wesley, 28 Essex street, Strand.
Paris.—G. Bossange. 16 Rue du 4 Septembre.
Leipsic.—Dr. Felix Fliigel, 12 Sidonien strasse.
St. Petersburg.—L. Watkins & Co., 10 Admiralty Place.
Amsterdam.—F. Miiller, Heerengracht.
Milan.—U. Hoepli, 591 Galeria Cristoforia.
-Harlem.—Bureau Scientifique Central Néerlandais.
Christiania.—Kongelige Norske Fredericks Universitetet.
Stockholnm.—Kongeliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien.
Copenhagen—Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
For all other countries packages may be delivered to the United
States ministers. An invoice for each transmission should be sent by
mail to the Institution.
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
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HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 769
This circular was sent with the following letter to the foreign minis-
ters in Washington representing the following countries: Argentine
Republic, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Brazil, Chili, Denmark, Irance,
German Empire, Great Britain, Guatemala, Hawaii, Hayti, Italy, Japan,
Mexico, Netherlands, Peru, Portugal, Russia, Salvador, Spain, Sweden,
Norway, Turkey, United States of Colombia, Venezuela:
Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D. C., October 30, 1875.
Str: I have the honor, accompanying this, to transmit a circular re-
lative to the exchange of the documents published by the United
States with those of other nations, and to request you to state to whom
the boxes now ready for transmission, intended for your government,
shall be delivered.
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
In accordance with the instructions received by the Institution, in
response to the foregoing letter, the following distribution of documents
was made:
Argentine Republic.—Six cases, sent to G. Videla Dorna, Albemarle
Hotel, New York.
Belgium.—Six cases, sent to Peter Wright & Sons, Philadelphia.
Brazil. Six cases, sent to vice-consul, 52 South Gay street, Baltimore.
Chili.—Six cases, sent to Munoz & Espriella, 52 Pinestreet, New York.
France.—Six cases, sent to consul-general of France, New York.
Mexico.—Six cases, sent to Juan N. Navarro, consul-general of Mex-
ico, New York.
Portugal.—Six cases, sent to consul-general of Portugal, New York.
Sweden.—Six cases, sent to consulate, 18 Exchange Place, New York.
Turkey.—Six cases, sent to legation, Washington, D. C.
During the year 1876, 120 boxes of documents were forwarded, the
following being a list of the distribution:
Places sent to. Boxes, Places sent to. Boxes.
IBelOTUMiis0 5), oseoc eaten Sone 'steae UL | IPTURSI eee is ee eee 5
TSW AIL Bes ane, Oe ae Se Te Queensland etccc cee ces coe ee 7
ISHENOS AVECS .. 5225 c-cos cose ees = OM SARONY Se acre wer ete amt toes 5
Wanad Beet See oes cee eee eee OHileScotlandiece er ecm ae eno ok 3
Ieee eee wae ete ecteinowiesincctis 1 SPAM See ee ee ee Se 5
DT Ee Se oe eee oe eee | 5 || South Australia .----........... 7
Cenmanyn nas ice ehersoeceics-e eee Salas COS) eerie Ae ae eek eae rae 7
lao emer eet tae e eae ee once OuilsSwatzerland. sas. cose acenee coma e 7
eollandee seca A sacee er one ese i De al Ye) ake oh eee, Se oe eS 7
VaApANee eos se sawseee sso ee eee Dt || ORE Gye Sect wieci tap eeceeoeeuass 1
MGIC Oe ary se Shee en eee Les MBVMONEZUCIA esc cess coe eae ee 6
New South Wales -..... .... .... des VAGUOLID toca catavee ea cea ones oan 7
INéww Zealand so soncssoe cceoeeee 7 |i ——
PNORWa Vice ees ea cccim enous oeece 3 5 | OCA fe waste setae oats 120
TRA PN Dee See cheodins Stas GaGa BE 1 ||
S. Mis. L09——49
770 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, D. C., May 29, 1876.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY, dc., dc., de.: -
Sir: I herewith inclose a copy of a note, dated the 22d instant, which
has been received from Sir Edward Thornton, the British minister at
this capital, respecting the interchange of official documents between
this country and Great Britain, wherein, referring to certain circulars
on this subject received by him from you in November last, he inquires
whether the Smithsonian Institution is acting in behalf of the Govern-
ment of the United States in this matter.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
HAMILTON FISH.
[ Inclosure.—Sir E. Thornton to Mr. Fish. ]
Washington, May 22, 1876.
Hon. HAMILTON FisH, &c., de.:
Str: I have the honor to inclose copies of two circulars which I re-
ceived in November last from Professor Henry, Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution, relative to the exchange of official documents between
the Governments of the United States and of Her Majesty. I forwarded —
copies of the circulars to Lord Derby, but as it does not appear that any
formal arrangement has yet been made between the two governments
for the general exchange of official documents, his lordship has directed
me to inquire whether the Smithsonian Institution is acting on behalf
of the Government of the United States. I shall have much pleasure
in conferring with you upon this subject during my next visit to the State
Department with a view to ascertain more precisely what would be the
British official documents which the United States Government would
desire to receive in exchange for those of this country.
I have the honor to be, with the highest consideration, —
Sir, your obedient servant,
EDWARD THORNTON.
[The Smithsonian Institution to the State Department. ]
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, June 2, 1876.
Hon. HAMILTON FIsH,
Secretary of State:
DEAR Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your let-
ter of the 29th ultimo, and the accompanying letter from Sir Edward ‘e
Thornton, relative to the question whether the Smithsonian Institution —
is acting in behalf of the Government of the United States as agent
in the exchange of public documents between the government of this
country and that of Great Britain.
As a reply to this question I beg leave to refer you to the acts of Con-
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. tds
gress approved by the President of the United States, March 2, 1867
(Stat., vol. xiv, p. 573); July 25, 1868 (Stat., vol. xv, p. 260); sec. 3796
Rey. Stat.
As to the question what official documents the United States Gov-
ernment desires to receive from Great Britain, I would say that as the
United States Government intends to send a full set of everything that
is printed at the government expense, a similar return would be ex-
pected of all documents published by the British Government.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary of Smithsonian Institution.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, March 25, 1877.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY,
Washington, D. C., &e., &e., &e. :
Sir: I inclose herewith, for your information, a copy of a dispatch of
the 7th instant, No. 138, from Mr. Pierrepont, the minister for the United
States at London, relating to the subject of international exchange of
public documents.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
I. W. SEWARD,
Assistant Secretary.
[Inclosure. ]
No. 138.] Legation of the United States,
London, March 7, 1877.
Hon. HAMILTON FISH,
Secretary of State, &c., &e., &c., Washington, D. C.:
Simm: I received sometime since from Professor Henry, of the Smith-
sonian Institution, a letter in relation to the international exchange of
documents between the United States and Great Britain, and inclosing
a circular upon the subject.
I was not able conveniently to bring the matter to the attention of
Lord Derby until the 20th of October last, when I sent to him a copy of
Dr. Henry’s letter and circular, and requested him to refer the subject
to the proper authorities.
He acknowledged the receipt of my communication on the 31st of
October, but it was not until the 1st instant that I received from his
lordship a definite answer to Dr. Henry’s proposal, a copy of which
answer I herewith inclose, and ask that you will do me the favor to
- communicate it to Dr. Henry.
I have the honor to be,
With great respect, your obedient servant,
EDWARDS PIERREPONT.
(72 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
[Inclosure. ]
[Lord Derby to Mr. Pierrepont. ]
Foreign Office, March 1, 1877.
Hon. EDWARDS PIERREPONT, dc., éc., &e.:
Srr: With reference to my letter of 31st of October last, I have the
honor to acquaint you that the proposal of the Smithsonian Institution
for an interchange of documents between the United States and this —
country has been considered by the lords of Her Majesty’s treasury,
and that they have informed me that they do not think it expedient
to agree to an unlimited and indiscriminate exchange of papers, the
greater part of which would be only of local and temporary interest.
Arrangements have been made for the purchase for Her Majesty’s —
government of the Congressional documents issued from year to year,
which appear to include all that is required for the use of this depart-
ment.
I have accordingly the honor to request that you will be so good as.
to inform Professor Henry that Her Majesty is grateful for the offer
made by the Smithsonian Institution, but are not prepared to enter —
into an arrangement for the unlimited interchange of documents sug-
gested in his letter to you of the 21st of July last.
I have the honor to be, with the highest consideration, —
Sir, your most obedient, humble servant,
DERBY.
[Legation of Austria-Hungary to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Saratoga, July 31, 1878.
Professor 8. F. BATRD,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution:
Sir: Incompliance with the wishes expressed by the imperial and royal
minister of finances, I have the honor to transmit you herewith for the—
library of the Smithsonian Institution a complete file of the publications —
a ee Te ee =
NAR Re Bos Ne ia
7.
*
concerning various projects of law, presented by the Austro-Hungarian ~
Government to the delegations of the Austro-Hungarian Empire dur- —
ing the session December 3, 1877—June 7, 1878, as well as of all the 3
resolutions adopted by the said delegations and sanctioned hereafter —
by His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty.
Receive, sir, the assurances of my very distinguished consideration,
TAVEREZ,
Chargé @ Affaires of Austria-Hungary.
Arrangements effected with most of the governments interested im
the system of exchanges have resulted in instructions to their respective
representatives in Washington to facilitate such operations officially ;
and accordingly their several consuls at New York and Ballons now
act as forwarding agents.
~l
~)
qo
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Shipping agents of government exchange.
Countries. Agents.
Argentine Republic -....| Consul-General Carlos Carranza, New York.
LES Cae eee See ee North German Lloyd, Baltimore.
TRE Ge Se esse White Cross Line and Red Star Line, New York.
Py eaztleee worst ct eraete, vccroe's Consul Charles Mackall, Baltimore.
Buenos Ayres. .---.. =<-- Carlos Carranza, consul-general, New York.
CANA apes = ccc) wcinciciclorwici= Baltimore and Ohio Express Company.
Clini tig aa eae eee meer Consul-General C. de Castro, New York.
Winans aes 22) Sons Le Se Consul-General Hipolito de Uriarte, New York.
OYE ONE Nd che ee ects Consul-General Henrick Braem, New York.
MGUAN OLR seco ots cee = Consul Francis Spies, New York.
Rraneebeesiccenc ess cece Compagnie Générale Transatlantique, New York.
Genrmaniyy <= <—-\2055 -15= North German Lloyd, Baltimore.
Great Britain -....-..--.-- Do.
CTREGIQE: SSR asa eroGoO. cece Consul-General D. W. Botassi, New York.
Cuatemalea eos oseclosss Consul Jacob Baez, New York.
JIS Va eee ieee Atlas Steamship Company, New York.
Gay: ses atiacsse sess bee= Consul-General M. Raffo, New York.
APA rose oe eeeow sain Consul-General Samro Takaki, New York.
IMIGXI COR: Son tee sce ct ce Consul-General Juan N. Navarro, New York.
INetherlanGs:s.<ss.c-cne- Consul-General R. C. Burlage, New York.
New South Wales..-.-.-... R. W. Cameron & Co., New York.
INGw Zealand f2s5o.25-62 R. W. Cameron & Co., New York.
INORWaV feces t bso tsne/s se Consul-General Christian Bors, New York.
Portugal AE isos ee Consul-General Gustav Amsink, New York.
raenrat eee een North eae Lloyd, Baltimore.
Queensland... 2<).<2-.-
TERR RTE Sa a Se Hevabeee American Packet Company, New York.
SAKOMYRe oes saa cte wise ce North German Lloyd, Baltimore.
South Australia. ........ R. W. Cameron & Co., New York.
Palos shoe hee Sele cciet Consul-General Hipolito de Uriarte, New York.
SWedenin sense o22 eac ce. Consul-General Christian Boers, New York.
Switizerlandes2 ss. sysccee North German Lloyd, Baltimore.
asmania aaa socs coe 0.
PLURK OVW ose esate cisnsisce Turkish legation, Washington, D. C.
Venezuela .......--...-.| Consul-General G. de Garmendia, New York.
WMilCtOrias.2522c2 soc eisiee= R. W. Cameron & Co., New York.
Wiurtemberm ee. -a--5- <5 North German Lloyd, Baltimore.
Governments in exchange with the United States Government.
Establishments designated for the reception of the United
Governments. States Government publications.
Argentine Republic - ...- Minister of Foreign Affairs, Buenos Ayres.
Saal are ee eee ee KG6nigliche Bibliothek, Munich.
BOSTON ee safe hoc ween Bibliotheque Royale, Brussels.
levis Beas RO SeBARASeae Commission of International Exchange, Rio Janeiro.
UEnOS*AYVTES=--sc-s cose Government of Buenos Ayres, Buenos Ayres.
Wanad aes ay dee eo Parliamentary Library, Ottawa.
Legislative Library, Toronto.
Chileans iscae ces cs ae Museo Nacional, Santiago.
Wenn arkepen = te vos de a cio= Kongelige Bibliotheket, Copenhagen.
WTAN CO a= < 25,5) ioe sip Ses Gov ernment, Paris.
GOlrmanyy cise sce e = Seo Reichstags Bibliothek, Berlin.
Great Britain. ....-..... British Museum, London,
GTeeCO ia detacsaveesce 2 Bibliothéque Nationale.
BH a yol. ents Sans cee Secrétaire des relations extérieures, Port-au-Prince.
Really’ .2 5. Bese aaseas ss | Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele, Rome.
T74
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN
EXCHANGES.
Governments in exchange with the United States Government—Continued.
Establishments designated for the reception of the United
Governments. States Government publications,
Japanisseeeeeeeesec acces Minister of foreign affairs, Tokio.
Mexicoe se eset acess ---| Government, Mexico.
INGtherlandse=ss=s-ee ses: Library of the States General, the Hague.
New Sonth Wales-...--- Parliamentary Library, Sydney.
New, Zealand s..s2.. s--- Parliamentary Library, Wellington.
INHER? cone esuncode cooe Foreign office, Christiania.
ort mailesss aseeene eee Government, Lisbon.
IPTUSSIAS. - aoe eee Konigliche Bibliothek, Berlin.
Queensland “225 22-----+ Government, Brisbane.
IRMASIA) soos sees cece setae Commission des Echanges Internationaux, St. Petersburg.
Saxony ess cosscececoss Kénigliche Bibliothek, “Dresden.
South Australia.....-.--- Government, Adelaide.
Spainyieae eee ke Government, Madrid.
Sweden ....-..-.-------| Government, Stockholm.
Swatzerlandeescee eens Eidgenossensche Bundes Canzley, Berne.
Masmania ..sstessesei- oni Parliamentary Library, Hobarton.
Murkeyesssaee pesos .----| Government, Constantinople.
Vienezuelai see -sce e255: University Library, Caracas.
WMictoriagsssccesoscenace ; Public Library, Melbourne.
Wiirtemberg..........-- | KGnigliche Bibliothek, Stuttgart.
Transmissions of Government exchanges.
Country. Box A (1). | Box B (2). Box C (8). Box D (4). Box E (5).
|
Argentine Republic..........- Nov. 18, 1875 | Nov. 18, 1875 | Nov. 18. 1875 | Nov. 18, 1875 | Nov. 18, 1875
Bavaria . 16, 1878 | Aug. 16, 1878 | Aug. 16, 1878 | Aug. 16, 1878 | Aug. 16, 1878
Belgium . 20, 1875 | Nov. 20, 1875 | Nov. 20, 1875 | Nov. 20, 1875 | Nov. 20, 1875
Brailes ee acters . 17, 1875 | Nov. 17, 1875 | Nov. 17, 1875 | Nov. 17, 1875 | Nov. 17, 1875
IBUCNOSPAVMES ees eee. oe Novy. 21, 1876 | Nov. 21, 1876 | Nov. 21, 1876 | Nov. 21, 1876 | Nov. 21, 1876
Canada (Ottawa) .-..-=...... << Nov. 5,1874| Nov. 5,1874 | Nov. 5,1874! Nov. 5,1874| Nov. 5, 1874
Canada (TLoronto)) -22--5--s2--- Oct. 10) 1874 Oct. 10,1874 | Oct. 10,1874 | Oct. 10,1874 | Dec. 13, 1875
Chilis 2 a Jecsseessccesccsccsace June 18, 1875 | June 18, 1875 | Jan. 31,1875 Jan. 31,1875 | Jan 31, 1875
Denmark se secosceeesmee sce Mar. 20, 1879 | Mar. 20, 1879 | Mar. 20, 1879 | Mar. 20,1879 | Mar. 20, 1879
inngland ee csaen eeosencce cee onne Sept. 1, 1876 | Sept. 11, 1876 | Sept. 11,1876 | Sept. 11, 1876 | Sept. 11, 1876
Pan COl coe Wee eae sean oe Nov. 11, 1875 | Nov. 11, 1875 | Nov. 11, 1875 | Nov. 11, 1875 | Nov. 11, 1875
Neconadsebiesses=eeaeess eas July 3,1879| July 3,1879| July 3,1879| July 3,1879| July 3, 1879
Gorman see aesne soos eee Oct. 8,1874) Oct. 8,1874| Oct. 8,1874| Oct. 8,1874| Aug. 7, 1876
GEE6COR<- oa hewcecesenaes cana Nov. 21, 1877 | Nov. 21, 1877 | Oct. 10,1877 | Oct. 10,1877 | Oct. 10, 1877
Maytis 2. S252. abecemsec cs sect July 24,1876 | July 24,1876 | July 24,1876 | July 24,1876 | July 24, 1876
TSC) ) Fats Gena en ee Dee. 14,1875 | Dee. 14, 1875 | Dee. 14, 1875 | Dec. 14,1875 | Dec. 14, 1875
Mthaly ess cicesemene cece eae Feb. 23, 1881 | Feb. 23,1881 | Feb. 23,1881 | Feb. 23,1881 | Feb. 23, 1881
VaApaN’.. sanciisccecscceassceceee Nov. 2,1874| Nov. 2,1874| Nov. 2,1874| Nov. 2,1874| Nov. 2, 1874
IWMGxI COR. peeihene ee ecceee Dec. 1,1875| Dec. 1,1875| Dec. 1,1875| Dec. 1,1875| Dec. 1, 1875
New South Wales.......-...-- July 30, 1876 | July 30, 1876 | July 30,1876 | July 30, 1876 | July 30, 1876
New Zealand) 2. nse tetsceeoes AAO Seen Daeidolccnres doves dow ese G0 Sate
INOTWAVE soe moe tance cee ete June 12,1873 June 18, 1873 Dee. 11, 1876 Dec. ll, 1876 | Dec. 11, 1876
Portuvalls2s.. scape sees sscece= Novy. it: 1875 | Nov. 11, 1875 | Nov. 11, 1875 | Noy. is 1875 | Noy. 11, 1875
TONER Oh Saconethe ob sosscoesec Aug. 7 1876 | Aug. 7,1876| Aug. 7, 1876 | Aug. cB 1876 | Aug. 7, 1876
Qucenslandteceecesces sce oe ss June 9,1876| June 9,1876| June 9,1876| June 9,1876| June 9, 1876
ROSSA eee nee ca ee eat eee Nov. 2,1881 |} Nov. 2,1881 |} Nov. 2,1881| Nov. 2,1881/ Nov. 2, 1881
SaxOnyeeeeeee sees | Aug. 28,1876 | Aug. 28, 1876 | Aug. 28, 1876 | Aug. 28, 1876 | Aug. 28,1876 —
Scotland Dec. 26, 1876 | Dec. 26,1876 | Dec. 26,1876 | Dec. 26,1876 | Dec. 26,1876 —
South Australia July 38,1876 | July 3, 1876 | July 3,1876| July 33,1876) July 3,1876 ©
Spainyiss cee cenessesseecereeee Dec. 9,1876 | Dec. 9, 1876 | Dec. 9,1876| Dec. 9,1876| Dec. 9,1876 7
Sweden tas soso ee Nov. 11, 1875 | Nov. 11, 1875 | Nov. 11, 1875 | Nov. 11, 1875 | Nov. 11,1875 ©
Switzerland ...... ao sobonsoss¢ Oct. 31,1876 | Oct. 31,1876 | Oct. 31,1876 | Oct. 31,1876 | Oct. 31, 1876
PASMANIG Ss scnstsciacsscccesaae July 15, 1876 | July 15,1876) July 15,1875 | July 15,1876 | July 15, 1876 ‘
Parkey, Moss ase eres eee ee eee Nov. 9,1875| Nov. 9,1875| Nov. 9,1875| Nov. 9,1875| Nov. 9,187 ©
Menozuelam a. manasa amen ere | July 24, 1876 | July 24,1876 | July 24,1876 | July 24,1876 | July 24, 1-76
WAGLOLIA! cba goee cere aceon eaee June 9,1876| June 9,1876| June 9,1876| June 9,1876 | June 5S, 1876
Wrurtembere-ssscenea-necseen Jan. 28,1879 | Jan. 28,1879| Jan. 28,1879 | Jan. 28,1879 | Jan 28, 1879
HISTORY OF
THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
Dt
Transmissions of Government exchanges—Continued.
Country. Box F (6). Box G (7). Box H (8). Box I (9). Box K (10).
Argentine Republic ...........] Nov. 18, 1875 | Dec. 12,1877 | Dec. 12,1877 | Dec. 12,1877 | Jan. 12,1878
PBA AL ec cicmeetemice coe kicne Aug. 16, 1878 | Aug. 16, 1878 | Ang. 16, 1878 | Aug. 16,1878 | Aug. 16, 1-78
IARI SS Ses Sse conoceoeoses. Noy. 20,1875 | Oct. 31,1876 | Mar. 20,1877 | Oct. 31,1877| Jan. 12,1878
LRA So aneenecqannaseGOECGcLe INOW AISTbi)-n- OO... nos SOO aaa pee Hi (eae Ca MO wes tees
IBDONOS ALCS sacs cse ccs aclcess Nov. 21, 1876 Nov. 21, 1876 | Dec. 12, 1877 ‘Dee. OA STalicc a0 ce eaee
Canada (Ottawa) .......-...... Dec. 13,1875 | Oct., 1876) Apr. 28, AST Ochels L877) |= ~-- Oreo eee
Canada (Toronto) . --....-. |e domes amon case : {Ogee oe eOOlenne sae) sees ri ees
(Chin 2 5 Joe Saab ep sepenmoeeee == Deol sal LSib) | face dOmmcce ne ‘Mar. 20 ISI eo sd Oinesae oh OM as
MenmMarkienssssssaesmseecsscece Mar. 20, 1879 | Mar. 20, 1879 | Mar. 20, 1879 “Mar. 20,1879 | Mar. 20, 1879
MMPAN Gea we Nascecssceccectes Sept. 11, 1876 | Oct. 15, 1876 | Sept. 29! 1877 | Sept. 22,1877 | Jan. 12, 1878
HTranNC Ogee see ene s seat noe aca Nov. 11, 1875 | Mar. 20, 1877 | Mar. 20, 1877 | Oct. 5, IVa las att Vee sn
SOCONMIROD pee se ceo eee ene July 3,1879 | July e 1879 | July 3, 1879 | July oy 1879 | July 3, 1879
(CAnManyeroece ess coeacclees cles Aug. 7, 1876 | Oct 15, 1876 | Mar. 20, 1877 | Sept. 12,1877 | Jan. 12, 1878
Grecceisesa.- wsesasscsss ccce aes Oct. 10, 1877 Out 10, TST || Octs. LOs18Te Oct, LOHT8Tini== =2001-s--s--
NT ahd ee Soot ce oa joacaceck es July 24, 1876! Oct. 31, 1877 | Oct. 31, 1877 | Oct. Pay ile Seri eee
IOAN G Mecees case ae we tees) =~ | Dec. 14 1875) OGt:. 15; 1876iees-dol-se- ee o-- dOjtsanaes
Gal ecseoms orn cee etoac basses Feb. 23, 1881 | Feb. 23,1881 | Feb. 23, 1881 "Web. 23, 1881 | Fe b. 23, 1881
APA eae see oc cee ecco ta scet ae Nov. 9,1875} Oct. 24, 1876 | Oct. 24, 1877 | Sept. 13,1877 | Jan. 12, 1878
Mexico ...............--.------| Dec. 1,1875| Oct. 15, 1876 | Mar. 20,1877 | Oct. 31,1877 |....do..-.-..
New South Wales July, © 1876! Oct. 9,1876| Nov. 9, 1877 | Oct. 17,1877 |.-.-do.---..-
Wow: Zealand ssacsceosrcsecece dounseee lyn O pleas cia See Ge ease] Hees One a2 doer
UNODWidiyie oceeecetecncestessee Dec. 11, 1876 Dee. 11, 1876 Oct. BIST Oct oleloin lee nOO eases
ortnvals coaces cece ac scicc ess Nov. 11, 1875 | Oct. 15, 1876 | Mar: /20; 1877, |22-2do...---- POO eee
TESTE ge Pe a Aug. 7. 1876) sed Oscar Hdonteee as ‘Sept. LIAS UT eo COracmetate
@uceenslands= soce soe enneosc June 9,1876| Oct. 9, 1876 Nov, 9, TRY AA Onis ab Alley reas ly Secs =
RUSSIA Aeon hou Seseesee cscs es ae Nov. 2,1881| Nov. 2,1881 Nov. 2,1881 | Nov. 2,1881] Nov. 2, 1°81
NAXOMY: eae cee etasenabenee Aug. 28,1876 | Oct. 15,1876 | Mar. 20, 1877 | Sept. 12, 1877 | Jan. 12,1878
Srotland see sce eae meee Dec., 1876 | Dec. 20, 1876 | Sept. 22, 1877 |. ...do PPE aul se
South Australia-s.e.-se. ]2- == July 3,1876| Oct. 9,1876| Nov. 9, 1877 Oct. 17, IST? haeidot eee
Pain ee see ec a es aees res Dec. 9,1876} Dec. 9,1876 | Nov. 16,1877 | Nov. 16,1877 |... do .--.--.
Oiredenesesecee osceesee eco eas Nov. 11, 1875 | Dee. 20, 1876 | Oct. 31,1877 | Oct. 31, VSTi a OO een
Swatzerland 265. -sccseesccece = Oct., 1876 | Oct. 15, 1876| Mar. 20, 1877 | Sept. 17, 1877 |....do ..-.---
FRAaRMANID Me occ cca coc eebeecnes July, 1876 | Oct. 9,1876 | Nov. 9,1877 | Oct. 17,1877 |.-..do -.-/..
PurKoyy soscscmiesscce cook Sescice Nov. 9,1875 | Nov. 21,1876 | Mar. 20, 1877 | Sept. 13, 1877 |.--.do ..----.
Wenezudlaecssesececsczscceest July 24,1876 | Oct. 31,1877 | Oct. 31,1877 | Oct. 31,1877 |... do ..-..-.
Va ai eet aoe ee donee June 9,1876| Oct. 9,1876| Nov. 9,1877| Oct. 17,1877 |.--.do --.---.
SWHITtCIND ELD se nenceere rece. - Jan. 28,1879 | Jan. 28,1879 | Jan. 28,1879 | Jan. 28,1879 Jan. 28,1279
Transmissions of Government axchanges—Continued.
Country. Box L (11). | Box M (12). | Box N (13). | Box O (14). | Box P (15).
Argentine Republic. .......... Oct. 4,1878 | Oct. 11,1879 | Jul Fils 1880 | Apr. 13,1881 | Oct. 28, 1681
Irie Cy Se See en soOS eACeeE Oct: -23;1878)|5222do0ie-o---= : AD Tago NIeSl sacar censae
BE oIUM eRe esosedatscecsocs Ochi a, Stee don soccer |= ae Apr. 13, 1881 (dOmesa ee
lye alee a Scoct oceccsoneeos Oct 23 NlS78ilE=--dOwcceene | sear Apr. oO 188) less d0leceoers
IBMeENGS*AWTESE pas) soe - ce cco nne Octs G4 1878)|\<22:d0.2.ccse5 ss | Amrais, 1880 5-2: domescens
Ganada (Ottawa) -:.......s.... Opts (Sj TS(8ia--20O saece eee 2 Apr-2 9.18819 |p-odOnee eases
Canada (Toronto) ............. ean O)ase suit ox Omsaues ce |ess EGO) seceeae Soot esencec
Ghai Pe eee ees odes sce satsalinet=.- COE Cseeee PEEL CO SAB Ae SII nee “Apr. 13, 1881 |.---do ....-
Mar 520) 1879i|\psaedOmeceese|= at [dO esses seat COrauease
Oct. 5, 1878 Feb. 6, 1880 |... = “Apr. 9, fash |b2dos es
Ber (ieee Oct. 11,1879]... OOsecsmee se 00) tee
JULY, (3) L819) edo) saeee |e Se ‘Apr. TE 188s Pes dow ween
Octe23 A87Sill= doe oes eccls Abs -| Apr. 9, 1881 |----do Scents
Oct d)1878)|-22-00. see) a5 a -| Apr. 13, TES IG | eer Omececee
| Oct. A NS7 8122 Osea cee eelar eOOkeeces Se peu OOricecene
Oct. 5, 1878 Oct. L3s1879}) 2S -- BEA (haere EX UO NGesa ee
Feb. 23,1881] Feb. 23,1881] Feb. 23, 1881 "Ap Tg) tBSle|ceeedO cece
| Oct. 5,187&| Oct. 11, 1879 aay 30, 1880 ane 18-1881 oe do\eeeens
i Oct. 4, 1878 | Oct. 13) TS7Ohee dol satan: JocteriLO! sane saist pests i Ke ie Seer
New South Wales. .......-....|- BOs cscs (bee GOlssccueslseos Ghai ease erdOweece ls SS ALOy So cee
ANE ZA CETL ha Gs (ES ee eae AG (eee ere dots asta OOw scenes Peed Oloewace Bi Ce ee eS
BNGIWAy meee ciseatotuaecccesce Oct. 965, 18(8)|2- edo nesses lpeee GSES) eee eee eC eee
PONGUe a Peet sose tone svecige = acme Ghee Sade Sept. 19, 1879 |... do .......|-... dOje=~-- exer OO ee ace
DE iS ie ae ee ee Oct. 23, 1878 | Oct. 13, 1879) 2220.55 2.25- AS Sm Paktoa Ly be pati ee
G@ureensland soceea = le ecnuce st a5 Oct. ry IST Si- = --dOieese =| sees GO iesse cee eee Ore se sens |ene i Re
RSS Ey aeeee See tes See oe an as Nov 2) 1881 | Nov. 2,1881] Nov. 2,181 Nov. 2,1881| Nov. 2.1881
DARONY oes ees Sos sone ce eee aee Oct. 23,1878 | Oct. 13,1879 | July 30,1880} Apr. 9, 1881 | Oct 28) 1x81
Pestiandesiee asec o 5 es eee oe LG Ye) relents So Basil Sa Ga | Re eR ee De ea lyse ras tes
Sonth Australia ............--- Oct. 4,1878) Oct. 13,1879} Nov. 2, 1881 AD 1881! Oct. 28, 1881
SRS aoe sien e eee tose cas Oct. 1, 1878 | Sept. 19, 1879 | July 30, 1880 oe Bae [eon O0beom eee
Sncd enbe emma ea ews Otte) 5718753 |(Oote dan leroll ceeedoeceeeus |p outdo sccees |see- dow eeees
Switzerland <.sssss-s2-- cee cee Octi2371878) 25-200) seeeoee ls -donnees ss] ‘Apr O° 1681) |= -sdosceecse
EASMANIA Seceees capa se soc ceces Octs. T451SV Sees dO hceteasl oe ok doje eet et aC (ie ace | eee do $....
PMC CY Aa ae tea aceva sees Oct 23, ISTH eerdO taco cs |sascdO sent oan) on egy ane ae OBE Sc
Weneznelasee. 22h. sche scccoss Oct. 1, 1878 |... en Se ae lice A ees ae es sO eens ee OR em ne
LELOLI Aeeameysaaice sone oe eee OC als (Sie aedO eee sae lecaeUUneeeecuc “Apr. Sp POS |cewet Ole ccete
Wiuntempbers 25.26. s.cscne es Jan. 28,1879 | Oct. ib lea ksi) ee yee Aprin.o} eel Z dO aenas
—_————
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTICE OF PROCEEDINGS CONSEQUENT UPON THE
: PARIS CONVENTION OF 1875.
The Smithsonian Institution, which has thus for the third of a cen-
tury undertaken, as one of its fields of activity, a system of free inter-
national exchanges of the scientific and literary productions of all coun-
tries, has now achieved a magnitude of operations beyond which it finds
a further extension impossible with its present limited resources. It
has been seen that for the last six years the average cost of its exchange
system has slightly exceeded $10,000 per annum, or one-fourth of its
entire income. The growing disposition among various governments,
within this period, to support a system of mutual exchange, inspired
the hope that our own government would lend its aid in co-operating
with so beneficent an enterprise, and in thus establishing our own ex-
changes upon a truly national basis. With this view various efforts
have been made by this Institution; first, to obtain government aid in
defraying the expenses incurred in the distribution of government pub-
lications; and secondly, to secure the recognition of the really national
service of the Smithsonian exchanges generally, and to induce Congress
to relieve the Institution of its now over-grown burden; so that its funds
might be applied to other pressing demands for “the increase and diffu-
sion of knowledge among men.”
An account of the international congress of Paris, and of the concur-
rence of various governments in its recommendations, is here subjoined,
together with the principal portion of the Smithsonian correspondence
with the State Department, in relation to the subject of international
exchanges.
During the months of August and September, 1875, an international
congress of geographical sciences was held at Paris, consisting of several
hundred delegates from all parts of the globe, and representing the
following national governments: Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Chili,
Dominican Republic, France, Germany, Italy, Hungary, Norway, Portu-
gal, Roumania, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Swiss Confederation, Turkey, and
the United States of America. A prominent result of this conference
was a unanimous resolution to enlist the co-operation of the respective
governments there represented in securing the free interchange of official
and other publications, in accordance with the following:
PROPOSED PLAN FOR THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE OF SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS
TO BE SUBMITTED TO THE CONTRACTING POWERS.
The undersigned delegates propose to request their respective govern-
ments to organize in each country a central bureau whose duty it shall
be to collect such cartographic, geographic, and other publications as
may be issued at the expense of the state, and to distribute the same
among the various nations which adopt the present programme.
These bur eaus, Which shall correspond directly with each other, shall
776
* Ra a Oe
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. Cire
serve to transmit the international scientific communications of learned
societies.
They shall serve as the intermediate agents for the procurement, on
the best possible terms, of books, maps, instruments, &c., published or
manufactured in each country, and desired by any of the contracting
countries. .
Each country shall transmit at least one copy of its national publica-
tions to the other contracting countries.
In order to accomplish this project, the Baron de Vatteville, who was
charged by his colleagues with the formation, at Paris, of a central
commission of exchanges, convoked a meeting of those signers of the
convention of August 12, 1875, who reside at Paris, at the ministry of
public instruction.
The commission thus formed, desirous of securing the exchange of
publications and official documents relating to the sciences which tend
to promote a knowledge of the globe, such as, first, astronomy, geodesy,
cartography, geography, topography, geology, mineralogy, botany, an-
thropology, hygiene, zoology, entomology, explorations and travels, his-
tory, archeology, linguistics, numismatics, &e.; and, secondly, statisti-
cal information of all kinds, has prepared, discussed, and adopted the
regulations mentioned below, which its members will submit to their
respective governments for approval.
Section L—General arrangements.
Article 1. Each high contracting party shall designate in its country
a bureau as the center for international exchanges, and shall communi-
cate its exact title and address to the other governments.
Art. 2. Each bureau shall prepare a bibliography of the official works
published within late years and which they are inclined to exchange.
It shall transmit at least one copy of this list to the foreign bureaus, and
shall engage to notify these same bureaus of all new oiiicial publications
as they may appear.
Art. 3. The bureau of each country may (subject to the ratification of
its government) make use of the opportunity to include in the list of pro-
posed exchanges such publications as are not, strictly speaking, comprised
in the category of the sciences above mentioned.
Section I].—Haxchanges between governments and departments.
Art. 4. All official documents, that is to say, publications issued at the
expense of the state, shall be exchanged gratuitously. With regard to
these each high contracting party engages to transmit to the foreign
bureaus at least one copy of each of its publications, excepting, however,
those which relate to the national defense.
Art. 5. If any country shall desire for any purpose to receive more
than one copy of the official publications of any other country, the num-
ber thereof shall be fixed by a previous arrangement through means of
the bureaus of exchange, on the basis of an equitable reciprocity.
Section I1].—Haxchanges between governments and learned societies.
Art. 6. If any scientific society or institution, whether receiving a
subsidy from the state or not, shall desire to receive directly official
publications from any foreign country, it shall address the bureau of its
778 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
country, which shall serve as agent for obtaining the most favorable
conditions.
Art. 7. Any modifications of these conditions of the exchanges agreed
upon by two countries, relative to the suppression of a document or the
transmission of additional copies, must pass through the bureaus of the
countries interested.
Section 1V.—Hxchanges between learned societies.
Art. 8. The bureau will serve as intermediary between scientific
societies, whether subsidized or not, which may desire to make ex-
changes between themselves, by giving all the information at their dis-
posal. It will also act officially in regard to authors, publishers, or
manufacturers of instruments, whose publications or productions may
be desired by either a state or a foreign scientific society, in order to
procure the advantage of the greatest possible reductions in favor of
the appheants.
Art. 9. The bureau is not to take any part in the exchanges between
clubs or associations which do not have a well-defined scientific or liter-
ary character, nor in exchanges between manufacturers, publishers, or
authors.
Section V.—Transmissions and payment of carriage.
This section remains to be prepared in accordance with the reply which
shall be received from the postal union, in reference to the request for
free transport which has been addressed to the same on behalf of the
commission by the Baron de Vatteville. This is also the case with re-
gard to the protocol, the terms of which can only be determined upon by
the different governments in pursuance of a previous arrangement.
Done at Paris, January 29, 1876, council chamber of the ministry of
public instruction, &c., division of science and letters, first bureau,
under the authority of the minister of public instruction, by the assis-
tant secretary and director of the bureau of sciences and letters.
; BARON DE VATTEVILLE,
President of the Commission for International Exchanges.
On the 25th of April, 1876, the Hon. Hamilton Fish, Secretary of
State, communicated to the Hon. Benjamin H. Bristow, the Secretary of
the Treasury, the ‘‘proposed plan of international exchange” promul-
gated by the Paris commission January 25, 1876.
Copies of these communications were transmitted by the honorable
Secretary of the Treasury to Professor Henry, the President of the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences and Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, with the following letter:
Treasury Department, May 2, 1876.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY, LL.D.,
President National Academy of Sciences:
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith for the consideration of
the National Academy of Sciences a copy of a letter of the 25th ultimo
from the henorable the Secretary of State, inclosing a copy of a com-
munication dated Paris, the 15th of March, 1876, addressed to that de-
partment by Dr. W. E. Johnston, in relation to the establishment of a
bureau of international exchanges of works of science, together with
*
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 779
copies of a letter of February 23, 1876, from Baron de Vatteville, presi-
dent of the Commission of International Exchanges at Paris, and a plan
adopted by the commission, which it is proposed to submit to the con-
tracting powers.
The department would be pleased to be favored with the views of
the Academy of Sciences upon this subject, and any recommendations
it may see fit to make.
I have the honor to be, sir, your obedient servant,
B. H. BRISTow,
Secretary.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C., May 4, 1876.
Hon. B. H. BRIsTow,
Secretary of Treasury:
Str: Your letter of the 2d instant, relative to the establishment of
an international bureau for the exchange of works of science, &e., with
the accompanying documents, has been received, and in behalf of the
National Academy of Sciences, and also of this Institution, I respect-
fully submit the following as an answer.
From the earliest period of the establishment of scientific societies in
America, it has been customary to exchange their publications for those
of similar institutions in all parts of the world.
About thirty years ago, as stated by Dr. Johnston, Alex. Vattemare
attempted to establish a system of international literary and scientific
exchange between France and the United States, and succeeded in in-
teresting in his project several of the States of the Union. The enter-
prise, however, was an individual one, and fell into disuse principally
on account of want of adequate means for carrying it on.
In 1846 the Smithsonian Institution was organized by the bequest of
an English gentleman for the “increase and diffusion of knowledge
among men.” ‘To realize the ideas of the founder it was resolved by the
directors of the establishment to institute various scientific investiga-
tions, and to send a copy of the published results of these to each of the
principal libraries of the world. To carry out this idea it was necessary
to appoint paid agents in various parts of the Old World through whom
the publications of the Institution might be distributed, and those of
foreign institutions received in return. This system was soon after-
wards extended so as to include the publications of all the learned so-
cieties of the United States, Canada, and South America, with those of
the Old World. This has now been successfully carried on for upwards
of a quarter of a century, and has been so enlarged as to embrace the in-
stitutions of almost every part of the civilized world, as exhibited in the
following table.*
The expense of this system of exchange, which has enriched all the
* This table is omitted, as not here important.
780 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
principal libraries of the United States and of foreign nations, has been
borne entirely by the Smithsonian Institution, and now amounts to
nearly seven thousand dollars annually. This expense, however, would
be much greater were it not for the generous co-operation of various
American, British, French, and German steamship companies, which
carry the packages without charge for transportation. As a further
extension of the system, Congress has directed that fifty copies of each
of its annual publications be given to the Institution for exchange with
foreign governments.
In view of the foregoing statements, 1 do not think it in the least de-
gree probable that the Government of the United States would think
it advisable at present to establish a special bureau for co-operating in
the plan proposed by the congress of geographical sciences.
I may say, however, in behalf of the Smithsonian Institution, that it
will cheerfully co-operate with the system proposed as soon as it has
succeeded in establishing its organization, and also that if, at any time,
the Government of the United States chooses to assume the expense of
a purely national establishment, the Institution would devote the money
it now expends in this direction to other objects connected with the
‘increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.”
I have the honor to be, yours, respectfully,
JOSEPH HENRY,
President National Academy and Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
[The Portuguese commissioners to the president of the, Belgian commission. ]
Lisbon, March 1, 1877.
Str: The agreement signed August 12, 1875, by yourself and the
Portuguese commissioners on the occasion of the geographical congress
at Paris, is without doubt the most valuable result of that scientific
and truly international reunion which has contributed in so efficacious
a manner in drawing closer the intellectual relations already established
between the nations they represented.
The scientific literary and art exchanges organized, in a sure and
permanent manner, in aiding unquestionably in the rapid and thorough
diffusion of science, ought to create indissoluble bonds of union between
the different groups of the human family—bonds which cannot fail to
be most profitable to the great cause of civilization.
True to its agreement, and convinced of the immense advantages
which must spring up for all nations from the realization of so generous
a thought, the Portuguese Government has appointed a commission
provisionally charged with the organization of the service of scientific,
literary, and art exchanges on such a basis which should not sensibly
deviate from that which we have the honor to communicate to you
herewith, and which has been accepted by the commissioners residing
at Paris, who constitute an interuational committee.
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 781
Our commission, however, composed of the undersigned, and provided
with the necessary power by a decree of the ministry of foreign affairs,
and of which inclosed you will find the translation, held that it should
first address itself to the signers of the agreement of August 12, for the
purpose of informing them of its organization and of requesting them
to furnish the necessary information which it needs for a proper dis-
charge of the duties with which it is intrusted.
It is with a view to the accomplishment of this, for us so honorable,
mission, that we beg you, sir, to communicate to us the ideas and reso-
lutions of your government on this point; also, what steps should be
taken to establish promptly and surely the service of scientific, literary,
and art exchanges between Portugal and Belgium, on a permanent, offi-
cial, and as extensive a basis as possible.
It is also our duty to inform you that the Portuguese Government has
instructed its representatives abroad to communicate to the govern-
ments to which they are accredited the establishment of our commis-
sion of international exchanges, and also the names of the members of
which it is composed.
Accept, sir, the assurance of our most distinguished consideration.
MARQUIS DE SouzA HOLSTEIN.
JOSE JULIO RODRIGUEZ.
[Circular of the Belgian commission to the learned societies of Belgium. ]
We have had the honor of explaining to you ina former circular,
which was addressed to you in 1873, that by royal decree of May 17,
1871, a commission was appointed charged with the organization of a
system of exchange between Belgium and foreign countries, of either
writings in every branch of intellectual activity or reproductions of
the principal monuments, or the most valuable objects in connection
with the graphic or plastic arts. The commission has been divided in
three sections; the second, representing the interests of literature,
bibliography, and numismatics, has inaugurated its labors by the pub-
lication of a catalogue in which is contained a statement of all periodic
publications issued in Belgium by learned societies, the departments,
associations, and private individuals. In the preparation of this list
our section made use of the documents transmitted by you in answer
to the above-named circular. This list appeared in the course of the
year 1874 under the title of “‘ Introduction to the bibliography of Belgium:
Brussels. Henry Manceaux.” At the instance of our section the gov-
ernment has also accorded its patronage to the same publisher for a
bibliography of Belgium. After having taken other steps with a view
to the completion of its organization, our section has now finally been
placed in the position of commencing active operations. We have been
able, consequently, upon the agreement signed by the delegates of
(82 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
twenty-two nations at the geographical congress at Paris in 1875, to
enter into relations with several committees already established abroad.
The time has arrived for us toask you that you will indicate precisely
what you are able to place at our disposal from among the publications
issued by your society since its foundation, be it from the stock on hand
or from future continuations of series, informing us of the number of
copies still at your disposal, as also their price.
It is understood that the publications now issuing as well as the fol-
lowing numbers are to be furnished at the subscription price. In regard
to those of previous years we trust that, in consideration of the fact
that it would increase the number of subscribers for your publications,
you will settle upon a moderate price, so that we may be able to accept
of it.
At some future time when we shall have received from foreign coun-
tries catalogues of works we may procure from them we shall have the
honor of communicating it to you so that you may indicate which of
the works would be desirable for you. Inthe majority of cases we shall
make return in kind of what you have furnished us; but the amount
for those you will have asked of us and we furnished will be deducted
and your account will be settled every year.
What we expect of your courtesy at present is the indication of the
material for exchange which we may procure from your society.
Accept, &c., &e.
L. ALVIN, President:
CHAS. RUELENS, Secretary. -
[The Smithsonian Institution to the State Department. ]
Smithsonian Institution, June 3, 1878.
Hon. Wm. M. EVARTS,
Secretary of State:
Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of
May 15, inclosing a communication from W. E. Johnston, M. D., in ref-
erence to the subject of international exchanges between the United
States and France. ah
In reply I beg to inform you that this Institution has been for a num-
ber of years charged by Congress with the duties of exchanging its offi-
cial publications and those of the various departments of the United
States Government for similar publications of foreign governments,
France among the number.
This Institution has also for a still longer period maintained a much
more comprehensive and extended system of communication between
learned societies and specialists of the New World and those of the Old,
receiving serial and other publications from South and Central Amer-
ica, the West Indies, and the British provinces of North America, 2s -
well as those of the United States, and transmitting them through its
agents abroad. These, in turn, receiving any parcels from the countries
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCIIANGES. 783
represented by them for transmission to any portion of America, like-
wise through the Smithsonian Institution.
A special element in the Smithsonian system of international ex-
changes consists in the employment of a number of agents in different
portions of Europe, a list of whom is herewith inclosed. It will be seen
that the agent of France is Mr. Gustav Bossange, the well-known book-
seller, of Paris.
It will be entirely agreeable to the Smithsonian Institution to adopt
any plan of communication between the United States and France that
may be considered an improvement upon the present, although it could
not now undertake to assume any responsibility beyond that of taking
charge of official publications interchanged between the two govern-
ments, and of any parcels addressed to scientific individuals and insti-
tutions.
If the Department of State should think proper to instruct the Ameri-
can minister at Paris to serve as agent in these transactions it will be
an improvement upon the present system which we shall be happy to see
carried into effect.
I am, very respectfully and truly, your obedient servant,
SPENCER I’. BAIRD,
Secretary of Smithsonian Institution.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, August 28, 1878.
SPENCER F. BAIRD, Esq,,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.:
Str: Referring to your letter of the 3rd of June last to this department
in relation to the international exchange of works of science, a copy of
which was transmitted to our minister at Paris, and by him communi-
cated to Dr. Johnston, the American delegate to the congress for pro-
moting the organization of a more extensive system of such exchanges,
I have the honor to inclose herewith, for your consideration, a partial
report just received by this department from Dr. Johnston as to the
proceedings of the congress in relation to the subject-matter of this cor-
respondence. ~
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
I. W. SEWARD,
Acting Secretary.
[Inclosure. ]
Paris, August 5, 1878.
His Excellency Wm. M. EVArts,
Secretary of State:
Sir: In reply to your excellency’s letter of June 10, addressed to the
American minister at Paris, and that of Mr. Baird, Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution, of June 3, accompanying, both relating to the
proposed official organization of a system of international exchanges of
184 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES,
works of science, I have the honor, at the request of Mr. Hitt, chargé
@affaires, to again address you on the subject, and to lay before you
some other considerations in regard to this scheme.
All the governments which are represented by diplomatic agents at
Paris, with the exception of England and Germany, which still hold out
in order to first see the working of the scheme, have given in their ad-
hesion and agreed to the creation, within the bureaus of their respective
foreign secretaries, of an agency, with a special employé, charged with
the duty of international exchanges of works of science.
It is hoped that an arrangement may be made in regard to the trans-
portation of these exchanges which will reduce the expenses to a mere
trifle.
Will the Smithsonian Institution, which is already organized for this
kind of work, and which has been making exchanges with a certain
number of foreign governments for a good many years, assume to do
this work, on the more enlarged and more official scale which is now
proposed, and enter, as the occasion presents, into direct communication
with the different foreign bureaus; or will it demand to do this work
through the foreign leg rations of the United States; ; or, finally, will it
prefer, if the State Department will do this work, to abandon it to the
State Department entirely?
The foreign bureaus would much prefer, for the sake of simplicity and-
uniformity in the service, that the work should be done in the United
States exactly as it is done here—that is to say, by a special bureau
established within the State Department. The American legation at
Paris would also prefer that the exchange should be made by direct
communication through the burean, rather than through its agency, and
it is probable that the other European legations, where exchanges are
to be made, would also prefer the direct communication.
Nevertheless, as regards the Smithsonian Institution, the relations of
this Institution to the government, and its superior facilities for this
kind of work, are so well known that in the various meetings of the
congress no objection was ever raised to its assimilation with the pur-
posed official bureaus of the different governments.
As I have already had the honor of informing your excellency, the
last meeting of the congress was composed, exclusively, with the excep-
tion of myself, of official personages, some thirty-in number, mostly
members of the diplomatic corps; and I desire to know of your excel-
leney whether it would not be more appropriate for one of the members
of the American legation to assume hereafter the duty of representing
the United States in this congress. In view of the fact, however, that
there may not be more than one or two more meetings of the congress,
I have been requested by the legation to continue to fill the duty of the
delegate to the end.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
W. EK. JoHNSTON, M. D.
[The Smithsonian Institution to the State Department. ]
Smithsonian Institution, September 17, 1878.
Hon. Wm. M. Evarts,
Secretary of State:
Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of a communica-
tion from the State Department, dated August 28, inclosing a letter
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 785
from Dr. W. E. Johnston, of the 5th of August, in reference to the par-
ticipation of the Smithsonian Institution in the system of international
exchanges.
In reply to the suggestions of the letter referred to, I beg leave to
say that the Smithsonian Institution has becn engaged for nearly thirty
years in the development of its present system of international ex-
changes, prosecuted almost entirely at the expense of the Smithsonian
fund; that it has thoroughly met the needs and wishes of the scientific
men of both countries, and that unless there is some assurance that the
work can be carried on with equal efficiency under some new arrange-
ment it would be considered inexpedient by the Board of Regents to
made any change. If, however, the Government of the United States
will undertake the entire expense of the work and its management on
a scale that will meet all the requirements, it is very probable that the
assent of the Board of Regents can be had to the proposition to trans-
fer it to a new organization, and thus be enabled to devote funds thus
released in some other direction.
This, of course, according to the letter of Dr. Johnston, would involve
the assumption of the labor at least by the State Department, and the
securing of the necessary appropriations from Congress for the purpose.
If I am informed by the State Department of its readiness to under-
take the expense and responsibility attendant upon the assumption of
the system of international exchanges in question, I will take pleasure
in referring the matter to the Board of Regents for its action.
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary of Smithsonian Institution.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, September 26, 1878.
Prof. SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution :
Sir: I have received and carefully considered your letter of the 17th
instant, in reply to the letter of this Department of August 28th ultimo,
in relation to the international system of exchanges of scientific publi-
cations proposed by a conference at Paris, in which the United States is
represented by Dr. W. E. Johnston.
I quite agree with the opinion expressed through you by the Board
of Regents, that it is inexpedient to make any present change in the
admirable and efficient system of literary exchanges with foreign coun-
tries inaugurated by the Smithsonian Institution nearly thirty years ago,
and since then developed to its present proportions.
The letter of Dr. Johnston, of August 5, of which a copy was sent to
you with the Department’s letter of 28th ultimo, states that “the rela-
S. Mis. 109——50
786 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
tions of the Smithsonian Institution to this government, and its superior
facilities for conducting exchanges of the kind proposed, are so well
known, that, in the various meetings of the congress, no objection has
been raised to its assimilation with the proposed official bureaus of the
different governments.” It is believed that there is no obstacle to effect-
ing such an assimilation substantially on the basis of the suggestions
contained in your letter of June 3, 1878.
The United States minister at Paris has therefore been directed to
convey, through Dr. Johnston, to the international conference the opin-
ion of this government, that, so far as its special domestic bureau of ex-
change is concerned, it is preferable to leave the work with the Smith-
sonian Institution rather than to replace it by the organization of a new
bureau ad hoc in the Department of State, but that no objection is seen
to entering into a common arrangement of international exchange, pro-
vided that the operations of the Institution be assimilated with those of
the foreign bureaus so as to enable it to act as though it were, for the
Special purpose in view, a bureau of the foreign department of this goy-
ernment.
As you make no categorical answer to the inquiry contained in Dr.
Johnston’s letter of the 5th ultimo, as to whether the Smithsonian In- —
stitution will consent “to assume to do this work on the more enlarged
and more official scale which is now proposed, and enter, as the occasion
presents, into direct communication with the different foreign bureaus,
or will it demand to do this work through the foreign legations of the
United States,” it is inferred that any practical arrangement sanctioned
by the conference will meet the approval of the Board of Regents.
Mr. Noyes will, therefore, be instructed to advise Dr. Johnston in that
sense, and leave the details of assimilation to the deliberation of the
conference, inclining, however, if there be no impediment to such a
course, to favor the designation of the legations of the United States in
foreign countries as the channels of communication between the several
foreign bureaus and the Institution, as apparently contemplated in your
letter of the 3d of June last. Any special consideration which you may - —
be disposed to advance on this point will nevertheless receive prompt
attention.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
Wm. M. EVARTS.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, October 30, 1878.
Prof. SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution :
Str: I transmit to you herewith a copy of a note received from the
minister of Portugal in this country, giving information of the action of
the Portuguese Government with reference to exchanges of publications
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 787
with foreign governments. The department will communicate to the
minister the substance of any statement which may be received from
you in relation to the subject.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
F. W. SEWARD,
Assistant Secretary.
[Inclosure No. 1.—Translation. ]
Note from Viscount Das Nogueiras.
Legation of Portugal,
Washington, 19th of October, 1878.
Mr. MINISTER: I have the honor to inform you that for the purpose
of organizing, upon the basis of the geographical congress of Paris in
1875, the service of scientific, literary, and artistic exchanges between
Portugal and the foreign nations, and to the end of profiting by the offers
already made by different countries of commencing to send to Lisbon
several collections of inestimable value, the government of His Most
Faithful Majesty has named, in order to provisionally constitute a Por-
tuguese committee of exchanges, the Marquis of Souza Holstein, peer
of the kingdom, vice inspector of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, mem-
ber of the Royal Academy of Sciences, member of the central permanent
committee of geography, and José Julio Rodrigues, professor to the
polytechnic school, chief of the photographic section of the general direec-
tion of geodetic works, member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, sec-
retary of the permanent central committee of geography.
In making the communication to you, I hope, Mr. Minister, that the
persons composing the Portuguese committee will be officially recognized
in their relations with the committees of the United States.
I profit by this occasion to renew to you the assurance of my high
consideration,
VISCOUNT DAS NOGUEIRAS,
[Inclosure No. 2.—Translation. ]
Declaration of the Portuguese Government relative to the establishment
of a provisional commission of international exchanges.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, November 21, 1876.
In consideration that it is of the greatest importance to organize with-
out delay the service of scientific, literary, and art exchanges between
Portugal and foreign countries, although it be only provisionally and
until such definite action may be taken as the importance of the subject
demands, in conformity with the basis laid down at Paris at the congress
of 1875, and in accordance with the negotiations entered upon ;
In consideration that it is important not to delay the work commenced
788 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
by His Majesty’s Government for the purpose of securing for the Portu-
guese public establishments numerous and valuable elements for study ;
In consideration that it becomes indispensable to profit by the offers
made by several foreign countries which desire to send to Portugal col-
lections of incontestible value:
His Majesty the King decrees, through the ministry of foreign affairs,
that the Marquis of Souza Holstein, senator, &c., &c., and José Julio
Rodrigues, professor at the polytechnic school of Lisbon, &c., &c., be
provisionally charged with the organization of the above-named service
of scientific, literary, and art exchanges between Portugal and foreign
countries, authorizing them to make requisition to the above ministry
for what they may need for the perfect accomplishment of the mission
which His Majesty has deigned to confide to their zealand patriotism.
Given at the Palace October 28, 1876.
JAAO D’ANDRATE CORVO.
Countersigned.
Minister of Foreign Affairs,
JORGE CESAR DE FIGANIERE.
[The Smithsonian Institution to the State Department. ]
Smithsonian Institution, November 7, 1878.
Hon. WILLIAM M. EVARTs,
Secretary of State:
Sir: In acknowledging the receipt of your communication of Sep-
tember 26, concerning the system of international exchanges to be con-
ducted under government auspices by the various nations of the world,
I beg to renew the assurance that the Smithsonian Institution will be
pleased to enter into any relations of the kind in question that may be
authorized by its Board of Regents. The precise form of co-operation
on the part of the Institution will probably be deemed by the board as
immaterial, provided the result is likely to add to the renown of Mr.
Smithson, the founder of the establishment.
Whether the parcels that may be on hand for the rest of the world
shall be delivered to the foreign legations here, or forwarded through
the American legations abroad, is a matter of no special moment.
Whatever practicable system may be adopted by the international con-
vention will be duly considered and doubtless adopted by the board.
I have also the honor to acknowledge the receipt of a letter of October
30, inclosing a communication from the legation of Portugal, designating
a commission in Lisbon to receive and take charge of any future trans-
missions to that country from the United States.
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary of Smithsonian Institution.
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 789
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, November 14, 1878.
Prof. SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution:
Str: Your letter of the 7th instant, in relation to the contemplated
assimilation of the Smithsonian Institution’s system of international
exchanges with the international bureau which it is proposed to estab-
lish in accordance with the conclusions of the Paris congress, has been
received. ;
It is asource of gratification to this government to learn the readi-
ness of the Smithsonian Institution to enter into any practicable ar-
rangement which may be made in furtherance of an extended interna-
tional scheme of exchanges.
The details, however, of the proposed arrangement, so far as the other
countries are concerned, are but imperfectly known at present, although
it is believed that the plan is such that the Smithsonian Institution, in
_mnerging its exchange system therein, would not only increase its sphere
of operations, but be relieved to a great extent of the trouble and ex-
pense involved in transmitting foreign exchanges to this country. At
any rate, knowing the great benefits which have accrued and are accru-
ing to scientific effort in all parts of the world through the well-ordered
exertions of the Smithsonian, this department would not favor any ar-
rangement which might tend to curtail in any way the comprehensive
results now attained.
An instruction has been to-day sent to the United States minister at
Paris, requesting him to obtain, if possible, precise information as to
the working details of the proposed international arrangement, in order
that the question whether the Smithsonian plan of exchanges can be
thereto assimilated may be understandingly considered. Mr. Noyes
has been especially directed to ascertain what facilities of exchange, if
any, it is proposed to accord to private scientific organizations and in-
dividuals, whether in the countries adhering to the proposed plan or
in countries outside of its scope. If a practicable basis can be found
for the assimilation of the operations of the Smithsonian bureau of ex-
changes with those of the international bureau, it is conceived that it
should secure to the former full freedom of action for so much of its
present plan of work as may not be embodied in the contemplated
scheme.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
Wm. M. EVARTs.
790 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, January 10, 1879. .
Prof. SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution:
Str: Referring to my letter of the 14th of November last, addressed
to you, in relation to the contemplated assimilation of the Smighsonian
system of international exchanges with the plan proposed by the inter-
national congress at Paris, I have now the pleasure to transmit here-
with copy of a recent dispatch from the United States minister at Paris,
inclosing a communication from Dr. William EK. Johnston in answer to
the specific inquiries of the department.
It appears from Dr. Johnston’s report that no essential change has
been made in the plan proposed two years ago for the organization of
the international bureau and the conduct of the business of reciprocal
exchange. The “printed documents” referred to were received with a
letter from Dr. Johnston, dated March 15, 1876, and, being sent to the
Secretary of the Treasury, were, by that officer, referred to your prede-
cessor, Dr. Henry, whose reply, under date of May 4, 1876, has formed
the basis of the subsequent proceedings and instructions of this depart-
ment in the matter. For your convenience, however, I transmit here-
with the duplicate copy of the “projet de reglement” received from Dr.
Johnston.
You are already aware of the desire of this department to secure to
the Smithsonian Institution, in event of its admission to the proposed
international system, the fullest liberty of action and the utmost en-
hancement of its utility, without entailing any additional burden on its
resources. Itis thought that this can be accomplished without diffi-
culty.
To that end, I will, however, thank you to make a careful review of
the whole subject, in the light of Dr. Johnston’s last report, with a view
to determine the precise status of the Smithsonian as an international
bureau under the projected plan. I would suggest that a detailed mem-
orandum setting set forth the bases on which your co-operation could be
effected, on the plan of the circular of the ministry of public instruc-
tion and the fine arts which accompanied Dr. Johnston’s letter of March
15, 1876, would be very serviceable for submission to the Paris con-
gress.
Iam, sir, your obedient servant,
Wm. M. EvARTs.
[Jnclosure No. 1.]
Legation of the United States, Paris, December 13, 1878.
Hon. Wm. M. EVARTS,
Secretary of State:
Sir: Referring to your dispatch No. 107, of November 14, 1878, I have
the honor to inclose herewith a copy of a communication from Dr. Will-
iam E. Johnston (with two documents annexed), which discusses and
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 791
answers so fully the questions contained in your dispatch that I will
only add that I approve the remarks and conclusions of the writer.
J have the honor to be, your obedient servant,
EDWARD F. NOYES.
[ Inclosure No. 2.]
Paris, December 9, 1878.
His Excellency General NOYES,
Minister of the United States, Paris :
DEAR Sir: In reply to your demand for information in regard to the
proceedings of the conference for organizing a system of international
exchanges of works of science, I have the honor to send you herewith
inclosed two copies of the plan drawn up by the conference, and one
copy, the only one in my possession for the moment, of the plan of or-
ganization of the French bureau for carrying out the French part of the
scheme.
I beg leave, however, to recall through you, to the memory of the
State Department, that I have already nearly two years ago furnished
copies of these documents to that department.
I take this occasion to state that no alterations or amendments were
made in the subsequent meetings of the conference to the printed docu-
ments herein sent. They will be found to cover most of the questions
which you desired answered.
But in reply to the question of the honorable Secretary of State as to
how the exchanges are to be made, I would state that in the discussions
of the conference it was assumed as a matter of course that they should
be made directly from bureau to bureau without passing through the
respective legations, and that in all probability the postal service could
be obtained gratis.
These points had not been otherwise determined at the last meeting,
and Iam not able to state at this moment whether any arrangement
Ins yet been made about free transportation or not. This question will
uadoubtedly come under consideration at the next meeting of the con-
farence, and I will take the earliest occasion thereafter to inform you of
the proceedings of the conference on the subject.
The great exhibition of this year, and the unusual activity in local
and national affairs of the new minister of public instruction and fine
arts (at whose office and under whose auspices the conference was held),
have prevented any meeting of the conference for nearly a year. It will
not, however, be long before another meeting is called.
If the honorable Secretary of State of the United States, or the hon-
orable director of the Smithsonian Institution, which has so large an
experience in the matter of international exchanges, desire to introduce
any modifications into the printed plan herewith sent, or add any new
features thereto, I will only be too happy to propose these modifications
or amendments at the next meeting of the conference, and can guaran-
tee in advance a favorable hearing.
I may add finally that at the last sitting of the conference the only
governments which hesitated to give in their adhesion were those of
England and Germany. The delegates of these governments demanded
time to see the operation of the scheme, but it is expected that they will
finally adhere.
I have the honor to be, with the highest sentiments of esteem, your
most obedient servant,
Wm. E. JOHNSTON, M. D.,
Delegate for the United States.
F992 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
[The Belgian Commission to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Brussels, January 24, 1879.
DIRECTORS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION:
GENTLEMEN: On the 25th of May, 1878, we had the honor to forward
to you a considerable number of Belgian publications in exchange for
those which you had sent to us some time previously.
We hoped by this sending to establish a system of regular trans-
missions of our respective intellectual productions between your Insti-
tution and our exchange commission.
We sent you at the same time the papers relative to the organization
of our exchange system, a list of our periodical publications, and the
Bibliography of Belgium, begging you to indicate what works you de-
sired. Finally, we informed you of our own desiderata.
* * * * * * *
We therefore earnestly entreat you, gentlemen, to consider the mat-
ters treated of in our note. An agreement upon a regular system of
exchange would be of great advantage to science and to the progress
of which your Institution is a powerful promoter.
Accept the assurance of my highest consideration.
L. ALVIN, Presideni.
C. RUELENS, Secretary.
[The Smithsonian Institution to the State Department. ]
Smithsonian Institution, February 5, 1879.
Hon. WILLIAM M.- EVARTs,
Secretary of State:
Str: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter ot
the 10th of January in reference to the participation, by the Smithson-
ian Institution and the State Department, in the proposed system of
international exchanges, suggested and in a measure established by the
international congress of Paris, together with inclosures from the Amer-
ican minister at Paris, and a memorandum of proposed regulations and
conditions.
Apologizing for the necessary delay in my reply, I beg to say that the
direct exchange between the Smithsonian Institution and the French
bureau has commenced by the receipt of one box of scientific publica-
tions from Paris, and the transmission of several boxes by the Smith-
sonian Institution.
The schedules of the contents of the one box already received, and of
another not yet to hand, have been forwarded by the Baron de Vatte-
ville, who is in charge of the Paris agency; and it is probable that the
work will be continued now without any serious impediment.
The Smithsonian Institution is now making up a large sending for
Paris, which will fill fifteen or twenty boxes, and be transmitted in ae-
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 793
cordance with the proposed plan. This, as I understand it, is to be as
follows: The Smithsonian Institution, in continuation of its arrange-
ment with the Library of Congress, will forward at least once a year to
the agency in Paris a complete set of the publications of the United
_ States Government, provisions having been made to that end by law of
Congress directing the Public Printer to reserve fifty sets for interna-
tional exchange of all works printed by the government office, whether
by direct order of Congress or by the departments. This, of course, does
not include any confidential papers for the State or other departments,
but does embrace their general circulars, reports, &c., prepared for their
own use.
Secondly, the Smithsonian Institusion will receive from the various
societies of the United States publishing transactions, and from men in-
terested in research, and maintaining relations with correspondents
abroad, whatever they may wish to forward to France. All the parcels
for any one address will be concentrated in one or more bundles, each
bearing the address of the proper party, and indorsed as sent by the
Smithsonian Institution. The parcels will then be inclosed in the nec-
essary number of boxes and addressed to the bureau of the French
agency, and forwarded from New York by suitable vessel; steamer, if
the amount is small; sailing-vessel, if large. <A bill of lading will, of
course, be sent. to the agency, together with a detailed invoice of the
several addresses.
The Smithsonian Institution will deliver its boxes at the seaport free
of charge ; after that, the expense of transmission to Paris will be borne
by the French bureau. ;
In return, it is expected that the French bureau will, in the first
place, charge itself with the gathering together and transmission of all
the public documents of France, and that it will receive all parcels
delivered to it by societies, institutions, and individuals in France for
transmission to correspondents in America.
It is to be understood that, as heretofore, the Smithsonian Institution
will include in its transmissions all the publications of the various de-
partments of the United States Government and those of American
countries outside of the United States, such as Canada, Mexico, Chili,
&e. It will also be willing to receive from the Paris agency corre-
sponding parcels for Canada and other portions of America.
I beg to inclose also certain rules which have lately been put in force
by the Smithsonian Institution in connection with its system of inter-
national exchanges, in which certain restrictions are indicated, which
may properly be followed by the French bureau. The principal of these
consists in the refusal to receive any parcels that are in any way duti-
able, such as books purchased for the use of private individuals, as
well as scientific and philosophical apparatus, &e. It is also proposed
to place a restriction upon the transmission of objects of natural history
which are extremely bulky, and the interchange of which is in most
794 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
cases a matter of pecuniary profit and not for the advancement of sci-
ence. Special exceptions will always be made in regard to applications
for the transmission of articles of the kind sent to any of the leading
public museums of the country.
It will, of course, be understood by the Department, as previously
explained, that the exchange of government publications is directly in
the interest of the Library of Congress, and that all the works received
by the Smithsonian Institution itself are placed on deposit in the same
establishment.
If, as suggested by the American minister to France, it becomes pos-
sible to send packages of international exchanges free by post, it will
greatly relieve the labor and responsibility of the work, permitting the
sendings to be made with much greater frequency.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
SPENCER F. BatrD,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
[The Smithsonian Institution to the French Commission. ]
Smithsonian Institution,
Washington City, February 8, 1879.
Baron R. DE VATTEVILLE,
Commissioner des Echanges Internationaux, Paris, France:
DEAR SiR: In addressing you in regard to the subject of the inter-
national exchange between the Smithsonian Institution and the bureau
under your direction, I write at much length, even at the risk of repeat-
ing the substance of previous letters, being desirous of making complete
and satisfactory arrangements for the future prosecution of this import-
ant work.
As you are doubtless aware, the Smithsonian Institution has for many
years been engaged in the development of a system of international ex-
change, which is now very extensive and complete, and so far has been
conducted entirely at its expense, and not by appropriations of the
United States Government. The actual outlay amounts to more than
$10,000 a year, or to more than one-fourth of the entire Smithsonian
income.
This exchange consists of two divisions:
The one embracing exclusively the publications of the United States
Government, to be exchanged for corresponding publications of other
governments.
The other consisting of the works of the various learned and scientific
‘societies and of scientific men.
The system of government exchanges was initiated by the Smithson-
ian Institution in 1867, at which time the inclosed circular was issued
by my predecessor. It was intended to embrace everything printed at
the expense of the United States Government, with the guarantee that
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 795
nothing whatever should be omitted, however trivial and apparently un-
important. These publications were to be sent to such governments
only as would agree to make an equally exhaustive return, the trans-
missions to be made respectively at times most convenient to the con-
tracting parties, on the part of the United States about once a year.
The Smithsonian Institution agreed to deliver its boxes, free of ex-
pense, at New York, or any other convenient point of shipment in the
United States, the remaining charges to be met by the recipient. The
returns in like manner to be delivered at a seaport in Europe; the
remaining expenses to be paid here.
Various delays occurred, and it was not until 1873 that the first trans-
mission could be made.
At present thirty-two sets of forty-eight, reserved for the purpose, are
disposed of to as many governments; sixteen sets remaining on hand,
each occupying eleven boxes, of about 300 pounds. As France has re-
ceived the first eleven boxes of the series, the continuation will consist
of the twelfth and succeeding numbers.
What we especially desire now from France in return for this sending
is not merely the special publications of some of the scientific bureaus,
but a series of everything published by the state, as complete as that
which we send, to include tbe records of the legislation of the republic,
its reports upon education, statistics, commerce, navigation, topograph-
ical and geological explorations, &e.
Can we look forward to this through your instrumentality? We do
not expect that the series can commence as far back as that which we
have sent, and are quite willing to have it begin with the present year,
or perhaps with 1878.
Will it not be expedient to secure in France some provision like that
made by the United States Government, and which alone will accom-
plish the desired object, namely, that of directing the Public Printer to
reserve a certain number of copies of every official document for the
purpose of international exchange?
The second division of our system of exchanges is that relating par-
ticularly to learned societies and men of science; it also includes trans-
missions of separate bureaus of the United States Government to their
correspondents. The publications of the latter class are all embraced
in the full series of the govermental exchanges included in the first
division and are consequently duplicates, very useful, however, for bu-
reaus, public libraries, scientific societies, &c.
I beg to inclose the rules lately adopted for the guidance of corre-
spondents of the Smithsonian Institution. These, you will see, exclude
objects of natural history except when especially authorized. There is
at present an immense amount of interchange of plants, minerals, and
other objects of natural history between amateurs, which is of no special
advantage to science. We therefore propose to exclude natural history
objects, excepting in the interest of some special scientific research.
796 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES,
It is to be noted in this connection that the Smithsonian Institution
discharges its function of intermediary of exchange, not merely between —
the institutions of the United States, but also of all America; and that —
it is the established agent of exchange for the societies of Canada, as
well as of Mexico, of Chili, and other Central and South American States. ~
This policy it is entirely willing to continue, and you can, therefore, with- —
out hesitation, send any parcel that may come to your agency addressed
to any portion of America, the further transmission and final delivery of —
which we promise within such time as may be practicable. |
I now beg leave to make some suggestions for the more thorough ae-
‘complishment of the object which we both have so much at heart.
In the first place, I would ask that all boxes be addressed “Smith- —
sonian Institution, Washington, care of the Collector of Customs, New —
York,” and that two regular bills of lading of the shipment from Havre
or other seaport of France to New York be sent to the Smithsonian In-
stitution simultaneously with or before the transmission. In this way
we shall have no difficulty in looking after the box or boxes and in se-
curing their arrival in Washington at the earliest possible moment.
‘Of course, if you have an agency in New York, we shall be pleased to
be placed in communication with it. But such agency is not necessary
if you will send duplicate bills of shipment, as suggested.
If it is more convenient to you to have all the charges from Paris to
Washington paid here, and in the same way to receive the boxes from —
Washington and pay the expenses in Paris, it will be equally agreeable —
to us. .
May we not assume—which I trust is the case—that your bureau will
receive, without any restriction whatever, everything sent by the Smith-
sonian Institution intended for public bureaus, learned societies, libra-
ries, and men of the whole of France and its dependencies in Algeria, and
that it will see to the further transmission of these packages from Paris?
Should this trust be accepted, we will notify the consignee of each
sending that a package has been forwarded through you, and instruct
him or it to apply to you for the same.
Of course, we accept an equally exhaustive mission on our part. If
authorized, we will send a circular to each of our correspondents in
France, craton them to send all parcels to you instead of to M.
Bossange, our present agent, who has recently failed in business.
I greatly regret to state that the collection of books advised by you
under date of July 22 has not yet come into our possession. I have
written to M. Bossange, asking him for information on the subject. Is _
it certain that it was sent to that agent?
The invoice of the 27th of September has been duly received, but all —
the works enumerated were not found. I beg to send herewith alist
of what is still wanting. .
If I understand aright, the rules of the international bureau contem-
plate the placing of packages intended for a particular country in the
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. (oe
hands of the resident minister of that country; or, in other words, that
the parcels from the Smithsonian Institution for your country are to be
turned over to the minister of France in Washington, and those for
the United States to the American minister in Paris.
It is quite immaterial to us which method is preferred, although, as 9
matter of business, we think the transmission can be made more direct
by ourselves to New York, and by you to Havre. Please advise us on
this head.
Trusting that the length of this communication will be justified by
the desire to put on a proper basis so important a transaction as that of
the international exchange of the whole of America with the Republic of
France,
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary of Smithsonian Institution.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, February 8, 1879.
Professor SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution:
Str: I inclose herewith for your information a copy of a letter ad-
dressed to this department by the principal librarian of the British Mu-
seum, conveying the thanks of its trustees for the present in continua-
tion of former donations of certain public documents of the Government
of the United States, which were received through the Smithsonian In-
stitution.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
F. W. SEWARD,
Assistant Secretary.
[ Inclosure. ]
British Museum, January 25, 1879.
The SECRETARY OF STATE,
Government of the United States:
Sir: I am directed by the trustees of the British Museum to acknowl-
edge the receipt through the Smithsonian Institution of the present
which the Government of the United States has been so good as to make
to them, in continuation of former donations, of the series of the reports
of the committees of the United States Senate, 187778, Washington,
1878, 8vo., together with a collection of reports and other State papers,
referring to the administration of the Government in the United States,
during the years 1877-78.
I am requested that you will be pleased to cause the expression of the
best thanks of the trustees of the British Museum to be conveyed to the
Government of the United States for this present, which constitutes an
addition of much interest to the national library of this country.
I have the honor to be, sir, your most obedicnt, humble servant,
EDWARD A. BOND,
Principal Librarian.
798 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
[The Smithsonian Institution to the Belgian Commission. ]
Smithsonian Institution,
Washington City, March 13, 1879.
Monsieur L. ALVIN,
President of Belgian Commission of
International Exchanges, Brussels, Belgium:
Sir: I have to apologize for the temporary cessation of the corre-
spondence between yourselfand the Smithsonian Institution in reference
to the proposed system of international exchange.
The death, in May last, of my lamented predecessor, Professor Joseph
Henry, has caused an interruption in the business of the Institution, from
which it has only recently recovered; but I trust that the matters referred
to will hereafter be prosecuted with due dispatch and accuracy.
The Smithsonian Institution, as already explained to your honorable
commission, has now in charge two distinct departments of international
exchanges. The first is that carried on in behalf of the Government of
the United States for the benefit of the national library at Washington.
For this purpose the official printer is instructed to reserve fifty sets of
the publications, not only of the Congress of the United States, but also
of the several bureaus of the government, and to send forty-eight of
these to the Smithsonian Institution, the other two being delivered to
the national library. One complete series is sent to each government
agreeing to make an equally complete and exhaustive return. Under
this arrangement there is absolutely no print issued, however small and
insignificant, or however costly to the government, that is not included
in the series ; and a like return is expected, even though the aggregate
amount be very much less.
The second division is that prosecuted in behalf of learned societies,
the various bureaus of the government, and the scientific and literary
men of America. This embraces all publications of learned societies,
scientific periodicals, monographs, and other works, but does not include
specimens of natural history or of the fine arts, unless permission is
especially obtained. An accompanying pamphlet will fully explain the
conditions under which this second division is prosecuted.
These two forms of international exchange have hitherto been con-
ducted entirely at the expense of the Smithsonian Institution. It has
its own agents in Europe, several of whom receive asalary. It has paid
the expenses of the delivery, as also that of the return of parcels sent
through the same agent to institutions and persons in America, involv-
ing of late years a cost of about $10,000 annually to the Smithson fund.
This expense has become very onerous, and the proposition to divide it
with foreign bureas of exchange has been received with the greatest
satisfaction. For many years Mr. Fredrick Miiller, of Amsterdam, has
been the Smithsonian agent for Belgium and the Netherlands, but the
exchange bureau of Haarlem has now taken the matter out of his charge,
so far as Holland is concerned; and we hail with great satisfaction the
/
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 799
prospect of a cordial and efficient relation of a similar character with
your own bureau, by which the services of Mr. Miiller for Belgium may
in the future be dispensed with.
By a careful perusal of the rules herewith sent, you will observe that
the Institution does not contemplate a miscellaneous exchange of unas-
signed or unaddressed books, but simply undertakes to maintain direct
and intelligent relations between the different bodies and to deliver such
parcels as bear an inscription of destination by the senders. In some
instances it receives a number of copies of particular works unaddressed
which it forwards at its own discretion to parties who appear to be suit-
able recipients. It is willing to transmit all such surplus copies intended
for Belgium to your department for subsequent assignment. You can
also in like manner send several copies of particular works for the same
purpose; but we would profer that all other matter be specifically and
formally addressed. ‘
Your failure to receive an invoice of our previous sending is of less
consequence, as a specific destination had been given the several pack-
ages. We did not propose to send a list of the contents of the packages,
as these came to us already addressed. There will, however, be a list of
the addresses themselves, and we shall forward a catalogue of the offi-
cial publications contained in our transmissions to the Government of
Belgium.
We have already sent you a copy of the list of Belgian institutions re-
ferred to in your letter of March 18, 1878, and shall be pleased to have
any suggestions for its improvement.
In reply to your letter of the 29th of May, I beg to state that we are
not yet in receipt of the box which you advised as sent to us on that
date, and that unless we are informed of the route by which it was for-
warded, and especially as to the port of departure and also the vessel
on which it comes and its address in the United States, it will be im-
possible for us to obtain it.
Hereafter all boxes intended for this Institution should be addressed,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, care of the Collector of Customs, New
York, and duplicate bills of lading sent, one to the collector and one to
the Smithsonian Institution. In this way there will be no delay and
the boxes will reach us after the shortest possible time. We shall also
thus be able to pay the expenses of freight from your shipping point in
Europe to Washington. We will in return deliver our packages in
New York free of expense and have them shipped to Belgium. Should
you have any particular channel of communication which you prefer,
please advise us; otherwise we shall forward by Antwerp steamers
from New York.
We will, with pleasure, act in behalf of the Belgian Geographical So-
ciety and the Royal Society of Botany, and endeavor to secure such ex-
changes as they may respectively desire.
As the Smithsonian Institution is already in possession of quite a full
800 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
series of transactions of Belgian scientific institutions, it will hardly be
necessary for you to make any special effort to send this class of matter
excepting in response to applications for desiderata.
The library of the Smithsonian Institution, constituting as it does a
portion of the National Library of the United States in Washington,
we have the satisfaction of knowing that by the combination of the re-
sults of the exchanges with learned societies and with foreign gov-
ernments, we shall, in time, have under one roof, to a very important
degree, that ideal public establishment referred to in your pamphlet,
where the principal periodical and monographie works in scieuce and
literature are to be found.
I regret to say that the introduction to the bibliography of Belgium
for the years 1875 to 1878 is not in our possession. If it reached us it
has been mislaid, and we should be glad to have another copy.
Should the Numismatic Society of Belgium send its publication to
the American Journal of Numismatics, in Philadelphia, through us, we
would see that the desired return is made.
Referring to your letter of the 24th of January, 1879, I beg to renew
the statement that the box of Belgian publications, mentioned as sent
on the 25th of May, 1878, has not yet come to hand.
In the present communication you will find, I trust, the information
previously asked for; and I hope that with the explanations herein
made that the mutual relations of the Smithsonian Institution and of
the Belgian Exchange Commission will be put on a satisfactory basis,
and that hereafter there will be no interruption to a continued easy in-
tercourse.
If we have not heretofore formally expressed ourselves to this effect,
we now beg to state that you are at liberty to address parcels through
the Smithsonian Institution in Washington to the Government of the
United States, and to learned societies, and to men in any part of
America. We will charge ourselves with the prompt delivery of such
packages addressed to Canada, Mexico, Chili, Cuba, Brazil, &e.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary of Smithsonian Institution.
[The Brazilian Commission to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
CENTRAL BRAZILIAN COMMISSION OF INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.
Office of the Secretary of State for Imperial Affairs,
Rio de Janeiro, May 16, 1880.
To his excellency Prof. SPENCER F. BATRD,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution:
ILLUSTRIOUS Sire: Mr. Xavier Charmes, attaché of the ministry of
public instruction and fine arts of France, and chief of the department
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HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 801
of international exchanges, having sent me, on the 20th of April last, at
my request, the list of correspondents appointed by the various govern-
ments to take charge of international exchanges, gives me the informa-
tion that you are the correspondent designated by your government for
the above-mentioned service in your country, and I presume he has also
informed you that the government of his Majesty the Emperor, my
august sovereign, has founded (established) in the capital of Rio de
Janeiro a central commission of international exchanges, naming me its
president, and as associates, Abackarel Jeronymo Bandeira de Mello,
chief of section of the general directory of statistics, and Guilherme
Candido Bellegarde, chief of section of the central directory of the
ministry of agriculture, commerce, and public works, as stated in the
articles printed in the accompanying pamphlet, of which I have the
honor of sending you three copies.
It remains, then, to inform you that the central Brazilian commission
of international exchanges has been in operation since the 20th day of
November last, and transacts its business in the third directory of the
office of the secretary of state of imperial affairs, and that it will shortly
send you the first remittance of our official publications, hoping that
in return there will also be sent to it the official publication of your
country.
I wish to congratulate you on account of the happy resolution taken
by our respective governments, in the interest of the sciences and of the
development and progress of civilization, to establish as a permanent
institution the service of international exchanges, and I (very) especially
congratulate myself on the opportunity thus afforded of opening rela-
tions with a gentleman so distinguished and illustrious as yourself.
Accept, eminent sir, the assurance of my highest esteem and consid-
eration.
The president of the commission,
Dr. J. J. DE Compos DA CosTA DE MEDEIROS y ALBUQUERQUE.
[Lnclosure. ]
PROVISIONAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE GUIDANCE OF THE CENTRAL COMMISSION OF
INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES ESTABLISHED THIS DAY,
Article I. The central commission of international exchanges shall be
installed in one of the rooms of the third department of the oflice of
the secretary of the empire, and transact its business on such days and
at such hours as will not interfere with the ordinary business of the
office of the secretary.
Art. If. The commission is charged—
1. Tocorrespond with similar institutions established in other countries,
with respect to all matters within its competency.
2. To collect and transmit all intormation, scientific, literary; or con-
cerning the arts, which may be solicited of them.
3. To have made, on behalf of the commissioners of other countries,
the necessary examinations in the libraries, archives, book-stores, and
other public and private establishments of the empire.
S. Mis. 169-——51
802 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
4. To collect together the documents intended for exchanges, and per-
form this in the way that shall be most beneficial to the empire.
5. To receive and distribute those which may be sent by foreign com-
missions.
6. To give all possible aid to scientific missions, both Brazilian and
foreign.
7. To solicit from any authority or public department whatsoever
everything that may be necessary for the fulfillment of the charge in-
trusted to it.
8. To appoint representatives (agents) in the provinces and give them
the necessary instructions.
Art. III. The commission shall send to the minister and secretary
of state of imperial affairs, before the 31st day of March of each year, a
detailed report of the work accomplished and exchanges made during
the preceding year, suggesting the changes it deems it advisable to
make in the present instructions.
Art. IV. The materials necessary for carrying on (expediting) the
business of the commission shall be furnished by the office of the secre-
tary of state of imperial affairs.
Palace of Rio de Janeiro, November 13, 1879.
FRANCISCO MARIA SODIA PEREIRA.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, June 17, 1880.
Prof. SPENCER F’. BAIRD,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution :
Srr: I have the pleasure to inclose herein a copy of ‘regulations of
the Russian commission for the international exchange of works of
science and art,” and a copy of a note from the chargé Waffaires ad in-
terim of Russia, relating thereto, and to say that the department will
be happy to communicate to the legation the purport of any observations
which you may see proper to make in reference to the intelligence hereby
conveyed.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
JOHN Hay,
Acting Secretary.
[ Inclosure No. 1.—Translation. ]
Legation of Russia in the United States,
Washington, May 19, 31, 1880.
His Excellency WILLIAM M. Evarts,
Secretary of State, &c., de:
Mr. SECRETARY OF STATE: The geographical congress which met at
Paris in 1875, having recognized the necessity of organizing, in a uniform
manner, in the various countries, the system of exchanging the various
administrative, literary, or scientific publications of international inter-
est, a resolution of the council of the empire, adopted April 10, 22, 1877,
and sanctioned by His Majesty the Emperor, made provision for the
establishment of a Russian commission of international exchange. The
imperial ministry now informs me that this commission has just been
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 803
appointed under the presidency of Privy Councilor Bytchow, and is
composed of delegates from the various branches of the government of
the empire. It will be governed by special regulations, a copy of which
T have the honor herewith to transmit.
I have been instructed to bring the foregoing to the notice of the
Federal Government, and to inform your excellency that it will be the
duty of this commission to enter into relations with the commission of
the same kind existing in the United States, as regards all those mat-
ters which form the object of its mission.
Communications intended for the Russian commission should be ad-
dressed as follows: To the President of the Russian Commission of In-
ternational Exchange, Imperial Public Library, St. Petersburg.
I avail myself of this occasion to beg you, Mr. Secretary of State, to
be pleased to accept the assurance of my highest consideration and
most profound respect.
G. WILLAMOV.
[Inclosure No. 2.—Translation. ]
REGULATIONS OF THE RUSSIAN COMMISSION FOR THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE OF
WORKS OF SCIENCE AND ART.
The duties of the Russian commission shall be as follows:
1. It shall collect for the governments and learned institutions of
foreign countries the publications intended for them, either as a gift or
by way of exchange, and shall have charge of the shipment of such
publications.
2. It shall send to the official and learned institutions of the empire of
Russia the publications which are intended for them, either gratuitously
or by way of exchange by foreign governments or institutions. Packages
must be addressed to this commission.
3. It shall transmit to foreign commissions for the governments and
learned institutions of foreign countries any information that may be
asked of it and that it may be able to supply.
4. It shall furnish to the official or learned institutions of such foreign
countries as may request it through their respective commissions infor-
mation concerning the documents in the Russian archives and concern-
ing the conditions on which a copy thereof will be furnished to them.
5. It shall have charge of the exchange of duplicates.
6. On the recommendation of foreign commissions it shall facilitate
the accomplishment of their mission to scientific men visiting Russia,
furnishing them, to this effect, with information, letters of recommenda-
tion, &ec.
The Russian commission shall use its influence to the same end with
foreign commissions in behalf of Russian scientists.
7. It shall act as a medium with foreign commissions for the obtain-
ment of such information as may be required by the official and learned
institutions of Russia.
8. It shall publish annually a catalogue of the official publications
issued by the various departments of the government, the statistical
committees, and the learned institutions and societies.
Within the limits of this programme the Russian commission will
enter into correspondence with foreign commissions of the same charac-
ter.
The commission shall present an annual report of its proceedings to
the minister of public instruction.
$04 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
[The Smithsonian Institution to the State Department. ]
Smithsonian Institution, October 23, 1880.
Hon. WILLIAM M. EVARTS,
Secretary of State:
Str: A geographical congress of nations, with delegates from the
principal governments of the world, was held at Paris in the summer
of 1875, and among the representatives was one from the United States
of America.
One of the results of the deliberations of the congress was a recom-
mendation of the adoption of a uniform system of exchanging the lite-
rary and scientific publications of all nations. This recommendation
was reported to your predecessor in office, the Hon. Hamilton Fish, who
requested that the Smithsonian Institution would act as the interme-
diary of the United States in carrying into effect the proposed system
as embodied in the recommendation of the Paris congress, as above
referred to.
Under date of January 10, 1879, the Smithsonian Institution received
the following communication from the Department of State in reference
to the proposed international exchange system:
“You are already aware of the desire of this department to secure to
the Smithsonian Institution the fullest liberty of action and the utmost
enhancement of its utility without entailing any additional burden on
its resources.”
You are of course informed that a number of other governments rep-
resented at the congress of Paris have seconded the recommendation
in question, and have already adopted special means, by establishing
bureaus of international exchange, to carry its provisions into effect.
Among these governments are France, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland,
Russia, and Italy.
Recognizing the enlightened action of the Paris congress in recom-
mending a system of interchange of scientific and literary thought be-
tween the different peoples of the world, and acting in accordance with
the expressed wish of the Department of State, the Smithsonian Insti-
tution at once set about the inauguration of the proposed system on
behalf of the Government of the United States.
It was originally presumed that by interlacing with the regular estab-
lished systems of exchanges of the Institution so successfully conducted
for more than a quarter of a century, the international system could be
carried on at a very little outlay in addition to that required for the
Smithsonian system. But this presumption did not prove to be a fact,
the Institution finding, after two years’ trial, that the expense attendant
upon the execution of the request of the Department of State is far
greater than was anticipated.
The Smithsonian Institution is therefore compelled to ask that an ap-
propriation of $7,000 be requested of Congress by the Department of
ee ————EE—E——E——— ele
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 805
State, for the purpose of carrying into effect the recommendation of
the Paris congress on a scale in keeping with the high position of the
United States among civilized nations and commensurate with the rep-
utation of the government for enlightened liberality in connection with
the cause of general education.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary of Smithsonian Institution.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, October 30, 1880.
Prof. SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution :
S1r: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of
the 23d instant, in relation to the expense of the work of conducting
the exchange of the literary and scientific publications of all nations,
recommended by the international geographical congress held at Paris
in the summer of 1875, which work, at the instance of this department,
the Smithsonian Institution undertook to carry on on behalf of the
United States. You state, furthermore, that it was originally presumed
that exchanges in question could be carried on in connection with the
system already established, but that practically the additional work
has been found to greatly increase the expense of conducting the ex-
changes, and that, therefore, the Smithsonian Institution is compelled
to ask that an appropriation of $7,000 be requested of Congress to de-
fray the expenses of the exchanges recommended by the Paris congress,
and undertaken on behalf of the United States by the Smithsonian In-
stitution at the instance of this department.
In reply I have to say that, fully appreciating the importance of main-
taining and extending this system of literary and scientific exchanges
which has been so happily inaugurated, it will afford me much pleasure
to ask the proper committees of Congress to favorably consider your
request for an appropriation of $7,000 for the purpose indicated in your
letter.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
Wm. M. Evarts.
[State Department to the Senate Committee on Appropriations. ]
Department of State, Washington, January 31, 1881.
Hon. HENRY G. DAVIS,
Chairman of the Committee on Appropriations, Senate:
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith, for the information and
consideration of your committee, a copy of a letter dated the 23d of
806 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
October last, from Prof. Spencer F. Baird, Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution, to this department, in relation to the expenses which
have been imposed upon that institution by its having undertaken, at
the instance of my predecessor, the Hon. Hamilton Fish, to carry
out on behalf of this government the system of exchanging the literary
and scientific publications of all nations which was adopted at an inter-
national conference held at Paris in the summer of 1875, at which this
country was represented.
It now appears from the statements made in Professor Baird’s letter
that the expense of carrying out the exchanges in question is far greater
than was anticipated, whereby an undue burden has been imposed
apon the resources of the Smithsonian Institution; and Professor
Baird therefore asks that an appropriation of $7,000 may be made for
the purpose of carrying out the recommendations of the Paris congress
of 1875. '
I may add that it is understood by this department that the ex-
changes of literary and scientific publications in question are now car-
ried on at the expense of the several governments which were parties
to the congress of 1875, except in the case of this government, which
has imposed this important and useful work upon the Smithsonian In-
stitution.
In view, therefore, of the reasons set forth by Professor Baird in a
communication transmitted herewith, and in view of the great benefits
which the government, institutions of learning, public libraries, and men
of science are receiving from the system of the exchange of literary
and scientific publications inaugurated by the congress of 1875 at Paris,
I beg to recommend that the appropriation asked for, as above indi-
cated, may be made.
I have the honor to be, sir, your obedient servant,
Wm. M. EVARTs.
[The State Department to the Smithsonian Institution. ]
Department of State, Washington, December 27, 1881.
‘Prof. SPENCER I’. BAIRD,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution :
Sir: Referring to the reply of this department, of the 50th of October
last, to your letter of the 23d of that month, in relation to the exchange
of government and scientific publications with foreign countries, and
referring also to the letter of this department to the Senate Committee
on Appropriations, dated the 31st of January last, on the same subject,
I now beg to request you to furnish this department with your views in
relation to this matter, in form of a memorandum, to serve as the basis
of a communication to Congress urging the appropriation of an amount
sufficient to defray the expenses of international exchanges, and of so
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 807
organizing the work that it shall be done by the Smithsonian Institution,
but under the Department of State, and with its official co-operation.
This arrangement seems to be desirable in order that the American
bureau of exchanges may be on the same footing as those in Europe,
where this business is conducted under the supervision of the foreign
officers of the various countries which have entered into the interna-
tional agreement in relation to exchanges. '
I may add that, owing to the want of sufficient funds to enable the
Smithsonian Institution to carry out fully the system of exchanges, a
large amount of labor and expense has been imposed upon this depart-
ment in sending to various countries of Europe the publications of this
government. The calls upon thisdepartment to perform services of this
character are growing more and more numerous and more and more
burdensome continually.
I am, sir, your obedient servant.
J. C. BANCROFT DAVIS,
Acting Secretary.
[The Smithsonian Institution to the State Department. ]
Smithsonian Institution, March 12, 1882.
Hon. F. T. FRELINGHUYSEN,
Secretary of State:
Sir: The letter from the Department of State of December 27 last, in
reference to the future prosecution by the Smithsonian Institution ofits
system of international exchanges under the direction of the State De-
partment, was duly received, but the reply has been deferred until a
statement of all the circumstances connected with the initiation and
carrying on of this work to the present time could be prepared. This
statement I now have the honor to submit for your consideration.
The statement in question is prefaced by an account of the attempts
made prior to 1850 in the direction of a system of exchange, both in the
United States and elsewhere, and it also presents points of the history
of the concerted effort toward an international system started in Europe
in 1875, and now in operation with fair prospects of success.
From the document referred to it will also be seen that the Smith-
sonian Institution has for many years carried on, single-handed and
alone, so far as outside pecuniary aid is concerned, the most extensive
system of exchange ever attempted. Originating in the transmission of
the publications of the Institution, the Smithsonian exchange next in-
cluded the publications of various learned societies of the United States;
subsequently the exchanges of the government bureaus in Washington,
and finally the international exchanges between the Congress of the
United States and foreign governments. The cost to the Smithsonian
fund of the maintenance of this system now amounts to about $10,000 a
year, an expenditure the Institution is entirely unable to continue, and
808 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
it becomes necessary, therefore, that operations in this department should
hereafter be more confined to the immediate interests of the Institution,
unless Congress shall vouchsafe its assistance.
Aid in connection with the exchange system is requested on the fol-
lowing grounds:
(1.) The expenses of the exchanges by the Smithsonian Institution of
its own publications should in equity be paid by the United States Gov-
ernment, for the reason that the proceeds of these exchanges (now form-
ing a library of about 100,000 volumes) are all deposited in the Con-
gressional Library as soon as received.
(2.) The system enables the several departments and bureaus of the
government to obtain valuable materials for their respective libraries
by exchange of their publications for those of corresponding depart-
ments and bureaus of other governments, and which publications can
be obtained only through exchange.
(3.) The work of the Institution for the benefit of other establishments
in this country is national in its character, tending greatly to advance
general science and popular education.
Your predecessor in office, realizing this drain upon the resources of
the Smithsonian, requested Congress for an appropriation of $7,000,
which was the estimated cost of the work at the time; an allowance,
however, of only $3,000 was granted. The money was placed in charge
of the Interior Department, this disposition of it being made presumably
at the instance of the Department of State and as an indication of its
preference to be relieved from further responsibility in the matter; and
for this reason the Smithsonian Institution made direct application to
Congress for an appropriation of $5,000 for the coming fiscal year. This
estimate, though entirely below the sum requisite for carrying on the
work, was submitted as more likely to be allowed than a larger amount.
I trust that if the Department of State is willing to continue its efforts
in connection with the exchanges, it will ask for at least $10,000 for the
service. If it is desirable that the Smithsonian should also take charge
of the government and other exchanges now passing through the State
Department, a still larger sum will be required.
It will be entirely agreeable to the Smithsonian Institution to prose-
cute the exchange system under the general direction of the Depart-
ment of State, and thereby secure the services of consuls or foreign
ministers of the United States in those countries where national bureaus
of exchange have not yet been established.
Commending the subject to your early and careful consideration,
I have the honor to be, &c.,
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Secretary of Smithsonian Institution.
As the amount ($3,000) appropriated by Congress in assistance of the
Institution for the last year (1881) had been placed under the direction
HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES. 809
of the Interior Department, the subject of the desired extension of
government aid was naturally referred to the honorable Secretary of
the Interior for his opinion. The following communication expresses
his entire approval of the project:
[Mr. Kirkwood to Mr. Frelinghuysen. ]
Department of the Interior, Washington, March 27, 1882.
Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your communi-
cation of the 24th instant touching the establishment of a bureau of
international exchanges under the supervision of the Department of
State, “the work of the bureau to be concentrated in the hands of the
Smithsonian Institution, as the delegated agency of said department,”
and in reply to say that this department has long felt the need of some
improved method of conducting international exchanges, by which the
more certain and speedy delivery of packages transmitted may be se-
eured. The chief difficulties encountered under the present system re-
sult, in the first place, from the very limited number of dispatch agencies
employed by the Department of State, restricting transmission of docu-
ments, &c., received from other departments and offices to the three
cities, onde Paris, and Hamburg; and, secondly, from the delay
which often attends the dispatch of ahiones through the Smithsonian
Institution, many months frequently elapsing between the delivery of a
package to the Institution and its reception abroad. In addition, the
present system involves the trouble of keeping accounts, and of the
presentation and payment of bills for transportation, whether packages
are transmitted by the Department of State or by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution.
It is understood that under the new system proposed by you these
difficulties will be avoided; that not only will it unify our system of
international exchanges, and ‘assimilate it with that of other countries,”
but also that greater dispatch and certainty of delivery will be attained.
It is furthermore presumed that the appropriation to be made for this
purpose will be adequate to meet the necessities of all the departments
and offices of the government, so that they will be relieved of all ex-
pense in the matter of transportation.
In view of the fact that the proposed arrangement seems to involve
these advantages, I regard it as entitled to the approval of this depart-
ment.
I have the honor to be, &ce.,
S. J. KiRKwoop.
[Report of the Secretary of State to the President. ]
To the PRESIDENT:
The Secretary of State has the honor to lay before the President,
with a view to its transmission to Congress, a letter from the Secretary
810 HISTORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN EXCHANGES.
of the Smithsonian Institution concerning the working of the present
system of exchanges carried on by that Institution, and the practica-
bility of the suggestion which has been made, that the scope of the
Smithsonian Institution’s bureau be enlarged so as to form an inter-
national bureau of governmental and scientific exchanges, under the
supervision of the Department of State.
The Secretary of State has little to add to the very clear exposition
made by Professor Baird of the rapid growth of the operations of the
excbange bureau of the Smithsonian, and to his statements of the
utility of still further extending them. He has been for some time con-
vinced that an arrangement like that proposed would not only bring
the system of diplomatic and literary exchanges of this country into
harmonious relations with the like international exchange bureaus in
other countries, but would greatly enlarge the beneficial results obtained
under the present system of private enterprise, besides relieving the
several executive departments of the labor and expense of effecting their
own foreign exchanges, by concentrating the work in one properly
equipped and competent bureau. His opinions in this regard are shared
by other members of the government, as will be seen on perusal of the
annexed letter from the Secretary of the Interior in response to an in-
quiry lately addressed to him. Should the President decide to recom-
mend the latter to the consideration of Congress, the Secretary of State
has the honor to advise that an appropriation of $10,000 be asked for
the coming fiscal year, in order that the proposed plan may have a fair
chance to demonstrate its necessity and its benefits. It is probable
that the scattered expenses under the present system of separate ex-
changes aggregate a larger amount than that which he suggests.as the
limit of a serviceable appropriation.
Respectfully submitted.
FRED’K T. FRELINGHUYSEN.
Department of State, Washington, April 11, 1882.
[Recommendation by the President to Congress. ]
To the HouUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES:
I transmit herewith, with commendation to the attention of Congress,
a report of the Secretary of State and its accompanying papers concern-
ing the proposed establishment of an International Bureau of Exchanges.
CHESTER A. ARTHUR.
EXECUTIVE MANSION,
Washington, April 14, 1882.
INDEX.
A.
Page.
Abbe, Cleveland; report on progress in meteorology in 1881 .......-....---- 231
Ahorigm alana supposed specimen of [022 22/5. ce tes eae ste desde cise see eins 72
works at the mouth of the Klikitat River, Wash. Terr....-..-.--- 527
soapstone quarry and shell-heaps in Alabama .-.-......-----..---- 617
EMERG S LO ty EO LON Yetta fe lami oer si8 ol alm cin ia ayaa nino helen aie Sea ae eee 77
QING RSet cc clean roa ayer cinco swe ew cle ace ce, ew ae meena ties aes 613
ACeesNIONS LO tne) Museum during the year |... 2.8.2. (2a) se eas cee ee es 100
GORENG Soe 546 3k. 5os Maes Us seadebe Sane SeQe abs he Srerc coon Son seisso5 sce 341
Acts and resolutions of Congress relative to the Smithsonian Institution and
SOMO MISE Ce Aaa See eee renee rier nme ween A SSIES L 181
extending privileges of Library of Congress to Regents of Smithsonian
InsiGmitoMeee ts cces cess fs onsen caciece Tene cnesites Sec oneeasee ees 181
furnishing to the Smithsonian Institution one set of weights and meas-
ED Leos Gs see Caco Ons SeeaEn eacesOoron Oe Sano GeRS RBS ooSCmno eo meer = 186
SR eC UHCI PTLV ALA D C.F. foes) .cicie <n rid = ameielnwinieee 6 ae ae tae 181
Ret UDO LOM ISH HADOTU 6 65 coc 6 eqs tm semen eso saciae nee = cepa ase a eees eee 184
remitting duties on object of art awarded Professor Baird by fishery ex-
HirprIOn AvP OLIN yas ace sea Sterne cee kas ean se nnn se ebie omen aes 184
Adams, W. H.; on mounds in Spoon River Valley, Illinois.....-........----. 558
Administration of the National Museum: << =. <0. 35. <0 j06 suse endo se scone 7
STU SON Perey LOS GG Ub 1 OU ete ie ae ee ieee 13
ANNU THO, Hoe TO CAT ee eee SEO Renate Ie ae ee See Meer One ee T anonce 95
of manufacturing and commercial firms to Museum. ........-.---------- 100
Alabama, aboriginal soapstone quarry and shell-heaps in ..........---.----- 617
Jefferson County, mounds, workshops, and stone-heaps in.-.-..-.--- 616
AlaghueCaunty pH lorida,, MOUNGS IN . o-oo oe ee = wine oo dna awe 635
AlAs a eCOUeCEONS O1MSHES FLOM, a6 (= <5 alias cere eee ~ eee een ee nee 105
ial) Git BLS SES ER Pe ee en ea ernee etre Stork cette Sas 465
AuleniCounty,, Kentucky, mounds in --- 0. <6 2. cose cs eco nee ann ee ens 609
Alternate generation in gall insects ............-----..----- e2---- -- +--+ --e 446
Americanists, International Congress of..--....-......-s-.-<----------.4--- 45
American Museum of Natural fees New York, collection received from -. 109
AmphiDlaMss 2-5 =~ salad ae £2 CES PAE ie oid Stes che ROLES cae nia ene 478
bibliogr oe yh bch, shaker agen eV spss tea s vien sae = fateh cee ae aes es OE Se RS
ATOMS MEM DEV OLOGY Of o-oo. aio ool 3) ale reine in aoe ae ee he leet 463
RUGS COLUM -GUONG » . 2 -'ac'a= oe ae no oe no ans omg oo am sm ntinnrs aiid ankle 110
PRMNOE CVOEOLADIC. .- 0.9. a2 a os co ee macee ds ee see nwewias wc e<mbiem ion an ae aa 391
AO OLET GAT ALPE OTL beso ~ oe sie a5 os, ola hd ee ee Galanin ie wield Ginn einen ade 631
- remains near Cobden, Ill Se erry) (et tlre oe a Ae Se me 584
Pert <uoap tions in Johnsen Camatgs Areunaas a Se SSE ESE We one ce are 5338
Andrews, E. A., assistant in Fish Commission work ..............--..----- 48
Animal life, 5 PELCETADN ANG. «sagan ae cme t ange ean Winwen weaken 6s os oe an on 417
Aunelids, natatory bladder 1m .. .. .....00 2. 2000 as cane ccns as ee an sense -- 0-02 oe 428
eR EEE oo a wn ae es. pin Hee ees aniacie On be win tn Aen haw <n Coreen
(811)
812 INDEX.
Page
Anthropological correspondence, abstracts from....-.-.-.-.-...-.-.-...---- 681
Anthropology, Wlustrated in: Muaseum?./s oo) te ae ee eee eee meres 89, 92
miscellaneous papers on fs eee ee eee eee ceases 527
report on progress in, in 1881, by O. T. Mason--..-.........-. 499
ALE ROOD Yes Seo eae et cE Areca ra ae ec ot ee 500, 502
bibliography ofsn eee eee 508, 509, 510, 511, 512
DIology of man sho ses LES See ee Seen eee er eee 500, 502
pibliopraphy, offs Se soeeee eee teers 513, 514
comparative psychology, or ‘‘phrenology”..----.-----..--- 501 504
bibliography, of - 514,515
comparative technology) (s2 esau es ce ee ane see ee eee. 501, 505
bibliographiy of 925 -o- eee eee 519
daimonology or pneumatology ..---.---------------------- 501, 506
bibliography of .....-....... 521,522
ethnology sc c see Se Po AM, POE Soe oe eoeetes 501, 505
bibliography of-e.cccrs esse tees eeece cee ee 515, 516, 517
flossolopy se Fe. eee ec e eek eee tae serene 501, 505
bibliography of- 2.200. Se ee cee sle cine s tee aeeae ae 517, 518
hexiology: 2s sols ee ee etre ees 501, 507
bibliography Of ss2.- oot ee eae ee eee 522
imsirumentalitiesiofresearchi:-.. so-so eee econ eee ee eee 501, 507
bibliography of....-.... 522, 523, 524, 525
BOHIOLO RY L2Sbe2 Stes Sete ee eee Senate see eee 501, 506
bibliography of .t22ts22 2k Ao ee teen see nee 520, 521
TSS TOR WOT oe ceo Se eh eee are iets eect te eerie fo enn 89
Antiquities of Cayuga:County, New Yorke 2.002... 02 25 eee eee eee 650
Hast Windsor; Conmicco222 522252 6 Set cane sage cence eater 660
Fox River Valley, La Salle County, Illinois --.-.---...-....... 549
Jackson County, Minos) eee cee ee eee aa esl eet eee 580
Knox County llincis jebstcc sree eee sees ose eee eee 554
Madison|\County, New York 'si25.-2 isc. isccccon0 seems cee ene 651
Mills (County, Towa... 222 Soe toss ceceleaseos eee neces 528
Nicaragua, by) J.e. branstord,; Ma DR s2sne--esns e<seeeeaceeer 26
MOVE COU 35-2 H2 saleaee teas tcnec camo ee tae meinen alee ataa eee atene 673
Onondaga and adjoining counties, New York...........--.-.- 7
Oswego County; New NOrk 25222288 Sete casvssscenteaee sce secs 647
Southwestern Pennsylyvantal>s2 =) s4c2aa sess eee es eee eee 638
POXAG hah BUSA eA asses Seta Sarna orm a iene a eet eed ne ater 613
Wayne County, Dllinors!222\sc seo Scie see ca cee cecseiae maces 587
Appendices to report of the Assistant Director of the United States National
MEISE UI) Jace os ste acloehcelsawtaad ate dates asian ciselnee eee sae me aeereeertae 111,131
Appendix, Meneraless son sos oss nao see eee eee celine aaa aa eoeiaceacereeeetscter 187
toireport of Secretarys22: 3238252222 ass sence oes see ae tess ee eee 55
Applegate, F. L., signal observer at Unalaska........-....----..-----.----. 22
Appropriations for) 1882. tases... addsodeee ose ta os A Saoseass cee eee eee x
UMN VSBU Sa 5055 ance ccits Sasmonaeta se slate eaineeromae mere sees 169
Appropriation for asphaltum foot-walks...... ..-.-- scce22 .---26 cee ecscen=-e 186
concrete walle set sen Sess gle SEE Be Te BS Ae ee 13, 186
furniture and fixtures of National Museum....-.-.---.-.--- 185
Government 6xchanpes 25. oceans ese oneiaceeaeeee 33
heating and lighting National Museum..............----- 185
international exchanges’ 2535. J22 ii sscsacicen dee oe eeee™ 7, 185
international Fishery Exhibition at Berlin -.........--.-.- 182
North Americantethnolopy 225.) aacetse ee serait 185
INDEX. 813
Page
Appropriation for preservation of collections. ........--.-..----------+-+---- 185
Armory: building). 222 .sfs<c $222 tee base 185
publication of ethnological material................-..--- 182
repayment of freight on Naval Observatory publications.. 183, 184
War Department publications .... 186
Reh elt? (a) Bree HOI COR Soe DODUO. HonCOUbnoSes.cceccre 13, 173, 184
transfer and arrangement of collections presented at the
Centennial Mxhi bition =. 4.5-e css. onee eres eee aoe 185
ee ADI eX INOPALIONS soci 2 bccece onc sos 255 ed acs eaae Sa eeeEeeeeaaae 39
Peony MOMALMMNONG OL. o6 2.20. ccs -2-0'22 = a= eee nes se eee eee aes aaa 101
PUP ECR SOT) POOL <2 ce cece cas <'amjeaes seat ace ne aeeetaaae alae 500, 502
Atehwopterypidm, characteristics Of. . 2... cose). o. 5 se see cece seeucascccss sees 487
EO OE ae seat los oo a aise scre nd ceil ode ce eisjems eae aa see tee amelie arene = 405
Architects of the National Museum, report of .......--...---.--..---------- 177
Arohivesionthe: Museum, preservation Of -. 2. o-% -.ccs/cesecenclseoess se 98
Arkansas, Independence County, mounds in.........-..----.------2----20-- 541
Johnson County, ancient rock inscriptions in .......--..-....---- 538
ALMOnys FULGING. -appropriabiOnfOL .-. -— 2.2 n\2o- os een coer eee sass ese conse 170
Wet! Re AOE) SeBe cons odes Bate eee BES oer ss ston cet ensse 12
Pea ound Us ony el MUSOU asses eee sci sm alalewl eo aelanom bee © sea eicinceoelaae ete 99
ADUTOpGUs TID MOPTA DM y~O tees cise = sl. ote aininaen Se secel ieee eieeannle ee 431
Arthur, Chester A., president ex officio Smithsonian ‘‘ Establishment” .-... .... XV
TREN. oe Seeds doc eas BB BO OSS Oe OB Gobo Doe soo Sase boc vu
appointment of Regents by..--.--..----..----.------..-- ix
Ashland County, Ohio, mounds and earthworks in.........----..----------- 593
Asphaltum foot-walks, appropriation for. -..--. .-- --= ---- 2 .-0---+--5-----5 186
Aspirators for Museum building... .--..--.. ....2. ----0- ------ ------ -- === nee 11, 174
Assay laboratory in Museum building......--..--.--..-----.----- ---------. il
JAS ROOT pegee Sood On Hae ABBEe Bats PEE E CO REReC ASD ED r nde CROC cae OOS eco 220
Astronomical announcements by telegraph -...--------..-------.----------- 28
Astronomical bibliography .-.-.-......~--- ---- ---- ---- -- ene cone een ees eee eee 229
Astronomy, progress in, in 1881, by E. S. Holden ...............--.+--.----- 191
NSTGROIOS See eyes eceicl as ce oo bie aisle asale nto siawiee +s = mnicin-\sieinin\aincinie time em 220
August shooting stars........-..-.-------------- ---- +----+--------- 217
Bibliography Of. 6.92. sc nlm meee tina soe es = -(e new aie =~ ian =es== === 229
(COMTGIC) “2 22! Shes HEE Ans Ae Sapo Serre Mote ree sear are bagi sais seer 215
Companion Oi SUIS) seejene serine = erica een b- Se todo cba aee 202
ISTE Pet CASUNOM OLS ys cer me cie ie acon aia ae a lel ene ae ieee 191
Double stars. ---- jteais eters, siniale <'n's) > == oe le im mpeteistog soe mail nine lols atari = ete 202
Etna Observatory -.---- -.-.---- 22 sncnes ano e teecce cen sen ooo ens cone 224
Mayes periodic comet... - = << joc on~ oo owns 2 nena enna names nanan 216
IS GGUS GAPS we ye cele ae o ctee, Sle ainsi eels Voi ele a annem eae dh = ela eee 192
Instruments and methods employed ...-.--.... --.-s- ---- +--------- 197, 224
UOT ee te oo crn a, oc cc's aa me win) o Sialstipl oe Smale ee ane tins =ham wie 220
MhewMOone 2-20. Ss eo saan Ba sos ww nwicennaenainamasnjiongemn) <ala antes 220
Nebuls:and clusters << - = <<). 00 -saece cos oncom ce sm ecese= anne 191
ODROEVALOLICS <5 - 222 con = <2 on opsinen a= so Faerie ip eia saan === ss 223
Origin of the English mile...-.....---- ------ 222+ 22-5 nee -- -----ee 219
ara tat SiTN . tea see wie ceeieaeae = bs ee ela 1s erie eden aes alan 195
SP ANGUS estes he oes cas ons ceo nasa <a eas ae eteap eae ies sepa «naam 219
MtIInMe see oo os «ea aitomies eeepc Sastre gs pee aman pe Ania ae ns 222
Solar parallax 2... 20. 02 occa. nne= a ownnisicdaoneiss <sceinsen cemccs seen on 207
»
Solar systOm ..-. 265 sess on win dais wie sem etee wens conn snes nens ence ann= 202
814 INDEX.
Astronomy—Continued.
Star chante sce sce e ce. c io eierm eie cieras eee ee ee oe
Whe Satie te acte aie tek ch Cs ps es Wate fal een eat
Transit of Mercury.....-...-.. SA SARE HEL ABISHon ESS eee Aseeios sace
TEN SOPAVE RUSS. <ucmtaceie e See Coke ee ete a ees ent ee
Wniformmistan dard times asa epee ee eee ee
PIANC EATS 5 are ess we hate Beebe eee Been noe mee se nee
Velocity of ght « 0. bed ose cee See ee ae a ee
VAEECR oe < cccic wie nas aeltesa toe) comin seas oe ee ee er
Atkins, 'C..G., employed in fisheries Census... 2-5: --..cc-ctemomen a eaeeues eae
Atkinson, Edward, procured exhibit of cotton fabrics -...........-.....----
Atmosphere, chemical and physical properties of .-............------.------
MOVEMENTS Of ss oe oo cvactapie cle esinre aie ates eae cis ches ater ae eee oie
Atwood, Capt. N. E., employed in fisheries census... ---....--...---..-------
Auckland, New Zealand, Museum, collections received from........---.-.-.-
PATIB OLAS e's Syattiyarctaib ys tim seis) = Snes ta Nee Rear ape nal etre tee tee ee
Bacon, Paymaster Albert W., U.S. N., collections received from .........-..
eacierin she sgges es eesssose sks SUSE Seas Ss Ss bec eee eee eee
Bailey, Mr’, ‘engineer steamer Fish Hawi: 02.2 s2os2ccso4-- soe eee ee eee tee
Baird, Prof. 8. F., bibliography of the publications of ....-....... 2.2.22. -2--
Director Smithsonian Institution and National Museum.. -
Was: National’ Museumiecee eos ose eiesenee ase
letter transmitting Annual Report for 1881..-.........-..
member of National Museum Building Commission. .-.-.--..
reportof, to Board of Regents 22 #2022 56-2 eee ee cee
report on Buréau ‘of Ethnology s- 225.22 se -cis- as mccetea a
report on the U. S. Fish Commission ....-.....--....-----
report on U. S. National Museum: ..22-. 2-2-1 coce sce e.e
Baker, Capt.'J./G:, specimens received from) 22.0 222 Jose seae sce ee ieee
Banta, W. V., and John Garretson; on mounds at Snake Den, near Salem,
HOE Rae OSG OCA OE Bae e GeO CRIC EE AS DO DOL Scio DEORE OOO DES carb oso DoS hE
Barber, George W.; on mounds near the National Home, Milwaukee County,
Wisconsin 22/2 2252 2242 set es cscs SoNHORRE Ste Date Sacer ree gene eles
Barker, Prof. G. F., representative at Electrical Convention at Paris -..--...
report on progress in chemistry in 1881........-.-.-....
report on progress in physics in 1881..--......--.-...-.
Barker, Henry d:-/collectione madev byeeerine seach eeaeeeetel
Barkley, W. F.; anthropological correspondence - ....-..--.-. ---- ----.e-e-
Barnard, J.'G.; internal structure of the earth... .-. 22522222222. -eenn ee
Barnstable County, Massachusetts, shell heaps in ......-...----------------
Barren’ County, Kentucky, mounds ans.) ec eee tees eee ae ae ae
Bean, Dr. T. H., assisted in Fish Commission work -...--.-..-.-------------
Collections made by Sys oles ese ate eka) =e heteeletaala ete ieee
curator U.S. National) Museum) .2--) 2220 seeo2 see ete
employed in fisheries census -.-.--..-.< ..s<ce- cere e--le===
in charge of department of fishes -.........-----.---------
table of entries in the record books of the Museum ...--. --
titles ef papers: byissss520 35252 f355 5 Sees eee eeee a=
Beardslee, Commander L. A., collections made by...--.----.----- -+-+--+----
Beauchamp, W. M., caper of Onondaga and adjoining counties, New
York :fsesss (esse daaseeeo ae joa tt shat eed haere ee eee
Bee, peculiar glands denned Ww sit tongue of . as ats ary erie Ne EE
212
209, 210
227
195
210
219
53
100
261
290
48
105
XVI, 111
53
105
99
111, 112
102
647
446.
INDEX. 815
Page.
Ball James; collections received: from. 25. ss. 40 settee we el cess ate © 103
mounds in Alachua County, Florida. 222-2 22220. 222. ccc ce 635
Bendire, Capt. ‘Charles, list'of. papers by 7-3-2. .--2-- -tis- ss ae ek ences oe ones 125
collections received from 22e>--s--. se ek eee eee een 105
BOLL SHERYTOXMIDVGLON AN 2.2: 5:015 2 w doe os serve Nandos De Ree ae «ae eee 44, 182
Berrien County, Georgia, New River, mounds in ..............----..-....-- 631
Bipheprapnical history of the Museum’... 2250 5scc 0 coos boca s enw cnet sn ene 98
bibliographviot anthro polo my). .c:var. cies c= sais cle senqels soe Sette ieee 508, 525
OLUVTOASS UI WOLIC 1a(a sia isiaraeieesio y=) Ln cre toe ee a ee ate es 111
OLA OOLO RY erat ete c arse ows Sateioe win wate eee ee a roe ce 411
Billings, Dr. J. §., letters of introduction given to..........-.....---.-2---- 44
Biological Society of Washington, meetings of, in Museum building........ 99
Biology of man...--. Ba tetatayatsia/u/a)a\eNarnis Sate eared eile Se a ieee Ree oe eal a ee a es 500, 503
Birds added to-American fauna in 188k. 2... 22.2 sect eles eee 487
DINO U Ua ELANSIOS afar... wn 2 oe SES as oe oso Geet Be Ree ee eee 483
DUM DSI OLevakicis'sw Secs sae cscs celts ceca PES IEE A Sa 485
DUO SRAM MV COle se Saito (2 craid oasiti SE Uiscnis tn ae aoe SEE eet 481, 482, 483, 484
COINVINETINAELOr OL TOALHEIS.«-,.. 2105.00 s-3ose2 36.0 see ons - Oe eee 434
Blackford biG. donations bor Museum as. 255282 Jos ke 5 eee ese ee 103, 105
lines hestanGucOnPenerg sa. 2.5225. = ss coos cease ee aeeseeeat aces 477
EN OOCLO MNBE GDS Rema tae = 12 ce rar sacle Seco re dois Oe Tee eee ee ine a ee 445
Bdardsoteherents report tO. seals S26 ss ode oe bee ce GACeE oa eee 1
IMNGEUING LOfsse- sti de wie sence Bye aasoset eee oS cesses 6
Boehmer, George H.; History of the Smithsonian Exchanges ....-......-.-. 33, 703
in charge of international exchanges. - 30
report on operations of exchanges daniaeieay year r 1881. 30
Bootle Ne vexpirabion of term of, as sRegenty 32635-2455, seeaee te as oc sere IX
Botany, report on progress in, in 1881, by w. G. Parlo wieisetee: = Soe Se ee 391
ALCHS COM Ub ag ase eee: ees islaaee saaiae antes bh ahauteoute coe ae eaewee 405
WECIGI Dink 2 So Aaa ee oee nes see - = 395
Ee cppory (21 ee Sa RUE har ane : 399
fossuimdeparimeninod. 65. stctie se 1d. $.iockwscicps- some t/-ece = eso 109
DIMERS 5545 cong ap oaescre soa coas Gece soso meosesges en a yeee 407
PUUILG DE NLES 2 aeaey tte sto eto eee clciel ekibislam mel selelaae\= «2 /ton eee ena 400
yesetable anatomy. and physiology .........--. 2220252202 ses secewee 391
Boucara pA. Gonntroniho Museum. .o222\acl- > 2 eee ieee = eos ase a 103
Bowers, Stephen, donation to Museum.. ......-.....-.-.-.--..--------22--- 101
povle C@onunby,entucky pM OUNGS)iNlse- cso wevine + alee delewlasicce s-see ee Jane 603
Braceville, Ohio, mound near...-.- .<-.-. -oceoe sae emacs sence ~sdiesnitiaw 592
Bransford, J. F.; antiquities of Nicaragua..-... a Ssesoee wcegabtene walle aMost 26
Bread, indian, .or tuckahoe, by. J. H..Gore si. 3.20 cuscsesenlaawewinlesis ply slicdae 687
Brewster, Hon. Benjamin H., member ez officio... .-.--..---20 2-0 -- 2-22 cee xv
Brewster, William, titles of papers by. .... .-- 20. .2.- sees ooecee on0e esnace 125, 126
Brushes, exhibit of, in Museum. ..--- ..--25 0c 26 tielet sos oes annieecdesle-ecee 101
Building commission. (Sce National Museum, building commission. )
Buildings of the Institution :
AMTHO EVA KEL GIN tsk 10a oc iano o Masons SNe Stes eh sebiaehisk ier. Sees esas 12
Laboratory of natural history c=. 5. ceca ~ene oon cece sensnns coenes ssoces 12
National) Museum building desert: Santas seed ee sece bes CeelAteats Cat cats 10
SHNAMSOMIAN POL OGUS 7... 22. co Stes ulema abies Se Geese. ccwcleeee 9
alding-stOnes, Analysis. Of ...<. 95) joeee nea sew pao n nena e densteewietec pene 110
microsedpicislidesioté fee ss5. tn sstowiiews 28 St i cei 110
Billetimeion the: National, Museum, NOw21, 2.0.55 cc senjsancectacetecnecses ode 27
Philosophical Society of Washington.......-...-....------- 7
816 INDEX.
Page
Bureau ‘County, Mlinois, mounds) ine 2222-2. - a es -eae oaee a ee ee eee 556
Bureau of Ethnology, Professor Baird’s report on......-.....---.ss002.----- 38
POPOL Of 22252. 2. se SUSE See ee ee eee ee eee 38
Busse,’ l'., collections received from) sos sees ocleee terse = ee erae eee 106
Butler County, Ohio; earthworks in). 2-55. 22-2 cec>-asss= see ee aaa eee OEE 600
C.
Cabinet of. curiosities, national...2-.53-hcc once eee oes Ses eeeeeeee eee 81
California, collections of fishes/from 22.4..2<.0 45.c)/iss-+< see eee ee en ee eee eae 105
salmon eggs, distribution of 22-5202 5-25-26 oon aeeeeeeene sees 50
Callichthyids, oviposition of, 1... =. 4o= setanaaetiecereweee Haaeeees SACP t se 473
Canals, ancient, in Florida sos. 2~ ac- teecizaciseonesaone neem se = eee een eee 631
Carruthers, Arthur; anthropological correspondence.......-..--.-----..---- 681
Carvings, rock, on the Susquehanna River, Pennsylvania...............-..- 642
Case, H. B.; description of mounds and earthworks in Ashland County, Ohio. 593
Cass/County,, Dlinois;, Indian/remainsiin 22 ees eye ee eteteene ete are 568
buried flinta in - 220522 cteceeecesce ee acs ee eee 563
Cabalo snes OF, SLATS aa in, mie S/o wc iniom'a o's te imate nian bninto'o Se ee eee eae 192
Cayuga County, New York, antiquities of ........ sation Hee iaastal SO 650
Ceilings in: Museum building, repairs|to\--2. 2... 22-2. eee eee eee LOA
Centennial; Exhibition, effects obi s--)4-cee soe oe eee eee eee 83
@hetodermase 26 se) acti e ce Steck enics wae onisis Soeleee ees eae eee Eee eee eee 455
Chautauqua County, New: York ..2 2.020552 -aecaset Sa ee eee eee ae 643
Checklist of Smithsonian publications )...226)) 22-252 522 <setee oa een eee zi
Chemical laboratory... oi: Siacikaset icone ea Ree een cece ee eee 14
Chemical laboratory in, Museum*building' 522... 2s(22)-8 5. 2ooeenle eee eee itil
propertiesiof the atmosphere... 242eh eee oe eee ee eee eerie 261
products, exhibit of, promised to Museum...-........-..--.----...- 100
Ohemist; TeportOb thes. sce cece cases tiwa steele ee ee pe eee AEE ee eee eee eee 161
Chemistry, report.ons propressnn ane Sot ee. ce. e see ee eae eee alee pixieane 381
generaland: physical <2. ..cese = Jee eoe ee eee eee Pe ae He 381
INORGANICE <2 oS cweasod Senso Hocico eee eater ae See eee See 383
OTGAMN ieee se eco usoseck= cee concise shee ewes eee ese. ee 338
Chester, Capt. H. C., selection of steamer Prometheus by .---...-.--..------ 23
Chineseimedicines in. Museum .:.21222.-22 4adeee eae Sa See ieee eee 100
Cicada, periodicalco. S32 scales me score cee cc eee eee US eee eee eee 446
Clark, A. Howard, employed in:Fisheries. Census: 2252-2. 522222032 seeeeeee 52, 83
obtained collections of schooners-=.-.--.225:222222 .246s~ 101
Clarke; 1h. W..,.thanksid0et0i2 ssseso6+ setice cee cc essences ee eee eee ee 22
Clark, Henry James; Lucernariz and their allies -.-.-.-.----- cM 25
Classification, proposed ,;in-Musenumicoc-- seen eats Soe eee oe eee 89
Cluss & Schultze, architects, National Museum building, report of.....-.-.-- 180
Clymer: diester, wement 2255 ies 2S tee S oo. ae ee a ee eee VII
Coastiand: Geodetic.Sunyey, co-operation Of... osa--ccsee mace. oe eee eee 42
Cobden, Tll., ancientiremains near isc. seed We 24328 sae ee ei eee 584
Colenterates!: 55 ceseat cae oct oa Se Sec oe le ciepsy See Se nieieve as oe ee 421
bibliographyso£s-ec). Uo eciss eckeeeee ce smbcniGe ees eee eee eee 421, 422
Collecting fish 6g98. o..5.6 eh senoeeiis:s hea concer eee es eee ee aes 50
Collections, appropriation for transfer and arrangement of,.........---.---- 185
Collins, Capt. J. W., employed on Fisheries Census......---...-.----------- 52
Paper y DY se ecind ee nisseee sven eget ee atete never 126
Coloring matter of birds’ feathers: ssh. -s25 sao seen eee eee rea 484
Comets, notesirelativetoi 2:22 oouiciee OE aac eee Ee eee 213
observed inl S81) oh ol2 Be ee pa ete pene Sie cial dary Oh. 2 tee 29
INDEX. 817
Page.
Committee, Executive. (See Executive Committee. )
National Museum building. (See National Museum.)
special, on Henry memorialvolume. (See Memorial of J. Henry.)
Comparative psychology or “ phrenology ”.........2.2ssscee+ senses eee eeees 501, 504
Wemparative technology. = j:5 sick soo bokise. bis deco dieeate ne ba cacnseale see 501, 505
Sencrore walk vapPPLopriation | fOr. <=. a. ddoaeee news see eee aawaeh abaa teens 3
RPP OUNCE DOAN 6 oo ols oo aceninnis eo oie cienn'seinees cniea/ aa vaine peeps meena Med 354
Connecticut, antiquities of Hast Windsor... ...2 2 ce once ndsidleaiibice cose ovicivie 660
Ganusor Miss Magpie deathiofie. i620. wisp 5 id ieee b eee sdeo ares wees 43
Contributions of manufactures to the Museum.......-......2..220-2 -eceee ee 88
jOPeROWIOR Se. VOL, MAU 25. « <iaimis mas acon Ree naeee eee aie 25
Co-operation of revenue cutter Corwin . .... 222... eee ese e eee wee e ee nc ee 20, 22
HS. Signal Office ......)..aniwtls basriaosa eee 2b. eRd 19
Navy Department and James Gordon Bennett...........-.-. 17
with other,establishments ... ... ..2<< nsec Jeececsae seeds 40
Coosawattee, Old Town, Georgia, silver crosses from mound at...--.....---. 619
ere SY OPO on an 53 <0 ca.cne tsb J Ne ee d ele Ce once VIII, 1x, XV
PERO MMONS ID Yer o< foc saicesins on elag eeiemee serene eee Eee X, XIII
Bah COMMEIIONEUD ES oc am (55 oo ae wenn a cap a -becepenaceuba deteebeeee ne aaa 108
CCS OTE Se ee eee eee Reis Ch sey ween Sey ree ec 108
Corcoran, Gallery of Art, co-operation of...... 2.21 i esas tne desccadbccs none 41
Goring, Erastus, donation to Museum. .2<.5jc22--2ecedss ccccbeslcecees cocece 103
Correspondence, anthropological, abstracts from-.-.-.-......-.....----------- 681
of the Smithsonian Institution.........2........2----2- cece 13
Dertesppudenigior the INnstitupiGn -- —. ...56)n4<0<6ecen sen stte slbebadiledes wees 3
Corwin; revenne cutter, co-operation Of ....... ss<< ats dbetsloseiet cies a6 eubelamote 22
Cotton fabrics obtained for the Museum... .. ..---. 1-222. se ees ceecee cesnee 100
Japanese, collection ofsqays:: sas seueld-a, Jeese lesen dd Sloe! 101
Coues, Elliott; anthropological correspondence........-...-2..------------- 681
Gem Hon- pammers., Regent... . -. 2. sceencnenedndciennastines oulibee pie ate XV
reappointed Regent... o-cnieccs names enses a aekae Spee Bx.
Cox; W..V-, employed in Hisheries Census). --- <<< -2<sithme ses om see emer ne 52
Crave O OSsMMONlATy) <2 coc sot sp Soe weciesis sopesscsccae sccildbtelineeieee ae 438
Crosses, silver, trom mound in Georgia. ...4 -- <0 «22s esedmciotsids.des douncaleess 619
RUM COBUS TUCED-RGR oo foe sia oo lnc cpeieces Eo eslscna rye smiveinsieaipeniaa seme sats 436, 437
BATASUIC ce oo siete cuss -kcceceisie bans teeld sed sac hehe weet 438
Culture of animals expansion Ofs. 15. icasieciolsasiemal- oie aleme cle tis be ene Oe mekiamte 93
Cuneriiies national cabinet. Of... 665. cocesece <cermese cman \anmpsesietesasee 81
Phere EEL. COUEGhIONS IFO... 060-5 ---hwccecacces «> dike Haieeeee ee ae 38
CXAUOKAVIONS, DYia-(-/e\-.-ci=(< <lniciviely o> =o aleing sl =p Ee tet ete = wale 38
PW RUNC-HSHeN CIO ANLIG -.o5 cence cocens ccs cce/nasecenteyscipecps oMubieeel< te «ab 460
D.
PMme ets CDI COS: TOCGlVGd, IfOM. 2.5 cocci o oo acimccwcndelseuuwassiauceasa wen 103, 108
Dally Willham E., contributions to Museum 2.2.2. cece coe cee woo ecu cane 42
honorary curator, National Museum .......-..........-.. xvi, lil
KXGLES Of: PAPCLS Dion eee apa a elo eee oe ae aaa ole 112, 113
Mnriers, TEMRane. byl Be sd N07) Cove Baty es: es pa eS Gs oe err eee a 108
WA VIE POD WAVIG, MOMIDOL OC OfICl0 5 oc6 ccc emict some stvcwemiue seu we aaes a one Xv
EG PCIE irs ane ote eile ete ie el eel Se eS ee XV
Deaths. (See Necrology.)
Dean, Seth; on antiquities of Mills County, Iowa ..............--.. .-..---- 528
ecm eon; Nabnaniel |G. , OPONt a can Ane nincche san an amenity otcslepaen IX, XV
AP PAMUed) REVONU ac.5/sc eae co paw nue sae eee IX
S. Mis. 109 52
818 INDEX.
Page.
De Hass, Dr. W., exploration by sattintecst suddeocigel aes aeee eee ee 39
De Morgan, J. J. M., collection received from -... 2.2.25... 0-0-2225 -2ce ween 109
Dentistry appliances, exhibit of, promised to Museum ......-......--....--. 100
Deposits of articles in Museum to be encouraged ......-...-..----..-------- 58
De Vinne, Theodore, L., illustration of wood-cut printing presented by -.... 101
Devoe, PB. -W..,.é Co. ,exhibition of paints, &¢r. occ see eee eee eee sees 100
Diseases of,plants, report ON... 6. v0 iioesceowevcnwede salcledelek see CUPP AIEO SE 399
Metribation of. young fish,...cc0w2casee ies cd R ed ieee ee ea 50
Donaldson, Thomas, procured exhibits from the Philadelphia Exhibition.... 36,100
Wonations tothe Museum, list-o£ co... eR eee eee ee ee nee eee 131
WOU De! StaTS ca: 2in sais eller Ra mec Gree reed resi cites eye te id RUN aN Eye A A SNL 202
Dow, Capt..J..M., services. rendered. by:~. 2... UES FS Le ee 41
Dugés, Prof. .A.,collectionsirecelyed dromicen. as.) keeee eee seen ee te eens 104, 106
Durgin, Dr., letters of introduction given to ...... 2... s. 2222 ccc eee nee ones 44
E.
Harll, R. E., employed in Fisheries Census..--...-----------+ s25es- eceeceee , 52
BRI SES als io cing ob nn Keim amis owe pu came aikehiaiiels! ate Siie See ee aan ben eres 219
internal structure: of: 222 cccc55 ease eens cake e ek Cee ee eee 25
Earthworks.in Ashland.County, Ohio... 032... 2.26 sescescesas505 see eueeen 593
Butler, County; Ohio ssi sca-te ave Joes se oe ekine ees saeeeeeae 600
Vanderburg;County, Indiana, stesenessee lees aici oan ote Se 591
Bast Windsor, Conn,, antiquities of. is t\).)Uuice isk. Ves k ies Peale ee cewe keen 660
Pchinoderms; ccc Jae co2 ei sne a sejeweee eaeeeeenees DATE oo MEE attlo wie loclagevels 423
bibliography Of 55. 6) :5.02.5s 0.cdapawsice Sees eners Sane He sees 423
Hconomie, geology, department) of-.5. 0... --2ae-eelce ee sees hae eens eee 110
Economical entomology of the U. 8., by Townend Glover......--.-.--.------ 43
Edmunds, R. H., employed in Fisheries Census. ......-... 2.222222 2200 ceeene 52
Edwards, Vinal N., collections received from......2.....0.--.---+ cone ee eee 105
Biwardsville, Kans., Mounds N@aP ssc) < = ssecseisi-sia< coetic eeeesetcos Reeeeass 528
Plectric.spark/and. ight. <2... 2200 ssa0 ua dgeaes opinkpee eles acm So anenlacae 377
Blectrical.conyvention in: Paris: .5.s20. os feseeee ne oe eae eeneaeee See eee ne 44
MOASUTEMENES) 56 vscisco.cscccw ccs sseu seb es seinem tase aes sae ee 375
Service: in. Museum), .bo2 25 cecs cece SoM eee coe ee ete eee 12, 97
LO CUBICIY: onic. cocicine smasec dase ca’sccaleaie sane sdeeniee see os oe cee eee eee 304, 372
Elliot, D. G.; classification and synopsis of Trochilidw..........-.......---- 25
Ellsworth, E. W.; antiquities of East Windsor, Conn.......2... scceesseeees 660
Bina Observatory) conc dckce soeaee hiceten scee cas cee cee ee etue ecleeee hee sees 224
Hmbry ology: of Amphioxus) 1242 os decces deae cel es este eeee ee ete succes 468
Of the lamprey. <2 sscassscecccsacceactegin goto Cote atetcomee acts 470
Hadlich,P.M., paper bys vcisecasacscassscsecdcc sedans pecs seuece seeg cesses 126
Employés of the Museum, prading Ofo02 6.005 conc. tat eee eemteeeaee 97
Entomological collections transferred from Agricultural ‘Department to Mu-
SOUM cet sc siset cw si aclinn Sse ava aie Siameesemee ee c slan eh eee ee ine eee 107
Entomology, Ge partMent:Of - sass. seesa ves aasn cae s cee nee ee cess meets 106
economical, illustrations OL. - scopes se else seeceioeae sees 43
Epidemic, fish, in the Gault of Mexico... .-. secscsassecesanecasecn va'sepe Saslets 466
Essential oils, exhibit of, promised to Museum .........-...---------------- 100
Fetimated.expendituces. sor. 1O8e, «0. o.n.0:.. se cin sae Sesame eee acne 169
Tocelpis tor dees aces ee ce cote ass ciec accor bate Bi an a the ae holes 169
Ethnological Bureau, Prof.S. F. Baird’s report on ......-.. Bi aplndie RE CE. 38
TOPOLt Of oe cig ase ae ee oan eee ae eciicns seme 38
EXDPIOTARONS) oon. a5. 0 set eset oa late otek ane eater eee 39
Ethnology, North American, appropriation for ..-.-..-.----. -------+--0+--- 171
Feport Ol POPTesS IN. osenic cebcne dose e ea en dpena caer gaan 501, 505
INDEX. 819
Pago
mronocranhy, department Of: .<.<..<cmeminvaciacwastemiaid tee sebieciak waa koe eae 102
Etowah River, Georgia, the great mound on the ..........-....--+---------- 624
Evans, R.B.; on mounds in Barren and Allen Counties, Kentucky......---- 609
Exchanges, acts of Congress relative tO... . 2... 2ce0 cs scice en en cane eeceeecres 745
A PUQDEUAUUAD COD 3. 6(650c- iin cnn cca, Gas cua ceisaten ee a tari 7, 33, 171, 185
CLOMOCRII CS oe ici anim nclcace cme Soak echt Gee E Ree a tebaem ere eans 63, 726
expensesiof the service|.- =+\.- ....eceesancees eee eae eens caeue 3L
FEMA anoint meena = comin. s =a nc n'ei = <ince.i9 in nim 716
IU STO RYO testa ci eeisgo So njanic t= aicin) ewin.a'as wa cas ow eeeOeboee. Meats. te 30, 703
ANGSTM AGODA]. |. A/c, 0- <a: a'- aceme Ace Shep ee cee es Betteee eee eee Sees 776
RALISiCOMVeNtION: ON. ..<1210 <<a. <i2 </siiee chat soe ele ale meaieges betes 776
Teceipisiand distribution) of 5. j.utkod.htspe seman, peaewaee ae ee 59, 60
ELOSEBLE ULY.O) COiccclscoits ~:>.ns se aici cis ee oleic eee else oats seme eaeie 57
fapwl ArKbateMmenhiOL.. <2 J. 24545). os coe eee ee ee 64, 71, 728
WiEh OFCOM POVELNMENtES «. + - --..---- 26 stacichideasnls eeeneeeeeaes 72, 773
Hxecutive-Committee, reports.Of -...-.<.. .2s<<5 scocca oe ced eeuens saceiee X, XII, XIII, 167
ESPON TUES STOLRLSS NL jo cisisin nicisyoicinicie slnicinaw'ui tebSaledaeecek Aitenueb be aaebee se 168
Explorations, ethnological and archxological ...-..........-..5..---.---- 15, 39, 527
(See Researches and explorations. )
F.
HATIOWAN Win GretlulestOMPApeLs DY sa-5 c+ ec. ceases cscs sces coe cieecnace eee 126
report On progress ini botany in 1881- ~~ 2222.2 ot cs eee 391
Farrell, F: M., on ancient rémains near Cobden, Ill ....-.--. 22. 25. sc. esc ce 584
HANA PAMeNICAN, WIrds Added to, in LSS 422. Siectecc ccc cscs cone cece ceases 487
AVES PeELlOgic COMeb..-~ -- = os-5-2+- eoeccs as Ox cacn sissies cso cselsmas 216
Heathers coloring; Matter OL ss. fefctac uel ce ost cledis cee sated sae << ae 484
Ferry, C. M.; anthropological correspondence... ..- 25. 12-222 222 eee cece 681
HEVOLRD Yer O WOO eee stsaa 222 s/ccice cvicwicbinccs sis weloltauisteeisiocelsme Seis emilee 26
MGTAADED: HADI Oler manatee ch cies e'cloe slciciels cals Selec ot acleelsiostlee sis bisa Sper. - 478
Figyelmesey, Mr.; collections received from ............052.225..--.-.---- 104
HAN AUCEs On Ge MASHEUUGION.. =... 42.5522 dace beiet Seleeleneceie es ccc ceccccencese 7
Hinancial SpabeMment Ol ALCHILECES <= < o- 5 cc 5c. cise ectlens ceeasiseces . cu esse 179
Fire-proof building, National Museum, appropriation for ..........--..----. 170
Teporbion eisssiast YS Ee aes Les. eee,
Fish Commission; U. 8., collections made by ..- 2... ss 02. cneu Leccee caceee ces 105
Professor Baird’s réport.ion 5220/22. on on tiselss oe casas 46
Wish epidemic in the Gulf of Mexico..........-.. J. Js0eusues bean Bias. 466
ish Laws -CLHISO- Of; I LOOM 1's io G2 ctle ose clisice ebiot cele aadmlemiah tik cleldeneieaae 47, 48
FAS CGMINMISSION StEAMer. - 50.5... i occissee «da pame aes eb isee 46, 47
ASHE pent. Prin bing Oley se teu. sleds coe cece ee ck sa bvccle dae « cukemiaseeumes = 184
HABHOIIOS COURUB ES mir teciCicnra ane icine cso be oles vem rs oamcian aac ESE Me aea/Eetele. « 51
PIUIMGSI CRONE OL osslac see eee cede cce Uae ce eames ocaivewwk canleeaae = 46
PABNSEYVOPMCRIDMAONINABOLUN sc. . Sosa cc gcee canals neccslanwemn Maine cae enn esisun 44,182
PUBCON COME GITONS) Of tera rors ats <i sociale Saas ios AME Uee Saleila teh Mhicala saw aetais 105
GO PALUMIGM LOLs se uies OK cok tate ectebesleecam eine en aeehatetee mipise Seer 105
ERR GR peel tron oi scierate a/niciorassiniwineiajniminin > ol Sele alee Re Ee wo kee ee alae ne 465
Flint, Earl, anthropological correspondence...... ..---..---.--. ---+-------- 681
Flint, Dr. James M., chairman of board to experiment on preparing wood for
naval purposes .....-.. Be aaiere doiasiaiias a gee ee 14
compilation from pharmacopaias ee ee eee 100
honorary curator National Museum.......-..-.-..---.- XVI, 111
in charge of medicinal collections of Museum.....-..- -- 36
materia medica collections by ..........--...-.2-+eeseee 99
820 INDEX.
Page.
Flints' buried:in'Cass'County, BHlinois. 2...) 0.2 -j55..)- 10 ssmicteletenicisiaetee meee 563
Floor in National Museum building ..............--2.--2--- eo a ae ee 3 10
Blorida;‘abotiginesot tea oy ye eee ie Ce aca teeeiai as Setar nea pint ae ievat met wetce 677
Alachua County, mounds in’. 5/2). -caede scores suet eis. eee aioe 635
ANELOM bi CANAL ID | 5 <a teria otarainintelnfey se ieietsic) Jake ainiol eke ee Me eeata ee pe eros 631
Biynn’s Creek, ennessee, MOUNGS Ona. om cienla loin) sala oia eee ete 611
Holger, Hons Charles J., memberéx officio: .<2. 32,7 - ingens aas esas eeeeee eee XV
HO0d- ASHES; PIOPALAION OF orate) so wer diaiere aiwcimincosoulnjnalni eimai nim eee oat ar 46
Poods, collection of, in: Musewm 0.50.50. oi. son ew ocean sfemiein a dees Sele ote 100
Horbes; Prof. S.-A., collections received) from)-2- 3-5-4... =e eseeeseee a 105
Foreign correspondents of. the Institution... ... 022. 2226 sses cece ss een -- =e 31
Foreman, Dr. Edward, assistant, National Museum. .-.......-.-..----------- XVI, 111
Cuties Of 5260s enn sols sacciee Haste e es wae spicier 102
Fossil botany; department of -5 5. 24200225 occ oem ate eee oe eee ee ee ea 109
invertebrates, department of.-. <.)-- |. ss Gsepea eae eeieee es eaten. 109
Fountain in|Museum building, -.---..-22. 5-.-.5.-.6 Baie bits ae ce diecaeest toes 174,177
Hox/River Valley, Llinois, antiquities'of = 25-5 25 /- <cm,esiscee dense 549
WP AMKINS PLivile gel eset inc one a ae rise erie alate aa sl ania nearness tate 181
Frelinghuysen, Hon. Frederick T., member ex officio .......---...-.--------- XV
French, G. H.; antiquities of Jackson County, Illinois .........-.......-... 580
on a stone fort near Makanda, Illinois .............--.-..---- 582
Hritsch;h).,<contract:tor tile-floorin 522)... 2< s/n one aarnce eeeeeaeeiae 174, 177
Furniture and fixtures, appropriation for ...-....... vi erlaeioia aaisilemmasiels caine 170
G.
Galbraith F. G.; rock carvings on the Susquehanna River ........----..---- 642
Gale, W. Hector; on antiquities of Fox River Valley, La Salle County, Illinois. 549
Gall insects, alternate, generation IM. 222 - oo scence =m ane gee co eee ae eee 446
Garfield, James A., president ex-officio Smithsonian Establishment ..........-- VIll, XV
death, of) 025-2252. 2 tases eee cele ocean see ree capes tee 3
resolutions relativetO ......-:4-6ss4anetoreeee IX
memorial noticeiof, 22-2 Sse see sseetse see acess eee oe 1X
Garman, Samuel; title of paper byet- ss see. dees te elena eee ae eeeieere 126
Garretson, John, and H. Y. Banta; on mounds at Snake Den, near Salem, Iowa 532
Generation, alternate, in.calllinsect.— 2. 2G isessissjsemieaeltieuk sate ob clea e eer 446
Geographical Congressat Venice_be.esurte oy tse beens os oe ela eee eel 45
Geology, economic, department of... 2. 12.22 .-ce tne d-- Be tenes ener ape eee 110
of Lower Louisiana, by Eugene W. Hilgard, Ph. D....-.........-.- 25
Georcia, Berrien: County, moundan --)2-\.--4-- serene ance cee ee sete so 631
Coosawattee Old Town, silver crosses from mound at. .-......--... 619
Ktowah River, the great mound on the .........-.-......-....-..- 624
Murray County, silver crosses from mound in ..... wat) RRReCRIEE <6 219
New River mounds, in... 222.52. 8255. cals se eid= de cee eeeisees 631
silver crosses; from mound in. 222) foe le coe cee eens eee ee 619
Gesner, William; mounds, &c., in Jefferson County, Alabama........---.--- 616
Gibson, John,» &:Co., works done: by 2.2521. eyo soece ae ee eisai nin oe eee ee 95
Gilbert, C.-H., collections received: from jvs2h Aone se ce te eee ose em seo sere 105
employed in obisheries’ Census S25222 fo -\seeee se cee- ce ceenetenee 53
Gill, Theodore; titles.of papers: Dy 22-225 -...e eae tee pete sete ence nese 126
on progress) ini zoolppy. am MSSloist so. tee.lebeiclas = aen eee 409
Glazier, W2:C. W..,, title of paper ibys, CAC at a Ooi Lae a PEs here cect isiela ae toes 126
Glossolog'y vjcet: PRY IRNME. J. S 23 T e Seaetntete Se facia seo eels 501, 505
Glover, Townend, illustrations of economical entomology .-.--..-.----------- 43
INDEX. 821
Page.
Goode, G. Brown, Assistant Director National Museum.............-...XVI, 35, 81, 111
in. charge, Fisheries! Census, .... vis adessiaes «momar ade ree see 52
list' of papers: DY! cus wesc. ewewen Bisateie iste) sine CEtaeemiehroit 113, 114
report of Assistant Director: 2. occ. akuesis tha cdaewanade cae 81
and Tarleton H. Bean, list of papers by...........--..---.- 114
Gore, Prof. J. Howard; on Indian bread or tuckahoe.......-.....-2.-------- 681
work upon the collection of food.........-..----.--- 107
Gavernmont excl an GOst ac. scctasm = sees clas eptidoc actasaeie ee iametooe a taeda tase 32
Graaes\or employes. of the: Musetim ..---. ... 2. cd Lissisae ces ame cinca nce sanene 97
Graham, N. B.; anthropological correspondence.............-..--e-0--e+ ence 682
Grave mound, Indian, in Georgia, silver crosses from.......---.-.--- +--+ cece 619
Graya Prot Asa, reappointed Repent). << -acid. Nsia'c ocwcle eee eesen acee seee oe 1
BRON Gel aie ho wien mle 0'[a win.n sw elo an laid siahe doteta acts s, ea geaa Bae VIII, IX, XV
LESOLULLONSIDY Ri 3=2 12k Ua cis ciacteisisi elaine ters a Sela wee he damettoe aa eee o 1X) xa)
Grey oWeby,,OAkOS AMEMIBHE. DY: soc... 00.0.0 dm alel- ne cwleneinweesh Jdgvee aaeses 95
Green, etrand on ancient rock inscriptions in Johnson Chines Arkansas... 538
Gresdeplr COUeCHORS MAGE) DYl. - 2.56 ynicin ness nocnicsan. ce cons beeae aees fe oeee 103, 104
Gulf of Mexico) PaO pIeMe I TAG. 0 22. sosc/necpen ees aes bOkaeeee eee 466
GHuOLHGEY Die ae fUlMIGHCO DY: <ccnjcncees sacs scicc rc sina meclcccceee cee ee aes 95
Gurney, John Henry, st of papers DY 2...) 6 0660 «5 6ss swewwes dee Wak cewslleceee 129
lsh
CBD E IDE MONOMER tO ca ctomue Sic .c/ecjaici ain oie cides ciactinew me seiesneeoeneeee, wees 9
Haite, Joshua, sr., mounds on Flynn’s Creek, Jackson County, Tennessee... - 611
ie dente aaa SON aLONTEOM <5 aic os sce cits acc seieialene aisiele os apolar 101
PC UEE LONE NOOR Up eeeroe es oats ove Sie eina si ciai8 os clelemicia swe'e a nto = «senile siewinie 9
amlin ton. EH. jresionation of, a8 Regent .... .--<,.-0«0---2.---se50c-ceeees 1x,4
TER VHGES Ole So Sh ssbb Gade Seaseaee se Coa eea Sas eS ase cose 5
Hardy, George L., and Fred. B. Scheetz; on mounds in Ralls County, Missouri. 533
Ree ORC AEs HISD UL PANELS! DY - 1.) -. 0 sa. nicsaceyenens seaecassaece cane scce 126
Harlan, Calvin S.; anthropological correspondence... ........----------+---- 682
EEIETIS eee CONSULON tO) MUSCUM <. 2.5 /o~ + <cmmiesivin c= case Jesse casaisacsee 102
Hawes, Dr. George W., curator National Museum...... ..........-----..- XVI, 110, 111
HistOby PaAPOLs Diss <\me alo = sim ae alate ain ale le eintaiat 115
Stone-cuyters employed Dyi---. > cos cee dcem ees seaeae 96
Hawley, E. H., mounting of specimens done by...-..------------------- een 108
Hy Or Ow COlechOns TeCClLVeG 1fOM oc. soee comes te cicincs eaeals ~~ 6 een 106
UI OLO LAD AD OLD iter ais basi ant oe = ae ceiee ee Set ee eee 127
Hayden, Rev. Horace, antiquities of Southwestern Pennsylvania...-....---. 638
Hayden, Walter, collections received from.-......--.-.....-.---------------- 106
Hayes, Rutherford B., president ex oficio Smithsonian Establishment -..---. XV
Heating and lighting National Museum building, appropriation for .....--.-.. 185
Henderson, Hon J. G., donation from... --. .--..- ---+ 2.2.20 we eeen- cone we eee 101
Hendley, J. W., painting of casts ...... .----- .-- 22. seeene cece ee cone cone noes 96
Henry County, Illinois, mounds in 2-6. 25.2. tan we ens sen n mms wn ess so onen 552
Henry, Joseph, memorial of ...... 2... -- sen ene one e ce wenn we ee enemas sence ooe- 27
BEATE OL) sor eas ca na Sena ee cei elaie ele etre wia! te om einoabel Na Ee xit, 6
Henshaw, H. W., title of paper by. ....------.------ ------ -- +--+ -- eee eee eee 127
Harme).). C., collections made by-.-..- ---- .--- -- = sesame -565 cons eaves 102, 103, 104
Hilgard, Eugene W.; geology of Lower Louisiana........-.-.---.-...------ 25
Hill, Hon. Nathaniel P., Regent. -.-...--.. ..-.-- ------ --- + 20-0 ooo = eee eee VU, 1X, XV
APPOMRbCOUROSENU op cme mis ae mid en nee Ix,4,5
Malers, J. K., photographic. work done, by... +. ..---- s-sanceerh densjesgannr 40
Hinckley, Isaac, facilities offered in transporting fish......-.----...---.--.- 51
822 INDEX.
Page
History, bibliographical, of-the Museum ese. 25-266 sos. Sscisem aia 'scetoeeee 2 ‘02
of the Museum; periods in's..-220Ser 2 eee, ee oes aoe 81
of the Smithsonian exchanges, by George H. Boehmer ..---..-.--.- 703
Hoar, Hon: Georgerl., Regent-.2ss45-co ses ase etoeatalea eects teas teeters Jeera VIII, IX
appointed Regent 2s. ae Sa es IX, XV, 4,5
Hodgden, Captain, specimens received from ..2...222 --222-52--Loscccee. o-ne 42
Holden, Prof. Edward 8.; on progress of astronomy in 1881. rie ea i BEN es 191
Beater G. W.; anthropological correspondence..........--. 2.2222 222 00 682
Hooper, ‘Captain; assistance given byi---.5.cc<. =- eee see eee see eee 41
thanks due! toes 46:5. Kas ese seis soe te eet aeee eee 20
Horan, Henry, superintendent of the National Museum building........--.. 97
Howard, Captain, specimens received -from......-22202526 «sstisuate otis 4 si om 42
Howe; Hon: Pimothy O:, member er officio... 22 +~cs-<2 52 seeeee ee eee XV’
Hubbard, H. B.; shell deposits at the mouth of Short Creek, West Virginia, -. , 637
Hunt, Hon:-William H., member. ¢x officio..222- 0.00 SSS seem ee tee See eee XV
Huxley, Professor; definition of term ‘‘museum” .... 2222.4 0..60. 50-22 ceees 85
Hyatt, Profs A.,-labeled - corals saaidiccciccisccyocuicwis conse See ae saerlsemeeiee eee 108
Te
ee ndustry, COMschian of. oan a 2 ooo (aah ee ee ke tn i : 101
Tehthyologyacijs cose 3a aceite os asec ne See eee aie e ees ee eee eer 468
bibliography? of. - 2.2.2.5: \sc. anes ate aeemeeieeseeaeeeeee 468, 470, 471, 472
Hlinois, ancientiremaims neariCobden! =... 2. soe ses ee ee ene = eee eee 584
Bureau County, mounds in 22.6 o.cc n-ne] soe ie ween eee hee eee 556
Cass County, buried: tints in cat. .2. Lo ee eee eee 563
Indian remains ine ys 22/22 ese woe ee nae eee 568
Henry, County,;mounds in, 2-2 ).:hs-00 --5-= cee cee ee: Se eeeece ee eee 552
Jackson County, antiquities Of-5---- ea. sncsee pans coe ae eeeee a ees 580
stonetort; iis S5 Se es Seeateecsilee aces cok 582
Knox County, mounds in’ sc. 5. c2 ease ss enacts Oana ee ee eee oe 554
aSalle)/ County, antiquities ims. sen. -eeeclse eee oe one eee ee 549
MOUNGS Uo. teases abc wes See tee ce eee eee 544
mounds in, Spoon River Valley 2542 Sse. ee te een 558
Stark County, mounds ins 22225. eo eee eee eee ee ee eee 552
stone, fort near Makanda 522552353 este noe eee ee ae eee eres 582
Union County, ancientremains nessa eee ene e eee ere eee ee 584
Wayne County, antiquitiesiof as..-- .ce-- nate aoe en eet eae ee 587
Whiteside, County, mounds’ 274542526 ee eo eee = ee eee eee 544
Inaugural reception of the Presidents oop. -tesa. se eee cee eee 1
Independence County, Arkansas, mounds in.----- - 22225 225-25 s2 sess es- eee 541
Indian bread or tuckahoe.-. 2552 222-8 gn. eens nee Semen ee eee aa 687
grave mound in Georgia, silver crosses from --....--...---.--------. 619
remains in Cass County, Ulinols)-- sacs. eee - een e es ese ee eee 568
Indiana, mounds and earthworks in Vanderburg County ..---.--.---------- 591
Industries allustrated an: Museum)-2>- 22... 22s aes o see ee ee eee 90, 92
Ingersoll, Ernest, employed in Fisheries Census.-.--...--.-------2------52-- 53
titleof paper by 22226 sui2525 5252 15 eee 127
Inorganic chemistry): 222.25 .055<.23.-225 022 55s eseeed ses seepccieac ee eet eee 383
Inscriptions, ancient rock, in Johnson County, Arkansas ..-.-....----------- 538
Insectarinm... 2265... 5 ase n eee oes ee Sa i Poe ae ere ee ae 445
Insects, blood Of .225-2)3 2258222 fsccce cence) eee eee Ee eee Eee een 445
department of \.). 2. % ee ee ee ee ee ee ea 106
devastations by 2205052 ve) ais 2s Ae SU PE a ie tee ei tele ie ote 448
relation of Devonian, to existing types....-.....----...-------- ahvehs 451
stigmatiaof . 2°. 2200.22 News 2 SPEER A ee ease 445
INDEX. 823
Page.
MIMENU MSV OLE Si Soo Si hp A a ee a a oe 451
Instrumentalities of anthropological research. ........-.-...---..----------- 501, 507
Internal structure of the earth, by J. G. Barnard..:........-.2-.s-2-- see--- 25
International Congress of Americanists ...... .. 2... .scencsiwes cocvesescenacs 45
Electrical Convention im Parigsscus bette inten ns deen das x ~Jee' 44
exchanges appropriation for. /..> 52. <peraeeeis aecetletems sane 171, 185
exchanges, history of, by George H. Boehmer...........-.-...- 33
LOS) CCS A eel Dp. ob ov aCaya Va ole 872) A hbase eee We ie ee 44
PP COMiatimiOWl CONPTERR: . ..-, ... 5...<.5 soaclepacseedepeen eeekaeeee 45
Invertebrates, fossil, department of........ Seis aos SER Se Ay oe Stine 109
Fayestigationvot fishing and fisheries.......--.....-.---2t/-c0¢-ceeeeesdansek 46
TR oo oe oo win o's ape Se Sim aia eae eee 39
Pea oniy OunGy, ANOUNGS iN)... -..-.5.4>- Ja. «osu ceaeoe abe eee ee 532
RESP ath y AMOURGA AD 605.5 ofan +2 nie ons ao neice ea eee ede 528
MonndsiaAtSnakewWen near Salem. 22, J. 0cc2054s<cas $5-Sse eee 532
J.
Jack, J. Allen; sculptured stone from St. George, New Brunswick ...-....--. 665
Jackson County, Ulimois, antiquities of -<.-- 32.2% s<-ces es acnjsiweslsqnoce elec 580
‘Hennessee, mounds in .. ..........<\--=--<cq aw ase ieee eae 611
EMO ORIGTATIGH NOE oo oo. 6 oie ene won oo = ai ena aseenep sed oe ane eee 19
Japan, collection of ornamental wood from..............----...--+2-.------ 100
PRR ETS oe ale a2 8 Jase od ale’ daid onld o.com o's SARE PARES Saat Jeter 102
Mepanese.couon, collection Of... . 05.200... 0.. sdoweeesees sites Se eee be 101
Jefferson County, Alabama, mounds, workshops, and stone-heaps in .....-.. 616
Johnson County, Arkansas, ancient rock inscriptions in -.........-...-.-.-. 538
Me NEon ott. bO.OL PAPEL DY -. «2. sjenag aje-ob aiviatich. espeeae USK. 127
MemUstOns sesepaLE., ROCENG. 5... ccc. wesc sale Soc pnclee ni obnad ae ee Vu
Jones, A., M. D.; on mounds and other remains in Independence County, Ar-
RATS Sete asthe Ie Ao iss seca eo saia'cle'sio = om oa qutacieeh Be sae ee see esse es 541
Jones, Charles C., jr.; silver crosses from an Indian grave-mound at Coosa-
wattee Old, Town, Murray, County, Georgia ...- 2. =. 0052. 00.- eceeenccscee 619
Jones’s Station, Butler County, Ohio, earthworks near..................-... 600
Jordan, Prof. D. S., arrangement of fish collection by ..-.-....-.-..--+.-.-- 105
collections, made Dyj = 5--)-- 2c) a2 see sae ee eee 105
employed in Fisheries Census -:-\54 |. 5 epacwoecectsienn- 53
ttle. Of Paper DY. « wa0:- = Hue th’ Sehdd ods e sme eels 127
and Charles H. Gilbert, titles of papers by ..........-. 2 127
and Pierre L. Jouy, title of paper by «\.. 22... --- 6. scons 128
Jouy, P. L., collections received from....-.........-+--- vans). Veseta te ceaee 108
BLL GIG i PUPAE DYpaea seis ose mie te wire oe ee sio= epee emer I Bie 115
K.
Kales, J. W.; anthropological correspondence...........- -...00 cece. wecees 682
Kangag, moeundimesr Wd wardswillo. ... os js sn .-h soca a eee eknemicdceiee. + shee 528
Wivalaoile County, mounds. 2: cose. — oh. sas) ae bok seek ee 528
Keifer, J: Warren, appointment of Regents by .- 22-2 222.52. 5555 woes conn ne IX
Melly wMissranna W., donation to Museum!>..... pose... Cee c coc etceee oes 103
ents Classilice tion. Of ProtoZOANSs. 2c. .\c. aecete ee ~ina slase nels ook. Uae ere 417
Kentucky, Allen County, mound in............. Se rst chs cmos som iub = Ok ee 609
Barrens County, MOUNds iid soos bes uw cccdunucdmaboth occu ceeenc 609
Boyle County, moOunagsiINe coco ance occ cement tect e een ee. 603
Morcer:County, MOUNGSIN.. 24 -o2.c:ceben pee epees ecede aan = 603
Kentworthy, Charles J.; ancient canals in Florida -..................2. 2--. 631
Kid-glove manufacture illustrated in donation to Museum..............-... 101
824 INDEX.
Page
Korkwood; Hon. Samuel J:,;meniber er officio: -o--s0 se so cs aine ae ieleclae a etemele XV
Klikitat River, Washington Territory, aboriginal works at mouth of.-.-...... 527
Knickerbocker Ice Company, donation by <<. 22: coc ice eee cee cnn cone 101
KnoxiCounty, Minos jantiquities|Ob)c2e seem ase se oe ante ota eer e maleate 554
Koons, B. F., assisted in Fish Commission work .....-..----.--.-.----------- 48
Kena S Drs, LASSIsvaNeevolVeNnbOl wie a lsloe es aise dalce sine sete semana amieistnte etere=etaetels 42
Krebbs; Hacene. donation frome cae sac. ees ence eee eines eee eel aetnleverate ate 101
Kumlien, Ludwig, employed in Fisheries Census ............----.---------- 52, 53
L.
Laboratory, chemical) .< 05/5 2225222 5e2 cass dadeceac tee els cen Cenmee sehr aeeee 161
aboratories,in Museum bnilding 122.2... 2s25eckosccee be toee eee acae een nt
Kaboratory,/of natural history: sei. 222s. ecemsmec cece cos clone seiseets sea seen 13
Bake Tanganyika.(shells) of..s22s4-ccc2eses sk ese tece See eee ee eee eee 458
Mamprey,, embry olocy, of the!so42)52j,-22-\ses ee tteecacine es eiceoecmeetonscaatecas 470
Handi shells/of/Palsozoicveraiese- asec c= ee ele pies See a eae eee 457
Langston, Hon. John M., contributions to Museum......-..-.------.-.------ 37
Prof. J: Ms) collections’ received trom 2 eee ee ae eres eens 108
Marco, Andrea, collections received frome: =. 5-2. eaters eee eee 105
ety agdalic lepidopleLrouss sees se cse sae ee eee eee ne Cie ee eae eee 447
Marynx, structure of the; invepemophori<: =: 22-2---eceseeeees coos ee mese se = 495
La Salle County, Illinois, antiquities of Fox River Valley..-.--...---..----- 549
MOONS Maes Hse eee Le Seta ee etal eee rere 544
awrence; George N.» title of paperiby dace esssine seceles ee ose ae ae ae 129
Lee, Prof. L. A., assisted in Fish Commission work ...........---.-...------ 48
eech,) Daniel; corresponding clerk e sos. «seem cas see aan cee ee eae XVI
Legaré, Dr. T. Berwick, donation to Museum...-....-.-..--.--.----------- 103
Lepidoptera, Teport-on. 22.422. 222220222 ed teass 2 eee ere Seared 447
Leslie; \C.'€.; collections received: from!) oie ss seen am) clan steers aaa telefon 105
Contributions) bo MUsONUN 2 ss s2e saa ae a seo eer 37
Lesquereux, Professor, arrangement of collection of fussil plants......------ 109
Library of Congress, privilege of, extended to regents of the Smithsonian
Institutions 1 os5 i052 us 2 eo ss NERO 2 AR Pe (EU Dee yma eens Bre eene tee mate 181
iibraryof phe: Musewmi «2 242: tis ote erceree 2 een ci crores ere Set ete are ctetene eaves 95
of the sEnstroution ss 2 sone eee cae te eee Sa e iante aia areca 34
iicrease during thesyear:=scee. 2452s eee seas eee oe aero ect. 35
Light-House Board, ‘co-operation of the--::+:---2:---5.--1220--2.-------2-- 42
iicht! production-and velocity het. ott esos se ee - oe ane eee ee aes 361
reflection and refractlon-eeeaces. poe oe eae nnce seen were se anemia 363
imeoln; Hon. Robert: T:, member'ex/oficio.. 2.2222 o 2 essa. - 5 see = ee eee = xV
Linney, W. M.; on mounds in Boyle and Mercer Counties, Kentucky - .----- 603
Lockington, W.W., titles of papers by. - 0. - 2.52222. 25222 co en. aces eee 129
Lucernaria, and their allies, by Henry James Clark ........--..-.---.------ 25
Luther, S. N.; anthropological correspondence -.-..-...-.----------------- 682
exploration of a mound near Braceville, Trumbull County
Ohi ee ese cess Less See Pe ee ee meee te, Sere eee 592
M.
MacFarlane, R., contributions to Museum!’ )/22.5 22022 200 oo ans cai 37, 38
Maclean, Dr. John, member of Executive Committee.......----.--.-------- XV, 172
Reger bes Ao See ae swe nk Mea nh cenal oe ee eS) cepa ate tere aati ViELT, Ee eV)
TOPOLts Dy ses Hesse eae eee le elaalare meet ete ere erate rama o Cateye aint eke Uk ence
resolutions by). 5-222 = tanec eee, ane eee XII
Mac Lean, J. P.; anthropological correspondence ..-..--.------------------ 653
earth works near Jones’s Station, Butler County, Ohio .-.. 600
INDEX. 825
Page
MadisoniConunty, New York, antiquitios(0f<sctes cs oes toestostereds- sis. cbc 651
PERSO U eter. dONatON fLONL.cccoaies saci sas accent nensmeoeeles weet ee eccne 146
MENG GIN ere soho Sse \ain'c'= mes vial ai's's sjntcicis Gms a'a's eas an Re ae Bee ees Bae a cial 304, 372
Makandas Ulinois: stone fort NOAL:. «..a-cncise Qae entahte-eaner ooeeeees tadece 582
WNT eRRUTEL RLS fornia cate 'cls octane vicch wanes walla s oie mm.c/ecaje ae a ciate aka Sea eRe Ie RC ee CPR Se 490
Mammoth Cave, blind fishes of ...--. paled. 6g bbe VOL a Ue RIE ate eg te Spe 477
Mims les pred ims MuSeUIM J. = 22. uo see bawcestsecume-ine ee teeee tee re oes 89, 92
Manniacturing nrms, aid of, to: Museum .........seebensegee eeebee ees baneeees 100
Marbles tion. Hagar M,, member ex officio ....-'.. .s\esek came eee need eek eee xv
Neammaek. iss Wi COLECTIONS recelved from: .... .2.clsk eae becee oat awakes esse 104
Marshall, Henry, taxidermist of the Museum - -.-. 2.2.2.2. 2022 ce eee cee ooo 96
MMBC MLODN AV AM we Nes So eee ase alo) cie em eee lola) aa Go = AAT DR Ee eee 102
Mason, Otis T.; report on progress in anthropology in 1881-........---.---- 499
Massachusetts, Barnstable County, shell heaps in..................-..----- 664
MAES TPT aS relations Ohes ait ttise 442s sce ce 5 sacs os ce ees eee eee 494
Mateniamenica, collections.in Museum -<-. ....-a-ssseesee eas eben tee eee 99
Mather; Ered: employed in Fisheries Censas .... +... ..-.------ seelen's se eeee 52
Matthew, G. F.; on a supposed specimen of aboriginal art..--....----..---- 672
Maxey, ony samuel 5, appointed regent: ...<.< s.-.66cecoen.s cosas ons scouee Ix, 4,5
IR GON bp 2. seat cosine ceeitdosie os ac B Eee eee VIII, XV
McClelland, M. A.; on antiquities of Knox County, Illinois. .--.....-...--.- 554
McDonald, Col. Marshall, collections received from ............-..----..--- 105, 108
contributions to Museum! --------.2-54-2--=— sean 37
employed in Fisheries Census.........-.....----- 53
MeHarlane: Kh. collections madeiby ..1220-. Jats secgeeks sce cc atoe 103
McKay, Charles L., arranging of fish collection .............-..-----..----- 105
signal observer at Nushigak ......-.- ..-..+..2--2e-cees 22
tible;ofipaper Dy; -.2-s2ieseas Js see ioniee ccbeee anoweR tere 129
McLean, John J.; anthropological correspondence -....-..----------------- 683
BigMalODSeLVeD, Bb, Olbkeadies se ae esam sla cin ek sack aie em shee 23
IMG CH ANILCS' sitet cmt sai. ois std oh Deak cera ha egaee Joe See Ce es is 336
Madicinalicollectionsn) Museum, ..2-.ca<<ci-ctet ee adie sous Te eeinison ocibemaleuea 36
Medus and hydroid polyps living in fresh water ........---.-..----.------ 422
Meeting of the Board of Regents. .. 0... 2... --2- sos ee sede cee soe e ad wee een oe ee 6
Meeting of the members of the Establishment ......---....--.---.---.+----- 5,6
Meigs, Gen. M. C., consulting engineer of Museum building commission... . 175
Tesolutions of thanks osc. ce ssi-co estes sees eoek ee xI
Ie ELS COOLIO) co em ysinie cisco sins ene phctclelsie sede cen da eid ot ale ope a nete ot ee aan XV
Memoirsin course Of preparation .... ...-stecsedcues ose bese eee essen aaa se 98
Memionmeal Of Joseph Henry... 2... --2-2- 0.2 a+ oo nciaeis cates Shb ns Rowe e nee oe 27
report of special committee on ........ . ..-2-+ +--+ ---- +++ ---- ---- XI
Moendelett, Mr., mound of Zofi...-.- 0.00. cone seek welll Sohn news baw ncemes 40
Mercer County, Kentucky, mounds in .... 2.22. 22-22 cone wees ese ne ween eens 603
MPC, CVUMSIL OL-~. .\2-5- = o> once Ws bate emslamateamee dedabsan se eee enite oe 212
Merrill, George P., aid, National Museum.....-....--.-.---- +--+ +--+ +200 ---- X Va, .0L
lapidary work Dyd:cc.. 4 scien s-eaeew eee} chee a eae 96
prepared micyoscopic slides of building stones....-..---- 110
Merostomes; relations ofthe. 752 .--cnt baclite cit. oS ussbh, Scene eye} 2 csos 431
Metcalfe, Mr., collections from ..., .... ..0¢ .. sagas susvice se Je bin de ae dese 39
Meteorology, report on progress in, in 1881, by Cleveland Abbe ....-...----- 231
RUTOTAS <5 5 ac5 <--> cee SEE Seek socieUss Weekes ca eeee SR een 304
chemical and physical properties of the atmosphere ......-.... 261
methods And. apparatus -2- =. 2-3... couw GemescclceweMeb eee 244
movements of the atmosphere, winds, &c ....-.-.---..-------- 290
Gptical PHENOMENA... <ceaawinwon ns -swees ecensgncsussscwouns 322
826 INDEX.
Meteorology, solar radiation and terrestrial temperature ...... Sonia ceiaaees 267
SHOPS eUy Mase tore ose cc tad eae a sa tale eines see Sete ee = 300
ireatisesiand bibliography: 2.2.250222 Hoceescee ssee eae ene eee 241
Mew, Dr., experiments by, on preparing wood for naval purposes. ..-..-.--- 14
Mexico;-Gulf/of;-fish epidemicin the... so 7te se esse reese aesies acersace 466
Microscopie'slidesio£ building stones 2a-0)55-455--1-- eye ooe cee nee eee 110
Males glishorigimiof the. .< 2222 suo ecee eee sales as aoe eee eae 219
Miles Bros.i& '\Co.,/exhibitof brushes 2225. 3.524235 235. tee ee ee 101
Mills,Clark,) bustiof, Professor: Henry. 2225-3. 52ese eae Sak eee di
Mills ‘County, lowa, antiquities of: -i.2:5..-2282 hot eens es mance pees 528
Milwaukee County, Wisconsin, mounds in’. 22-22-22 2202 2220 e 2 cette ces 542
Mineralogy;,departmentiol ==. j250525570sitere cosas eos e pees sete sae 110
Miscellaneous Collections, volsixx and xxi fy, 1D. 22 ene ee es eee 26, 27
papers, on anthropology: 2.00: 2226. PISA BE ek eee 527
Missouri, Pike County, mounds ines ss<72 52 ss sitevione code dass cote seeese seeds 537
Ralls!County,, Mound siin oe poesia ee acne 533
Mites; relation. of the. . 22-2! 2 23/255 <5 JSS Be ee dene se 439
Mohr, Charles, aboriginal soapstone quarry and shell-heaps in Alabama. ..-- 617
Molluskstiiiisescecccis cece cas se sctecs scislec asad CEES SME r bee Seo see 452
bibliopraphy, Of: 2th Asoc oslo aieotceeteceee 452, 453, 454, 458, 459, 460
gigantic ,cuttle-fishes\.2 2/230. FPS fo eet oenee eae 460
Jand shells; of _paleozoic, eras22) 220. SII: Se Ss es ee 457
Mo Was Cold Soe aii ee creamer tore ny AEP SI ts eC ere een tala iotane etc cistots (orale fetes 461
Montforth, Warren; anthropological correspondence ..-........----..----.-- 684
Moody, J. D.; mounds in Whiteside and La Salle Counties, Illinois........- 544
GOT (= jute ante iamamnisiareatictale a cia ala Meee Relea ate atest, stoic ete a te etateter estrone 220
Moon, M.,A., title ofjpaper: byw... 2) AR ELS. Se PE eR case ween 129
Moran, Dr. James, contributions to Museum.....-.- Bel c-t 3) 7 38
Mound, in Murray County, Georgia, silver crosses from..........-..----.-- 619
the great, on the Etowah River, Georgia... 2220 2 /30t2.. 2. 5. 624
Mounds and earthworks in Vanderburgh County, Indiana.-.......-...---.-- 591
at Snake/Den, near: Salem, Lowa. 56.54... Soe se ese eee see cee 532
in Alachua County, Florida............. monEehbbic occ bacgséaoqadecss 635
in Allen,and. Barren Counties, Kentucky 2.32322 -22- 822--2--- ---6 609
ImpAslands County. (O10 tes ea = see ee eee see lata aetna oe ieee 593
in) bareauiCountylimolstese sce. see cents ee sae act osein se siaee 556
in Boyle and Mercer Counties, Kentucky: .....2.-..022. -.--------- 603
injHenry: and Stark Coumtbiess [limoiseee. s2--+ scene see ee ee eee 552
in Independence:County, Arkansas:s-22. <.ossseco ecco ee cena. 541
in‘Jeherson:- County, Alabama: 2255-5222 esesere odes steno 616
im Pike County;;Missouric sous. cose Meee eee ete e aaa ocaaisccl 537
invRallsCoonty, Missouri.+..it<sesessc cess eet ees eee eee eee aes 533
in Spoon River Valley, Tlinoiss)s2/soscessaueee eect ese went nace meee 558
in Whiteside and La Salle Counties, Illinois................-...--.- 544
Investigation Obs soso ssn 2 Sis aes See eee eae eens saeman ae 39
near. Braceville, Drambull/Coanty, Ohios teres esses ee ece omen 592
near-EdwardsvilleyiWansae 21 Se erences cece cae se cece cein= 528
near the National Home, Milwaukee County, Wisconsin.-.--.....-... 542
on Pl ynn's) Creek, Mennesse@isas- scan sae eset ara te lettre averse retell alate tia 611
New River, Berrien County, Georgia... . 2252-5222 eles c5.o. coee wane 631
Murray County, Georgia, silver crosses from mound in......--...-.--.------ 619
Miiseum,; tile: floorin piforsseseri see see eee elon ee on eeinta el oa woe feteetea ta melee 174,177
(See National Museum. )
INDEX. 827
Ni:
; Page
National Academy of Sciences, resolution to provide accommodations for... . x11
eabiney Of CUriOKibies. ..sn cess ca ov snsceuee ene ee ebeiee ees ace 81
National Museum, accessions of the year...... 22.0 .ccccceescccewecces cecces 100
aid: ‘trom. obher’ miseumiessLasitemeememsibi bes a= S.kas8. 95
aid of manufacturing and commercial firms. ............. 100
bibliography of museum work.........0e000-csse0+s--neeee 111
bullding’. 4... 2+ essed eaten teen aeeediebettue U- Beawded 10
building commission, report Of... -......22. ceeees eeeecees x, 173
Bulletin, sNG@. 2). 255.2 2. <ccae cate ake ee eee epee 27
chemical laboratory completed.............-...- 2.0. -00 11
details of administration. ..- ., 22,02. 5 30-peeeebae eke stee 97
distribution of books and specimens.........-....----..- 34
effects of Centennial Exhibition...................-.-... 83
elecwrical service Of... need eeee Cee eae ieee ee 12
experiments in methods of arrangement..--...--.-.-..-. 94
fire-proof building, appropriation for.................-.. 170
PRUNAR sith cds TICES Farate <n jatareys i simgzaed aug stove ents Pn ee 100
PUETBASOLOD: < oma Sos ices ob a/c ee awsome tee pee nee aoe 35
SEMP 5 206 a 2 nin ate a sing suagte ee enne §heh wee Coe Eee eee 95
list/ot ‘contriputors to, in 1661 Jo. coeicst cepa. keecawetess 131
HISUOF OMGCELS Of: 2.0.5: o1.< een = aeealeciee cee ae ee eee 111
MALL ay Medias. ais ccc oes A eee ee a eee eee 99
mediemal collectiqng Of wise). seizes ease, = 5- bceae oer 36
MIMELAG WALCAASSMENY, OF atoms ctoeice cts pie eeeioleiiele oe Se miele 35
outline of a scheme of Museum classification ....-....-... 89
Berigds Anne HIStory, Olve aes -c eee eee eee 81
pHotopraphic laboratory 22. o-ces2 cscs ee eco mtae 11
plan of organizations Of 221s - =. foe wa ilo sores ioe eee 89
Proceedings, Volwitises ee seas see eee ye oe Peete ae 27
publications, of << 222 ssdsssedeteciss: too Me ee ee 98
repairs to-ceilings:of - =. /Y.dlPU Lets. eo Pees 10,11
reporb ot Assistant: Director== 5524-55 s.uedecees sever aoe 81
report of Professor Baird onl toss) 2a ae eens oe ee 35
report of the architects. 222220. - SBE OLS oi tain sae 177
supplementary steam furnace introduced ...-...----.---- 11
telephonie serviceof $5.2 fost. Fas Heeaicla ee oe sales ine oe 12
tiling for floors of. ..2 Je 22226 JUL Lae eed ares 10
work-of the preparators .. 26sec. Sete eee necueeecee= 96
Natural resources illustrated in Museum ....- ..---..-22-- .2.2 see ese cen sseee- 90, 92
Naval Observatory, repayment of freight by -...- ...-.- 52-2 ene seeeee eee 183, 184
ING DU eee aah eek cee ke tet et tes ceet soe thn ctetemels SCRE Oe eee ere 191
IS CROIO PY etree t coe ateeYae nist old SNES E SEE eae os Ree eC eee 43
Nelson, Dr. Wilford, collections received from.............--..--.---------- 104
Nelson, E. W., collections made by. ...--....22. 222-2 seecee ee Adee: ey an ie es 102
New Brunswick, sculptured stone found in St. George .....----.------------ 665
New River mounds, Berrien County, Georgia ..........-.-. 22+ ------------ 631
New York, antiquities of Onondaga and adjoining counties. ...........----- ; 647
Cayuga County, antiquities of .... ....--.. 222. wee cone ee ees ones 650
Chautauqua County... a= POU OS. LNs Ace SE oe 643
Madison County, atati@aieies of US iS Res eee eae tees Ib Rhy aeons 651
Onondaga County, antiquities of... ... cece. 222s cowsee sone ee anes 647, 651
Oswego County, antiquities of ...... 2.2.22. 2c ee ee wees cece ceeees 647
perforated tabletiof stone from sei2'5 5% {tose SU Eck as 658
828 INDEX.
Page.
Norris, Col? Po W., collections received: from) )2222s-ecen ees en aee see eels oee 110
Northville, Michigan, Fish Commission station ........-.-.-..-....-----.---. 51
Nova Scotia; antiquities el sl). 15) 2a is chee eal eee Rhy pia: 673
Nichols, Dr: -H: «A; ;birds'received from (3523 4853. Toso eee saat oon 103
collections: received from)? )iut 2225 22it eo. 106
Nichols, Lieut: H. E:, collections received from’. itis ols cs ei en. - =. see 105
Null; James Mey donation to: Musenm7. 222 Pee eee hn ocean eteetane le cice cane 101
Null, James W.; anthropological correspondence.........-....----.-------- 684
Nushigak"sronal station ats sstce so see hones ee eee ceeiemelenetencetcea sce cee 22
O.
Observations on temperatures of water and air.._-...-...----..-.--- -----.- 42, 43
OPserVaAlONIes: 21. <2r = sos 3 Vale els ale ste esos Seine ele Sele eee cisisaeei sss siesta 223
Occupations of mankind illustrated in Museum. ..........-------.---.------ 91,93
Officers and assistants of the Smithsonian Institution.-.-.-... jodecod coos eHones Vib
of the United States National Museum...-.........--.-.....-......- 111
Ohio, Ashland County, mounds and earthworks in.-......-...--....-...-.-- 593
Butler County, carthworks)in. 52.5 sce .o wes oie aael eae eele eae 600
Trambull County, ‘mound ime. 5.22.5 2oseie. sees salsa ates eciserse 592
Onondaga County, New York, antiquities of..............-.-..----- see. ---- 647, 651
Onfical phenomenas.2.2013c52565<e\slaneses acs oeeele en ae miaeme iar see aceeee 322
(OWEEFTIG CIGAR Ny SB Oa e Go8S GohGoe scod ebocoe de cee Oe nocs Poe debbnoondsseets 388
Groanization of the. Museum, plan Of 0 5 o-oo cise meee ase ah enanemnlonieoteaini4 89
Orthonectides, characteristics and relations of the............---..--...---- 425
Oswego County, New York, antiquities Of. 26.0 - 22h. eos neat ieee aoe 647
Oyster; multiplication Of 2-2 /<oscics.2 Sai-s 52 1 sans so ciseinis seciaetens ee sae eee 51
Ee
Pacific Mail Steamship Company, co-operation of .........-.....------------ 40,31
eleontolopical specimens 2 oo mice sajn eee oe nie oe wie am Saletan eft petalai tained ls sini 109
Paleontology, invertebrate, department of ...2 2.2 ..c.2.6¢csees- aca ---- 109
ipaleozoiciera, land shellsiot 3.-.-...125 = wsaceaeee ee tee aaa ee eee 457
Paints, exhibit of, promised to: Museum. 3.5 32t j-.-\-seseelee see me ae 100
Palmer, Edward; anthropological correspondence..........-.---.---.------ 684
donation to Musenm) 5228 <sjj3a-0sctesepsseeeges= se -e a 101
investigation of mounds): t- gt see Sassserasesc aeleees 39
Palmer, Joseph, chief modeler of the Museum..-..........---.-..-.--. Bee se 96
Parallax, OL Stars oscciceice cemnenciwisicis cocina s eee ae res Hebe Gees seseee 195
Parasitic. crustaceans |. -.-...- 2c sce mosaics. eer nieeiee ste a= ab oe mete ols aitate aes 438
poly. chactous Worm. «2256.20.20 <(.~ gah aslleeyas eee ieee eatin seyret 427
Paris; clectrical convention) in no secs sisijsicawceeeie eee reece coe svatSiSrecais'$ 44
Parker, Hon. Peter, member of Executive Committee ...--.-...--..--.----.. xv, 172
Museum Building Commission....-.......--- 176
Retent <i. .5..eciccicc sic one LaPeer eee Ee ae VIII, IX, XV
LFEports Dy. oxie2scis ne) cesereje Se eset Serie Hawa late siate= minke il yee ee
resolutions! byiz. =<... cen jt-deeopess sees ee Cee eee =
Parker, Peter, jr.,.assisted.in:F ish Commission work... .--.2..--.c-s0sasiens 48
Patterson, Rev. George, D. D.; antiquities of Nova Scotia..............---- 673
Peet, S. D..;. anthropological correspondence - :- + -5 2-2 as;-es seme santos. - 684
Pennsylvania, rock carvings on the Susquehanna River -.-..-....-.-...---- 642
Southwestern, antiquities of. 2s o<):sae0 sos ueee a eee 638
Perforated tablet of stone from New York.......----.------ Jai Rigsisaenek-- 658
Perfumes, exhibit of, promised to, Museum sic 3 yeemete- eee arose a= 100
Plaenogams, report On...2. 2.52 26) noe foe ccs ene bea lekes nae eee eee 407
INDEX. 829
Page
PemrMmocnnmias, Collection Of. x15 s'. 5s s:s0 aeclkslan\o2 oonnine adnehwedd~siedaalabas 100
Pharynx, structure of the, in Hiponsaphort iba Bake ich inte ors aie cata bae o's 495
Philadelphia, Academy of Natural Sciences, collections received from...-... - 107
jpermanentiex hibition. Aseseets cole ee oo ee eee 3
Phillips, Barnet, employed in Fisheries Census............-..-------------- 52
on fnture, of the, Mnsemmsccises iy Dis sad ebebiee wait ieidipwns 88
Philosophical Society of Washington, bulletins of ........-.........---.---. oF
Photographic laboratory in Museum Building....................--.-2----- 11
MBrenOlaey, PYOSTCES 1D. o.oo ena nwa 3a HOES oidnh ails eee he ws 501, 504
Bhysicaleproperties/oc, the;atmosphere .i<.-.<<;.-4-o.s\ «samenkustebeuteeeeees 2. 261
Physics, report on progress in, in 1831, by G. F. Barker ....-............--- 333
BEINGREB oie icine mide am nc la ne dinen, aa caves Rep eeeee dee eke 341
electricity and mapnetisin .. sisi waaie,ce aelate Geyer a aie eb as ee eeeeeete al a 372
LS RA a ee Eee MEM (EC cee sh 8 ail 346
Wb ssc acetsccmcw sweatin soca c= =sse Se eeee recent See eee 361
MCCHADICS se mcoriscccme cen sais ences case ois ane eeeeee Stee ee eee 236
Pirkei County, p Missouri, MOUNGS IN’ io cca. cccscs coe nacmeessceeee neces ae 537
Pinto. erpanization of the Museum)... 2222.2 22 0. sccees oo ceccenecwsnens pace 89
emeR UME rear ree ate ene o aiciniein ss wee'e sir oon ee er pe eae nae e ee eee 219
Plants mndtanimials, Symbiosis Ol... 5:.22.526lss0% .ccces cesses cane ceeees 416
PLANUS sop enuMON GOL aaans ances secs alee ous scene cecisis omeccicic nacten ee patos 109
THORSON OL tae ae aoe ciation waits Cie sree se armen ates mere eee eee 399
MORIA LO LORE <sciee eere Se ie scence wus seas s aes cee eee Gan areani eae eee eee 501, 506
Poey, Prof. Felipe, contributions to National Museum .......--...--...---. 37
collectionsireceived om 2 o2 secs pce ew eee oe oes eee 104
distributes Smithsonian exchanges in Cuba ............. 31
SUMMAUOLIOW BERG RUAUION . 22.2 2os 22 pos ses Gesnidaathage=te- 5-52 wen aeeae 23
BelAninrepoLuTapPLropriatlOMtOrs clos. osmicic cose slo ohne sate sian e eee oe 171
EO lamination ate WONG ss) cce cs mate oeicine sam nislas sie nie loco see pe ee eee 369
Polyps, hydroid and medusz living in fresh water..................-.------ 422
FESCUE Cee ye ate thn) noleyernlc lalate minicca vaya eenneeiepee aie amin ere ie arn ete eee 419
PIBNGREANNY OF \.5. << ciwe Ce cke'eseetsae se qnlene ss se De eeng eee 419
Meculiar palweozOle, SPONLES=1.. ace aaa =)=-i enna male ee eee eee 420
propagation. Of sponges... .. <- 0. «<2. sso Vane medio on seeccclse acaweuet en 421
IPBILer. Ose Dey. VbLule, OL Paper DYieaesiee sac ee a= at Seis tales eee ae 129
ReveRMOTs NON, HLeREN Ue 2.5 elena 9a ale ine ieeeen ne aleiate aan. ler Vill, EX; ov:
Powell, Major J. W., director of the Bureau of Ethnology ......-...--..---- 38
Powers, Weightman & Co., offered exhibit of chemical products..........-.. 100
Preparators of the Museum, work done by. ......-.2.00.060 cccwecnqasscleeees« 96
Preservation of collections, appropriation for...... 2.2... .-cc2s secnwe smnene 169
Museum rchivess:520ssc<-<aj- enema eee aaa ee 98
resident SRA DSUTAl TECEP LON ao oeic mn iin ne mown se lewinwle wien Je eee aeenior ele 1
Printing of Smithsonian Report for 1882 ordered .............-.-------.---- II
PResS ain) the (Mins omnis Sete apatite Sees wlalael m/s icles sine elie oes ain eee 98
Proceedings of the National Museum, vol. iii ......-....2. --..---20.---- 200 ae
Prapeees,,cclentific, in 1851, record Of... -.< cn. 1scocndnecs danscans sveccase 189
Bropagation.of food-hshes... <..2.- .. cnwas04 «ne oo cae pene naee ere fs ass ucenes 46
POC MOLG SR UOR ie cin.cino:5 colo m= = sae sine © aw oa tale erate tee aie SEER Oe nner perenne 461
PLOCOZORDS =... os 2 = 2 own nines einww ccs cse es Sac s Sons cece’ crenenee nsec cous cuss 417
bibliography Of... 2-202. o--- sy p-jedsaiget pind Poovey een ye scubegas 417
Kent's classification Ob taao were che cigeiGe saps oe Res oeeree meee 418
transparent animalculesy.42<-26 st jen sien ae apes en ues. eee 418
anew. primary group of AMfUs0rie .. i. ded ne Sess 5 epee wih awe pee 418
Psychology or “‘ phrenology ”...... .----- 2-20 sess noes ceneec cone commas cons 501, 504
Peerodactyles, AMeCrican. .... 0.60% senennescnseee ence ccee cnnwan cuesas vesues 480
830 INDEX.
Page.
Publications,of the. Museum .. 2. /isstcek seed stale ces eased eas tere 98
bibliography of the, of Prof. S. F. Baird ..... 2222-5 sose 222. eee 98
bibliographical history of the Museum .........-..-----...-... 98
Bulletins of the National Museum. .22-2 20.6 sfc soil. eee 27
distribution Of ... <6). -.22eGa.t 2S eoU SE POLL 34
memoirs) in course of preparation \Joo%. Sect. ceceeeeee eas Ica ecicte 98
Proceedings of the National Museum ..........-.---.-..---.... 27
Table of entries/in the record books)-\j22% 2) 22 [aos sse055-- tees 99
Publications of the Smithsonian Institution -..........--2-. 22-22-2220. eee 25
Annual reporticc.nbecniticess Soe tT Seh Geiss Sea eee ery stan 28
Antiquities:of,Nicarapua ) 2 kd Ieee a ees os -cieeeee 26
Cheek listofpublications 222 2k co sercmee oe cece eee eee 27
Contributions:to Knowledge. -f. ccc. ceeesesecs sueeicebe se eeee 25
Distribuibion ofs<.eebes 2c mig Disle abate ew Roklts Gow Sere eiaierelencte ane 34
Miscellaneonsi@ollections = 5. 2st caeiineet 2. < Soca eo eee 26
Rainfall tablessG. et Mss sede Docigstesiscecc lence cae ee eee 26
Q.
Quarry, aboriginal soapstone, in Alabama .-..-22 2-2... 2.2 22-5 ote cea ones 617
1B
Pepe adi Ot BOMG roman. ane a ne ene sees cin se oe eae aa aaie een ee ata aaa eee 354
SOlAT Ee 22 heures sicaer ste cceseis cmineiaseineces ceeceicelncine smn eeeerals 267
Radiators in Moseum) building. fu cess clreaseca eee care ce aioe aan yee 174
Ramtalitables: py Charles As SChOUls sso. esse cea ea ce en eionen ene mnaasacoet 26
AU SC OUD DY; VUISSOURL, MOU GS MM asco. e smectite) aes aici se riereneseelene ets : 533
Rau, Charles, curator, U. 8. National Museum-...-............---...---..--- XVI, II
titleblol papers DY. co-hosts coe eee celaee loca ecm tte 115
Rathbun, Richard, assisted in Fish Commission work.........------..----.- 48
CULALOL, Wavlonaly MUSGUM.. 2-2 c eae sce citee sae cesses XVI, 111
employed'in Wisheries Cénsus- >< --2-¢ 22.2 ose -2c- eee ie 53
Receipts for the Smithsonian fund in 1881........ Sale sn cleta coro stereo a mreyaianers 167
Record books of. the Museum, entries aN 22 oes coe tome ca seats emeleetaseere 99
OMSCLEM GIG) PROP TOSS TE MSS Loerie af se etats atelier permite eyelee eleva ateleterete ates 189
AMGHTOPOLOM Ysa oo ayn cies efaleiainiate | ieletoreiote siniet ele isin) a eat tae rater 499
INGUIN Regd ebabditicds seme OSs Sed A6 HE abanIgaasaSbDd ecb obR0C 191
IOS IEA HE Bea geE OR acai BH bee SHENb ASEH HSBBSEt eH on BS SStnsiSQESC 391
WHEMIISUIS Es seo cae oe eae crcee cise iem ceiciot etaiaicte yale relehaleciaysteinieteretatersiar sie 381
WOO) OPAT Series SBA ESSoSK Geb Gnd Hstisos Aan SL Sees ceancwesosodonc 231
PUM EIR) Shon Se pebeessoSebs secSeb esos bsinnseso Sobeoosbesosceesesec 333
FAO O YN) SS asH ed dnoe Swe Sa SSA boc Boose esoo SeasSo seeeSSboS Gasese 409
Vea GG RON ETE LN ig 6 “GES SEAS ESSE SS SHS Bos BESS HASSE So SHAS A du sCBdesosHS 363
GLC HON TOL Memb nee ica vets celle safa/ains(serenlseiaeioe elie le aisicrete ay stalaletetn siete erent 363”
egonts, Board Gly meee Ol ce ee ooo ema ee oe nen ade miele clan anleee eiene x6
DVOUINM OL proceeGINe Ss! Of ia-sa ne scene Stina ace erence IX
FESOIMHIGMS Of) cacna- cocoes tensaceomene pcs ros enmaae nae ores rr, 'V
GW vOl OMe AISLTON MON cc. cos ate nes ernie oeaanceine anes see eee 4
OL GhewMMshewblon = a. jc ce oe ose neces bees eee sie ieee merece ecctet VaTING RCV
RODAYMEMtS ArOmMOXC MAME ES ease oiecnin nslsee oleate eitn ae Else ete erate eer 7
Report of the architects of the National Museum............-...-..----.--- 177
Report of Assistant Director U. 8. National Museum..............-.---.---- 81
Report.of bureaw ob WthnOlovy ce. sey. Ne mae cee ae ae ae eae toe eee neaets 38
OF TNO OCHEMIBER Sere tte es eles tae a ch cielowe aicicjnieraite terse erinic era ete eetetntetete 161
Executive COmMmMUbCe cc ceo esce cts worn Coton See ate eee nee
INDEX. 831
Page
Report of the National Museum Building Commission ...............-...--- 173
Professor Baird to Board of Regents... ..........-- .-.002--+---- 1
Reptiles and Batrachians, department of.........-2...2..2.2--22- eee es cee 104
contributed to National Museum!:cioet Soo... 0c Seen dees boeeueees 37
OXtiNOUPASIC, NEW Order OL-G5 2. ess es 8 ee 480
Researches and ‘explorations, 15 et segs 25. Sig Wegge. esse ihe Seeseecse<c 527-680
by Belding, L.—Guadaloupe and Cerros Islands- 15
Bell, James=-Plorida....... <0 Jsis eeu ese ale. 15
Bendire, Capt. Charles—Oregon...........- 23, 24
Berry, Lieutenant—steamer Rodgers....-.-- 18
Branstord, Dr. J. F.—Nicaragua...-....---. 19
Call, Dr. R. Ellsworth, Mississippi Valley -. 16
Dale, Dr. F. C.—steamer Palos..:.......... 18
Evans,.S: B.—Mexico. tte. soiisesaskeaee 16
Figyelmesey, P.—Demerara...--......-...- 17
Gilbert, C. H.—Central America ....-...... 16
Green, Commander F’, M.—steamer Palos..-. 18
Guesde, L.—Guadaloupe..........--.....-. 17
Hay, Prof. O. P.—Mississippi Valley..-.--... 15, 16
Henderson, Hon. John G., Illinois.......... 16
Hering; DraC:=—Surinamy. (282 te-- ..0 2-522 17
Jouy, P. L.—steamer Palos’ .222.. .......... 18
Le, Baron, J. 2.—EPloridaly.dsse5- =. - seen 15
Murdock, Professor—Point Barrow. ........ 23
Musgrave, Mr.—Jamaica. ............----.. 17
Nelson, E. W.—Alaska se. ioe S50 ctss ke 20
Newcomb, Raymond L.—steamer Jeannette. 17
Newton, Hon. Edward—Jamaica...-.......- 17
Nichols, Dr. H. A. Alford—I Dominica...... 16
Norris, Col. B. F.—Yellowstone Park. ...... 16
Ober, Fi Ai=Mexico\discs sieelt. Ss seo 16
Revenue steamer Corwin ...-....--.....-.. 22
Ruby, Charles—Montana .................. 24
Rusby, H. H.—New Mexico................ 16
Smith, Professor—Point Barrow ...--........ 23
steamer Jeanette 5-2 sce eee see 17
steamer. Palos. <<.) sces mens nee we sinc aals ae 18
steamer Rod pers 5:0 t sos. va sacemeeea aces 18
Stevenson, Col. J.—New Mexico ........... 24
Turner, Lucien M.—Alaska .............-.. 20
Walker, 8: Ti —Plorida vies .iv. sxc deeds 15
Wells, Mr.—West Indies................... 17
Researches and explorations in Alaska.......--. -2.. .ceeee sce eee eens eens 20, 21, 22, 23
Coential Americas. .<-. Se sass, Ses oan 16
CerrosIslands..<caontnewnies t= 5e neat soe 15
DOMELUES Seee mecuits te ele tel tee ela eee es 17
Domenica. veel Se soa £32 Sc ome pene 16
PIOMIGR Ss ersten sie ac actos eee cee a nae 15
Guadaloupe. jo. aces teeta adeeee 15, 17
PRMAIGH 2 SSI Satl ale wate te econ se eee 17
IMORIOO sweets paki ate ate Oe he ees eee re ee eee 16
Mississippi ‘Valley ts) iuscee tats coe nee 15, 16
Montange. 2s Sch iebencesuos ee aee Ss 24
NG Wi MEXICO: scc<iwredsud te atdane teeee< te eee 16, 24
NICATAPUIVT SO tees ones ocUcosuseeey ween 19
832 INDEX.
Page.
Researches and explorations in Oregony.--2 -<¢is scsi. sass ceneoteeceeeemsek 23, 24
Point Barrow sheae. oo tata le sees baa 23
Surinam... 52. cendeswenclen dee eee ee eee 17
Yellowstone;Parkyst jc 5s sep asia eee 16
Resolutions of Board of Regents accepting report Executive Committee-.... x
accepting report special committee to pre-
pare Henryamemornial i235 \cioo om aoe see XII
providing accommodations for National Acad-
QING te sis rete. eto a ence cas aeetNe XU
relative to death of President Garfield -.... IX
relative to statue of Joseph Henry.--..-.-..- XIV
to.print Annual tReporties 6. bes coeeens vee II
Revenue, Marine, co-operation Obs: .)...2 2558 okie ntiederte | sis vies nine. geen es 41, 42
iehees, William J.,.chief.clerk + sngecie..-c--t oaaee pine, cma csc cate see pe eee XVI
titles Gf paperstby.5t jcecies See noe ot ect octet 27
Rice, H. B.; anthropological correspondence... .-. ...- ....<. -- ------- ----n6 684
Richard) Jiohnvey deathjot.. 32.0% seca eoecies seme eeil-sciel oyciseei\yo see 43, 96
Ridgway, Robert, collections received from .....2..-.. 2.2. 225. ---260 oe0e eee 103
curator, National: Museums 5G 2th. nes seis on seinem ee cea
injcharge of departmentiof birds. ~~ 2. 0-2 26-25 ae eee 103
private collection of, acquired for Museum....-....------ 103
titles ofspapersDy2ticeet de cept hes: os!sce =o clssisimetemes 115, 116, 117
Ricos: Georre. W.; death Ofet 2a tesa. 3, Meee ncets «, cicvin/ annem cele clea] aes 43
Riley, Charles V., in charge of department of insects...........-......----- 106
titles of papers by.---..---..-.--. 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124
Riley, Charles W., collections'deposited! by _ 2. - Sass... 2-1. sae. -- esse 106
Rock-carvings on the Susquehannah River, Pennsylvania..-...--......----- 642
Rock inscriptions, ancient, in Johnson County, Arkansas........-----.----- 538
Rodents, Aimerican¢pMigeene seas tered al clas seen ele mai eee ioceiaviaciasceicinels 496
Roessler, A. R.; antiquities and aborigines of Texas ............-.-....--.- 613
Royal Museum of Copenhagen, donation from.-.-..:...---......--..-------<- 101
Ruby, Charles birds received trom steps eishs see seche- -</eo = ta ole ea cisemeca= = 103
collections; mad epbyfanserhs ates = stehiethss'<is2 01-2 =)42 me doseeiece= 103
Rusby, Henry H , anthropological correspondence............---------+--+-- 684
VGEL) J. A. tlule Of papers Discs a ees eee aoe mipee = =f nie) =lcleleleleeieieioiemtes 129
Ss.
Salem; Towa, mounds at Snake Den,mealy.4-sseunasee sss se ce sees oesiaaae 532
Scammon, Capt. C. M., specimens received from....-...-.--...----.--------- 42
Scheetz, Fred. B., and George L. Hardy; mounds in Ralls County, Missouri. . 533
Schieffelin, W. H., & Co., donations of drugs by-...----..------------------ 36, 100
Schott) Charles. raintall tables] ss. 42... -)4- 6S ane 2 ois Saw see eee eee 26
Seientificiprogress in 1881, record. of... -........+-4-thagl As? eeea eee ee eee ee 189
wittings of Smithson... jeuuwes Pepe se Bau Seine <cae eeeeateeie 27
Splater: 2.1.6 paper by (23.45) ok ea 2 eles bee ae is cre eee eee etree 129
Scribner’s Sons, New York, collections received from.......-...-.----------- 106
Scudder, N. P., and F. W. True, arranging collections ........-.------2------ 104, 105
Sculptured stone found in St. George, New Brunswick ........-------------- 685
Solachiang |! 222222 ce do oon ee lee es ee ta) eer 471.
Serviss, E. F.; on mounds near Edwardsville, Kansas ........--------------- 528
Sewerage in Smithsonian grounds -.-.-) 0.55. sdaedes----2--s~ es omes wmaie) Loyd, demas
Shallenberger, T. M.; on mounds in Henry and Stark Counties, Ilinois.-.---- 552
Shell deposits on Short Creek, W. Va ............- SOR ia ce ee ae 637
Sholl-heaps in: Alahaman se). 0 uci. 5 a ee ee ore eran tater 617
664
Barnstable! Co...Massacbusebtsieasmenceees- ase eeeceieeeaiasecee
INDEX. 833
Page.
Shells, Americanized European ............ ..-.-..----- Shae cabo boreoset 456
Bilipice Ane anyIK A) 06 Canc, oa ce gel caeiagace ceet onba ene Smelance sae 458
Ofole tl COZOLCLOLAtinas cae a sec ece sc omclee em aaa aearen be ws stem ctecoee 457
Shenandoah Valley Railroad Co., collections from .................-------<- 110
Sherman, W.T., member of Executive Committee...............---..------- XV, 172
Museum Building Commission..............-.-.- 176
ROG OMe steve ee a sie sss cic cit cain s oewa ane eee eee WAIT, doe ony,
MO POLS Dine.e oie aise a reece aic sare ie atato aye eietehe ote mete sales oie eee 30 O01
Sherrard, James, Chautauqua County, New York.........-.. 200 22-2 cce- eee 643
Pinndernevirs qpalmiin py CONG DY ciau/.-< sa oenclae cn sweines saa eemer oe ae seimmesics 96
Shoemaker Georces titleor paper Dy s--.-. ss ss secs «cue eoecee= eee eesee 129
BHoLie reek mWieaviae SHell-GePOslts OM -- -|22-. cess Ssac cece sueseece meee eeas 637
PiGvensoOl weOldames.exploravlons DY scjc-+ = === se selcece eee eemerine caees 39
NhutSldteluam NV tuUG EOL PApPClsiDY -=2-2--52cc- e+ eo =iehe te Meee pease secretions 124
Sibley, HH, onantiquities of, Wayne Co., Illinois ....-.---.3.--+2.--------- 587
Brett Meee sel VviCes RONGOTOd DY. .0c 62 - <6 = sce can co ceeseee seen coeaisne coer 47, 48
RUAGHONSUIMPAU AS Ope ee mere ae nina kaon bata» Salhi nome aide mee See 2052 le eee
Sil Mercrossesmmom mound im GQeorpta, 2... one cee ae a ee oats Seles eee 619
Oe SAAT eAL SunOS EN gS eee pe Ot eee ee ae 23
SnuMery Osta colechons P6CeLVed: from! jo. 2. etme seein eee ee ieee 105
Sinley Cri eMlp Oyo Min hiSh CNles@ CNSUSs .se es ae mel= eie= He aaeere aie a eee 52
Smith, Miss Rosa, collections\received trom —.- 2 2-5. .-..---= -2 2-5 eee 105
CONUMIDUGONS LOM MUSCUM sees aes otee eee eee oeemee eee 38
titlestorpapers Dyno noes ce settee Gate cons ws Beene cee 129
Smith, Sanderson, assisted in Fish Commission work.......-..-.....---.---- 48
Smile bible OL paper Dyin. =5= -2s cet sesaclners ners cos Bete ueeete eel sees 129
Smithson, James, SClentific writin ts Of... 55-2. c<6.- cc coe see semen nee oats 27
and his\ bequest, by. \W.' Ji Rhees 222 i<tisecete sce. n--clee oe 27
MIM MCONAUMTOM OL sons sehen acs | Saclay ob cere ale cies selec ates use eee 7,5,9
SiniGhsonian wusuoubLon report OF =~ 22-4. atee aek cee aeceeet ocmed cone eee i
Snake Wen near salem: Lowa, Mounds Abs2e 4s. cesses case oc daceeeltccessce 532.
Snyder, J. F., on buried flints in Cass County, Dlinois..-....-.........----- 563
on Indian remains in Cass County, Illinois..-...-......--...-. 568
Soapstone quarry,,aboriginal, in Alabama st25--. 2-2 ss-s-lo--2 sees ee enone 617
Social relations of mankind illustrated in Museum..........--...........--- 91,93
OCLOLO DpeE PPV Ene Biinrc ojos ciclo ocyaia/sjnoelon-S aiaie ninje a, hive as ae aS aeons ere ae 501, 506
OLA WALA ANNE ee eee e ees SOAR he bates ee eS ee ec eee 207
MAC DULOM Gee ac lenis's sass fxs aloe am cone sacices esecceanls cosa Seen eeeetes seme 267
SVSDOUM Neate a a otis Scisie iis ieisic o ais 2's cree Kimlsic nin we 'eie Sin ele ciebhe mia Rete ean 202
MS DECUICHILC RT meee a is = eas eo kic eb enialeinin'c'n eiumale aicieie dares ane Renter ER 360
MPMLOUS mi NVOROMIST KA DLO: uci icaicte nica - elcome st ee es cme seme eee cee aaee 439
RIOTING Sw OUI Ok Oba a ota avier ais /arainwicie wiceiosln.sin wc s «ace wc ohio cain sae e a ee eae 108
LE WUNVULOM Oli ro core atic love ins rcimele iam clam mera SLO Een eet eee ee ee 421
PEO DAO RUONY OL ooo tas so wk = ani ialale alate heise ae eee oleae et aaa ate nrc rata eee eee 421
BHoonviver Walley. Lillinois, MOUNGSIN..-... tcc -soc-cueneoceteee eeecee ses 558
Mun ACMeS COLOGHONS, Ober cc... ~1ocince hen cee eae ead nia els aemer te ae aerate 110
MEDAL Me LCCLIONA! OL ~~ —i-'c-s oc dos tuuaweinnh scot ews ek eumhsr neae Salen 110
star catalopues .............-.. Pee ee ery ere ete ey ee 192
MehesaMesdiLeNoOstCmOrMMUles LOL UNM .=- 2s e oe we aca ee eu ete eee a3
Pa GOUNTY Lino, MOURUS Il... 2.2 ed! case cong acerbic handles sek daeeee 552
RUSS ULCHVOL UNE SUN). 22> sete ccc nerca mes celaa ce bn a4 seem ulna ne ee ae Nee ee 206
Statue of Joseph Henry, report relative to..-. ..2 20. sos. ceeds ceed wc enee XIII
Steam furnace, supplementary, introduced in Museum building ............. 11
DBLsarap uss COMEC TIONS TECELVECIFOM...-o0 22c6 ccc ce cabs hace nok Coes awe 105
COULPIDUIONS LO-MUBECUM = 2sc/cuorvace ceric cc. vesguucmeeene < 37
= >
dev
S. Mis. 109
83 INDEX.
Page.
Stearns, Silas, employed in Fisheries Census. -.... 22.22. Lecco -ceccs cceeecce 52
Stevenson, Col. James, collections made by..............-- SatooasmaseescGke 102
explorations PY. 2 25222 55<cd soca eae ee eee ee 38, 39
S.inson, Floyd, M. D., on mounds and earthworks in Vanderburgh County,
Hndba nas soe. woes Wel. Soden ue ae ae ae eee ete ee ck oy 591
Stockton, J. B.; anthropological correspondence ............-..---.-------- 685
Stone fon near Makanda, Tl. 2 $36.6 ss <snaneacnce niet pean eee 582
stone heapsin Jeierson County, Alabama .420.0 5.50620) oe eee 616
‘Stone, Livingston, collections received from ..............-...2--2-----0e-- 105
contributionsito;Museums-asss seer aces aeoee ee eee ence 37
Paper Dy is osccnes casa. ee nee a cee oe eee Rees oe eee 129
WOROEINS 225 2 aio. .0\ Sa spaieienin oe clcidnio Seems Soret aeae Sa ec Tee ne ee 300
story, Ws. W., stabucel Henry by 2.5. 1.202. ol ceo nce ee ne ee ee ee XIU, 6,7
“sturgeon, development, of thé .i2.. [cases os5 5 sae caslce Scere n cen ee a ee 473
‘St. George, New Brunswick, sculptured stone found in............-..-..... 665
MOUM asi le sacs all SME nee Se cies ane ae ae ete erate ale hele ee ee ae nee 205
SUAPISUICSIO fis min paee Soe See ecinicte sae eee cis poms eee ee een ee eee 206
Susquehanna River, rock carvings on the .-.......2......----ee cence ene 642
Swan.) James! G. collections recelvedstromtys-c54 5 2ce/22 se sees eee eee 105
Contributions; tomMnseumMipes-perece sees cee eee eee 38
employed! in Fisheries: Census:--++- -s-4ceaes eoeee eee sees 53
Symb1osis.of plants and animalsic soe ace cease one on ee ee ene eee eee A 416
ih
Tablet, perforated, of stone, fromiNew York.2.-... 20: ceccweseee sone ele eeee 658
Andy, Wi. anthropologicalicorrespondence) .2.cesces eee sere eee eee ee 685
Wangan yika ake: shellsiofs..2\4-5.i- es eres ask Soe eee on bee eee eee 458
Tanner, Capt. Z. L., commanding steamer Fish Hawk..........-..-.---.--- 47
haylor, On sh) Z1a dd JRO GON tinnte nce ono aeeoe ree eee Cae ee eens XV
appointed Rerenb.. 4.05... 45eetasoe seek Sec eeee eee Ix
waylor, F. (W..,.in charge of chemical laboratory;.-csiosse6<<0 esa oe oe 14
member of board to or benieaany on preparing wood for naval
PULPOSCS! -ces se acess tees ino eee sen her eeeieaseyseee eres 14
chemist, National Museum se cjecee eee see ese ne eee noes XVI, 111
TEPOLbiOL soci ee ns Banele Solo Ces ae ee Cae eee ee yee eee 161
Maylor WaalliamJ:,.exploration).by,-.--6-ss-s- eo sees ne eee eee eee eee 39
New River mounds, Berrian County, Georgia-.--.....---.- + 631
Mechnology,; COMparatives..<i< 62 5 osc ee 222 oe ssa s sce Se Seva oe eee 501, 505
Telegraph and animal life ..---- ere caterers afecl Pate cI one, SRR re oS retrace ene a 417
Méelephonic service: in Musenm! 2! 2.2 eee aoe esa = nian Seen eee ete 12
Temperatures of water and air, observations -.......-...--..---.----------- 42, 43
diemperavure terkestrial oo. f2 aces soy soe see eae ee ieee eer 267
Tennessee; Flynn’s Creek, moundsjon .- 3.22204: 2h ee esses 611
Jackson County,, mounds in... 522 -- oo csssie ese eed eee eee 611
Terrestrial temperature, report on... ---- eas seies's toe eel sa ore ee wie 267
Texas, a borigines/and antiquities Of ss. 222-2 os sees ee teats loeeeeecee 613
Thalophyteseso522.ccentssce css seo eeeicur see cee ee ees cee as Seeieeeee aeee 400
Phermomepry fen - ssc a wake ste clnacice omer ee ee ee le Cole eter ee ee Sere eee 346
Thurber, H. K. and F. B. & Co., exhibition of food substances ..---.----..- 100
Tichkematse; assistant to Mr: Stevenson -- =: o--- 4. 2-saen eee ee eee ere 40
Mredeseounsellor, aidfurnished| by2ssseee= soos see een ee eee ee eee ee 95
Tiffany, A.S.; mounds in Bureau County, Illinois......-........-.-2------- 556
Tile flooring for National. Museum 2:25: 2205 ea eee SLO AS uaid,
Tokio, First Manufacturing and Tae Cornea presented masks.-....--. 102
University of, donated ornamental woods ..............-.----------- 101
INDEX. 835
Page.
Tooker, William Wallace; perforated tablet of stone from New York......-. 658
BRUATIONULO Le MOCCUNY pho rcta aa AIS AEN aire ays Ske, SEs Mat yn ee 212
DIP RA eee am on ale mieten 8 Oi ae ac ee Pay kao, alae eee ee oe are
dransportahlonccompanies, liberality of... -.2.. .-h- 4) feces coon Soe ese ae 31
SX DAUM ONO oe coe Pao. a) ack thee 28 EAE ae eee ee 93
iNncaAsury. Deparument, co-operation Of 22... kic5 Joe se coe cee ie eee oe oe ee 41
Bien Gitteneee epee eepte eevee ee A) s os Aad code sctepree eRe ee et oe 433
Proce aly amie) Gira IIOG ~~. <0: = ean, = 0.2 oes on be eee Se ae 25
row bridge, Lieut. Wm. P., contributions made by ....-. -..-.j.-o--- ss: -=-- 42
True, Fred. W., acting curator, department of mammals ...............---. 102
CULMDOM NAELOM dl NLUSOUING. + = <b vse ccheeseeieceee ese ee eee XVI
emplovedan Pisheries: Census: .-.<. 0.5 5... «.sessn=-eweaeee 52, 53
micharee iol Museum. Libtary 22 Jae2h ts See eee eee ee 96, 111
and N. P. Seudder, arranging collection................--.. 104, 105
aMule ouniy., Ohro-moundyin, 3. 45 <<) Sage ee net eieen.-2ee obec eee 592
@ackshaeoriudian bread, by J. H. Gere... <-.2- 4.2 ssdie-s-20-2-2-0 ee 687
urbellamians; mew subordenof thews.ce2tt onic cess ase. Sosee- Wee seed ee ones 426
Turner, nrcrenuvn wcollectionsumade Dy xs<< seson\- csc sects ase cstecce cal e eee 102
hurtiles saan eementot collection, Of 222232 s-22-50.< 520 q2e2- 5 «eases sae caee 104, 105
U.
Winalashica sienna Sta POU Gbis sc csrtsteteeepabise loc alocul sia Sane seine se co oeae ee 22
ns U rerum Syma er cetera os ache erat Saceigle ear e soe ERE ee oe 497, 498
Unitormradopted) im Misenim SCLViCe iectseee oS o- ae eicidicy sete ee ole aesaeee Joes 97
University of Tokio, donated ornamental woods...........-.--.-- ..--0,---- 101
Ve
Vanderburg County, Indiana, mounds and earthworks in ........-.-.-----. 591
Warnishes, exhibit of, promised to Museum!:---2. .--.- 2--5---- ecoeaw esses 100
Vasey, Dr. Geo. A., in charge of department of plants -..................-- 109
Mec eha bora anomie ete DOLD Ol mses ae cen ayainctele aie s\seimee eisiaaincie ea ae ee ee 391
Neveu Wile WernCOlechlOns TECC1VEd ILOM)-..0 2-22 cee cane coccaee + see ames 105
WON); TIGL OM 12) OOM Os Rees EB eee acr peas Sccsesseeoe doses see Saciss- 209, 210
Verrill, A. E., assisted in Fish Commission work.....-.......--.-- e--- ssecee 48
Mele GeCONdl Sasa sec tee ct ee oma ene nen a aate oe ee eee eee 108
HUA OL HTS) he Re SS CARAS esas oS eee Ee eodanniesesoascde 129, 130
Vertebrates, bibliography of............----- .---- Nepean ae eer 461, 462, 463, 464, 465
Sepa RAM Ea Oe a0. nics ain wn alamo e Sess woe a= nie Soea/onens «=e Ramee 8,9, 168
PA RILOLA CORO MV RUSO UMM oa loreal ie = ee ae pee oit acing a Smee emo ate te 98
Winleiin, TEOOI i OM. ooSEE asco neste pee eI eP pin Bees Hee Deets SS Oi inioe oc 219
aaa Lea Ce CC OEE ote mae e/2 ae oiiaral ate, wate <eie ie o'elntel me a ham eerie ie 489
Wie
Waite, Hon. Morrison R., member ex Officio ...- ~-.- 22-00 22-200 - eanne-- sees XV
president, Board of Regents ......-.....-....- VIII, IX, XV
Walker, Hon. George, U. 8. Commissioner to Electrical Convention. .....--. 45
Walker, S. T.; anthropological correspondence..-......---..-.---.----.----- 685
collections meéceiyed trom). 2.22) 2sS0ie . te Ss ea ee 101, 103, 105
GXPlOLAtlOnN PY seo y= = cist | sete es ie wenn nana 39
fheaborieines of Bloridaic 2}. 2222 eaten mem alebal= Mien tole 677
Wallem, Frederick M., collections received from ....--.--------------.----- 106
Ward, H. A., mounting of mammals by..------------ ---------+----++++-+-- 96
Ward, Lester F., titles of papers by --.-.----- ---- ------ ------ s-2eee cee eee 124, 125
in charge of department of fossil botany.-..----.---..----- 109
836 INDEX.
Page.
Washington Territory, aboriginal works at mouth of Klikitat River, in ....- 527
Watkins, Joseph C.; on mounds in Pike County, Missouri............-.-..- 537
Wayne County, Mlincis; antiquities of-2--6: 222s -so eos eee eee 587
Wells; JG. birds received! from. ./5252 == 5 saeco eee ne ee ee eee eee 103
Wrest Vircinias shell deposits ins. 22 cn ascien oe ce caetee eee ee 637
Short’ Creek, shell'idepositson ese eee eee eee 637
Wheeler, Capt. George M., representative at the International Geographical
Congress atiV eniGe: 32. as es os = ae att See eee ee AL
Wheeler, Willtam:A.;.Regent:<1. 22. s2222 ae ce ee ee es ee ees VIL
appointment of Regent by 722425222 5-)-e oe ee ee seeeee IX
Whitcomb, T. M.; on aboriginal works at mouth of Klikitat River, Washing-
ton Territory 3222 sesso tec tees ss oeee eee hess See Sa eee eee 527
White, Captain, specimens received from............-.--------00 222+ sees 42
White, Dr. Charles A., curator, United States National Museum ...-....--.. 111
titles: of papers by -225<225.54023 sh25 eee eee 125
collection received frome:+=--2--525-e- eee eee 109
curator, National Museum .........-..-..--.----2.-- XVI
in charge of department of invertebrate paleontology 109
White Manufacturing Company offered exhibit of dentistry appliances.... -- 100
Whiteside: County, Wihinois;moundsaners sas seen ester eee eee rere ee ereacee 544
Whittlesey, Charles; the great mound on the Etowah River, Georgia ..--.._ 624
Wiggins, John B.; anthropological correspondence. ..........-..----------- 686
Wileox, Wi-/A.., employed in-Bisheries|\ Census) 1-2-2 eee ocean 52
Williamson, George; anthropological correspondence. .--....--...----.----- 686
Wilson, HdmundeB.; paper! Dy caso s2).seeee wiocmes teehee ce Ce ee eee ee 130
Wietheiss, C. J.; anthropological correspondence ........-..-.---...------- 686
Wing, Daniel; shell heaps in Barnstable County, Massachusetts......-.---. 664
Wisconsin, Milwaukee County, mounds in:----..2..-. 22 2222-2 eee eee eee 542
mounds near the National Home in Milwaukee County .-.-.-.-.---- 542
Withers, R. E., expiration of term of, as a Regent... ..../..----.--.-.-.--- 10.4
Wiitbheld, Mrs collectionsimade Dy +.<ieo-- eee seeceeeee eee eee ae eee eee eee 104
Wood-cut printing, process Of. 55-2. <2-s2e awe seco eee see caee eee ee 101
Wood He C*;sthudy-ondever a5 sos sccsh oe osec ice westee See ae eee 26
Wood, Lieutenant, commanding steamer Lookout..........--...----.------ 59
iWioodpeckers/and(mothucocoons/eeee esa ease see eee eee eee eee 489
Wood's Holl; hish'Commissionstation s4-2445- 452 see ee eee ae eee 46
Woods: Holl Harbor obstructions in=escoee sence ese oe eee ere ee eee eee ee 49
Wioods;;ornamental .collectionvof =. <2) sce esc coe eee ete ee eee eee 100
Worksdone by ehish/ Commission. joe ee 2 ayso as eee eee eee eee ee 48
Work done by the preparators of the Museum ..--.. --...-.--- .----.-------- 96
Work done in chemical laboratoty a--- 222sss > sees, Jee ee eee eee eee 161
Workshops in Jeffersou County, Alabama ..--....---- BURP ees BAAS sie 616
Worms; bibhopraphy of. ooo. oo ue. eae ee eerie eee eae 425, 426, 427
ASOAToMMA STS s/s ie Slee ee A See ay we et he ala a eu ee ar 428
Wright, Peter, & Sons, grant free freight on Smithsonian exchanges... .---.- 31
Ns
Yarrow, Dr. Henry C., honorary curator, National Museum ....)........... xVI, 111
in charge of department of reptiles and batrachians. 104
Yeates) Wm: 8:, aid,-National Museum sses 5. seeenee = eee eee eee ents Xvi, 111
Yellowstone Park, collections from ......--......---....- Bs ay ie eae ee 110
Young, Ladd & Coffin, offered exhibit of perfumes ...-......... .---..-.--. 100
Zeledon, José, birds received from
contribution to Museum) --.22.\o. ce. cccocsnecce a
Zui, exploration of
Zoology, report on progress in, in 1881, by T. Gill
Sm Phi Dania 2 oye a ,5'2 sayeieis soe 6 Se ate ee ee
PREC iors Saree FA Hoe acid alacwnaeigea cen pats bese ee
SINS Bee ee omy aces eit St eicceSictays oysiwe cis wie 2s Sian seein
TET DT Sea G eb oS Soe ACES a eee eee eae pe ee Tee ae
EELO REUSE Or ree hate et ie eine ooo aoc wee Baked BS a eee
ee ee es
eet eee eee eee ween
AMNOLIUMSCOI OAS Sap ie tee ce soe ae boris Sake woe ss ei oe Tee boeeeee eee
MLOLOCHOLG ALES = mace ns nies aio 5c - w siselow ncicias' So eaiaceioe ce
SOUT AN Ca Sodecinoboadooobg tse cen Poo ReC eee aantaseaae ce
ELUM AMLOR ett aisire Sern cn sla m se aang tel > =o k = epyniaas os ae
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page
Pian of chemical laboratory, National! Museum. 22 2--2 2222-2225. eee ee 162
Map, showing location of xboriginal works at mouth of Klikitat River.---- 527
Mounds in Mills County, lowa: ®
SketcheNowl esac eee ne eee Ree ee eee erate ee. 529
Sketch iNon rs. she 8 OSs aR ees ee eae 9 eal ey ete Se ne 500
Ancient rock inscriptions in Johnson County, Arkansas:
4 Oot 7 bc es Peele eee EE pete tn eee arp OR de eto ote OM ae Cebaiioea’ ae 2 539
BG SY OSUG 29. 2c a oe Se cies Sac males Sees a oes eg yn (ay oe ae ee ete : 540:
Mounds in Whitesides and La Salle Counties, Illinois:
Plas s f Ae 2 se aaah etic eta e atte cei sa ee ne oe ane ee aes ee a44
Plano sere Sojecis aeison st atioee de aoe eer eee oe eee ake Cee enema 547
BP Voir Ta oe ia asyas latent cei hee Se ee eee e be cis hee ne a ty ee 548
eee of Fox River Vailey, La Salle County, Illinois
i ESS eal Uae spare Scatter Ba SSE g rate tase tebe ae a) SPO Paty Waa a Om SC NOs Sn 550
NEO, Sees crea ates esi e lene tot ma wyaie jobs ats boc giaealnies stores Seeley asians see 551
Mounds in ey aud Stark Counties, ‘meee:
Plats e oe iis totais eee elesiecnie cae Dees Wset Psa sem a een ae mee eieeiee 503
Group of mounds in ee County, WlinmoistssessseesaceaAceteneeeee tees 507
Mounds in Spoon River Valley, Illinois:
Up piece Sat ye thee se clon ne ctonrom ape a alte eae tse oats a ere 559
ERG po erage are aie St cle ara) eee Rac lere oc Porta a eRe) ene eS ey a ae pe 562
Buried flints in Cass County, Illinois:
IST OSs, WD ae ON a OSE cies CR cise ei tciyorsin pie cycte epee cue ee eae ey ae 565
WPS Aerie eis eietee oe a ia bee c anste eee nine Sete eee ee Sateen eee eee ee 566
Wi gat Aree ae cts beicioc, ccs save ote ichsiasiee Seaine, selene See Cee ine seme eae 567
Moundshin' Wayne County wilinoise.secca cna. seace cee eee soe ee eee eee: 588, 590
Mounds; Ashland County, -Ohiol=c ccveataeso scenester ene aaseee eerie 594
Harthworks in (bubler) County, Ohlone eee se see ian seo all onrepae ote 602
Mounds in Boyle and Mercer Counties, Kentucky --.-.. Pet cis a eae ae ee ee 604, 606
Mounds in Barren and Allen Counties, Kentucky:
PlaneNo. isc soe os concn. acm utiemie coats seicienie dea eitaie emer eaerro ee eet 608
lam Non): MR ois so nis Peo sett a cnet ln nrgteeblamaeeciect eciee eeieeeeives cece 610
Silver crosses from an Indian grave mound at Coosawattee Old Town, Georgia
EG: Atel setts sie sinicrsssja aio ocisaverejays Stine eel ereieleeietss Siaee ie eee eee een 620
TGs CA ince Si rcice =)oe es isinia, secs si tote srsjnre lod ae aves ce alee Clare ye ele arainerat eee 621
0 eA Gs ke ae AE oe en A ee ARO ARM Ate MOM Seis HAGE OE, 6 622
DEST Ge DB aoe bateses ale acta = Sine clerane mesial leo a Parmte aera SIE elas mimia ct ata oe oe eer 623
Great mound on the Etowah River, Georgia:
Pilge, hows co isnclaes eho jaciclnle ais cial bier ose ernie laren oa eile Sea tetey tere pe ae esate 624
Ue eee ee ee ee Smee Dacrao Sopa ce C po oneun sao ead Haro sGcoESlatas 625
BiG SD sbcizwisclss avesivaa.s a lacie deren sine ai oe soe Maseneeeeissi tee sae lae ee eee 627
Bigs: (43:0, . stone v6figys . . 200% 835.75 eee tet Serres eee ne eee ete eae 628
Pipe Gi Stone; emo i. sei toc Shon at Ueki cla level weg ienale ns eee oe aaa a 629
838
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 839
Ancient canals in Florida:
Pera Wee 1 he oe i se en cA Ee oe a A SS Peeks OCU AIO 632
Tice LL eas Salle Oe Se he ee ee mee mts 5 ON? ie 635
Reenter enemies YC hohe oe ow) de ee Se 636
pire Nia Se ae ane ep cd) a ME et 637
Antiquities of Onondaga and adjoining counties, New York:
INS TA ch od C866 CORREO OO EGEE COSCO SES RECEIPES Severs ars bees 2er 648
TE OMe are erie cisee wale a ceis ats sews Sates ecinene = Sone See EE Ree ee 649
UU Samp Se eete eye eaene erate ataies a ais is'e caer dSe's aide ce s'ciass see coches es eae ee cee 654
LEU li) eee ep tor rate ern Soc la Sane civics con Seine oo ceneee bees
Perforated tablet of stone from New York:
Sculptured stone found in St. George, New Brunswick
Sappocea specunen Of Aboriginal art ..<\. 5 22-0. - a-c5 «s2-caacecec cece saccar’ 672
Tuckahoe:
Ria ene ean oes cst Can wien na as se tucwnes Gevelneocusanuemese wees 699
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